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CHAMBERS'S

ENCYCLOPEDIA

A DICTIONARY

OF

UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

NEW EDITION

VOL. III

CATARRH to DION

WILLIAM & ROBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED
LONDON AND EDINBURGH

J, B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA
1902

All Rights reserved

ee

The following Articles in this Volume, originally Copyrighted in 1889,as now revised
are Copyrighted by J. B. Lippincorr Company, in 1897 and 1900, in the United
States of America:

(CHARLESTON, CoLorapo (State).

CHAUTAUQUA. | CoLumBus (Ohio).

CHEESE AND CHEESE-MAKING, AMERICAN, CoLumMBUs, CHRISTOPHER.
CHICAGO. CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATEs.
CINCINNATI. CONNECTICUT.

CLAY, Henry. Cooper, JAMES FENIMORE.
CrLeMEns, 8. L. (Mark Twain). Darry Factories.

CLEVELAND (Ohio). Dakota.

CLEVELAND, GROVER. DELAWARE (State).

CoLoRADO (river). Derroir.

Copyright as above specified, 1897, by J. B. Lipprncorr Company.
Copyright as above specified, 1900, by J. B. Lipprncorr Company.

mM
z

Wi

CATERPILLARS, CELL, .
Cras, & other articles Professor J. Anraur THompson,

OATTLE.........6....4242.4. J. MACDONALD of the Farming World,
CarrLe Piacur, &c.... Principal WituiAMs,
CATULLUS.................. WALTER WHYTE.

CAUBALITY..........00005+ - Professor W. R. SoRLEY.
CAVALRY...........0-..».-. Lieut.-Col. Duntopr, R.A.
CELTS........ <2 te NT Professor Ruys,
CERVANTES; CID........ Joun Onmssy.
OBEYLON...............00...8 J. L. SHAND.
CHANCERY; CoMMON
Law; CopyRrIGHT.... Tuomas Raueicu, D.O.L.
CHANNEL ISLANDS...... H. G. Keene, C.LE.
CHANNEL TUNNEL....... Sir Epwarp W. WaTKIN.
CHAP-BOOKS........... .... H. B. WHEATLEY,
CHAPMAN; DEKKER.... A. H. BULLEN.
Cuaruss I, and II...... F. Hinpes GROooME.
WHARLES V..........:.... P. Hume Browy, LL.D.
CHATHAM, EARL OF..... R. B. HaLpANg, Q.C., M.P,
CHATTERTON,............+ F. Hinpes GroomE
CHAUOCER........... haeuase’ Professor J. W. HaLEs.
CHEMISTRY......cceceeeeee Leonarp Doxsrn, Ph.D.
CHERUBINI........... seevse COLIN STALKER.
CHESS....... Sey eee R. F. Green, Ed. Brit. Chess Magazine.
_ CHICAGO.......... dbstessese GrorRGE FoRRESTER.
BEEN yee ec dontiveséchiesxesee J. Samson (South American Jowrnal).
CHINA; CONFUCIUS..... Professor Leacr.
CHLOROFORM............. . W. ivewis Ciark, D.Se
CHOLERA......... cazeayoe’ Dr R. W. FELKIN.
CHOPIN........ make pases +. CHARLES L, GRAVES.
CHRISTIANITY............ Epmonp bE Pressensé, D.D.
CHRISTMAS...........2.0+ Rev. T. F. THISELTON DYER.

CHRONOLOGY.............. R. E. ANDERSON.
Cuurou, Crypt, &c..... D. MAcGIBBoN.

CuHurcH HISToRY....... Rev. A. P. Davipson,
CrBBER; CoLMAN...... » Ropert W. Lowe.
AIINHO. éschcsoassacessousce Rey. W. J. BRoDRIBB,
CIRCULATION.............- ‘Davip Hepsurn, M.D.
“Civin SERVICE........ W. A. Casson, F.S.S.
MIRON ctr. tn aaes circ The Duke of ARGYLL.
CLIMATE.................... Dr ALEX. BUCHAN.
RPIIION cee ccecacusesccccesss R. T. Omonp (Ben Nevis),
Cuoves, A. H............ Tomas Davipson.
MNEs Su cscolcawase a eawa Henry R. TEpDER.
COACHING........0...000005 W. OC. Buew, of the Field.

Coat, CorAL ISLANDS,
and Geology generally. Professor James GEIKIE.
CoALING SraTIons.,.... Lord BRrassry.

MME cds veadhosssssuanch . Professor Goupy, D.C.L,
COLCHESTER........+....+. Rev. E. L. Currs.
COLENSO...... aubakv rates tes G. Barnett SmirH.
COLERIDGE.......... ceasebe Professor W. Knicut.
RODOMBIA coc usecveccccnases W. Dunpas WALKER.
CoLony....... RO ee James 8. Corton.
COLOBADO.........ssecceee . CHARLES W. GREENE, M.D,
MMNIO BR case ccvasscscsoecse ALFRED DANIELL, D.Se,

COLOUR-BLINDNESS...... Dr R. A. Lunpre.
CoLUMBA ; CULDEES... Dr Joszrn Rosertson, revised.
CoLuMBIA, BrITISH..... J. G. Coumer, 0.M.G.

CoOMPRESSIBILITY........ A. C. MrroHenu.

Conago...... sdbaeans cnkidteas Sir Francis DE WINTON.

Concress U.S....... D. ¥. Kitcors.

CONGREVE, ...............- THEODORE Watts-DunTon.
CONJURING..............4+ A. J. Lewis, M.A. (‘ Prof. Hoffmann’),
CONNECTIOUT...........006 Cuar.es W. Greene, M.D.

Among the more important articles im this Volume are the following:

CONSCIOUSNESS........... Professor AnpRew Sern.
CONSTABLE, CORREGGIO,

CRUIKSHANK, &e...... J. M. Gray.
CONSTANTINOPLE, CopTs Sraxtey Lane-Poote,
CONSUMPTION...........+. Dr R. W. Pusir,
CONVOCATION, &c....... Rev. Dr R, F. Lirrtepare
Cook, CAPTAIN........... Joun 8, Keuriz, F.R.G.8,
COOKERY ; COFFEE...... W. Marriev WILLIAMS,
CO-OPERATION ; DEMO-

CRAOY.......2+. aveswavaes Tuomas Kirxvp.
CORNEILLE.......0.00000008 Water Wayrte,
CORNWALL.........00+02... F. N. WORTH,

CortTEs seeeeesee THOMAS DAVIDSON.
COTTON........00. Seebets sees THOMAS ELLISON.
COUNTY......cccceseceseoeeee We As Casson, F.8.8.
COURSING veosccscecseceeces B. ©. Everecu (‘ ALLAN-A-DaLE’}
COVENTRY....00..sccccssess W. F. Dawson.
CowLEY......... Saaeectva tes P. Hume Brown, LL.D.
CowPER, WILLIAM...... Mrs OLIPHANT.
ORANMER ....0<scccccste see F. Hinpes Groome.
CREATION. |,.....00ssecc ese Professor Henry DrumMMOND,
CREMATION.......0200e000+ W. Easste, C.E.
CRICKET...... Ae rae Padewen C. J. Burcuer, of the Field.
CRIMINAL LAW........... GrorceE P. M‘NEILL.
CROFTERBS........02s:00s0008 Lord NaPIER AND ErrTrRIck.
CROMWELL, OLIVER..... Professor GoLpwix SMITH.
Cross ...... ati ae Rev. 8. Barinc-Goup.
OBQUB Ss ci dcacsikesectactaaes Dr GrorcE GILRAY.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY...... C. J. Woopwarp.
CUNEIFORM.........0..0.4+ Emanvec Devrscn, revised by
E. A. WALLIs Bunce.
CURLING...... pNenushoueets RoBert CHAMBERS, revised.
CURRENOY..........«02.... Professor NICHOLSON.
CUTTLE-FISH...... esbiake Wm. E. Hoyie.

CYCADS, and the other

Botanical articles ..... Professor Patrick GEDDEs,

OPORIMO ccssvescsccde acess E. R. Surpron, Secy. C.T.C.
COPE oi hoses cescew ess Uuick Ratpu Burke.
DRTRE co csskescas fe AS Professor RopeERT WALLACE,
Datry FactoRIgs....... Henry STEwARrt. .
DAMASOUS.....2....ceeeees Rev. W. Wricut, D.D.
SORE cre ces cickoskacdcoece Rev. Epwarp Moore, D.D.
DARWIN............< Rkektes GRanT ALLEN.

DARWINIAN THEORY... Professor Patrick GEDDES.
EMRCTSIET on 5c caanccenodens Professor SAINTSBURY.
DEAF AND DuMB......... J. D. Buxtoy, LL.D.

PUM oy capccccnctsrdtenncace Wir C. Sarre.

DEER FORESTS............ J. WaTson LYALL.
DEFOE...... Rdgetcstbeeese ces Rev. A. P. Davipson,
DEFORMITIES.............. Professor A. HARE.
DELAGOA Bay...... sesese E. P, Matuers, F.R.G.S.
SPMD ss ccnceress SAREE . A. Macponacp, Calcutta Englishman,

DEMONOLOGY........+2008 THOMAS DAVIDSON,
DEMOSTHENES............ F. B. Jevons.

DrENMARK (Literature) Rev. A. P. Davrpson.
DENTISTRY...... écceuex tas Dr Joun Smiru.

DE QUINCEY............... J. R. Frspuay.

DERBY ; DERBYSHIRE... Rev. J. Coartes Cox, LL.D., F.S.A

DESCARTES.......0....0000e Professor ANDREW SETH.
Devon; DARTMOOR.... F. N. WortTa ‘
Dew; DIFFusION....... W. Peppre, D.Sc.

DIAMOND.......0......00+5. Epwis W. STREETER,

DIALECt?... sssssseeeee ALEXANDER J. Eis, F.R.S&
MUMOMIND «x0%-sdesacpneeaees Sir Waurer Besant.
Diet; DIGESTION...... . Professor Haycrart.

‘The Publishers beg iv tender their thanks for suggestions or corrections on the following articles: To Lord
KINGsBURGH, on ‘Catholic and Apostolic Church ;’ to Bishop Westcott and Rev. Charles Bigg, D.D., on ‘ Clement ;’
to Sir FREDERICK PoLLock, on ‘Clifford;’ to His Excellency General A. B. CuERVo, on ‘Colombia;’ to Sir
EDWARD WALTER, on ‘Commissionaires;’ to Jacop HoLyoake, Esq., on ‘Co-operation ;’ to the Head-Masters
of the Charterhouse and Christ’s Hospital; to EpmunpD Gossg, Esq., on ‘Denmark (Literature);’ and to the

Editor of the Field, on ‘ Derby Day.’

Fat

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BSE
Ae:
at

CHAMBERS'’S

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

4 DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

atari (Gr, katarreo, ‘1 flow

e| down a disease of ont fre-
Ya WZENC¥n temperate atitudes,
especlar in ¢ angeable moist
climatejn the winter season.
From well-known connec-
tion Witsudden falls of tem.
peratures id other epidemic or

atmosphe. canses (see INFLU-
‘ENZA), as also from the chill o,, experienced at the

‘commencement of the disease, ;, popularly called
a cold—a term, however, Pps somewhat less
definite in its meaning than tarrh, which word
is usually restricted to the cas a cold affecting
the chest, and attended with Gharge of mucus
by coughing. A ‘cold in the hq is termed, in
strict scientific language, Coryz we shall, how-
ever, keep both forms in view in t present article.
Catarrh, or cold, commonly begiiwith a feeling
of chilliness, which may or may + be attribut.
able to external causes. Sometime}, j, is absent,
there being only a sense of languoi, q indisposi.
‘tion ; not unfrequently there 18 NO ‘gation of an
unusual kind, until a stuffing is ex need in the
nostrils, or severe headache, or Seness with
cough, or oppression of the breathi yj; most
commonly attacks the nostrils first, ®.fterwards
the air-passages leading to the ches But the
mucous membranes of the eyes and MOUnre often
affected, as well as those of the NOSE, oat, and
lungs ; and the disease may begin in ang these
‘situations, and either spread to them a leave
one or more unaffected. When it f
attacks the chest, without running thi,), its
ordinary course as indicated above, there often
some special cause of delicacy in the ly poet
some constitutional tendency towards Consution
(q.v.). The affected mucous membrane 18 Sret
abnormally red and swollen, and its 8€Gon
dirainishes. But it soon begins to pour m4
discharge, at first watery, but afterwards by
and of a yellowish colour, or purulent. The
stages of the disease are attended by conside 4
105

irritation of the surfaces affected, and probably no
one of the little miseries of life is more prostrating
and discouraging for the time than a bad cold in
the head. The tendency of catarrh to attack the
chest, and thus to pass into Bronchitis ( q.v.) or
Pneumonia ( q-V-), or to lay the foundation of
beecetge disease, constitutes almost its only
anger.

and bowels are at all loaded, a dose or two of
some gentle laxative, will generally cut short the
disease. In some persons it yields readily and
quickly to spirit of camphor, five drops on a lump
of sugar every half-hour; but in others no effect
is produced. * Free bathing of the nose with
hot water may relieve the irritability and dis-
charge. In most cases frequent sipping of warm
soothing drinks—gruel, barley-water, black-eurrant
tea, &c.—is grateful to the patient ; sometimes ice
ives more relief. Some persons cure their colds
y entire abstinence from food, and as much as
possible from drink ; others by spirit of mindererus
and paregoric ; some even slp to carry out the
popwar maxim, ‘stuff a co
and maintain that a good dinner and a tumbler of

is by no means to be commended. In the later
stages, however, a more liberal diet than at first,
and in some cases even a moderate allowance of

—“

2 CATARRHINI

CATECHISM

stimulants, affords considerable relief from the
feeling of depression that remains for a time on
the subsidence of a catarrh. The tendency to this
disease, when habitual, and when not dependent
on any form of constitutional disorder requiring
special means for its cure, is best met by the daily
use of the cold bath, with frequent exercise in the
open air, and proper ventilation of the sleeping-
apartment; also by friction of the skin, and by
clothing which, without being oppressive, is com-
fortably warm. Exposure to draughts or sudden
chills when the surface is perspiring is to be
avoided; but a close confined air habitually
breathed in a workshop or bedroom is a fruitful
predisposing cause of the disease.

Catarrh or catarrhal inflammation is also used
in modern pathology of an inflammation with the
characters above described in any mucous mem-
brane whatever; we have, for example, catarrh
of the stomach, intestines, bladder, &e.

Catarrhini, Old-World monkeys, with a
narrow partition between the nostrils, with a
dental formula 333%, and including two distinct
sets of forms, (a) the lower ‘ dog-like’ apes (Cyno-
morpha), and (6) the higher ‘man-like’ forms
(Anthropomorpha). See APE, ANTHROPOID APES,
MONKEY.

Catawba, a name of wines, both still and
sparkling, produced in various parts of the United

tates from the Catawba grape, ‘the fruit of a
variety of the Vitis Labrusca, a North American
and Asiatic species, from which have been derived
most of the cultivated North American varieties of
the vine. It is often said that it was ‘first found
qromine on the banks of the Catawba River’ (in

orth and South Carolina); but it is on record
that it was named by Major Adlum, who found
it growing wild near Washington, D.C., about
1825. Catawba wines are of various grades, the
best being of very decided value. The vine is
extremely pron, the fruit being large, of a deep
coppery red, and very sweet. The Catawba grape
does best on southern slopes, and on limestone
soils. Its slight musky aroma pervades the wines
made from it, and causes some connoisseurs to
reject all but the very choicest of the vintage from
- the catalogue of first-class wines.

Cat-bird (Zurdus or Galeoscoptes carolinensis),
an American thrush, of the same group as the
mocking-bird, which it resembles in its vocal
powers. Its name refers to its mew-like ery
when disturbed. It feeds on many kinds of
fruit and berries, also on worms and insects;
builds a large nest of dry twigs, weeds, &c., with-
out any attempt at concealment, in a bush or
tree, often in the immediate vicinity of human
habitations, and shows extraordinary boldness in
the defence of its young. It is a bird of passage,
making its way northward in spring through
Georgia and Carolina as far as Massachusetts,
In winter it migrates southwards, and strayed
specimens have been seen as great rarities on the
continental coast of the North Sea.

Catch, a species of musical composition peculiar
to England, written generally in_three or four
parts, and in the canon form. It was origin-
ally synonymous with the Round (q.v.), but the
name has been appropriated to a species of it to
which an absurd or humorous effect is given by
the successive entries of the parts, interrupting
or distorting the sense of the words into a new
and unexpected meaning. They abounded in the
Restoration period, when, as may be surmised,
they often had a more than questionable coarse-
ness. Hayes, Webbe, and Callcott, towards the
end of last century, were fertile composers in this
form. The ‘Catch Club’ was founded in 1761.

Catehfly, the name of the genus Silene, of
which many species produce a sticky secretion on
the calyx, the joints of the stem, &c., which pre-
vents the access of ants and other creeping
to the honey, so preserving it for the bees or other
flying insects by which alone cross fertilisation is.
effected. Other Caryophyllacez, notably Lychnis:
Viscaria, possess the same means of defente. The
‘Nottingham Catchfly is Silene nutans.
related Dionewa muscipula is also sometijhes called.
the Carolina Catchfly. See DionmA.

Catchpoll, a sheriff’s officer or bailiff, who had
power to arrest. From catch and poll, /the head ;’
not as is suggested by the spelling c@chpole from
Poy ; though in various places a long pole was in
use for catching or holding criminalgby the neck,
having at the end of it an iron follar with a.
V-shaped opening, occasionally arméd with spikes.
on the inside.

Cateau, LE, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town:
in the French department of Nad, on the Selle,
14 miles ESE. of Cambrai. Pq@. (1891) 10,529.
Here in 1559 the treaty of Cat@u-Cambresis was.
concluded between Henry II. off#rance and Philip.
II. of Spain.

.

word katéched, which meansjo resound, or sound
into one’s ears; to instruef by word of mouth.
Persons undergoing instruc#®n In the principles of
Christianity were hence calBd Catechwmens (q.v.).
Catechisms have long foyhed one of the principal
means employed for popflar instruction in the
truths and duties of thefhristian religion. The:
composition of the firs$catechisms was, in alk
probability, suggested Jy the ordinary oral in-
struction of catechum@s, and was intended for
the help both of teachy8 and pupils. It appears.
to have been in the 8tl@nd 9th centuries that the
first regular catechisys were compiled, of which
that by Kero, a monfof St Gall, that of Notker
Labeo of St Gall, anf that ascribed to Otfried of
Weissenburg in Alsaf, are among the most noted.
At later periods thfuse of catechisms prevailed
chiefly among the Pponents of the hierarchy, as.
among the Waldengs, the Albigenses, the Wyclif-
ites, and, above aljfmong the Bohemian Brethren.
The term catechig@ appears to have been first em-
ployed in its pregnt sense among the latter. At.
an early period # the history of the Reformation:
the Reformers #gan to avail themselves of this
method of popujf instruction, and their catechisms
became import@t instruments in that great religi-
ous movements After Luther published in 1520

his primer offeligion, entitled A Short Form.
of the Ten Pmmandments, the Creed, and the
Lord’s Pray several catechisms were prepared
by leading Potestant theologians, that of Brenz

(1527-28) b@mg the most notable. In 1525 Justus

bhn Agricola had been intrusted with
dion of a catechism, and Luther’s visita--
tion of th@Saxon churches in 1528 led to his pre-

paring higLarger and Smaller Catechisms (1529),
which fo#id a place among the standards of the
Lutheragthurches. The Larger he meant to be

The

Se

,
:

|
| appeared ta
was

_ authority, but is ill adapted for

CATECHISM 3

French in 1541 or 1542 ( Lat. ed. 1545)
was speedily translated into various languages, an
became an acknowledged standard of the Reformed
cateneng not only in Switzerland but in the Low
Countries, in France, and in a ge The First
ee Discipline of the Scottish Church (1560)
directs that the children be taught this catechism
—‘which catechism is the most perfect that ever
yet was used in the kirk’—every ‘Sonday’ after-
“noon in the presence of the people. The Church of
neva has set aside the authority of Calvin’s cate-
_chisms. The Heidelberg or Palatinate Catechism
is of ter importance, however, than any other
asa dard of the Swiss Reformed churches. It
jwes compiled by the Heidelberg 2 ne eee Caspar
‘Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus, at the request of
the Elector Frederic III. of the Palatinate ; it was
ipa ed in 1563, was approved by several synods,
and recognised as a symbolical book by the Synod
of Dort in 1619, and has been translated into all
the languages of Europe. It is the standard of the
‘Dutch and German Reformed churches of America.
_A tercentenary edition of this catechism was
blished in German, Latin, and English at New
ork in 1863.—King James said at the Hampton
Conference that in Scotland ‘every one who
was the son of a good man’ thought himself com-
t to write a catechism. The catechisms of
he Scottish Reformation must have been numerous.
The most popular, until it was superseded by the
Westminster Catechism, was John Craig’s Smaller
Catechism (Edin. 1581 ; edited by T. G Law, 1883).
—The doctrines of the Socinians are embodied in

the | seeps and smaller Racovian Catechisms
(Polish ed. Racow, 1605; Latin ed. 1609). Besides

a catechism of 1660, in the form of a conversation
between father and son, said to have been written
by George Fox, the Quakers have that of Robert

y (1673), in which the answers are in the
ns oa of the Bible, the distinctive peculiarities
of the sect being involved in the questions.

In the Church of Rome there were several
catechisms published in Germany and elsewhere
before the Tridentine settlement of doctrine. A
Scottish catechism, known as Archbishop Hamil-
ton’s, was issued by authority of a provincial
council in 1552, and was ordered to be read in
church by the parish priests. But in 1563 the
Council of Trent in its twenty-fourth session
determined to compose and prescribe for the whole
church an authorised form of catechism, which the
bishops were to have translated into the vulgar
tongue, and expounded to the people by the
eurates. The work was, however, not carried
through by the council itself, and Pius IV. in-

its completion to a commission of four
theologians, Eminent scholars were also appointed
to ect its latinity, and when finished in 1564
it was once again submitted to a new commission
under Cardinal Sirletus. It finally appeared in
1566 under the title Catechismus Romanus ex decreto
Concilit Tridentini Pii V. Pont. Max. jussu editus.
In form it is not catechetical, and it is addressed,
not to the people, but to the curates as a guide to
them in their instructions. It possesses very high
popular use, For

g it has fallen into desuetude, and has

lay
been superseded by various catechisms of more

» private origin. The most popular of these were

pre by the Jesuit Peter Canisius. His larger
work, entitled Summa Doctrine et Institutionis
lane, was published in 1554, and the shorter
(1556) reached more than 400 editions, and was
used in the schools of all countries. In the
present day, as a general rule, each diocese pos-
Sesses a catechism of its own approved by the
ishop. In England the short ‘Penny Catechism’
is used by authority of all the bishops in concert.

The catechism called the Orthodox Confession
of the Catholic and pg a Eastern Church,
was prepared about 1 by Peter Mogilas,
metropolitan of Kief, and received symbolical
authority from a synod at Jerusalem in 1672.
It is often called the Larger Russian Catechism,
to distinguish it from the Smaller Catechism pre-
pared by order of Peter the Great in 1723. These
were practically superseded by the catechisms of
Platon, metropolitan of Moscow (first published in
1762), and of Philaret, also metropolitan of Moscow,
which has since 1839 n in general use in the
schools and churches of Russia.—Besides these cate-
chisms, which have a historic interest, or are of
importance from their symbolical character, there
have appeared at all periods, since the Reforma-
tion, many others, both Protestant and Roman
Catholic, some doctrinal, some controversial, some
devoted to particular subjects, as the sacraments,
or to particular purposes, as the preparation of can-
didates for admission to the Lord’s Supper, some
adapted to the mental capacity of very young
children, &c. The opinion, however, has become
are ers that doctrinal abstracts are not the

t form in which religion can be presented to
the young, and the use of catechisms has accord-
ingly been in some measure relinquished in favour
of other methods of instruction.

The catechism of the Church of England with
which we are most familiar is the smaller one
published in the Book of Common Prayer. It is
in two parts: the first contains and explains the
Baptismal Covenant, the Creed, the Ten Com-
mandments, and the Lord’s Prayer; the second
explains the two sacraments, Baptism and the
Lord’s Supper. It is not known with absolute
certainty who was the author of the first part;
prokaliy Cranmer and Ridley had the principal

and in framing the questions and answers. It
was pe an forth in the reign of Edward VL.,
and condemned as heretical in the reign of Mary,
and underwent several modifications from 1549 to
1661. It must not be confounded with Cranmer’s
Catechism (1548), which was a larger work, differ-
ently arranged, and probably translated chiefly from
the Latin catechism of Justus Jonas. This first part
of the church catechism was formerly spoken of as
the Shorter Catechism. There was a larger church
catechism compiled also in the reign of Edward
VI. by Poynet, Bishop of Winchester, and pub-
lished, together with the 42 Articles, in 1553, and it
corresponds in some degree with the smaller work
above described. It was afterwards revised and
enlarged by Dean Nowell, and published in 1570;
and, though never officially promulgated by the
ehurch, it has some authority from havikg been
approved by the lower house of Convocation. At
the Hampton Court Conference (1604), the Shorter
Catechism was considered too short, and Nowell’s
larger one ‘too long for novices to learn by heart;’
accordingly, at James I.’s suggestion, an addition
was made to the former of that explanation of the
two sacraments which now forms the second part of
the church catechism. This is attributed to Dean
Overall. The whole is a work much esteemed by
all sections of the church as remarkable for its
simplicity, truth, and catholicity. It, however,
states sacramental doctrine in a way that is not
very acceptable to the extreme Low Church party.
Hence, the Prayer-book put forth by the Church
of Ireland, while leaving the catechism otherwise
untouched, ingeniously interpolates an additional
question and answer (based on Article XXVIII.),
which, in the opinion of many, tends to modify the
ideas suggested by the catechism concerning Holy
Communion. Modifications occur, too, in the
Catechism of the American Episcopal Church.
The rubrics in the Common Prayer-book enjoin

4 CATECHISM

CATECHUMENS

the teaching of the catechism in the church on
Sundays and holidays after the second lesson at
Evening Prayer; and the 59th canon contains a
like injunction, imposing penalties on the clergy
who neglect this. The custom of catechising in
the church had fallen into almost universal disuse,
but in many parishes it has been revived with
excellent results.

The Larger and Shorter Catechisms, which, with
the Westminster Confession of Faith, constitute
the standards or symbolical books of the Presby-
terian churches throughout the British empire and
the United States of America, were compiled by
the Assembly of Divines at Westminster (q.v.) :
the Shorter Catechism ‘to be a directory for
catechising such as are of weaker capacity ;’ the
Larger, ‘for catechising such as have made some
proficiency in the knowledge of the Christian
religion.’ The Larger Catechism was presented to
the English House of Commons on 22d October
1647; the Shorter on the 25th November 1647—
and both, with proofs added, on or before the
14th April 1648; and in July 1648 both received
the sanction of the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland—the General Assembly, in
the act approving of the Larger Catechism, de-
claring it to be ‘a rich treasure for increasing
knowledge among the people of God,’ and that
‘they bless the Lord that so excellent a catechism
has been prepared.’ The Shorter Catechism has,
however, been far more generally used for the
paoe of instruction than the Larger, which has

een generally felt to be too minute in its state-
ments, and too burdensome to the memory to be
employed as a catechism. Even the Shorter Cate-
chism is regarded by many, who substantially
adhere to its doctrine, as carrying the statement
of dogmatic theology beyond what is proper for
elementary instruction, whilst it has Soak long
felt to be unsuitable for the very young and the
very ignorant, and its use is now almost always
preceded by that of catechisms more adapted to
their capacity. Its influence, however, has been
very great in forming the religious opinions, and
in exercising and training the intellectual faculties,
wherever Presbyterianism has prevailed ; for it has
been, and still is, in almost universal use amon
Presbyterians speaking the English language, an
to a cmaidexatie extent among Independents or
Congregationalists both in Britain and America.
In Holland also, a translation of it has been much
used. It is very generally regarded, by those
whose doctrinal views are in accordance with it,
as an admirable compend of Christian doctrine and
duty. . ‘The older I grow,’ said Carlyle—‘and I
now stand upon the brink of eternity—the more
comes back to me the first sentence in the cate-
chism which I learned when a child, and the fuller
and pecper its meaning becomes: ‘‘ What is the
chief end of man?—To glorify God, and to enjoy

_ Him for ever.” ’—Catechisms without number had
been issued by Puritan divines in England between
1600 and 1645. A large proportion of the members
of the Westminster Assembly had previously pub-
lished catechisms of their own. The authorship of
the Assembly’s Catechisms has been the subject
of much debate, or at least the authorship of the
first drafts of them ; it being admitted that they
were prepared with great care by committees of
the Assembly. Probably their authorship is to be
ascribed entirely to these committees; and, like
the Westminster Confession of Faith, they are thus
the result of the joint labours of many.

See Ehrenfeuchter, Geschichte des Katechismus (1857);
Niemeyer, Collectio Confessionwm (1840) ; Schafi’s History
of the Creeds of Christendom (3 vols. New York, 1876;
Lond. 1877 ); and Prof. Mitchell's Oatechisms of the Second
Reformation (1887 ).

Ca’techu, a substance employed in tanning
and dyeing and medicinally as an astringent. The
catechu of commerce is obtained chiefly from two
East Indian trees (Acacia Catechu and A. Swma).
The former is common in most parts of India, and
also in tropical East Africa, and the latter grows in
Southern India, Bengal, and Gujerat. Catechu is
known in India by the name kat or kut. Cutch is
another form of one or other of these names, and
is acommon commercial name. The trees are cut
down when they are about a foot in diameter,
and according to some accounts only the heart-
wood is iad but other reports say that the
whole of the woody part of the trunk is utilised.
The catechu is obtained by cutting it into small
chips, and boiling it in water, straining the
liquid from time to time, and adding fresh sup-
plies of chips, till the extract is of sufficient con-
sistence to be poured into clay moulds; or when
of the thickness of tar, it is allowed to harden for
two days, so that it will not run, and is formed into
balls about the size of oranges, which are placed on
husks of rice or on leaves, and appear in commerce
enveloped in them. Catechu is of a dark-brown
colour, hard and brittle, and when broken has a
shining surface. It possesses an astringent taste,
but no odour. It is a very permanent colour, and
is employed in the dyeing of blacks, browns, fawns,
drabs, &e. Ordinary commercial catechu or cutch
is composed of catechu-tanniec acid, which is soluble
in cold water, and catechin or catechuic acid, which
is nearly insoluble in cold but soluble in boiling
water. The latter can be separated in the state
of minute, acicular, colourless crystals. It is often
adulterated with earthy substances, but its ready
solubility in water and alcohol should at once show
the presence of such by leaving them behind in an
ieaaluble state. Areca or Palm Catechu, sometimes
called Ceylon Catechu, differs wholly from the
above. It is got from the ripe nuts of the Betel
palm, which yield, by boiling, a black, very
astringent extract, resembling true catechu, but
of inferior quality. This substance is rarel
exported from India (see ARECA, BETEL).—Gambir
(q.v.) may be regarded as a kind of catechu. Terra

aponica, or Japan Earth, is an old name for
catechu, not quite disused, given in mistake as to
its nature and origin. About 6000 tons of catechu
or cutch are annually imported into Great Britain
from India.

Catechu’mens (Gr. atéchoumenoi, persons
undergoing a course of instruction ; see CATECHISM),
the appellation given, in the early Christian church,
to those converted Jews and heathens who had not
yet received baptism, but were undergoing a course
of training and instruction preparatory toit. They
had a place assigned them in the congregation, but
were not permitted to be present at the dispensa-
tion of the Lord’s Supper, which from the end of the
2d century was regarded as a sacred mystery. The
name Catechumens first occurs as the designation
of a separate body in the time of Tertullian, and
their distribution into different classes or grades
according to their proficiency, is first referred to
by Origen. The most famous catechetical school
of the early church was that of Alexandria, which
had Pantenus, Clement, Origen, Dionysius and
others among its teachers. The only extant speci-
mens of the ancient catechetical teaching (which
was not necessarily by question and answer) are
twenty-three lectures by Cyril of Jerusalem (348),
and Augustine’s De catechizandis Rudibus.—The
term Catechumens was afterwards employed to
designate young members of the Christian church
who were receiving instruction to prepare them
for confirmation or for the Lord’s Supper, and it
is still often used in this sense. See DISCIPLINA —
ARCANI.

CATEGORIES

CATERPILLAR 5

in philosophy, the highest classes
ects of knowledge can be syste-
: , understood as an attempt at a
; prehensive classification of all that exists. The
“name has come down to us from Aristotle, in whose
‘system the categories are ten in number: Sub-
quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situ-
f ion, action, and suffering. From the
jint of view of logic, these may be reduced to two:
substance and attribute ; of metaphysics, to being
nd accident. The Cartesians had the three cate-
, ies—substance, attribute, and mode; Leibnitz—
tance, quantity, quality, action or passion, and
tion; and Locke—substance, mode, and rela-
ion. J. SS. Mill classifies all existences or deserib-
ble things as follows: (1) Feelings, or states of
ascionsness, the most comprehensive experience
the human mind can attain to, since even the
external world is only known as conceived by our
minds ; (2).the minds which experience those feel-
‘ings; (3) the bodies, or externa ry bere which are
to excite all that class of feelings that we
_denominate sensations ; (4) the successions and co-
existences, the likenesses and unlikenesses, between
feelings or states of consciousness. Although those
relations are considered by us to subsist between
the bodies, or things, external to our minds, we are
_ driven in the last resort to consider them as really
subsisting between the states of each one’s own
‘individual mind.
_ The categories of Kant are conceived under a
_ totally different point of view. The Root-notions of
% Rercermnding (\Sommbegrife des Verstandes),
5 are the specific forms of the a priori or formal
element in rational cognition—forms inherent in the
understanding, under which the mind embraces the
ebjects of actual experience. The Kantian philo-
‘sophy supposes that human knowledge is partly
made up of the sensations of outward . things—
- colour, sound, touch—and partly of mental ele-
ments or functions existing prior to all experience of
the actual world. (This is the point of difference
between the school of Locke, who rejected all innate
ideas, conceptions, or forms, and the school of Kant.
_ No such question was raised under the Aristotelian
categories.) Kant’s categories are as follows: (1)
. tity, including unity, inultitude, totality; (2)
ty, including reality, negation, limitation ;
_ (8) Relation, including substance and accident,
_ cause and effect, action and reaction ; (4) Modality,
which includes possiiitiy, existence, necessity.
These indicate the elements of our knowledge a
ed ; and though they are the necessary con-
ditions under which alone experiences can be real-
ised to the mind, are merely subjective forms of its
own activity, distinct from and inapplicable to the
world of nowmena—the thing in itself—that lies out-
side and beyond. Fichte based the whole system of
4 categories of reality on the affirmation of itself
by the the primitive function of self-conscious-
ness. egel carried this further, and showed that
this primitive function supplied the principle needed
_ to harmonise and unify the objective and subjective
_ elements in thought. Thought and being are ulti-
mately identical, and the categories are thus merely
_ definite aspects or determinations ( Bestimmungen)
' Of the universal of thought, which is identical with

| ; ri
unde which ob}

ro

reality or actual existence.
7 eaisenary. The catenary is the curve formed
__ bya flexible hho freely be-

mogeneous cord hangin
tween two a of support, and ahted on by no
0 other force than gravity, the name being suggested
by Lat. catena, ‘a chain.’ The catenary grrr
_ Several remarkable properties, one of which is, that
__ its centre of Gravity (q.v.) is lower than that of any

_ curve of equal perimeter, and with the same fixed
— for its extremities. It is of importance for
rr theory of suspension bridges. See BRIDGE.

Cateni'pora, a genus of fossil tabulate corals
uliar to Paleozoic strata, confined in Britain to
he Silurian measures. See CORAL.

Cateran (Gaelic, ceatharnach, ‘a soldier’),
originally an Irish or Highland soldier, a kern ;
usually, however, a Highland reiver or freebooter.
See CLAN, BLACKMAIL, Rog Roy.

Caterpillar, the larval stage of butterflies and
moths (Lepidoptera), and the representative in this
special order of. the grub, maggot, or larva phase in
the life-history of many insects.

General Structure.—The caterpillar, so familiar
in its external appearance, has usually 12 body-
rings, not including the head, is provided with
are biting jaws, strikingly contrasted with the
mouth organs of the adult, has three pairs of five-
jointed clawed legs on the region corresponding to
the thorax, and usually five rudimentary stumps or
pro-legs on the abdomen. These unjointed append-
ages are borne on the sixth to the ninth, and on the
twelfth segments of the body; some of them may be
absent; in the rr dc of cases they are adapted
for clambering. The body may be naked or covered
with hairs, bristles, and spines, which, in caterpillars

Fig. 1.

a, Chocrocampa tersa, showing eye-like spots; b, young cater-
pillar of Detlephila Euphorbide (after Weismann ). Cf. fig. 5.

living an exposed life, are usually brightly coloured.
The large head is divided by a median line, and
bears six eye-spots on each side, a pair of short three-
jointed feelers, strong be gee jaws or mandibles,
ides jointed palps on the two successive pairs of
mouth appendages. Two well-developed spinning
organs open on the second pair of maxille forming
the lower lip or /abiuwm. On each side, on the first
ring, and on the fourth to the eleventh, there are
nine pairs of stigmata or openings into the respira-
tory air-tubes. Hatschek has obeervad the appear-
ance of three pairs of stigmata on the jaw-segments
of the head. The colours are familiarly bight in
many instances, and may have their seat in the
cuticle or in the skin below, or very frequently in
deeper regions of the body. A metallic sheen is
sometimes superadded. The surface is often beau-
tifully marked longitudinally, or transversely, or
with ring-spots and eye-spots, Odoriferous and
other glands frequently occur on the skin, and
are in some cases (Dicranura, Orgyia) eversible.
The internal anatomy of the caterpillar, though
essentially resembling that of the adult, differs in
some striking features. Thus while the larva has
1l to 12 separate nerve ganglia in the ventral
chain, the adult insect has usually only two
separate ganglia in the thorax, and five in the
abdomen. The digestive system is comparatively
short and simple; the circulatory and respiratory
systems much like those of the adult ; a few aquatic
caterpillars have gill-like appendages.
History.—The caterpillar develops like any
other larva from the segmented eas and differen-
tiating embryo; its life is usually more or less
active and voracious ; it undergoes several moult-

6 CATERPILLAR

ings or ecdyses ; ig to develop some of the adult
structures, and falls into a quiescent pupa, chry-
salis, or aurelia stage. The pupa is usually (except
in butterflies) insheathed in a silken cocoon, may
be fixed or free, suspended by one thread or more
to leaf or branch, or hidden away underground.
Among butterflies, the uninsheathed pupa may be
fastened head downwards by a single silken rope
fastened to the tail end (pupe suspense), or head
upwards with an extra suspensor round the body
(suscincte). The intimate structural changes asso-
ciated with the remarkable alteration in habit of
life have not yet been fully followed. One of the
most important features is the appearance on the
caterpillar of what are known as ‘imaginal dises,’
which appear to arise from the skin, and give
origin to the limbs and wings of the ult
insect. In the quiescent pupa stage very im-
portant changes go on, amounting to more or less
of a remaking By the entire body; but it is not
possible within the present limits to describe the

changes undergone by the digestive, nervous, and |

other systems, or the very marked transformation
of the mouth appendages. The cocoon in which
the pupa becomes the ao insect may be alto-
gether absent, or very slight, or strikingly compact
and protective. Some firm cocoons open. very
neatly from the inside by valvular lips, and in other
cases the moth is known to soften the walls of its
prison by means of some secretion. The gilded
colour of some pupze (chrysalids indeed ), so mineral-
like in appearance, not improbably arose, it has
been suggested, in hot dry countries, and had a
protective value among dry rocks. It has been
shown experimentally to arise as a direct con-
sequence of bright surroundings. The cocoon
occasionally consists solely, or almost solely, of
the hairs of the larva; in some cases leaves,

wood, earth, &c. are used in construction; in>

most moths it isspun. The work of spinning the
usual cocoon is carried on almost ceaselessly, some-
times for four or five days, and Trouvelot calculates
that the larva of Polyphemus in distributing its
silk must have mune: its head to and fro about
254,000 times.

A very primitive insect type is represented b
a widely distributed genus Paripitis (q.v.), whie
remains permanently at a sort of caterpillar level,
and serves to. connect jointed-footed animals or
arthropods with worm-like forms. The caterpillar
may be interpreted as in part a recapitulation
of this historical stage in the evolution of insects.

(ON RAYURDAIORRPR Re RR
VPUUM@MUMMKttMiIiIMMN A ie
Si ia SN) sa ee oe

SR a

HABANA NANA
Wildl sblalg radaidyl iotuiead dc ieee

UE A ile WED PR

Fig. 2.—Peripatus :
Survival of ancestral insects (from Moseley).

The caterpillar thus represents the prolongation of
an ancestral and embryonic stage, while many of its
characters have arisen as secondary adaptations to
its peculiar mode of life. Between each moult there
is a period of quiescence, and this becomes greatly
prolonged in that all-important moult in which the
mouth organs of the larva are modified into those of
the adult. Free life at a period so momentous would
evidently be disadvantageous even if it were pos-
sible. The pupa, furthermore, may come to have
a secondary importance other than that of simply
being an exhausted quiescence at the final moult-
ing ; it may come to be of vital moment as a pro-
tective phase, by means of which the insect sur-
vives the cold of winter or the drought of the
dry season. In one case (Cossus) the preparatory
stages may be prolonged for three years. From

others

another point of view the life-history may become
more intelligible—viz. from the side of its physi-
ology. In the embryonic development the young
form is built up at the expense of its endow-
ment of food-capital. The first chapter is one
of passivity and living on past gains. When
these are exhausted, and the embryonic processes
completed, the larva emerges, hungry, voracious,
active. In its ravages and moultings it exhibits
alternate minor rhythms of activity and passivity.
Finally having laid so store of food-capital in the
recesses of its ‘fatty body,’ it falls asleep into the
more emphasised quiescence of the pupa stage.
During this phase of fasting and passivity, and
of life sustained by past gains, momentous changes,
associated with gradual loss of weight, take place,
and the final début is made by the appearance of
the active, frugal, sexually-mature, comparatively
short-lived adult. It is not yet possible to ration-
alise the details of the life-history, but in the _
alternations of activity and passivity common to —
all living organisms, and here more marked than
in any other case, the solution must be sought.
Protection and Colour.—Caterpillars are evi-
dently enough tempting juicy morsels to birds and
other insect-eating animals; their slow movements
render them liable to ready capture, and, as
Wallace has pointed out, their soft-walled tense
structure is ‘extremely dangerous, for a slight
wound entails great loss of blood, while a moderate
injury must prove fatal.’ It is therefore not sur-
prising to find that caterpillars, in common with
the larvee of other insects, have found out, or have
become the subjects of, various devices for evading
their enemies. The more conspicuous forms almost
always possess some unpleasant attribute in taste
or smell, either in the tissues generally or in special
glands. Weismann notes how a curious lashing
about of the tail may preserve one form, and how
the juices of another attract a protective body-
guard of ants. Others are so uncanny in the dis-
position of their hair-tufts and colour, or in the
‘terrifying atti-
tudes’ which they
assume, that their
cautious though
hungry foes leave
them alone. But
distaste and re-
pulsion may on
stress of hunger
be overcome, and
only a_ relative-
ly small number
of larve trust
to this mode of
defence. Thus
are in
their colour and
markings so like the plants on which they feed,
or the ground on which they crawl, that they
avoid detection, and this protective resemblance
is often not merely general and superficial, but
detailed and exact. Thus some when fixed as
pupe to the stems of plants, are almost indistin-
guishable from knobs or stunted twigs. In the
twig-like attitude the supporting thread is some-
times dispensed with. Others are like little splin-
ters of wood, or the curled margins of withered
leaves. The hairs and fleshy tubercles may prevent
the casting of a sharpshadow. Nor is the ‘mimicry’
confined to resembling the parts of plants, but a
palatable insect may probably save itself by approxi-
mating in colour to one that is distasteful. Mr
Bates observed a large caterpillar deceptively like
a small venomous snake. Protective resemblance
may be further abetted by unpalatable taste or
unpleasant smell. Some forms hide during the

Fig. 3.—Terrifying attitude of larva
ri Dicranura vinula (after Poul-
m).

CATERPILLAR 7

i" “aby; others feign death when caught. In more

-_ a (Dicranura) the larva spurts out

formic acid.

Darwin had been impressed with the colours of
caterpillars, which, occurring as
they do on larvae, could not be
referred to the action of sexual
selection. Though, as an qn0ep-
tion, a male caterpillar may
much brighter than the female,
the two sexes are all but invari-
ably the same, and no sexualit
or sexual choice is yet devel-
oped. Wallace attacked the
problem, and maintained that
the conspicuous forms were dis-
tasteful to birds and reptiles,
and that the conspicuous colours
were advantageous reminders of
unpalatableness. To this Poul-
ton has added the necessary
caution, that animals forced by
hunger will eat the distasteful
beauties, and come to like them.

Fig. 4.—Hawthorn
twig with at-

tached twig-like : : I
larva (a) of For a most interesting series
Rumia Crade- of studies on the colour and

markings of caterpillars, the
reader should consult Pro-
fessor Weismann’s Studies in
the Theory of Descent, and the valuable editorial
notes of the translator, Professor Meldola. The
whole burden of Weismann’s work is to show that
in the marking and colouring (of the Sphingide
‘in particular) no action of an impelling vital force
can be recognised, but that ‘the origination and
rfection of these characters depend entirely on
he known factors of natural selection and correla-
‘tion,’ though of course natural selection can only
operate on the variations possible to the physical
constitution and conditions of the organism. In
‘tracing the presumed historical evolution of the
Sphingide, which is more or less fully recapitu-
lated in the individual development, he starts (1)
from concealed or subterranean, white or yellow,
forms, with a horn on the tail and with bristles, but
without markings; (2) in adaptation to life on
linear — like grasses, longitudinal markings
are evolved and confirmed by natural selection ;

gata (after Poul-
ton).

Fig. 5.
a, Caterpillar of Sphinx Convolvuli ; b, larva of Macroglossa
Stellatarum, showing lines and spots (after Weismann).

3) these are succeeded by oblique stripes, spread-
g from one segment to another, evolved by
natural selection and correlation, and followed b
the disappearance of the longitudinal lines which
spoil the effect; (4) on the second last segment
ring-spots then appear, and tend to spread to other
»; these are deceptively like the berries of the
-plant at one time, or have a ifying eye-

like appearance afterwards, and are often signals
of distastefulness.

Poulton made a long series of experiments of
a most interesting nature on the subtle rela-
tions between Lepidopterous larve and _ their

surroundings. The colours and markings have
a double source: (1) pigments deriv from
the food-plants; (2) pigments proper to the

larve. A larva may be coloured from either or
both of these sources; all greens seem due to the
chlorophyll, and most yellows to the xanthophyll
of plants; other colours to the proper pigments
of the larve. The derived pigments are more
frequently the basis of general resemblances to
surroundings, the true pigments of special and
detailed likeness. Poulton arranges the causes of
colour in larve, in the presumed historic order of
their employment, thus: (1) Ready-made colour
in the internal tissues and organs, in the digestive
tract, fat, and dorsal blood-vessel; (2) derived
pigments which have passed through the walls of
the digestive tract into the bl or the tissue
under the cuticle ; (3) true pigment in the cuticle
and in the layer Seesinidiatale low (the Aypoder-
mis). But the point of most general interest is the
relation between the colour of the larve and that
of their food-plants. Within the same species the
colours may vary to suit the colour of the feeding-

ound, bundant instances of this are recorded
in Meldola’s notes to Weismann’s Studies.
McLachlan noted for instance that the larve of
Eupithecia absynthiata were yellowish on the
yellow ragweed (Senecio jacobea), reddish on the
purplish ey (Centaurea nigra), and white
on the mayw (Matricaria). Poulton has the
credit of analysing this interesting relation. He
has shown that the influence of the food-plant
must act throughout a long period of larval life,
that the effects probably accumulate during suc-
cessive generations, and that the result cannot be
referred to the direct influence of the material
eaten. The interpretation is rendered particularly
difficult ‘by the gradual working of the process,
often incomplete in a single life, by the excessively
complex and diverse result, and by the special
character of the stimulus, for it is only part of the
environment which produces any effect.’ In the
ease of the larva of Smerinthus ocellatus, Poulton
has shown that the colour relation is adjustable
within the limits of a single life, and that the pre-
dominant colour of the plant is the inciting stimu-
lus. The colour adaptation is not in this case at
anyrate due to the gradual working of natural
selection, but to relatively immediate power
enabling the larva to suit itself to its conditions.
But the influence, though in one sense direct, is a
very subtle one. Ponlion's investigations show
(1) that larvee have certain hereditarily trans-
mitted tendencies towards certain colours; (2)
that the colour of the leaf, and not the substance
eaten, is the agent which influences the larval
colours; (3) that the influence is an intricate
nervous one, ‘making itself felt by affecting the
absorption and production of pigments rather than
their modification when formed;’ and (4) that
individual variations are comparatively unimport-
ant, though it is quite ible that variation
began somewhat uselessly in the pigments in the
blood, &c., and were afterwards ‘rendered effica-
cious by co-ordination with the environment.’
Some of Mr Poulton’s most beautiful recent ex-
periments (1887) are those which show how the
goldeg surroundings of a gilt-lined box favour the
production of golden pups. The above naturalist,
to whose observations this article is so much in-
debted, has done more than any one else to
penetrate into the physiological conditions of
caterpillar colour, but much still remains to be

8 CATERPILLAR

CATGUT

done in elucidating the réle of colour in the con-
stitution of these and other animals.

General Life.—As already noted, most cater-
pillars lead an active life, some roving only at
night, others:also in the daytime. Young larve
have been observed to seek the light. Their move-
ments are guided by an appreciation of the force of
gravitation ; they usually crawl upwards ; and they
always know their food-plant i they come to
it. Their frequent falls from, for them, considerable
heights, are broken, it has been suggested, by the
springy hairs with which they are so often covered.

any of them seem to have an insatiable hunger,
and eat straight on. Their ravages among vege-
tables and other plants are only too well known.
Some forms are carnivorous, and Mr Poulton has
fe ie that this might arise from cannibalism
induced by prea food, as his observations
vividly indicate. ile older larvee will appar-
ently rather starve than take to a new food-plant,
it has been conclusively shown that the newly
hatched larva is not so fastidious, but ‘is free to
form special relations with occasional or rare food-
hte Trouvelot’s experiments on the larve of

olyphemus showed that a caterpillar, fifty-six
days old, had consumed not less than one hundred
and twenty oak leaves, weighing in all three-
fourths of a pound, and had drunk not less than
half an ounce of water. The food would weigh
86,000 times the original weight of the larva. ‘Of
this, about one-fourth of a pound becomes ex-
crementitious matter; 207 grains are assimilated,
and over five ounces evaporated.’ A few larve
(Nymphula, &c.) are aquatic, many bore in wood,
leaves, and soft vegetable substances, others are
largely subterranean.
he caterpillars of some of the silkworm sub-
order (Bombycina) live together within a common
pouch-like cradle, and others move in file-like
processions (see ARMY-WORM). Migrating cater-
illars (Noctua) have been described, which move
in search of food in vast armies, marching straight
on over everything, until a fit pasturage is found.
In one case (quoted by Kirby and Spence from the
Charleston Courier, nay 1842) the passage of such
a host is said to have made the ground black for
days; in another instance reported from America,
they stopped a heavy train going at the rate of 10
or 12 miles an hour.

Comparatively few caterpillars reach maturity
(happily for the sake of the plants in the next
season); many are destroyed by the weather,
many by hungry birds, reptiles, arid other animals,
and many by insect pests of the families Ichneu-
monide (see Art. ICHNEUMON) and Tachinarie.
The ichneumon flies pierce the caterpillars, and
make them the receptacles of their eggs and the
edible cradles of their larve.

As typical injurious caterpillars may be noticed,
(1) on vegetables, those of the cabbage-moths (e.g.
Mamestra brassice, and several species of Pieris
or Pontia), the turnip-moths (Noctua segetum,
Cerostoma xylostella), the silver Y-moth (Plusia
gamma), the carrot-moths (Depressaria), the hop-
moths (Dasychira, Hepialus, Dalia ), the pea-
moth (Grapholitha pisana), the death’s- head
(Sphinzatropos); (2) on trees, those of the goat-
moth (Cossus ligniperda), the wood leopard-moth
(Zeuzera escult), the buff-tip moth (Pygera

bucephala), the lackey-moth (Bombyx (clisio-
campa) neustria), &e. See Miss Ormerod’s Jnjuri-
ous Insects.

The devastations of caterpillars are togsome
extent compensated for by the fertilising” work
of the adults, and by the silk of the silkworms.
But apart from their destructiveness and utility,
they are full of interest and of scientific puzzles.
Old Swamnierdam saw in their metamorphosis

‘the resurrection painted before our eyes,’ wl) ile’
moralists and poets have often delighted in point-
ing out the analogies suggested by the crawl-
ing immature caterpillar, with faint promise of its.
future, by the seeming death and coffin-like cocoon
of the chrysalids, by the new birth, glory, and
fouven wane Right of the perfected forms.

LITERATURE.—Balfour, Embryology, vol. i. ; Kirby and
Spence, Introduction to Entomology ; Lubbock, Metamor-
phoses of Insects (*‘ Nature’ series); Packard, Guide to the:
Study of Insects ; Poulton, Transactions of Entomological.
Society (1885-6-7), British Association Report (1887),
Proceedings of Zoological Society (1887); Wallace, Pro-
ceedings of Entomological Society (1867); Weismann
(translated by Meldola), Studies in the Theory of Descent
(1880-82); Wilson, Larve of British Lepidoptera and
their Food Plants (London, 1880).

Catesby, MARK, naturalist, born about 1679,.
probably in London, travelled in North America in.
1710-19 and 1722-26, and published Natural His-
tory of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands
(2 vols. 1731-48), Hortus Britanno-Americanus, and
a work on the fishes, reptiles, and insects of the-
Isle of Providence. German translations of the —
first and last appeared at Nuremberg. He died in.
London, 23d December 1749.

Catesby, Rosert, born in 1573, was a.
Northamptonshire Catholic of good fortune and
lineage, being sixth in descent from Richard III.’s.
Catesby, who was hanged three days after Bos-
worth. Robert, however, had suffered much,as a.
recusant both by fines and imprisonment, when
in 1604 he engaged in the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.).
He was shot dead in the defence of Holbeache-
House, 8th November 1605.

Cat-fish, in Britain, is usually a name for the-
Wolf-fish (q.v.).—In America the name is com-
monly applied to a very different fish, one of the:
genus Pimelodus and family Siluride. Sixteen
species occur in the lakes and rivers of North

merica. The skin is naked, and the head has.
eight fleshy barbules. The Common Cat-fish (P.
atrarius), or Horned Pout, is one of the commonest.
river fishes of the United States, especially in the:
east and north. It is from 7 to 9 inches in length,.
and is a very important food fish, though its flesh,
like that of all the cat-fishes, is insipid. Like all
its congeners it prefers muddy bottoms, and is.’
sluggish in its movements. The Great Lake Cat-
fish (P. nigricans) is from 2 to 4 feet long, weighs.
from 6 to 30 pounds, and is found in lakes Erie:
and Ontario.

Catgut is employed in the fabrication of the:
strings of violins, harps, guitars, and other musical.
instruments ; as also in the cords used by clock-
makers, in the bows of archers, and in whipcord.
It is generally prepared from the intestines of the-
sheep, rarely from those of the horse, ass, or mule,
and not those of the cat. The first stage in the:
operation is the thorough cleansing of the in-
testines from adherent feculent and fatty matters ;.
after which they are steeped in water for several
days, so as to loosen the external membrane, which
can then be removed by scraping with a blunt-
knife. The material which is thus scraped off is
employed for the cords of battledoors and rackets,
and also as thread in sewing the ends of intestines.
together. The scraped intestines are then steeped
in water, and scraped again, when the large in-
testines are cut off and placed in tubs with salt,
to preserve them for the sausage-maker; and the.
smaller intestines are steeped in water, thereafter
‘treated with a dilute solution of alkali (4 oz. potash,
4 oz. carbonate of potash, and 3 to 4 gallons of
water, with occasionally a little alum), and are-’
lastly drawn through a perforated brass thimble,
and assorted into their respective sizes. In order
to destroy any adherent matter which would lead

CATHA

ve?

CATHARINE DE’ MEDICI 9

“1 to putrefaction, and the consequent development
of offensive odours, it is customary to subject the
- ¢eatgut to the fumes of burning sulphur—e. sul-
_ phurous acid, which acts as an Antiseptic (q.v.),
- and arrests decomposition. The best strings come
from Italy, and are used for musical instruments.
_ ‘These are known as Roman strings, but they are
made in several Italian towns, the most valuable
_ toming from Naples. About 10 per cent. of the
violin strings manufactured are false—i.e. they
; peta two sounds. Gut strings for musical
oe ents become useless after being kept a few
years. Cord for clockmakers is made from the
smallest of the intestines, and occasionally from
larger ones, which have been split longitudinally
into several lengths. The catgut obtained from
___ the intestines of horses, asses, and mules is prin-
cipally made in France, and is employed in the
_ same way as leather belts for driving lathes and
_ other small machines.

@atha, a genus of Celastracex, often reckoned
under Celastrus. C. edulis, Arabian Tea, the Khat
of the Arabs, is a shrub highly valued by them on
account of its leaves, which are chewed or infused
like coffee or tea, to which its properties seem
eennelly similar. It is cultivated along with
coffee.

Cathari (Gr., ‘ pure’), or CATHARISTS, a name
assumed by a widely diffused Gnostic sect of the
middle ages, which took its rise most probably
parong the Slavs in Southern Macedonia, and spread
over the whole of Southern and Western Europe.
_ In Thrace it found a kindred sect in the Paulicians
‘ (a ), who had been transported thither about
0, and they were there known as_ Bogomili
___ (q.v.). In the second half of the 12th century
. mney were in great strength in Bulgaria, Albania,
7 and Slavonia, and divided into two branches,
distinguished as the Albanensians (the more ex-
treme section), and the Concorezensians (named
from Goriza in Albania), It is remarkable that
the name Bulgari, by which they were known to
the returning French crusaders, is the origin of the
low French word Bougre, just as the German word
for ‘heretic’ (Ketzer) is derived from Gazzari,
___ the Lombard form of Cathari. In Italy the heresy
_ first appeared at Turin about 1035, and existed
_ down tothe 14th century. Its adherents were called
Patarini, from Pataria, a street in Milan frequented
by rag-gatherers, where they held their secret
meetings in 1058. The Cathari reached their
greatest numbers in Southern France, where they
were commonly called Albigenses (q.v.) or Pobl-
cants, the latter term being a corruption of Pauli-
=, Noor hao they were Sa apa ai
_ the great Albigensian wars, they were gradually
‘rooted out by the Inquisition, and after the first
half of the 14th century they ore from
history. The Cathari based their teaching on the
New Testament and an apocryphal ‘Vision of
Isaiah’ and ‘Gospel of John.’ The only extant
Catharist writing is a short ritual in the Romance
language of the 13th-century troubadours (printed
at Jena in 1852 by Professor Cunitz from the MS.
_ at Lyons), All the Cathari held more or less
Manichean views, and practised a rigid asceticism.
Deliverance from evil was a, to be attained by
renunciation of the (material) world, includin
ase Property, ane — of — _ ;
tin tween the great mass of their
Chetentes on allavers >and the Perfecti, who had
received the OS yea of the Spirit by the laying on
of hands, called Consolamentum, because in it the
Comforter was imparted. These ‘pure’ ones, esti-
mated at only in all Europe about the year
1240, formed the Catharist Church—the ‘ only true
and pure church on earth,’ Their worship was

extremely simple, and their church government was
es bishops (each with two assistants, the Filius
ajor and the Filius Minor) and deacons.

See C. Schmidt, La Secte des Cathares (1849); Lombard,
Pauliciens et Bons-hommes (1879) ; Lea, His of the In-
quisition (1888); and Déllinger, Sektengeschichte (1889).

Catharine, the name of several Christian
saints: (1) St Catharine proper, a virgin of
royal descent in Alexandria, who per con-
fessed the gospel at a sacrificia
feast appoin by the Emperor
Maximinus, and was therefore put
to death, after they had vainly
attempted to torture her on toothed
wheels, 307 A.D. Hence the name
of ‘Catharine wheel.’ No less than
fifty heathen philosophers sent by the em-
peror to convert her in prison were themselves
converted by her winning eloquence ; whence she is
the patroness of philosophers and learned schools,
Having steadily rejected all offers of earthly mar-
riage, she was taken in vision to heaven, when
the Virgin presented her to her son, and Christ
pligh his troth to her with a ring. This subject

1as been a favourite one with many artists (as
signifying the union of the redeemed soul with
Christ) ; the Christ being usually represented as an
infant. It has been suggested that the attributes
of the unhistorical St Catharine seem to have been
derived from those of the actual Hypatia (q.v.),
a heathen who suffered death at the hands of
Christian fanatics. St Catharine’s festival falls on
25th November.—(2) St Catharine of Sienna, one of
the most famous saints of Italy, was the daughter
of a dyer in Sienna, and was born there in 1347.
While yet a child she practised extraordinary
mortifications, and devoted herself to perpetual
virginity. She became a Dominican, and therefore
afterwards a patron saint of the Dominicans. Her
enthusiasm converted the most hardened sinners,
and she was able to prevail upon Pope Gregory XL
for the sake of the church to return from Avignon
to Rome. She was favoured, it was said, with
extraordinary tokens of favour by Christ, whose
Stigmata (see STIGMATISATION) were imprinted
upon her body. She wrote devotional pieces, let-
ters, and poems, an edition of which is Toumnenan’s
(Florence, 1860). Her festival falls on 30th April.
See Drane’s History of St Catharine of Sienna (3d
ed. 2 vols. 1899).—St¢ Catharine of Bologna (1413-
63 ; festival 9th March) and St Catharine of Sweden
(died 1381, festival 22d March) are of less note.

Catharine de’ Medici, the wife of one king of
France, and the mother of three, was the daughter
of Lorenzo de’ Medici, Duke of Urbino, and was
born at Florence in 1519. In her fourteenth year
she was brought to France, and married to Henry,
the second son of Francis I. The marriage was a

art of the political schemes of her uncle, Pope
pis VIL, but as he died soon after, she found
herself friendless and neglected at the French court.
In these circumstances she conducted herself with
a submission which seemed even to indicate a want
of proper spirit, but which gained her the favour
of the old king, and in some measure also of her
husband. The accession of the latter to the throne
of France, however, made very little difference in
her situation. It was not till the accession of her
eldest son, Francis II., in 1559, that she found
some scope for her ambition. The Guises at this
time essed a power which seemed dangerous to
that of the throne, and Catharine entered into
a secret alliance with the Huguenots to oppose
them. On the death of Francis II. in 1560, and
accession of her second son, Charles LX., the govern-
ment fell entirely into her hands. Caring little for
religion in itself, although she was very prone to

10

CATHARINE

superstition, she disliked the Protestants, chiefly
because their principles were opposed to the abso-
lute despotism which she flonited to maintain. Yet
she sought to rally the Protestant leaders around
the throne in order to serve as a counterpoise to
the Guises. This attempt having failed, and the
civil war which ensued having ended in the peace
of Amboise, highly favourable to the Protestants,
she became alarmed at the increase of their power,
and entered into a secret treaty with Spain for the
extirpation of heretics; and subsequently into a
plot with the Guises, which resulted in the fearful
massacre of St Bartholomew’s Day. This event
brought the whole power of the state into the
hands of the queen-mother, who boasted of the
deed to Roman Catholic governments, and excused
it to Protestant ones, for she now managed all the
correspondence of the court. About this time she
succeeded, by gold and intrigues, in getting her
third son, afterwards Henry III., elected to the
Polish throne. But her arbitrary and tyrannical
administration roused the opposition of a Roman
Catholic party, at the head of which was her own
fourth son, the Duke of Alengon. It was very
generally believed that she was privy to the machina-
tions that led to his death. hen, after the death
of Charles [X., Henry III. returned from Poland to
be king of France, his mother still ruled the court,
and had the principal share in all the intrigues,
treacheries, and political transactions of that
wretched time. aving betrayed all who trusted
them, she and her son found themselves at last for-
saken and abhorred by all. The League and the
Guises had no more confidence in them than had
the Protestants and Henry of Navarre. Vexation
on this account preyed on the proud heart of the
queen-mother in her last days; and amidst the
confusion and strife of parties, she died at Blois
on 5th January 1589, unheeded and unlamented.
Catharine de’ Medici may fairly be regarded as a
representative woman of an age when the first prin-
ciples of human conduct were hopelessly con-
founded by religious strife and the intrigues and
corruptions of courts. Virtue had given place
to luxury, extravagance, cunning sensuality, and
cruelty. She was only a prominent example of

ualities which the prevailing conditions of the
time tended to develop. See Reumont’s Jugend
Caterinas de’ Medici ( Berlin, 1854), T. A. Trollope’s
Girlhood of Catharine de’ Medici (1856), Capefigue’s
Catherine de Médicis (Paris, 1856), and La Fer-
ritre’s Lettres de Catherine de Médicis (4 vols. Paris,
1880-92 ).

Catharine I., wife of Peter the Great, and
Empress of Russia. She was a peasant’s daughter,
and her original name was Martha Skavrouska.
The date of her birth is about 1680. Being
left an orphan, she was brought up chiefly by a
Lutheran pastor, Gliick, in Marienburg, Livonia.
In 1702 she married a Swedish dragoon, but Marien-
burg being taken by the Russians in the same year,
she was made prisoner, and became the mistress of
Prince Menschikoff. She then attracted the notice
of Peter the Great. In 1703 she went over to the
Greek Church, and took the name of Catharina
Alexievna. After being for some years the em-

eror’s mistress, she was privately married to him
in 1707 ; and the marriage was publicly avowed in
1711. When Peter the Great and his army seemed
entirely in the power of the Turkish army on the
Pruth in 1711, Catharine, according to the common
account, managed by skilful bribery to procure the
deliverance of the Russians. Catharine was now
received into greater favour than ever, and was
solemnly crowned in 1712. The story, however,
does not rest on sufficient evidence. At anyrate
Catharine continued to enjoy her high position till
the death of Peter in 1725. The new party con-

cerned in promoting the reforms of Peter the Great
supported Catharine’s claim to be his successor, and
she was acknowledged Empress and sole Ruler of
All the Russias. nder Menschikoff’s direction,
the affairs of government went on well enough for
a time; but the empress ere long began to yield to
the influence of a number of favourites, addicted
herself to drunkenness, and lived such a life as
could not fail to hurry her to the grave. She died
17th May 1727. See PETER THE GREAT.

Catharine II., Empress of Russia, was born
at Stettin in 1729. Her father, the Prince of Anhalt-
Zerbst, was a Prussian field-marshal, and governor
of Stettin. She received the name of Sophia
Augusta; but the Empress Elizabeth of Russia
having selected her for the wife of‘her nephew and
intended successor, Peter, she passed from the
Lutheran to the Greek Church, and took (like. ~
the Empress Catharine I.) the name of Catharina
Alexievna. In 1745 her marriage took place. —
She soon quarrelled with her husband, and
both of them lived a life of unrestrained vice.
Among his attendants was a Count Soltikoff, with
whom her intimacy soon became scandalous ; and
Soltikoff was sent on an embassy abroad. But the

oung Polish count, Stanislaus Poniatowski, almost
immediately supplied his place. After the death of
the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, Peter III. ascended
the Russian throne; but the conjugal differences
became continually wider. Catharine was banished
to a separate abode; and the emperor seemed to
entertain the design of divorcing her, declaring her
only son, Paul, illegitimate, and marrying his
mistress, Elizabeth Woronzoff. The popular dis-
like to Peter, however, rapidly increased ; and at
length, he being dethroned by a conspiracy,
Catharine was made empress. A few days after-
wards Peter was murdered (July 1762). What
rabepncegn his wife had in his murder has never

een well ascertained.

Catharine now exerted herself to please the
people, and among other things, made a great
show of regard for the outward forms of the Greek
Church, although her principles were, in reality,
those prevalent among the French philosophers of
the 18th century. The government of the country
was carried on with great energy; and her rei
was remarkable for the rapid increase of the
dominions and power of Russia. Not long after
her accession to the throne her influence secured
the election of her former favourite, Stanislaus
Poniatowski, to the throne of Poland. In her own
empire, however, discontentment was seriously
manifested, the hopes of the disaffected being
centred in the young prince Ivan, who was forth-
with murdered in the castle of Schliisselburg.
From that time the internal politics of Russia con-

‘sisted chiefly of court intrigues for the humiliation

of one favourite and the exaltation of another.
The revolt of the Cossack Pugatcheff in 1773,
though for a time it looked serious, only served to
fortity her throne. The first partition of Poland in
1772, and the Turkish war which terminated in the
peace of Kainardji in 1774, vastly increased the
empire. In 1787 she made a progress in her southern
provinass through flourishing towns, villages, and
estive scenes ; but the whole was a sham, having
been got up for the occasion by Potemkin to impress
Catharine with the prosperity of her empire. The
Turkish war which terminated in the peace of Jass

in 1792 had similar results, and also the war wit

Sweden, which terminated in 1790. The second
and third partitions of Poland, and the incorpora-
tion of Courland with Russia, completed the
triumphs of Catharine’s reign. She also began a
war with Persia, and cherished a scheme for the
overthrow of the British power in India; but a
stroke of apoplexy cut her off, 17th November 1796.

i al a

_ - =e
| ii

Ee or

a ee er ee ae ee ene
‘ ‘ ' by

CATHARINE ARCHIPELAGO

She was a woman of great ability, but she had in a
measure the vices of the time and station in
w she lived. Her gallantries were both liberal
and systematic. She always had a paramour who
dwelt in her palace, and might be regarded as filling
an acknowl office of state, with large revenues
and fixed privileges. Of these Potemkin (a.v.) is
best remembered. Yet distinguished authors flat-
tered her ; and she invited to her court some of the
literati and philosophers of France. She professed
the desire to model her rule on the enlightened
theories of these men, and she did effect some real
improvements; but the French revolution made
her reactionary. See Russia; Catharine’s own
Memoirs (Eng. trans. 1859); Carlyle’s Friedrich ;
and works by Waliszewski (trans. 1893 and 1894).

Catharine Archipelago. ‘See ALEUTIAN
IsLANDs.

Catharine Howard. See Howarp.

Catharine of Aragon; Queen of England,
the first wife of Henry VIII., and fourth daughter
of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of
Castile and Aragon, was born December 1485.
She occupies a prominent place in English history,
not for what she herself was, but for what she was
the occasion of—the Reformation. Married on 14th
November 1501, when scarcely sixteen, to Arthur
(1486-1502), Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII.,
she was left a widow on 2d April, and on 25th
June was betrothed to her brother-in-law Henry, as
et a boy of only eleven years old. The pope’s
ispensation enabling such near relatives to marry
was obtained in 1504, and the marriage took place
in June 1509, seven weeks after Henry’s accession
to the crown as Henry VIII. Between 1510 and
1518 she bore him five children, one only of whom,
the Princess Mary, survived; but, though Henry
was very far from being a model husband, and
though he had conceived a passion for Anne Boleyn
(q.v.) as early as 1522, he appears to have treated
ueen Catharine with all due respect, until 1527.
e now expressed doubts as to the legality of his
marriage, and set about obtaining a divorce, which,
all other means failing, was at an th pronounced
by Cranmer in May 1533 (see HeENRy VIII.).
Queen Catharine, who had offered a dignified pass-
ive resistance to all the proceedings, did not quit
the kingdom, but took up her residence first at
Ampthill, in Bedfordshire, and afterwards at Kim-
bolton Castle, Huntingdonshire, where she led an
austere religious life until, on 7th January 1536,
she died, by poison said rumour, but most likely of
cancer of the heart. Queen Catharine’s personal
character was unimpeachable, and her disposition
gentle. See Froude’s monograph (1891).
Catharine of Braganza. See CHArzes II.
Catharine Parr. See PARR (CATHARINE).

Catharties (Gr. kathairé, ‘1 purify’), a name
originally for all medicines supposed to purify the
system from the matter of disease (materies morbi),
which was generally presumed by the ancients to
exist in all cases of fever and acute disease, and to
require to be separated or thrown off by the differ-
ent excretions of the body. Ultimately the term
eathartics became limi in its signification to
remedies acting on the bowels, which are popularly
called Aa! iy to .v.)—a mere translation of the
Greek word. See also CONSTIPATION.

Cathay is the name by which the Chinese em-
pire was commonly known in Europe duri
medieval times—in connection with Marco Polo’s
travels, for example ; and Kitai is still the Russian
name for China. Cathay, originally Khitai, is
derived from the Khitan, the earliest of the northern
races known to have conquered China (possibly
akin to the Tunguses), who disappe about

CATHEDRAL ll
the ge of the 12th “n= See CHINA;
and Yule, Cathay and the Road Thither (Hakluyt
Society, 1866).

Cathcart, WILLIAM ScHAW, first Earl Cath-
cart, a British general and diplomatist, son of the
ninth Baron Cathcart of Cathcart, Renfrewshire,
was born September 17, 1755. Educated at Eton
and Glasgow, and admitted an advocate in 1776,
when he succeeded his father, he next year entered
the army, took a prominent part in the American
war, and fought with distinction in Flanders and
North Germany. In 1803 he was made commander-
in-chief in Ireland. In 1805 he was engaged on a
diplomatic mission to Russia; in 1807 commanded
the land-forces co-operating with the fleet in the
attack on Copenhagen, and, for his services, was
made a British peer, with the title of viscount, and
received a vote of thanks from both Houses of
Parliament. Sent in 1813 as ambassador to St
Petersburg, he accompanied the Czar Alexander in
the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, and was present at
the congresses of Chatillon and Vienna. In 1814
he was raised to the rank of earl ; and he died June
16, 1843.—His eldest son and successor, CHARLES
MuRRAY, long known as Lord Greenock, was born
in 1783, served in Spain and at Waterloo, after-
wards acted in Canada, and was made a general.
He died 16th July 1859.—A younger son, SIR
GEORGE CATHCART, was born in 1794. Educated
at Eton and Edinburgh, he entered the army in
1810, served with the fnuaiace in the campaigns of
1812 and 1813, and as aide-de-camp to the Duke of
Wellington, was present at Quatre Bras and Water-
loo. After helping to suppress the Canadian re-
bellion of 1835, and after holding the post of deputy-
lieutenant of the Tower for five years, in 1852 he
was made governor at the Cape, with command of
the forces, and brought to a successful end the
harassing Kaffir war. He returned to England in
1854 in time to be sent out to the Crimea as general
of division. His bravery here was conspicuous,
especially in the battle of Inkermann (November
5), where the odds were so terribly against the
British, and where he fell, shot through the heart.
He was buried on the spot where he fell, which in
his honour was named Cathcart’s Hill. Catheart
was the author of a very valuable work entitled
Commentaries on the War in Russia and German
in 1812-13 (Lond. 1850).
Invasion of the Crimea.

Cathe’dral, from a Greek word cathedra,
signifying a seat. Thus, ‘to speak ex cathedrd,’
is to speak as from a seat of authority. The
cathedral city is the seat of the bishop of the
diocese, and his throne is placed in the cathedral
church, which is the parish church of the whole
diocese. The diocese was, in fact, anciently called
parochia, until the application of this name to
the smaller portions into which it was divided.
Cathedrals vary in rank with the dignity of the see
to which hay talone: and may be episcopal, archi-
episcopal, metropolitan, or patriarchal. Anciently
only a cathedral was styled matria ecclesia, but now
this title is applied to all churches, even parochial
only, which have other churches or chapels depend-
ent on them. When two cathedrals are found in
the same town (as is sometimes the case), they are
called ‘con-cathedrals.’ In the Roman Church the
establishment, suppression, or union of cathedrals
is reserved to the pope alone. A cathedral town
has generally been understood to be entitled to
the honours of a city, even although the town be
not a borough incorporate ; but in the case of Man-
chester the claim was disallowed by a court of law.
The distinction between cathedral and collegiate
churches consists principally in the see of the
bishop being at the former. The governing body

See vol. v. of Kinglake’s

12 CATHELINEAU

CATHOLIC

of a cathedral is called the dean and chapter—i.e.
the dean and canons who meet for corporate pur-
poses in the chapter-house of the cathedral. The
Property of the cathedral vests in this body. In
ngland they elect the bishop of the diocese on the
issue of a congé d’élire from the crown, but as the
person to be elected is always named, and they
may be compelled by a mandamus to elect that
person and no other, the election is merely a form.

The bishop is ‘ visitor’ of the dean and chapter,
and the metropolitan is visitor of all cathedrals
within his province; while the crown holds that
office during the vacancy of the archbishopric. In
England, all cathedrals are distinguished as being
either of the old or the new foundation. The
cathedrals of the old foundation are those which
have from the first been served by secular canons ;
those of the new foundation were originally
monastic churches, and served by monks. These
were dissolved at the Reformation, being then
refounded on the footing of the secular churches.
By the Act of 1840, all members of cathedrals,
ors the dean, are styled canons. Their seat
in the cathedral is called their stal/. They are
no longer called prebendaries in most cathedrals,
but this title is retained in the cathedrals of York,
London, Wells, Chichester, Exeter, Hereford,
Lichfield, St Davids, and St Asaph. In two
cathedrals, Lincoln and Salisbury, both titles are
used simultaneously, and the holders are styled
‘canons and prebendaries.’ In_all these cases,
however, the prebendaries rank below the canons
residentiary, and save for their slender prebends,
are on almost the same footing as the ‘honorary
canons’ of recent institution, who have no share in
the cathedral revenues or government. At St
Davids the first ‘cursal prebend’ vests in the
crown, and the’ sovereign is senior prebendary of
that cathedral. The French kings enjoyed similar
privileges in six chapters, and the German emperor
was ex officio canon of St Peter’s at Rome. Canons
must reside three months in each year. The Act of
1840 allows to the canons of Durham, Manchester,
St Paul’s, and Westminster, an income of £1000
a annum; to those of every other cathedral in

ngland, £500. The bishop was always considered
of common right to have the patronage of canonries,
but formerly there were exceptions. Now, the
Sepia to all canonries is vested either in
the bishop or in the crown. Where the bishop is
patron, he ‘collates,’ and the dean and chapter
‘induct,’ by placing the new canon in a stall in the
church. The crown appoints by letters-patent, and
the canon is installed without collation. Honorary
canons have no emoluments, but rank after the
canons residentiary. Minor canons, of whom there
are from two to six in each cathedral, perform the
daily choral services; see SERVICE (MUSICAL).
For the general plan of cathedral buildings, see
CuurcH. The English and Welsh cathedrals,
some forty in number, are noticed under their re-
spective cities.

See Dean Goulburn’s Cathedral System (1871); F. H.
Allen, The Great Cathedrals of the World (Boston, 1888) ;
W. J. Loftie, The Cathedrals of England and Wales
(1892); Mrs Rensselaer, English Cathedrals (1892).

Cathelineau, JACQUES, leader of the Vendeans
in their resistance to the Republic, was born at Pin-
en-Mauge, Anjou, in 1759. A poor linen-merchant
at the outbreak of the Revolution, in the spring
of 1793 he put himself at the head of a handful of
stubborn recruits, and soon became famous for the
courage and success of his exploits, the greatest of
which was the storming of Cholet. Spite of his
own modesty, the supreme command was forced
upon him after the victory of Saumur. He immedi-
ately determined to make an attack upon Nantes,
and managed to penetrate into the town, but was

mortally wounded by a musket-ball, and his troo
immediately dispersed. He was carried to St
Florent, where he died twelve days later, July 11,
1793. Cathelineau was a man of great simplicit;
and honesty of character, and his piety was suc
that he was called the Saint of Anjou.

Catherine. See CATHARINE.

Ca'theter (Gr. kathiémi, ‘I thrust into’) was a
name applied indifferently to all instruments for
peeing along mucous canals. In modern times,

owever, it has generally been reserved for tubular
rods through which fluids or air may pass, and
is now restricted to those used for emptying the
urinary bladder, and those used for injecting air
or fluids into the Eustachian tube (Eustachian
Catheter). The catheter for the former purpose
is a very old surgical instrument. The ancients
made theirs of copper, which accumulated ver-
digris. In the 9th century silver was substituted
by the Arabian surgeons as a cleanlier metal, and
is still used by all who are not obliged, for econom-
ical reasons, to have their catheters made of
German silver or pewter. The urinary catheter
for the male varies in length from 10 to 11 inches;
the female catheter need not be more than 4 or 5
inches. The form is a matter of less importance,
but most surgeons prefer an instrument straight to
within the last few inches of its length; the latter
should be curved into the segment of a small circle.
Others, however, use a double curve, and indeed
nearly exery Gar ip has a peculiar fancy in this
respect. lexible catheters are made of gum
elastic (see BOUGIES), which may be used either
alone or supported on a wire. Many other materials
have been proposed, but vuleanised india-rubber is
the only one generally in use. The Eustachian
catheter is generally made of metal or vuleanite, 6
or 7 inches in length, with the last inch or less
slightly curved. It is introduced into the Eus-
tachian tube along the floor of the nose, and air
or fluid, as may be necessary, forced along it by
an india-rubber bag which can be attached to it.
See DISEASES OF THE EAR, Vol. IV. p. 158.

Ca'thode. See ANODE.
Catholic and Apostolic Church is the

only name recognised by those often termed ‘Irving-
ites’—a name which they repudiate as implying
that they are sectarians and followers of a man.
In the winter of 1829-30 the Rev. Edward Irving
(q.v.), then a minister of the Seotch Church,
Regent Square, London, delivered a series of
lectures on spiritual gifts, in which he maintained
that those which we are in the habit of calling
‘extraordinary’ or ‘miraculous’ were not meant
to be confined to the primitive church, but to be
continued through the whole period of the present
dispensation. About the same time, as if to con-
firm the views of the great preacher, there occurred
at Port-Glasgow, in the west of Scotland, and else-
where, certain strange phenomena. It was alleged
that miraculous acts o pea oe had happened, and
that the gift of tongues had returned. After
what seemed to be a sufficient investigation on the
part of some of the members of Mr Irving’s church,
it was concluded that the manifestations were
genuine. Similar manifestations shortly after
occurred in his own church, which were also pro-
nounced to be genuine. They were held to be of
two kinds: Ist, speaking in tongues, and 2d, pro-
phesying. As the former bore no resemblance to
any language with which men were conversant, it
was believed to be strictly an ‘unknown tongue,”
the Holy Ghost ‘using the tongue of man as a si

in a manner which neither his own intellect could
dictate, nor that of any other man comprehend.’
The latter, ‘prophesying,’ consisted chiefly of ‘ex-
hortations to jeatinnests, light upon Scripture, open-

CATHOLIC

13

a 7. of prophecy, and explanations of symbols.’ In
____- 1831 Irving was is from his office for heresy
by the Church of Scotland, but meanwhile the
- truths of which he was so eminent an exponent
had been assuming a more definite shape. He died
in 1834. It was not till July 1835 that the Catholic
and Apostolic Church took definite ecclesiastical
Witb this organisation Irving had no con-
__ ¢ern, nor had he anticipated it.
____The organisation comprises a fourfold minist
(Ezek. i. and Eph. iv.)—Ist, ‘Apostle;’ 2d,
*Prophet ;’ 3d, ‘Evangelist ;’ and 4th, ‘ Pastor.’
The apostles are invested with spiritual 0 .
tives ; they alone can minister the Hol ost oe
the laying on of hands, directly or by delegation ;
through them the mysteries of God are unfolded to
the church; and they decide on matters of order and
_ discipline. Nothing that occurs in any church in
the way of ‘prophetic utterance’ can be authorita-
tively explained save by them; and the various
‘angels of the churches’ are bound to ng all
such utterances under their cognisance. The func-
tion of the ‘prophet’ has been already indicated.
The work of an ‘evangelist’ consists in declaring
the truths of the gospel, and bringing home to
the church generally the principles taught by
apostles. The office of the ‘pastor’ is that of
ministering to the help and comfort of the vari-
ous members of the flock. The ‘angel’ of the
Catholic Apostolic pomerogecion corresponds in a
imited sense to the bishop of other Christian
denominations ; but he has only the rank of angel-
pastor in the universal church. The ministers of
each full congregation comprise an angel, with a
four-fold ministry Sonrypmae 0 of elders, ponsehe,
evangelists, and pastors), and a ministry of deacons
to give diaconal instruction and to take charge of
temporal matters. The ministry is suppo Vv
tithes, the people giving a tenth of their income
_ for the support of the priesthood. The ordinary
affairs of the church are managed by the angel in
a council of deacons, or if needful, of priests and
deacons. The whole organisation is based on the
_ types of the Mosaic tabernacle, in which the con-
stitution of the Christian church is held to have
been shadowed forth.

The congregation of this communion do not arro-
gate to themselves the title of the Catholic Apos-
tolic Church. There is but one church built on
the foundation of the apostles and pearess the
members of it throughout the world are not bap-
tised into any section—Greek, Roman, Protestant,
established, or non-established—but into the Eter-
nal Trinity. A community of them holding the
views above indicated regard themselves as a

congregation of the Catholic and Apostolic Church
__ assembling at a given place.

- _ The Catholic and Apostolic Church does not differ
from other Christian bodies in regard to the com-
mon doctrines of the Christian religion; it only
accepts, in what it considers to be a fuller and more
real sense, the phenomena of Christian life. It
believes that the wonder, mystery, and miracle
_-—sof:~the apostolic times were not accidental, but
are essential to the divinely instituted church
of God, and expressive of its supernatural life
whereby a ple are preparing for the second
advent of Christ, the hope of which is held in
instant expectation. It is held that the end of
this ta ga has two phases—the gathering of

a first-fruits, and the subsequent great harvest,

of which it is the earnest. The doctrine of Symbol-

ism is firmly maintained, of which the most marked

feature regards the mystical presence of the Lord

under the elements of bread and wine, duly con-
secrated by the words of the institution and the
resence of the Holy Ghost. Both transubstantia-

m and consubstantiation are repudiated. There

are services daily at 6 o’clock A.M. and 5 P.M. ;

rayers at 9 A.M. and 3 P.M.; the litany every

ednesday and Friday; and the eucharist is cele-
brated every Lord’s Day, or, where there are clergy
enough, daily. The liturgy, dating from 1842, is
mainly based on those of the Greek, Roman and
— liturgies, with additional prayers. Lights
and incense are used; and the vestments (sur-
plice, alb, cope, chasuble, and stole) are similar
to those of the Roman communion. The Catholic
and Apostolic Church has established itself not
only in the United Kingdom and its colonies, but
on the Continent and in the United States.

See the Liturgy of the Divine Offices, and The
Purpose of God in Creation and Redemption (6th
ed. 1888). Miller's History and Doctrines of
Irvingism (1878) is not authoritative, but contains -
much matter of interest.

Catholic Church. The term catholic liter-
ally signifies ‘universal.’ The phrase Catholic
Church is therefore equivalent to ‘universal church,’
and cannot properly be applied to any particular
sect or body, such as the Roman, Greek, Anglican,
Reformed, Lutheran, or Presbyterian, all of which
form merely portions more or less pure of the
‘church universal.’ It occurs for the first time in the

seudo-Ignatian Epistle to the Smyrnzans. It was

rst employed from about 160 A.D. to mark the
difference between the orthodox ‘universal’ Chris-
tian church and the various sects of the Gnostie
heretics; though, afterwards, it served also to
poodey. vere the all-embracing Christian church
from the ao a exclusiveness of the pre-Christian
ages, in which the church was restricted to a single
nation. The formal principle of the Catholic
Church is thus expressed in the famous canon of
Vincentius of Lerinum (434 A.D.), ‘Quod ubique,
quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est ’—
i.e. the marks of the Catholic Church are uni-
versality, “ctr aig £ and unity. The name has been
retained by the Church of Rome, which claims
to be the visible successor of the primitive one;
and although Protestant divines have been careful
to deny its applicability to a church which they
consider essentially changed by the corrupt accre-
tions of centuries, yet the term Catholic is still used
by the populace of almost every Protestant country
as synonymous with Roman Catholic, so that from
their minds all conception of the literal meaning
of the word has vanished. For an account of the
Church of Rome, see article ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH.

Catholic Creditor, in the law of Scotland,
is one whose debt is secured over several or the
whole subjects belonging to the debtor—e.g. over
two or more heritable estates. Questions of diffi-
culty arise where one of these subjects is also
burdened with other securities, but the other is
burdened only with the catholic security. In such
circumstances the catholic creditor is bound so to
exercise his right as not unnecessarily to injure the
securities of the other creditors. Thus, if he draw
his whole debt from that subject on which there
are other burdens postponed to his security, he must
assign to the hesshenen creditors his security over

the unburdened subject.

Catholic Emancipation. After the Re-
formation, both in England and in Scotland
Roman Catholics were subjected to many penal
regulations and restrictions. As late as 1780 the
law of England—which was actually enforced
in 1764-65—made it felony in a foreign Catholic
priest, and high treason in one who was a native
of the kingdom, to teach the doctrines or perform
divine service according to the rites of his church.
Catholics were debarred from acquiring land by
purchase. Persons educated ab in the Catholic

14 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION

CATHOLIC EPISTLES

faith were declared incapable of succeeding to real
property, and their estates were forfeited to the
next Protestant heir. A son or other nearest rela-
tion being a Protestant, was empowered to take
possession of the estate of his Catholic father or
other kinsman during his life. A Catholic was
disqualified from undertaking the guardianshi
even of Catholic children, Catholics were exclude
from the legal profession, and it was presumed
that a Protestant lawyer who married a Catholic
had adopted the faith of his wife. It was a capital
offence for a Catholic priest to celebrate a marriage
between a Protestant and Catholic. Such was the
state of the law, not only in England but in Ireland,
where the large majority of the population adhered
to the old faith. In Scotland, man. Catholics were
eerie from purchasing or taking by succession
anded property. The inexpediency and irrational-
ity of imposing fetters of this description on persons
not suspected of disloyalty, and from whom danger
was no longer apprehended, began about 1778 to
occupy the attention of liberal-minded statesmen ;
and in 1780 Sir George Savile introduced a bill for
the repeal of some of the most severe disqualifica-
tions in the case of such Catholics as would submit
to a proposed test. This test included an oath of
allegiance to the sovereign, and abjuration of the
Pretender, a declaration of disbeliet in the several
doctrines, that it is lawful to put individuals to
death on pretence of their being heretics; that no
faith is to be kept with heretics.; that princes ex-
communicated may be deposed or put to death;
and that the pope is entitled to any temporal juris-
diction within the realm. The bill, from the opera-
tion of which Scotland was exempted, eventually
passed into law. An attempt which had been
made at the same time to obtain a like measure of
relief for the Catholics of Scotland, was defeated by
an outburst of religious fanaticism. The populace
of Edinburgh, stirred up by a body called ‘The
Committee for the Protestant Interest,’ attacked
and set fire to the Catholic chapel and the
houses of the clergy and of such persons as were
suspected to be favourable to Catholic relief. The
frenzy spread to England, where a ‘Protestant
Association’ had been formed to oppose the resolu-
tions of the legislature. See RDON (LORD
GEORGE). In 1791 a bill was passed affording
further relief to such Catholics as would sign a
protest against the temporal power of the pope,
and his authority to release from civil obligations ;
and in the following year, by the statute 33 Geo,
III. chap. 44, the most highly penal of the restric-
tions bearing on the Scottish Catholics were re-
moved without opposition, a form of oath and
declaration being prescribed, on taking which they
could freely purchase or inherit landed property.
Endeavours were made at the same time by the
Irish parliament to get rid of the more important
disqualifications, neat place Ireland on an equality
in point of religious freedom with England. In
1780 Grattan carried his resolution that the king
and parliament of Ireland could alone make laws
that would bind the Irish, and separation from
England was urged as the alternative with repeal
of the disqualifying statutes. The agitation cul-
minated in the trish rebellion of 1798 ; the union of
1800 followed, which was partly carried by means
of virtual’ pledges given by Pitt—pledges which
Pitt was unable to redeem owing to the king’s
scruples about his coronation oath, and Pitt re-
signed. Meantime, in England, Catholics con-
tinued subject to many minor disabilities which
the above-mentioned acts failed to remove. They
were excluded from sitting in parliament, and
from enjoying numerous offices, franchises, and
civil rights, by the requirement of signing the
declaration against transubstantiation, the invoca-

tion of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass. In
the early part of this century many measures.
were proposed for the removal of these disqualifi-
cations, and in 1813 and succeeding years one
bill after another for this end was thrown out.
Fox, Grenville, Canning, Castlereagh, and Burdett.

were among those who made efforts in the direc- —
tion of emancipation. Meanwhile, the agitation
on the subject among the Catholics themselves.
greatly increased, and in 1824 it assumed an organ-
ised shape by the formation of the ‘ Roman Catho-
lie Association’ in Ireland, with .its systematic
collections for the ‘Catholic rent.’ The Duke of
Wellington, who for a long time felt great repug-
nance to admit the Catholic claims, was at last
brought to the conviction that the security of the
empire would be imperilled by further resisting
them, and in 1829 a measure was introduced by the
duke’s ministry for Catholic emancipation. An
act having been first passed for the suppression —
of the Roman Catholic ‘Association wie had

already voted its own dissolution—the celebrated

Roman Catholic Relief Bill was introduced by
Peel in the House of Commons on the 5th of
March, and after passing both Houses, received the
royal assent on the 13th April. By this act (10
Geo. IV. chap. 7) an oath is substituted for the
oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration,
on taking which Catholics may sit and vote in
either House of Parliament, and be admitted to
most other offices from which they were before
excluded. They, however, continue to be excluded
from the offices of Guardian and Justice or Regent
of the United Kingdom, Lord Chancellor, Lord
Keeper, or Lord Commissioner of the Great Seal of
Great Britain or Ireland, and Lord High Commis-
sioner to the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland. As members of corporations they could
not vote in the disposal of church property or
patronage. But the public use of their insignia of
office, and of paidonnél titles and names, was denied
them ; the extension of monachism was prohibited ;
and it was enacted that the number of Jesuits.
should not be increased, and that they should
henceforth be subject to registration. By the
Acts 7 and 8, and 9 and 10 Vict., most of the acts
still in force against Catholics were removed ; 30
and 31 Vict. removed a still remaining disability,
the office of Chancellor of Ireland being thrown
open ; though a Catholic priest may not sit in the
Hons of Commons. For the prohibition (ulti-
mately repealed ) against the assumption of ecclesias-
tical titles in respect of places in the United King-
dom, see ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ASSUMPTION
Act. See also O’CONNELL, ABJURATION, ALLEGI-
ANCE; and the History of Catholic Emancipation,
by W. J. Amherst, 8.J. (2 vols. 1886).

. Catholic Epistles, the name given, according
to Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen, to certain
epistles addressed not to particular churches or
individuals, but either to the church universal or
to a large and indefinite circle of readers. Origin-
ally the Catholic Epistles comprised only the first
epistle of John and the first of Peter, but at least
as early as the 3d century, and especially after the
time of Eusebius, they included also the Epistles.
of James, of Jude, the 2d of Peter, and the 2d and
3d of John. These seven thus constituted the
Catholic Epistles, although the genuineness and
authenticity of the last-mentioned five were not.
universally acknowledged; but the designation
commended itself as supplying a convenient dis-
tinction of these letters from the fourteen bearing
the name of Paul; and this very incorporation with
epistles whose canonicity was not questioned, natu-
rally had the effect of confirming their authority,
so that in a short time the entire seven came to
considered a portion of the canon.

1

- <

j ancient patrician but impoverished family.

infamies he was elected preetor in the year
and next year governor of Africa, but was dis-
ay ified as a candidate for the consulship in 66 by

7.

me
» ae >
4,

arrested.

CATHOLICS

CATMINT 15

.< _ Catholikos is the title of the head of the
Armeni

ian Church. See ARMENIA.

; Catili‘na, Lucius Seratius, the Roman con-
tor, was born about the year 108 B.c. of toe

is
th was stained with profligacy and crime.
attached himself to the party of Sulla, and

revelled in the bloodshed and confusion that dis-

its triumph. His body was capable of

t. enduring any labour or fatigue, and his mind was

1, resolute, and remorseless. Despite his
B.C.,

of maladministration in his province. Dis-
ted thus in his ambition, and burdened with
he saw no hope for himself but in the
chances of a political revolution, and therefore
entered into a conspiracy, including many other

young. Roman nobles, in morals and circumstances
ke

himself. The plot, however, was revealed to
Cicero by Fulvia, mistress of one of the con-

- spirators. Operations were to commence with the

assassination of Cicero in the Campus Martius, but
the latter was kept aware of every step of the
Seepiracy, and contrived to frustrate the whole
desi n the mene of November 6 (63 B.C.),
Catiline assembled his confederates, and explained
to them a new plan for assassinating Cicero ; for
eeenging up the Tuscan army (which he had
sedu from its allegiance), under Manlius, from
the encampment at Frsule; for setting fire to
Rome, and putting to death the hostile senators
and citizens. In the course of a few hours, every-
hing was made known to Cicero. Accordingly,
when the chosen assassins came to the house of the
consul, on pretence of a visit, they were immedi-
ately repulsed. Two days later, Catiline with his
usual reckless audacity, appeared in the senate,
when Cicero—who had recelved intelligence that
the insurrection had already broken out in Etruria

% _ >-commenced the celebrated invective beginning :

ue tandem abutére, Catilina, patientia
nostra? (‘ How long now, Catiline, will you abuse

our patience?’) The conspirator was confounded,

not by the keenness of Cicero’s attack, but by the
minute knowledge he displayed of the plot. His
attempt at a reply was miserable, and was drowned
in cries of execration. With curses on his lips, he
rushed out of the senate, and escaped from Rome
during the night. Catiline and Manlius were now
denounced as traitors, and an army under the
consul Antonius was sent against them. The
conspirators who remained in Rome, of whom the
chief were Lentulus and Cethegus, were at once
After a great debate in the senate
December 5), in which Cesar and Cato took a
eading part on opposite sides, the conspirators
were condemned to death. The sentence was
executed that night in prison. The insurrections in
several parts of Italy were meanwhile suppressed ;
many who had resorted to Catiline’s camp in
Etruria deserted when they heard what had taken
ee in Rome, and his intention to proceed into
aul was frustrated. In the beginning of January
he returned by Pistoria (now Pistoja) into Etruria,
where he encountered the forces under Antonius,
and after a desperate battle in which he fought
with more than the courage of despair, he was
defeated and slain. Catiline’s appearance was in
perfect keeping with his character. His face was
reckless and defiant in expression, and h
a sense of crime; his eyes were wild and
bloodshot; his gait restless and unsteady from
ee debauchery and the constant fever of in-
satiable and disappointed ambition. The Bellwm

Catilinarium of Sallust is a masterpiece. For the
view that Catilina was a misrepresented democrat,
see Beesly’s Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius (1878).

Cat Island. See BAHAMas.

Catkin (amentum). Although the vegetative
growth of all inflorescences tends to be more or less
shortened and compressed in consequence of their
reproductive purpose, we have this peculiarly mani-
fested in the catkin, which is a crowded spike or
tuft of small unisexual flowers with reduced scale-
like bracts, Examples are found in the willow,
hazel, oak, birch, alder, &c. (q.v.). In some,
as in the hazel and oak, the male flowers only are

1, Shoot of Birch in
(6) and Female (a) Catkins.
autumn with ripe Female Catkin.
of Willow.

spring, bearing large terminal Male
2, Shoot of Birch in
3, Female Catkin

in catkins, the female catkin of the flower being
reduced to a few brown scales, while the female
flowers of the oak are solitary, each on its own
branchlet. Male catkins fall off after shedding
their pollen, and even during life are frequently
weak and pendulous, like the stamens of grasses,
but these consequences of extremely reduced vege-
tative life become no doubt also of advantage at
first in developing, and later in scattering, the
pollen.

Catlin, GEORGE, one of the first authorities on
the habits of the North American Indians, was
born in Pennsylvania in 1796. He was bred to the
law, but soon turned to drawing and painting,
which he had taught himself. In 1832 he went to
the Far West to study the native Indians, and spent
the next eight years among them, everywhere
gree portraits of individuals (not less than 470

ll length) and pictures illustrative of life and
manners, which are now in the National Museum
at Washington. Catlin next travelled (1852-57)
in South and Central America, and lived in Europe
until 1871. At London in 1841 he published his
learned and amply illustrated Manners, Customs,
and Condition of the North American Indians, and
in 1844 The North American Portfolio. He died at
Jersey City, December 23, 1872. Other books are
Notes of Eight Years in Europe (1848); The Breath
of Life, or Mal-Respiration (1861), on the benefit of
keeping one’s mouth always closed.

Catmint, or CAaTNEP eee Cataria), a
labiate herb, very common in North America, of
which the uliar fragrance is very attractive te
eats, much in the same way as valerian.

16

CATO

Cato, Dionysius, is the name prefixed to a little
volume of moral precepts in verse, which was a
great favourite during the middle ages, but the
author of which is unknown. Its usual title is
Dionysti Catonis Disticha de Moribus ad Filium.
It begins with a preface addressed by the supposed
author to his son, after which come fifty-six injunc-
tions of rather a simple character, such as par-
entem ama. Next follow 164 moral precepts, each
expressed in two dactylic hexameters, the ‘whole
monotheistic in tone without being distinctly Chris-
tian. The book was early translated into most of
the western languages. An English version by

- Benedict Burgh was printed by Caxton before 1479.
A good edition is Hauthal’s (Berlin, 1869).

Cato, Marcus Porctius, frequently surnamed
Censorius or Censor, also Sapiens (‘ the wise’), and
afterwards Priscus or MAJoR—to distinguish him
from his great-grandson, Cato of Utica—was born
at Tusculum in 234 B.c. He was brought up on
his father’s farm in the Sabine country, and here he
learned to love the simple and severe manners of
his Roman forefathers. He made his first campaign
in his seventeenth year, distinguished himself at
the capture of Tarentum (209), at the defeat of
Hasdrubal on the Metaurus (207), and in the later

ears of the second Punic war. At the same time

e had been making himself a reputation as an
orator and statesman. He became questor in 204,
and served under the pro-consul Scipio Africanus in
Sicily and Africa, denouncing his commander’s
luxury and extravagance on his return to Rome.
He was edile in 199, and pretor the following

ear, when he obtained Sardinia as his province.

o high was his reputation for capacity and virtue,
that in 195, although his family had hitherto been
unknown, he was raised to the consulship. Spain
fell to him as his province, and here he showed such
vigour and military genius in crushing a formidable
insurrection, that in the following year he was
honoured by a triumph. In 191 he served in the
campaign against Antiochus, and to him the great
victory won at Thermopyle was mainly due. He
now turned himself strenuously to civil affairs, and
strove with all his might to stem the tide of Greek
refinement and luxury, and advocate a return to
a simpler and stricter social life after the ancient
Roman pattern. In 187 he eae the granting of
a triumph to M. Fulvius Nobilior after his return
from Aitolia victorious, on the ground that he was
too indulgent to his soldiers, that he cherished
literary tastes, and even kept poets in his camp.
These rude prejudices of Cato were not acceptable
to the senate, and his opposition was fruitless. In
184 Cato was elected censor, and discharged so
rigorously the duties of his office that the epithet
Censorius, formerly applied to all persons in the
same station, became Ts permanent surname. . He
repaired the watercourses, paved the reservoirs,
cleansed the drains, raised the rents paid by the
eens for the farming of the taxes, and

iminished the contract prices paid by the state to
the undertakers of public works. More question-
able reforms were those in regard to the price of
slaves, dress, furniture, equipage, and the like.
Good and bad innovations he opposed with equal
animosity and intolerance, and ee despotism in
enforcing his own idea of decency may be illustrated
from the fact that he degraded Manilins, a man of
Seagate rank, for having kissed his wife in his

aughter’s presence in open day.

In th year 175 Cato was sent to Carthage to
arbitrate between the Carthaginians and King
Masinissa, and was so impressed by the dangerous
power of Carthage that ever afterwards he ended
every speech in the senate-house—whatever the
immediate subject might be—with the well-known
words : ‘ Ceterwm censeo Carthaginem esse delendam’

(‘For the rest, I vote that Carthage must be de-

ee

stroyed’). Cato died in the year 149, at the age
of 85. He had been twice married, and in his
eightieth year his second wife bore him a son, the
grandfather of Cato of Utica. Cato treated his
slaves with old-fashioned harshness and cruelty,
and in his old age became greedy of gain, although
it cannot be said that his avarice impaired his
honesty. He wrote several works, of which only
the De Re Rustica (ed. by Keil, 1882-94), a kind
of collection of the rules of good husbandry,
has come down to us. There exist but a few frag-
ments of his Origines, a summary of the Roman
annals. These are reprinted by Jordan (Leip.
1860). Of his speeches, which were read with
approval by Cicero, none remain. We possess his
life as written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and
Aurelius Victor. ?

Cato, Marcus Porcius, named CATO THE
YOUNGER, or CATO UTICENSIS (from the place of
his death), was born 95 B.c. Having lost, during
childhood, both parents, he was educated in the
house of his uncle, M. Livius Drusus, and, even in
his boyhood, gave proofs of his decision and strength
of character. In the year 72 B.c. he served with
distinction in the campaign against Spartacus, but
without finding satisfaction in military life, though
he proved himself a good soldier. From Mace-
donia, where he was military tribune in 67, he went
to Pergamus in search of the Stoic philosopher,
Athenodorus. He brought him back to his camp,
and induced him to proceed with him to Rome,
where he spent the time partly in philosophical
studies, ani partly in forensic discussions. Desir-
ous of honestly qualifying himself for the Sas
ship, he commenced to study all the financial
questions connected with it. Immediately after
his election he introduced, in spite of violent
opposition from those interested, a rigorous reform
into the treasury offices. He quitted the questor-
ship at the appointed time amid general applause.
In 63 B.c. he was elected tribune, and also de-
livered his famous speech on the conspiracy of
Catiline, in which he denounced Cesar as an
accomplice of that political desperado, and deter-
mined the sentence of the senate. Strongly dread-
ing the influence of unbridled greatness, and not
discerning that an imperial genius—like that of
Cesar—was the only thing that could remedy
the evils of that overgrown monster, the Roman
Republic, he commenced a career of what now
appears to us blind pragmatical opposition to the
ieee most powerful men in Rome—Crassus, Pom-
pey, and Cesar. Cato was a noble but strait-laced
theorist, who lacked the intuition into cireum-
stances which belongs to men like Cesar and
Cromwell. His first opposition to Pompey was
successful ; but his opposition to Ceesar’s consulate
for the year 59 not only failed, but even served to
hasten the formation of the first triumvirate be-
tween Cesar, Pompey, and Crassus. He was after-
wards forced to side with Pompey, who had with-
drawn from his connection with Czsar, and become
reconciled to the aristocracy. After the battle of
Pharsalia (48), Cato intended to join Pompey, but
hearing the news of his death, escaped into Africa,
where he was elected commander by the partisans
of Pompey, but resigned the post in favour of
Metellus Beieto, and undertook the defence of
Utica. Here, when he had tidings of Czesar’s
decisive victory over Scipio at te mie (46), Cato,
finding that his troops were wholly intimidated,
advised the Roman senators and ape te to escape
from Utica, and make terms with the victor, but
prohibited all intercessions on his own behalf. He
resolved to die rather than surrender, and, after
spending the night in org | Plato’s Phedo, com-
mitted suicide by stabbing himself in the breast.

>
4

a

ee ye. aes

“7% iS ie —— 7 es — <a ~— —

-

CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS

CATTERMOLE 17

.

His example was more fruitful in results than the
achievements of his life, for he became the typical
example of the stoic that kindled to imitation the
imaginations of the noblest Romans for two cen-
turies under the empire.

Cat-o’-nine-tails. See FLoaGina.

Catoptrics is that division of geometrical

es which treats of the phenomena of light
incident upon the surfaces of bodies, and reflected
‘therefrom. See Oprics.

_ Cato Street Conspiracy, a plot formed in
London in 1820 by a handful of crazy ruffians for
the murder of Lord Castlereagh and the other
ministers of the crown, so called from the place of
meeting in Cato Street, Edgeware Road. As usual
the plot was revealed beforehand to the police by

one of the , and accordingly the conspirators
ed, afte ile

were seiz r a short scuffle, in a stable in
Cato Street. Arthur Thistlewood, the ringleader,
-and four of his gm were hanged, while five more
were transported for life.

Catrail (also known as the Picts’ Work or Picts’
Work Ditch) is the name applied to the remains of
a large earthwork, about 50 miles in length, which,
beginning at Torwoodlee Hill, near the junction of
the Gala Water with the Tweed, runs with a semi-
-circular sweep southward through the counties of
Selkirk and Roxburgh to a point under Peel Fell,
‘in the Cheviots. e earthwork consisted of a
-deep ditch, with a rampart on each side, and varied
in breadth from 20 to 26 feet. The cultivation of
land and other causes have resulted in the destruc-
tion of the or teahgy in many places. The Catrail
was first described by Gordon in his Jtinerarium
tentrionale (1726), and since then has been the
‘subject of much speculation among antiquaries.
For a full description of the Catrail, see paper in
‘Transactions of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club
‘for 1880, by James Smail, F.S.A. An account of
‘the various theories which have been promulgated
‘regarding the Catrail will be found in Blackwood’s
Magazine for 1888.

Cats, JAcos, a Dutch statesman and poet, was
born at Brouwershaven, in Zeeland, in 1577, and
-after studying law at Leyden and Orleans, finally
settled at Middelburg. He rose to high offices in
the state, and was twice sent as ambassador to

- England, first in 1627, and again in 1652, while

‘Cromwell was at the head of affairs. From this
time till his death, September 1660, he lived in
‘retirement at his villa near the Hague. Here he
wrote his autobiography, which, however, was not
‘published until 1709. As a poet, ‘Father Cats’
enjoyed the highest popularity. His poems are
characterised by simplicity, rich fancy, clearness,
homely vigour, and purity of style, and by their
excellent moral tendency; while agit yess are
richly scattered those shrewd maxims and worldly-
wise axioms which have been so dear to his prac-
tical countrymen. The most highly prized of his

roductions were the Houwelyk, and the Trouwring
(a series of romantic stories relating. to remarkable
marriages), and the Spiegel van den Ouden en
Nieuwen Tyd. His works were first collected in a
folio volume in 1658. A late edition is that by
Wolterink (Dordrecht, 1878-82).

Cat’s-eye, a beautiful variety of chalcedonic
‘quartz receiving its name from the resemblance
which the reflection of light from it, especially
when cut en cabochon, or in a convex form, is
‘sup to exhibit to the light that seems to
emanate from the interior of the eye of a cat. It
has a sort of pearly appearance, and is chatoyant,
or characterised by a fine play of light, which is
«sup to result from the parallel arrangement of
itine ors of some foreign substance, such as ami-

anthus, or of minute hollow tubules similarly
arran It is of various colours, and is obtained
chiefly from India and Ceylon, but occurs also in
the Harz. A chatoyant variety of felspar has been
sometimes confounded with cat’s-eye.

Catskill, a village of New York, on the Hud-
son, 34 miles by fall below Albany. P. (1890) 4920.

Catskill Mountains, 2 group of mountains
in the state of New York, U.S., west of the
Hudson River, and south of the Mohawk. They
belong to the Appalachian system, and are con-
tinuous northward with the Helderbergs, south-
ward with the Shawangunks, south-westward with
the Delaware Mountains, and westward with a
high plateau which occupies much of the region of
the southern half of Western New York, and apart.
of the northern counties of Pennsylvania. The
Catskills proper cover about 5000 sq. m., chiefly in
Greene Cape & N.Y. Some peaks reach nearly
4000 feet in height. The mountains generall
have steep and often precipitous ascents, and their
summits are broad and rocky. The deep valleys
or ‘ cloves’ of this region, with almost perpendicular
walls, form a remarkable scenic feature. What is
known as ‘the Catskill red sandstone’ is regarded
by most geologists as the very latest formed of the
Devonian strata of North America. The moun-
tains are well wooded, and afford many summer-
resorts for the people of the larger cities. See
Searing’s Land of Rip Van Winkle (1885).

Cat’s-tail. See BULRUSH.
Cat’s-tail Grass. See Trmorny GRass.

Cat'taro, a ppg fortified port in the Aus-
trian crown-land of Dalmatia, lies at the head
of the Gulf of Cattaro, 40 miles SE. of Ragusa,
under the steep Montenegrin hills. Cattaro has
a cathedral, a naval school, and a population of
5453, chiefly engaged in the Montenegrin trade.
At one time the capital of a small republic, the
town in 1420 joined the republic of Venice, and
after varied fortunes was handed over to Austria in
1814 by the treaty of Vienna.—The Gulf of Cattaro,
an inlet of the Adriatic, consists of three basins or
lakes, connected by straits of about half a mile in
breadth. Its length is 19 miles, and its depth from
15 to 20 fathoms.

Cattegat, or KATTEGAT, the bay or arm of the
sea between the east coast of Jutland and the west
coast of Sweden, to the north of the Danish islands.
It is connected with the Baltic Sea by the Great
and Little Belt (q.v.), and by the Sound ; and the
Sea) Rack (q.v.) connects it with the North Sea.
The length of the Cattegat is about 150 miles, and
its greatest breadth 85 miles. Its greatest depth is
36 fathoms, but it has numerous sand-banks ; and
navigation is rendered more dangerous by its strong
currents and violent storms. The Danish shores are
low, with stretches of sand or reefs, but the Swedish
shore is very steep and rocky.

Cattermole, GrorGE, water-colour painter and
book-illustrator, was born at Dickleborough, Nor-
folk, 8th August 1800. He began life as a topo-
graphical d man. At the age of sixteen he was
engaged upon Britton’s English Cathedrals, and
in he visited Scotland to obtain materials for
his fine series of illustrations to the Waverley
Novels. He was soon known as a brilliant designer,
and was largely employed by the publishers, con-
tributing to the annuals, his best work of this
class being the illustrations to his brother, the Rev.
C. Cattermole’s Historical Annual, dealing with the
period of the Civil War. In 1822 he was elected an
associate exhibitor, and in 1833 a member, of the
Water-colour Society, to whose exhibitions he con-
tributed ‘Sir Walter Raleigh witnessing the Execu-
tion of the Earl of Essex’ (1839), ‘Old English

18 CATTI

CATTLE

Hospitality’ (1839), ‘The Castle Chapel’ (1840),
‘The Assassination of the Regent Murray’ (1843),
‘Cellini defending the Castle of St Angelo’ (1845),
and others of his best water-colours, examples of
which may_be studied in the South Kensington
Museum. . He retired from the society in 1850, and
turned his attention to oil-painting, exhibiting ‘A
Terrible Secret,’ a work in this medium, in, the
Royal Academy of 1863. He died at Clapham
Common, 24th July 1868. As an artist he was dis-
tinguished by great versatility, and by considerable
power of grouping and composition. He was learned
in costume, and his works show much dramatic
Dayna 3 He gained a, first-class gold medal at the
Paris Exposition of 1855, and was a member of the
Royal Academy at Amsterdam, and of the Belgian
* Society of Water-colour Painters.

Catti, or CHATTI, a German people, erroneously
included by Cesar under the name Suevi (q.v.),
who inhabited a country pretty nearly correspond-
ing to the present Hesse. They took part in the
general rising of the Germans under Arminius;
and during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, in the end
of the 2d century, they made incursions into Roman
Germany and Rhietia. In the 3d century their name
began to give place to that of the Franks (q.v.).

Cattle. In the United Kingdom there are
twelve native breeds of cattle. England claims
exactly one-half of these—namely, the Shorthorn,
Hereford, Devon, Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled,
Sussex, and Longhorn breeds. There are two or
three varieties of cattle in Wales, but for practical
hed sre they may be reckoned as one breed. Four

istinct breeds have arisen in Scotland, these being

the Polled Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Ayrshire,
and West Highland breeds. The remaining one
is the native breed of Ireland, the hardy little
Kerry, regarded as one of the purest and truest
existing representatives of the ancient Bos longi-
Jrons. In addition to these twelve native races,
other two very useful breeds, the Jersey and
Guernsey, have become domiciled in the British
Isles, and there are also a few of the famous
Dutch milking cows scattered over the country.
These various races, with an almost endless
variety of crosses between two or more of them,
make up the entire cattle stock of the United
Kingdom, which, according to the official agricul-
tural returns, numbered 10,753,314 head in 1895.

The Shorthorn is by far the most numerous and
most widely diffused. It has not inaptly been
titled the ‘Cosmopolitan Shorthorn.’ It has found
a home in almost every county in the United King-
dom. The county of Durham is generally regarded
as the ‘cradle’ of shorthorns; indeed, they have
often been spoken of both at home and abroad as
the ‘Durham breed.’ But the valuable race of
native cattle from which the improved shorthorn

Fig. 1.—Shorthorn Bull and Cow.

was raised abounded freely in adjoining counties
as far back as reliable history enables us to trace
their career. Early in the 19th century they were
also known as ‘Teeswater’ cattle, the first famous
shorthorns having come from the valley of the Tees.

The brothers Charles and Robert Colling were the
first to begin the systematic improvement of the
breed. In those days the ‘rank and file’ of short-
horn cattle were large, high-standing cattle, good
milkers, but rough in form and slow in fattening.
The Collings would seem to have at once directed
themselves to the improvement of the native cattle
where they were most defective, and they were
successful in establishing a stock of cattle of a
decidedly more profitable character—wider in the —
rib, more symmetrical in the frame, shorter in the:
leg, slightly smaller in size, heavier in flesh, and
more speedy in maturing and fattening. It has.
been said, but not established beyond contention,
that in effecting this improvement the Collin
made use of an infusion of blood from some of the
other smaller breeds. It is more likely that.
they relied upon ‘selection’ in breeding—the-
mating of animals of the shorthorn breed which.
most nearly approached to their ideal character,
and fixing the type by pursuing what is desig-
nated as ‘in-and-in’ breeding—i.e. mating Aart ale:
which are closely related to each other, a system
that is known to assist greatly in stamping or
fixing pecntes features and characteristics upon
races of stock. The success of the Collings was.
speedy and complete, for the fame of their cattle-
spread so rapidly that even earlier than 1810, the:
year of the ‘first great public sale of shorthorns,”
they had sold cows and bulls at £100 each, and
had hired bulls for use to other breeders at pre-
miums of from £50 to £100 a year. At Charles.
Colling’s historical sale at Ketton in 1810, 29 cows.
and heifers realised an average of £140, 4s. 7d. ;
and 18 bulls £169, 8s. each. Eight years later,
at Robert Colling’s sale at Barmpton, in a time
of great depression, an average of £128, 9s. 10d.
was obtained for 61 animals. The sensational
event of the memorable sale at Ketton was the:
purber of the celebrated bull ‘Comet’ at the
abulous price of 1000 guineas.

The importance and interest attaching to the
operations of these two great pioneer breeders will at.
once be understood when it is mentioned that there
is not at the present day a well-bred living short-
horn in whose pedigree Colling blood does not figure:
prominently. Colling’s successors were, on the
one hand, Thomas Bates; on the other, the
Booth family, whose representatives then were
Thomas and John Booth. At the Ketton sale-
(1810) Thomas Bates purchased the two-year-
old heifer ‘Young Duchess’ for 183 guineas.
Thomas Booth bought the bull-calf ‘ Albion’ for 60:

uineas; and at the Barmpton sale (1818) his.

rother, John Booth, secured the yearling bull
‘ Pilot’ for 270 guineas. With these purchases the-
shorthorn breed drifted into two great channels,
which by degrees absorbed the main current of the:
race, so that for many years the terms ‘ Booth’ and
‘Bates’ shorthorns have been as applicable in
relation to the bovine world as Whig and Tory to:
the political. These two strains of Bates and
Booth, as has been seen, had one common origin in.
Colling’s blood, but in course of time they developed
distinctive shapes and characteristics which in the:

urer representatives are still well maintained.

r Robert Bruce, than whom there is no higher:
authority, thus describes the characteristics of
‘Booth’ and ‘ Bates,’ speaking in the first place of
‘Bates’ cattle: ‘They are higher standing, better
milking, and sph gayer looking cattle than
the Booths. They have as a rule more upright
shoulders, flatter foreribs, opener sides, with long
hindquarters less fully packed with flesh than the:
rival strain. As a rule their heads are clean cut
and pretty wide, while the bulls have long arched.
muscular necks and keen tempers. The prevail-
ing colours in this strain of blood are, generally:

CATTLE HERDING, ALBERTA, CANADA.

Vol, IIl., page 18.

i?

AIVY
:

or

~~

—

= =.

breed traces

CATTLE 19

g, deeper than in the other, being reds and

roans. e Booth cattle are wider, deeper, and
peeere less pretty. Their shoulders are more laid
, their foreribs and flanks deeper and better

lied. They are more a beef than a milk breed,
with well-packed quarters and thick loins. The
sires remind one more of a fat Smithfield ox, and
they move without that courage and dash so
to the ‘‘ Duke’s” and other highly valued

strains of the Bates tribes.’ But while these are

the two great divisions of the breed, there are a
great many excellent shorthorns of mixed breeding
which do not show any decided leaning either to
the one or the other. The peration colour of
shorthorns is roan of varying shades, but many are
red, and some white. There is a dislike to and
white in distinct spots as a colour, and quite an

_ unreasonable objection to white.

In precocity, production of meat, and general
utility, the shorthorn is unsurpassed. Other varieties
may excel it in special points for peculiar purposes
or in certain limited districts, but for a combination
of all the more useful properties of domestic cattle
and adaptability to varying conditions of soil and
climate, there is no equal to the shorthorn. The
facility with which the shorthorn adapts itself to
changes of soil, climate, and treatment is quite
remarkable, and this combined with the valuable
Property which it also possesses in an unequalled

e—suitability for crossing with and improving
other and inferior classes of cattle—has spread the
improved shorthorn far and wide, not only in its
own native land, but in countries beyond the seas.
In North and South America, the continent of
sgh Australia, New Zealand, and other parts,
the shorthorn has been extensively introduced. In
all these countries, as at home, it has been one of
the most active and effective agents in improving
the native races of cattle and in increasing the pro-
duction of ape beef. Many breeders of short-
horn cattle have cultivated the fattening to the
detriment of the milking properties. Still, while it
is quite common to meet with a very light milker
amongst shorthorn cows, there is a large section of
the breed which ” staan dairying properties of the
highest order. Good shorthorn cows give from 700
to 1000 gallons of milk in twelve months. At the
London Christmas Fat Stock Show in December
1887 the class of shorthorn steers under two years
old (averaging 672 days) gave an average live-
weight of 1 Ib.; steers over two and under
three years of age (averaging 988 days), 1870 Ib. ;
and steers over three years old (averaging 1321
days), 2116 lb. each.
ereford cattle display strongly fixed and pecu-
liarly distinctive characteristics both in outward
features and general attributes. The improved
irectly from the stock of cattle
which were found by the earliest writers on agri-
cultural topics existing in the county of Here-
ford and adjoining districts—the same aboriginal
variety from which have descended the Devon
and Sussex breeds. The improvement of the
Hereford would seem to have been begun by the
Tomkins family far back in the 18th century, and
was taken up in a systematic manner by Benjamin
Tomkins about 1766, and carried on by him with
much energy and success until his death in 1815.
His herd was continued be daughters till 1819
(one year later than the Barmpton sale of short-
horns), when it was dispersed by public auction.
Twenty-eight breeding animals realised an average
of £149 per head; four adult bulls having brought as
much as £267, 15s. each ; and two bull-calves £181,
2s. 6d. each. From that time the fortunes of the
breed fell into other hands, and never for a moment
have the Hereford stock-owners wavered in their
loyalty to their fine old breed of cattle. There is

little doubt that infusions of foreign blood con-
tributed to some extent to the building up of the
modern Hereford. In the 17th century cattle had
been imported into Hereford from Flanders by
Lord Scudamore, and in later times there had been
introductions of stock from various parts of
England and Wales. The dominant ingredient,
however, is the aboriginal race of the county, and
selection in breeding and careful management have
been the principal agencies by which the breed has
been brought to the high standard it has now
attained. The modern typical Hereford is red in
colour, with white face and white marks in the top

Fig. 2.—Hereford Bull and Cow.

line of the neck, back over the crops, as well as in
the chest and bottom line all the way backwards.
The ‘white face’ is indeed the ‘tribal badge’ of
the Hereford, and with their wide and graceful
horns they are singularly handsome in outward
appearance. Formerly there were gray-faced or
spotted Herefords ; and even yet there is in exist-
ence a strain of Herefords known as ‘smoky-faced
Montgomeries.’ The Herefords are similar in size
to the shorthorn ; usually broad along the back
and heavily fleshed, but occasionally light in the
thighs and deficient in internal fat. Their highest
property lies in their value as grazing cattle; and
this has led to the extensive employment of
Hereford bulls in breeding cattle for the rolling

rairie-ranches of the western states of America.

hey are hardy cattle, with a rank coat of hair
and thick mellow hide, and they are excellent
‘foragers’—all points of special importance in
ranche cattle. It is pre-eminently a beef-produc-
ing breed; matures early and yields meat of
the finest quality. As a rule the cows are deficient
as milkers, for this property has never been
cultivated as it ought to have been. The average
live-weight of two-year-old Hereford steers (averag-
ing 634 days) at the London Christmas Fat Stoc
Show in Pressenbar 1887 was 1390 lb.; of steers
over and under three years (averaging 938 days),
1742 lb. ; and of steers over three years (averaging
1310 days), 2041 lb. There are a few excellent
herds of Herefords in Ireland, and they have been
exported in large numbers to foreign countries,
notably North and South America, Australia, and
New Zealand.

Devon cattle are deep red in colour, and have
frequently a white spot on the belly just in front of
the udder, with wide round loins, smaller in size
than the two breeds just mentioned. It is noted
for the almost perfect formation of the shoulder,
which is laid into the body with remarkable
neatness. The breed has still its headquarters
in Devon and Somerset, where it has held undis-
puted sway for hundreds of years. It won the
admiration of Arthur Young, who gives varctren:
information regarding the breed in his report da
1776. Here also there was one ‘master mind’ at
work on the improvement of the breed. Mr
Quartly of Molland is described by Young as the
most celebrated of breeders in North Devon; and
the greatest of our early writers on agriculture
gives a most minute account of the scheme of

20

CATTLE

breeding which was pursued by Mr Quartly and his
brother, ‘the clergyman who interests himself
much in live-stock.’ The ideal animal which the
Quartlys kept before them and bred up to exactly
corresponds to the typical Devon of to-day; and
there is no doubt that their sound and systematic
method of breeding imprinted an indelible stamp
upon the race through which the blood of their
stock has freely permeated. In former times, when
cattle were beasts of burden, the Devons were
greatly esteemed for their agility and hardiness.

ow that the yoke has fallen upon other shoulders,
the ‘Rubies of the West,’ as the plump little
Devons have been called by their admirers, are
holding a high position as beef-producers. The
quality of their meat is excelled by none; and
while they are small in size, they give a good
return for the food they consume. Gaxcard, writing
in 1800, attributed the excellence of Devon cattle
mainly to the mildness of the climate and high dry
ground, calcareous soil, and sweet pasture whcre
they were bred ; but he considered it might be also
to some extent due to an admixture of finer blood
from the still warmer continent of Europe. There
may have been some slight foundation for this
latter suggestion; but it is undeniable that the
main forces and features now existing in Devon
cattle are distinctively native to the south-west
of England. This idea is strengthened by the
recollection of the estimate of Devon cattle formed
by Bakewell, who declared that they could not be
improved by any cross. From the first and greatest
of all our early improvers of farm live-stock this
testimony is weighty. The dairy properties of the
breed are not of a high order. The yield of milk is
comparatively small, but its quality is exception-
ally rich. Some rare specimens of the breed have
reached 19 ewt. live-weight at four years old, but
the average is much below that. At the London
Christmas Fat Stock Show in December 1887 the
class of two-year-old Devon steers (averaging 681
days) gave an average live-weight of 1235 Ib. ;
steers over two and under three years old (averag-
ing 996 days), 1489 lb.; and steers over three years
(averaging 1320 days), 1734 lb. each.

The Red Polled cattle of Norfolk and Suffolk
are supposed to bear a close affinity to the polled
breeds of Scotland through the circumstance that
formerly Scotch cattle were freely transported te be
fattened on the Norfolk pastures. Be this as it
may, the red polled breed has been sufficiently
long associated with Norfolk and Suffolk to enable
these counties to claim them as natives. Marshall
in his Political Economy of Norfolk, published
in 1782, tells us that the native cattle of Norfolk
were ‘a small, hardy thriving race, fattening as
freely at three years old as cattle in general do at
four or five. hey are small boned, short legged,
round barrelled, well loined; the favourite colour
a blood-red with a white or mottled face.’ Arthur
Young, writing in 1794, says the Suffolk breed of
cattle ‘is universally polled, that is, without horns ;
the size small; few rise when fattened to above
50 stone (14 Ib.) ; the milk veins remarkably large ;
cows upon good land give a great quantity of rich
milk.’ These are the progenitors of the modern
red polls, and all the good features of the old breed
have been retained and developed. The cattle

are now relatively larger, still blood-red in colour, -

but with no white face, good meat-producers, and,
taken as a whole, perhaps the best of all the
native English breeds from a dairying oint of
view. Individual shorthorn cows will be found to
exceed them in yield of milk, but red-polled cows
are distinguished for high average milking pro-
erties. he breed has found much favour in the

nited States of America and elsewhere abroad.
Its uniformity of colour, absence of horns, and

usefulness both as beef and milk producers have
won for it many hearty admirers in America.

Sussex cattle are also uniformly red in colour,
with strong spreading horns, larger in size than
the Devons, heavy meat-producers, but deficient
in dairying properties. Marshall is probably right
in stating (1796-98) that the Sussex, Devon, Here--
ford, North Wales, and Gloucestershire cattle had
all sprung from the same aboriginal stock ; and that
in fact they were ‘varieties arising from soils and
management of the native breeds of this island.’
Formerly Sussex cows were highly esteemed for
their milking properties, but in the rage for beef-

roduction these have unfortunately been destroyed.
picasa cattle mature early, grow to great weights,
and in late years they have been improving in
uality. They have also found ‘supporters in —
oreign countries, chiefly in the United States of
America. Young Sussex steers (averaging 659
days) at the London Christmas Fat Stock Show in
1887 reached an average live-weight of 1436 Ib.,
and three-year-old steers (averaging 1349 days),
2030 lb. each.

Longhorn cattle are now in few hands; so few
iateed that the breed may be said to be approach-
ing extinction. They are big, rough, ungainly
cattle, with long drooping horns which are often
so shaped as to make it difficult for the animals to
graze short pasture. The cows aie a fair quantity
of very rich milk, and the bullocks grow and fatten
to great weights. But for general utility they are
being ousted by smaller, finer, and more rapidly
maturing varieties. Peculiar interest attaches to
this breed from the fact that it was upon it that
the past great improver of farm live-stock, Robert
Bakewell (q.v.) of Dishley, tried his earliest experi-
ments. The improvement of live-stock upon scien-
tific principles dates from 1755, when Bakewell
began his great work with longhorns. These cattle
were at one time widely diffused through England,
and also obtained a footing in Ireland, but were
many years ago supplanted by shorthorns, Here-
fords, Devons, or other varieties.

Welsh cattle present considerable variety of
type and character, yet there is all through a
noticeable family likeness, arising of course in
their common origin in the aboriginal cattle of the
peipality. They are black in colour, with long

orns, hardy in constitution, good milkers, slow in
maturing, et able to subsist and thrive upon
scanty fare. In late years they have been con-
siderably improved, especially in their ne
properties. They vary greatly in size, but meey ty
them attain great weights at from three to four
years old. Theaverage live-weight of Welsh steers
at the London Christmas Fat Stock Show in 1887
was 2111 lb. each, their average having been 1286
days.

Anca the four Scotch breeds of cattle the
Polled Aberdeen-Angus is well entitled to pre-
cedence. Descended directly from the ancient
polled cattle of Angus (Forfarshire) and Buchan
(in Aberdeenshire )—two varieties of the same type,
known in the former as ‘ Doddies,’ and in the latter
as ‘Humlies’—this valuable beef-producing breed
has made great strides in tect favour since 1878,
when, with five plump black polls the late Mr
William M‘Combie (1805-80) of Tillyfour carried
off the champion prize for the best group of ‘ meat-
making’ cattle at the Paris Exhibition, where no
fewer than sixty different varieties of cattle were
represented, including the best of the English
breeds. That remarkable triumph has been fol-
lowed by great achievements at home, the breed
having in 1881, 1885, and 1887 won the £100 Cham-

ion Plate at the London Christmas Fat Stock
Show. The improvement of the breed was begun
before the advent of the 19th century, and all

CATTLE

21

through its breeders have been careful to preserve
and cultivate its exceptionally high properties in the
roduction of meat of the choicest quality. In this
the chief excellence of the breed, and in these
times the characteristic is one of great value. This
property in the northern polls, combined with the
sound system of feeding pursued in Scotland, has
secured ‘prime Scotch’ beef the highest favour and
longest price in the London market. At one time

Fig. 3.—Polled Aberdeen-Angus Bull and Cow.

the cows of this breed me a bountiful yield of rich
milk, but owing to the breeders’ attention having so
long been mainly directed to the cultivation of the
fattening properties, they are now only moderate
milkers. In recent years the breed has improved
considerably in early maturity, and at the London
Fat Stock Show in December 1887 it surpassed all
other breeds in this important property. At that
show the class of polled Aberdeen-Angus steers
under two — (averaging 667 days in age) gave
an average live-weight of 1475 lb.; and steers over
two and under three years (averaging 984 days),
1874 lb. Black is the prevailing colour, but occa-
sionally a red calf is dropped.

The Galloway breed, which takes its name from
the south-west of Scotland, where it has existed it
is believed for centuries, has an undeniable claim
to an ancient lineage. Its
origin is lost in the mists of
bygone ages, but enough
of its history is known to
insure for this breed a
high position amongst the
native races of British
cattle. Black and horn-
less like the polled Aber-
deen-Angus breed, Gallo-
way cattle differ substan-
tially from the former, not
only in outward features,

Fig. 4.—Galloway Bull. but also in their inherent

propersies They are
similar in size, more s y and Move 2 in
appearance, having a thicker hide and ranker
coat of hair, but they do not mature so quickly,
and are not so well suited for rapid house-feeding
us the northern polls. But the Galloways are
excellent grazing cattle, and for this property
they have n highly esteemed for many genera-
tions, both in England and Scotland. In recent
years they have been exported in large numbers to
America, where they have been found admirab]
adapted for ranching purposes. They are exceed-
ingly robust and hardy, and have surpassed several
of the other finer varieties on the ranches of the

western states of America, where the cattle have

_ to accomplish a great deal of walking in finding
food and water.

From a dairy-farmer’s point of view, the Ayr-
shire is the most valuable of all the British
breeds of cattle. Its origin is uncertain, but it is
considered more than probable that its progenitors
were of Dutch extraction. Be this as it may, it
was well established as a famous dairy breed in

the south-west of Scotland before the close of the
18th century. The prevailing colours are brown
and white, but some are almost entirely white,
others are almost a whole brown. They are wide,
low-set cattle, with fine horns curving upwards,
They are second-rate cattle as beef-producers, but
as profitable general dairy cattle they are unsur-
passed. A fairly good Ayrshire cow will give 600
eee of milk in a year, a very large quantity for
1er moderate size.

There is no more handsome animal of the
bovine species than a genuine representative
of the West Highland breed. Almost as large
in size as the shorthorn, and quite as well
proportioned in the frame, the West Highlander

ains in appearance by his rank shaggy coat of
1air, long, spreading, gracefully turned horns, and
hardy, muscular, and defiant gait. With the Wild
White cattle of
Chillngham and == s
the tiny little
Ke of Ireland,
the West Highland
is regarded as the
finest existing re-
presentative of the |
ancient cattle of @
Britain. The
breed presents con- \¥§
siderable variety §)
in size and colour. Wa
Dun or yellow of ™
various shades is
the prevailing
colour, but many are black or brindled. They
mature slowly, but their beef is much esteemed for
its quality and flavour. They are unequalled for
hardiness, and can be kept with advantage where
no other breed would subsist. The cattle of
Orkney and Shetland differ considerably from the
varieties on the mainland, but they are as a rule
of an inferior character and small in size.

The Kerry is the smallest of all the recognised
varieties of British cattle. The breed has its head-

uarters in the bleak hills and upland pastures of
the county from which it takes its name, and having
been much neglected by Irish farmers, it forms
only a very small proportion of the cattle stock of
Ireland, which now mainly consists of crosses
between the improved shorthorn and ‘old Irish
cows,’ which were of mixed-bred nondescript
character. Kerry cattle are very hardy, and the
attributes of the Kerry cow have thus been truth-
fully described by Youatt : ‘Truly the poor man’s
cow, living everywhere, hardy, yielding for her
size abundance of milk of good quality, and fatten-
ing rapidly when required.’ Black is the prevail-
ing colour, and their horns are upturned and often
peculiarly ‘cocked.’ There is a sub-variety called
the ‘Dexter Kerry,’ shorter in the leg, thicker in
body, and heavier in the flesh than the Kerry
proper.

he extension of dairy-farming in the United
Kingdom, and the somewhat meagre milking pro-
rties of the greater proportion of British cattle,
cave led to the importation of large numbers of
Channel Island cattle. These—often indiscrimin-
ately called Alderney cattle—comprise the Jersey
and Guernsey breeds, supposed to be from one
common origin, but known to have been bred in
purity in the respective islands of these names for
upwards of a hundred years. They are both essen-
tially dairy breeds, giving an abundant yield of rich
highly-coloured milk. The Jersey is the smaller
of the two, and is docile, delicate, and of graceful
deer-like form. In the production of beef it is of
little value. The Guernsey is not only larger, but
also hardier and more generally useful. When in

Fig. 5.—West Highland Cow.

22

CATTLE

full milk, whole herds of Jersey cows give an aver-
age of 94 lb. of butter each cow per week, an excep-
tional cow occasionally giving as much as 16 lb. of
butter in one week.
Good Jersey cows yield
from 500 to 700 gallons
of milk, and from 300
to 350 lb. of butter in
twelve months. Guern-
sey cows have exceeded
800 gallons of milk in a
year, and the noted cow
‘Select,’ when six years
old, gave 224 lb. of
butter in seven days,
this s orseite being ob-
tained from 19 quarts
of milk per day. In America still higher records
have been obtained.

It has been stated that the improvement of
cattle-breeding on scientific principles was begun
by Bakewell in 1755. Almost continuously since
then the good work has been prosecuted with
energy and success, and for many years the British
Isles have been regarded as the origin and head-
quarters of almost all the most valuable varieties
of farm live-stock. For generations foreign
countries have freely resorted to these islands
for improved live-stock, and this export trade
goes on as briskly and as_ extensively as ever.
The United States of America have in particular
drawn very largely upon British herds, and a

eat stimulus to this trade with the United

tates has been given by the extension of the
ranching system. Vast areas of grazing land in
the western states and territories have been
acquired by syndicates for the breeding and rear-
ing of cattle; and with the view of improving
the stock of native cattle, large numbers of well-
bred bulls of the leading British varieties, either
imported from the United Kingdom or descended
from imported stock, have been sent to the West
for use on ranches.

The cattle of the United States and Canada
present almost endless variety of form and
character. This is what might be expected
when it is remembered that they are descended
from importations of cattle from Spain, Hol-
land, Sweden, Denmark, France, and England,
Scotland, and Ireland. About the year 1525,
some six years after the discovery of Mexico by
the Spaniard Cortes, cattle were introduced into
that country from Spain, and in the abundant
pasturage of the Mexican territory they increased
rapidly, spreading with the enterprising Spanish
settlers into Texas, California, and other parts of
the Far West. Exactly a hundred years later
the Dutch settlers in pe York brought cattle
thither from Holland, and a few years earlier
small importations of cattle had been made from
the West India Islands into Virginia. The earliest
of these arrivals in Virginia are assigned to 1610
and 1611, but that colony was broken:up in 1622
by the Indians, who massacred 347 men, women,
and children, and, it is presumed, also destroyed
their cattle. In 1624—four years after the land-
ing of the English Plymouth colony there—cattle
were introduced into Massachusetts from England,
and many other importations followed during the
next few years. The Swedes brought cattle into
Delaware in 1627, and in 1631 and two following
years Danish emigrants introduced cattle from
their native country into New Hampshire. Eng-
lish emigrants settled in Maryland in 1633, in
North and South Carolina in 1660 and 1670, and
in Pennsylvania in 1682, and took with them, or
had sent after them, large numbers of English
cattle. The French colonists brought cattle into

F ig. 6.—Jersey Cow.

Quebec as early as 1608; and towards the close of
the 17th century fresh importations of European
cactle poured into the great American continent.
It so happens, however, that while importations of
cattle were made from all the countries named,
and perhaps from others also, the existing cattle
stock of America—leaving out the Mexican, now
more commonly called Texan, cattle, which are
still a race by themselves—are largely of British
origin. In the earlier importations, again exclud-
ing Mexico, British cattle preponderated ; and just
as the English language has submerged all others
in the gradual development of the American conti-
nent, so has British Tiood become the dominatin

element in the main bulk of the cattle stock of
the country. There is no authentic information as
to the character of the cattle first introduced into
America, but all the leading breeds of the British
Isles, as well as the chief milking breeds of the
European continent, are now strongly represented
in North America. There, as at home, the English
shorthorn predominates, and there are also strong
representations of the Hereford, Polled Aberdeen-
an pk Galloway, Devon, Norfolk and Suffolk Red
Polls, Jersey and Dutch breeds. The cattle of
America are being speedily improved, chiefly by
the use of well-bred bulls, either imported from
the British Isles or bred from imported cattle.
Still, the majority of them are of an inferior
character — quite unworthy of the rich country
which they occupy. The Texan cattle still retain -
the rough coarse character which distinguished
their Spanish ancestors. Improvement amongst
the Texan cattle is proceeding very slowly.

The cattle of Australia, which are small, slow-
Seale , and of inferior quality as beef-producers,

ave also been greatly improved by the introduc-
tion of British stock, chiefly of the Shorthorn,
Hereford, and Polled Aberdeen-Angus breeds.

In the management of cattle there is perhaps even
greater variation than in the character of the cattle
themselves. A full description of the various
methods of management would itself occupy a
moderate volume. It must suffice here to page 2 Bs
two or three leading features in cattle economy.
In the British Isles the ox is no longer a beast
of burden, save in a very few localities. The
yoke has fallen upon the horse, except where
both have been relieved by the steam-engine.
The two main purposes for which cattle are now
reared are the production of milk and butcher-
meat. Certain breeds, as already indicated, are
paerly adapted for milk-production, such as the

ersey and Guernsey and Ayrshire cattle ; others,
notably the shorthorn and red-polled breeds, are
distinguished for the combination of both milking
and fattening properties of the highest order ; while
others again, such as the Polled Aberdeen-Angus,
the Hereford and Devon, &c., display remarkable
aptitude to fatten, and yield meat of the choicest
quality. The farmer of course selects the breed
best adapted to the locality in which he lives, and
to the purposes he has in view. As a rule cattle of
all kinds, whether dairying or fattening, spend the
summer on the pasture fields; and it is only in
exceptional cases, either where there is a deficiency
of grass, or where it is desired to force the growth,
fattening, or milking of the animals, that any food
beyond what they can pick up for themselves is
given to cattle on the fields. Oil-cake, cotton-
cake, and bruised grain—partly imported, mostly
home grown—are the principal auxiliary foods on
pasture. Where a careful system of management
prevails, the cattle are put into comfortable houses
overnight as soon as the chill autumnal evenings
set in; and throughout the winter they are kept
almost entirely in the houses, store-cattle getting
out now and again about mid-day when the weather

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CATTLE

CATTLE-PLAGUE 23

is favourable. As winter food, turnips and straw

or hay preponderate, but in the improved practice of
recent years smaller quantities of roots and more of

the concentrated foods, such as cake and grain, are
being given to cattle. Silage is fast becoming an
important article of food for cattle. Now cattle
are fattened off at from eighteen to thirty months
instead of from three to five years, as prior to
1850. The essence of the feeder’s art is to produce
the maximum quantity of first-class meat in the
shortest pare time and at the lowest possible
‘cost; and in the struggle after this the maturing
and fattening eben of cattle have been greatly
accelerated. The young or ‘baby-beef,’ as it has
been called, is more tender and perhaps more palat-
able than the substantial ‘rounds’ of the slow-
growing five-year-old beeves of ‘fifty years ago ;’
but it is questionable if it is either so wholesome or
so strength-giving. Be that as it may, the pular
taste is entirely in favour of the ‘ba ao and
“sso the public desire the feeder must endeavour to
supply.
ad 1880 there has been considerable growth in
dairy-farming throughout the British Isles. When
it is mentioned, however, that in 1895 butter to the
value of £16,802,400, and cheese to the value of
£4,674,181, were imported into the United Kingdom,
it will be seen that there is room for still further
extension. The system of management on dairy-
farms varies according to the locality and objects
of the farmer. Where the milk can be conveniently
dis of or despatched to towns, attention-is given
mainly to milk-selling, which is the least trouble-
‘some, and perhaps also the most profitable system of
dairying. In other cases butter is the staple pro-
duce of the dairy; in other parts again, cheese-
making is the prevailing feature. The consumption
of milk as human food has vastly increased in recent
years. The rate of consumption keeps on growing,
and ingenious facilities are dation for bringing
fresh milk from distant dairies—dairies from 50 to
60 miles distant—into towns every morning. As
would be expected, the calves bred on dairy-farms
get little of their mothers’ milk. They are reared
principally on ‘milk substitutes,’ either prepared
at home or by firms who make the production of
attle foods their sole or chief business. Linseed

in various forms is very extensively used in calf-

b

Cattle are very variously used, and are the only
or the chief beasts of draught in many countries, as
Cape Colony and large part of America. In India
also horned cattle are the only beasts used for
ploughing, and are chiefly valued as draught
animals. A famous breed was formed for military

t ; and in the Central Provinces there is a
hig -class breed of trotting bullocks. The best

hee of India is obtained from the milk not of cows
but of buffaloes. In China, no use whatever is
made of cow’s milk, though human milk is some-
times given to old people as a restorative. Nearer
home, in Italy even, milk and butter are but little
, and cows are in request mainly for rearing
calves. The large Italian breed can do little more
than feed their young; and milch cows, if wanted,
are brought from Switzerland. In Italy and some
other countries, cattle are all stall-fed, vine, elm,
_ oak leaves forming an important part of their

Wild Cattle.—In various parts of the world,
Species occur of cattle more or less wild, which are
certainly different from any of the domesticated
Euro breeds. Such are the Banteng (Bos

banteng), the Gaur Ox (B. gaurus), the Gayal| B

{B. gaveus). But besides these extra-Euro

wild cattle, there are abundant remains of three
virtually extinct European species, from which the
domesticated breeds are believed to have gradually

originated. These are B. primigenius, B. longi-
JSrons, B. frontosus. The ‘iret eanebs virtually
extinct within historic times, is known as the
Ur in the Nibelungenlied, was domesticated in
Switzerland in the Neolithic period, was common
in Britain and on the Continent in the time of
Cesar, seems to have persisted in Poland till the
17th century, and still survives in a semi-wild
stage, ‘though much degenerated in size,’ in Chil-
lingham Park in the north of Northumberland. In
1692 the flock numbered but 28; in 1875, 62 in all.
At Cadzow near Hamilton is another herd, differin
somewhat from those of Chillingham, but presum
to be also representatives of a detachment of the
wild cattle that roamed the Caledonian Forest.
Other herds are still found at Chartley (Stafford-
shire), Somerford (Cheshire), and Kilmory (Argyll-
shire); whilst that at Gisburn ( Yorkshire) became
extinct in 1859, and that of Lyme (Cheshire)
dwindled from 34 head in 1850 to 4 in 1875,
Though the casi beep survivals preserved at
Chillingham ‘are less altered from the true primé-
genius type than any other known breed,’ there is
some reason to suppose from their white colour and
some other features that they are descended from
a partially domesticated ancestry. As to other
descendants of B. primigenius, which have diverged
further from the — type, it is peony
supposed that the Podolian cattle of South Russia,
Hungary, &c., the larger breeds in Friesland,
Holland, and other parts of the Continent, and
the Pembroke breed in England, are to be referred
back to the same source.

B. longifrons or brachyceros was a smaller animal
with short body. It was domesticated in Switzer-
land in the Neolithic period; it was early intro-
duced into Britain (vast quantities of its bones
having been found in remains of a lake-dwelling at
Croyland); and it has its probable descendants in
some of the mountain breeds of Switzerland, the
Tyrol, and Bavaria (e.g. the Appenzell cattle), and,
according to Owen, in some of the Welsh and
pi 27> cattle.

. frontosus is found along with the latter
species, to which it is closely allied. It occurs in
the peat-mosses of Scandinavia, and also in Ire-
land. It is regarded as the probable ancestor of
the N: seh aes mountain cattle, of the Bern cattle,
and, according to Owen and others, of some of the
Scotch Highland varieties. In regard to many of
these igrees, dogmatic statement is quite im-

ible, and much difference of opinion obtains.

he most divergent opinion is that of Wilckens,
who maintains that some of the European domestic
breeds are descended from the European bison.

Darwin’s Animals and Plants under Domestication,
vol. i., may be conveniently consulted for facts and refer-
ences. See the articles Bown, BREED, BULL-FIGHT,
Gaur, Musk Ox, Rancuine, Yak, ZeEBU, &c. The
diseases of cattle are discussed under their own heads—
CATTLE-PLAGUE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, ANTHRAX, MUR-
RAIN, Bot, BLACK QUARTER, &Xc. ; the law thereof under
ConTAGIOUS DISEASES; and G, Fleming’s Animal Plagues
(1871-82). See also Darry, BuTTER, CHEESE, and MILK.
On cattle generally, see Youatt’s Complete Grazier (13th
ed., rewritten by Dr Wm. Fream, 1893); Pringle’s Live
Stock of the Farm ; Wallace’s Farm Live Stock of Great
Britain ; Stephens’s Book of the Farm (new ed. by Mac-
donald) ; oF 8 Allen’s American Cattle (New York). For
Wild Cattle, see Wilckens, Rinderrassen Mittel-Europas
(Vienna, 1876); J. A. Smith, Ancient Cattle of Scotland
(1873); and Harting, Extinct British Animals (1880).
Cattle, in English Law. See CHATTEL.
Cattle-plague (Ger. Rinderpest ; Lat. Typhus
ovis Contagiosus). This is a specific malignant and
contagious fever indigenous to the Asiatic steppes
of Russia, India, Persia, China, Burma, Ceylon,
&ec.; never occurring in Britain but as a result
of direct or indirect communication with imported

24 CATTLE-PLAGUE

CATULLUS

cattle, or with hides and offal which have been
exposed to the centagion; and is hitherto unknown
in America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is
essentially a disease of the bovine family (ox,
aurochs, and zebu), but may be communicated
to the sheep, goat, deer, camel, giraffe, antelope,
gazelle, and even the peccary.

Records of fatal paaaes in cattle have been
handed down from very early dates, but the
descriptions are so meagre that it is possible only
to surmise their nature. It is probable that one
of the plagues of Egypt was a form of anthrax,
but in the reign of N ero (69 A.D.) Columella
describes a disease which resembles cattle-plague.
He says: ‘The fever is present when tears are
trickling down the face, when the head is earried
low and heavily, and the eyes are closed; when
the saliva flows from the mouth, when the respira-
tion is shorter than in health, and seemingly em-
barrassed or sometimes accompanied by groaning.’
About 400 A.D. Vegetius Renatus describes, under
the term Malleus, a disease which might have been
cattle-plague. In 809-10 A.D., during the wars of
Charlemagne, occurred a great outbreak of cattle-
plague, which spread over nearly the whole of

urope, and particularly Britain. In 1348-49 a
plague broke out amongst the cattle in England,
just after the black death had destroyed thousands
of human beings ; it seems to have been similar to
cattle-plague. Even in those days the stamping-
out system was understood, as the diseased cattle
were slaughtered, and infected herds, and the
herdsmen attending them, were kept from coming
into contact with sound animals.

In 1480 another outbreak occurred which com-
mitted great devastation. It cannot be stated
positively that these outbreaks were cattle-plague,
as the symptoms have not been clearly fasted
down, but there is evidence to prove that out-
breaks occurring in 1715, in 1745, and which con-
tinued until 1757, were those of the veritable

plague. That of 1745 was brought from Holland
either by two white calves, or by a parcel of dis-
tempered hides brought from Zealand. The disease

broke out near London, continued for twelve years,
and was only suppressed by most vigorous measures.
It again made its appearance in 1865, and was
introduced by 331 cattle shipped at Revel, and
landed at Hull. Amongst these were 13 Russian
cattle, the remainder of 46 which had been
brought from St Petersburg and its neighbour-
hood. The cargo arrived on 29th May, and a lot
of 146 were disposed of at Hull on the 30th. The
remaining 175 were sent to London. Amongst
them were 330 sheep which were sold at Hull to
the butchers and killed, and all the 175 cattle
except 20 were sold for killing, but the remaining
20 were sent to Gosport. rom this source the
disease spread rapidly, and by the end of July it
appeared in Aberdeenshire, brought by 4 calves
sent to Huntly from the south. By the beginning
of November the plague was present in 30 counties
in England, 17 in Scotland, and 1 in Wales; and
on December 30 the disease had appeared on 7443
farms or in cattle-sheds in England, 2065 in Scot-
land, and 245 in Wales; total—9753 centres of
infection. The total number of cattle on farms, in
sheds, or other places where the disease had been
officially reported to exist, was—England, 110,647 ;
Scotland, 44,527; Wales, 4536; total, 159,710.
And the number of healthy animals in contact
and slaughtered were—England, 10,636; Scotland,
6578 ; Wales, 152; total, 17,366. The number
attacked were—England, 48,964; Scotland, 22,298 ;
Wales, 2287; total, 73,549. Out of this number
7045 recovered, 41,491 died, 13,931 were killed, and
11,082 remained diseased at this date. The plague
continued to spread and to commit great havoc,

until an Order in Council was issued making it.
compulsory to slaughter and bury all diseased.
cattle, as well as those which had been in contact
with them. The beneficial effect of this order was.
soon made apparent, as the disease gradually
diminished and eventually died out.

Had the restrictions upon cattle traffic been
removed, there would have been another visitation
in 1872, for in July of that year, animals affected
with the disease were sent to Deptford, Hull, and
Leith, but owing to its swift recognition, were not,
allowed to land in Scotland. From Hull, however,
it spread to Bridlington, Pocklington, and two
other parishes in the East Riding of Yorkshire,
but through the activity of the authorities was
prevented from spreading further.

Sheep do not readily take the disease when kept
in fields with affected cattle, but if kept together
in close sheds, they take the disease in a short
time.

Symptoms.—The virus absorbed into the blood.
gives rise to elevation of temperature (fever),
which precedes all other symptoms, and occurs in.
from 36 to 48 hours after an animal has been
inoculated. It will be thus seen that the period of
latency—ineubation—is very short. Two days.
after this elevation of temperature, the mucous.
membrane of the mouth, as well as that of the:
vagina in the cow, assumes a salmon colour, and
is covered with an eruption. Even at this time
the pulse is but little affected, but on the fourth
day from the first rise of temperature there are
marked signs of illness; the constitution is
thoroughly invaded, and now ensue the drooping
head, hanging ears, distressed look, with rigors.
and twitching of the muscles, ie 3 pulse, op-
pressed breathing, diarrhea, fetid breath, dis-
charge from the eyes, nose, and mouth, and con-
stant moan so characteristic of this dreadful
malady ; death usually occurs on the seventh day
from the first perceptible elevation of temperature,
but the third or fourth after the illness is apparent-
to ordinary observers.

Cause and Cure.—As long ago as 1872 the disease
was believed, and has since been proved, to be-
caused by microbes (see GERM). The awful epi-
demic which, entering Africa from the north-east.
about 1889, desolated a great part of South Africa,
gave appalling opportunities forstudyingthe malady
and attempting cures. The disease reached the
Zambesi in 1895; in Matabeleland between March
1896 and January 1897 it left of all the vast herds of
horned cattle probably not 500 alive, buffaloes and
antelopes being also exterminated. Bechuanaland,
the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Cape Colony
(1897) were successively desolated. In 1897 Koch of
Berlin was at work, and his inoculative methods
(with cultivated microbes, serum, &c.) were believed
to lend help if not immunity; and Edington ob-
tained success by inoculating living animals with
the blood of those dead of the disease after beigps = 3
it with citric acid, as also by inoculating with.
glycerine and bile, &c.

Cattolica, a town of Sicily, with sulphur-
works, 14 miles NW. of Girgenti. Pop. 6591.

Catullus, Gatus VALERIUS, the greatest lyric:
poet of ancient Italy, and one of the greatest poets.
of all ages, was born at Verona either in 87 or,
more probably, in 84.B.c. Few of the incidents in
his life are known to us, and the dates assigned
to these are in most cases only conjectural. He-
appears to haye belonged to the equestrian order,
ant his years were spent mainly at Rome, where:
he settled about 62 B.c., and at his villas to which
he was fond of retiring, at Tibur and Sifmio. He
began to write verses when a boy of sixteen or
seventeen. ‘When my primrose youth was in its:

| ae

———

‘

Se ee te.
ix) ¥ ’

ee Se oS SS —

ee ee eS eC
~ a :

che
eretius. And in Rome he met the lady whom,

_ the propreetor Gaius

"adapted from t

CATULLUS

CAUCASUS 25

re ee Ts he says, ‘I played enough at

In Rome he mingled with the best
, becoming intimate with the two Ciceros,
etelli, Hortensius, and probably with Lu-

under the name of Lesbia, he has sung in verses
which stand at the head of the lyric try of

m. It is almost certain that the bia of
Catullus was none other than Clodia, the sister
of Cicero’s enemy, Publius Clodius Pulcher. One

_ of the most beautiful and accomplished women of

her time, she inspired Catullus with a passionate
love of which the changing phases are mirrored in
a wonderful cycle of poems. There is first a time
of rapturous joy ; then come doubts, quarrels, and
reconciliations, and in the end betrayal and de-

ir. The final rupture seems to have happened
in 57 B.C., and in that year Catullus accompanied
emmius to his province of
og fen He returned to Rome disappointed in
his hopes of enriching himself, and entered im-
petuously into the contest which was then being
waged between the senatorian and the democratic

ies. Like Cicero and most of the men of
etters of his day, he espoused the cause of the
senate. A fiery, unscrupulous partisan, he assailed
his enemies with equal scurrility and wit, and
directed one of his coarsest lampoons at the head
of Julius Cesar. His closing years were darkened
by the loss of a favourite brother, on whose tomb
in the Troad, which he visited when returning
from Bithynia, he wrote one of the most exquisite
of all poems that breathe regret for the d He
was himself cut off in early life, for, though the
exact date of his death can only be conjectured,
oA all probability he did not survive the year

B.C. ?

The extant works of Catullus comprise 116
ee. many of which are extremely brief, while
he longest of them contains only some 400 lines.
There is considerable variety, however, in this
somewhat slender body of poetry. There are
graceful, playful verses of society, and there are
verses, struck out in the heat of party warfare,

‘in which satiric wit sparkles through fescennine

raillery. There are elaborate descriptive and
mythological pieces, such as the Coma Berenices

and the stately and richly-coloured Peleus and
Thetis, which nprest to have been translated or
e Greek. There is the Aftis, a
strange poem, unlike any other work of a Latin
writer in its wild imaginative power and in the
= sree sound and sweep of its galliambic verse.
And there is the crowning series of love-poems, in
which the incarnation of burning passion in ex-
quisite language, the mastery of verbal music, are
carried to what is seemingly the highest attain-
able point of perfection. In these ‘ Lesbia
poems’ there is no sign of the laborious art which
roduced the mosaic-work of the Horatian odes.
hey seem to have flowed forth—thought, feeling,
phrase, and cadence combined in a perfect ‘wii
—at a single creative impulse. Their author’s
mastery of the Latin tongue was unerring and
unbounded. In his works it seems endowed with
the elastic and radiant strength of the Greek. He
revealed all it had of energy, sonority, and sweet-
ness, of monumental dignity and laughing grace.
He mouided it into lines which neither Lucretius
nor Virgil has s for majesty of rhythm ; he
wove it into lyrics which for lightness of move-
ment and caressing sweetness of cadence are
unmatched in all the fields of Latin verse. For
breadth of vision, fertility of thought, insight into
human character, we must turn to other writers
than Catullus. For fire and music and unlaboured
felicity, of phrase he has no superior among the
lyric poets of all time.

The text of the works of Catullus, after having
been lost for more than three hundred years, was
discovered in the 14th century at Verona. The
original manuscript was again lost, and until
lately only one copy of it, which was preserved at
St Germains, and is now in Paris, was believed to
be in existence. A manuscript in the Bodleian
Library, however, has been discovered by Dr
Bihrens to be a sister copy of the St Germains
manuscript. The best editions are by Mr Robinson
Ellis (1867; new ed. 1878; Commentary, new ed.
1889), Bihrens sete 1876; new ed. 1885); Post-
awn and 8. G. Owen (1893). Among Eng-
ish verse translations are those of Martin (1861),
Cranstoun (1867), Ellis (1871), Hart Davies
(1879), and Grant Allen (the Aftis, 1892). See
also Munro’s Criticisms and Elucidations (1878) ;
Sellar’s Roman Poets of the Republic (new ed.
1881); and Lafaye, Catulle et ses Modéles (1894).

Catydid, See Katypip.

Caub, a town in the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 30 miles
WNW. of Wiesbaden by rail. Here Bliicher
crossed the Rhine with his army, January 1, 1814;
and here, too, till 1866, toll was levied by the Duke
of Nassau—the only ruler who kept up this feudal
rig SO vessels navigating the Rhine. Caub

as underground slate-quarries ; and opposite, on
an island in the river, where Louis le Débonnaire
died in 840, is a castle called the Pfalz, built in
1326, which is said to have been resorted to for
safety by the Countesses Palatine during childbed.
In 1876 and 1879 Caub was the scene of two serious
landslips. Pop. 2179.

Cauca, a river of Colombia, in South America,
which, after a northerly course of 600 miles, falls
into the Magdalena. Its valley is one of the
richest and most populous districts of the continent,
and it gives name to the largest of the Colombian
states, traversed by the Andean coast-range, and
extending along the Pacific from Panama to
Ecuador. Area, 260,000 sq. m.; population esti-
mated at 460,000. It is rich in minerals, and
possesses the most productive platinum mine in
America. Capital, Popayan.

Caucasus and the Caucasians. The great
mountain-range of the Caucasus forms the back-
bone of a well-marked geographical region, nearl
corresponding with the Russian governor-general-
ship or lieutenancy of Cancasia. The natural and
administrative northern limit is the great Manitch
depression, extending from the Sea of Azov to the
Caspian, and including the basins of the Kuban
and Terek rivers. The southern natural limit is
along the basins of the Rion and Kur rivers. The
Russian province comprises all the Russian terri-
tory to the Turkish and Persian frontiers, including
also part of the Armenian highlands and the
mountain masses adjoining them, now known by
the infelicitous name of Little Caucasus, south of
the Rion and Kur rivers. Little or Anti-Caucasus
is connected with Caucasus proper by the narrow
Mesk ridge crossing the Rion-Kur Valley between
the headwaters of those streams. The Sea of Azov
and the Caspian seem at one time to have been
connected by the Manitch depression; south of
which extend vast steppes of flat treeless land—
fertile, but with little or no water. South of the
steppe to the northern spurs of the mountains is
luxuriant park land covered with magnificent
grasses, sik also quite level. Beyond this rise the
mountains in successive terraces, On the south
side, towards the Rion and Kur, the mountain face
is much steeper and more sudden.

The Caucasus occupies the isthmus between the
Black Sea and the Caspian, its general direction
being from west-north-west to east-south-east.

26

CAUCASUS

From the peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, to
the peninsula of Apsheron on the Caspian, it has a
length of about 750 miles. The breadth, including
the secondary ranges and spurs, is about 150 miles,
but that of the higher Caucasus does not exceed 70
miles. This range is sometimes treated as part of
the boundary line between Europe and Asia, but
the region is really Asiatic in character (see ASIA).
The higher and central part of the range is formed
of parallel chains, not separated by deep and wide
valleys, but remarkably connected by elevated
plateaus, which are traversed by narrow fissures of
extreme depth. The highest peaks are in the most
- central ridge or chain, at least six of them well
over 16,000 feet, much exceeding the highest Alps.
Mount Elburz attains an elevation of 18,540 feet
above the sea; Kazbek reaches a height of more
than 16,500 feet ; and between these come Koshtan-
tau and Dikh-tau. Here the line of perpetual snow
is between 10,000 and 11,000 feet bak but the
whole amount of perpetual snow is not great, nor
are the glaciers very large or numerous. For more
than 100 miles’ length of the main ridge there are
no passes lower than 10,000 feet. he central
chain, in its highest part at least, is granitic or
even pure granite. On either side of the granitic
axis are metamorphic rocks, such as mica-schists
and tale-schists ; and beyond these, clay-slates and
schists. The secondary parallel chains on both
sides of the central ridge are of limestone. The
spurs and outlying mountains.or hills are of less
extent and importance than those of almost any
other mountain-range of similar magnitude, sub-
siding as they do until they are es about 200
feet high along the shores of the Black Sea. Some
parts are entirely destitute of wood, but other parts
are very densely wooded, and the secondary ranges
near the Black Sea exhibit most magnificent forests
of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut; grain is
cultivated in some parts to a height of 8000 feet,
while in the lower valleys rice, tobacco, cotton,
indigo, &c. are produced. As might be expected
from the geographical situation of the Caucasus,
the climate, though it is generally healthy, is very
different on the northern and southern sides, the
vine growing wild in great abundance on the south,
which is not the case on the north. The south
declivity of the mountains towards Georgia presents
much exceedingly beautiful and romantic scenery.

There are no active voleanoes in Mount Caucasus,
but every evidence of voleanic action. Elburz and
Kazbek are both of voleanic origin. There are hot
springs and mud volcanoes at each end of the
range, and there are also famous petroleum wells
in the peninsula of Apsheron (see BAKU). Mineral
ppings also occur in many places, notably at Vla-

ikavkaz. The bison, or aurochs, is found in the
mountains ; bears, wolves, and jackals are among
the carnivorous animals. Lead, iron, sulphur,
coal, and copper are found.

The waters of the Caucasus flow into four prin-
cipal rivers—the Kuban and the Rion or Faz (the
Phasis of the ancients), which flow into the Black
Sea; and the Terek and the Kur, which flow into
the Caspian. Kuban and Terek are north, Rion
and Kur or Kura south of the mountains. The
Russians have with great labour carried a military
road through a valley somewhat wider than most
of the Caucasian valleys. This is the tremendous
fissure or ravine of the Dariel gorge about half-
way from the Black Sea to the Caspian. The road
passes over a height of about 8000 feet, and is
pierre by many forts. The only other road is

y the Pass of Derbend, near the Caspian Sea.
There is a railway from Baku by Tiflis to Poti and
Batoum; Vladikavkaz is the terminus of the rail-
way from the north. —

AUCASIAN was the name adopted by Blumen-

bach (q.v.) for one of his main ethnological divisions
of mankind ; and as the Georgian skull he had was,
the finest in his collection, the Caucasian was taken
as the finest type of the Indo-European stock. Sub-
sequent ethnologists have, mainly on philological
rounds, broken up the Caucasian variety of
lumenbach into two well-marked philological
groups, the Aryan (q.v.) and the Semitic peoples
(q.v.). The name Caucasian was clearly a mis-
nomer when it suggested affinity in blood or in
language between the very various races of the
Caucasus, classified below, and Aryans or Semites ;
and Prichard and others proposed actually to
connect most of the Caucasus peoples with the
Mongolian races of Asia. Later anthropologists,
finding the word convenient, use Caucasian or
Caucasic for the Fair type of man as Onpene to
the Mongolic or Yellow type. But they dis-
tinctly repudiate any ee of community
of race or of language between the peoples so
named; and desire to indicate a hie fact and.
an anthropological type. See ETHNOLOGY; also
PHILOLOGY.

The Caucasus has been called the Mountain of
Languages from the multiplicity of tongues spoken
in this narrow area—tongues many of them totaily
distinct from one another, and, with one exception,
apparently unconnected with the languages of an

other part of the globe, or race of men; thoug
both Aryan and Packernan affinities have been
alleged for Georgian, and Sayce has suggested

that the ancient Hittites (q.v.), whose empire in
Asia Minor rivalled that of the Assyrians, were
of the same stock. There are certain well-marked
groups amongst them, within which manifest
affinity prevails. (1) The Southern division or
Kartveli stock comprises the Gedrgians or Grusi-
ans, mainly in the upper and middle basin of the
Kur; the Imeritians, west of the watershed be-
tween the Kur and Rion; the Mingrelians, farther
west reaching to the Black Sea ; the Gurians, south
of the Rion; the Laz, on the Turkish frontiers; and
the Svans or Suanetians, between the Mingrelians
and the higher Caucasus. (2) The estern
division contains the Tcherkess or Circassian race,
formerly on the left bank of the Kuban, north of
Caucasus ; the Abkhasians in the narrow strip of
land between the Caucasus and the Black Sea on
the south; and the Kabards, north and east of
Elburz. (3) The Eastern division contains the
Chechenz or Tchetchens on the northern slopes of
the Eastern Caucasus down to the Terek; and the
Lesghians farther east and south. It is doubtful
whether the numerous small tribes called Lesghians
have any affinity with the Tchetchens, or how far
they are related to one another; only one, the
Avars, have a written language, and they use
Arabic characters. (4) The Ossetes or Ossetians in
the centre of Caucasus, on both slopes about
Kazbek, are unquestionably a race of the Aryan
stock, and the language has affinity with the
Persian branch; they call themselves Irun (prob-
ably meaning Aryan). The Kartveli group may
contain 850,000 persons; the Western group,
130,000; the Eastern, 520,000; the Ossetian,
120,000. All the Caucasian languages are ex-
tremely harsh. Some of them are partially in-
flectional ; all save the Ossetian are substantially
agglutinative.

In various portions of this territory there are
of course other intrusive elements of population of
foreign race: Russian Slavs; Tartars; numerous
Armenians; Kurds; Greeks; Tats and other
Iranians or Tajiks; and a German colony from
Wiirtemberg, east of Tiflis. Not merely do the
inhabitants of the Caucasus differ widely in race,
but they represent great variety of stages of culture,
from the indolent, music-loving Georgians to the

than twenty

CAUCHY

CAULIFLOWER 27

wild and semi-barbarous Suanetians. Christianity
is the faith of some races, as the Georgians and
Ossetes ; Mohammedanism of a fanatical type that
of others, as the Lesghians; while primitive pagan
superstitions seem largely to underlie both religious
ions. One Kartvelian tribe, the Khevsurs,
in some measure combined Christianity with
Moslem usages.

The resistance which the Caucasian peoples for
more than half a century offered to the arms of
Russia attracted to them the attention of the
world. But with the capture in 1859 of Shamyl,
the prophet chief of the Lesghians, who for more
ears withstood the armies sent
red him, the power of the Caucasians was

ttered ; by 1870 it was completely broken. The
bulk of the Circassians migrated to Turkish terri-
tories in Asia or Europe ; most of the Abkhasians
have done the like. The ancient divisions of
the country, Georgia, Imeritia, Svanetia, Mingrelia,
&c., were on tribal distinctions. These have
disappeared from the Russian administrative

tem. According to the latter, the main range

Caucasus divides the province into Ciscaucasia,
north of the mountains, and Transcaucasia to the
south of them; the former comprising the govern-
ments of Stavropol, Kuban, Terek; the latter,
those of Daghes (really north of Caucasus),
Sakatal, Tiflis, Kutais, Sukhum, Black Sea, Elisa-
betpol, Baku, and Erivan. Add Batoum and Kars
(Russian Armenia), and the Transcaspian_terri-
tory, and then Caucasia in the widest sense has an
area of 308,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 6,290,000. The
chief town in Ciscaucasia is Vladikavkaz; in Trans-
eaucasia, Tiflis; the two connected by the great
military road through the Caucasus. The old
capital of Georgia was Mtzkhet, a good specimen
of a Georgian word. For Caucasus and Caucasia,
see the map of Russia in Vol. VIII., and the articles
CIRCASSIANS, GEORGIA, TRANSCAUCASIA, and, for
the wars with Russia, SHAMYL; also Freshfield,
The Exploration of the Caucasus (1897); Cuning-
hame, Lastern Caucasus (1872); Bryce, Transcau-
casia (1878); Phillipps-Wolley, Savage Svanetia
(1883); Mourier, Contes et Légendes du Caucase
(1888) ; Abercromby, A Trip through the Eastern
Caucasus (1890).

Cauchy, Avcustin Louis, mathematician,
rn in Paris, 2lst August 1789, published in 1815
a Mémoire sur la Théorie des Ondes, which con-
tributed greatly to establish the undulatory theo
of light. Between 1820 and 1830 he wrote seve
important treatises; and at P e, where he
resided as tutor to the Comte de Chambord, he pub-
lished his Mémoire sur la Dispersion de la Lumiere
(1837). From 1848 to 1852 he was professor of
Astronomy at Paris, but refused the oath of alle-
iance to Na leon III., and lived in retirement till
death, May 1857. A reissue of his works,
in 26 vols., was commenced by the Academy in
1882. _ See his Life by Valson (2 vols. Paris, 1868).

Caucus, « private meeting of politicians to
upon candidates to be proposed for an ensuing
Mction or to fix the business to be laid before a
general meeting of their party. The term origin-
ated in America, where the caucus has taken fast
root, the ‘ticket,’ or list of candidates for federal,
state, and municipal offices, being always decided
upon by the party leaders; but of late years the
system has been introduced into England, and
adopted by the Radicals, especially in Birmingham,
though the word is there used rather for the regu-
larly constituted party organisation. In Notes and
Queries for 1885 there is a long discussion as to the
origin of the word, which Sydney Smith used in
1818, and John Adams in 1763. Professor Skeat is
inclined to refer it to an Indian source, Captain

John Smith (1609) having Cawcawwassoughes for
the Indian councillors of Virginia, and Caucorouse
for an Indian captain.

Cauda-galli Grit, the basement subdivision
of the Devonian system of North America. The
name (lit. ‘cock’s tail’) is derived from the arenes |
forms of a common fossil, supposed to be a seaweed.

Caudebec, two places in the French depart-
ment of Seine-Inférieure. Caudebec lés Elbeuf, 12
miles 8. by W. of Rouen, has a pop. (1886) of
11,038, and manufactures cloth. Caudebec-en-
Caux, a pretty antique village of 2200 inhabitants,
is on the Seine, 31 miles WNW. of Rouen.

Caudine Forks (Furcule Caudine), two
high, narrow, and wooded mountain-gorges near
the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium, on the
borders of Campania; noted for the defeat of the
Romans in the second Samnite war (321 B.C.).
See RoME.

Caul, a portion of the amnion or thin membrane
enveloping the foetus, sometimes encompassing the
head of a child when born, mentioned here on ac-
count of the extraordinary superstitions connected
with it from very “ogee ages almost down to the

resent day. It was the popular belief that chil-
ies so born would turn out very fortunate, and
that the caul brought fortune even to those who
purchased it. This superstition was so common
in the primitive church, that St Chrysostom
‘evekeeods against it in several of his homilies. In
later times midwives sold the caul to advocates
at high prices, as an especial means of making
them eloquent, and to seamen, as an infallible
preservative — drowning (cf. Dickens’s David
arene ). It was also supposed that the health
of the eae born with it could be told by the
eaul, which, if firm and crisp, betokened health,
but if relaxed and flaccid, sickness or death ( Notes
and Queries, 1884-86). During the 17th century
cauls were often advertised in the newspapers for
sale—from £10 to £30 being the prices asked ;
and so recently as 8th May 1848, there was an
advertisement in the 7%mes of a caul to be sold,
which ‘ was afloat with its late owner thirty years
in all the perils of a seaman’s life, and the owner
died at last at the place of his birth.’ The price
asked was six guineas.

Caulaincourt, ARMAND DE, Duke of Vicenza,
a statesman of the French empire, born at Caulain-
court (Aisne), in 1772, early distinguished himself
as an officer, was made a general of division in
1805, and shortly after created Duke of Vicenza.
Faithful to the last to Napoleon, he was made
Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1813, and during
the Hundred Days resumed the office, receiving
a peerage of France, of which he was deprived after
the restoration. He died in Paris, February 19,
1827. See his Souvenirs (1837-40).

Cauliflower, a variety of the common kale or
cabbage. It was cultivated by the Greeks and
Romans, but was little cibanded to in England till
the end of the 17th century; yet prior to the
French Revolution cauliflower formed an article
of export from England to Holland, whilst English
cauliflower seed is still preferred on the Continent.
The deformed inflorescence or heads of the cauli-
flower only are used. Its cultivation for the supply
of Covent Garden and other markets occupies the
attention of the market-gardeners of London, Corn-
wall, Devonshire, and the Channel Islands to a
very large extent during winter and spring. It is
much more tender than Broccoli (q.v.), and the
plants that are reared in August for the purpose
of supplying the first crop of the following summer
require to be protected under hand-glasses or frames
during winter. They require to be freely exposed

28 CAULKING

CAUSALITY

to air in mild or comparatively mild weather, but
severe frost must be piaventon from entering the
glasses or frames. From the middle of August to
the 24th of that month, make two or three sowings
at intervals of three or four days. The plants
reared from these sowings are planted out, a cer-
tain portion of the strongest under hand-glasses to
furnish the earliest crop; and an abundant reserve
of the smaller plants are planted a few inches apart
in frames, to be planted out finally in the spring in
the open ground. To succeed these a sowing may
be made in a hotbed in January or February; and
again in March and May, plants should be reared
for successional crops, these later sowings being
made in the open ground. The ground must be
rich and the cultivation high to produce cauliflower
of first-rate quality; there is some risk, however,
in having the pts too rich for the winter crop
in the case of severe weather occurring; if the
plants are extra luxuriant, they will the more
readily succumb to frost.

Caulking, in wood shipbuilding, is the opera-
tion of driving oakum or untwisted rope into the
seams of the outside planks, or of the deck plank-
ing, to render them watertight. The quantity
thus driven in depends on the thickness of the
planking ; it varies from 1 to 13 double threads of
oakum, with 1 or 2 single threads of spun yarn.
The caulker first raims or reems the seam—that is,
drives a caulking-iron into it, to widen the seam as
much as possible, and close any rents or fissures in
the wood; he then drives in a little spun yarn or
white oakum with a wood mallet and a caulking-
chisel, and afterwards a much larger quantity of
black or coarse-oakum. The fibres are driven in
until they form a densely hard mass, which not
only keeps out water, but strengthens the plank-
ing. The seam is finally coated or payed with hot
pitch or resin.

In iron or steel shipbuilding and boilermaking
the term covers the operation of driving the edge
of one thickness of plating firmly against the other
thickness upon which it is superimposed, or to
which it is adjacent, thus rendering the joints
watertight. The tool employed is a specially
formed chisel, struck by a metal hand-hammer ;
but endeavours have been made to supplant this
by steam-driven machines, so far with but indiffer-
ent success.

Caulop'teris, a
certain extinct tree-ferns, which range from the
Devonian to the Permian system. They are
hollow, and covered with markings similar to
the leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns.

Caura, a considerable river of Venezuela, rises
among the sierras of the southern frontier, and
flows NNW. to the Orinoco.
stretches the territory of Caura (22,485 sq. m.),
with immense forests of tonka beans.

Caus, CAULX, or CAULS, SALOMON DE, en-
gineer, born at Dieppe in 1576, was a Protestant,
and lived much in England and Germany. He was
in the service of the Prince of Wales in 1612, and
of the Elector Palatine, at Heidelberg, in 1614-20;
but by 1623 he returned to France, and became
engineer and architect to the king. He died in
Paris, 6th June 1626. At Frankfort in 1615
appeared his Raisons des Forces Mouvantes, &c., a
work in which is described an apparatus for forcing
up water by a steam fountain, differing only’ in
one detail from that of Della Porta (see STEAM-
ENGINE). There is no reason to suppose that the
iat ever was constructed ; but on the strength
of the description, Arago has claimed for De Caus
the invention of the steam-engine. See the article
Der Cavs in vol. xiv. of the Diot. of National
Biography (1888).

neric name for the stems of ,

On both sides.

Causality, or the theory of the relation be-
tween cause and effect, is one of the most intricate
and important questions of philosophical doctrine.
All scientific investigation is occupied with the
search for the causes of given events, or for the
effects of given causes, and with the generalisation
of these into laws of nature. But the nature and
ground of the relation between cause and effect are
obscure and disputed.

The difficulty of the question is largely increased
by the uncertain signification of the word cause.
Thus the investigation into the cause of things,
with which early Greek speculation was occupied,
was really an inquiry for the ultimate constituent
or element from which the variety of actual
existence had proceeded; and from this inquiry
the quest for a principle of change or development
was only gradually distinguished. The first im-
portant step in the direction of clear discussion
was made in Aristotle’s doctrine of the ‘four
causes :’ the material cause, out of which a thing
is framed; the formal cause, or the essence or
idea of the thing; the efficient or active cause, by
means of which it took its present form; and the
jinal cause or purpose it subserves. These, it is
to be observed, are not so much causes in the
modern sense of the term, as principles which enter
into the existence of everything. In modern
science the meaning of the term is much more
restricted, corresponding in some degree to what
Aristotle called the efficient cause. Thus both
Bacon and Descartes wished to banish the notion
of final cause from the scientific interpre-
tation of nature; and although, in Bacon’s own
method, science was treated as an inquiry into
the form or true nature of things (corresponding
thus to Aristotle’s formal cause), this notion has.
had little influence. What Descartes sought, and
what science still seeks, is the connection rather
than the essence of things; and its ideal is a
mechanical interpretation of nature in terms of
matter and motion. In modern science cause
may therefore be said to mean the explanation
of change. To some extent it corresponds with
Aristotle’s efficient cause. But the notion of
efficient cause has itself undergone a profound
modification, which seems to have been carried
out alongside of the formulating of the principle
of the conservation of energy. The tendency in
science has been to replace the notion of power or
efficiency by that of order or constant sequence.
The genesis and justification of the notion of
efficiency are matters of dispute: whether it is an
a priort intuition, or derived from the conscious-
ness of the voluntary direction of attention, or
from the sensations of innervation and muscular
resistance. Both Berkeley and Hume directed a
vigorous hat against the doctrine of power
expressed by Locke, as going beyond the observed
facts of the motion of bodies, and Hume refused
to see in mind any more than in matter anything
else than a succession of impressions and ideas.
Into the rights of this pontrorenay it is impossible
to enter here. But clearness of scientific state-
ment has certainly been gained by the extrusion
of the notion of power, and substitution for it of
that of regular sequence. It is in following out.
this view of the physical as distinct from the
efficient cause that the term comes to be defined
as the aggregate of the conditions or antecedents.
necessary to the production of the effect : meaning
by necessary conditions those conditions without
which the effect either would not have existed at.
all, or would have been different from what it is.
In popular language, however, and even in most.
scientific inquiries, the term cause is restricted to
the one or two conditions by the intervention of
which amongst other more permanent conditions

CAUSALITY CAUSTICS 29

phers and others, as well as Kant, had attempted
replies to Hume, contending that causality is an
intuitive judgment antecedent to experience. But
such a reply remains an arbitrary assertion until it
is shown how the causal judgment is connected
with experience. In Kant’s Critique of Pure

the effect is produced. Thus it is noticeable that
while the former or more complete definition

corresponds with that expressly given in J. 8.
Mill’s Logic, his inductive methods are entirely
devoted to explaining modes of discovering causes
__ in the narrower or popular signification.

to be found in antecedent conditions.

It is in this meaning of the term that science
investigates causes. In doing so, it goes on the
presupposition that every event or change has a
cause, This has been called the Law of Uni-
versal Causation, and may be expressed by

g that the explanation of every event is

is a “i rig spe
vestigation also presupposes the Law of the
Uniformity of Nature, that the same conditions
or cause will be followed (at all times and places)
by the same effects. The grounds and mutual
relation of these two assumptions form the chief
subject of controversy in the philosophical theory
of causality. It is to Hume that the credit is due
of having drawn attention to the difficulties in-
volved in the principle of causation, in such a way
as to determine the whole course of subsequent
hilosophy. All reasoning about matters of fact,
e shows—all physical science, therefore—depends
on the relation lassen cause and effect. Yet,
between the cause and the effect there is no dis-
coverable connection. ‘There appears not, through
all nature, any one instance of connection which is
conceivable by us. All events seem entirely loose
and separate. One event follows another; but we
never can observe any tie between them. They
seem conjoined, but never connected.’ Hume’s own
solution of the difficulty is found in the law of
mental association. ‘The mind,’ he says, ‘is
carried by habit upon the appearance of one event

to expect its usual attendant, and to believe that
it will exist. This connection, therefore, which we

vel in the mind, or customary transition of the
imagination from one object to its usual attendant,
is the sentiment or impression from which we form
the idea of power or necessary connection. Nothing
further is in the case. . . . When we say, there-
fore, that one object is connected with another, we
mean only that they have acquired a connection in
our thoughts, and give rise to this inference by
which they became proofs of one another’s exist-
ence: a conclusion which is somewhat extra-
ordinary, but which seems founded on sufficient
evidence.’ The conclusion to which Hume is
driven is thus that, while all reasoning about
matters of fact is founded on the principle of
causality, this principle has itself no other basis
than the mental tendency to pass from one impres-
sion to the idea of another impression previously
experienced in conjunction with the former.
Hume’s solution is thus not sceptical (except as
ds the application of skies er or any other
principle beyond experience), but it is subjective :
the connection of things is resolved into a customary
succession of ideas. Of the numerous theories of
causation put forward since the question was thus
opened, the two most important are J. S. Mill’s
rehabilitation of Hume’s doctrine to suit the re-
quirements of scientific ig oper and the
opposed doctrine of Kant and his philosophical
successors.
It is characteristic of Mill’s doctrine that the
eager of causality is made a consequence of the
w of the Uniformity of Nature: ‘the familiar
truth that invariability of succession is found by
observation to obtain between every fact in nature
and some other fact which has preceded it.’ This
rinciple, which is assumed in every scientific in-
uction, is itself held to be the generalisation of a
wide and uncontradicted experience.
_A different position is given to the causal prin-
ciple in Kant’s philosophy. The Scottish philoso-

Reason this connection is thoroughly investigated ;
the refutation of Hume is only part or consequence
of a complete inquiry into the relation of reason
to experience. It was, however, largely Hume's
doctrine of causality that led to Kant’s new point
of view, and to the doctrine that experience is the
product of the understanding, the realisation of its
a priori forms. It is not the sequence of events in
time, Kant holds, that gives rise to the principle of
causality ; but the pure notion of causality finds
its realisation in this time-sequence, in which each
event is determined by its antecedent. Kant’s
doctrine, as thus stated, is in full harmony with
the ep and methods of modern science ;
asserting the principle that every change—i.e. each
successive state—of the universe is the result of its
Ligier state, and at the same time leaving to
empirical investigation the connection in experi-
ence of any one definite thing with any other.

The most important discussions of causality are
those of Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, book i.
part iii, and Essa Of the Idea 4 Necessa
Connection ; Kant, Critique of Pure Reason ; an
J. 8. Mill, System of Logic, book iii. chaps. iii.—v.
There is also elaborate treatment of the subject in
the works of Reid, Stewart, and Hamilton. Dr
Thomas Brown’s Inquiry into the Relation of
Cause and Effect contains much acute analytical
thinking.

Cause Célébre, a convenient French term for
a specially interesting and important legal trial,
criminal or civil, such as the Douglas Cause
(1769-71), the Dred Scott case in the United
States as to the possession of a negro (1856), the
Tichborne case (1871-74). There is a great French
collection of Causes Célébres et interessantes (22 vols.
1737-45), by Gayot de Pitaval, with modern con-
tinuations. See TRIAL.

Causerie, a name applied to a somewhat short
and informal essay on any subject in a newspaper
or magazine, More familiar in manner and slighter
in structure than the formal essay as usually under-
stood, it is an excellent medium for a writer whose
personality interests the reader as much as the
value of his thoughts. The name owes its literary
currency mainly to the famous Causeries du Lundi
of Sainte-Beuve; hardly less valuable examples
were many of Matthew Arnold’s occasional essays.

Causses, Les. See FRANCE (p. 770), and Bar-
ing-Gould’s Deserts of Southern France (1894).

Caustic (Gr., ‘ burning’), a term for substances
that exert a corroding action on the skin and flesh.
Lunar caustic (so called because silver was called
luna, ‘the moon,’ in the alchemists’ mystical
jargon) is nitrate of silver, and common caustic is
potash. When used as a caustic in medicine,
the substance is fused and cast into moulds,
which yield the caustic in small sticks the thick-
ness of an ordinary lead pencil, or rather less.—
Caustic is also used in chemistry in an adjective
sense—thus caustic lime, or pure lime, CaO, as
distinguished from mild lime, or the carbonate of
lime, CaCO,, caustic magnesia, MgO, and mild
magnesia, MgCO,, caustic potash, caustic soda (for
these, see PoTASH, SODA, &c.). See CAUTERY.

Caustics. When the incident rays are parallel
to the principal axis of a reflecting concave mirror,
they converge, after reflection, to a ap point,
called the principal focus. In the case o parabolic
mirrors this is rigorously true. For, as is easily
seen from the fundamental property of the para-

30 CAUTERETS

CAUTION

bola, any ray falling on the mirror parallel to the
axis is reflected so as to pass exactly through the
focus. For other mirrors it is approximately true
only when the breadth of the mirror-is very small
in comparison with its radius of curvature. When
the breadth of the mirror is large in comparison
with its radius of curvature there is no definite
image, even of a luminous point. In such cases
the image is spread over what is called a Caustic,
or sometimes a Catacaustic.

An example of the caustic is given in the annexed
figure for the simplest case—namely, that of rays
falling directly on a concave spherical mirror, BAB’,
from a point so distant as to be practically parallel.

wo very near rays,

B P and Q,. will after

i pea. reflection intersect
Q at C. By finding
in this way all the

Cc points of intersection

r/\ a) of the reflected rays,

we get a continuous

curve, BCFB’, which

is the section of the

caustic surface by

B a plane passing

through its axis.

The curve BCFB’ varies of course with the form of

the reflecting surface. In the case under considera-
tion it is known as an epicycloid.

The reader may see a catacaustic on the surface
of tea in a tea-cup half full by holding the circular
rim to the sun’s light. The space within the caustic
curve is all brighter than that without, as it clearly
should be, as all the light reflected affects that
space, while no point without the curve is affected
by more than the light reflected from half of the
surface. The rainbow, it may be mentioned, forms
one of the most interesting of the whole family of
caustics.

When a caustic is produced by refraction, it is

‘sometimes called a Diacaustic. No such simple
example can be given of the diacaustic curve as
that above given of the catacaustic. It is only in
the simplest cases that the curve takes a recognis-
able form. In the case of refraction at a plane
surface, it can be shown that the diacaustic curve
is the evolute either of the hyperbola or ellipse,
according as the refractive index of the medium is
greater or less than unity.

Cauterets, a fashionable French watering-
place in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, lies
3250 feet above sea-level, in the valley of the
Laverdan, 5 miles S. of Pierrefitte, the nearest
railway station, and 42 SSE. of Pau. The
stationary population of the place is only 1260,
but it is annually swelled in summer by 15,000 to
20,000 visitors, for whose accommodation numer-
ous sumptuous hotels and bathing-establishments
have been built. It is a good centre and guide-
station for ascents among the Pyrenees. The
sulphurous springs, twenty-five in number, and
varying in temperature from 60° to 131° F., are
the most abundant in the Pyrenees (330,000 gallons
per day), and have been known from Roman
times ; though their modern reputation dates from
the 16th century, when Margaret, sister of Francis
I., held her literary court and wrote much of her
Heptameron at Cauterets.

Cautery (Gr. aio, ‘I burn’), in Medicine, is
used of any substance which burns the tissues.
(The term ‘ potential cautery,’ as applied to caustic
substances, is becoming obsolete.) The actual
cautery is an instrument with a head or blade of
steel, iron, or platinum, which is heated in a fire or
spirit-lamp. In the thermo-cautery (or Paquelin’s
cautery, from its inventor), the head or blade is

made of hollow platinum, so arranged that a flame
of benzole can be kept burning in its interior. The
galvano-cautery consists essentially of a platinum
wire which can be heated to any required degree
by passing a strong galvanic current through it.
The cautery is used for three main purposes in
surgery : to produce counter-irritation over an in-
flamed part (see BLISTERS) (actual cautery); to
check bleeding (actual or thermo-cautery), by
slowly destroying the tissues at the bleeding point
or surface ; to perform operations, where the tissues
to be divided are either very vascular (thermo-
cautery), or very difficult of access (galvano-
cautery). See CAUSTIC.

Caution, in the Law of Scotland, like Guaranty
(q.v.) in England, is an obligation undertaken by a
second party, whereby he binds himself, failing the

rimary obligant, to fulfil his obligation, whether
1t be of a pecuniary nature or otherwise. Caution-
ary obligations are thus essentially of an accessory
nature, and cannot subsist apart from the principal
obligation. The law of this subject is now largely
founded on the Mercantile Law Amendment Acts,
1856, which assimilate the laws of England and
Scotland, and according to which the creditor
may proceed at once against the cautioner, just
as if he were a joint obligant, without suing
the primary debtor, unless the cautioner has
expressly stipulated that this shall be done.
The creditor, however, is in every case bound to
use proper precaution in retaining and maki
available securities. He is not, however, boun
to make the same full disclosure of material
facts as in insurance, and therefore a cautioner
should make careful inquiry for himself. Caution-
ary obligations are generally gratuitous, being,
for the most part, undertaken from motives of
friendship ; but it is by no means uncommon for
them to be entered into in consideration of a
premium paid by the person guaranteed, or by
those interested in his fortunes. Where a pre-
mium is paid, the transaction becomes a mere
insurance of solvency, honesty, or efficiency ; and
associations of great public utility (see GUARAN-
TEE) have been formed, both in England and
Scotland, for the eg! of undertaking to
guarantee the fidelity of persons employed either
in public or private offices of trust. The tendene
of judicial decisions, both in England and Scotland,
for many years past, has been to require greater
strictness than formerly in the constitution of
cautionary obligations; and under the statutes
already mentioned all such engagements must be
in writing, subscribed by the person bapeayrtes
or making them, or by some ee duly authoris
by him, otherwise they shall have no effect. If a
cautionary obligation is dependent on a condition,
it will, of course, be ineffectual unless the condi-
tion be complied with. The cautioner may, in
general, plead every defence which was competent
to the principal debtor, and the extinction of the
rimary obligation extinguishes the secondary one.
The cautioner is discharged by any essential charge
being made on the obligation of the debtor, or in
respect of the person relied on, without his assent.
The statute expressly provides that changes of
partnership either of creditor or debtor will ex-
tinguish the guarantee. If the creditor gives time
—e.g. takes bills from the debtor of an unusual
currency—that will also operate discharge. The
discharge of one cautioner, moreover, unless con-
sented to by the rest, is a discharge to all. The
cautioner is entitled, on full payment, though not
on payment by a dividend, to an assignation of the
debt and diligence, by which means he comes, in
all respects, into the creditor’s place; and more-
over, if the solvency or other conditions of the
principal debtor should seem precarious, he may

CAUVERY CAVALRY $1
; adopt legal measures for his relief. Co-cautioners, | to his generalship. His task being done, he
or persons bound together, whether their obliga- | resigned his power into the hands of the National

tions be embodied in one or several deeds, are
entitled to mutual relief. But where a co-cautioner
_ obtains relief from the others, he must communicate
to them the benefit of any deduction or ease which
6: have been allowed him in paying the debt.
‘ totters of credit and recommendation raise much
the same relation of parties as a formal cautionary
obligation, but since 1856 a mere verbal introduc-
tion cannot have that effect. For the forms and
_ effects of ordinary mercantile guarantees, and for
the forms of guarantee insurance of fidelity, see
GUARANTEE. For the Scottish cautionary obliga-
tion in cash-credit bond, see BANKING, Vol. I. 713.
JUDICIAL CAUTION, in the Law of Scotland, is
of two kinds—for eppomennct, and for payment. If
_ #creditor makes oath before a magistrate, that he
believes his debtor to be meditating flight (in medi-
tatione ), he may obtain a warrant for his
eerenenston ; and should he succeed in proving
e alleged intention to flee, he may compel him
to find caution to abide the judgment of a court
(judicio sisti). The cautioner, or surety, under-
takes that the defender shall appear to answer any
action that may be brought within six months.
The old Bond of Presentation, by which in order to
gain time the surety undertook to produce the
ebtor or pay the debt at a future date, is now
erento’ by the abolition of imprisonment for
debt. There is also a form of judicial caution
called judicatum solvi, given in cases of general
loosing of arrestment of ships, in which the surety
becomes liable for the whole debt. The commonest
form of judicial caution, however, is the securit
usually given in the Bill-chamber (q.v.), when a bill
or bond is brought under suspension ; the security is
for the principal sum and expenses, if the suspen-
sion should be refused. _Interdict is also frequently
granted upon caution for the damages that may
result from the interdict, should it turn out to have
been wrongly obtained.
Cauvery. See KAVERL
Cava del Tirreni, a town of Italy, in a lovely
valley, 54 miles NW. of Salerno by rail, with a
edral, and manufactures of silk, woollens,
cotton, and linen. Pop. 6339. About a mile dis-
tant is the Benedictine monastery of the Trinity,
celebrated for its archives.

Cavagnari, Srr Louis, born in France in 1841,
was educated at Christ’s Hospital, London, and in
1857 was naturalised as a British subject. He had
seen twenty-one years’ military and political service
in India, when on 3d September 1879 he was
murdered at Kabul. See AFGHANISTAN.

Cavaignac, Louis EvGéne, born in Paris, 15th
October 1802, was a son of General Jean Baptiste
Cavaignac (1762-1829), a member of the National
Convention. Educated for the military profession,
he first served in the Morea, and area in
Africa, whither he was sent in 1832 into a kind of
honourable exile, in consequence of a too free ex-
ression of opinion in favour of republican institu-

ons. Here he won fret distinction by his ener
coolness, and intrepidity, was made chef de bataillon
in 1837, and rose to the rank of brigade-general in
1844. In 1848 he was pet governor-general
_ of Algeria, but in view of the impending revolu-

our dangers, was called to Paris and assumed
the office of Minister of War. He was appointed
military dictator in order to suppress the formid-
able insurrection of June, which he quelled only
after a most obstinate contest continued from
the 23d to the 26th June. Itvis estimated that a
ter number of Frenchmen fell in the struggle

in the bloodiest battles of the first Empire.
Cavaignac’s clemency to the vanquished was equal

Assembly, which appointed him President of the
Council. As a candidate for the presidency of the
republic, when Louis Napoleon was elected, he
received nearly a million and a half of votes out
of 7,327,345. On the coup d’état of December 185],
Cavaignac was arrested, but released after a short
detention ; and though he consistently refused to
give in his adhesion to the Empire, he was per-
mitted ‘to reside in France without molestation.
He died, 28th October 1857, at his country house
near Tours. Cavaignac was an able soldier, a
zealous republican, and in every way an honour-
able man. See his Life by Deschamps (2 vols.
Paris, 1870).

Cavaillon (ancient Cabellio), a town of the
French department of Vaucluse, 18 miles SE. of
Avignon by rail, with a cathedral, and some
Roman remains. Pop. 5164.

Cavalcanti, Gu1vo, Italian poet, born in 1230,
was banished, for mercantile transactions with a
Guelph, by the Ghibellines, a daughter of one of
whose chiefs he had married, and returned in
broken health to Florence only to die there, about
1300. His works —sonnets, ballads, and canzoni—
are remarkable alike from their language and depth
of thought, although his epicurean philosophy
gained him, among his contemporaries, the reputa-
tion of an atheist. See Ercole, Guido Cavalcanti
é le sue Rime (Milan, 1885).—Another of the name,
BARTOLOMMEO (1503-62), a noble and eloquent
Florentine, led a revolt against the Medici, and
was afterwards employed by Pope Paul III.

Cavaleaselle, GiovANNI BartisTA, Italian
art writer, born 22d January 1820, at Legnago,
early visited the art centres of Italy, and in 1846
proceeded to Germany, where he met J. A. Crowe
(q.v.), with whom he returned to Italy. Banished
for his share in the revolution of 1848, he accom-
panied Crowe to London, and there their first joint
work, Early Flemish Painters (1857; 3d ed. 1879),
was published. Cavalcaselle returned to Italy in
1858, and afterwards published with Crowe the
History of Painting m Italy (1864-71), Titian
(1876), and Raphael (1883), ides independent
works of less importance. He was head of the art
department of the ministry of Public Instruction
at Rome. Died in 1897.

Cavalier (Fr., from Lat. caballus, ‘a nag ),
from ‘horseman ’ acquired the meaning of ‘ knight’
or ‘gallant,’ in which sense it is used by Shake-
speare (Henry V., III. 24), like cavalero, in Henry
., Part II., V. iii. 62. In 1641 ‘Cavaliers’ was
applied as a nickname to Charles’s partisans in
opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the
arliament ; and from a term of reproach it camee
to be adopted as a title of honour, until, after 1679,
it was superseded by ‘Tory.’ For the ‘Cavalier
Parliament’ (1661-79), see Gnbiies I.

Cavalier, JEAN, a journeyman baker, from
Ribaute, near Anduze, who, born in 1681, in 1702
became a famous leader of the Camisards (q.v.),
withal a prophet and preacher. He surrendered
to Villars in 1704, and entered the service of
Savoy; but in 1711 we find him settled with a
British pension in England, and he died at Chelsea,
governor of Jersey, 17th May 1740. See a long
article in vol. ix. of the Dict. of National Bio-
graphy (1887).

Cavaliere Servente. See CicisBEo.

Cavalry is a general name for horse-soldiers or
troopers trained to act in a body. In the British
army there are 31 regiments of European, and 30 of

native Indian cavalry. The former comprise 2
regiments of Life Guards (red), 1 of Horse Guards

32 CAVALRY

CAVAN

(blue), and 7 of Dragoon Guards, classified as heavy
cavalry ; 3 regiments of Dragoons, and 5 of Lancers,
classified as medium ; and 13 Hussar regiments or
nen cavalry—all carrying carbines and swords.
The war strength of each is 1 lieutenant-colonel,
1 major, 8 captains, 9 lieutenants, 7 sub-lieutenants,
1 adjutant, 1 paymaster, 1 quartermaster, 1 medical
officer, 1 veterinary surgeon, 75 non-commissioned
officers, 8 farriers, 8 shoeing-smiths, 8 trurnpeters,
4 saddlers, 2 wheelers, 15 bandsmen, 480 troopers,
and 22 drivers, 559 riding and 44 draught horses,
and 11 wagons.

The native Indian cavalry are all light, and some
have the front ranks armed with lances, the rear
with sabres. Bengal has 19 regiments, each of 8
troops, consisting of 10 European officers (1 in com-
mand and 1 surgeon), 17 native officers, and 536
native non-commissioned officers and_ troopers.
Madras has 4 regiments of only 6 troops each, the
same number of European, but 12 native officers
and 396 of other ranks. Bombay has 7 regiments
with the same organisation and numbers as Bengal,
but only 518 native non-commissioned officers and
troopers. Besides these regiments there is a troo
of native cavalry at Aden, and one as a body-guar
for each lieutenant-governor, and the governor-
general of India.

The auxiliary cavalry in Great Britain comprises
39 regiments of Yeomanry, 2 of Volunteer Light
Horse, and 1 of Volunteer Mounted Rifles, of various
strengths. ‘Thereis a cavalry depé6t at Canterbury,
and a school of instruction for auxiliary cavalry at
Aldershot.

After the American civil war, the United
States’ cavalry was reduced to 10 regiments of
936 privates each: The commissioned officers of
a regiment consist of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-
colonel, 3 majors, 12 captains, 14 first lieutenants,
and 12 second lieutenants.

History.—For the place of cavalry in the ancient
armies, see ARMY. In the middle ages horsemen
—knights, esquires, and their attendants—formed
the most important part of the great armies; but
after the disappearance of the Roman cohort with
its 132 highly trained horsemen, the organisation
of cavalry, as we now understand the word, was
neglected until 1445, when Charles VII. of France

rouped his men-at-arms into companies 100 strong.

he method of fighting, from 1645 until Frederic
the Great introduced the charge or shock tactics,
was to advance to close quarters, fire pistols from
the saddle, and then commence cutting with the
sword. The value of dismounted cavalry able to
act as infantry was then recognised, and dragoons
armed with muskets were much in vogue until the
beginning of the 19th century. They then lost
favour, and they were taught that the sword was
_their proper weapon, and the saddle their proper

lace. Mounted infantry, however, using their

orses merely as a means of rapidly covering the
ground, have been found so useful in the British
army that in 1887 a school for this arm was formed
at Aldershot. The great importance of this branch
was experienced in the Transvaal war (1899-1900),
where all the Boer army were practically mounted
infantry, and their mobility gave to them enormous
advantage in proportion to their numbers. The
future development of all armies is bound to be
very largely in this direction. The usefulness of
the lance as a weapon for regular cavalry in pursuit
and other tactics has led the British war authorities
to arm part of nearly all their cavalry regiments
with it in addition to their other arms.

Formation.—A cavalry regiment in the field is
divided into 4 squadrons, each of 2 troops. The
men of each squadron when in line are 6 inches
from knee to knee, and formed in two ranks, a horse’s
length apart. The officers are at a similar distance

in front, and the ‘serrefiles,’ or supernumerary non-
commissioned officers, in rear. There is an interval
of 12 yards between squadrons. The pace is, walk
4 miles an hour, trot 8, gallop 12. The maximum
distance covered by cavalry is 68 miles by day
(6 A.M. to 10 P.M.) and 18 by night—86 for the
24 hours; but after such a march there must be a
rest all next day. For a continuous march 35
miles a day, at 5 miles an hour, is a good rate.

Duties on Service.—In large armies, from one-
eighth to one quarter of the whole foree should be
cavalry. Their duties are to cover the movements
of their own army, and to find out those of the
enemy—besides taking part in the actual battles by
guarding the flanks, seizing all .opportunities of
charging, now ten success by an active pursuit,
or covering defeat. The screening and reconnoitrin
duties are performed by the cavalry divisions, eac
of two or more brigades, one or two days’ march in
front of the main body. The light Brigades (q.v.)
are perhaps best for the actual scouting, but must
be supported by heavy cavalry in order to meet that
of the enemy, which would otherwise have the
advantage of greater weight in the charge. Each
brigade of two or more regiments is accompanied
by a battery of Horse Artillery.

The battle of Mars la Tour in the Franco-German
war of 1870, supplies the best examples of a cavalry
fight on a large scale, and of a charge (that of
Barby and Besos brigades) directed against in-
fantry. The action of the German cavalry through-
out the same campaign illustrates the screening and
reconnoitring duties of the arm. The capture of
Cairo by the rapid advance of the British cavalry
after the battle of Tel-el-Kebir (1882), shows its
value after a successful engagement.

Tactics.—Unless acting dismounted, cavalry must
either attack or retire; it cannot otherwise defend
itself. Against cavalry it must therefore mancuvre
with its first line, so as to attack to the best advan-
tage—i.e. against the adversary’s flank. Its second
line following, en échelon, in order to have a clear
front, protects the flanks of the first from counter
attack, and supports its movement, completa its
victory, or covering its retreat. Horse artillery
on the protected flank fire upon the enemy up to the
last moment before the charge. A third portion,
formed into a reserve, follows, and behind it the
other two can rally after the charge, which, even
when successful, creates great confusion. Cavalry
attacks artillery in two bodies—one in line forma-
tion charges the escort, and the other in extended
order, the men a horse’s length apart, conver;
upon the guns. Infantry can defend itself from _a
cavalry charge, unless surprised by a flank attack,
which would generally be delivered by compara-
tively small bodies in successive lines, but such an
opportunity rarely occurs on a modern battlefield.

Cav’an, an inland county in the south of Ulster.
It lies in the narrowest part of Ireland, 18 miles
from the Atlantic, and 20 from the Irish Sea. Area,
746 sq. m., of which less than a third is under crops.
Bogs and hills, with many small lakes, are found in
the north-west, where Cuilecagh attains a maximum
altitude of 2188 feet. The chief rivers are the Erne,
the Woodford, and the Annalee. The eastern half of
Cavan rests on clay-slate and graywacke ; the moun-
tain district in the west is carboniferous formation.
Of minerals, Cavan affords coal, iron, lead, and
cone with many mineral springs. The climate is
cold and damp; and the soil is en wet, and
clayey, except along the streams. The chief crops
are oats and potatoes, the cultivation of flax having’
greatly decreased since 1850. The farms are small.
Agriculture forms the staple industry, but linen is
manufactured to a considerable extent. The chief
towns are Cavan, Cootehill, and Belturbet. Cavan
returns two members to parliament. Pop, (1851) —

CAVATINA

CAVE 33

og (1881) 129,476 ; (1891) 111,679, of whom
90,329 were Catholics, and 16,325 Episcopalians. —

CAVAN, the county town, stands on a branch of the
_ Annalee, 85 miles NW. of Dublin by rail. It has
_acourt-house and a grammar-school ; and the beau-
_ tiful demesne of Lord Farnham lies between Cavan
and Lough sragnter; which is about 5 miles west.
— Pop. about 3000.

@ayati'na, a short form of operatic air, of a
smooth and melodious character, differing from the
ordinary aria in consisting only of one part, and

nently appearing as part of a grand scena.
E ples of cavatina are found in many well-
known operas, as Sonnambula and Les Huguenots.
The term is also often used for a complete air or
song, such as the ‘Salve dimora’ in Faust.

@ave, or CAVERN (Lat. cavus, ‘hollow’). The
natural hollows which occur in and underneath
_ rocks have originated in various ways—some bein
due to the p pane 1 and mechanical action o
Water, others to dislocations and disruptions psu
ced by movements of the crust, or .by superficial
rock-falls and landslips, while yet others are tunnels
_ which now and again occur in or under thick sheets
of lava. Caves formed by marine erosion are fre-
quently met with along the coast-line of Britain and
ther countries, Fingal’s Cave at Staffa (q.v.) being
_asplendid example. They are not confined to any
| jeular kind of rock—although, other things
ing equal, they are of course more easily formed

in readily yielding rocks than in more durable kinds.
It is rather the character of their natural division-
planes or beds and joints than their composition
and texture that determines whether the rocks at
the base of a sea-cliff shall be hollowed out or not
by the action of the waves. If the rocks are thin-
bedded and abundantly and regularly jointed, it is
obvious that as soon as any portion is undermined
vet's sea, the overlying masses will immediately

i’
;

eld along their division-planes and topple down.

, on the other hand, the rocks are meagrely and
irregularly jointed, and occur in massive beds, then
they will not so readily collapse when undermined,
and caves will tend to be formed. Caves which
have had this origin are not uncommonly met with
along the line of old sea-margins in many regions
which have been elevated in recent geological
es. Most frequently, however, the entrances

to such caves are concealed by the rock-rubbish
which has been detached from time to time by the
action of the weather from the cliffs above.

Caves of erosion are also formed by river-action
at the base of crags and cliffs in many valleys.
And now and again such hollows may be detected
at various levels in river-cliffs, as if they had been
formed during the gradual excavation of the ravines

4m which they occur.

In Britain and other countries long occupied by
man most of such river-cliff caves or rock-shelters
have been artificially deepened and widened, and
this to such an extent that it is often hard to
say how much of the work can be attributed to
nature. By far the most important caves, how-
ever, are those which owe their origin to the

action of underground water. But before these are

described, mention may be made of the hollows
which occur now and again in and under lava-
flows. Where lava has flowed over and solidified
above a mass of snow and ice, the su uent
melting of the latter will leave a hollow behind.
Near the Casa Inglese, on the south-east side of the
highest cone of Etna, a mass of ice of unknown
extent and thickness, covered by lava, was seen
by Lyell in 1828 and in in 1858. But this,
it must be remembered, is at a height of 10,000
feet above the sea. In lava itself, however,
caves ‘4 considerable extent occur. Many of

these are simply great blisters or hollows formed
by the expansive power of the highly heated
vapours contained in the lava at the time of its
eruption, Others again may have been caused by
the sudden conversion into steam of the water of
lakes or streams suddenly overwhelmed by a lava-
flow—the steam thus generated might either
violently rupture the lava by its explosive force, or
produce ~ Gren tunnels and irregular cavities under
the liquid lava, already inclosed in its solid crust,
by pressing it upwards. The extensive Fossa
della Palomba of Etna is supposed by some to have
had such an origin. But probably the greater
number of the larger caves under lava have been
formed by the escape of the lava itself from its own
solidified envelope. When lava pours out from a
voleanic orifice it very rapidly coagulates above
and below, so that the liquid rock becomes im-

risoned in a hardened crust of its own material.

he great pressure of the inclosed lava, however,
upon the crust at the terminal point of the flow
suffices again and again to rupture it, and the lava
then flows out freely until it is again imprisoned in
the same manner. In the case of very liquid lavas
this escape is often completed in a perfect manner
—and a long underground tunnel is left behind,
from the roof of which depend long stalactites of
black glassy lava. Extensive caves formed in this
way—some of them measuring over 100 feet in
width—ocecur in the Azores, the Canary Islands,
Iceland, and other voleanic regions.

Another class of caves embraces such hollows
as have originated during earthquakes or other
movements in the crust of the earth. At such
times rocks are rent asunder, and when they fall
rudely together irregular cavities are left between
the disjointed masses, and similar results often
take place when great landslips occur. But the
most extensive caves and underground galleries
have been excavated by the chemical and mechan-
ical action of underground water. Sometimes
these hollows continue more or less persistently
in one direction, but most usually they wind
tortuously about, and often open into similar
intricate galleries, which, in like manner, com-
municate with lateral extensions of the same char-
acter. There can be no doubt that caves of this
kind are the channels of underground streams and
rivers, and that they have been excavated, in the
first place, by the chemical action of acidulated
water making its way downwards from the surface
along the natural division-planes of the rocks,
until eventually space has been licked out for the
passage of a subterranean stream. The cavities
would then tend to be enlarged by the filing action
of the sand and gravel which the underground
stream and its numerous feeders might sweep
along. Many such underground watercourses are
well known at the present day, and the direction
of some of them can be traced by the swallow-holes,
chasms, and ‘sinks,’ which indicate places where
the roofs of the cavities have given way, or have
been pierced by the action of acidulated water. In
certain regions almost all the drainage is thus con-
ducted underground—rivers after flowing for a
considerable distance at the surface suddenly dis-
appear, and follow a hidden course, for it may be
many miles, before they emerge again to the light
of day. Sometimes, indeed, they never come to
the surface again, but enter the sea by subterranean
channels. Should anything occur (such as earth-
quakes, &c.) to interrupt such a system of under-
ground drainage, and the streams and rivers be
compelled into new channels, the old subterranean
courses will then become galleries more or less dry
which may be accessible by one or even by seve
openings.

As it cannot be doubted that all such great

34

CAVE

underground galleries owe their inception entirely
to the chemical action of water mis its way
downwards from the surface, and following the
lines of natural division-planes in the rocks, it is
obvious that caves will be of most common occur-
rence in regions where the rocks yield most readily
to such chemical action. Among the more soluble
rocks are rock-salt and gypsum, ‘but these are only
locally developed in suck quantities as to give rise
on their removal to underground cavities of any
extent. Calcareous rocks, more especially limestone,
have not only an almost world-wide distribution,
but they also occur in greater mass than either
gypsum or rock-salt, and hence, although not so
readily acted upon by water as the latter two, it is
in limestones that nearly all the most renowned
caves and subterranean galleries appear.

Many caverns have a caleareous incrustation
lining their interior. Sometimes this deposit is
por white ; it is, however, more generally coloured
y the impurities which the water, percolating
downwards from the surface, has taken up from the
superincumbent rocks. To the incrustations which
are suspended from the roof like icicles, the name
stalactites is given, while those rising from the floor
are called stalagmites. The origin of these is as
follows: Water which has percolated down from
the surface always contains a certain proportion of
carbonic acid—it is acidulated water—the acid
being derived from the atmosphere and the decayin
organic matter of the soil, &e. Water thus charge
with carbonic acid has the power of dissolving
limestone—i.e. it takes up a certain proportion
of carbonate of lime and converts it into the soluble
bicarbonate. Arrived at the roof of a cave it oozes
out and is there subject to evaporation, the excess
of carbonic acid is parted with, and a thin pellicle
of carbonate of lime is deposited as an incrustation.
When the drops fall to the floor they are subject
there in the same way to evaporation, and are thus
compelled to give up the remainder of the cal-
careous matter held in solution. By this constant
dropping and falling, icicle-like pendants grow
downwards from the roof, while sheets, bosses, and
domes gradually accumulate upon the floor—until,
not infrequently, these stalagmites come at last to
unite with the gradually lengthening stalactites,
and so to form, as it were, pillars which look as if
they had been placed to support the roof. See the
articles on ADELSBERG, Aeeerene: KENT’s CAy-
ERN, MAMMOTH CAVE, &c.

BONE-CAVES.—Caves are of interest to geologists
not only because they testify to the potency of the
chemical and mechanical action of underground
water, but on account of the remarkable evidence
they have yielded as to the contemporaneity of man
with many extinct and no longer indigenous mam-
mals. This evidence is furnished by the accum-
ulations which so frequently cover the floors of
caverns to a greater or less depth. The accumula-
tions in question consist partly of clay, sand, gravel,
and shingle, and partly of red earth and sheets of
stalagmite. Some of these are doubtless the
alluvial detritus earried forward by underground
streams. This detritus often consists largely of
angular, subangular, and water-worn fragments of
limestone, which have doubtless been derived from
the roof and walls of the underground galleries,
but not infrequently the presence of other kinds
of rock-fragments shows that no inconsiderable
amount of material has been introduced from the
outside by the streams as they plunged into their
subterranean courses. Much debris also may have
been swept in by poate rain or flooded torrents
washing f aie through the sinks and swallow-holes
that so frequently pierce the roofs of subterranean
watercourses. aheee sinks often become pitfalls to
unfortunate cattle in our own day, and in former

times many animals may have been entrapped in
the same way—for broken and rubbed bones often:
occur, sometimes very abundantly, in the old torren-
tial accumulations of deserted subterranean water-
courses, When the galleries ceased to be traversed.
by streams, stalagmitic accretions would then begi

to accumulate over the shingle and debris tale
In course of time many of these subterranean:
hollows, becoming more or less accessible from the
outside, were occupied by carnivorous animals,
who carried thither their prey, and thus by and
by accumulations of bones were formed, which
the drip of water from above gradually inclosed
in calcareous matter, and eventually covered
up under a sheet of stalagmite. Now and again
the caves were occupied for shorter or longer
ee by man—his presence being still evidenced’

y his implements and weapons, by charred and
split bones, &c., and occasionally by portions of his.
own skeleton—and these relies, in like manner,,
subsequently became sealed up in a more or less.
thick accumulation of stalagmite. Some of these
bone-caves contain the record of many physical.
changes. Thus, we have evidence to show that
after having been the haunt of wild beasts: or the-
abode of man for some indefinite but often pro-
longed period, the cave again gave passage to a flow
of water, and deposits of loam, clay, or gravel, &e,.
were laid down upon the stalagmitic pavement and.
bone-breccia. Or, as in some cases, the stalag-
mite, together with bones covered by and inclosed
within it, was broken up and partially or wholly
removed. Then, at a subsequent date the stream
once more deserted its channel, while carnivores or
man again returned, and newer heaps of bones and.
stalagmite accumulated. Commin Ted with these
stalagmites of the bone-caves there is almost,
always more or less of a reddish earth or clay,°
whieh is the insoluble residue of the limestone from.
the dissolution of which the stalactites and stalag-
mites are formed. Some of the more remarkable
bone-caves which have yielded testimony as to the:
contemporaneity of man with extinct mammailia,.
are Kent’s Cavern (q.v) and Brixham Cave in Eng-
land, the caves in the valley of the Lesse in Belgium,,.
the caves of Perigord and the Pyrenees in France,
and the Kesserloch near Thiiingen in Switzerland,
Bone-caves containing the remains of post-tertiary
mammals are rare in North America; those of Brazil
have many bones of large rodents and edentates.
For caves at Wick, in Scotland, still occupied by
tinkers, see Sir Arthur Mitchell, The Past in the:
Present (1880). For accounts of special caves, see
the British Association Reports (for Kent's Cav-
ern) and the Philosophical Transactions (1822-73).
For general descriptions, see Buckland’s Reliquic
Diluviane, Dupont’s L’Homme pendant les Ages
de la Pierre, Lartet’s and Christy’s Relique Aqut-
tanice, Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times, Dawkins”
Cave-hunting, J. Geikie’s Prehistoric Europe. For
further information as to the European cave-
dwellers of prehistoric times, see MAN, FLINT
IMPLEMENTS, PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM.

ARTIFICIAL CAVES.—The primitive inhabitants.
of most civilised countries and many primitive.
tribes at the present day have been troglodytes or
cave-dwellers. In many countries where natural
caves are either of rare occurrence or do not occur
at all, certain rock-exposures have been artifici-
ally excavated, and occupied either permanently
as dwelling-places or occasionally as retreats in
times of danger, while others have been used as.
cells, hermitages, or burial-places. Such caves are
not uncommon in the cliffs of Scottish river ravines,
as at Hawthornden near Edinburgh, and in the
valley of the Jed, Roxburghshire. Caves of this.
kind eccur usually in rocks that are readily dug
into, such as soft sandstone. Now and again,

CAVE

CAVENDISH 35

they have been excavated in conglomerate, as in
the case of Hobbie Noble’s Cave, Roxburghshire.
_ In voleanic regions it is the softer tuffs or ashes
that are usually holed, as in the caves of the
Canary Islands. There the Guanches have also
excavated caves under the lavas, by simply rakin

, the more or less loose scoriz and cinders whic
BO commonly occur in that position. Vast areas in
_ Central China are covered with a coherent loam,
the same character as the Loess (q.v.) of the
valleys of the Rhine and Danube, in which dug-
} dwelling-places are of common occurrence.
And a similar deposit, exposed along the bluffs
_of rivers in the far west of North America, has
been utilised by some of the early inhabitants in
the same way. In Arizona, parts of Colorado,
_ Nevada, Utah, and south-east California, the rocky
precipitous walls of deep cafions are in places
_ riddled with human habitations, so as to look like
hhoneycombs. The strata forming the walls of the
¢aiions have been eroded in different degrees, and

horizontal caves larger and smaller have been
formed. The cliff dwellings are often adobe or
‘stone structures built on the ledges overhung by
_ projecting rock masses; smaller caves have served
as dwellings, and been partially completed by
adobe walls. Some of these houses are at a height
_ of 700 feet above the level of the valley, and are
7 with difficulty accessible. They seem to have been
_ made as places of refuge and defence by the same
ancient races as left the pueblos or stone ruins in
the valleys, like those occupied by the Pueblos and
_ Mogqui Indians now. Some assume them to have

_ Reports since 1874.
ermitages, belonging to all ages, some of very
_ simple, others of a more elaborate construction,
_ have in like manner been excavated in rocks of
_ very different kinds ; so that we are presented with
_ évery variety of artificial rock-excavation, from
simple hollows scraped out of some soft yieldin
_ material to the richly ornamented grottoes an
4 temples of Ellora, near Daulatabad, which are cut
out in red granite. And so again in the matter of
4 abe we meet with artificial grottoes of all
_ kinds—from mere holes picked out without much
trouble in loess, tuff, sandstone, or other yieldin
substance, to the great rock-cut sepulchres o
: t, and the no less famous catacombs of Rome.
N carve caves have been doubtless partly natural,
oie y artificial—the cells of the monks of the
-Thebaid in Eeypt, St Serf’s cave at Dysart, St
-Ninian’sat Whithorn. For the cave-dwellers known
to the ancients, see TROGLODYTES, PETRA. For
_ the Indian cave-temples, see ELEPHANTA, ELLORA.
CAVE-ANIMALS.—Various caverns, both of the
Old and New World, are tenanted by animals which
are usually more or less blind. From one point of
view the eyes have degenerated from disuse and
from the absence of the n y light stimulus;
_ from another point of view they have degenerated
_ because no longer of use, and no longer maintained
_ by that natural selection which through the struggle
for existence is supposed by many to be necessary
not only for the establishment, but for the main-
tenance of organs. The fauna of the Mammoth
_ Cave of Kentucky has been most -studied, and is
catalogued with figures in Putnam and Packard’s
_ deseription of that famous cavern. Leydig has
_ made a special study of the highly developed tac-
tile organs borne by some fishes frequenting German
caves. Among the cave-animals may be noticed
the amphibian Proteus (qv) with eyes in an em-
bryonic state; various Blind Fish (q.v.), such as
Amblyopsis (q.v.), Typhlichthys, &c. ; hundreds of

blind insects, of which in some cases (Machzerites )
only the females are blind ; blind spiders and myria-
pods many Crustaceans (Niphargus puteanus,

itanethes albus, Crangonyx, Asellus sieboldii, &c.);
a few univalves and other forms.

It is noteworthy that the blindness may exist in
various degrees, some being totally blind and others
possessing rudimentary eyes. It is also to be
remembered that not all cave-animals are blind,
but forms with well-developed organs of vision also
occur. Fish, insects, spiders, myriapods, and crus-
taceans with well-developed eyes have been recorded
from various caves, and the explanation of this
persistence of organs in such environment is still
to find. See DEGENERATION, ENVIRONMENT, and
Semper’s Natural Conditions of Existence as
they affect Animal Life (International Science
Series, 1881). ;

CAVE BEAR, Hy#NA, LION, &¢.—-(1) Ursus
speleeus, a fossil bear, like those now living, found
very abundantly in the Pleistocene caves of Europe.
(2) Hyena spelea, once abundant in Britain and
other parts of Europe, and very closely allied to
the i crocuta now found in Africa. (3) Felis
spelea, a fossil lion, very like the modern form,
abundant in caves of England and Europe gener-
ally. The prefix cave obviously refers to the fact
that in caves the fossil remains of recent animals
are well preserved and abundantly found.

Cave, EpwArD, the founder of the Gentleman’s
Magazine, was born at Newton, Warwickshire, in
1691 ; received some schooling at Rugby; and after
many vicissitudes, became apprentice to a printer.
Obtaining money enough to set up a small printing-
office, in 1731 he sta: the Gentleman’s 7 azine,
the earliest literary journal of the kind. Samuel
Johnson became its parliamentary reporter in 1740;
and with his hand in Johnson’s, Cave died on 10th
January 1754.

Cave, WILLIAM, divine, born at Pickwell,
Leicestershire, in 1637, from Oakham school passed
to St John’s College, Cambridge (1653), and was
yao to the vicarage of islin n (1662), to
the rectory of Allhallows the Great, London (1679),
and to the vicarage of Isleworth, Middlesex (1690).
He died at Windeor, 4th July 1713. Among his
twelve works on church history are Lives of the
Apostles, Lives of the Fathers, and Primitive Chris-
tianity, which once were standard authorities.

Caveat is a formal warning, entered in the
books of a court or a public office, that no step shall
be-taken in a particular matter without notice to
the person lodging the caveat, so that he may
appear and object. Thus, caveats are frequently
entered at the Patent Office to prevent the un-
opposed granting of letters-patent; or at the

bate Court to prevent the unopposed making up
a title to the property of deceased persons; or at the
Admiralty Court to prevent the.unopposed arrest-
ment of aship. The term is also used in ecclesi-
astical practice in England; although a caveat—
e.g. against an institution to a particular benefice—
has not now the high effect attributed to it by the
Canon Law. In Scotland the term is confined to
such notices as are placed in the Bill Chamber
(the summary department of the Supreme Civil
Court) or in the Sheriff Courts to prevent any
interdict being granted without notice to the person
interested. Such caveats require to be renewed
every month.

Cavedoné, GIAcoMo, an Italian artist of the
Caracci school, born in 1577 at Sassuola, assisted
Guido Reni at Rome, and finally settled in Bologna,
where many of his religious pictures are preserved.
He died in poverty in 1660.

Cavendish, the surname of the ducal House of
Devonshire, a family directly descended from the.

36

CAVENDISH

chief-justice Sir John Cavendish, who in 1381 was
beheaded at Bury St Edmunds by Jack Straw’s
followers; and eae Sir William Cavendish of
Cavendish, Suffolk (circa 1505-57), a brother of
Wolsey’s biographer. His third wife, the cele-
brated ‘ Bess of Hardwick,’ afterwards Countess of
Shrewsbury, brought Chatsworth (q.v.) into the
family ; and William, their second son, was in 1618
made Earl of Devonshire. His great-grandson,
William (1640-1707), was, under the last two
Stuarts, a steadfast member of the Whig opposi-
tion, Russell’s friend to the death, and an active
promoter of the Habeas Corpus Act. He succeeded
as fourth earl in 1684, and, for his services at the
Revolution, was in 1694 raised to be Duke of
Devonshire and Marquis of Hartington. His

eat-grandson, William (1720-64) succeeded as
ourth duke in 1755, and was prime-minister from
November 1756 to the following May. William,
fifth duke (1748-1811), was a bit of a poet; but
is less remembered than his beautiful duchess,
whom Gainsborough and Reynolds painted. Wil-
liam, sixth duke (1790-1858), was chiefly distin-
guished by his sumptuous embassy to St Petersburg
(1826). illiam, seventh duke (born 1808), had
for twenty-four years been Earl Burlington when
he succeeded his cousin in the ducal title. He died
2ist December 1891, and was succeeded by his
eldest son, SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, ninth
Duke of Devonshire, born 23d July 1833, and edu-
cated at Trinity College, and for thirty-three years
known as Marquis of Hartington. He entered
paiement in 1857, being first returned for North

ancashire, then in 1869 for the Radnor boroughs,
in 1880 for North-east Lancashire, and in 1885
for the Rossendale division of that county. The
representative of a great Whig house, he was chosen
as early as 1859 to move the vote of want of confi-
dence that overthrew the Derby government, and
between 1863 and 1874 held office as a Lord of the
Admiralty, Under-secretary for War, War Secre-
tary, Postmaster-general, and, from 1871, Chief-
secretary for Ireland. Neither a born statesman
nor great orator, he had yet shown an ‘infinite
capacity for taking pains,’ when, in February 1875,
on Mr Gladstone’s temporary abdication, he was
chosen leader of the Liberal opposition. He led it
admirably, and in the spring of 1880, on the down-
fall of the Beaconsfield administration, was invited
by the Queen to form a ministry. He rejected the
offer, and served under Mr Gladstone, first as Secre-
tary of State for India, and then as War Secretary
from 1883 to 1885. But he wholly dissented from
Mr Gladstone’s scheme of Irish Home Rule; and
from 1886, as head of the Liberal Unionists, he
firmly maps Lord Salisbury, both when in
power and in opposition.

His younger brother, Lord FREDERICK CAVEN-
DISH, was born 30th November 1836, and was also
educated at Trinity, taking his B.A. in 1858. He
sat in parliament as Liberal member for the
northern division of the West Riding of Yorkshire
from 1865 till the spring of 1882, when he succeeded
Mr Forster as Chiet-secretary for Ireland. Between
seven and eight o’clock, on the evening of 6th May,
having only that morning reached Dublin, he and
Mr Burke, an unpopular subordinate, were stabbed
to death in the Phoenix Park. Eight months later,
twenty ‘Irish Invincibles’ were tried for the
murder, and, Carey and two others having turned
Queen’s evidence, five of the rest were hanged,
three sentenced to penal servitude for life, and the
remaining aine to various terms of imprisonment.
Carey himself disappeared ; but in July news came
from the Cape that he had been shot dead by an
Irishman named O’Donnell on board an emigrant
ae O’Donnell was brought back to London,
and hanged.

Cavendish, GEORGE, the biographer of Wolsey,
was born about 1500, and became Wolsey’s gentle-
man-usher at least as early as 1527. He remained
in close attendance upon his great master till the
end (November 28, 1530), after which he retired to
his house at Glemsford, in Suffolk, where he lived
quietly with his wife, a niece of Sir Thomas More,
till the close of his own life in 1561 or 1562. His
affection for the great cardinal was most devoted—
he had attached himself to his household, in
Wolsey’s own words, ‘ abandoning his own country,
wife, and children, his own house and family, his
rest and quietness, only to serve me.’ He never
laid aside his loyalty to his memory, but in the

uiet meditation of after-years brooded over his
all, and from it learned for himself ‘the blessed-
ness of being little.’ Thirty years after he wrote
his Life of Cardinal Wolsey, one of the most in-
teresting short biographies in the English language.
Its pensive wisdom and simple sincerity reflect a
leasing picture of the gentle and refined nature of
its author, and enable us to see intimately with our
own eyes, but with singular clearness, the outlines
of one of the grandest figures in our history. The
book, written by a devout Catholic, full of regrets for
the past, could not well be printed in Elizabeth’s
reign, but circulated pretty freely in manuscript
copies, as many as twelve of which are still extant.
It is almost certain that Shakespeare had read it
before writing or collaborating in Henry VIIJ., as
all the redeeming features in the picture of the great
cardinal, and the lesson of his fall as a solemn
homily upon human ambition, are directly due to

the tender and loyal touch of Cavendish. The
book was first printed imperfect, for party ve OSes,
in 1641. The best edition is that of 5. W. Singer

(2 vols. 1815), the text of which was reprinted
with a good introduction in Professor Henry
Morley’s ‘ Universal Library ’ (1886).
Cavendish, HENRY, natural philosopher, eldest
son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and a grandson of
the second Duke of Devonshire, was born at Nice,
October 10, 1731. From a school at Hackney he
passed in 1749 to Peterhouse, Cambridge, but
uitted it three years later without a degree;
thereafter he devoted the whole of his long life
to scientific investigations, a large fortune be-
ueathed him by an uncle enabling him to
ollow uninterruptedly his favourite pursuits. A
silent, solitary man, he hated so to meet strangers,
that he had his library—a magnificent one—
in London, four miles from his residence on Clap-
ham Common, so that he might not encounter
persons coming to consult it; whilst his female
domestics had orders to keep out of his sight, on
pain of dismissal. His dinner he ordered daily by a
note placed on the hall-table. He died, unmarried,
at Clapham, 10th March 1810, leaving more than a
million sterling to his relatives. As a philosopher,
Cavendish is entitled to the highest rank. To him —
it may almost be said we owe the foundation of
pa chemistry, for prior to his time it had
ardly an existence. In 1760 he discovered the
extreme levity of inflammable air, now known as
hydrogen gas—a discovery which led to balloon
experiments and projects for aérial navigation ;
and later, he ascertained that water resulted from
the union of two gases—a discovery which has
erroneously been claimed for Watt (q.v.; see also
WATER). The famous Cavendish Experiment was
an ingenious device for estimating the density of
the Earth (q.v.). The accuracy and completeness of
Cavendish’s processes are remarkable. So high an
authority as Sir Humphry Davy declared that they
‘ were all of a finished nature, and though many of
them were performed in the very age | of chemi-
cal science, yet their accuracy and their beauty

have remained unimpaired.’ Cavendish also wrote |

wy ie
ili
1

;

CAVENDISH

CAVOUR 37

Cee: astronomical instruments; and his Electrical

7 Researches (1771-81) were edited by Professor Clerk
_ Maxwell (1879). See his Life by

. Wilson, form-

_ ing vol. i. of the Cavendish Society’s Works (1846).

;

@avendish, THomAs, circumnavigator, was

‘born about 1555 at Trimley St Martin, near

_ Ipswich, and, after squandering his patrimony at
court, shared in Grenville's expedition to Virginia
(1585). On 2ist July of the following year he

sailed from Plymouth with 122 men and three ships

_

of 40, 60, and 140 tons, and, by Sierra Leone and

2 , reached the Strait of Magellan, whose pass-

age took seven weeks. During the nine months

that he cruised in the Pacific, he burned three
eeneh towns and thirteen ships; then, with a
= booty, but only the largest of his three
vessels, he returned by way of the Indian Archi-

t
- Pelago and the Cape of Good Hope to England,

Oth September 1588. Elizabeth knighted him, and
he took to his old mode of life, till in August 1591

_ he sailed on a second expedition, intended to rival
the first. It ended in utter disaster, and in 1592

_ Charles I.

- Was munificent.

Cavendish died broken-hearted off Ascension.

Cavendish, Wiit1AM, Duke of Newcastle, son
of Sir Charles Cavendish, and nephew of the first
Earl of Devonshire, was born in 1592, and educated
at St John’s College, Cambridge. His learning
and winning address made him a favourite at the
court of James I., who in 1610 created him Knight
of the Bath, and in 1620 Viscount Mansfield.
who was splendidly entertained by him
at Welbeck and Bolsover, in 1628 created him Earl
of Newcastle, and in 1638 28h him governor
to his son, afterwards Charles II. His support of
the king during the contest with the parliament
He contributed £10,000 to the

_ treasury, and raised a troop of 200 knights and

gentlemen, who served at their own cost. As
sige of all the forces north of the Trent, he

power to issue declarations, confer knight-
hood, coin money, and raise men ; and the last part
of his commission he executed with great zeal.
After the battle of Marston Moor (1644), Cavendish
retired to the Continent, where he resided, at times
in great poverty, till the Restoration. In 1665 he
was created Duke of Newcastle; and he died 25th

- December 1676. He was author of two works on

horsemanship, and of several plays, not of a char-

_ acter to increase any man’s reputation for intelli-

gence. See his Lite by his second wife (1667;
new ed. by C. H. Firth, 1886).—She, MARGARET

_ Lucas (1624-74), the daughter of an Essex house,

where ‘all the brothers were valiant, and all the
sisters virtuous,’ had married him in 1645, and was

herself the author of a dozen folio volumes of
poems, plays, letters, &c.

Caviare, the salted roes (immature ovaries) of
common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) and other

fishes of the same genus (see STURGEON). It is

the taste is an

chiefly prepared in Russia, where, as in various
other countries, it is a favourite delicacy, and is
largely made in the United States; though the
phrase ‘Caviare to the general,’ shows that
acquired one. The species of

sturgeon from the roe of which it is chiefly pre-

“J oes gildenstéidtii), the Sche
Us

ed inhabit the Caspian and Black seas and
tributary rivers. Among them are the Bie-
or Great Sturgeon (A. huso), the Osseter
or Sevruga (A. stel-
), and the Sterlet (4A. ruthenus ), she tuah neuen
ing a particularly delicious caviare. Astra-
isa principle seat for its preparation. Thee

are separated from the connecting tissue, sal
and packed in small barrels ; or, the roes are salted
in long troughs, and the are passed through a
sieve into yy The Caspian fishery has produced

_ over 400,000 Ib. in a single year.

Cavité, a seaport of Luzon, Eerierise Islands,
on a peninsula in Manila Bay, 8 miles SW. by 8.
of Manila. It is fortified, has an arsenal, and was
formerly the chief naval station of the Spanish pos-
sessions in the east. Pop. 1947.

Cavour, CouNT CAMILLO BENsO DI, the re-
storer of Italian unity and nationality, was born at
Turin, August 10, 1810. He was descended from
one of the ancient noble families of Piedmont, and
being the younger son was destined for a military
eareer. At the military school he distinguished
himself by his mathematical talent, and at an early
age was appointed to a post in the engineers.
But as his liberal opinions proved unfavourable to
his stay in the army, he left it in 1831. His good
sense, however, taught him that the deliverance of
Italy could not be accomplished by secret conspiracy
and spasmodic revolutionary outbreaks. There was
nothing for him therefore but to retire into private
life.’ Here he devoted himself to agriculture, intro-
ducing great improvements in the cultivation of
the family estates; and his efforts generally to
raise the economic condition of Piedmont were
thorough and enlightened. But he had a further
end in view; he saw that economic improvement
must be the basis for a better social and political
order. And he widened his knowledge of economic
and political questions by foreign travel, especially
in France and England. Constitutionalism as
established and practised in England was on the
whole the form of government he most admired.
During a residence in England he made himself
intimately acquainted with the political organisa-
tion of the country, and also with its industrial
institutions; knowledge of which he made good
use on his return to his own country.

In this way for sixteen years Cavour energetically
laboured as a private gentleman. No opportunity
presented itself for any effective influence in

lities, and he wisely abstained. It was very

ifferent when the spirit of freedom and innova-
tion once more awoke towards the revolutionary

riod of 1848. In conjunction with Count Cesare

albo, he in 1847 established a newspaper, J/ Risor-
gimento, in which he advocated a representative
system, somewhat after the pattern of the English
constitution, as 0 alike to absolutism on
the one hand, Pa mob rule on the other. On
his suggestion, the king was petitioned for a consti-
tution, which was granted in February 1848. In
the Chamber of Deputies, during the stormy
period which succeeded Charles Albert’s decla-
ration of war against Austria in March, Cavour
strenuously opposed the ultra-democrats, and
counselled an alliance with England as the surest
guarantee for the success of the Italian arms. In
the Marquis d’Azeglio’s ministry, formed soon
after the fatal battle of Novara, Cavour was suc-
cessively Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,
Minister of Marine, and Minister of Finance. In
1852 he was appointed to succeed D’Azeglio as

remier. From this time until his resignation in

859, in consequence of the conclusion of the peace
of Villafranca, Cavour was the originator as well
as the director of the Sardinian policy. Taking
upon himself at different times, in addition to the

remiership, the duties of the Ministers of Finance,

ommerce, and Agriculture, and latterly of Home
and Foreign Affairs, he greatly improved the
financial condition of the country, introduced
measures of free trade, consolidated constitu-
tionalism, weakened clerical influence, and made
Sardinia a power of some account in Europe.

Hitherto the work of Cavour had been to reform
Piedmont, and place its affairs on a sound basis,
The Crimean war afforded him an opportunity to
begin the task of restoring the unity and national

38 CAVOUR

CAXIAS

independence of Italy. It was through his advice
and influence that Sardinia took part in the war,
and as a result of this he managed to bring the
Italian question before the Congress of Paris in
1856. In 1858 Cavour had with the Emperor Napo-
leon a secret meeting, at which the programme for
driving Austria out of Italy was drawn up, and
during the early part of 1859 there followed a
diplomatic contest with Austria, which Cavour
conducted with masterly tact and astuteness. The
peace of Villafranca, coming after the successful
war of 1859, and leaving Austria in possession of
Venetia, was a bitter disappointment to Cavour.
He resigned his office; yet he had no reason for
despair, as the power of Austria in the Italian
peninsula was now really broken. On returning to
office in 1860 he resumed his great undertaking,
but by new methods. Popular feeling in central
Italy declared itself in favour of union with the
north, and thus Parma, Modena, and Tuscany
came under the sway of Victor Emmanuel. It was
the part of Cavour to guide opinion towards this
end, gaining time for it while he negotiated with the
great powers ; but he had to purchase the acquies-
cence of France by the surrender of Nice and Savoy.
He secretly encouraged the expedition of Garibaldi,
which in 1860 achieved the deliverance of Sicily
and southern Italy. When a Sardinian army
marched southwards and on the plains of Campania
met the volunteers of Garibaldi, the unity of Italy
was already an accomplished fact. In 1861 an
Italian parliament was summoned, and Victor
Emmanuel was declared king of Italy. For the
completion of Italian unity only Rome and Venetia
were wanting; with a little patience they too
could be won.

Thus had Cavour achieved the task of his life.
But it had not been accomplished without a fearful
strain on his health. He had to manage the Sar-
dinian parliament, to meet the artifices, protests,
and reproaches of many of the great powers, to
prevent revolutionary parties from upsetting the
= mission on which he was engaged, and to

irect a great popular and national movement
towards a reasonable and attainable goal by
methods involving the minimum of delay and
violence. For the real power of Sardinia was com-
paratively limited, and a false step might have been
serious. The constant strain was too much for him,
and he died June 6, 1861, only a few months after
the unity of Italy had been proclaimed. The last
words he was heard to utter were those so familiar
as expressing an important feature of his policy :
‘Brothers, brothers, the free church in the free
state.’ Cavour is admitted to be the beau ideal of a
practical and constructive statesman, who, aiming
at just and reasonable ends, seeks to achieve them
by effectual and legitimate methods. He made
a reformed Piedmont the basis for Serpe 3 the
unity and regeneration of Italy. The ambition
of Napoleon, the military gallantry of the king, the
enthusiasm of Garibaldi, were all made to co-
operate towards his plan for satisfying the national
aspirations of Italy under a lasting constitutional
rule. Through his early death much of the work
necessary for a sound and healthy national life was
left unfinished, yet the subsequent history of Italy

roves that Cavour had built on a solid foundation.
ie deserves a place among the greatest statesmen
of modern times.

The title is taken from the small Piedmontese
town of Cavour, 28 miles SW. of Turin. See De
la Rive, Le Comte de Cavour, Récits et Souvenirs
(Paris, 1863; Eng. trans. of same date); Bianchi,
La Politique de Cavour (Turin, 1885); his Lettere,
edited by Chiala (6 vols. 1883-87); also the bio-

phies of him by Massari (Turin, 1873) and
, ae (Paris, 1877; Eng. trans. of same date).

Cavy (Cavia), a genus of Rodents, best known
by the domesticated species (Cavia cobaya), the
common Guinea-pig (q.V.).

Cawdor, a village in Nairnshire, 54 miles SW.
of Nairn. Cawdor astle, near by, the seat of the
Earl of Cawdor, was founded in 1454, but is one of
the three places which tradition has assigned as
the scene of King Duncan’s murder by Macbeth
in 1040. A series of rg or: from the charter-room —
at Cawdor was edited by Cosmo Innes under the
title of Zhe Book of the Thanes of Cawdor (1859),
See CAMPBELL.

Cawk, a popular name for a massive variety
of the mineral called Heavy Spar or Sulphate of
Baryta. See BARYTA.

Cawnpore’ (Kanhpur), a city of the North-
western Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges
42 miles SW. of Lucknow, 266 SE. of Delhi, and
628 NW. of Caleutta. The river in front, varying,
according to the season, from 500 yards in width to
more than a mile, presents a large and motley
assemblage of steam-vessels and native craft; the
principal landing-place is the beautiful Sarsiya
ghdt. Cawnpore, at least as a place of note, is of
recent origin, being indebted for its growth, besides
its commercial facilities, partly to military and
political considerations. In 1777, being then an
appendage of Oudh, it was assigned by the nawab
as the station of a subsidiary force ; and in 1801
it became, in name as well as in fact, British
se ao Its cantonments, having accommodation
or 7000 troops, contain a population of about 38,000. -
Pop. of the city (1891) 188,712, giving a total of
about 227,000, of whom 125,000 were Hindus, and
5000 Christians. At the outbreak of the mutiny
in May 1857, Cawnpore contained about 1000
Europeans, 560 of whom were women and children.
The hasty, ill-chosen entrenchments into which
they had thrown themselves, were speedily invested
by overwhelming numbers of the mutineers, led on
by the infamous Nana Sahib. For three weeks
the few defenders held gallantly out; but at last
they surrendered on promise of a safe-conduct to
Allahabad. The sepoys accompanied them to the
banks of the Ganges, and scarcely were they em-
barked on the boats, when a murderous fire was
opened upon them, and only four men escaped.

e women and children, 125 in number, were
reserved for a crueller fate, and were carried back
to Cawnpore. Hearing that Havelock was within
two days’ march of the place, Nana Sahib’ ad-
vanced to meet him. He was driven back, and,
smarting under defeat, returned to Cawnpore, and
gave orders for the instant massacre of his helpless
prisoners, who, dead and dying, were cast into a
well. Havelock and his small army arrived on
16th July, only to find to their unutterable horror |
that they came too late to rescue the women and
children. A memorial church, a Romanesque red-
brick building, now marks the site of General
Wheeler’s entrenchment; whilst the scene of the
massacre is occupied by the memorial gardens.
Over the well itself a mound has been raised, its
summit crowned by an octagonal Gothic inclosure,
with Marochetti’s white marble angel in the centre.
But Sir George Trevelyan’s Cawnpore (1865) is the
best memorial of the tragedy.—The district of
Cawnpore has an area of 2370 sq. m., and a popula-
tion of about 1,300,000. It is an alluvial plain of
great fertility. The vine is cultivated, and indi

ows wild. Besides its two mighty rivers, the

ranges and Jumna, and their navigable tributaries,
the Ganges Canal traverses the as for 60
miles, and there is ample communication by rail.

Caxias, (1) a town of Brazil, in the state of
Maranhao, on the navigable Itapicuru, 190 miles
from its mouth, with an active trade in cotton.

CAXTON

CAZEMBE 39

Pop. 10,000.—(2) An Italian agricultural colony in
the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, founded
in 1875. Pop. 13,680.
@axton, Witiam, the first English printer,
“Nyhan the Weald of Kent about 1422, He
was apprenticed in 1438 to Robert Large, a wealthy
London mercer, who was Lord Mayor in 1439-40.
~On his master’s death in 1441, he went to Bruges ;
l@ prospered in business, and became in 1462
vernor of a chartered association of English
merchants in the Low Countries. In 1471 he
abandoned commerce and attached himself to the
household of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, the
_ sister of Edward [V.; and apparently towards the
end of 1476 he set up his wooden printing-press
at the sign of the Red Pale in the Almonry at
Westminster. The art of ae he had acquired
g his sojourn in Bruges, doubtless from Colard
9 on, a well-known printer of that city ; and in
_ 1474 he put through the press at Bruges the first
_ book printed in the English tongue, the Reawyell
| ad amr ye of Troye, a translation of Raoul
_ Lefevre’s work. The Game and Playe of the Chesse
_ ‘was another of Caxton’s earliest publications ; but
the Dictes and Sayings of the gersn aye pub-
lished in 1477, is the first book which can with
certainty be maintained to have been printed in
_ England. All the eight founts of type from which
_ Caxton printed may be called Black Letter. Of
_ the ninety-nine known distinct productions of his
tC press, no less than thirty-eight survive in unique
0 i have no
ot

ies or in fragments only. His books
es and

-pages, although many have prolo
-eolophons. Some have no points at all; others
the full-stop and colon alone. The semicolon
never occurs; the comma is usually marked by
short (,;) or by long (|) lines. The pages are not
numbered and have no catechwords. (For Caxton’s
‘imprint, see article Book.) Caxton enjoyed the
patronage and friendship of some of the chief men
-of his time. He was diligent in the exercise of his
_ craft or in translation till within a few hours of his
_ death, which seems to have happened about the
close of the year 1491. Gibbon denounces Caxton’s
choice of books, and complains that ‘the world is

_ not indebted to England for one jirst edition of a
¢lassic author; but it should be remembered that
Caxton had to make his printing business pay, and

_ that he could therefore supply only books for which
_ there was a demand. Nor can it be said that a
rinter had no regard for pure literature who pro-

4 ced editions of Chaucer, Lydgate, Gower, Sir
_ Thomas Malory’s King Arthur, and translations
-of Cicero’s De Senectute and De Amicitia, Caxton’s

os. J

_ industry was marvellous. He was an accomplished
linguist, and the translations which he executed

_ ‘himself fill more than 4500 printed pages, while the
_ total produce of his press, exclusive of the books
_ ‘printed at Bruges, reaches to above 18,000, nearly
all of folio size. At the Osterley Park sale in 1885,
no less than ten Caxtons were sold; one of them,
the Chesse, brin ing £1950. In 1877 the printer and
his work were fittingly commemorated by a _typo-
graphical exhibition in London. See Zhe Old Printer
the New Press, by Charles Knight (1854) ; Life
and Typography of William Caxton (1861-63), by
W. Blades ; and the Biography and Typography of

_ Caxton (1877 ; 2d. ed, 1882), by the same author.

Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capital of French
uiana, on an island at the mouth of a river of the
same name. <A new town is connected with the
older portion by the Place d’ Armes, bordered with
orange-trees. The harbour is the best on the coast,
but insecure and shallow. Cayenne, though it is
‘the entrepdt of all the trade of the colony, is chiefly
own as a t French penal settlement (since
1852). The climate is extremely unwholesome for

Europeans, large numbers of the convicts having
been carried off by various malignant fevers. The
French took ion of the island in 1604, and
again, after it had been held by the English and
Dutch, in 1677. The name of the capital is some-
times used for the whole of French Guiana (q.v.).

Pop. about 10,000.

Cayenne Cherry. See EUGENIA.

Cayenne Pepper consists of the powder of
the dried pods, and more especially of the dried
seeds of species of Capsicum (q.v.).

Cayes, or AUX CAYES, a sea
the south-west coast, 95 miles
Prince. Pop. 8000.

Cayley, ARTHUR, mathematician, was born at
Richmond, Surrey, in 1821. He was educated at
King’s College, London, and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and graduated as senior wrangler and first
Smith’s prizeman in 1842. He was called to the
bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1849, and established a

ractice as a conveyancer. In 1863 he was elected

rst Sadlerian Professor of pure Mathematics at
Cambridge, and in 1875 to a fellowship of Trinity
College. He received honorary degrees from Ox-
ford, Dublin, and Leyden. e was president of
the Royal Astronomical Society (1872-73), and of
the British Association at its Southport meeting in
1883, where his address on the ultimate possibili-
ties of mathematics attracted much attention. In
1882 he lectured at the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, and received the Capley medal of the
Royal Bava: His chief book is an Elementary
Treatise on Elliptic Functions (1876); a ten-volume
edition of his Raiienatios Papers was begun in
1889. He died 26th January 1895.

Caylus, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBI-
ERES, COMTE DE, archeologist, was born in Paris
in 1692. After serving in the Spanish War of Suc-
cession, he travelled in Greece and the East, return-
ing to Paris in 1717 to devote himself to the study
of antiquities, and the promotion of the fine arts.
If his industry sometimes outran his intelligence,
it is still true that he did vast service to arche-
ology. He died at Paris in 1765. His chief work
is is Recueil d’ Antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques,
grecques, romaines, et gauloises (7 vols. 1752-67).

is copperplate engravings have had a longer life
than his stories of Eastern life.

Cay’man, a local name loosely Mis 78 to
various species of ae to Alligator
mississippiensis, the single species of the United
States, or more frequently to other species found
in tropical or subtropical America. 1e name has
also been used, to all appearance unnecessarily, as
the scientific title of a genus, and as such has n
most frequently applied to A. palpebrosus and A.
trigonatus. It seems more reasonable to regard all
the alligators as within the limits of a single genus.
See ALLIGATOR.

Caymans, three fertile coral islands of the
Caribbean Sea, 165 miles NW. of Jamaica, of which
they form a dependency. Discovered by Columbus,
they were by him called Tortugas, from the
abundance of turtle, still the staple production
of the group. Area, 225 sq. m.; pop. 2400, 2000
inhabiting the largest island, Grand Cayman.

Cazalla de la Sierra, a town of the Spanish
province of Seville, 38 miles ENE. of Seville city,
on the southern slope of the Sierra Morena, with
important mines, and a trade in olives and wine.
Pop. 8322.

Cazem’bé, the title of an African prince, whose
territory, also called Cazembé, extends between
the Moero and Bangweolo lakes, west of 30° E.
long. The people are industrious and skilful hus-
bandmen and smiths, and carry on a brisk trade

rt of Hayti, on
SW. of Port-au-

40 CAZORLA

CECROPIA

It is now mainly included in

in ivory, copper, &c.
Dr

British Central Africa or the British sphere.
Livingstone died here in 1873.

Cazorla, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 40 miles
ENE. of Jaén. Pop. 6651.

Ceano’thus, See Rep Root.

Ceara, a state of Brazil, on the north coast.
Area, 40,240 sq. m. It raises cattle, cotton, coffee,
and sugar; iron and gold are found. Pop. about
950,000. The capital, Ceara, is on an open road-
stead. It exports sugar, rubber, hides, &c., brought
from Baturité (90 miles inland) bya railroad of which
Ceara is the terminus. Pop. about 30,000.

Cebadilla, See SABADILLA.

Ce’bes, a Theban, disciple and friend of Socrates,
and reputed author of the Pinaz, or ‘ votive tablet,’
a philosophical dialogue, representing allegorically
the temptations of this life, and teaching that
True Learning can alone make for righteousness.
In spite of its pure Attic, and its truly Socratic
tendency, modern criticism now assigns the work
to the 2d century A.D. Extremely popular in the
middle ages, a sort of ‘ Pilgrim’s Progress’ indeed,
it was translated into all the European languages,
and into Arabic (possibly about the 9th century),
in which latter version alone is found the close of
the dialogue. See Jerram’s Cebetis Tabula (Oxf.
Clar. Press, 1878).

Cebu, or ZEBU, a long and narrow island of the
Philippines, NW. of Mindanao. Area, with neigh-
bouring isles, about 2000 sq.m. The valleys are
fertile, yielding rice, sugar, cotton, tobacco, cacao,
and millet. Pop. 504,076. Capital, Cebu, on the
east coast, the oldest city (and capital, 1565-71) of
the Philippines. Ithas a good trade. Pop. 35,243.

Ce’bus (Gr., ‘an ape’ or ‘monkey’), a genus of
South American monkeys, characterised by a round
head and short muzzle, a facial angle of about 60°,
long thumbs, and a long prehensile tail entirely
covered with hair. The body is covered with short,
thick hair. Their voice is soft and pitiful. The
species are numerous, all of very lively disposition
and gregarious arboreal habits, living in trees.
They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on insects,
worms, and molluscs. Various species are often
seen in zoological gardens and menageries. They
are included under the popular designation Sapajou
in its wider sense, and some of them are the
monkeys to which this name is sometimes more
strictly appropriated. The names Sajou and Sai
or Cai are also given to some of them, and some
are called Capuchin (q.v.) Monkeys. One of the
most common species in Guiana is the Weeper
Monkey, or Weeper Sapajou (C. apella). Some of
the species are adorned with beards. The term
Cebidz is often used as a family designation for
all the broad-nosed New-World Monkeys ( Platyr-
rhini) with prehensile tails, in contrast to the
Pithecide, in which the tail is not so adapted.
In this rns are included the Howling Monkeys
(Mycetes), the Spider Monkeys (Ateles), and
other genera. See MONKEY.

Cecidomy’‘ia (Gr. kekidion, ‘a gall-nut,’ and
myia, ‘a fly’ or ‘gnat’), a genus of dipterous (two-
winged) insects in the Tipularia (gnat and mos-

uito) division. They have beautiful, delicate,

owny wings, which have three nervures, and are
horizontal when at rest; antennee as long as the
body, with bead-like joints, and whorls of hairs at
the joints; long legs, and the first joint of the
tarsi very short. The species are numerous; nearly
thirty in Britain, and sixty in Europe. All are of
small size, but some of them are very important on
account of the ravages which their minute maggots
effect in grain-crops. _C. cerealis, sometimes called
the Barley Midge, a brownish-red fly with silvery

wings, of which the maggot is vermilion coloured
is often very destructive to crops of barley an
spelt in Germany. The little maggots live in.
families between the stalk and the sheath of the
leaf, abstracting the juice of the plant.—The
Wheat-fly (q.v.) and the Hessian Fly (q.v.) belong’
to this genus. Some of the species of Cecidomyi
deposit their eggs on the young buds of trees, which
the larvee transform into galls.

While forms like the
economic importance, another Cecidomyia is, on
account of its extraordinary mode of reproduction, of
sreat scientific interest. According to Wagner, the
emale lays her eggs under tree-bark or the like ;
these develop in winter into larve. The larve,
still immature, become reproductive and partheno-
genetic. The ovaries rupture, the epee fall into.
the body-cavity, where the stimulus of fertilisation

is somehow replaced, for the ova develop into
larvee. These eat their parent larva, and after
finishing the viscera, leave the empty skin. The

nemesis of reproduction overtakes them also, for
within them again, though likewise only larve, a.
fresh batch of larvee develops in similar fashion.
After several
fatal reproduction, the final set of larve meta-
pe ee in summer into sexual winged insects..
See REPRODUCTION. :

Cecil. See BURGHLEY and SALISBURY.

Cecilia, St, the patroness of music, especially
church music, is said to have suffered martyrdom
in 230 A.D. Her heathen parents belonge
noble Roman family, and betrothed their daughter,
already a secret convert to Christianity, to a heathen
youth named Valerian, who also was soon con-
verted, and ere long suffered martyrdom together’
with his brother Tiberius. Cecilia, when com--
manded to sacrifice to idols, firmly refused, and
was condemned to death. She was first thrown
into a boiling bath, from which she emerged unhurt;
next the executioner struck three blows upon her
neck with a sword, then fled in horror. Three
days later his victim died of her wounds, and
received the martyr’s crown. She was buried by
Pope Urban in the catacombs of Callistus. As.
early as the 5th century, there is mention of a
church dedicated to St Cecilia at Rome; and in
821, by order of the Pope Paschal, her bones
were deposited there. St Cecilia is regarded as.
the inventor of the organ, and in the Roman
Catholic Church her festival-day, November 22, is
celebrated with splendid music. Some of our
greatest poets, as Chaucer, Dryden, and Pope, have
laid poetic tributes on the shrine of St Cecilia—the-
rts is Dryden’s splendid ode. The most
amous paintings of St Cecilia are those of
Raphael at Bologna, Carlo Dolce in the Dresden
Gallery, Domenichino in the Louvre, and Rubens.
in the Berlin Museum.—Another St Cecilia was.
born in Africa, and suffered martyrdom by starva-
tion under Diocletian. Her festival falls on the
11th of February.

Cert er a genus of Artocarpacee. C.
peltata, the Trumpet-tree of the West Indies and.
South America, has a hollow stem and branches,
exhibiting merely membraneous partitions at the
nodes. The branches, these partitions being re-
moved, are made into water-pipes and wind-.
instruments. The wood is very light, and is used
to make floats for nets, and by the Indians in
kindling fires by friction against a harder piece of
wood. The bast yields a cordage fibre, and the
outer bark is astringent, the fruit resembles a rasp-
berry, the buds furnish a potherb, while the juice
hardens into caoutchouc. The leaves and fruit are.

essian fly are of great.

enerations of this immature and

toa

largely consumed by sloths. The hollow stem is.

largely inhabited by ants.

—"

wees =.)

a ——s

7

ee a a 2

.

CECROPS

-

CEDAR 41

Cecrops, « Pelasgic hero, the first king of
Attica, sometimes represented as half man and
half dragon. He divided Attica into twelve com-
“munities, founded Athens, the citadel of which,

at first called Cecropia, commemorated his name,
instituted marriage and the worship of the gods,
and introduced agriculture, navigation, and com-
merce, Late writers explained Cecrops as the leader
of a colony from Sais in Egypt.

Cedar, or CEDAR OF LEBANON, a tree much
celebrated from the most ancient times for its
beauty, its magnificence, and its longevity, as well
as for the excellence and durability of its timber.
It is often mentioned in Scripture ; it supplied the
woodwork of Solomon’s temple; and in the poetry
of the Old Testament it is a frequent emblem of
prosperity, strength, and stability. It belongs to
the natural order Conifer, and is the Pinus Cedrus
of the older botanists; but is now ranked in the
genus Cedrus under the name of C. Libani, in
reference to its best-known habitat, Mount Leb-
‘anon. It is found, however, on other mountains
of Syria and Asia Minor, and also in Cyprus.

OF the celebrated Cedars of Lebanon only a few
now remain, Situated at the head of the Kedisha
Valley at 6314 feet elevation, they consist of a grove
of trees, 377 in number in 1875, five only being of

Cedars of Lebanon.

igantic size, measuring 30 feet round. In age

ey may vary from 50 or 80 to 800 or 1000 years ;
but as they have long ceased to add regularly yearly
concentric rings of wood to their trunks, there are
no reliable data by which to estimate the age of
the few patriarchal cedars that yet remain on the
Lebanon. Arabs of all creeds have a traditional
veneration for these trees ; and Maronites, Greeks,
and Armenians annually celebrate mass on a
homely altar of stone at their feet.

The general aspect of the cedar is distinct and
majestic in fully developed trees. The trunk is
massive, but attains only a moderate height—50 to
80 feet—much branched ; the branches assume the
proportions of timber, are horizontal, and spreading
usually so as to exceed the total height. They
are arranged in apparent whorls, or stages, and the
branchlets springing from them in a flat fan-like

fashion in great profusion and density impart a tabu-

liform appearance in graduated stages from base to
summit of the tree. The leaves are about an inch
long, arranged in clusters, persistent for about two
years, at first bright green, but changing with age
to a deeper tint, with a glaucous hue, which in
some individual trees increases to an almost silvery

Branch of Cedar of Lebanon.

whiteness that gives to them a strikingly venerable
aspect. The cones are erect on the upper sides of
the branches, from 3 to 5 inches long and 2 to 24
inches broad, blunt at both ends. They require
two years to reach maturity, and do not, as in the
ease of other allied conifers, drop from the branches,
but when ripe the scales only along with the seeds
drop to the ground, and leave the axis of the cone
attached to the branch.

The timber of the Lebanon cedar enjoyed a high
reputation for durability in ancient times, hich,
however, is hardly supported by modern experience.
The wood of trees that have been grown in Britain
and other parts of Europe has proved light, soft,
brittle, liable to warp, and far from durable, prob-
ably owing to the immaturity of these compara-
tively young, though well-developed, samples, and
also perhaps to climatic influence. The superior
quality of the timber of the Lebanon trees is
attested by Sir Joseph Hooker, who visited the
famous cedar grove in 1860.

The secretions of the cedar of Lebanon have long
been celebrated for remarkable properties. The
whitish resin (Cedria) which it exudes, it is said
the Egyptians used in embalming their dead.
Ancient writings were kept in cabinets or boxes
of cedar-wood, but it would appear to be rather
dangerous to commit modern printed documents to
such repositories. Mr Smee, in My Garden, says :
‘The wood of the cedar contains a volatile essential
oil, which has the curious property of unsettling
printers’ ink and making it run. Some years ago
a Bank of England note was offered to the cashier
with its printing disturbed. Inquiry was set on
foot, and it was traced to several individuals, who
satisfactorily explained its custody and possession.
It was then brought to me, when I suggested that
the detectives should inquire whether it had been
kept in a cedar box; it was then discovered that
the last possessor had kept it in a new cedar box
which she had recently bought, and thus the
mystery was solved.’ In very ancient times, cedar-
oil, a kind of turpentine, was prepared from the
wood, and was spread on ks in order to their
better preservation. The branches of the cedar,
like those of the larch in warm countries, exude a
sweet substance, which is known by the name of
Cedar Manna.

The botanist Belon brought a Lebanon cedar
with him to France in 1549: when it was intro-

42 CEDAR

CEILING

duced into Britain is not exactly known. The dis-
tinction of introducing it is ascribed with most
evidence of accuracy to Evelyn, who in his Sylva
(published 1664) mentions having ‘received cones
and seeds from the mountains of Libanus,’ while
describing the beauties of the tree and speaking of
its probable adaptability to the English climate.
Aiton in Hortus Kewensis makes 1683 the, date
of planting the celebrated Chelsea cedars, which
are assumed by some to have been the first trees
planted in England. There are many fine speci-
mens of the Lebanon cedar in different parts of
Britain, notably at Sion House, Goodwood, and
Enfield in England, and at Hopetoun, Dalkeith,
and Beaufort in Scotland.

The Deodar, or Himalayan Cedar (Cedrus Deo-
dara), a tree held in great veneration by the
Hindus, and of which the name is properly Deva-
dara (‘divine tree’), is common in the Himalaya
mountains at elevations of 7000 to 12,000 feet,
forming magnificent forests, and attaining a great
size, a height sometimes of 150 feet, with a trunk
30 feet or more in circumference, an ample head,
and spreading branches. It and the cedar of
Algiers (C. Atlantica or Africana), found in the
mountainous regions of the north of Africa, are
but sub-species or varieties of the Cedrus Libani.
The wood of the deodar is resinous, fragrant, com-
pick, and very durable. It is susceptible of a

igh polish, and in its polished state has been
compared to brown agate. Owing to the abundance
of resin, laths of it burn like candles. Its turpen-
tine is very fluid, and although coarse, is much
used in India for medical purposes; and tar and
pitch are obtained from the trunk. The deodar
las now become very common as an ornamental
tree in Britain, although few specimens have yet
attained a very considerable size.—The name
cedar is often given to other coniferous trees
besides the true cedars. Thus, the Siberian Stone
Pine, or Cembra Pine, is called the Siberian Cedar
{see PINE), and a species of fir (Abies religiosa) is
the Red Cedar of California (see Fir). A species
of Cypress (q.v.) is known as White Cedar, and
another as the Cedar of Goa. Several of the trees
which bear the name cedar are species. of Juniper
{q.v.), among which are the Virginian Cedar, or
Red Cedar of North America, and the Bermuda
Cedar—which yield the cedar-wood used for pencils
—the Spanish Cedar of the south of Europe, &c.
The name cedar is even given to trees which have
no resemblance to the true cedars except in the
resinous quality of the wood ; thus the Cedar-wood
of Guiana is produced by Icica altissima, a tree of
the natural order Amyridacee (q.v.); the cedar of
the West Indies (see next article) belongs to the
natural order Cedrelacez ; and the name Bastard
Cedar is given in India to a tree of the natural order
Byttneriacez (q.v.).

Cedar, BARBADOES, is strictly speaking Jwni-
perus barbadensis ; but a more important tree is
that called Bastard Barbadoes Cedar (Cedrela
odorata), a tree of the order Cedrelaceze (q.v.).
Its wood has an agreeable fragrance, and being
soft and light, it is used for canoes and for shingles.
Havannah cigar-boxes are very generally made of
it, and in France it is used in making black-lead
pencils.

Cedar-bergen, a mountain-range in Cape
Colony, stretches north and south on the east side
of Olifant River Valley, in Clanwilliam division,
and has plantations of Cape cedar ( Widdringtonia
juniperoides), which are now, however, being fast
destroyed. This is the only locality where this
species is found. Sneeuwkop (6335 feet) is the
highest point of the range.

Cedar Bird, See WAxwIna.

Cedar Creek is a river of Virginia, U.S.,
which gives name to a battle fought 19th October
1862, when the Federals under Sheridan defeated
the Confederates under Early.

Cedar Rapids, a town of Linn county, Iowa,
on the Red Cedar River, 79 miles SW. of Dubuque.
It is an important railway centre, and has several
large flour-mills, carriage and machine works, and
breweries. Pop. (1860) 1830; (1890) 18,020,

Cedilla (Sp., Fr. cédille, It. zediglia; from
zeta, the Greek name for z, because it has taken
the place of z in such words as /eczon, mod. lecon,
a mark placed under the letter ¢ (¢), especially in
French, where it is desired to give c the sound of
s before the vowels a, 0, u.

Cedrate. See CiTRon.

Cedrelaceze, a sub-order of Meliaceze (q.v.),
all tropical or subtropical trees or shrubs, with pin-
nate leaves, mostly valuable for their timber—e.g.
mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, the
yellow-wood of New South Wales, &c. The barks
of some species are febrifugal. See MAHOGANY,
CEDAR (BARBADOES), &c.

Cefali, a town of Sicily, on the north coast,
40 miles ESE. of Palermo. It is situated at the
foot of a lofty promontory (1235 feet), with old
Greek and Saracenic remains. It has a cathedral, —
a port, and 12,714 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in
marble-quarrying and fishing.

Ceglie, a town in Southern Italy, 21 miles NE.
of Taranto. It has a trade in grain, oil, and fruit.
Pop. 13,865.

Ceiling (Fr. ciel ; Lat. celum, ‘heaven’). This
term seems to have been suggested by the use of
arched coverings for churches, and even for rooms,
which prevailed in the middle ages, and were
frequently painted blue and decorated with stars.
‘Arched ceilings among the Romans were known
by the name of camere, and were formed by semi-
circular beams of wood, at small distances from
each other, over which was placed a coating of
lath and plaster. But the ceilings most commonly
in use amongst the Romans were flat, the beams,
as in modern times, having been at first visible,
and afterwards covered with planks and plaster.
Sometimes hollow spaces were left between the
beams, which were frequently covered with gold
and ivory, or paintings or ‘ pateree’—large flowers
—such, for instance, as are used in the panels of
the vault of the Pantheon. The oldest flat
ceiling in existence is believed to be that of Peter-
borough Cathedral. Like that at St Albans Abbey,
it is made of wood. Ceilings of churches in the
middle ages were generally painted and gilded
in the most brilliant manner; and many existing
ceilings still exhibit the traces of early decoration
of this kind. In French churches the ceilings are
generally vaulted, but in England they are more
usually of wood. The older ceilings generally
follow the line of the timbers of the roof, which,
in the Early English and Decorated, are often
arranged so as to give the shape of a barrel vault.
In ceilings of this description there seldom are
many ribs, often only a single one along the top.
In the Perpendicular style, the ceiling often con-
sists of a series of flat surfaces or cants, formed on
the timbers of the roof. Though sometimes alto-
gether destitute of ornament, they are more fre-
quently enriched with ribs, dividing them into
square panels, with bosses (see Boss) or flowers at
the intersections. Wooden ceilings are sometimes
formed in imitation of stone-groining, with ribs
and bosses, examples of which will oo found at
York, Winchester, and Lincoln. In the Eliza-
bethan age ceilings were generally of plaster, but
they were ornamented with ribs having bosses or

CELAKOVSKY

CELEBES 43

SS dants at the intersections. It is not
un for the ceiling immediately over the altar,
or the roodloft, to be richly ornamented, whilst the
_ rest is plain. See Roor.
elakovsky, (1) FRANz LADISLAvs, Bohemian
; born in Strakonitz, 7th March 1799, died at
' rofessor of Slavonic Philology, 5th August
is principal works are Echoes of Russian
and Bohemian Folk-songs (1833-40), and a cycle of
love-songs and didactic and Sg poems (1840).
_ He also translated the works of Herder, Goethe,
and Scott.—(2) LApISLAUS, botanist, born in
_ Prague, 29th November 1834, was appointed pro-
_ fessor of Botany there in 1880. Besides several
meeenerephs on particular genera, he has published
a ne book on the Bohemian flora (3 parts,
1867-75) and an elucidation of the Darwinian theory.
€el’andine is the popular name (and corrup-
tion) of Chelidonium majus, a perennial papavera-

4

]
7
:

>

—— ee

Celandine (Chelidonium majus) :

a, a flower.

_ eeous herb, which, although not uncommon in
Britain, is doubtfully indigenous. Its my foliage
' * and umbels of
small yellow
flowers, which
4 Sara FS from

ay to August,
might ve, ba
attract atten-
tion, but its
ancient repute
among herbal-
ists is due to its
s yellow = milk

Juice, which is
very acrid and
poisonous. Ex-
ternally it was
applied to warts
and ulcers, and
internally ad-
ministered, it
was sup

Lesser Celandine
(Ranunculus Ficaria).

to be a specific for jaundice, Pca rica on no

better warrant, however, than that drawn from
_ its colour by the ‘doctrine of signatures.’ Its old
_ English name Swallow-wort, which appears to be
almost a translation of the botanical one, seems
founded on a supposed association between the
ning and ending of its flowering time and

the arrival and departure of the swallows.—It is,
however, the LessER CELANDINE which is more

iliar to general readers, at least since Words-

worth devoted no fewer than three poems to its
honour. This is Ranunculus Ficaria, also known

as the common fig-wort or pile-wort, a quite unre-

lated ranunculaceous plant, which grows in abund-
ant patches in fields and coppices, and brightens
them in early spring with its plentiful golden
flowers. Its tuberous roots and swollen separable
buds give it additional botanical interest, while it
is also noteworthy that these results of peculiarly
vegetative habit are associated with a frequent
imperfect maturity of the pollen. See ReEprRo-

DUCTION.
Celano, LAGo pi. See Fuctno (LAKE oF).
Celastracez. See SPINDLE-TREE.

Celaya, a town in the Mexican state of Guana-
uato, on the Rio Laja, about 150 miles by rail

W. of the city of Mexico, has several fine plazas,
handsome churches, and manufactures of cotton
and woollen cloths and saddlery. Pop. (1877),
with district, 28,336. The burning of its bull-ring,
on Easter Sunday 1888, caused considerable loss of

e.

Cele’bes (in England usually pronounced
Ce'lebes), the third largest and the central island
of the Eastern Archipe ago, from 1° 45’ N. to 5° 37’
S. lat., and from 118° 49’ to 125° 5’ E. long. ; about
800 miles long by 200 broad; total area estimated
at 76,260 sq.m. It is practically a Dutch posses-
sion, though there are numerous small native
states. In configuration, it consists of a central
nucleus whence radiate four long mountainous
limbs, respectively E., NE., SE., and S§., inclosing
the three teers of Gorontalo, running in nearly 200
miles, Tolo 150 miles, and Boni about 200 miles.
The gulfs, as also the north and west coasts, are
studded with islands, rocks and shoals, and larger
outlying islands. Of the central nucleus and the
two inner limbs little is known. The east end of
the eastern peninsula (north end of island), Mina-
hassa district, is subject to earthquakes, and
contains 11 voleanoes, some of them active, such
as Mount Sapoetan (5938 feet), and, farther east,
Mount Klabat (6559 feet), which has now, however,
long been quiescent, besides numerous hot springs
and sulphur lakes. The mountains of the south
peninsula, essentially a limestone formation, seldom
rise above 2000 feet. In the extreme south, how- ©
ever, are Maros (4225 feet) and Bonthain (9994 feet).
The uplands of the south peninsula are well wooded,
but its vegetation is much less luxuriant than that
of the east peninsula. Between the hills and coast
of the south peninsula are extensive grassy plains,
affording pasture for large herds of cattle, and for
the horses for which the district is famous.

Celebes is rich in lakes, among them, Passo, in
the central nucleus, 35 miles by 25 miles, and Ton-
dano, nearly 2000 feet above the sea. There are
numerous streams, but Celebes, no part of which is .
more than 50 miles from the sea, offers no s
for the formation of large rivers. The Sadang,
rising near lake Passo, flows due south for nearly
120 miles.

Thanks to the elevation of the land and its sea-
exposure, Celebes enjoys a comparatively cool and
healthy climate. he vegetation includes rice,
maize, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, areca, betel,
pepper, clove and nutmeg growing wild; the tree
yielding macassar oil, oak, teak, cedar, ebony,
sandalwood, bamboos; also the wpas. Minahassa,
the most highly cultivated district, 60 by 20 miles,
has coffee plantations, producing coffee of a re-
markably fine flavour, entirely in the hands of the
eecemment, and where alone the ‘culture system’

as been applied in its integrity since 1822. Many
animals, birds, and insects are wholly peculiar to
Celebes—a tailless baboon, two kinds of cuscus, the
babiroussa, and Sapi-utan, three kinds of starlings,
two magpies, &c. Gold is obtained from surface
washings, principally in Minahassa and Gorontalo
districts ; iron in the districts bordering the Guh

A4 CELERY

CELIBACY

of Tolo. Salt is also abundant.
are likewise worked.

The population of the island of Celebes is given
at 1,000,000, who may all be regarded as belong-
ing to various Malay stocks, except 7000 Chinese
and 2500 Europeans. The Bugis (see BONI)
and Mangkassars of the south peninsula, tall,
shapely, and comparatively fair, are the dominant
native race, much disposed to trading and seafaring.
The ‘Alfuros,’ a collective name for the other
native tribes, are at a very low grade of culture.
Celebes was first visited in 1525 by a Portuguese
expedition from the Moluccas. In 1607 the Dutch
began to trade with Celebes, and now claim the
whole island, which they have divided into the
residencies of Macassar and Menado, a third divi-
sion round the north and west of the Gulf of Tolo
being included in the residence of the Ternate.
The total value of the exports in 1884 was £600,000,
of which coffee formed nearly a half; and the im-
ports in the same year, £465,714. The women of
Celebes weave the sarang, Or national garment,
which, together with variegated mats, is largely
exported. A ‘high-road’ skirts the coast of the sout
peninsula from Mandale, 30 miles N. of Macassar,
to Balang-Nifra, on the Gulf of Boni; elsewhere
are only ordinary roads and footpaths.
town is Macassar, with a sea-frontage of nearly 24
miles. Menado, the capital of Minahassa district,
and seat of a Dutch resident, is described as the

rettiest settlement in the whole of the Dutch East
ndies, and has a pop. of 2500. See Lahure, L’ile
de Célébes (Paris, 1879).

Celery (Apium), a widely distributed genus of
Umbelliferee. The common celery (A. graveolens)
is found wild in Britain and most parts of Europe,
in ditches, brooks, &e., especially near the sea and
in saline soils, and is acrid and uneatable. In ecul-
tivation, however, abundant nutrition has greatly
mollified its properties, and two principal forms
have arisen—one in which an abundant develop-
ment of parenchyma has taken place in the leaf-
stalks ; the other in which it affects the root—while
. these again possess their sub-varieties. The former
sort is the common celery of British gardens, where
the familiar long blanched succulent stalks are
produced by transplanting the seedlings into richly
manured trenches, which are filled up as the plants
grow, and finally raised into ridges over which little
more than the tops of the leaves appear; and a
supply is thus insured throughout the whole
winter. The other form is the turnip-rooted
celery, or celeriac, and is now largely cultivated
on the Continent. Both forms are eaten uncooked
alone, or in salads, or in soups, or as a boiled or
. stewed vegetable, and are pleasant and wholesome,
although when used too freely or frequently they.
are diuretic and aphrodisiac. Some authorities
identify celery, instead of the closely related Parsley
(q.v.), as the Apium with which victors in the
Isthmian and other games were crowned, and of
which the Greeks were also wont to twine their
sepulchral garlands.

Céleste, MADAME, dancer, was born in Paris
6th August 1814 (by her own account), more prob-
ably three or four years earlier. A pupil at the
Conservatoire, she early showed remarkable talent.
Ske made her début in 1827 at New York, and dur-
ing her residence in America married one Elliott,
who died early. At Liverpool in 1830 she played
Fenella in Masaniello; in 1831-33 she became
extremely popular in London. Her second visit to
America (1834-37) is said to have brought her
£40,000. After her return she took part succes-
sively in the management of the Theatre se hen
Liverpool, and the Adelphi and Lyceum in London.
Her imperfect English long confined her to non-

Tin and copper

The chief |

speaking parts. She retired from the stage in 1874,
and died at Paris, 12th February 1882.

Celestine, a mineral bearing the relation te
Strontium (q.v.) that heavy spar bears to barium.
It is essentially sulphate of strontia, SrOSO,, with
occasional admixture of sulphate of baryta, car-
bonate of lime, oxide of iron, &e., in small pro-
portions. It much resembles heavy spar, but is not
quite equal to it in specific gravity ; is usually blue, —
often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes
colourless, more rarely reddish or yellowish. Its
crystallisation is rhombic, like that of heavy spar.
Most beautiful specimens of crystallised celestine
are found in Sicily. Celestine derives its name
from its colour. It is the source from which nitrate
of strontia, employed in the manufacture of fire-
works, is Ancited:

Celestine was the name of five popes, the first
of whom filled St Peter’s chair in 422-432 (see
Pore). The most notable was the Neapolitan
Peter di Morrone, who after a long life of ascetic
severities was much against his will elected pope as
Celestine V. in 1294, when he was nearly eighty
years of age. He resigned his office after five
months—‘ the great refusal,’ for making which he
is placed by Dante at the entrance of hell. He was
imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII, and
died in 1296. He was founder of the Celestines,
and was canonised in 1313.

Celestines, an order of hermits of St Damianus,
founded by Peter di Morrone about 1254, and con-
firmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264
and by Gregory X. in 1274. They called them-
selves Celestines when their founder ascended the
papal chair. They follow the rule of St Benedict,
wear a white garment with black hood and scapu-
lary, and live a purely contemplative life. In the
13th and 14th centuries the order spread rapidly
through France, Italy, and Germany, but subse-

uently decayed, and is now almost extinct. The
Trench Celestines were secularised by order of Pope
Pius VI. in 1776-78; so also were the Neapolitan
Celestines.

Celibacy (from calebs, ‘unmarried’), a state
opposed to the first and strongest natural law (Gen.
i. 28), has from a variety of causes come to be re-
garded in certain religious systems as a condition
of the most sublime self-sacrifice. The perpetual
celibacy of the priests of Isis, and the chastity
of the vestal virgins, are familiar instances. But
nowhere was this sentiment so strongly and widely
manifested as among the millions devoted to
the religion of Buddha. The theories of oriental
philosophers and the natural tendency of mystics
did not fail to influence the early Christian churches,
and led before long to the doctrine that virgen is
a state in itself more excellent and more holy than
the married life, and to the discipline which, in the
Roman Church at least, imposed celibacy upon all

riests and sacred ministers. The Old Testament
is remarkably free from any tendency to exalt
celibacy above matrimony. But although texts
may be quoted on either side, the germs of the
doctrine in question may be discovered in the New
Testament. St Paul affirms it to be ‘good for a
man not to touch a woman,’ and wishes that all
men were celibate like himself (1 Cor. vii. 1, 7).
Christ himself speaks mysterious words in com-
mendation of. those who ‘have made themselves
eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven’s sake ;’ and
the Lamb is followed on Mount Zion by 144,000
virgins, ‘ first-fruits unto God and unto the Lamb’
(Rev. xiv. 1-5).

The apostolic writings, however, while they se
gest the excellence of ee in general, supply
no ground for the law of clerical celibacy. In the
first epistle to Timothy, the deacon as well as

CELIBACY

45

the bishop is told he must be the husband of
one wife, og, Pa Poem household and his Selves
well; and ‘forbidding to marry’ is reckon
a the ‘doctrines of devils.’ But a remote
« n for the later discipline has been sought
for in the regulations of the Jewish priest-
hood. The Mosaic law forbade priests to marry
i divorced women or harlots, and enjoined continence
upon all when preparing to offer sacrifice, Jerome
_ argues that the Christian priest should offer sacrifice
daily, and should therefore be perpetually con-
tinent; and Pope Siricius (385 A.D.) insists that
marriage was permitted to the priest of the old law
_ only because the sacerdotal order was then limited
_ to the tribe of Levi, but now that the tribal restric-
tion is removed, the license is abrogated also.
The ecclesiastical legislation on celibacy was de-
a ually and unequally in the several
parts of the church. In the 2d century it became a
; _— custom to make vows of chastity, and it was
ught becoming in the higher clergy to renounce
_ matrimony; and although there are examples of
__ bishops and priests in the first three centuries living
; with their wives and begetting children, it has been
_ eonfidently asserted that no instance can be quoted
_ of a marriage contracted at this period after ordina-
_ tion. The obligations of the marriage contract
__-were, however, considered sacred ; and the Apostolic
_ Canons im the penalty of deposition on bishop,
_ priest, or deacon, who should separate from his wife
under the pretence of piety.’ At the end of the
3d and beginning of the 4th century, marriage after
ordination was prohibited by formal legislation. A
further and important step was taken in the year
305 by the Spanish council of Elvira, which decreed
that sacred ministers who were already married,
should live in continence. At the Council of Nica
an anapt was made to impose this new rule upon
the whole church, but it was frustrated by the
wegeeers of a venerable monk, Paphnutius, him-
self a celibate; and the law to this day has never
been accepted in the Eastern Church. In the West,
however, a series of synodal enactments and papal
_ decrees established or renewed the more rigorous
- tule. Butin no matter of ecclesiastical discipline
_ must the distinction between theory and practice
_ be more carefully observed. The clergy everywhere
resisted the law, and resisted with considerable
success. St Patrick, who tells us that his father
and grandfather were in holy orders, when laying
down rules in one of his Irish synods for the con-
duct of his clergy, directs that ‘their wives should
s keep their heads covered.’ In the province ‘of
_ Milan, indeed, the marriage of priests continued to
[ ee petecily legal. Discipline and usage varied in
7 erent countries, but it may be safely said that
_ for many centuries the celibacy of the uncloistered
de was little more than a pious fiction, until
_ Hildebrand, afterwards Gregory VIL., by his great
influence and vigorous measures, secured a more
strict observance of the rule.
: From the 12th century (first and second Lateran
_ Councils) a great change took place in ecclesiastical
law. The marriage of priests was now declared to
be not only sinful but invalid. It became hence-
_ forward difficult for any priest to justify his mar-
riage on the plea that the prohibition of such
_ Marriage was abrogated by custom, or not bind-
ing under pallens As: exceptional circumstances.
_ The clerical consorts became no longer wives but
_ ¢oneubines; and, further, the priest who went
through the marriage ceremony was held to cominit
a far greater crime than if he had contented himself
with simple fornication. Yet in spite of all this
the law was to a large extent set at defiance. In
many parts of Europe it was a common thing for
benefices to from father to son. Influential
bishops obtained letters of legitimation for their

children, and provided for them out of the property
of the church, Avaricious princes and prelates
made traffic of the concubinage of the lower clergy
by levying a species of blackmail, under the name
ot fines, on the tacit understanding that the focaria,
or occupant of the priest’s hearth, should not be
disturbed. At the time of the Council of Trent,
the Emperor Charles, in the expectation that some
relaxation would be made in the laws on the sub-
ject, permitted in 1548, by the arrangement known
as the Interim, married priests to retain their wives
until the council should come to a decision. The
Emperor Ferdinand a little later (1562) urged upon
the same council the abrogation of celibacy. But
the Catholic reaction was too strong, and the
council in November 1563 pronounced, ‘ If any one
shall say that clerks constituted in holy orders, or
regulars who have solemnly professed p Heres are
aa to contract matrimony, or that, being con-
tracted, such matrimony is valid . . . let him be
anathema.’

It should be observed, however, that in the United
Greek Church Rome tolerates a married clergy—
i.e. a man already married may be ordained priest,
and continue to live with his wife, though con-
tinence is imposed upon him at certain times. It is
the custom for the young candidate for orders to
leave the seminary for a while to get a wife, and
then return for ordination. If he should become
a widower, he cannot of course ma again, and
no married priest can be made a bishop. The
bishops are therefore, as a rule, taken from the
monasteries.

Since the Council of Trent, the observance of
celibacy has been comparatively well maintained.
This is especially true of those countries where the
Catholic community is mixed with or surrounded
by Protestant neighbours, and watched by a vigi-
lant press. Away from the high-roads of civilisa-
tion, in Mexico, Brazil, and other parts, concubinage
has again become the rule, less openly perhaps, but
quite as obstinately as in the middle ages.

The moral loss or gain to the chureh from her dis-
pe in this matter is a question of controversy
which from time to time has been raised within her
But the attention paid by biolo-
ts to the hereditary transmission of human
aculties and dispositions has recently exhibited
the effects of coliteny in a new light. Mr Galton
has remarked that the Roman Church has acted
as if she ‘aimed at selecting the rudest por-
tion of the community to be alone the parent of
future generations.’ The policy which attracts men
and women of gentle natures fitted for deeds of
charity, meditation, or study to the unfruitful life
of the cloister and the priesthood, appears from
this b sigy of view to be ‘singularly unwise and
suicidal,’ tending, as it must, though by om aepig
tible degrees, to the deterioration of the race. ‘0
the enforcing of this discipline in Spain, for ex-
ample (coupled with the cutting off of independent
thinkers by the Inquisition), Mr Galton attributes
much of the decadence of the country during the
last three centuries. In France, where the most
promising lads of the village are successively picked
out by the parish priest for the bishop’s seminary,
the process of elimination must in the long run tell
upon the general character of the population. In

own communion.

small Catholic communities, in, where the
priestly vocation is held in high esteem by the
educated classes, and where mixed marriages are

diseountenanced, a similar result cannot fail to
occur. The controversial literature on the matter
is abundant. The most complete treatment of the
subject, from the historical point of view, will be
found in Sacerdotal Celi in the Christian
Church, by Henry C. Lea (Philadelphia, 1867).
See also MONACHISM.

46

CELL

Cell, a unit-mass of living matter, whether
rounded off by itself, as in the simplest plants or
animals and in the youngest stage of all organisms,
or associated with other cells to form a higher
unity. The great majority of the Protozoa and
Protophyta are single cells, and all other organisms
begin setaett the former leave off. From the double
unity resulting from the fusion of two sex-cells the
higher plants and animals develop by repeated
division, and they may be therefore always resolved
into more or less close combinations of variously

Fig. 1.— Dividing Egg-cell (after Gegenbaur).

modified unit-masses. In most cases these in-
dividualities of the simplest order are minute, and
their separateness is not to be discerned with the
unaided eye, but there are many instances among
the simplest plants and animals, as well as in the
component elements of higher forms, where the
unit-masses are relatively giant-cells and quite
visible without the use of the microscope. The
giant Amceba Pelomyxa, the common sun-ani-
maleule <Actinospherium, the Alga Botrydium,
and some of the cells (e.g. bast) of plants may be
noted as illustrations of cells with considerable
dimensions. In the great majority of cases the
body of the cell includes a well-defined centre or
rats Che and the definition may therefore be
extended in the statement that a cell is a nucleated
unit-mass of living matter or protoplasm.

I. History.—In the article BIloLOGY it has been
pointed out that a more and more penetratin
scrutiny alike of structure and of function le
naturalists from organs to tissues, and from tissue
to cell. Some of the steps in this gradually
deepening analysis deserve fuller record.

iscovery of Cells.—In the latter half of the 17th
century the simple microscope afforded to Malpighi
and Leeuwenhoek, to Hooke and Grew, what
was literally a vision of a new world. In
applying their rough and simple instruments to the
study of the structure of plants and animals they
became pioneers in the investigation of the infinitely
little. tobiekin’ ( Phil. Trans, 1674) seems to
have been the first to observe, what are now so
familiar, single-celled organisms. In the 18th cen-
tury Swammerdam and others continued with much
enthusiasm to describe the minute intricacies
which their ‘new eyes’ revealed; Fontana (1784)
observed the kernel of the cell—the nucleus—and
some of the elements of the tissues ; but the founda-
tion of scientific histology was not laid until the
appearance in 1801 of the Anatomie Générale of
Bichat. In this epoch-making work organs were
resolved into their component tissues, and their
functions were interpreted as the sum-total of the
properties of their constituent elements. Such a
conclusion was the utmost that could be reached
with the appliances then at command.

Early in this century, however, an improvement
in the appliances of observation furnished a fulerum
for a new advance. Fraunhofer discovered the
principle of achromatic Lenses (q.v. ; also ACHRO-
MATISM); these were combined into the compound
Microscope (q.v.), and a new era began. ‘Fibres’
and ‘globules,’ ‘lamine,’ ‘ nuclei,’ and even ‘cells’
were described. In 1831 Robert Brown emphasised
the normal presence of the nucleus discovered by
Fontana, and made the first important advances in
the study of the vegetable cell. Isolated discoveries,

such as that of the nucleolus by Valentin (1836),
occurred in rapid succession during those years.
Dujardin in 1835 described the sarcode or living
matter of the Protozoan Foraminifera and of some
other cells, and thus emphasised, as Résel von
Rosenhof had done many years before (1755) in
regard to the ‘ Proteus animalcule’ or Ameeba, the
most important element to be considered in form-
ing a true conception of the cell. The importance
of his description, of which he was apparently him- .
self unconscious, had for some time the same fate
as that of his predecessor of almost a century
before. Observations had in fact to accumulate
before any generalisation became possible. The
first definite steps towards a co-ordination of —
results was probably that of Johannes Miiller, who
in 1835 pointed out the resemblance between the
cells of the vertebrate notochord and the elements
observed in plants. The cellular nature of the
epidermis and the presence of nuclei therein was
next ascertained, and similar discoveries were made
in regard to several other tissues. Up to 1838
there was in fact a period of research in which cells.
were observed rather than understood.

Establishment of the Cell-theory.—As early as
1826 Turpin had maintained that plants were
formed by an agglomeration of cells. Professor
M‘Kendrick well points out, what one would of
course expect, that for some years before 1838
botanists were beginning generally to recognise
the cellular composition and origin of plants. The
conclusion known as the ‘cell-theory” was doubt-
less vaguely present in many minds. Its definite
statement was still awanting. In 1838, however,
Schleiden proved that a nucleated cell is the only
original component of a plant embryo, and that the
development of all tissues might be referred to such
cells. In the following year Schwann published
at Berlin his famous Microscopic Investigations on
the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of
Plants and Animals (Trans. Sydenham Society
1847). In this classic work it was shown that all
organisms, plants and animals alike, are made wu
of cells, and spring from cells. In composition an
in origin there is unity. The generalisation
familiarly known as the cell-theory was thus
clearly established, and though now a common-
So and postulate of histology, it may fairly be

escribed in Agassiz’s words as ‘the greatest dis-
covery in the natural sciences in modern times.”
Following up the generalisations of Schwann and
Schleiden, come a host of researches by which the
essential advance contained in the ‘ cell-theory’ was.
more and more fully confirmed. Cells were not
only observed, their import was recognised.

New Conception of the Cell.—When the cell-theo
was established, the general conception of the ce
was far from being either accurate or complete. It
was usually described as a vesicle closed by a solid
membrane, containing a liquid in which float a
nucleus and granular bodies. It was also the
general opinion that such cells originated within a
Demise for ground substance. In two ways
these notions were speedily corrected. On the one
hand as regards the origin of cells, Prevost and
Dumas (1824), Martin Barry (1838-9), Reichert
(1840), Henle (1841), Kélliker (1846), Remak (1852),
showed that in the case of the egg-cell, and in the
growth of tissues, each new cell arose by division
from a predecessor. This important conclusion
was most firmly established by Goodsir in 1845,
and Virchow in 1858, who proved that in all cases,
normal and pathological alike, cells arose from pre-
existing cells, a fagt expressed in the axiom omnis
cellula e cellula. In the second place it gradually
became apparent that too much importance had
been atéaahed to the cell-wall and too little to the
contained substance. Referring details to the

CELL

47

article PROTOPLASM, we may note some of the
important ste Dujardin (1835) described the
-*sarcode’ of tozoa and other cells; Purkinje
(1889) emphasised the analogy between the
ae. os emg of the animal embryo and _ the
‘*¢ambium’ of plant-cells; Von Mohl (1846) em-
4) in the clearest way the importance of the

se
ry

protoplasm in the vegetable cell; Ecker (1849)
compared the contractile substance of muscles with
that of the amceba ; Donders also referred the con-

ety from the cell-wall to the contained
i. ; Cohn suspected that the ‘sarecode’ of
animal and the ‘ | plait gee ’ of plant-cells must be

_ ‘in the highest degree analogous substance ;’ and
- so throughout another decade did botanists and
_ goologists unite in laying stress rather on the
4 living matter than on the wall of the cell, and in
_ hinting at the existence of one living substance as
_ the physical basis alike of Pw yer and animals,

_ This view found at length definite expression in

1861, when Max Schultze defined the modern con-
_ eeption of the cell as a unit-mass of nucleated
Y protoplasin. Since then the ‘protoplasmic move-
ment’ has dominated research, and we think not

so much of the cell-containing protoplasm as of the
Eepeoplasm which constitutes and gives form to the

Il. Structure of the Cell.—While it is impossible
to isolate the static from the dynamic aspects of
the cell, it will be convenient to discuss the two

separately, and to consider the cell at rest and
dead, apart from the cell active and alive. In
_ other words, the form, structure, or morpholo.
may be studied for literary clearness apart from the
functions, life, and physiology.

(a) General Form.—The typical and primitive
form of the cell is spherical. this is illustrated by
many of the simplest plants and animals which live
freely, and by young cells such as ova. But the
typical form is in many, indeed in most ¢ases, lost ;

and the forms assumed are as diverse as the
internal and external conditions of life. The cell
may be irregular and protean, as in Amcebee, white
blood-corpuscles, and many young eggs; or
squeezed into rectangular shape, as in much of the
substance of a leaf; or flattened into thinness, as in
the outer lining of the lips ; or oval and pointed, as
in swiftly moving Infusorians and Bacteria; or
much branched, as in multipolar gan lion cells of
_ animals or the latex-containing cells of some plants.
_ The typical spherical and self-contained form is
_ that which would naturally be assumed by a com-
_ plex coherent substance situated in a medium
ifferent from itself. The other forms are responses
to internal and external conditions. Under the
heading Cedl-cycle below it will be shown how the
relative activity and passivity of the cell naturally
expresses itself in such extremes as a long-drawn-
out Infusorian and a rounded-off Gregarine, or in a
highly nourished ovum and a mobile spermatozoon.
Further, cells, like entire animals, often show a
tendency to become two-ended, to have poles very
different from one another. Just as an animal may
have a highly nourished head and a scantily
nourished tail, so a cell may become distinctly
bipolar in form. In other cases the cell is altogether
plastic, expressing every impulse of internal change
and every impact of external influence in some
modification of form. Or the state of nutrition of
the living matter may cause alteration in the
adhesion of the substance all over, or in particular
places, and thus condition an outflowing, regular
or irregular, in given directions. Furthermore, ex-
ternal pressure and limitation of growth may
square off the cell into a parallelogram, or restrict
it to grow like a bast fibre in length alone and not
in breadth. In fact the conditions are most mani-
fold, and the resultant forms likewise.

(6) General Substance of the Cell.—The cell is
much more than a mass of highly complex chemical
substance : it has an organised structure. (1) The
protoplasm or living matter in the strictest sense
is generally supposed to be an intimate mixture of
complex and highly unstable chemical compounds.
Inspection under a microscope of such cells as
amcebee, white blood-corpuscles, ova, simple alge,
or such as are readily seen in thin slices of growing
plant-shoots, in root-hairs, and transparent parts,
will at once furnish an impression of the general
aspect of the substance of the cell. Not all that
one sees can of course deserve the name of proto-
plasm, for apart from definite inclosures like stareh-
grains and fat-globules, much of the remaining
angnaty clouded substance is hardly to be strictly
called protoplasm, but rather 25 steps in
the ceaseless making and unmaking which form
the fundamental rhythm of life. Keeping the
definite inclosures and products for the moment
aside, we may briefly notice in general outline
what has been with most conclusiveness observed
as to the structure of the general cell-substance or
‘cytoplasm’ as it is now frequently termed. All
olor agree that the structure is far removed
from the homogeneous, though there is much dif-
ference of opinion as to the nature of the hetero-
geneity. In a large number of cases at least the
substance of the cell has been resolved into two
distinct portions—the one an intricate network,
knotted and interlaced in a manner baffling descrip-
tion; the other a clear substance, filling up the
interstices or meshes of the living net. Leydig,
Frommann, and Heitzmann have been peculiarly
successful in unravelling this knotted structure in
animal cells, and much the same has been recorded
by Strasburger and Schmitz as observable in some
pe re The reticulate structure is certainly more

oubtful in regard to vegetable cells, and even in
some animal cells what some have described as a
network others have deemed only a minutely
bubbled emulsion.

But besides the real substance of the cell there
are to be seen products of various kinds formed
from the living matter. The cell may be packed
with starch, or laden with fat, or expanded with
mucus ; it may contain colouring matter in various
forms, as in the familiar chlorophyll bodies of many

lant-cells ; its structure may include, as in some

rotozoa, definitely formed fibrils or yet firmer for-
mations of chitin and the like; and again there are
concretions of retained waste and reserve products,
sometimes in the form of crystals. Not to be over-
looked either is the fine ‘dust-cloud’ of minute
granules which are seen suspended in the clearer
matrix, and which apparently represent aggrega-
tions of diverse chemical substances formed in the
building up and breaking down of the protoplasm.
As the outside of any mass is bound to be in differ-
ent conditions from the inside, it is natural to find
the appearance of distinct physical and chemical
zones in the cell-substance. Thus in many Protozoa
the outer portion, needlessly termed ‘ ectoplasm,’ is
often denser and more refractive than the more
fluid and internal stratum of the ‘endoplasm.’ Or
this may go further, and we may have a sweated-
off limiting cuticle, or a definitely organised wall
of cellulose in vegetable cells. The euticle may
be further substantiated with secretions of horny,
flinty, limy, and other material. Even within
the cell a stratified structure may be frequently
observed, and Berthold and others have recently
emphasised the existence of such concentric layers,
much characterised by its own special set of de-
posits.

Worthy of notice, too, are the various kinds of
bubbles or vacuoles which occur in the cell-sub-
stance. These may be simply indefinite spaces,

' 48

CELL

containing some liquid not protoplasm, and inelud-
ing salts and other substances in solution. In many
Protozoa they are ‘food-vacuoles,’ formed by the

Fig. 2.
A, Embryonic cells from growing point of a root; B, older cells
becoming vacuolated. (After Sachs.)

bubbles of water engulfed along with. the food-
articles, round which the protoplasm, shrinking
rom contact, often forms a definite contour. In
other cases they are more permanent, and represent
minute reservoirs of secreted substance, cisterns of
by-products in the vital manufacture of the cell.
Finally they may be seats of special activity, where,
perhaps, under the stimulus of irritant waste-pro-
ucts, the protoplasm exhibits spasmodic contrae-
tions and expansions, and forms the so-called ‘ con-
tractile vacuoles,’ which in alternate dilatation and
bursting often seem to serve to remove fluid from
the living matter to the exterior.

(c) Nucleus.—In the great majority of cells a
central body of definite composition and structure
is estes: which ne to be essential to the life
and reproduction of the unit-mass. In many cases
the nucleus is well concealed, but as more skilful
staining has revealed its presence in many cells
which used to be described as non-nucleated, it is
rash to conclude too certainly as to its absence in
any particular case. Thus some of the Monera,
which were formerly defined as the simplest of
simple animal organisms without even a nucleus,
have been shown to possess them, and the line of
division separating Protozoa into Monera and
Endoplastica has therefore been removed. Fur-
thermore, the researches of Gruber have shown that
in some of the higher Protozoa (ciliated Infusorians)
where the nucleus seems entirely absent, dex-
terous staining prove its diffused presence in
the form of numerous granules which take on the
characteristic nuclear dye. Yet in some cases,
such as the young spores of some Protozoa,
the greatest care has not yet been successful in
proving the presence of the nucleus. In contrast
with these cases, many cells exist in which the
nucleus is represented not by one, but by many
bodies—the so-called polynuclear state. A further
reserve requires to be made, that it is to a large
extent an hypothesis that all such definite central
inclosures should be slumped together under the
one title of nucleus. It is rather probable that in
this, as in other organic structures, we have to do
with various degrees of development and definite-
ness.

In the form also of the nucleus numerous modi-
fications occur. In the majority of cases, indeed,
it is more or less spherical, but it may be elongated,
curved, horseshoe-shaped, nasklade tie, and even
branched. In the young stages of some ova it is
like the entire cell, somewhat plastic, and is pulled
m and out inamceboid movements. In special con-
ditions, furthermore, the nucleus may exhibit
peculiar deformations. It is in fact a peculiarly
sensitive and all-important part of the cell, sufferin
with it in degeneration, changing with it in oot
and division.

In position the nucleus is typically central, where
as the presiding genius of the cell it shares and

erhaps controls the general protoplasmic life. But
it frequently suffers displacement both of a passive

and active nature. In accordance with the growth
of the cell it may occupy a position distinctly
nearer one of the poles. Accumulations of fat or
mucus may push it passively to the side. Or it may
actively change, in response to hidden forces of
attraction between it and the surrounding proto-
plasm, in the case of some ova exhibiting a peculiar -
rotation, or else distinctly shifting its ground from
the centre towards the periphery.

Structure.—In many eases, as Leydig especially
has shown, the nucleus seems to lie in a nest of its
own, in a clear space within the surrounding cell-
substance. Nor is it in many cases at least de-
finitely insulated from the surrounding protoplasm,
but is moored to the latter by strands which have
intimate relations with both. As of the entire cell,
so of the nucleus it must be said that in the great
majority of cases it is very far from being homo-

eneous. According to Hertwig, Schleicher, Schmitz,

rass, and others, Fag amp nuclei may indeed
occur, but if they do they are rare, and it must
always be remembered that the nucleus has its
history, and may be less complex at one time than
it is at another. To Flemming (1882) above all is
due the credit of haying elucidated the complexity
of the nucleus, and the labyrinthine structure to
which he showed the clue, and to which Frommann
(1867) had many years previously directed special
attention, has been studied and restudied by scores
of expert histologists during the last six years
(1888). While their results disagree abundantly
on minor points, two conclusions stand out clearly
—(1) that the nucleus has a structure like that of
the general cell, consisting of firmer framework
and of more fluid intermediate substance, and (2)
that apart from detailed difference there is through-
out the world of cells a marvellous unity of strue-
ture and process, in the nucleus in repose and in
the nucleus in action.

In the nucleus the following parts have to be dis-
tinguished : (1) The readily stained firmer thread-
work, (2) an intermediate clear substance filling
up the interstices, (3) definite and usually globular
formations known as nucleoli, (4) various granules,
and (5) a limiting membrane or nuclear wall.
These may be briefly touched upon in order.

(1) The Nuclear Framework (reticulum, trabecu-
lar framework, &c.).—A mere statement of the
different descriptions given of this important part
of the nucleus would carry us far beyond the limits
of this article. The most marked difference of
opinion is this, that some describe the framework
as distinctly of the nature of a network, while
others are as emphatic in calling it a much-coiled
band. A third party unite both views, and re-
garding the nucleus as variable, describe a reti-
culum at one time and a coiled filament at another.
Thus, according to Flemming, Pfitzner, Retzius,

‘Leydig, Van Beneden, &c., the nuclear framework

is typically a reticulum ; according to Strasburger,
Balbiani, and Korschelt, a twisted ribbon is the
only or most frequent form; according to Brass
we § Rabl, both types may equally occur. A further
complication has been emphasised by Zacharias,
Pfitzner, Carnoy, and others—this, namely, that
besides the readily stained threadwork noted above
(the so-called chromatin), whether this be in the
form of a reticulum ?Pfitzner ) or of a coiled ribbon
(Carnoy ), there exists another—not readily stained
—framework of achromatin. This had indeed been
recognised though hot insisted on by the first series
of investigators. To sum up, it is now generally
allowed that the framework or threadwork of the
nucleus may exist as a network or as a coil, and
that it is in a sense double, consisting of readily
stainable chromatin on the one hand, and unstain-
able achromatin on the other. It need hardly be
added that as there is considerable diversity of

CELL

49

n as to whether given nuclei have a netted or
: framework, there is yt greater variety in
the minuter description and figuring. According
to Flemming the network is quite disorderly, but
aber, Leydig, and others have described distinct

Fig. 3.—( After Carnoy) :
_A, Cell and typical nucleus: a, slight membrane; }, radiatin,
protoplasmic network; c¢, wall of nucleus; d, plasma oj
| nucleus; ¢, nuclear coil.
B, Nucleus at rest, showing network.

“C, Nucleus before division, showing coiled filament.

radial structure ; according to some the nuclear coil
‘is endless, while others describe it as divided into

portions ; and when we descend to such subtleties

of observation as the intimate structure of the

_ threadwork or the relations between chromatin

and aehromatin, the diversity is so great that it

seems desirable here to leave such minutize un-

‘touched.
(2) The Intermediate Nuclear Substance.—Be-

sides the nuclear elements of definite form, what-

ever that form may

‘

precieely be, all investigators
describe an intermediate substance of variable
consistence, usually semi-liquid, amorphous and
structureless, but with fine granules. It is a clear

_unstainable ‘plasma’ filling up the chinks, but

nothing definite is known as to its composition.
43) The nucleolus which lies within the nucleus
varies greatly in size and position, and more than one
are very generally present. Flemming has defined
‘them as ‘ portions of the nuclear substance, distinct
‘in structure from network and plasma, definitely
limited and smoothed, always rounded in outline,

usually suspended in the network, but often inde-

‘pendent of it.” But when the minute structure

and the relation of nucleoli to nuclear framework

_are inquired into, or the question of physiological

‘role raised, very great diversity of opinion is found

to obtain. (4) Bodies different in appearance from

nucleoli may occur inside the nucleus, but of these
little is known.

(5) The wall which bounds the
nucleus seems to be a true integral part of the
latter, but disappears at the beginning of division.

(d) The Cell-wall.—In the older conception of
the cell, which was practically that of a closed
bag, the wall of the cell figured very prominently.
But Niigeli showed (1845) that some vegetal

cells were destitute of walls, Leydig (1857) de-

fined the cell in respect to its substance, Schultze
rand others described naked Protozoa, and the
of the ‘protoplasmic movement’ led to

_ progress
ithe abandonment of the position that the wall was

& necessary or important part of the cell. In
many cells, indeed, a limiting layer is very clearly
resent, and a sheath or cyst is especially charac-

ristic of ive cells. Plant-cells are almost
always distinguished by the possession of a limit-
ing wall, of definite chemical composition, consist-
ing of what is known as cellulose. An analogous
wall occasionally occurs round animal cells. In
‘the latter, however, the membrane is usually a
epeanvely slight thing, and may arise (1)

from an aggregation of the threads and knots of
the framework ; (2) as a cuticle or capsule formed
from the matrix or ground substance ; (3) from a
combination of both these elements. Leydig has
shown that in a very wide series of animal cells
the membrane, such as it is, is penetrated by small
but definite pores. It is very important further
to remember that both in plants and animals the
cells are in a great number of cases connected with
one another by intercellular bridges of protoplasm,
and are in nowise to be thought of as closed bags.
The cell-wall of plants, which, be it again noted,
is a definite chemical substance, grows in extent
and thickness by an intricate organic process, in
the course of which new infinitesimal elements
form apparently as intercalations between the old.
The growth is in ay many eases far from uni-
form ; pits, ridges, and manifold kinds of sculptur-
ing thus appear, and give rise to numerous detailed
variations. The formation of new boundaries when
a cell divides is a question of much ditienity ; but
in plant, and apparently in some animal cells, the
formation of a ‘cellular plate’ is one of the last
events in the dividing process.

Ill. Physiology of the Cell.—When the entire
organism is 7 y a cell, as in most of the Proto-
zoa and Protophyta, all the vital processes which
in higher forms have their seat in special sets of
cells, known as tissues and organs, are of course
discharged by the unit-mass. Thus a unicellular
organism like the Ameeba takes in energy as food
in nutrition, works it up into living matter in
digestion and assimilation, and expends it again
in contraction and locomotion. As in any higher
organism the oxygen required for the chemical
breaking up of the protoplasmic molecules, the
air for the vital flame, is taken in by the absorp-
tion known as respiration, and the waste carbonic
acid gas is in an essentially similar way got rid
of. Further, more solid ‘ashes’ of the vital com-
bustion are formed in the Ameba and in other
actively living cells, and may pass out in excre-
tion along with the refuse of unusable food-
material. The absence of a circulating fluid, of
ie glands, nerves, sense-organs, lungs,
kidneys, and the like, does not in any way
restrict the vital functions of a unicellular organ-
ism. goes on as usual, only with greater
chemical complexity, since all the different pro-
cesses have but a unit-mass of protoplasm in
which they occur. The physiology of independent
cells, instead of being very simple, must be very
Sets just because structure or differentiation
is but absent. It is, however, possible to ex-
press the manifold processes in a comparatively
simple way by remembering what Claude Bernard
was one of the first clearly to emphasise, that
vital processes must be really only twofold—
building up and breaking down of living matter.
On the one hand the protoplasm or real living
matter is being by a series of chemical processes
built up or constructed; on the other hand, in
activity it is breaking down or being destroyed.
The income of food or energy is, at the expense
of the cellular organism, gradually raised into
more and more complex and unstable compounds,
until the genuine most complex and more un-
stable living matter itself is reached. On the
opposite side, with liberation of energy in the
form of work, this living matter breaks down
into simpler and simpler compounds, until only
the work, the waste products, and heat remain as
the equivalent of the income of energy or food on
the other side of the life-equation. On the one
hand there are constructive processes, on the other,
destructive ; chemical synthesis and chemical dis-
solution is another expression of the contrast;
while the two sets of processes are in more modern

50

CELL

language respectively termed anabolism and kata-
bolism (see PROTOPLASM ),

But only a few cells, comparatively speaking,
live a free and independent life. The majority are
component elements in higher unities. In these
the original many-sidedness of function is more or
less lost, or at anyrate in abeyance, and that
exactly in proportion to their degree of subordina-
tion. Even in individual cells there is a tendency,
obviously within narrow limits, towards differen-
tiation—that is, to the restriction and specialisa-
tion of certain parts for certain functions. But
when the cells form elements of a larger whole,
the division of labour finds full effect. From
position and other conditions the cells cease to be
uniform or metaphorically many-sided. Certain
sets predominate in contractility, others in irrita-
bility, others in secretion, others again in storage,
and soon. In such cases one function predominates
over the others, which are subordinate or only
dormant possibilities. Thus arise muscle-cells,
nerve-cells, glandular cells, fat-cells, and the like.
Compared with Ameebee, those cells must have a
simpler physiology ; they may have gained in com-
plexity of structure, but have lost in manifoldness
of function. The aggregation of similar cells,
usually with one predominant habit or function,
results in the formation of tissues (see BIOLOGY,
EMBRYOLOGY, FUNCTION, PHYSIOLOGY, REPRO-
DUCTION, and cognate articles in this work).

One general poysologie fact may, however,
be referred to which will greatly assist in under-
standing the life both of independent cells and
of those which form the elements of tissues. A
survey of the unit-organisms, both among plants
and animals, reveals the existence of three well-
marked . phases. Some cells are emphatically
active, equipped with motile lashes (cilia or
flagella), and obviously liberal in their expendi-
ture of energy. Others are just the reverse of
this, emphatically passive, wrapped up in them-
selves and without motile processes, obviously
economical in their expenditure, conservative of
their income. A third set form a mean between
these two extremes, are neither encysted like the
latter nor lashed like the former, but furnished
with the relatively slow-moving processes charac-
teristic of Amcebee, and living in a via media be-
tween activity and passivity. These three types
may be termed respectively ciliated, encysted, and
amoeboid, or active, passive, and moderate. That
these types generally correspond to the three
great divisions of the Protozoa shows that they
represent the three main possibilities of cellular
life. Now in the very cuaplost forms all the three
phases occur in one life-history ; no step has, as it
were, been taken in any one of the three direc-
tions ; the primitive cells are in a state of physio-
logical indifference. What has happened in the

52299

Fig. 4.—Phases of Cell-life. (After Geddes.)
Development of passive or resting, intermediate (amceboid ), and
active (motile) states.
higher classes of Protozoa —Infusorians, Gre-
garinids, Rhizopods—is that one phase has been

accentuated to the more or less marked gsub-
ordination of the others. Not that the emphatic
adoption of one line of cell-life excludes the others;
they may in fact occur as temporary stages, or as.
satholioenl deviations,

But while simple observation is sufficient to-
establish the existence of a cycle of phases in
the life of primitive ‘cellular organisms, such as.
Protomyxa, and the existence of three main lines.
of specialisation among the Protozoa, the import-
ance of this conception of a ‘cell-cycle’ becomes.
increased and justified when the facts are con-
sidered physiologically. If we start from a simple:
cell, ai as an Ameeba, it is evident enough, from
what has been already said as to the twofold
nature of all vital processes, that the principal
physiological possibilities are the three phases.
above indicated. On the one hand, with pre-
ponderance of income over expenditure, of con-
structive over destructive changes, of anabolism
ever katabolism, the cell must tend to become
larger in size, more weighted with stored material,
more sluggish or passive in habit, and more
rounded in form. But if the reverse take place,
the cell will tend to become less bulky, more
active or locomotor in habit, and more elongated.

Fig. 5.—Protomyxa :
1, encysted ; 2, dividing; 3, spores escaping as ciliated bodies,.
passing into 4, amoeboid state ; 5, ‘ plasmodium’ forming from:
fusion of amceboid cells.

in form. The sweated-off cyst of the former,.
the motile processes of the latter, are expres-
sions of exactly opposite constitutions and condi-
tions. A third physiological possibility remains,
that namely of continuing in a position of average:
equilibrium between income and expenditure, be-
tween anabolism and katabolism, in a middle way
between the fitful fever of extreme ciliated activity”
and the sluggish sleep of encysted passivity.

Now if we take these two facts—the existence:
of a primitive cycle through which cells tend to-

Fig. 6.—The Cycle of Cell-life:
a, encysted ; 8, ciliated ; c, amceboid; d, plasmodial.

pass, and the existence of three main physiological!
possibilities which lie behind the cycle—we are in
a better position to understand both the changes-
exhibited in normal and pathological conditions
by individual cells, and the various forms of cells
as they occur in the tissues of the higher organisms.
Thus Laahon cells such as those of the windpipe of
mammals, the skin of many lower worms, the:
inside of a Hydra, the male elements of most.
animals and many lower plants, emphasise one
hase in ‘the cycle, and it is not surprising to
find that in certain conditions they may sink
down into the ameboid type. Or again, the
ameeboid character of young ova, preceding the
more passive and encysted condition of the mature
cells, is in view of the ‘cell-cycle’ a most natural
procedure. In many cases artificial stimulus of
various kinds has been shown to make cells.
ass from one phase to another of the primitive
ife-cycle theoretically possible to all. In the
same way the preponderance of cellulose in cells. —

CELL 51

encysted is a natural character of the passive | reached, and portions of the substance are cleft
and the insheathed cells of many animal | apart from the main mass. From such a case
may be similarly expressed as an exhibition | to the separation of multiple buds, which are
same passive phase. But it is enough here | little more than overflowings of too large a
ibility of classifying and in- | cell, or to the commoner occurrence of simple
pane the tissues | budding, is no great step. The difficulty begins,
organisms in terms of an original life- | however, when we consider the ordinary cell-
cle, or deeper still in terms of those twofold pro- | division, which appears in most cases as pap Ro omcg
_toplasmic possibilities which lie behind all forms | ate and orderly process, including a well-defined
and phases whether of cells, tissues, or organisms | series of nuclear changes. As to the mechanics
themselves. This conception of a cell-cycle is due | of this process only a few suggestions of moment
to Geddes (see Bibliography at end of article). have been made, Thus Platner points out that
_ Cell-division.—When the vital processes are so | the explanation must be in terms either (1) of
related that income and upbuilding exceed ex- | chemical processes influencing the cellular sub-
_penditure and dissolution, the cell must obviously | stance, or (2) of protoplasmic movement due to
accumulate capital and increase in size. In some | the above or to external influences, or (3) of
eases the cell may expand into relatively gigantic | unknown molecular and attractive forces. He
proportions, as in the alga Bo ium and in | himself finds the condition of nuclear division to be
many e Growth, however, brings a nemesis | in part a streaming movement of the protoplasm,
with it, this namely, that the mass to be kept alive | such as is familiar in many Protozoa, and would
_imereases more rapidly than the surface t tees regard the division of the protoplasm as a purely
which the vital processes are accomplished. In | mechanical process. In his studies on protoplasmic
aioe cells the former increases as the cube, | mechanics, Berthold has also attacked this in-
latter as the square of the radius. The bigger | tricate rerio, but more in relation to the nature
the cell gets, the more difficult do its conditions | of the dividing partitions than with reference to
of life become. The supplies of food and oxygen, | the forces at work. Professor Van Beneden, who
did so much in working out the details of cell-
division in the ovum, expressed himself as follows
in regard to the deeper problem in a paper pub-
lished in 1887: ‘All the internal movements
which are associated with the cellular division
have their immediate cause in the contractility of
the fibres of the reticular protoplasm which form
two antagonistic groups.’ All that one can at
present conclude is that the process represents, as
above noticed, a physiological necessity, and that
it takes place in connection with very intricate
physical and chemical changes within the cell.
odes of Cell-division.—After abstracting the
rare occurrence of almost mechanical ruptures
and of overflow buds, various modes of orderly
division remain to be noticed. (a) The cell ma
Fig. 7. give off a bud, usually smaller than itself. Wit
A, Life-history of unicellular plant (Protococeus): 1, encysted ; 2, | this a portion of the nucleus is usually associated,
Bo Lie ng hie ig 3, ciliated ; 4, quiescent ; 5 and 6, dividing. | as in many Protozoa; or the processes may occur
enitory of Anata: 1. eieyated; ® escaping 8; tress | apart from demonstrable nucleus, as in the common
particles /; 6, encysting anew. 4 and 5 may also represent ——— (6) Division into two is by far the
e union of two Amcebee (conjugation ). most frequent mode of multiplication, and occurs
pe . ; all but universally. In a small minority of cases
the means of accomplishing purification and the | the division is accomplished without any intricate
like, cannot keep pace wit the growth of the | nuclear change, the cell being in an apparently
_ living mass if the surface increase only at a/| simple way divided into two, with half of the
_ much less rapid rate. A limit of growth is thus | nucleus in each daughter-cell. Such divisions are
reached, The cell must stop growing, or go on | said to be ‘direct.’ In most cases the nucleus,
growing at an increasing risk, or in some way | apparently taking the initiative, undergoes a strik-
_testore the balance between mass and surface, | ing series of orderly changes before the division is
s last course is the one most frequently | perfect. This is the commonly observed condition,
exhibited—the cell divides. However this may | and such divisions are termed ‘indirect.’ (¢) But in
_be effected, the result is in all cases the same | many cases the division occurs in a very different
_—namely, the reduction of mass, and corre- | way, being not single but multiple. From one
sponding increase of surface. Like other organ- | cell more than two daughter-cells arise simultane-
isms, the cell-organism reproduces at_ its limit | ously, and that not by external cleavage, but b
of growth. This rationale of cell-division, due | internal multiplication. Such a mode of multipli-
_ especially to Herbert sey is Me tong, Sar cation is termed endogenous division or ‘ free’ cell-
¢t reference to free-living cells like tozoa, | formation, and is well seen in many Fungi and
Protophyta, blood-corpuscles, reproductive cells, | Alge. It may be compared with the ordinary
and the like, but the general principle holds good rocess by defining it as division taking place in
throughout. imited space and time, since the daughter-cells
It is evident, however, that such considerations | arise within the mother-cell, and simultaneously,
as the above go to justify rather than to explain | not successively. It is, in many cases at least, pre-
_ cell-division. They ‘show why the cell ought to | ceded by the rapid division of the nuclei, to form
divide, not how it does. The real mechanism of | centres round each of which protoplasmic material
the process is still a riddle. In its very simplest | then becomes aggregated. In a few cases, Arnold
_ expressions, indeed, the riddle may be party read. | has described a peculiar breaking up of the nucleus
In a simple and primitive Protozoon like Schizo- | which he called mentation.
| » the protoplasm seems literally to break. | Karyokinesis.—One of the most beautiful results
lar fissures 3 eet as well they might if a/| of recent histology is the demonstration of the
condition of unstable vital equilibrium has been | general unity of process which obtains in the

; of

52

CELL

division of all kinds of cells. Whether the subject
of investigation be the pollen-cells of a plant, the
skin of a tadpole, the developing ovum, or the

rowth of a tumour, the same process of ordinary
ndirect division may be observed to take place

along essentially similar lines. This, though but

Fig. 8.—Stages of Transverse Division :
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in the epidermis of a tadpole; 1’, 2’, 3’,
the epidermis of lily. (After Macfarlane. )

4’, 5’, in

a natural consequence of common descent and
similar conditions, is not without its marvel when
the complexity of the process (see below) receives
due consideration. eon in detail there is in
structural as well as in physiological changes a
deep-seated unity of process. But while the
essential similarity of all cases of simple ‘indirect’
division must be allowed, it is only fair to recog-
nise that in minor details very manifold variations
occur. Even in those Protozoa where the nuclear
changes of division have been followed, consider-
able diversity of detail obtains ; nor, within a single
genus do the ova of two different species of thread-
worm (Ascaris) divide in exactly the same fashion.
But neglecting at present the detailed divergences,
whether these occur normally and constantly, or as
they often do atypically and arbitrarily, it is
necessary now to notice the general steps usually
observed in cell-division.

We have already described the nucleus as con-
sisting of a readily stainable (chromatin) network
or ribbon, and of another substance (so-called
achromatin) which does not stain so deeply. As
a preliminary to division, the nucleus ae its
definite boundary, and the chromatin threads no
longer exhibit the regular disposition they have
when at rest. The threads form an irregular
wreath, and as the loops break, their arrangement
is comparable to a star in which the open ends of
the loops are directed outwards, and the closed ends
lie in the centre. By subsequent movement this
position is reversed, the loops gather into two
groups, which lie with their open ends towards one
another in the middle. Meanwhile, the achromatin
elements also exhibit regular arrangement, forming
fine streaks stretching from the centre towards the
poles, and exhibiting an appearance which is often
compared to a striated spindle. At the two poles
of the cell the granules of the general protoplasm

Fig. 9.—Typical Division of Nucleus.
(From Haddon, after Flemming.)

are also aggregated into a couple of star-like
figures. The chromatin loops now diverge farther
and farther from the centre, till they reach a posi-
tion at the respective poles. A double chromatin
star may then be observed, one at each pole, not to

be in any way confused with unsubstantial polar
stars previously mentioned. Soon after this stage
is reached, the real cell-division occurs. The pro:
toplasm constricts across the middle of the cell,
and the division is accomplished. In plant-cells,
and apparently in some animal cells also, the
division of the protoplasm is accompanied by the
formation of a cellular plate, which bounds the
open surfaces of the two daughter-cells. With or
without cellular plate, the result is the formation -
of two daughter-cells, each with half of the original
nucleus. ut this is not all, the half nucleus
formed after the above fashion has to be recon-
structed into the original resting form. A series of
retrogressive stages occur, in the course of which
the nucleus passes from star to wreath, and from
wreath into the typical network or twisted coil.
In some cases the steps of reconstruction seem to
correspond very closely to the various steps of the
antecedent upbreaking.
Death.—It seems tolerably certain, as Weis-
mann and others have suggested, that the unicel-
lular Protozoa are in the great majority of cases
practically immortal. These simple organisms have
no ‘ body ’ to ke up, in their functions they appear
to be continually self-recuperative, and except
from entirely abnormal conditions such cells prob-
ably never die. The pool in which they live may
dry up for ever, or other animals may swallow and
digest them, but such casualties are very different
from natural death. They may indeed lose their
individuality by doubling in division, or the whole
cell may break up into spores, but where there is
nothing to be buried we can hardly speak of death.
It seems in fact justifiable to say that death began
with the formation of a many-celled body. Even
there, a certain amount of immortality may be
claimed for the reproductive cells, which, becoming
separate from the parent organism, proceed to
divide into a body which will of course eventually
die, but also into reproductive cells, which, as some —
of them at least will form again fresh organisms
and reproductive cells, may be said to be links in
a continuous and immortal cellular chain. But
eaten | aside the really immortal Protozoa, and the
logically immortal successful reproductive elements,
it must be allowed that cells, like organisms, die.
And that not only with the body as a whole, but
by themselves. Certain superficial cells are con-
stantly being brushed off and replaced by others ;
the red blood-corpuscles break up in the fluid ;
others become hardened in death into the
‘mummified’ cells of supporting and epidermic
structures ; others surrender themselves into mucus
or in the ejection of lassoes as in the Ceelenterates ;
others practically die away into fat and reserve
produ or may in manifold ways degenerate.
any surfaces, especially in secreting regions of
the Bes exhibit continual death of cells, and
regeneration by the division of the survivors.

V. Modern Aspect of the Study of the Cell.—
With the improvement of appliances and the per-
fecting of staining methods, the study of the cell
has within late years become at once more accurate
and more complex. On the one hand, the labours
of the early histologists are being amplified and
corroborated with ceaseless industry. The forms
of cells in different animals and tissues, the
minutic of their structure, the processes observed in
their multiplication, are being each year more and
more perfectly cia es nla On the other hand,
the emphasis which has been laid on the pro-
toplasm is finding expression in numerous attempts
to explain the forms and phases of cell-life in terms
of the underlying protoplasmic changes, and such
investigations as those which seek to disclose the
mechanics of cell-division and ovum-segmentation,
the conditions of cellular equilibrium and change, |

CELLE

CELLULAR PLANTS 53

or the chemistry of the various parte mark the
limit and high-water mark of cellular biology.
Practical .—To gain a preliminary acquaint-

ay tud
ance with the ail, the student should examine with

Hl
1
UJ

“a
4

a microscope—(1) Free cells as seen in unicel-
plants, such as yeast, green mould, simple

or in llen grains, &c.; in unicellular

a Is like Ameba, Paramecium, Vorticella; in
the elements of the blood ; in the ova of animals, as

found in spawn of frog, &c. (2) Simple suena
tissues as seen in root-hairs, transparent leaves,
wen of plants, and common fresh-water alga
ike Spirogyra; simple animal tissues readily ob-
from frog, earthworm, Hydra, and the like.

For research in details of structures, staining and

_section-cutting must be resorted to.

Literature.—(1) For history, see Brotocy, Borany,

Empryoiocy, Puystotoey, Proroptasm; M ‘Kendrick,

On the Modern Cell-theory (1888); Drysdale, Proto-

_ plasmic Theory of Life (1874).

2) For structure of cell and process of division, con-
rst modern text-books of histology, such as those of
Brass, Fol, Frey, Klein (English), Leydig, Ranvier,
and Stohr. For recent researches, see Journal of Royal
Microscopical Society. As one research is rapidly super-
another, detailed references need not be given.
Forgeneral eG see Professor M‘Kendrick’s paper
(above); for nucleus, Van Bambeke, Etat actuel de nos
Connaissances sur la Structure du Noyau (Gand, 1885) ;
for cell-division, ene ‘Uber Karyokinese,’ Archiv.
f. Anat. u. Physiol. (1887) ; for the vegetable cell in par-

— Zimmermann, ‘Die Morphologie und el see

Pflanzenzelle,’ Schenck’s Hand d. Botanik (1887).

See also Professor Carnoy’s cell journal, La Cellule. The

Memoirs, which will always be classic in the history of
cell-lore, both in themselves and on account of the
stimulus which they supplied, will be found in the follow-
ing and those to which they chiefly refer: Van Beneden,

sur la Maturation de V@uf, &c. (1883);

| Flemming, Zell-substanz, Kern und Zell-theilung (1882) ;

and later papers in Archiv. f. mikr. Anatomie ; From-
mann, Unters. iiber Struktur, Lebenserscheinungen und
Reaktionen thierischer und pflanzlicher Zellen (1884);
O. and R. Hertwig, Beitriiye zur Morphologie der Zellen
(1875-88); Leydig, Zelle und Gewebe (1885), and pre-

vious works; Strasburger, Zellbilduny und Zell-theilung

expert
) smith’s tools, and he had apparently no scruple in
murdering or maiming any who endeavoured to

(Jena, 3d. ed. 1880),
(3) For general physiology, consult first Foster’s Physi-
ology, chap. i., then general works on physiology of
lants and animals—e.g. Sachs’ T'ext-book of Botany and
zectures on the Physiology of Plants, also Vines’ similar

work (1887), Hermann’s Handbuch der Physiologie, &c.

Further, Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology; P.
Geddes, ‘ Restatement of the Cell-theory,’ Proc. Roy. Soc.

_ Edin. (1883); M. Foster’s article ee Encyclo-
, oR “

pedia Britannica ; Berthold, Studien iber

‘mechanik (Leip, 1886); Schwarz, Die Morphologische
und chemische Zusammensetzung des Protoplasmas ( Bres-

_ lau, 1887); and the article PROTOPLASM.

Celle. See ZELL.
Ce BENVENUTO, a celebrated Italian gold-

smith, sculptor, and engraver, and the author of
one of the most interesting autobiographies ever

written, was born in 1500 in Florence, a city which

he was forced to quit in oo through having

taken part in ‘an affray.’ He then travelled to

Rome, where his skill as an artist in metal-work

gained him the favour of the highest nobles and

| a. So anxious were his patrons to secure

services that they allowed him the utmost
license of conduct. By his own account he was as
with sword and dagger as with his gold-

thwart him. He states that at the siege of Rome
in 1527 it was he who killed the Constable Bourbon,
and that he afterwards shot down the Prince of
Orange before the castle of St Angelo. He stood
for a time high in favour with Pope Clement VIL,
but was eventually flung into prison for the murder
of a rival goldsmith. In 1 he was pardoned

and set free by Paul IIL, who wished him to
engrave dies in the mint; soon afterwards, having
spoken contemptuously of the pope’s artistic tastes,
he was cast into an oubliette of the castle of St
Angelo. He escaped through his knowledge of the
castle’s vaults, but was immediately recaptured,
and was only saved from the pope’s vengeance by
the intercession of Cardinal d’Este. For some years
he lived alternately in Rome and Florence, Mantua
and Naples. In 1537 he went to the court of Francis
I. of France, by whom he was honourably received,
and for whom he executed a golden spice-box, the
design of which, he tells us, was so exquisite that
the king ‘ uttered a loud outery of astonishment on
seeing it,’ and ‘could not satiate his eyes with
azing on it.’ In Paris he became involved in a
awsuit. Having lost his case, he had recourse, as
usual, to his dagger. ‘I attacked,’ he says, ‘ the
plaintiff who had sued me, and one evening I
wounded him in the legs and arms so severel
(taking care, however, not to kill him) that
deprived him of the use of both his legs.’ This act
went unpunished. Having given offence, however,
to the reigning favourite at the French court,
Cellini returned to Florence, where he worked
under the patronage of Cosmo de’ Medici, and
where he executed his most successful piece of
sculpture, the famous bronze ‘Perseus with the
h of Medusa’ of the Loggia de’ Lanzi. He
began to write his autobiography in 1558, and died
at Florence in 1571.

Cellini was a man of versatile fancy, passion-
ately devoted to his art, and his technica] skill was
supreme. But his designs were often feeble and
tasteless, and he seems to have had no sound know-
ledge of human anatomy. He has, on the whole,
been somewhat overrated as an artist, and has been
credited with the production of many beautiful
cups and vases (such as the ‘Cellini vase’ in the
British Museum) which were really the work of
German silversmiths in the 16th century. But he
has not been, and could not easily be, overrated as
an author. His autobiography is a work of extra-
ordinary interest. ‘From the pages of this book,’
says Mr Symonds, ‘the Genius of the Renaissance,
incarnate in a single personality, leans forth and
speaks to us.’ Though he had not the faculty
of self-criticism, Cellini was a shrewd judge of
others, and had a remarkable talent for portraying

character. His book gives a faithful and a wonder-
fully vivid picture of Italian society in the 16th
century. The animation of the narrative and the

racy vigour of the style could hardly be surpassed.
The keen insight and unblushing frankness of the
writer make his work as fascinating to the student
of human character as it is invaluable to the
historian of the Renaissance. Cellini reveals all

| the evil and all the strength of his nature, his

vindictiveness, braggartism, and self-worship, no
less than his fiery energy and powerful intellect,
his splendid self-reliance and passionate love of art.
He is the most candid of auto ts and he is
as ignorant of shame as he is candid. There is an
admirable translation of this work by J. A. Symonds
(1887; 4th ed. 1896). Goethe translated it into
German. See the monograph by E. Plon (1882).
Cellular Plants. It was af attempted
by De Candolle and others to unite all the lowest
slants destitute of vascular tissue under the general
title Cellulares, as opposed to the Vaseulares, in-
eluding all the higher plants, Although this classi-
fication is long disused, the term ‘cellular plants’
is often familiarly employed to distinguish the
Fungi, Alge, Lichens, Characez, Liverworts, and
Mosses (q.v.) from the higher or vascular crypto-
Ferns, Horsetails, Lycopodiacee and Sela-
ginellew, and Isoetew. See the articles in this
work on most of these groups; for cellular tissue,

54 CELLULOID

CELSIUS

see also the articles BOTANY, CELL, TISSUES, LEAF,
Bark, &c.

Celluloid, or PARKESINE. This substance was
first made by Mr A. Parkes of Birmingham in 1855
or 1856. It chiefly consists of a dried solution of
gun-cotton (pyroxylin), or of what is nearly the
same thing, and oil. <A variety of it can be made
with pyroxylin and camphor. It resembles ivory,
horn, tortoiseshell, and hardened india-rubber, as
regards certain properties.

The pyroxylin is prepared by treating Cellulose
(q.v.) from such vegetable materials as cotton or
flax waste, rags, paper-makers’ half-stuff, or paper
itself, with a mixture of one part of strong nitric
acid and four parts of strong sulphuric acid. It is
convenient to call the product so obtained pyroxy-
lin, although the two things are not quite identical.
The distillate obtained by distilling wood naphtha
with chloride of lime is used as a solvent for
the pyroxylin, but other solvents, such as nitro-
esital or aniline, and some camphor are added with
advantage, When the excess of solvent is removed
from the pyroxylin, it is mixed with a considerable
quantity of castor-oil or cotton-seed oil, and made
into a dough or paste between heated rollers. For
a hard compound the quantity of oil should be less

than the pyroxylin, for a soft one it should be
greater. Chloride of sulphur is sometimes added to
the oil. When articles made of celluloid are in a

pe. manufactured state, they are soaked in
isulphide of carbon or chloride of lime to remove
any trace of solvent, which would render them apt
to shrink if allowed to remain. Celluloid is of a
somewhat combustible nature unless the substances
used to colour it are such as will neutralise this, or
unless some non-combustible chemical, tungstate
of soda for example, is added to it.

Properties and Uses.—Celluloid has many valuable
properties. It is buff or pale brown in colour, but
it can be made as white as ivory, which it much
resembles, or manufactured in a transparent state.
It can be moulded or: pressed into any form, and
turned, planed, or carved. Neither the atmosphere
nor water affects it. It is elastic and can be united
by its own cement. In a plastic condition celluloid
can be spread on textile fabrics, or it may be made
as hard as ivory, for which it is largely used as a
substitute. Billiard-balls, piano-keys, and combs
are made of it, the latter two articles extensively.
It can be coloured to represent amber, tortoiseshell,
or malachite. In imitation of red coral it has been
a good deal used for jewelry. Like vulcanite,
which it excels in durability but exceeds in price,
it has very numerous applications. We need only
mention umbrella-handles, brush-backs, knife-
handles, buttons, napkin-rings, card-cases, thim-
bles, and dolls. It is useful for optical instru-
ments, for cases for artificial teeth, and for some
surgical instruments. One special application of
it is for shirt fronts and collars. It is used for ve
pretty imitations of ivory, amber, tortoiseshell,
coral, malachite, &e. Some important develop-
ments in the manufacture and application are due
to J. W. Hyatt, of Newark, New Jersey.

Cellulose is the substance secreted by the
living protoplasm of a vegetable cell to form its
investing membrane or cell-wall, passing through
the various ligneous, corky, and colloid changes,
new arrangement and union in cell-walls, &c. (see
CELL, LEAF, TISSUES, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY,
Woop). It is obtained pure by treating any
unaltered cellular tissue with alkalies and aéids to
remove mineral matter and protoplasm, and suc-
cessive washings with water, aicohol, and ether to
remove soluble substances. Ootton-pith or vege-
table-ivory, although much contrasted in histologi-
cal properties, are alike remarkably pure cellulose;

in bast the proportion of associated mineral mattet

becomes much more considerable. Cellulose has the

chemical composition C,H,,O;, and spec. gray. 1°52.

Among its familiar natural modifications gum is

an isomer, and starch-dextrin and grape-sugar are

all of similar ultimate composition, erhile its woody

and corky modifications (lignin and suberin ) possess

an increasing proportion of carbon. Iodine alone

stains cellulose yellow or brown, but blue when

strong sulphuric acid has been previously added.
Strong hot sulphuric acid chars it, while brief im.

mersion in the cold converts it intoa tough and dense

modification, well known in parchment paper, and

prolonged treatment dissolves it altogether. Dex-

trin may thus be prepared and next transmuted,

by boiling the watery solution, into grape-sugar

(see DEXTRINE, GLUCOSE). By immersion in a

mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acid we

obtain Gun-cotton (q.v.), while dilute nitric acid

or potash oxidises it into oxalic acid. Ammoniacal
oxide of copper dissolves it without change, as is

shown by its reprecipitation on dilution. By heat-

ing in closed vessels under pressure a dense coal-

tike mass is formed, while in ordinary dry distilla-

tion, gas, tar, and acetic acid are given off, pro-

cesses which throw light on the formation of coal
in nature and on the chemistry of gas-making. In
natural decomposition cellulose turns yellow and
brown with gradual formation of humus. See_
SoILs.

Although so constant and characteristic a pro-
duct of vegetable life, the conditions and mode of
its formation are still very obscure. From that cell-
cycle or rhythm of change between the passive and
cellulose-walled state and an active and wall-less
one, which is so characteristic of the lowest forms
of life, and of which we find surviving traces
(e.g. the rejuvenescence of the pollen-grain) in the
reproductive processes of even the highest plants
(see CELL), it would appear that there is some
relation between this increased paar and the —
formation of cellulose. And in this way arises the
speculation that cellulose may be viewed essentially
as a (mechanically coherent and thus useful)
excretion, an incompletely utilised waste product
corresponding to the carbonic acid and water given
off by the completer respiratory oxidation and larger
evolution of energy of the active phase. Once
formed by the plant, it may be again absorbed, as
is well seen in the union of a row of cells into a con-
tinuous vessel, or in the consumption of endosperm
of a seed during germination. Many seeds, such
as vegetable-ivory or date, have a great pro-
portion of their reserve material in this form; and
this must be digested into glucose by the growing
embryo, and again worked up into new protoplasm,
which deposits cellulose as before. Like the plant
itself, the similar digestive ferments of the animal
might thus be naturally expected to digest cellu-
lose ; and this is actually, to some extent, the case
with the delicate young cell-walls of many green
vegetables, as can be experimentally verified, even
in man; while in herbivorous animals this power is
much developed, and the nutritive utilisation of
their fodder is thus increased to an important
extent.

The cysts of amcebe and other protozoa ap
to be at least daxgely composed of cellulose, and the
external tunic of ascidians (see TUNICATA) is of
identical, or at least isomeric, composition. Cellu-
lose has been described as a patho ogical product,
even in brain-tissue; and Chitin (q.v.), a very char-
acteristic and in many respects comparable animal
product, has been sometimes viewed as cellulose in
association with a proteid substance.

Celsius, ANDERS, the constructor of the centi-

de thermometer, was born at Upsala in Sweden,
27th November 1701. He was the grandson of ©

CELSUS

CELTIBERI 55

2
ne ie Celsius { 1621-79), a professor of Astronomy
ee of the Helsing runes, and the nephew
of Olof Celsius (1670-1756), professor of Theology
at Upsala, author of the Hierobotanicon, and an
friend and patron of the great Linnzus.
A became in 1730 professor of Astronomy at
Upsala. Two years later he set out on a scientific
tour, visiting the observatories of Nuremberg, Rome,
and Paris. After his return he published his De
Observationibus ake Jigura telluris determinanda in
Gallia habitis (Upsala, 1738). In 1740 he had the
satisfaction of seeing a splendid observatory erected
at U and here he laboured till his death,
25th April 1744. The Transactions of the Swedish
Academy contain many papers by Celsius on as-
tronomy and physics. It is, however, as the first
constructor (1742) of the thermometer now chiefly
used by scientific men, that he is best known. In
it the space between the freezing-point and the
boiling-point of water is divided into one hundred
~ aoe ence Celsius’s thermometer is often called
| centigrade or centesimal scale. See THER-
MOMETER.

Celsus, a Platonic philosopher, but tinged with
E sm, who lived in the 2d century after
t, was a friend of Lucian, and wrote, about
176-180, during the persecution of Marcus Aurelius,
under the title Logos Aléthés (‘true word’), the first
notable polemic inst Christianity. The book
itself has perished ; but considerable fragments have
preserved as quotations given by Origen in
his answer, Contra Celsum, in eight books. In the
| ents—which are very interesting, as showing
the views of a heathen philosopher in regard to
Christianity—Celsus, with great acuteness and wit,
but without depth or earnestness of thought, prefers
against the new religion charges of or pa
ess and blind credulity ; and especially endea-
yours to convict Christians of self-contradiction
in their spiritual doctrine contrasted with their
anthropomorphic representations of Deity; in their
religious arrogance contrasted with their confession
sinfulness; and in their views of the necessit
of redemption. He also reproaches Christians with
their y divisions and ever-varying opinion, and
ridicules them as worms in a corner who think
they occupy the centre of the world. Celsus
holds that the Supreme God can have no contact
with the material world, the creation of which is
the work of inferior deities or demons. He regards
evil as an essential Benpett of the material world ;
he says: ‘There neither has been in former times,
nor is there now, nor ever shall be, an increase or
diminution of evil. The nature of the universe is
ever identical, and the production of evil is not
a variable quantity. . . . It is evident that those
who sin by nature and by habit cannot be changed
in any respect either by punishment or by pardon.’
He charges Christians with having ‘remodelled
“The Gospel” from the “‘first writing” three times,
four times, and many times.’ However, as Origen
remarked, almost everything of an historical kind to
which Celsus refers is to be found in our Gospels,
ly the Synoptics. See Keim, Celsus’ Wahres
ort (1873); Aubé, La Polémique Paienne in Les
Persécutions de ’ Eglise (1878); Pélagaud, Etude
sur Celse (1878); Froude’s Short Studies, vol. iv. ;
and the article on ORIGEN.

_ €elsus, AuLus Cornetivs, a Latin physician
and writer, who peeeels: flourished about 50 A.D.,
and wrote not only on medicine, but also on rhetoric,
history, philosophy, the art of war, and agriculture.
His style is succinct and clear, but full of Greecisms.
The only great work of his which survives is the
De Medicind. The pois relating to surgery
are exceedingly valuable, as giving an account of
the opinions and observations of the Alexandrian

school of medicine. Indeed, to Celsus, next to
er igre and Galen, we mainly owe our know-
ledge of the medicine of antiquity. Celsus’s works
were translated into English in 1756. Next to the
first edition (1478) the most important are those
of be (1769) and Daremberg (1859). See Dr J.
Patrick, Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus (1892).

Celt (Lat. celtis (7), ‘a chisel’), a name by
which the axe-heads of the early inhabitants of
Europe are known among British and French
archeologists. The Scandinavian archeologists
use the word ‘axe’ and not ‘celt.’ Its use is now
considered pedantic, and it is fast becoming ob-
solete. The word is generally believed to have
originated from a misreading of Job, xix. 24, in the
Vulgate, where Ce/te, understood to mean ‘with a
chisel,’ was read in place of Certe, ‘verily’ (cor-
responding to the ‘for ever’ of the English Bible).
Celle or Celtis is not elsewhere found in Latin. See
Notes and Queries (1878), vol. ix. p. 463; vol. x. p.
73.

Celts are either of stone or of bronze. Stone
celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 22 inches;
but the most common size is from 6 to 8 inches
in length, and from 2 to 34 inches in breadth.
They are made of almost every kind of stone, and
show considerable diversity of shape, almost all,
however, having more or less resemblance to the
mussel-shell. e ruder celts are generally of slate,
shale, schist, or grit; the finer, of flint, porphyry,
greenstone, syenite, or te. he of the finer

aga
celts are beautifully shaped and highly polished.
Some very remarkable examples of this class are in

the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh,
and one found near St Andrews, in Scotland, is
described by Sir David Brewster in the Phdloso-
Piette Journal for 1823. The stone celt was
astened into a handle of horn, bone, or wood.
Bronze celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 8
or 10 inches, the most common length being about 6
inches. They show much greater diversity of
shape than the stone celt. As noes as four classes
have been distinguished by archeologists: (1)
The flat wedge-shaped celt, most nearly resem-
bling the common form of the stone celt. (2) The
flan celt, with the side edges more or less over-
lapping, and a stop-ridge or elevation between the
blade and the part which received the handle.
(3) The flanged-edges celt, with side greatly over-
lapping, with or without the stop-ridge, but with a
loop or ear upon one side. (4) The socketed celt,
or the celt with a hollow to receive the handle, and
generally with a loop or ear upon one side. They
are sometimes ornamented with raised lines or
circles formed in the mould in which they were

cast.

Both stone and bronze celts were probably used
for many purposes, serving for chisels, adzes, and
axes, as well as for weapons of war, like the stone
hatchets of the South Sea Islanders. See FLINT
IMPLEMENTS, STONE AGE, and BRONZE AGE.

Celtibe'ri, a brave and powerful people of
ancient Spain, supposed to have sprung from a
blending of the aboriginal Iberians with Celtic
invaders from Gaul, They inhabited a large
inland district of the peninsula, corresponding
to the south-west half of Aragon, nearly the
whole of Cuenca and Soria, and a great part of
Burgos, but the name Celtiberia had often a wider
signification, including the country as far south as
the sources of the Gaadalguivir. The Celtiberi
were divided into four tribes, the chief the Arevace
and Lusones, and were unquestionably one of the
bravest and noblest peoples in the peninsula. Their
cavalry and infantry were equally excellent. For
many years they withs the efforts of the
Romans to subdue them, and it was not till

56 CELTIC ORNAMENT

CELTS

the death of Sertorius (72 B.c.) that they began to
adopt the Roman language, dress, and manners.
The chief cities were Legobriga, the capital;
Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial; and Numantia,
destroyed by Scipio Africanus after a desperate ten
years’ resistance, 133 B.C.

Celtic Ornament, a peculiar development of
the system of iron-age decoration prevalent in the
British Isles. Its history is divided into two
periods by the introduction of Christianity, which
engrafted on the older style a number of new ele-
ments of decoration brought into the country with
the manuscripts of the gospels and psalters, and
supplied new forms for the display of these ele-
ments, such as churches and crosses, shrines, bells,
and crosiers. In its pre-Christian stages, ranging
sper peaatcly from two or three centuries before
the Christian era to about the end of the 6th
century A.D., it appears preps pay. in connection
with the metal mountings of harness and _horse-
trappings, and on shields, sword-sheaths, mirrors,
armlets, and other articles of personal use and
ornament. The material is usually bronze, but
occasionally silver or gold. The principal charac-
teristics of the pre-Christian st i are its pre-
ference for elliptical curves and divergent spirals ;
its use of chased or engraved lines or dots as a
diaper in the spaces of the general design in
contrast with other spaces left plain; its use of
diel work, sometimes in very high relief, at
other times in low relief on thin plates riveted
on in their places in the general design; the
production of Pages patterns often in excess-
ively high relief in the casting; and the employ-
ment of champ-levé enamels of red, yellow, blue,
and green, and settings of coloured vitreous pastes.
One of the finest examples of such settings occurs
in the decoration of an oval shield of bronze, from
the bed of the Thames, ornamented with Celtic
patterns in relief, enriched by twenty-seven set-
tings of red enamel, kept in their places by small
cruciform ornaments of bronze riveted in the centre
of each. There are to be seen in the National
Museums of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
enamelled shields, sword-sheaths, and ornaments
of horse-trappings in bronze, of great beauty
and excellence both of design and workmanship,
and other articles in bronze, silver, or gold, orna-
mented in repoussé work or in relief, with or
without enamel as an enrichment, found in many
parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, in pagan
grave-mounds, in crannogs or lake-dwellings, in
earth-houses, in the beds of lakes and rivers, or in
casual deposits under the soil for concealment. In
a work entitled Hore Ferales, Mr Franks of the
British Museum has figured in colours many of the
best of these remarkable products of the earliest
known process of champ-levé enamelling, and ad-
duced evidence to show that it and this peculiar
style of Celtic ornament which accompanies it
were of indigenous origin, and at this early
period peculiar to the British Isles. The re-
markable development of Celtic ornament which
succeeded the introduction of Christianity was
characterised by the association of interlaced
work and fretwork with the elliptical curves
and divergent spirals which up to that time
had been the principal elements of Celtic design.
To these were occasionally added a_ step-like
pattern, and diapers of the Z and I shaped patterns
sometimes seen in Chinese decoration. The inter-
laced work was elaborated with excessive care into
patterns, presenting an infinite variety of combina-
tions pleasing to the eye, and capable of being
harmoniously treated in colours. It was some-
times a simple ribbon-like band, which might be
plain, or divided in the middle, or divided into
three by lines close to the margin; or the inter-

lacing band ah aed be replaced by an elongated
animal form with its feet, its tail, and its top-knot
drawn out to interlace with each other, and with
the corresponding parts of other lacertine forms,
the whole forming a diaper of quaintly expressed
and complicated construction. The fretwork was.
also elaborated with much ecnulty into most
complicated patterns, a special feature of the style
being its partiality for diagonal frets and patterns.
produced ie combinations of oblique lines, in direct.
contrast to the fretwork of Greek and Roman art,
which was essentially rectangular. The elliptical
curves and divergent spirals of the older style,
which had received their only expression in the
solid forms proper to metal-work, were found to be
equally capable of adaptation to the purposes of
the illuminator, and by a similar process of com-
bination and elaboration they also produced.
atterns and diapers of inexhaustible variety and.
eauty. A special feature of Celtic decoration
was its tendency to divide the surface to be
decorated into a series of panels, each of which
was treated as a separate whole. The finest.
examples of Celtic ornament are unquestionably
to be found in the grandly illuminated pages of
manuscript copies of the Gospels, from the 7th
to the 9th century. Of these the most famous for
the elaborate nature of their ornament and the
beauty of their colouring are the Book of Kells.
in Trinity College, Dublin, and the Lindisfarne
Gospels in the British Museum. Of enamelled
metal-work in this period there may be mentioned
the Ardagh Chalice, perhaps the most elaborate:
and beautiful of all the products of Celtie art, the
Lismore Crosier, and the Monymusk Shrine. Ex-
amples of filigree-work, and chasing or engraving
in gold and silver of the highest excellence are:
found in the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh Brooches,
the Rogart Brooches, and the Hunterston Brooch,
the Shrine of St Patrick’s Bell, the Shrine of
St Manchan, and the Cross of Cong. The approx-
imate dates of the metal-work of the highest excel-
lence range from the 10th to the 12th century.
For sculpture in stone it is only necessary to refer
generally to the incised slabs and sculptured crosses.
of Scotland and Ireland, ranging from the 9th to:
the 12th centuries, the special characteristics of
their decoration being the same as those of the
manuscripts and metal-work already mentioned.
For illustrations, see Broocu, Cross, ScuLp-
TURED STONES. See further Kemble’s Hora
Ferales, edited by Latham and Franks (1863);
Anderson’s Scotland in Early Christian and’
Pagan Times (1881-83); Westwood’s Paleo-
graphia Sacra Pictoria (1845), and Fac-similes of
the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Sason and
Irish Manuscripts (1868); O’Neill’s Fine Arts
of Ancient Ireland (1863), and Sculptured Crosses
of Ancient Ireland (1857); Stuart’s Sculptured
tones of Scotland (Spalding Club, 1856 and 1867) ;
and Miss Stokes’s Karly Christian Art in Ireland’
(1887), and Siz Months in the Apennines (1892),
in which last work Celtic Christian art is largely _
derived from the Byzantine art of Italy.
Celts. The Celtic nations of antiquity had no —
comprehensive name. Those of the Continent were
called Galli by the Romans, and less usually Celte.
The Greek equivalents for these terms were Galatai
or Galatee, and Keltoi or Celti. But neither Greeks.
nor Romans regarded the British Isles as belonging
to the Celtic world. They were situated outside
it, and lay over against it in the sea; still it.
was known to men like Julius Cesar that certain.
portions of Britain were inhabited by Celts in the
sense of Galli or Belge.
Celtic ethnology involves many difficult questions
and we shall speak of them in this article mostly
according to the more palpabledistinctions of speech ;.

57

MW | in order to proceed as much as possible from the
to the unknown, we begin by sr ypard Som

a
a CELTS
;

~

their idioms. These, whether dead or still spoken,
__pelong to the Aryan or Indo-European family of

languages, and thoseof them spoken in modern times
divide themselves into two ups—viz. Goidelic
2 onic. (1) The Goidelic group embraces
dialects termed Gaelic, that is to say, Irish
Gaelic, or Irish as it is now more frequently and
_ briefly called ; Manx Gaelic, or the Gaelic dialect

, not hag extinct in the Isle of Man; and Scotch

_ English spelling of a word which is now written

evanescent dh; but the most ancient form known
of it was Goidel, whence the adjective Goidelic,
which has been resorted to by Celtic scholars as
applicable equally to all three Gaelic subdivisions
the Celtic group here in question. The Celtic
languages of this group are sometimes also called
Erse, which is a term derived from the Scotch form
of the adjective Jrish ; this was Ersch or Yrisch,
the longer and shorter forms of which appear, used
without any distinction, by Kennedy in his answer
to the poet Dunbar, when the latter had called

_ Kennedy an ‘Ersch brybour baird’ and an ‘ Ersch
katherane,’ in reference to his alleged extrac-
tion from the Irish Scots of Galloway and Carrick.
Kennedy’s reply contains the following line (see
contig s Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scot-
land, 1873, pp. 43-44) :

Thon luvis nane Erische, elf, I undirstand,

and he goes on to add
Thy fore fader maid Ersche and Erschmen thin.

(2) The moe group embraces the following
languages : Welsh, Breton, and Cornish, which has
been extinct now for about a century. Two of
these belong to Great Britain, and one, the Breton
or Armoric, to Little Britain on the other side
of the English Channel. These three might be
collectively termed British or Britannic, but that
both these adjectives have connotations which
would be misleading, as they tend to confusion ;
so here, also, a neutral form, Brythonic, is used,
which is derived from Brython, one of the Welsh
words for the Welsh and the so-called Ancient
Britons, whence their language is sometimes called
Brythoneg in Welsh. his last was in Cornish
Brethonec, and in Breton Brézonek, meaning re-
spectively the Celtic of Cornwall and of Brittany.
Brvihon or Britto was the national name of all
ee of this branch, just as Goidel or Gael may

treated as the national name of the other
branch.

All this applies only to the neo-Celtic nations, or
those among whom Celtic enguagss are or have
been in use in modern times, and a question of
much greater difficulty presents itself when one
attempts to classify likewise the continental Celts
of ancient history. The reason for this is chiefly
the fact that the linguistic data become more pre-
carious as one goes k. Thus, for example, the
language of the ruling people of ancient Gaul has

m left us only in a very few inscriptions, so
that our knowledge of it from that source has to
be complemented by the study of Gaulish proper

_ names, of which a considerable number is extant

Latin inscriptions and in the writings of Roman
and Greek authors. Now, when we apply the

test of some of the most palpable differences that
are known to exist between the Goidelic and the
Brythonic idioms to the remains of the Gaulish
on ay we find at once that it is to be ranked
with the Brythonic dialects, and not with the
Goidelic ones, and our Brythonic group becomes
what may be more exactly described as a Gallo-
Brythonic one. This further suggests the question
whether there was no continental Celtic idiom
which partook of the characteristics of the Goidelie
branch. The probability is that there was; for
one finds Sulpicius Severus, an ecclesiastical writer
of the 4th century, distinguishing between Celtic
and Gallic or Gaulish, as if both were spoken in his
time. (See Dialogue i. 26, in Migne’s Patr. Lat.
vol. xx. col. 201: ‘Tu vero, inquit Postumianus,
vel Celtice, aut, si mavis, Gallice loquere, dum-
modo jam Martinum loquaris.’) And the use
of the two names Celtze and Galli would seem
to point to the same inference—viz. the exist-
ence in Gaul of two Celtic peoples, the one,
probably, superimposed on the other, as on a van-
quished population, or driving it towards the
south and west. Thus, if the Celtic language
which Sulpicius Severus distinguished from Gaulish
should be ranked with the Goidelic dialects, we
should have alongside of a Gallo-Brythonic group
another which might be called Celto-Bryt onic
were it not inconvenient to use the words Celt and
Celtic in two senses. For while the modern usage
applies them indifferently to the whole family,
Sulpicius indicates a narrower sense; and so, in
fact, had Cesar done centuries before, when he
wrote that one of the three peoples of Gaul was
called Celts in their own tongue. He states that
these Celtz he so to say, were separated by
the Garonne from the Aquitani, and by the Seine
and the Marne from the Belge. In other words,
their country extended from the Garonne to the
Seine and Marne, and other Roman writers give it
the name of Celtica; and Dionysius of Halicar-
nassus had heard of a river Celtus, from which
Celtica was supposed to derive its name. From
this narrower Critica, in the sense which Roman
writers gave it, one might form the adjective
Celtican, to apply to its people, in order to avoid
the confusion which must arise from calling them
—— whilst using that word also of the whole
amily.

In olen to show the philological reasons for this
classification, it would be necessary to go into a
variety of details ; but let one of these suffice for
the present. The Gallo-Brythonic dialects used p
where the others would have qu. Take, for ex-
ane, the early inscriptional Irish for the genitive

f the word for ‘son’; it was maqvi, corresponding
to a nominative which appears as mace or mac in
the oldest manuscript Irish; and mac is still the
word for ‘boy’ or ‘son’ in all the Goideliec dialects.
Now the early Brythonic form of this genitive
would have been mapi, while in the oldest manu-
script Welsh we have map, and in later Welsh
mab, ‘boy’ or ‘son.’ From this word was formed
another, mabon, a ‘ boy’ or ‘ youth;’ and this in its
old form appears in Latin inscriptions as maponus
in Roman inscriptions found in Britain in honour
of the Celtic god Apollo Maponus, so called in
reference to his youthfulness. Now from Gaul
we have such names as Eporedorix, Parisii, Petro-
corii, and many others, with the consonant p; but
every now and then we have also names with
qu, such as Sequana and Aquitani, together with
several instances from Spain, where a le of the
same Celtic branch as those of Celtica had also
probably established themselves.

So far, then, as one can get philological data to
reason upon, it would seem that the west of Euro
had in early times been subjected to two Celtic

58 CELTS

CEMENTS

invasions; the one is represented by the Celts
whose position, geographically speaking, is_ the
farthest from the home of the Aryans. These
would be the Celticans of Gaul and Spain, as
compared with the Gallic tribes to the east of
them towards the Rhine and the Alps; the same
relative position is also taken up by the Goidelic
Celts of the British Islands, occupying, as we find
them doing, the Isle of Man, Ireland, and, the
Scotch Highlands and Islands. The other, here
represented by the Brythons, must have come
later and driven out the Goidels, or subdued them,
in the rest of this island. This may be supposed,
also, to have been the case on the Continent, so
that we have to regard the later comers, the Galli,
as invaders and conquerors forming another Celtic
population. In the eastern portions of Gaul they
may have formed the bulk of the population, but
in the rest of that country they probably onl
constituted a ruling class of comparatively small
importance in point of numbers. Such a state of
things would adequately explain the great dearth
of linguistic remains belonging to the older and
subjugated people. Roman authors and other
strangers would naturally speak most of the ruling
classes, and information about the others must
reach strangers through the medium of -the Gallic
rulers and their language, at anyrate, so far as
concerns the time before Latin became the official
tongue of all Gaul. A somewhat similar conclusion
has been arrived at by studying the burials and
megalithic monuments of France and the neigh-
bouring lands to the east of it. In Central and
Western France menhirs, dolmens, and cromlechs
prevail, while the eastern side of France shows
the prevalence of mounds and barrows, which are
here and there found penetrating into the other
domain, giving us a sort of rude sketch, as it were,
of an invasion advancing irregularly towards the
west. See M. Bertrand’s Archéologie Celtique et
Gauloise; also K. von Becker’s Versuch einer
Loésung der Pg oe (1883), pp. 114-119.

For reasons already indicated: the question of
Celtic ethnology is a very difficult one, but it is
considerably more difficult than would appear from
what has hae been mentioned ; for besides two
Celtic sets of invaders, there are also to be taken
into account the non-Aryan races that previously
occupied the countries to which the Celts came.
These pre-Celtic populations probably survived in
considerable numbers, and one of the effects of a
second Celtic invasion may be supposed to have
been to force the earlier Celtic settlers to amalga-
mate with the ancient inhabitants, and to make
common cause with them against the later Aryan
hordes. So it may be expected that the language
of the Goidelic Celts will prove to have absorbed
a larger non-Aryan element than that of the

Brythons. Similarly, one might take for granted
that the physical type of the people speaking the
Goidelic dialects should prove less purely Aryan ;

but this feature is obscured by the fact of the
counter-invasions which Wales and other western
portions of Britain have undergone in historical
times at the hands of Ireland. Lastly, it is right
to add that in so far as the people, whose language
is or has been Celtic, are Aryans, one might expect
the type to be that of tall men, with more or less
light hair and blue eyes; on the other hand, the
smaller men, with dark hair and black eyes, which
it was the fashion till lately to regard as the
genuine and typical Celts, are probably not to be
regarded as Celts at all, but as Ivernians or
representatives of the pre-Celtic and non-Aryan
race, whose punting eens the soil of the British
Islands may be said to have been long before the
first Aryan set foot in them.

The Celtic languages and literatures will be found

_ lime.

under BRITTANY, CORNWALL, GAELIC, IRELAND,
WALES. See also ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGES,
ETHNOLOGY, PHILOLOGY, DRUIDISM.

Besides the works already mentioned, the following
should be consulted: Miillenhoff’s Deutsche Altertwms-
kunde (Berlin, 1887); Windisch’s article ‘ Keltische
Sprachen’ in the Allgemeine Encyklopedie der Wissen-
schaften und Kiinste, together with the reviews on the
same in the Revue Celtique, vol. vi. pp. 395-400;
Hiibner’s Inscriptiones Britannie Christiane (Berlin,
1876); Brambach’s Corpus Inscrip. Rhenanarum ; and the
volumes of the Corpus Inscrip. Latinarum, published b:
the Berlin Academy, especially those for Britain {vii.),
Spain (ii), Gallia Narbonensis (xii.), Gallia Cisalpina
(v.), and Illyricum (iii.).

Cements, These may be roughly divided into
three classes: (1) The stone cements, including
Roman and Portland cements, and ordinary mortar,
which are used in thickish layers for uniting stone
and brick work, and for protective coverings to
buildings; (2) substances which form binding
joints of much less but still appreciable thickness,
such as white lead, red lead, and putty; and (3)
cements which require to be used in extremely thin
coatings, such as glue, isinglass, and dissolved
caoutchoue.

Ordinary Mortar is a mixture of slaked lime
(caleium hydroxide) and sand, made into a paste
with water. Generally one part of lime to three
or four parts of sand are used, but the proportions
vary according to the purity of the lime employed.
Very pure or fat lime, such as that made by burn-
ing white chalk or white marble does not make
so good a mortar as lime obtained from less pure
limestones, which are by far the most abundant.
The more thoroughly the ingredients are inter-
mixed, the more complete will be the subsequent
hardening of the mortar. As commonly laid in the
joints of brick or stone work, mortar sets suffici-
ently fast to allow building operations to proceed
from day to day with occasional longer intervals,
but it takes years—perhaps in many cases cen-
turies—to reach its maximum hardness. The
setting and subsequent slow hardening of mortar
are usually considered to be due, in the first in-
stance, simply to the loss of water, and afterwards
to the absorption by the lime of carbonic acid from
the atmosphere, the carbonate of lime thus formed
binding together the sand and stone. It is doubt-
ful, however, if this is an altogether satisfactory
explanation. The mortar used in many medieval
buildings is largely mixed with small pebbles. In
a number of cases this has proved to be of a more
durable nature than the stone used along with it.

Puzzolana or Pozzuolana, a loosely coherent
voleanie sand found at Pozzuoli, near Naples, has
been long celebrated for its property of forming
a hydraulic cement when mixed with ordinary
It is composed of silica, with a little
magnesia and potash or soda, alumina, lime, and
oxide of iron.

Roman Cement.—Certain natural mixtures of
lime and clay are called cement-stones. “The clays
of some of the newer geological formations in the
south of England, for example, contain courses of
septarian nodules (see SEPTARIA ), which have been
in great request for making the best kinds of
Roman cement. They are concretions of impure
caleareous matter, many of them having this
analysis: Carbonate of lime, 66; silica, 18; alumina,
7; and protoxide of iron, 6 ; or consist of these sub-
stances in nearly that proportion. Cement-stones
are carefully calcined in kilns, and afterwards
ground and sifted. Good Roman cement should
set in about 15 minutes, and this quick-setting
property makes it valuable for work which requires
to be executed between tides and for other purposes
where the cement used must harden quickly. It is
at best of but medium strength. fein natural

: CEMENTS

59

—_———
‘ements are slow-setting, and these do not contain
‘more than 22 ye cent. of clay. ig set under
‘water when half their weight consists of clay. The
‘proportion of sand used with Roman cement should
not much exceed that of the cement. When em-
ployed for external coatings of buildings it is apt
to effloresce and become unsightly.
Portland Cement.—This is considered by far the
‘most important of the stone cements, It is an
artificial product, named from its resemblance to
Portland Stone, but is much more largely used
than Roman cement. In the manufacture of Port-
land cement on the banks of the Thames and the
Medway by the wet process, three parts of white
are mixed with one part of clay or mud from
‘the lower reaches of these rivers. The two sub-
stances, along with water, are placed in a ‘wash
‘mill’ in which strong revolving knives or cutters
reduce the whole to a creamy ‘slurry’ or slip.
The slurry then passes by gravitation to backs or
reservoirs. There it is allowed to settle for some
weeks, when the superfluous water is removed by
tation. The mixture is next dried on heated
iron plates or on the floor of a heated chamber,
and then burned in kilns. Finally it is ground to
a fine powder. Modifications of the wet process
by which the large reservoirs are dispensed with
have been introduced in recent years. In other
ah of the country Portland cement is manu-
tured by the dry process from the hard lime-
stones of other formations than the chalk, alon
with clay or shale. These limestones are crush
small, mixed in the hayes proportion with clay
or shale, then roug burned, and ground to
wder. This powder slightly moistened is passed
ugh a pug-mill, and then made into bricks,
eeh are afterwards burned in kilns and reduced to
wer.

Since Portland cement is hardly ever employed
in the pure or neat state, its strength is perhaps
best tested when it is mixed with an equal weight
ofsand. The best cement so mixed and nioalied
in the state of a stiff mortar, into any convenient
shape, when tested after the lapse of seven days,
during six of which it is customary to keep it
immersed in water, exceeds in tensile strength
200 lb. per square inch, and in crushing strength,
tested by 14-inch cubes, 1000 lb. for the same area.
Its wr gen in the unmixed state is much greater.
Much of the Portland cement made is, however,
little more than half as strong as the best kind.
Roman cement of good quality mixed to the same
extent with sand as the above, and tested under the
same conditions, has on an average a tensile strength
of 30 Ib., and a crushing strength of 200 lb. in each
ease per square inch. Portland cement is slow in
setting compared with most varieties of Roman
cement. Both Portland and Roman cement form

draulic mortars—that is, they set under water.

o mortar will do this which contains less than
10 — cent. of silica.

ill close on 1840 Portland cement was hardly
known, but the use of it has extended rapidly,
especially in recent years. Its most important
application is in the construction of docks and
bours, many of which are partly or wholly
built of it, mixed with sand and broken stones, in
the form of a concrete. In this state, or simply
mixed with sand, it is also much employed for
other purposes where strength and durability are
required. Owing to the nature of some of the
extensive engineering works in which Portland
cement is largely used, it is plainly of great con-
uence that its properties Apr be t oroughly
understood. Numerous failures with it have taken
place. The chemical investigation into the case
of the Aberdeen docks in 1887 distinctly showed
the deleterious action of sea-water upon this sub-

stance. But it is also known that objects made of
unmixed Portland cement from the works of some
of the best makers will sometimes keep good for
nearly twenty years, and then crumble to pieces
even when not exposed out of doors at all. Of
course rag, pe of these failures are forth-
coming. They are generally attributed to careless-
ness in the manufacture of the cement, or in the
selection of the materials for it. But if they oceur,
as they have done, with cements that have stood
very well the ordinary mechanical tests, how can
any cement of this kind be entirely depended upon
for durability? Twenty, thirty, or even fifty years
is far too short a time to test the lasting property
of a building material of this nature. 1e use of
Portland cement in pavements and for architectural
ornaments is not attended with much risk, and
for such purposes it is very suitable. The capital
employed in the manufacture in Great Britain is
probably near two millions sterling. For American
cements, see ROSENDALE.

Scott's Selenic Cement consists of burnt limestone
mixed with about 5 per cent. of sulphate of lime
in the form of plaster of Paris, and ground to
powder. The presence of the sulphate arrests the
slaking action of the lime, causes the cement to
set more quickly, and admits of more sand being
used with it than ordinary lime does. This cement
has been a good deal used for plastering, and to
some extent also for mortar.

Plaster of Paris (see ALABASTER and GYPSUM).
—This material is used for cementing marble and
alabaster in much the same way as mortar is in
brick-work. It is also employed for uniting the
separately moulded pieces of any large object cast
in the same material. Sometimes it is selected
for fixing metal mounts to glass.

Keene's Cement is made by saturating plaster of
Paris in small lumps with alum and recalcining
it. It then forms a hard plaster for the, projecting
portions of halls and rooms, such as pilasters,
columns, and skirtings. It is capable of taking
a high polish.

Parian or Keating’s Cement somewhat resembles
Keene’s. In its manufacture borax as well as
alum is added to the plaster of Paris.

Martin’s Cement is another kind, with plaster of
Paris for its basis, but instead of borax, carbonate
of potash is added, and sometimes hydrochloric
acid as well. With the exception of Scott’s, these
plaster of Paris cements are only used in plastering
or other internal work—not for mortars.

Mastic Cement, consisting of a mixture of burnt
clay or limestone in a powdered state, with boiled
oil and litharge, was more in use formerly than
now; but though expensive, it is an excellent
material for preventing the admission of rain-water
at certain joints about buildings, such as where
wood and stone work come together at windows.
It was also used for covering external mouldings.

Rust or Iron Cement.—Joints in iron-work, such
as those for hot-water pipes, are filled up with a
cement of iron borings or turnings, mixed with
at least 2 per cent. of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes
sulphur in powder is added. The iron oxidises
and forms a firm joint.

Sulphur Cement.—For jointing earthenware
pipes, and occasionally for fixing bars of iron
into stone, a cement is made of sulphur, resin, and
brick-dust. Itisa ee but not a strong cement
where metal is concerned.

Water-glass Cements.—For furnaces one kind
consists of burnt and unburnt fireclay made
plastic with silicate of soda or water-glass.
Another cement, capable of standing a high heat,
is formed of asbestos powder made into a paste
with silicate of soda. The same silicate mixed
with ground glass makes an acid-proof cement.

60 CEMENTS

CEMETERY

White and Red Lead Cements.—Either white
lead or red lead by itself, or a mixture of both, is
much in request as a cement for the joints of slate
or glass cisterns, such asaquariums. These are also
employed for the joints of gas-pipes, for cementin
metal mounts to glass tubes, and other chemica
and electrical purposes. White and red lead
cements are made up with boiled linseed-oil, and
sometimes gold size is added. Mixed white and
red lead make a very hard and firm cement. A
cement of these two substances and ground plum-
bago in equal parts, mixed with oil, is said to
stand a great heat in steam-joints.

Shell-lac Cements.—An excellent cement is made
by digesting 4 oz. of the finest shell-lac in 3 oz. of
methylated spirit in a warm place. It should be
made into a consistency like thick syrup. This
makes a firm cement for mending pieces of glass,
china, ornamental stones, and ivory. It is not
soluble in water. A cheaper, but still very
serviceable cement can be formed by dissolving
shell-lac in wood naphtha. For some purposes
shell-lac itself is used as cement by simply melting
it.

Marine Glue is a mixture of shell-lac in a solution
of india-rubber. It is made into thin sheets, and
melted when required for use in shipbuilding, &e.

Gelatin and Isinglass Cements. —Fish-glue,
gelatin, or Isinglass (q.v.), made up with dilute
acetic acid and other bodies into a jelly or thick
liquid, produces a cement slightly varying in its
nature, for mending china, glass, ivory, bone, and
other substances. Foulke’s cement and liquid
fish-glue are cements of this class. These can be
obtained in a convenient form for use in hardware
or druggists’ shops. They are more or less soluble
in water, so that articles mended with them must
be quickly washed. Cement of mixed glue and
glycerine, sometimes with tannin added, is occa-
sionally used for leather and cloth.

Armenian or Diamond Cement.—The following
is the reputed formula for preparing the cement
used by the Armenian jewellers for attaching
diamonds, &c., without any metallic setting :
‘Dissolve five or six bits of gum-mastic, each the
size of a large pea, in as much rectified spirit of
wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and in
another vessel dissolve as much isinglass, previously
a little softened in water—though none of the
water must be used—in French brandy, or good
rum, as will make a 2-ounce phial of very strong
glue, adding two very small bits of galbanum or
ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground
till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with
a sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a phial closely
stopped, and when it is to be used, set the phial in
boiling water.’

Elastic Cements.—One part of caoutchoue dis-
solved in 3 parts of chloroform; also, 5 parts of
caoutchouc in 3 parts of chloroform, with 1 part of
powdered gum-mastic added. Benzole is sometimes
used instead of chloroform as the solvent. Another
elastic cement can be made by a mixture of gutta-
percha and caoutchouc dissolved in bisulphide of
carbon. The solvents of these cements must not
be exposed to any but a gentle heat.

Resin Cements.—There are a great number of
cements partly formed of ordinary resin. One
kind consists of resin 4, beeswax 1, and whiting
1 part. The proportions of these ingredients in
the same order for another are 15, 1, and 4.
Another is made from resin 4, and plaster of Paris
1 part. These cements are used to fix pieces of
stone, glass, &c. to handles when grinding them.
Resin, pitch, beeswax, and plaster of Paris or
brick-dust are made up in various proportions into
cements.

Cutlers’ Cement, used for fixing knives and forks

in handles, is made of equal weights of resin and ©
brick-dust melted together; or, for a superior
quality, 4 parts of resin, 1 of beeswax, and 1 of
brick-dust.

Copal varnish, mastic varnish, Canada balsam,
and gold size are each useful occasionally for
cementing substances like two pieces of glass
together.

Cement-stone, a somewhat argillaceous and
ferruginous limestone, generally compact, which is
occasionally employed for oan hydraulic mortar
or cement. The Cement-stone Series is the name
of a group of strata occurring in the Carboniferous

System of Scotland. See CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.

Cemetery (from the Greek koimétérion, liter-
ally ‘a sleeping-place*) may mean any paveyare:
or other place of deposit for the dead; but it has
lately acquired a special meaning, applicable to
those extensive ornamental burial-grounds which
have recently come into use as the practice of
burying within and around churches was gradually
abandoned (see BURIAL). The fine burial-grounds.
of the Turks, extending over large tracts adorned
by cedars and other trees, may have suggested the
a to western Europeans. Those round Con-
stantinople are famous, and are dense forests of
cypresses. A Moslem grave is never reopened, and
a cypress is usually planted after every interment.
Of western cities, Paris took the lead in this re-
spect, and in Britain there are now no consider-
able towns near which there is not at least one
cemetery, and the legislation mentioned under the
head of BURIAL has rendered their establishment,
to a certain extent, a legal necessity. There was
at first a natural feeling of regret at the ie of
deserting places of deposit for the dead so hallowed
by ancient use and recent associations as the
church and the churchyard. On the other hand,
the new places of interment began to become
attractive in virtue of their trees and flowers,
natural scenery, and works of monumental art.
The new cemeteries are in many instances cheerful
open places, and in them the place of rest for the
dead bss rather tended to improve than to under-
mine the health of the living. One of the first
and most celebrated of modern European ceme-
teries is that of Pére la Chaise (q.v.), near Paris,
the arrangements of which have been generally
followed in the cemeteries of London and other
English cities. It was laid out in 1804, and is now
within the enceinte of the city. The Campo Santo of
Pisa (1228-83), the pantheon of the Pisans, has been
the model of many Italian cemeteries. It is an
oblong court, surrounded by lofty arcades of marble,
and adorned with famous frescoes and works of art.
In the centre is a mass of earth brought from the
Holy Land. The Genoese Campo Santo contains
an enormous wealth of sculpture. One Neapoli-
tan cemetery (the Campo Santo Vecchio) differs
widely from most others. It contains 366 deep

its, one of which is opened each day, and in
it all the interments of the day take place. At
night a funeral service is resale , and the
pit is filled with earth and lime, not to be re-
opened till the year after. The Sicilian catacombs.
are also a kind of cemetery. Kensal Green Ceme-
tery dates from 1832; other well-known London
cemeteries are those of Highgate and Woking
(1855), near Guildford, 7000 acres in area, with a
crematory. The Dean Cemetery at Edinburgh,
and the Necropolis of Glasgow, are notable; that
of Glasnevin, outside of Dublin, is the most.
celebrated in Ireland. English cemeteries are
usually divided into two portions—one conse-
crated for the burials of members of the Estab-
lished Church, over whose remains the funeral
service is read, and one unconsecrated, for the |

- CENCI

CENSUS 61

— [
burials of dissenters. In the United States great
pains are bestowed on the adornment of cemeteries.
e most famous are Mount Auburn, near Boston,
wood in Brooklyn, and Laurel Hill, near
elphia. See BURIAL,

1 BEATRICE, ‘ the beautiful parricide,’ was
the ter of Francesco Cenci, a Roman noble-
man of colossal wealth. According to Muratori
«Annales, lib. x.), Francesco was twice married,
. being the hes est of twelve children by
the first wife. After his second marriage, he
treated the children of his first wife in a revolting
“manner, and was even accused of hiring bandits to
| meee two of his sons on their return from Spain.

‘he beauty of Beatrice inspired him with the
horrible and incestuous desire to possess her person ;
with eiaied lust and hate he persecuted her from
day to day, until circumstances enabled him to
consummate his brutality. The unfortunate girl
besought the help of her relatives, and of Pope
‘Clement VII. (Aldobrandini), but did not receive
it; whereupon, in company with her step-mother
and her brother, Giacomo, she planned the murder
of her unnatural parent, into whose brain two
hired assassins drove a large nail (9th September
1598). The crime was discovered, and both she
and Giacomo were put to the torture; Giacomo
confessed, but Beatrice persisted in the declaration
that she was innocent. All, however, were con-
demned and beheaded (10th September 1599).
Such is Muratori’s narrative. Others allege that
Beatrice was the innocent victim of an infernal
plot. The results, however, of Bertolotti’s investi-

tions (Francesco Cenci e la sua Famiglia, 1877),
Sand on original documents and contemporary
notices, go far to deprive the story of the Cenci
pegedy of the romantic elements on which Shelley’s
powe tragedy mainly turns. Francesco, it
would appear, was profligate, but no monster :
Beatrice at the time she murdered her father was
not sixteen, but twenty-one years of age, was far
from beautiful, and was probably the mother of
an illegitimate son. And Bertolotti further shows
that the sweet and mournful countenance which
forms one of the treasures of the Barberini Palace
in Rome cannot possibly be a portrait of Beatrice
by Guido, who never painted in Rome till some
nine years after Beatrice’s death. See an article
in the Edinburgh Review for January 1879.

Cenis. See Mont CENIs.
Cenobites. See MonaAcuism.

Cenomanian, the name given by French geo-
Sy — to the Lower Chalk and Upper Greensand
of English geologists.

Cenotaph (Gr. kenotafion; kenos, ‘empty,’
and tafos, ‘a tomb’), a monument which does not
contain the remains of the deceased. They were
originally erected for those whose bones could not
be found, as for those who had perished at sea.
Latterly the name was applied to tombs built by
a man during his lifetime for himself and the
members of his family. The memorials in West-
minster Abbey to Franklin and Gordon are ceno-
taphs.

Censer (Fr. encensoir, from Lat. incendo, ‘I
burn’), a vase, or other sacred vessel, used for
burning Incense (q.v.). Censers were used in the
Hebrew service of the temple. The ordinary
eenser, called also a thurible (Lat. thuribulum,
from thus, ‘frankincense’), used in Catholic ser-
Vices, is a metallic vessel for holding burning char-
coal, of brass or latten, silver, silver-plated, or
even of gold. It is shaped like a vase or cup,

a movable cover, usually perforated, and is
suspended by chains (generally four in number) so
as to be swung to and fro for the readier dispersion

r

of the smoke of the incense, which is thrown upon
the live ¢

Censo the name of two Roman officers of
state of high dignity, whose duties related to the
official registration of the citizens (census), the
superintendence of public morals (regimen morum),
and arrangements for the collection of the public
revenue and the execution of public works. They
were elected in the comitia centuriata, presided
over by a consul, The term of office at first lasted
five years, but was shortly afterwards limited to
eighteen months. The censorship was regarded as
the highest dignity in the state, except the dictator-
ship. It was a sacred and irresponsible magis-
tracy, whose powers were vast and undefined, and
whose decisions were received with solemn rever-
ence. The census or registration was taken in the
Campus Martius, in a building called Villa Publica.
It was a complete catalogue of the citizens of
Rome, stating in detail the age of each, the amount
of his property, and the number of his children.
Next the censors drew up a list of the equites,
entitled to have a horse at the public expense,
and made up the roll of senators, supplying the
vacancies. The regimen morum was the most
dreaded and absolute of their powers. It w
naturally out of the exercise of the previous duty,
which compelled them to exclude unworthy persons
from the lists of citizens. Gradually the super-
intendence of the censor extended from the public
to the private life of citizens. They could inflict
disgrace (ignominia) on any one whose conduct
did not square with their notions of rectitude or
duty. For instance, if a man neglected the cul-
tivation of his fields, or carried on a disreputable
trade, or refused to marry, or treated his family
either too kindly or too harshly, or was extrava-
gant, or guilty of bribery, cowardice, &c., he might

degraded, according to his rank, or otherwise
punished. The administration of the finances of
the state included the regulation of the tributum
or property-tax; of the vectigalia, such as the
tithes paid for the public lands, salt-works, mines,
customs, &c., which were usually leased out to
speculators for five years; the preparation of the
state budget, &c. The otfice of censor continued
to be filled by patricians till 351 B.c., when Censor
Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. Twelve
years later it was enacted that one of the censors
(there were always two) must be a plebeian. In
131 B.c. both censors for the first time were
plebeians.

Censorship of Press. See Press.

Census means the counting of the people. The
word is a Latin one, and was applied to the
functions which the Roman Censors (q.v.) per-
formed of periodically enumerating the people, ut
no records of these enumerations remain, and indeed
we have but a few scattered notices of them. In
Greece a census was established by Solon at Athens
for the double purpose of facilitating taxation and
classifying the citizens. Religious prejudice pre-
ven any censuses being taken during the
middle ages, and it was not till the 18th century
that the necessity for obtaining correct informa-
tion as to the population of European countries over-
came this feeling. The first country to undertake
@& census on a scientific basis was Sweden in
1749; in France an enumeration was made in
1700, but the first reliable was not taken till
1801. In America the first census was taken
in 1790, and in England in 1801. Censuses are
now taken in Austria, Belgium, Italy, Norway
and Sweden, Russia, Switzerland, the United
States of America, India, and most of the
British colonies, every ten years; in France
and Germany every five years; in Spain at irreg-

62 CENT

CENTENARIAN

ular intervals, the next after that of 1860 having
been in 1877. The International Statistical Con-
gress, which consists of eminent statisticians from
all countries, has done much to improve the taking
of censuses, and now several countries, such as
Austria, Belgium, Italy, Prussia, Russia, and
Switzerland, have statistical bureaus for the pur-
pose, amongst other things, of controlling the taking
of the periodical census. In a few countries in-
formation as to the religion of the population, and
in some cases additional particulars, are obtained,
such as the census of ‘useful domestic animals’
in Norway.

In the United Kingdom the practice is for
parliament to pass special acts directing the tak-
ing of each census. These acts provide that
the registrars of births and deaths shall be the
officers through whom the census is to be taken by
enumerators, of whom at the census of 1881 there
were upwards of 30,000 employed in England alone.
All the registrars’ districts are so subdivided that
no enumerator has more houses than he can con-
veniently visit in one day. The enumerators have
to deliver schedules at all houses, requiring par-
ticulars concerning every person who is alive at
midnight preceding the census day, and on the
census day to collect them. Account has also to
be taken of all persons not dwelling in houses
wherever found, and of persons travelling, and
persons in ships, barges, &c. The enumerators are
authorised to require the information necessary for
the census, and persons refusing to answer or
wilfully giving false answers to the questions are
rendered liable to penalties. The particulars to be
required in each census are specified in the act
directing it to be taken. The Census Act, 1880,
required. that the census of the following year
should show ‘the name, sex, age, rank, pro-
fession or occupation, condition as to marriage,
relation to head of family, and birthplace of every
living person who abode in every house on the
night of Sunday the 3d of April 1881, and also
whether any were blind or deaf and dumb, or
imbecile or lunatic.’ When the schedules have
been collected they are transmitted to the census
office, where the work of tabulation, which takes
about two years, is carried out. The census when
finished is presented to parliament in the form of
several bulky volumes. Hardly any two countries
agree as to the subjects on which information is
demanded ; thus some census schedules contain
inquiries as to whether there are in the household
infirm persons, blind, deaf and dumb, idiots,
insane persons, persons who have been convicted
of crime; how many languages are spoken by the
persons entered; how many are at school; how
many exercise the franchise ; how many rooms and
windows there are in the house, and so on. In 1851
an attempt was made to obtain religious statistics
of the United Kingdom ; since that year the census
shows the religious statistics of Ireland only.

The census of the United States aims at giving a
specially full conspectus of the condition of the
people, and is illustrated by a large number of maps

earing on almost every branch of the census in-
quiries. Thus there are maps showing the pre-
valence of certain diseases; others the area occu-
pied by various crops. The United States census of
1880 extended to 22 volumes, embracing statistics
of population, agriculture) manufactures, mining,
taxation, public indebtedness, with special reports
on cotton-growing, petroleum, coal, coke, building-
stones, iron and steel products, &e. The census of
1890 is comparatively limited in the scope of its
inquiries.

Cent and Centime (Lat. centum, ‘a hun-
dred’), names of coins. The Dutch cent is a
copper coin, the 100th part of the guilder (1s. 8d.) ;

the United States cent is a bronze coin, the 100th
part of the dollar, or nearly one halfpenny English,
and the Canadian cent has the same value. The
centime, the 100th part of the French frane, and
of the value of ~,th of an English penny, has been
adopted in Belgium, and, under other names, in
Greece, Italy, and Switzerland; and the Spanish
real (24d. ) also is divided into 100 centimes. The
cental in the United States, legalised in 1878, is
100 lb. avoirdupois (cf. CENTNER). See DECIMAL
SYSTEM.

Centaurea, a palarctic genus of Composite,
containing about two hundred species, all herba-
ceous annual and perennial, of which five or six
are natives of Britain. The species most familiar,
on account of its beauty, is the blue C. cyanus (see
CORN-FLOWER), which is sometimes sown as an
annual; while its larger perennial ally, C. mon-
tana, with white or purple ray florets, is a familiar
denizen of old-fashioned gardens; C. americana is
a showy lilac-purple annual (3 or 4 feet); while
the oriental Sweet Sultan (C. moschata) and
Yellow Sultan (C. amberboa) are also not uncom-
mon; the latter two being often sold under the
name of Amberboa. Among perennials, the large,
downy C. babylonica, with yellow flowers, is often
cultivated ; also C. ragusina and C. candidissima,
of which the silver-white pinnate leaves furnish an
admired contrast to bright-coloured bedding-plants.
Several species (C. calcitrapa, &c.) bear the name
of Star-thistle, from their spiny involucre. Some
are common wayside weeds, often troublesome in
pean notably C. nigra, the Common or Black

napweed, also called Horse Knot in Scotland ;
and the closely allied C. Scabiosa. The flowers or
roots of several species were formerly used in
dyeing, and the astringent roots employed by
herbalists.

Cen’taurs (‘ bull-killers’), a wild race of men
who inhabited, in early times, the forests and
mountains of Thessaly, and whose chief occupation
was bull-hunting. omer, the first who mentions
them, describes them merely as savage, gigantic,
and covered with hair. They do not appear as
monsters, half-man and half-horse, until the age of
Pindar. The most ancient account of the Mig
centaurs, sometimes considered as distinct, but
more often confounded with the Centaurs, is that
they were the offspring of Magnesian mares and
Centaurus, himselt the offspring of Ixion and a
cloud. The Centaurs are celebrated in Greek
mythology on account of their struggles with the
Lapithe (q.v.), and with Hercules. The most
famous was Chiron, the teacher of Achilles and
other heroes. In works of art the Centaurs were
represented as men from the head to the loins, with
the rest of the body that of a horse. It is worth
mentioning that the Mexicans, who had no native
horses, when they first saw the Spaniards on
horseback, believed that the horse and man
together made but one animal.

Cen‘taury (Zrythrea), a pretty little annual,

enus of Gentianacez, with pink or rose coloured
flerwden: They possess the tonic and other medi-
cinal virtues of gentian, and the Common Centaury
(E. Centaurium) has especially been esteemed in
medicine since the days of Dioscorides and Galen ;
and although no longer in the pharmacopeia, its
flower-tops are still sometimes gathered and dried
by country-people in England and the Conti-
nent; while the allied Sadbbatia angularis enjoys
similar repute in the United States and Canada.
The Yellow Centaury is Chlora perfoliata; but
plants belonging to the wholly distinct composite

enus Centaurea (q.v.) are also sometimes called
Crates

Centenarian. See LONGEVITY.

CENTENARY

CENTIPEDE 63

_
Centenary, consisting of a hundred (Lat.
-centum), a period of a hundred years, is now usually
employed to signify a commemoration of an event,
as birth (sometimes the death) of a t man,
‘The centenary of Burns’s birth was celebrated in
1859; the bi-centenary of vope in 1888; the ¢er-
centenary of Shakespeare in 1864. The centenary of
3 Independence was celebrated by a Cen-
sagged Exhibition in 1876; the octo-centenary of
_ the Bologna University in 1888.
_ Centering, the framework upon which an
arch or vault of stone, brick, or iron is supported
2 its construction. The simplest form of
A g is that used by masons and bricklayers
r the arches of common windows and doors.
This is merely a deal-board of the required shape,
\s gee the curved edge of which the bricks or stones
of the arch are supported until they are keyed
in. In building bridges or other structures where
arches of great _— are to be constructed, the
_ centering is usually made of framed timbers, or
timbers and iron combined. The arrangement of
the timbers should be such that the strain upon
- each shall be mainly a thrust in the direction of its
h, for if the strain were transverse, a compara-
tively slight force would snap it, and if a longi-
_ tudinal pull, the whole structure would be no
stronger than the joints holding the pieces of
timber together. In arches of great span, a longi-
tudinal pulling strain is almost inevitable in some
parts, as a beam of great length would bend to
some extent under a thrusting strain. In such
eases t skill and care are demanded in the
desi and construction of the joints. As an
arch is built from the piers towards the keystone,
the weight upon the haunches during construction
_ tends to push the crown upwards, and therefore the
oe Syme of mys etd a framed centering involves
resistance of this tendency, as well as the sup-
_ porting of the weight of the materials. Occasion-
ally, when a very great span is required, and the
_ navigation will permit, piers are built on the bed
of the river, or piles are driven into it, to support
_ the centering directly, simplifying it, and at the
same time facilitating a more rigid disposition than
in centering supported only from the sides. See
_ article BRIDGE for descriptions and illustrations
_ of three tog of iar (1) that for the bridge
over the . at Chester, Vol. IL, e 437, sup-
directly from the bed of the river; also
the centering for the Ballochmyle Bridge; (2)
inclined struts in pairs su ea | from the sides,
as Rennie’s centering for Waterloo Bridge, page
438; (3) trussed wooden girders supported Ronn
the sides, as Rennie’s centering for London Bridge,

Enpolas, like those of the Pantheon and St
Peter's at Rome, St Paul’s in London, or the flat
domes of the Turkish mosques, require very effec-
_ tive centerings.
Centigrade. See Cexstus and THERMOMETER.

Centipede, a general name for the members of
_ one of the orders of the class Myriopoda. Popu-
larly they are sometimes ‘ailed alley-worms,
, technically Chilopoda. Like the Millipedes, which
form the most important neighbour order, the
’ Centipedes are segmented animals bearing jointed
ebpend » having a well-defined head furnished
__ with feelers and jaws, and breathing by means of
_ air-tubes or sag a
ure.—The Centipede is like a primitive
; insect in its neral structure.—(«) Beberadines
‘The body is divided into well-marked rings, but
the region behind the distinct head is practically
contig and not divisible into thorax and abdomen.

behind the head a few rings appear to be
The number of rings varies Axon twelve

— eat

to more than twelve times as many. In counting
the rings the ventral surface should be looked to,
for the dorsal shields often overlap. The rings are
agen from spore bara re each bear
a pair of appendages. Dorsally and ventrally the
shia ie hard and Seen Glands occur in various
positions. (b) Appendages.—The head, which is
covered by a flat shield above, bears (1) a pair of
antenne, usually of considerable length, and con-
sisting of from twelve to over one hundred joints ;
(2)a pair of small, strong, toothed, and geo f
mandibles; (3) a pair of under-jaws, usually wit

alps. The next appendages are limb-like, and are
ollowed by a modified pair of legs, the basal pieces
of which generally meet in the middle line, while
the strong joints terminate in a sharp claw, at which
a poison-gland opens. These Reape are obvi-
ously of use for seizing and killing the prey. The
legs of the other segments are usually seven-jointed,
sometimes bear spurs and glands, and are generally
clawed. The last pair differ in size and form from
the rest, and are turned backwards. (c) Internal
Anatomy.—The large brain is connected as usual
with a ventral chain of ganglia. Compound eyes
occur in one family, simple eyes in many, while
the feelers, certain bristles, and portions of the
skin are also sensory. In some cases there is a
special well-defined sense-organ of undecided fune-
tion in front of the head, or on one of the jaws.
The alimentary canal is straight, and has asso-
ciated with it salivary and digestive glands, and
excretory (Malpighian) tubules. The heart is
represented by a chambered dorsal vessel. Trachez
or air-tubes open on the sides of the body, some-
times on each ring, often on alternate segments,
ramify throughout the tissues, and are connected
together on each side by a longitudinal stem.
The reproductive organs are usual , tubular, and
open on the last ring of the body. distinct penis
is sometimes present.

Life and Habit.—Centipedes are darkness-loving
animals, nocturnal in their food-hunting, lurking ~
under stones or among rotten wood and the like
during the day. Their powers of vision are very
poorly developed, and most of the sensory work is
tactile. Only in one family (Seutigeride ) are there
compound eyes, in most forms only simple eyes, in
many none at all. The recent researches of Plateau
and others have shown that these creatures can
distinguish light from darkness, but do not need
eyes to do this; species with eyes do not apparently
get on much better than those without them;
those with eyes seem to perceive bright objects
reflecting much white light, and in some cases con-
spicuous movements, but probably in no case the
forms of objects. Moving actively about at nights,
feeling their way by means of their antennze, which
function as a blind man’s staff, they light upon in-
sects, worms, and other small animals, which they
seize and kill with their poison-bearing appendages.
They are all voracious carnivorous forms, not
vegetarian like the Millipedes. Some forms can
run with some rapidity, and wriggle about in
curious serpent-like fashion.

t.—In some cases the males are said
to deposit their reproductive elements in packets
(spermatophores) fixed by a web to the ground.
In most cases copulation probably occurs. Scolo-
pendra is viviparous, the others lay e; The
eggs develop into larve, which are either minia-
ture adults (Scolopendride and Geophilide), or
differ from the all-reten forms in having only
seven pairs of legs (Scutigeride and Lithobiide ).

Classification and Forms of Interest.—The order
of Centipedes is one of the three or four divisions
of Myriopoda (q.v.), and, like the class, generally
represents a somewhat low grade of development
among animals breathing by air-tubes. The most

64 CENTIPEDE

CENTRAL AMERICA

evolved centipede is a very uniform and old-
fashioned animal when compared with any normal
insect or spider. In the order itself we distinguish
four families—(1) Scutigeride, (2) Lithobiide, (3)
Scolopendride, (4) Geophilide. The first of these
includes curious forms with compound eyes, very
long feelers, eight shields along the back, and
fifteen pairs of very long legs. The feelers and
the last pair of legs are longer than the, body ;
there are external generative appendages. In
Scutigera, and apparently in some other centi-
pedes, there are peculiar ‘lung-like’ dorsal aggre-
gations of air-tubes opening on the back, and
peer the beginning of the ‘pulmonary cham-

ers’ of some arachnids. Scutigera is represented
by about a score of species, widely distributed in
warm countries, and common in houses. In Litho-
biidze, as in the two other families, simple eyes
alone are present; there are fifteen pairs of legs,
antenne measuring a third or more of the body
length, and fifteen dorsal shields. The genus
Lithobius includes over one hundred species—L.
JSorficatus (of a reddish-brown colour, and about
an inch long) is very common throughout Europe
and America; our most familiar British species,
L. mutabilis, also very common, has the habit
of feigning death. The bite occasions consider-
able irritation, like that due to nettle-stings.

Giant Centipede (Scolopendra gigas ).

The Scolopendride have over a score of legs,
short many-jointed antenne, not more than
one-fifth of the total length of the body; and
simple eyes, not over four pairs in number, or
altogether absent. About one hundred species are
known, distributed over sixteen genera. They are
especially at home in warm countries, where they
often attain large size, the Scolopendra gigas, for
instance, being sometimes a foot long. The poison-
ous bite of some of the larger forms is really
dangerous to man. Scolopendra is the most im-
gadgec genus. Lastly, the Geophilide are ver
ong, worm-like centipedes, of somewhat sluggis
habit, with 31 to 173 pairs of legs, short feelers,
and no eyes. Some 22 species and 9 genera
have been recorded, especially abundant in warm
climates. Geophilus electricus and another species,
G. longicornis, both found in Britain, shine in
the dark. This is probably due to a viscid fluid
excreted all over the ventral surface. Himan-
tarium, found round the Mediterranean, is the
largest form of Geophilide. Well-developed spin-
ning glands are seen in this family, and their
secretion cements together ova and spermatozoa.

Distribution.—The centipedes are world-wide,
but abound especially in warm regions. Some-
what unsatisfactory fossil remains have been ob-
tained from the American Carboniferous strata ;
petter preserved possible centipedes have been got
irom the Solenhofen strata, but it cannot yet be
said with certainty that centipedes are known
before Tertiary times.

Practical Import.—The centipedes have some
direct practical importance as voracious devourers
of injurious insects, larva, snails, and the like,
while some of the large tropical forms are known
in a somewhat different connection as animals
able to give a painful and poisonous bite. In his
Personal Narrative, Humboldt says he saw Indian
children draw large centipedes out of the ground
and eat them.

Literature.—Newport, Monograph of the class Myria-
poda, order Chilopoda (Trans. Linnean Society, vol.
xix. 1845); Haase, Schlesiens Chilopoden (1880-81);
Latzel, Die Myriapoden Oesterreichs (1880-84).

Centlivre, SUSANNAH, an English dramatic
authoress, was the daughter of a Lincolnshire
gentleman named Freeman, of Holbeach, and born
(say some authorities) in Ireland about 1667.,
Her early history is obscure ; but such were her wit
and beauty that on her arrival in London, though
a destitute orphan, and only sixteen years of age,
she won the heart of a nephew of Sir Stephen
Fox, who died shortly after their marriage. Her
second husband, an officer named Carroll, lost his
life in a duel. Left in extreme overty, his widow
endeavoured to support herself by writing for the
stage, and after producing a tragedy called The
Perjured Husba peer first in 1700), made
her appearance on the stage at Bath. She after-
wards married (1706) Joseph Centlivre, head-
cook to Queen Anne, with whom she lived happil
until the time of her death, December 1, 1723.
Her plays—Zhe Busybody (with ‘Marplot’ for
leading character, 1709), and A Bold Stroke for a
Wife (1717)—are lively in their plots, and have
kept their place on the stage. ineteen in all,
they were collected in 3 vols. 1761, with a
biography, and reprinted 1872.

Centner is, with metallurgists, a weight of
100 lb., and it often has this value in commerce.
The German centner is however 50 kilogrammes or
1104 lb. avoirdupois ; the metric or doppel centner
is 100 kilogrammes. The cental of the United
States is 100 lb.

Cento, a town of Central Italy, 16 miles N. by
W. of Bologna, on a fertile plain near the Reno,
the birthplace of Guercino (q.v.). Pop. 4975.

Cento, a name applied to literary trivialities
in the form of poems manufactured by putting
together distinct verses or passages of one author,
or of several authors, so as to make a new mean-
ing. After the decay of genuine poetry among
the Greeks, this worthless verse-manufacture came
into vogue, as is proved by the Homero-centones
(ed. by Teucher, Leip. 1793), a patchwork of lines
taken from Homer and forming a consecutive
history of the fate and redemption of man. It was
much more common, however, among the Romans
in the later times of the Empire, when Virgil was
frequently abused in this fashion, as in the Cento
Nuptialis of Ausonius, and especially in the Cento
Vergilianus, constructed in the 4th century by Proba,
Falconia, wife of the Proconsul Adelfius, and giving,
in Virgil’s misplaced words, an epitome of sacred
history. The cento was a favourite recreation in —
the middle ages. In the 12th century a monk at
Tegernsee, named Metellus, contrived to make a
cento of spiritual hymns out of Horace and Virgil.
See Delepierre, Zableau de la Littérature du
Centon (1875).

Central America, a name applied to that
part of the American continent which lies between
the isthmuses of ES -a a Mexico, and Panama,
Colombia. Specifically the new Greater Republic
of Central America, formed by treaty at Amapala
in 1895 and formally recognised by President Cleve-
land December 23, 1896, embraces the republics of
Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras, with provisions

CENTRAL CITY

CENTRAL PROVINCES 65

9 the admission of Costa Rica and Guatemala.
_ See under separate articles ; also AMERICA.
Central City, the name of several ae
and hamlets in the United States, and of the
apital of Gilpin county, Colorado, 40 miles W. of
“Denver by rail, with quartz-mills and rich gold
ines, and (1890) inhabitants; also of a
‘mining town of Lawrence county, South Dakota,
m the Black Hills, 280 miles SW. of Bismarck,
‘with formerly some twenty quartz-mills for gold.
Pop. (1880) 1008; (1890) 519.
tral India is the official term for a group
of feudatory states in India, which fall into nine
‘political agencies, but are all under the super-
vision of the governor-general’s agent. The region
which these states lie is to the north of the
Brit ‘Central Provinces’ of India, and touches
the North-west Provinces, Rajputana, Khandesh
. the Bombay Province, and Chutia-Nagpur in
% The total area is about 75,000 sq. m.;
‘pop. in 1891, 10,314,787. The nine subordinate
agencies comprised in the Central India Deeper
are the Indore, Bhil or Bhopawar, Deputy Bhil,
Western Malwa, meres Gwalior, Guna, Bundel-
_khand, and Baghelkhand agencies. The intru-
sion of two British districts, those of Jhansi and
Lalitpur, belonging to the North-west Provinces,
Separates these nine agencies into two divisions—
native Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand on the
east, and Central India proper or Malwa on the
west; but the whole country lies between the
Nerbudda, the Ganges, and the Chambal rivers,
and is mostly fertile and well tilled. The Malwa
western division is mainly a tableland 2000 feet
above the sea; but its rich black soil produces
fine wheat and much opium. The climate of
t Malwa is on the whole mild and equable; but
the northern of Central India is torrid, and
unhealthy during the rainy season. The mineral
wealth of Central India is great: iron, coal,
copper, and lime are plentiful, and diamonds are
found in some parts of Bundelkhand. The in-
habitants are very diverse in origin, comprising
-Mahrattas (the ruling race), Rajputs, Bundelas,
‘Baghelas, Jats, Kols, and hill-tri such as the
Gonds (414,000) and Bhils (217,000). The popu-
lation is mainly Hindu in religion, only 510,718
being Mohammedans. The agent to the governor-
| "general of India, whose headquarters are at
Indore, has very high and very various duties
hice ea He is the adviser of all the native
chiefs, and their guardian during minority; exer-
the functions of a court of appeal; has at
command large bodies of troops; as ‘opium-
t’ supervises the opium-tax throughout the
ney ; and he is of course the medium of com-
munication between the imperial government and
the native authorities. The principal states and
agencies have separate articles. See INDORE,
BAGHELKHAND, &c. The Central Provinces (q.v.)
| are a British commissionership.
. Centralisation, a term which has come
into general use for expressing a tendency to
ad ter by the sovereign or the central govern-
_ ™ent matters which would otherwise be under
as management. The centralising tendency has
_ been a feature in most of the great states recorded
in history, though not in allot them. The oriental
empires ‘admitted of a large degree of local in-
dependence among the subject peoples. The
if empire was one of the most remarkable
“instances of centralisation the world has ever seen.
That empire grew out of the subjugation of all
the states round the Mediterranean by the city
of Rome, and the control of it passed by the in-
vitable tendency of events into the hands of a
_ single ehist; whose power rested on the army, and

who centred in himself all the great functions of
government. In the later days of the empire the
tendency increased, until the system broke down
with the power that wielded it. Amid the chaos
that followed the downfall of Rome various systems
arose for the restoration of order, political or
religious, or both. Of these the greatest is still
the Papacy; the greatest in bygone history was
the empire of Charlemagne. In those times of
struggle, the natural method was centralisation
on military supremacy.

Modern attempts to found a great monarchy in
Europe on the model of the Roman empire have
failed. There have grown up instead a group of
powerful states, in the history of which the central-
ising tendency is rir marked, Centralisation
was necessary, for in the great struggles which
have incessantly been going on, success or even self-
preservation could be secured only through a stron
organisation repressing internal division, an
through large and efficient armies. As an adequate
revenue was required for these objects, there was
further involved a strong control by the central
power of the economic and industrial functions of
the state. Thus it will be seen that centralisation
is more or less inevitable in the struggle for exist-
ence on the European continent. The most notable
examples of the opposite tendency at present are
apparent in the colonial empire of Great Britain,
and in the United States, where we find extensive
groups of self-governing communities with only a
imited measure of control by the central govern-
ment. Such control is most limited of all in the
British colonies.

On the other hand, in the French commune
and in the Russian mir we see, under govern-
ments otherwise strongly centralised, a form of
local activity which had been long extinct in
Britain. The municipal reform of 1835 has done
much to revive local action in the town life of
England. The aim of the reform of local govern-
ment be in 1888 is to revive, extend, and
systematise local responsibility and freedom of
action, particularly in rural districts. It is now re-
cognised that efficiency in the central government
can be best secured by transferring local interests
to local management by decentralisation. A wise
decentralisation may be subservient to an effective
centralisation, a principle which holds good also on
the European continent. No absolute rules can,
however, be laid down for marking off the re-
spective provinces of the central and local powers.

ch country must solve the problem in its own
way, as its interests and circumstances require.

Central Provinces, a chief-commissioner-
ship of India, lying between 17° 50’ and 24° 27’ N.
lat., and between 76° and 85° 15’ E. long., and em-
bracing 18 British districts and 15 native states.
Area, 115,936 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 12,932,330. The
surface is very broken, straggling ranges of hills
cropping up even in the level portions. In the north
extend the Vindhyan and Satpura (2000 feet)
tablelands, with the Nerbudda between ; south of
these stretches the great Nagpur plain, with the
Chatisgarh plain to the east, and a wild forest-
region beyond, reaching almost to the Godavari.
Besides the two mentioned, the chief rivers of the
province are the Wardha and Wainganga ; all four
are rapid streams, with their crystal waters leapin
from point to point, and rushing headlong throug
the narrow mountain-gorges of their upper course,
The climate is hot and dry, except during the
south-west monsoon, from June to September,
when 41 of the mean annual 45 inches of rain fall.
Wheat is grown chiefly in the Nerbudda valley,
rice in the Nagpur plain; these are the princi-
pal crops, but oil-seeds, cotton, and tobacco are
also raised. The only manufactures of note are

66 CENTRAL PROVINCES

CENTRE

weaving and the smelting and working of iron ores.
Tron is abundant, especially in the south, and there
are also large coalfields, but the coal is of a very
inferior quality. There is considerable trade, but
its progress is retarded by the want of means of
communication ; this drawback, however, is being
removed, roads are being made, and the railway
system steadily pushed forward. Of the popula-
tion, three-fourths are Hindus, and one-seventh
belong to the so-called aboriginal or non-Aryan
tribes, who have found a refuge in the Satpura
plateau, and still adhere to their primitive faiths
(see GONDS). From these hill-tribes the Hindus
throughout the province have contracted beliefs
and habits which they have grafted upon the
usual worship of their sect; adoration of the dead,
worship of his goddess of smallpox, and belief in
witchcraft are universal. The population is almost
entirely rural, only 6 per cent. residing in the 52
towns of above 5000 inhabitants, of which three
—Nagpur, Jubbulpore, and Kampti—have over
50,000 inhabitants. Central India (q.v.) is a term
of quite distinct: meaning.
Centre and Central Forces.—CENTRE OF
INERTIA (MAss).—
Ag If m, and m, be the
masses of two par-
ticles placed at the

Pons By As points A, and A,,

x and if the right line

: 2 A,A, be divided in
Fig. 1, B,, so that

m,A,B,= m,A,B,,
the point B, is called the centre of inertia, or
centre of mass, of the two particles. If m, be a
eh mass at A;, and if B,A, be divided in B,, so
that

(m, + m,)B,B, = m3A;B,,

B, is called the centre of inertia of the three
particles. In general, if there be any number of
particles, a continuation of the above process will
enable us to find their centre of inertia. Every
body may be supposed to be made up of a multitude
of particles connected by cohesion. From this it
is obvious that the centre of inertia is a definite
point for every piece of matter.

In general, the determination of the centre of
inertia requires the use of the integral calculus.
In the case of some bodies, such as those
which have a simple geometrical form and are
of uniform density, elementary mathematical
methods will epeatt be sufficient. Any straight
line or plane that divides a homogeneous body
symmetrically must contain its centre of in-
ertia. For the particles of the body may be
arranged in pairs of equal mass and at equal dis-
tances from the straight line. or plane; and, since
the centre of inertia of each pair lies in the line or

lane, the centre of inertia of the whole must also
ie in the same line or plane. For example, the
centre of inertia of a uniform thin straight rod is
its middle point; that of a uniform thin rod bent in
the form of a parallelogram, the point of intersec-
tion of its diagonals ; that of a lamina, uniform in
thickness and density and in form a circle, ellipse,
or parallelogram, its centre of figure; that of a uni-
form spherical shell, its centre; that of a homogene-
ous sphere, its centre ; that of a parallelopiped, the
intersection of its diagonals; that of a circular
cylinder with parallel ends, the middle point of its
axis.

An important case is that of a uniformly thin
triangular plate. Let ABC be the plate. Bisect
AB in P and join CP. Let the triangle be divided
by right lines parallel to AB into an indefinitely
great number of indefinitely narrow strips. The
centre of inertia of each strip is its middle point.

But all the middle points lie on CP. The centre of:

inertia of the whole plate must therefore lie on CP.

Again, if BC be

bisected in Q, and G

AQ be joined, the

centre of inertia of

the whole plate must

lie in AQ. The cen- Q

tre of inertia must -

sang be O, the

point of intersection ‘

of CP and AQ. It ~ * pte

is easily proved by Fig. 2.

elementary geo-

metry that OP = one-third of CP. Hence, the

centre of inertia of a triangular plate is obtained

by joining a vertex to the middle point of the

PA shee side and taking the point two-thirds of

this line measured from the vertex. By a similar

method the centre of inertia of other plane figures.

may be obtained.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.—If a body be sufficiently

small, relatively to the earth, the weights of its par-

ticles may be considered as constituting a system of

parallel forces acting on the body. Now, the mag-

nitude of the weight of a particle is proportional to

its mass. Hence, the line of action of the result-
ant of the parallel forces will approximately pass.
through the centre of inertia. For this reason’
such bodies are said to have a centre of gravity.
Strictly speaking, there is no such point of
necessity for every body, since the directions of the
forces acting on the body are not accurately
parallel.
can say of a body that it has a centre of gravity.
On the other hand, every piece of matter has, as is:
shown above, a centre of inertia. For all heay
bodies of moderate dimensions it is, however, suf-
ficiently accurate to assume that the centre of
inertia and gravity coincide. For example, the
centre of gravity of a uniform homogeneous cylinder
with parallel ends is the middle point of its axis,
that of a uniformly thin circular lamina its centre,
and so on.

The centre of gravity of a body of moderate
dimensions may be approximately determined by
suspending it by a single cord in two different.
positions, and finding the single point in the body
which, in both positions, is intersected by the axis:
of the cord.

The term centre of gravity is also used im
a stricter sense than the one just explained.
Thus, if a body attracts and is attracted by all
other gravitating matter as if its whole mass:
were concentrated in one point, it is said to have a.
true centre of gravity at that point, and the body
itself is called a centrobaric body. A spherical
shell of uniform gravitating matter attracts an ex-
ternal particle as if its whole mass were condensed
at its centre. Such a body has a true centre of
gravity. When such a point exists, it necessarily
coincides with the centre of inertia.

CENTRE OF QOSCILLATION.—A heavy particle
suspended from a poins by a light inextensible:
string constitutes what is called a simple or mathe-
matical pendulum. For such a pendulum it is.
easily proved that the time of an oscillation from
side to side of the vertical is proportional to the:
square root of its sengin for any small are of vibra-
tion. A simple pendulum is, however, a thing of
theory, as in all physical problems we have to deal
with a rigid mass, and not a particle, oscillating
about a horizontal axis. In a pendulum of this.
kind the time of oscillation will not vary as the
square root of the length of the string, for it is.

obvious that those particles of the body which are —

nearest the point of suspension will have a tend-.
ency to vibrate more rapidly than those more:

Hence, it is only approximately that we -

ne

CENTRE

67

remote. The former are therefore retarded by the
latter, while the latter are accelerated by the
ner. There is thus one particle which will be
celerated and retarded to an equal amount, and
hich will therefore move as if it were a simple
pendulum unconnected with the rest of the ,
: od see in the body occupied by this particle
is the centre of oscillation.
_ Asall the particles of the body are rigidly con-
nected, they all vibrate in the same time. Hence
‘it follows that the time of vibration of the rigid
body will be the same as that of a simple pendulum,
led the ene or isochronous simple pendu-
um, whose length is equal to the distance between
_the centres of suspension and oscillation.
__ The determination of the centre of oscillation of a
body requires the aid of the calculus. It may be
sta however, that it is always farther from the
a suspension than the centre of inertia, and is
always in the line joining the centres of suspension
"i and oscillation. t A be the centre of sus-
pension, B the centre of inertia, and C the
centre of oscillation, and let AB be equal to h,
and & be the radius of iran of the body
about an axis through B parallel to the fixed
B_ axis, then it is easily shown that

(hh? + Ke)
tc AOS
Fig. 3. From this there follows the important pro-
a position that the centres of oscillation and
suspension are convertible, a proposition which was
_ taken advantage of by Kater for the practical
determination of the force of gravity at any
- Station.
_ CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.—If a body receive a
_ blow which makes it begin to rotate about a fixed
_ axis without causing any pressure on the axis, the
— in which the direction of the blow intersects
e plane in which the fixed axis and the centre of
inertia lie is called the centre of percussion. That
such a point must exist is easily shown by suspend-
ow straight rod by a long string staples to one
, and striking it with a hammer in different
points. If the rod is struck near the top the foot
will move in one direction, and if the blow be
applied near the foot the top will move in the
opposite direction. It is thus evident that there
must be some arin which does not move at all at
" the instant of the blow. If a line through this
point be regarded as an axis of rotation, the point
at which the body was struck is the centre of per-
cussion, since no pressure is ,roduced on the axis.
_ It is easily proved by means of higher mathematics
that the centre of percussion with respect to any
axis is the same point as the centre of oscillation.
From what has been said it is obvious that in
order that no jar may be felt on the hand a cricket
ball must be hit in the centre of percussion of the
bat with respect to an axis through the hand.
There are, it may be mentioned, many positions
which the axis may have in which there will be no
centre of percussion. For example, there is no
centre of percussion when the axis is a principal
_axis through the centre of inertia.
__ CENTRE OF PRESSURE.—When a plane surface
is immersed in a fluid at rest, and held in any
“position, the pressures at different points of the
‘surface are perpendicular to the surface. These
| pressures may therefore be looked upon as con-
_ stituting a system of parallel forces whose resultant
__ is the whole pressure. The point at which this
_ resultant acts is called the centre of wre, and
may be defined as the point at which the direction of
the single force which is ivalent to the fluid
Phe on the plane surface meets the surface.
resultant action of fluids on a curved surface is
not always reducible to a single force. The defini-

32 Oe SE es

' _—

tion given above is, therefore, limited to plane
surfaces. In the case of a heavy fluid it is clear
that the centre of pressure of a horizontal area
corresponds with the centre of gravity. When,
however, the plane is inclined at any angle to the
surface of the fluid, the pressure is not the same at
all points, being greater as the depth increases;
since in the same liquid the pressure varies with
the depth. In general, the centre of pressure will
be below the centre of gravity. The determination
of the centre of pressure requires the use of the
integral calculus, but special cases may be treated
by ordinary algebra. In the case of a parallelogram,
one edge of which is in the surface of the fluid, the
centre of pressure is at a distance of one-third up
the middle line from the base. In the case of a
triangle, having one side in the surface of the fluid,
the centre of pressure is at the middle point of the
median corresponding to the vertex immersed ;
while in the case of a triangle, with its apex in the
surface, and the base horizontal, the centre of
pressure is on the median corresponding to the
vertex and at a distance of three-fourths of the
median from the vertex.

CENTRE OF BuoyANcy.—The pressures which
act on every point of a surface immersed in a fluid
can be resolved into horizontal and vertical com-
ponents. The former balance one another. The
resultant pressure must therefore be vertical ; and,
as the pressure increases with the depth, it is clear
that the upward pressures must be greater than the
downward. Hence the resultant pressure on an
immersed body must be a force acting vertically
upwards. Now it is easily shown that the magni-
tude of this pressure is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced. The point in the displaced fluid
at which the resultant vertical pressure may be
supposed to act is called the centre of buoyancy, or
centre of displacement. Hence, we see that when a
body floats in a fluid, it is kept at rest by two
forces, the weight of the body acting downwards
through its centre of gravity, and the weight of the
fluid acting vertically upwards through its centre
of gravity, or centre of buoyancy. he relative

sitions of the centre of gravity and the centre of

uoyancy have an important bearing on the safety
of ships at sea. If the centre of buoyancy be
above the centre of gravity, the equilibrium is
stable ; in other words, if the ship is displaced, it
will tend to return to its original position. If, on
the other hand, the centre of bers be below
the centre of gravity, the equilibrium will generally
be unstable, psec a body may float in stable
equilibrium even if the centre of buoyancy be
below the centre of gravity, as is explained in the
article HYDROSTATICS.

CENTRAL Forces.—Central forces are forces
whose action is to cause a moving body to tend
towards a fixed point called the centre of force.
By Newton’s first law of motion we know that
‘every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line, except in so far
as it is compelled by forces to change that state.’
From this we learn that, if the speed of a body
changes, or if the line of motion be not straight,
whether the speed be unaltered or not, some force
must be acting. In the latter case the forces actin
are called central forces. The doctrine of cent
forces considers the paths which bodies will describe
round centres of force, and the varying velocit
with which they will pass along these paths. It
investigates the law K the force in order that a
given curve may be described, and many other
problems which can only be solved by mathematical
methods. Gravity affords the simplest illustration
of a central force. If a stone be slung from a string,
pm deflects it from the rectilinear path whi
it would otherwise pursue, and makes it move in a

68 CENTRE-BOARD

CEPHALASPIS

curve called a parabola. Again, the moon is held
in her orbit round the earth by the action of
gravity, which is constantly preventing her from
going off in the line of the tangent to her path at
any instant.

In connection with this subject we have to make
some remarks on what is called centrifugal force.
We have seen that force must always be applied to
make a body move in a curved path. Such ,a force
is called a centrifugal force, the old erroneous
notion being that bodies have a tendency to fly
outwards from the centre about which they are
revolving. The use of the term will, however, cause
no inconvenience, provided we interpret it merely
as indicating that, to keep a body moving in a
curve instead of in its natural straight line, 2 force
directed towards the centre of curvature is always
required.

any familiar illustrations of the action of the
so-called centrifugal force will occur to the reader.
A ball fastened to the end of a string, and whirled
round, will, if the motion is sufficiently rapid, at
last break the string, and fly off in a tangential
path. This is due to the fact that the cohesion of
the ehkey of the string are no longer able to
supply the force necessary to keep the ball moving
in its circular path. For a similar reason a fly-
wheel or a grindstone bursts when it is made to
rotate too rapidly. It is found that at a curve on
a railway it is the outer of the two rails which is
most worn. This is due to the fact that the outer
rail has to supply the force necessary to keep the
trains moving in curved paths. A glass of water
may be whirled so vapldlly that, even when the
mouth is downwards, the excess of the centrifugal
force over the weight of the water is sufficient to
prevent. the water from falling out. The cen-
trifugal force increases with the velocity. As a
matter of fact, it can be shown that when a body
moves in a circle of radius 7, with velocity v, its

centrifugal force is ot By means of this formula

it can be proved that about 545th of its weight is

required merely to keep a body on the earth’s

surface at the equator. this amount the weight

of a body is diminished. Tie 289 is equal to 17%.

Hence it follows that if the earth were to rotate

seventeen times as fast as it does now, the

attraction of gravitation would only just be able at
the equator to keep bodies from flying off its surface.

If the rotating body be plastic, it will swell out in

all directions perpendicular to the axis of rotation,

and assume the form of an oblate spheroid. For
the same reason the earth itself has assumed
the form of an oblate spheroid, a result which is
seen on a greater scale in the case of Jupiter and

Saturn on account of their larger size and more

rapid rotation.

Centre-board, See YAcurt, Vol. X. p. 770.

Centrifugal and Centri’petal are terms
used in Botany to designate two different kinds of
leaf development or inflorescence, the former term
being applied when the development proceeds from
the apex towards the base of the axis or leaf, and
the latter when it is from the base upwards towards
the apex. See LEAF, INFLORESCENCE.

. Centrifugal Force. See CENTRE.
Centripetal Force. See CENTRE.
Centum'viri (‘a hundred men’), a college of

justice in ancient Rome, which had jurisdiction in

civil cases. It has been supposed that the bod
was originally made up of three delegates from eac
of the thirty-five tribes. There were 180 members
in the time of Augustus, and under the emperors it
increased in importance, as it became the only
scene left for the display of judicial eloquence and
of legal knowledge.

Centurion (Lat. centurio, from centum, ‘a
hundred’), a Roman officer commanding a century
or company of foot-soldiers. There were sixty
centurions in a Legion (q.v.).

Ceorl, a word which occurs frequently in the
laws before the Norman Conquest under somewhat
varying senses, but substantially meaning an ordi-
nary freeman not of noble birth. His position

adually sank in social status until it hardly

iffered from that of the serf, save that the ceor] had
the right of choosing his own master in accordance
with the law of Athelstan, which required eve
landless man to find himself a lord. He sti
remained ‘law-worthy,’ and paid his wer-gild of
two hundred shillings ; but part of his freedom had
disappeared, and ultimately his condition developed
into the complete villenage characteristic of feudal-
ism. On the other hand, ceorls who possessed land
often contrived to force their way into a higher
social class, that of the thegns, a kind of nobility
of service who may be roughly put as equivalent to
the knights of the period after the Conquest. A
ceorl with 5 hides (600 acres) of land was ‘thegn-
worthy.’ The name ceorl does not occur in
Domesday—the very degradation of the meanin,
of the word churl in modern usage is but a part o
the historical degradation of the social class which
it denoted.

Ceos (sometimes called by the Italianised name
of Zea or Tzia), one of the Cyclades, in the Augean
Sea, 14 miles off the Attic coast. It is 13 miles
long, 8 broad, and 39 sq. m. in area. The central
and culminating point is Mount Elias, 1863 feet
high. It is fairly fertile, raising fruit, wine, honey,
and valonia. The population is 4311, of whom 4295
belong to the capital, Zea or Ceos. In ancient
times Ceos was noted as the birthplace of the poets
Simonides and Bacchylides, and the physician
Erasistratus ; and the Cean laws were famous for
their excellence.

Cephalaspis, a genus of fossil Ganoid fishes,
of which six species have been described, two
belonging to the Upper Silurian, and four to the
Devonian measures. The head was protected by
a large ganoid plate, sculptured externally wit.
circular radiating markings. The shield was pro-
duced into a horn at each posterior corner, and bore
a median and posterior dorsal spine. Agassiz
gave the name cephalaspis (‘buckler-headed’) from
this extraordinary covering, which has very much
the appearance of, and was formerly supposed to
be, the cephalic shield of an Asaphus or Trilobite.
The body was covered with rhomboidal enamelled
scales, and furnished with dorsal and pectoral fins :
it terminated in a large unsymmetrical tail. Ina

aphie description of this fossil in his Old Red

andstone, Miller thus sketches the general appear-
ance of the animal: ‘Has the reader ever seen a
saddler’s cutting-knife—a tool with a crescent-
shaped blade, and the handle fixed transversely in
the centre of its concave side? In general outline,
the cephalaspis resembles this tool; the crescent-
shaped blade representing the head, the transverse
handle the body.’ The endo-skeleton was mainly
cartilaginous, retaining the notochord through life.
The flexible body, assisted by the large tail and
the fins, would give the cephalaspis the power of
moving rapidly through the water. Being a pre-
daceous fish, it must have been a formidable enemy
to its associates in the Paleozoic seas, for, besides
its power of rapid motion, the sharp betes ms of its
shield probably did the work of a vigorously hurled
javelin, as in the sword-fish. Pteraspis, Asterolepis
(20 to 30 feet in length), Scaphaspis, Auchenaspis,
and a number of other genera, are united in the
same family as Cephalaspis.. See Ray Lankester,
A Monograph of the Fis

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we

~~

CEPHALODISCUS

CEPHISSUS 69

in Britain, part i. ‘Cephalaspide’ (Lond.
: uair, Zhe Ganoids of the
Carboniferous System (Paleont. Society,

nm

So

r Harmer as ere fincas to that mar-
sllous vertebrate-like worm, Balanoglossus ( be 4

2 eam bene form a spreading seaweed-like
ownish colony, measuring in some cases 9 inches
by 6, and including a great number of little indi-
viduals, eign by a membranous, flexible invest-
mentor house. Each individual resembles Balano-
glossus (and also in part backboned animals) in
5 y important points, such as (a) the presence of
ep (b) the existence of a notochord as a
3 1 outgrowth from the gut, growing forwards
‘into the anterior region or pea and (c) the
" ion of a dorsal central nervous system, most
richly developed in the middle region (or collar),
but extending on to the proboscis, As another
é ppeerent connecting link between invertebrates
and vertebrates, Cephalodiseus is of the greatest

_ goological interest. See zoology of the voyage of

} Cephalodiscus.

4
H.M.S. Challenger, Part \xii. ; Report on Cephalo-
us, by Professor W. C. M‘Intosh and Mr §. F.
Harmer.
Cephalonia (anc. Cephallenia ; Homeric Samé),
the largest of the seven Ionian Islands (q.v.), lies
peronite the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto or
Corinth. It is irregular in shape, with a maxi-
um length of 30 miles, and an area of 302 sq. m. ;
pop. 80,178. The surface is mountainous, in one
unt attaining 5310 feet ; the soil for the most part
hin, and water scarce. The inhabitants, however,
lave planted vineyards wherever the grape will
grow, and currants and olive-oil are also produced
7 export. The capital is Argostoli (q.v.).
_ Cephalo'poda (Gr., ‘head-footed’), the highest
: class of molluses, and in some respects the highest
_ invertebrates, They are usually large animals,
exclusively marine, with well-developed head-
region, but (as the quaint name suggests) with the
foot’ or ventral surface grown round the mouth,
and-split up into ‘arms,’ which (with one excep-
tion) bear suckers. Another part of the foot is

= ae
eS

{
;
3
i
'
a

modified to form a funnel through which water is
squirted. Two or four gills are present in the usual

Cuttle-fish (Sepia officinalis), swunming and at rest.

mantle-cavity. While the ancient forms lived in
shells, the Pearly Nautilus alone remains in this
state, the shell being in all other cases internal and
degenerate. The eyes are peculiarly large, and
their ferocious aspect has earned for many common
forms the title of ‘ devil-fish.’ The mouth in the
midst of the ‘arms’ is equipped with parrot-like
teeth, and with a rasping ribbon on the tongue. The
central nervous system, with its closely associated
ganglia, is surrounded by a 2 ge cartilagin-
ous sheath, analogous, though in no way homolo-
gous, with a vertebrate brain-box. The sexes are
separate. The structure and life of these animals
is discussed under the more familiar title CUTTLE-
FISH; only the general characters, classification,
and distribution are here noticed.

Classification.—The Cephalopoda include two
distinct orders, one represented by the Pearly
Nautilus, the other by all the other living forms,
which are again divided into Octopoda and Deca-
poda, according to the number of the ‘ arms.’

DIBRANCHIATA.
Two gills, kidneys, auricles.
Eight or ten sucker-bearing

arms.
Shell rudimentary or absent,
never external, in one case
mbered,
An ink-bag.
A completely closed funnel.

Distribution.—Most species occur in warm and
temperate seas, but those found in the colder waters
seem much more prolific. The Tetrabranchiata are
the older forms, and begin in the Silurian, whereas
the Dibranchiata first appear in Triassic times.
The Ammonites (q.v.) are the most familiar re-
presentatives of the former, the Belemnites (q.v.)
of the latter.

See especially CUTTLEFISH, NAUTILUS, BELEMNITES,
AMMONITES ; also CALAMARY, OcToPUS, SEPIA; Owen,
Memoir of the Pearly Nautilus (1832); Férussac
and D’Orbigny, Histoire naturelle des Céphalopodes (2
vols. Paris, 1835-48); Hoyle, Challenger Report on
Cephalopoda.

Cephaloptera, a name formerly used for a
genus of rays. RAY.

Cephissus, one of the two rivers which water
the Athenian plain. It rises on the western slope
of Mount Pentelicus and the southern side of
Mount Parnes, and flows past Athens on the west
into the Saronic Gulf near Phalerum.

TETRABRANCHIATA.
Four gills, kidneys, auricles,
Numerous, without suckers.

Shell well developed, external,
chambered.

No ink-bag.
A split funnel.

70 CEPOLA

CEREALIA

Cepola. See BANDFISH.

Ceram’ (SERANG), the largest island of the
southern Moluccas, lies NE. of Amboyna, to which
Dutch residency it belongs, and is divided into
Great and Little Ceram by the Isthmus of Taruno.
Area, 6605 sq. m.; pop. 195,000. The island is
one of the least explored in the archipelago, and
comparatively little is known of the interior,
which is, moreover, but agen x populated, the
great mass of the people, mostly native Alfuros
and ‘immigrant alays, inhabiting the coast
villages. Much of the island is very fertile. A
mountain-chain runs through the country, reach-
ing in Nusa Keli some 11,000 feet. The chief
he are sago, iron, timber, earthenware, birds
0

aradise, dried fish, edible nests, &ec.

Ceram ics (Gr. keramos, ‘ potter’s clay’), a term
used to designate the department of plastic art
which comprises all objects made of clay, such as
vases, cups, bassi-rilievi, cornices, and the like. See
POTTERY.

Cerastes, or HoRNED VIPER, a genus of
serpents of the family Viperide, distinguished by a
broad depressed heart-shaped head, the scales of
which are similar to those of the back, and partic-
ularly remarkable for the development of one of
the scales of each eyelid into a spine or horn, often
of considerable length. The tail is very distinct

Horned Viper ( Cerastes vulgaris).

from the body. This genus is exclusively African,
and very venomous. There is probably only one
species, Cerastes egyptiacus or cornutus, the Horned

iper of the north of Africa, called Cerastes by
the ancients, the name being derived from the
Greek keras, ‘ahorn.’ It was correctly described
by the traveller Bruce, but his description was for
some time regarded with incredulity.

Cerate (Lat. cera, ‘ wax’), a compound of wax
with other oily and medicinal substances in such
proportions as to have the consistence of an oint-
ment (see OINTMENTS). Simple cerate is made by
melting together 6 parts of olive-oil, 3 of white
wax, and 1 of spermaceti.

Ceratites, a genus of Ammonites (q.v.)
peculiar to, and characteristic of, the Trias.

Cerat’odus, the Queensland mud-fish, one of |

the remarkable sub-class of double breathers or
Dipnoi. The name was originally used for the
fossil possessors of certain tooth-plates found in the

Ceratodus,

Triassic and Jurassic strata, and to this genus the
Queensland survivor, which has similar dental
arrangements, was referred when discovered in 1870.
Barra munda is the local name. The fish may
occasionally attain a length of six feet, has a later-

ally compressed body with large scales, and pos-

sesses very unfish-like limbs with a central jointed
axis and lateral pieces. It lives in muddy water
often containing much decaying vegetable matter.
In this medium it does not find the gill-respiration
sufficient, and comes to the surface to take gulps of
air into the swimming-bladder, which functions as
alung. It eats leaves and other parts of plants.
At nights Ceratodus sometimes leaves the water,
and moves along the river-bank. The expulsion
of air from its air-bladder or lung is supposed to
account for a grunting noise then often heard.
In the dry season it buries itself in the mud.

Limb of Ceratodus.

The flesh is much esteemed, and compared with
salmon. This interesting animal is discussed, in
its more technical relations, along with its neigh-
bour genera—Lepidosiren and Protopterus—under
the title MUD-FISHES.

Ceratonia. See Caros.

Cerberus, in Greek Mythology, the many-
headed dog—according to Hesiod, five offspring of
Typhaon and Echidna—who guarded the portal of
the infernal regions. Later writers describe him as
only three-headed, with the tail and mane composed
of serpents, though the poets sometimes encumber
him with a hundred heads. Orpheus charmed him
by the magic of his lyre, and Hercules overcame
him by strength and dragged him to the upper
world.

Cerea'ria, the technical name applied to an
embryonic form of many flukes. In all the two-
suckered flat parasitic worms (the Distomez
division of Trematodes ) the development is indirect
or circuitous. The eggs develop into embryos,
which, instead of growing into adults, produce
asexually one or more sets of intermediate forms.
The final form, produced more or less directly from
the embryo, is called a cercaria, and grows up into
the adult fluke. It differs from the adult in having
only rudiments of reproductive organs, in possessing
eye-spots, and in being (except in one genus)
equipped with a very movable tail. It is (1) born
within some host, such as a water-snail ; (2) leaves
this and swims freely in the water; (3) becomes
sluggish, and enters a second host, or fixes itself on
some foreign body. In this state it loses its tail
and encapsules itself, and does not experience any
further change till (4) it or its host is eaten by a
vertebrate, within which the cerecaria becomes an
adult and sexual fluke. From the latter the em-

bryos which eventually enter the first-mentioned —

host arise. Sometimes the life-history is simpler.
but in all cases the cercaria is the form produc
(generally indirectly) by the original embryo, and
developing into the adult. See FLUKE.

Cercis. See JUDAS’ TREE.

Cercopithe’cus (Gr., ‘ tail-ape’), a genus of
monkeys. See MONKEY.

Cere (in natural history). See BILu. ;
Cerea'lia, or CEREAL GRASSES, so named
from Ceres (q.v.), are the plants which produce
grain or corn; in strictness, all the species of —
grasses (Graminez ) cultivated for the sake of their
seed as an article of food. They are also cailed
Corn-plants or Bread-plants; but in this wide a

AO a a ig ee Ri
" ae '

Ly

distinct

have
the seed, or by the facility of procuring it in suffi-

CEREBRATION

CERIGO 71

ilar sense the term cereal ceases to have any
limits, and includes a of wholly
orders, notably Buckwheat (natural

order, Polygonacew), and Quinoa (Chenopodi-

ace), &c. ; even the Lotus of the Nile, the Vie-
toria regia, and other species of water-lilies might
thus be added to the list.

‘The cereals proper do not belong to any particular
Bailie of the great or

at order of grasses, but the employ-
ment of particular species as bread-plants seems to
ha determined chiefly by the superior size of

and of freeing it from its unedible
e most extensively cultivated grains
eat (Triticum), Barley (Hordeum), Rye
eee) Oats (Avena), Rice (Oryza), Maize or
Tndian Corn (Zea), different kinds of Millet

t quantity,
evalobee Tt

-{Setaria, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum, and
Penicillaria), and Durra or Guinea Corn (Sorghum
#r Andropogon). These have all been cultivated
from time immemorial, and there is great uncer-
tainty as to the number of species to which the many
existing varieties belong; their original forms and
native countries often cannot confidently be deter-
mined. Barley, oats, and rye are the grains of the
coldest regions, the cultivation of the former two
extending even within the arctic circle. Wheat is

- next to these, and in the warmer regions of the

temperate zone its cultivation is associated with

_ that of maize and rice, which are extensively culti-

vated within the tropics. The millets belong to
warm climates, and durra is tropical or sub-tropical.
Rice is the food of a greater number of the human
‘race than any other kind of grain. See Corn,
BARLEY, MAIzE, MILLET, RICE, WHEAT, and
-other separate articles.

Cerebration, Unconscious. There can be
‘no doubt that molecular changes in the cerebrum
accompany all our conscious mental processes. The
doctrine of ‘unconscious cerebration as stated by
Carpenter, Laycock, and others, holds that similar
changes may go on in the cerebrum without any
consciousness on our part, until the fully elaborated
mental result is presented. It is an every-day
experience that after one has been in vain trying to
some name or incident, it will suddenly flash
into the mind when one is thinking of some entirely
different subject. According to Carpenter the cere-
brum put in action by our consciousness has gone
on working automatically but unconsciously, until
the processes accompanying the mental operation
of remembering the name or incident have been
completed. This is the cli ical statement
corresponding to the psychological doctrine that the
mind may undergo modifications without being
conscious of the process until the new combination
is presented to consciousness. See CONSCIOUSNESS,
BRAIN, PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONALITY.

Cerebro-spinal Fluid is a clear, almost
‘colourless, slightly alkaline fluid, closely resem-
bling lymph in its composition, but containing less
albumen. It is contained partly within the ventric-
ular system of the brain, and in part in the loose
connective tissue (subarachnoid meshwork), which
lies between the Arachnoid and Pia Mater (q.v.),
being continued from this latter situation aati
the lymphatic sheaths, which closely invest all
‘the blood-vessels in the substance of the brain
and spinal cord. The spaces which contain it com-
‘municate with the lymphatics of the head and of
‘the nerves, and with the venous sinuses in the
dura mater. Its main function, besides that of
‘removing waste chee is to equalise the pressure
within the skull. As the blood pressure increases
that of the cerebro-spinal fluid diminishes, and vice
~versd. ‘As the brain atrophies it is replaced 7 a
‘proportionate increase in the fluid. In some dis-

eases, such as acute and chronic Hydrocephalus
(q.v.), it is greatly increased, and then it becomes
a cause of atrophy of the brain. Its value as a
water-cushion in diminishing the violence of shock
from external injury has been already referred to
at BRAIN. Cerebro-spinal means pertaining to the
brain and spinal cord together, to the cerebro-
se system. For Cerebro-spinal Meningitis, see

ENINGITIS.

Cerebrum, See BRAIN.

Ceremonies, MASTER OF THE, an officer at
court, instituted by James I. for the reception of
ambassadors and dignitaries, The same name came
to be used for the supreme authority on etiquette
at public assemblies at Bath and elsewhere; Beau
Nash (q.v.) being the most memorable.

Cereopsis (Gr., ‘ wax-face’), a genus of birds
of the family Anatide, to which the New Holland

oose (C. nove hollandice) penis oe This bird has
ean known since the southern shores of Australia
were first visited by navigators. There, and on the
adjacent islands, they were found in great abund-
ance; and so little were they acquainted with the
danger to be apprehended from man, that the
earlier navigators easily supplied themselves with
fresh provisions by knocking them down with
sticks, The flight is slow and heavy, and the
bird is ssbialle besomin less abundant. The cere
(see BILL) is remarkably large, whence the name.

Coxen, the Roman name of the great Greek
dess Démétér, the protectress of agriculture and
the fruits of the earth. Her worship was borrowed
by the Romans from Sicily. Her first temple in
Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius
Albinus (496 B.c.), to avert a famine with which
the city was threatened. A _ great festival, with
games, the Cerealia, was instituted in her honour,
and her worship acquired great importance in the
city. The decrees of the senate were deposited
in her temple for the inspection of the tribunes
of the people. See DEMETER.

Ceres, one of the Planetoids (q.v.), and the
first of them that was discovered. It was first seen
by Piazzi at Palermo, January 1, 1801, and is
sometimes visible to the naked eye, looking like a
star between the seventh and eighth magnitudes.

Cereus, a large genus of Cactacez (q.v.), con-
taining many of the most imposing forms of the
order, both as respects vegetation and flowering.
C. giganteus reaches a height of 60 feet, often un-
branched, its tall pillars giving an extraordinary
character to the landscape of New Mexico, while
the allied C. peruvianus (36 feet) takes its place in
Peru. Others have thin snake-like branches (C.
flagelliformis), while the short obconical C. senilis
is covered with long silky hairs. Many have
splendid flowers, and of these C. speciosissimus with
scarlet or purplish flowers is often cultivated, while
C. grandiflorus is the well-known night-flowering
cactus. The fruits are often much esteemed. For
illustration, see CACTUS,

Oerignela, a town of Italy, 22 miles SE. of
Foggia by rail, with manufactures of linen, and a
trade in almonds and cotton. The Spaniards’ deci-
sive victory over the French here in 1503 established
Spain’s supremacy in Naples. Pop. 22,659.

Ceri'go, the southernmost of the seven Ionian
Islands (q.v.), now officially known again by its old
Greek name of Cythera, is separated from the coast
of Morea by a narrow strait. Area, 107 sq. m. ;
pop. (1879) 13,259. It is mostly barren and moun-
tainous in some parts ; but corn, wine, and olives
and fruits are raised. Capsali is the capital. In
ancient times the island was sacred to Venus, as
the land that received the goddess when she arose
from the sea.

72 CERINTHUS

CERTIORARI

Cerinthus, a heretic who lived at the close of
the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing
better than uncertain and confused accounts, He
is said to have been a native of Alexandria. He
pened from Egypt into Asia Minor, and lived in

phesus contemporaneously (according to the
belief of the church) with the
It is related by Ireneus, on the authority of
Polycarp, that John held the heretic in such
detestation that, on a certain occasion, when he
encountered Cerinthus in the baths of Ephesus, he
immediately left the baths, saying to those about
him: ‘Let us fly, lest the bath fall on us, since
Cerinthus is within, the enemy of the truth.’ It is
also said by Irenzus that the Gospel by St John
was written in direct opposition to the tenets of
Cerinthus. He held that the world was not made
by the highest God, but by some angel or power far
removed from and ignorant of the Supreme Being.
He is also said to have held coarse and sensual
millenarian views, to have believed the Jewish
ceremonial law to be in part binding upon
Christians, and to have taught that the Divine
Spirit was first united with the man Jesus in his
baptism by John. Cerinthus being, so far as is
known, the oldest teacher of Judaico-Gnostic prin-
ciples, and, according to Neander, ‘the intermedi-
ate link between the Judaising and Gnostic sects,’
there would naturally be a greater incongruity and
want of harmony in his system than in the later
developments of Gnosticism (q.v.). .

Cerithium, a genus of Prosobranchiate Gas-
teropods, and type of a large family, Cerithiade.
The shell is rough, naked, s iral, elongated, with
many coils, and with an oval oblique aperture which
has a short canal in front. The species of this
family are numerous (140), most of them marine,
but many inhabiting estuaries and brackish
rather than salt water; some are found in lakes
and rivers. A few belong to temperate climates,
but most of them are tropical, and in mangrove
Swamps they particularly abound. The fossil
species are very numerous, and almost all limited
to the Tertiary formations. C. vulgatum, over six
inches in height, is often seen in Italian markets.

Cerium (sym. Ce, eq. 92) is a rare metal
found in cerite and a few other minerals. It
is a white metal, has not been obtained in any
uantity,; is not therefore employed in any manu-
acture, and forms two basic oxides and a numerous
class of salts, The nitrate and oxalate of cerium
have been employed in the vomiting of pregnancy,
their action being somewhat similar to that of the
subnitrate of bismuth. Cerium biscuits are biscuits
containing a small proportion of the oxalate, and
they form a very convenient medium for the
administration of the salt. Cerite or Ochréite is
the silicate of cerium, and is found as a mineral
in gneiss, near Riddarhytta, in Westmanland in

aged apostle John.

Sweden.

Cerox’ylon. See Wax PALM.

Cerre’to, a cathedral city of South Ital ,ona
slope of the Apennines, 14 miles NNW. o Bene-
vento. Pop. 5129,

Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the Peruvian

department of Junin, stands at an elevation of
14,276 feet, 138 miles NE. of Lima. Near it are
some of the richest silver-mines on the continent,
The climate is cheerless and inclement. Pop. 7000,
mostly Indians and half-breeds.

Cerro Gordo, a plateau in Mexico, the most
easterly on the route from Vera Cruz to the capital.
Here, on 18th April 1847, the Americans totally
defeated the Mexicans,

Cerro Largo, a department in the NE. of

ruguay, well watered, with large savannahs and

forests. Area, 5735 sq. m. ; pop. (1894) 36,000,
chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Capital, Cerro.
Largo or Melo; pop. 5000. .

Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 19 miles.
SW. of Florence (37 by rail). It is noteworthy
as the residence of Boceaccio, who was born and
died here. His house is stil] standing, much as it.
was in the poet’s time. Pop. 2500.

Certhiidz, a family of birds, generall placed
in the great order Insessores or Passeres. hey are:
best known by their most typical representative.
the Creeper ( 17) They are widely distributed
birds, absent however from the Ethiopian and
neo-tropical regions, and the family includes twelve
genera and about fifty species. “They are expert.
climbers, and feed on inseets.

Certificate, in the law of England and of the.
United States, is a written statement by a person
having a public or official status concerning some-
matter within his knowledge and authority. There
are a great many classes of such certificates—e. g.
certificate of charge upon land ; certificate of the-
chief-clerk in Chancery proceedings, which is practi-
cally a report of what the clerk has done ; certificate
of discharge of a debtor in liquidation ; certificate-
of incorporation under the Companies Acts; certifi-
cate of mortgage on ships under the Merchant.
Shipping Acts; certificate of naturalisation. In
the United States, the word is commonly applied to-
any formal statement made by a public servant in
the execution of his duty, as by a collector of taxes,
a postmaster, &c. See CHARACTER,

Certification, in the law of Scotland, signifies.
the judicial assurance given to a party of ‘the
course to be followed by the judge in case he:
disobeys the will of a summons, or other writ or
order of the court. Reiterated contumacy on the
part of the defender was at one time punished with
confiscation of his property (1449, chap. 29), but.
now certification merely means that if he fails to-
appear in the usual manner, the judge will decern,
or pronounce judgment against him.

Certiorari is the writ by which, since the
abolition of imprisonment for debt and the con-
sequent disuse of the better known writ habeas
corpus, causes are removed from inferior courts of
record into the High Court of Justice. This is a.
matter of considerable importance to the commer-
cial public. Such removal is either before or after-
judgment in the inferior court. Before judgment.
certiorari is competent as tort, in all cases.
except where the sum sued for is less than £5.
Either party can remove the cause, but, where the
sum is fon than £20, the defendant must give his.
sureties for the debt and costs. The removal must.
be within six weeks after appearance of defendant,
In the superior court the plaintiff must make a.
fresh statement of claim. The certiorari is obeyed.
by sending up the original record. Under the
Judicature Acts there is a further power of removal
when any defence or counter-claim is set up which
is hevend: the jurisdiction of the inferior court. In
the county courts, where the action on contract is.
above £20, or on tort above £5, the defendant has.
a general right to certiorari on security for costs.
Where the discretion of the superior court. is.
appealed to, such considerations as the difficulty
of Tecel oints, the improbability of obtaining an.
iaparinl: jury, are important. "After judgment,
certiorari is often applied for by the successful.
plaintiff for purposes of execution, where the
person or effects of the defendant cannot be found
in the jurisdiction of the inferior court. Certiorari
may also be obtained as of right by the crown to
remove an indictment in a criminal cause to the
Queen’s Bench Division or the Central Criminal
Court. This writ used also to be of right to private

CERTOSA DI PAVIA

CERVANTES 73

“prosec tors but since the institution of the Cour
of is necessary to show cause,
as in a civil ae from the county courts, and to

or ‘ t .

~ In the United States, certiorari is generally pro-
vided for by statute, but where no such provision is
made, or no other mode of review of the froneesnas
1 inferior court has been provided by statute,
any superior court exercising common law jurisdic-
bic an inherent right to issue this writ. It is
ased in both civil and criminal cases to bring the
whole record of the inferior tribunal before a
rior court, to determine whether the former
proceeded within its jurisdiction, and also to
ble substantial justice to be done whenever an
ior tribunal has failed to proceed according to
equirements of the law. It is used as an

aE
ad
—s
upe
.™

original process to remove a cause, and change
venue, only where the superior court is satisfied
_ that an impartial trial will not otherwise be had.

_ ©erto’sa di Pavi'a, a celebrated Carthusian
mor way 5 miles N. of Pavia, was founded in
1396 by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, first Duke of
Milan, in atonement for the murder of his uncle.
‘The church is a splendid structure in the form of a
Latin cross, the ground-plan being 252 feet long
by 177 feet broad. The richly sculptured facade,
designed by Borgognone, was commenced in 1473.
The building is made up of various styles, but the
Pointed prevails in the interior, which is decorated
with frescoes, paintings, &c., and contains a gor-
geous high-altar, the mausoleum of the founder,
and several monuments. After the battle of Pavia
_ (1525), Francis I. was for three days a prisoner at
e he rtosa, which, since the dissolution of the
Monasteries, has been constituted a national
monument. The name certosa is a form of Car-
thusian (q.v.), and is used of other monasteries
of the order, as that to the south of Florence.

_ ©eru’men is ear-wax, the yellow waxy matter
hich is secreted by certain glands lying in the
passage that leads from the external opening of the
ear to the membrane of the t um. It lubri-
cates the passage and entangles particles of dust
and 1 insects, preventing them from getting
farther in. See Ear.
Cervantes Saavedra, MiIGcuveEL Ds, the
author of Don Quixote, was born at Alcalé de
Henares in 1547. His birthday is unknown, but
he was baptised on the 9th of October. He was a
descendant of a family that traced its origin back
to the 10th century through a line of Castilian
nobles, of whom one was the renowned warrior
ufio Alfonso, whose grandson took the surname
Cervantes from the old castle of San Servando,
or Cervantes, near Toledo. It was borne with
our by many church dignitaries, soldiers, and
Magistrates of the 14th and 15th centuries, but at
the birth of the man who gave it immortality it
ceased to be one of the prominent names of

branch of the family by marriage in the 15th
cer . Of Cervantes ema we know little
_ ornothing beyond what he himself tells us, but of
the events of his life there is a tolerably complete
d. The story of his having studied at Sala-
m nea is improbable; all we know of his edu-
_ ¢ation is that Juan Lopez de Hoyos, a professor
belles-lettres at Madrid, calls him his ‘dearly
beloved pupil.’ The first known productions of
his eq appeared in 1569 in a collection of pieces
on the death of the queen, edited by the pro-
fessor. Early in the same year he passed over into
Italy in the service of Cardin al Giulio Acquaviva,
but shortly afterwards enlisted as a soldier under
command, it would ap , of Mare Antony
At the battle of Lepanto he was in

"

The name of Saavedra came into the poet’s’

the thick of the fight, and received three severe
gunshot wounds, by one of which his left hand and
arm were permanently disabled. After having seen
some further service oes the Turks in Tunis,
he was returning to Spain in 1575 with letters
of recommendation to the king from Don John of
Austria and the Viceroy of Sicily, when the galley
he sailed in was captured by Algerine corsairs,
and with his brother Rodrigo and several others
he was carried into Algiers. He remained in
captivity five years, during which he made four
daring attempts to ooune® and lived in almost
daily expectation of death or torture. It was not
for himself alone that he sought freedom. No
nobler story of unselfish heroism has ever been
told than that in the depositions of his fellow
captives at Algiers, where they testify to his self-
devotion, his dauntless spirit, and his generosity,
and with touching earnestness strive to give ex-
pression to their own gratitude, love, and admira-
tion. In 1580 he was ransomed by the charity
of the Redemptionist Fathers and by the devo-
tion of his family which reduced itself to poverty
to provide the sum required ; and rejoining his
old regiment in Portugal, he served in the expe-
dition to the Azores under the Marquis of Santa
Cruz. The story of a liaison with a Portuguese
lady is an invention of the biographers to account
for a certain Isabel de Saavedra mentioned in
an official document of 1605 as his natural
daughter. There is no other evidence of her
existence, and if this is to be relied upon she
was born after his marriage, and nearly two years
after his return from Portugal. At the close
of the war he retired from military life and
turned his attention to literature. His first work
was the Galatea, a pastoral romance of the same
class as the Diana of Montemayor and the Filida
of his friend Montalvo. It was printed at Alcala
in 1585—not, as is commonly said, Madrid, 1584.
While it was passing through the press he married,
and for two or three years strove to gain a liveli-
hood by writing for the stage. He produced between
twenty and thirty plays, of which two only, the
Numancia and the Trato de Argel, have survived ;
but from his own account it is plain that, though
not ill received, they failed to attract, and that
he was driven to seek some other employment.
In 1587 he migrated to Seville, where he obtained
the post of deputy-purveyor to the fleet. In 1594
he was een a collector of revenues for the
kingdom of Granada; but in 1597, failing to make
up the sum due to the treasury, he was sent to
prison at Seville. He was released, however, on
giving security for the balance, but not reinstated ;
nor can the government be charged with undue
harshness, for though no stain attaches to his
integrity, it is clear that as a business-like official
he was not faultless. He remained some time
longer at Seville, but nothing is known of his
movements from 1599 to 1603. Local tradition
maintains that he wrote Don Quixote in prison
at Argamasilla in La Mancha ; but it has nothing
to support it save the fact that Argamasilla is
Don Quixote’s village. In 1603 he was living at
Valladolid ; in September 1604 leave was ted
to print the first part of Don Quixote, and early
in January 1605 the book came out at Madrid.
It is commonly asserted that its reception was cold ;
but the truth is that it leaped into popularity at
once. Within a month two pirated editions were
in the press at Lisbon ; by the autumn five editions
had been published ; and Don Quixote and Sancho
Panza paraded the streets as familiar characters

in the nts at Valladolid that spring. By a
minority, however, it was not welcomed. Lope
de Vega wrote sneeringly of it and its author

months before it was printed—for it had a pre-

74

CERVANTES

vious circulation in manuscript—and he and his
brother-dramatists showed how bitterly they re-
sented the criticism in chapter 48. Cervantes was
slow in taking advantage of his popularity. In-
stead of giving his readers the sequel they asked
for, he busied himself with writing for the stage
and composing short tales, or ‘exemplary novels’
as he called them. The Viage del Parnaso, a
poem of over 3000 lines in ¢erza rima, reviewing
the poetry and poets of the day, was another of
his productions at this time. In 1613 he published
his twelve Novelas, and promised his readers the
second part of Don Quixote ‘shortly.’ But in 1614
a writer, under the pseudonym of Alonso Fer-
nandez de Avellaneda, brought out a spurious
second part, with an insulting preface, full of
coarse personal abuse of Cervantes. It was the
work of a dull plagiarist, an imitator insensible
to the merits of his model; but it served as the
spur Cervantes needed to urge him to the com-
pletion of the genuine second part, which was sent
to the press early in 1615, and published at the
end of the year. It was not too soon; his health
was already failing, and he died at Madrid on the
23d of April 1616. His last labours were given
to things more important in his eyes than Don
Quixote. While it was in the press he revised
and published his rejected comedies and inter-
ludes, and but a short time before his death he
finished his romance of Persiles and Sigismunda.
There are few pieces of his writing more charac-
teristic of the man than the last two that ever
came from his pen—written, indeed, upon his ver

deathbed—the address to the reader and the dedi-
cation to the Conde de Lemos, whose generosity
had relieved him from the pressure of poverty ;
and, like every glimpse of himself that his pages
give us, they make us wish that we knew more
of one so full of wisdom, patience, and charity, so
bright and so brave.

It is in right of Don Quixote that the name of
Cervantes has a place here; but his minor works
entitle him to an honourable one in the history of
Spanish literature. His novels are the best of
their kind—a kind Spain excelled in; and though
the Galatea is doubtless inferior to the Diana, its
greatest fault is that, like the Diana, it belongs
to a radically insipid species of romance. The
title of poet is commonly denied him; but if a
good deal of his poetry is weak, there is much
that only a poet could have written, and not even
Garcilaso had a finer sense of melody or a truer
touch in verse. It would be unjust to judge of
his dramatic powers by the comedies printed in
1615. They were nothing more than a desperate
attempt to gain a footing on the stage by a con-
cession to the popular taste. To found a great
national drama worthy of his country was the
ambition of his life, and the first step was to
obtain a hearing. The tragedy of Numancia,
with all its defects the most powerful and original
drama in the language, is a better measure of
Cervantes as a dramatist. And if it is impossible
to accept his own estimate of the Persiles and
Sigismunda, no reader will deny its invention and
grace of style. His minor works all show signs
of the author’s care; Don Quixote, on the other
hand, is the most carelessly written of all great
books. Cervantes, it is plain, did not look upon
it in that light. He was very proud of its popu-
larity ; but all he ever claims for it is that it will
amuse, and that it did the state some service in
laughing chivalry romances out of fashion. He
wrote it by fits and starts; he neglected it for his
other works; he sent it to the printers without
revision, and made merry over their blunders and
his own oversights. But it may be that we owe
more to this carelessness than we think. One of

the marvels of this marvellous book is its perennial ‘

outh. After well-nigh three centuries it is as
resh and full of life as when it came from La
Cuesta’s press. In his other works Cervantes
studied recognised models and consulted the tastes

of the day; in Don Quixote he followed the lead —

of his own genius alone, and wrote only as instinct _

ape him. Written in a desultory fashion, it —

ad time to grow and ripen under his hand; Don
Quixote and Sancho, outlines at first, became b
degrees flesh and blood realities to his mind, an
beings that he loved ; and the book—the second part

especially—served him as a kind of commonplace-—
book to which he turned to when he was in the

mood, making it the depository of his thoughts
and record of the experience and observation of a
stirring life. We need not commit the disloyalty
of Acebane his word when he says that all he
sought was to cure his countrymen of their passion
for chivalry romances. He had motive enough in
the magnitude of the evil, and his was only one
of scores of voices lifted up against it; nor is
there anything extraordinary in a champion of
true chivalry, as he was, resenting a mockery that
made it contemptible. But the genius of Cer-
vantes was essentially discursive, and many other
offenders and offences were comprehended in the
indictment that he brought against the romances
of chivalry and their readers.
The anh

is that of. Rivadeneyra (in 12 vols. i 8vo,
Madrid, 1863-64). Editions of the selec

are those of Ibarra (16 vols. small 8vo, Madrid,
1803-5), Bossange (10 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1826),
and vol. i. of the Biblioteca de Autores Espaioles
(Madrid, 1846). Of Don Quixote in the original
about 150 editions are known,
double that number in other languages.
worthy of the. book was Tonson’s (Lond. 1738, 4
vols.) ; other notable ones are the Academy edition
(4 vols. Madrid, 1780); Bowle’s (6 vols. Salisbury
and Lond. 1781); Pellicer’s (5 vols. Madrid, 1797-

98); Clemencin’s (6 vols. Madrid, 1833-39); Hart- —

zenbusch’s, in vols. iii.-vi. of the complete works,
and also in 4 vols. 1863, a beautiful pocket edition
printed at Argamasilla, in the house called Cer-
vantes’ prison ; in these last the editor has often
restored the text of the first edition, but often
also recklessly tampered with it.
Fabra’s (2 vols. Barcelona, 1871-74) is an admir-
able reproduction by photography of the first
edition. The claim of

(Palencia, 1884) to give’ corrections made b
Cervantes himself cannot be seriously rnaintasnee
The reprint of the editio princeps of the first part
of Don Quixote by Mr Ormsby and Mr Fitzmaurice-
Kelly (Lond. 1898) is a splendid folio. There are
translations in fourteen languages.
the English by Shelton, made in 1608 and printed
1612 (second part, 1620), a vigorous but rude and
inaccurate version. Other English translations are

complete edition of Cervantes’ works —

works

and more than —
The first —

Lopez |

Sefior Ortego’s edition —

The oldest is —

‘those of Phillips (1689), Motteux (1702), Jervas ©

Facer! called Jarvis, 1742), Smollett (1755), |
e

A. J. Du
vols. 8vo, 1885), and H. E. Watts (5 vols. 4to, 1888
et se In French there are nine versions, besides

the best Viardot’s (1836). D
less than thirteen, from the earliest in 1621 to the

latest and best by Ludwig Braunfels in 1883-84. —

There are as many as ten Russian versions, but
most of these are from the French, or abridgments.

Franciosini’s Italian version appeared as early as—

1622, and has been followed by two others; and
there are versions in Dutch, Danish, Polish, Portu-

guese, Swedish, Hungarian, Bohemian, Servian, —

and Greek. The best Life of Cervantes is by
Navarrete; but there is also a good one by D.

ld (3 vols. 8vo, 1881), John Ormsby (4.

.).
abridaneatia : the oldest is Oudin’s ( printed in1616), —
In German there are no

CERVETRI

CESTRACION 75

nimo Moran, in his Don ixote (Madrid,
3), and English Lives by atts (1895, from
his edition), and by J. F. Kelly (1892).
Gervet'ri, a village 19 miles WNW. of Rome,
p i site of a Bowie ee ee pa
(see ETRURIA). Conquered and de the
Diteans in 353 B.C., it ex slesbed but a brief
renewal of peeciy under the empire as a water-
g-place (the warm Bagni del Sasso, still used),
ad finally fell into decay in the 13th century.
ny Etruscan remains have been found near by.

Oer’vidze and Cervus. See Derr.
@ervin, Mont. See MATTERHORN.
Gesalpino. See Ca#sa.rinus.
@esarewitch. See Czar.

yy Ce’sari, GiusErreE (sometimes called ARPINO),
an Italian sete born at Arpino about 1568,
was tly honoured by no less than five popes,
and died at Rome, 3d July 1640. His works—in
fresco and oil—display lively imagination, and
great tact in execution.
esarotti, Mevcurore, an excellent Italian
~ was born 15th May 1730, at Padua, where he
ed the Greek and Hebrew chairs. He gained
a reputation by his translation of Macpherson’s
Ossian (1763). The versification of this work, like
_ that of his free translation of the J/iad, under the
title of La Morte di Ettore, was admired by Alfieri,
- and Cesarotti unquestionably threw fresh life into
Italian literature. His Ragionamento sulla Filosofia
delle Lingue (8 vols. 1785) and Ragionamento sulla
_ Filosofia del Gusto are his best works. He died
8d November 1808.

Cese'na, a town of Central Italy, 12 miles SE. of
Forli by rail, with a cathedral and a trade in silk,
wine, hemp, and sulphur. Cesena gave birth to two
Rh Vi. and VII. Pop. 12,500. Here Murat

eated the Austrians, 30th March 1815,

_. ©es‘nola, Count Luici PALMA D1, archeolo-
gist, was born near Turin, June 29, 1832. He served
with the Sardinian contingent in the Crimean war,
went to New York in 1860, and served as a volunteer
in the civil war. Appointed American consul at
Cyprus in 1865, he commenced a series of excava-
tions which he continued for about ten years with
the most remarkable success. His splendid collec-
tion of statues and figures, lamps, vases, inscrip-
_ tions, and other antiquities, was opened in New

‘York in 1872 as the ‘Cesnola Collection of Cyprian
Antiquities.’ Doubts expressed in 1879 as to the
authenticity of part of the collection were proved to
q undless. His chief work is Cyprus, its ancient

Cities, Tombs, and Temples (1877).
. Ces’ es, PABLO DE, Spanish painter, born
_ at Cordova in 1536, studied at Rome under Michael
gael and Raphael, and in 1577 became a pre-
bendary at Cordova, where he established a school
of art, and was also active as an architect,
painter, and writer. He died 26th July 1608.

Cess (short for assess). See LAND LAws.

Cessio Bonorum (Lat. ‘cession or surrender
_ of goods’), a process which the law of Scotland
. borrowed from that of Rome, and which also
_ &ppears in most of the continental systems. On
making a surrender of estate to his creditors, the
_ debtor was ted a judicial protection from im-
prisonment in respect of all debts then due by him.
As, however, imprisonment for debt was abolished
by the Debtors Act, 1880, except in the case of
rates and taxes due, cessio as a process for the
protéction or liberation from imprisonment of in-
solvent debtors is now nractionlly obsolete. The
Act of 1880, however, introduced a new process of
-eessio, resembling sequestration, and really a cheap

and summary method of distributing a small estate
among the creditors. The petition must be pre-
sented in the sheriff-court either by a creditor or
by the notour bankrupt himself. Notice is given
in the Gazette, there is a meeting of creditors, the
debtor is publicly examined, the sheriff grants a
decree appointing a trustee and ordering the debtor
to convey all his estate (except working tools,
alimentary funds, and future acquisitions) to the
trustee, who then ranks the various claims on the
estate, subject to an appeal to the sheriff. A most
important change was introduced by the Bank-
ruptcy and Cessio Act, 1881, which provides for the
first time that the debtor under a cessio may
obtain a statutory discharge, but only if he pays
5s. per £1, or satisfies the sheriff that failure to pay
such a dividend is not due to his fault. The pro-
cess of cessio must be distinguished in some of its
effects from the English and American assignment
for the benefit of creditors under insolvent statutes.
See BANKRUPTCY, SEQUESTRATION ; Goudy on
Bankruptcy (1886).

Cesspool. See SEWAGE.

Cestoid Worms (Cestoda), an order of flat
worms (Plathelminthes), of internal parasitic
habit, and generally known as Tapeworms (q.Vv.).
The adult consists of an asexual ‘head,’ attached
by hooks or suckers or both to the host, and
budding off a long chain of flat sexual, hermaphro-
dite ‘joints,’ which become mature at a certain
distance from the ‘head,’ have a measure of in-
dividuality and independence, and are eventually
ns pe There is no alimentary canal nor vas-
cular system ; the nervous system is usually com-
plex, but of a low order ; there is a well-developed
excretory system of branching tubes. The repro-
ductive organs of the ‘joints’ are usually very
complex. The liberated ‘joints’ or ‘ proglottides’
break up, and set free embryos, which find their
way into other hosts, and undergoing considerable
change become bladder-worms, develop a head, or
in some cases heads, and only become sexual when
their host is in turn eaten by the original species
in which the tapeworm flourished. There is thus
an alternation of generations between the asexual
bladder-worm and the sexual tapeworm. The order
includes about 25 genera and 500 species, mostly
parasitic in vertebrates. The genus Tenia (tape-
worm) includes more than half the known species.
The Cestodes are linked to the flukes or Trematodes
by forms like Amphilina, Caryophylleus, and Arch-
igetes, which have no ‘joints,’ and a single repro-

uctive system; and there is a well-marked series
from these up to the most specialised Tzenia.
Echineibothrium, Phyllobothrium, Anthobothrium,
Acanthobothrium, Tetrarhynchus, Ligula, Bothrio-
cephalus (q.v.), are the important genera besides
Tenia. See TAPEWORMS; also BLADDER-WORM,
are ANIMALS, and Leuckart’s Parasites of

an.

Cestracion, a genus of sharks, regarded as
constituting a distinct family, Cestraciontide, al-
though not more than four species are known as
now existing. It is characterised by having two
dorsal fins and one anal, the first dorsal situated
over the space between the torals and ventrals ;
a spine forming the front of each dorsal; a short
wide tail, with its upper lobe strongly notched
beneath ; the mouth at the fore end of the snout;
spiracles distinctly visible, rather behind the eyes ;
and small gill-openings. The front of the mouth
is armed with obtuse angular teeth, whilst the
margins, and inner surface of the jaws are covered
with pavement-like teeth, presenting a general
continuity of surface, as in skates, and dis
in rounded oblique scrolls—the former evidently
adapted to the seizing of food, the latter to the

76 CESTUI QUE TRUST

CETEOSAURUS

of it, They are of obvious
ard-shelled crustaceans and

ceeting ant. bruisin
th a diet of

use wi

Upper Jaw of Port-Jackson Shark ( Cestracion philippi).

molluscs. The front teeth are sharp in the young
forms. The egg-case has two curious spiral ridges
surrounding it. The Port-Jackson
Shark, or ‘Nurse’ (C. philippi) of
the Australian seas, and the Cat
Shark of Japan and China (C.
zebra), seem to differ chiefly in the
atterns of colour. None exceed
ve feet in length. The Cestra-
ciontide are particularly interest-
ing to geologists, for the oldest
fossil sharks belong in great part to
this family. ‘The remains are
found even in the Paleozoic strata;
they become more numerous in the
Carboniferous series ; they are ver
numerous in the Lias and Chalk
formations ; but there they cease

Outside view of

Egg-case of almost entirely, the strata of the
Cestracion Tertiary series containing scarcely
philippi. any of them.’ In modern times the

species are reduced, as we have
seen, to four at most, and other types of shark
have become more prevalent. The fossil forms
were abundant, also much larger, and the cestra-
cions thus furnish a particularly good illustration
of a decadent family.

Cestui que Trust, a person for whom another
is a trustee. The term is Norman-French, and
means in English law, and also in the United
States, exactly what Beneficiary (q.v.) means in
Scots law.

Cestus (Gr. kestos, ‘embroidered’), a girdle
worn by Greek and Roman women, but at what
part of the body is somewhat uncertain. It was
worn apparently between the cingulum, which was
a sash or india over the tunic just under the
bosom, and the zone, worn mostly by young un-
married women lower down the body, just above
the hips. According to Winckelmann, the cestus
was itself worn round the loins; according to
Heyne and Visconti, immediately under the bosom.
The cestus of Aphrodite was covered with such
alluring representations of the joys of love that she
who wore it was irresistible. It was borrowed by
Hera when she desired to win the love of Zeus.
—CESTUS, or more correctly, CasTus, the boxin
gauntlets worn by the ancient prize-fighters, whic
consisted of leather thongs bound round the hands
and wrists. They sometimes reached as high up as
the elbows, and were armed with lead or metal
bosses to increase the force of the blow.

Cetacea, an order of mammals, of aquatic
habit and fish-like form. The head is large, the

| or less of a snout.

neck indistinct ; there is generally a median dorsal
fin, and the tail has lateral flukes ; the fore-limbs
are reduced to paddles, the hind-limbs are at most
represented by slight internal traces; the skin is
smooth, and, with the occasional exception of a
few bristles near the mouth, hairless; there is a
thick layer of fat or blubber under the skin which
serves instead of hair as a heat-retainer. The eye
is small, there is no external ear, the nostrils
are situated vertically. The bones are spongy
and oily, the neck vertebree are compressed and
often fused, there is no union to form a sacrum.
The skull is peculiarly modified, the brain-case
being high, and the front part prolonged into more
There are no collar-bones ;
the bones of the arm are flattened and stiff; the
joints of the second and third fingers are always
above the normal number; the whole arm forms a
flipper ; the hip-girdle and hind-leg are degenerate.
In one group teeth are absent except in the foetus,
and are replaced by ‘ whalebone’ growths from the
palate ; in no case is there more than one set of
teeth. The stomach has several chambers; the
intestine is simple. The liver is less divided than
usual, and there is no gall-bladder. The blood-
vessels form wonderful networks (retia méirabilia).
The top of the windpipe is prolonged forwards so
as to form, when embraced by the soft palate, a
continuous air-passage from nostrils to lungs.
The brain is large. The placenta is ‘non-deciduate
and diffuse.’
lie beside the female genital aperture; the milk
is squeezed into the mouth of the sucking young.

The Cetacea are widely distributed in all seas
and in some large rivers. They swim powerfully,
and the tail works up and down, not sideways.
They rise to the surface to breathe, and do not
spout sea-water from their blowholes, The expira-
tion is periodic and violent, and the forcibly ex-
pelled air being laden with water, vapour may
condense in a pillar of fine spray, or the ascending
column may carry up some surface sea-water along
with it, but it must be recognised that the process
is simply that of ordinary expiration in peculiar
conditions. They are mostly inoffensive, generally
social in habit, vary from 4 to 60 feet in length,
and feed on jelly-fish, crustaceans, pteropods,
cuttlefish, fishes, and in one genus (Orca) on seals
and on other whales,

Two very distinct series have to be distinguished
—(a) the Toothed Whales or Odontoceti, and (6)
the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti. The former
include Sperm Whales (Physeter), the Bottlenose
(Hyperoodon ), the genus Platanista and its allies,
and the great family of Dolphins (q.v.). The
latter sub-order includes the Right Whale ( Baleena),
the ‘Humpbacks’ (Megaptera), and the Rorquals
( Balzenoptera ).

In the Eocene, Cetacea are represented by primi-
tive, less specialised forms, known as Zeuglodons,
but the remains are, as one would expect, some-
what fragmentary, and the conclusions to be drawn
from them very uncertain. In Miocene and Plio-
cene strata gant acta fragmentary cetacean remains
have been found, and are grouped together in the
genus Squalodon.

There is much doubt and dispute in regard to the
origin and affinities of Cetacea. They are related
by some to Carnivores, but the researches of Pro-
fessor Flower have made it more probable that they
have much closer affinities with Ungulates. He
regards it as not unlikely that the whole group had
a frech-wales origin. Fuller details must be sought
under the article WHALE. See Flower’s article
‘Mammalia,’ Ency. Brit.

Ceteosaurus (Zétos, ‘whale ;’ sauros, ‘lizard’),
a large dinosaurian reptile belonging to the
Jurassic System (q.v.). According to Professor

The teats are two in number, and ~

CETEWAYO

CEYLON 77

Phillips, it may have reached a length of 50 feet,
when ‘standing at ease’ was probably not less
10 feet in height and of a bulk in proportion.
Tt appears to have frequented the marshes and
river-sides of the period, and to have been a vege-
table-feeder. The word is also spelt Cetiosaurus.
Cetewayo. See ZuLus.

Cetinje (also spelt Cettigné), capital of Monte-
negro, lies in a rocky valley 2093 feet above sea-
level, and 17 miles E. of Cattaro, with which it is
connected by a carriage road. It is the residence of
the prince, and of an archimandrite, and consists of
an unpretentious palace, a few private houses, an
abbey, gaol. arsenal, theatre (which serves also for

e sta library and national museum), hospital,
theological seminary, gymnasium, and a girl’s high-
school, maintained at the charge of the Empress of
- Russia. Behind the — is an elm, under which
_ the prince delivers judgments. Pop. 2200.

Ceto
cetacean

tolites, a name given by Owen to fossil
ear-bones, which occur in great abund-
ance in the Red Crag of Suffolk (see PLIOCENE).
4] are rubbed and water-worn, and have
Savidently been washed out of some earlier strata,
_ which remain yet unrecognised. The extent of
these earlier strata must have been very great,
seeing that the crag beds now extend over a large
district in Essex and Suffolk, and attain a thick.
ness in some places of not less than 40 feet.
_ Professor Henslow in 1843 drew the attention of
agricultural chemists to this deposit as a source of
materials for manure, and since then superphos-
= manures have been manufactured from it to
he value of many thousand er annually ; a
striking example of the valuable practical results
_ which uently flow from a purely scientific dis-
_ covery.
_ _ Cette, an important seaport town of France, in
the department of Hérault, is built on a neck of
land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediter-
ranean, 23 miles SW. of Montpellier. The space
| ineclosed by the piers and breakwater forming the
harbour can accommodate about 400 vessels; and
the harbour is defended by forts. A broad deep
_¢anal, lined with excellent quays, connects the port
with the Lake of Thau, and so with the Canal du
_ Midi and the Rhone, thus giving to Cette an ex-
tensive inland traffic; it has likewise an active
{ prin commerce. The principal trade is in wine,
brandy, salt, dried fruits, fish, dyestuffs, per-
fumery, and verdigris. Cette has shipbuilding
_ yards, salt-works, glass-works, factories for the
- Manufacture of syrups and grape-sugar, &e. It
is a resort for sea-bathing, and has extensive
fisheries. Colbert founded it in 1666. Pop. (1872)
_ 25,181 ; (1891) 36,179.

Ce'uta, a fortified port belonging to Spain, on
the coast of Morocco, opposite Gibralte® The
_ town occupies the site of the Roman colony of Ad
Septem Fratres, so called from the seven hills rising
_ here in a group, of which the most prominent are
_ Montes Almina and Hacho; on the latter, the
_ ancient Aby/a (one of the Pillars of Hercules), is a
_ Strong fort, and on the former, among beautiful
_ gardens, lies the New Town. Ceuta contains a
_ cathedral, a hospital, and convents, but is chiefly
of importance as a military and convict station.
The harbour is small, and exposed to the north,
_ has a lighthouse and some small trade.
_ The mixed population number about 12,500. The
q was a flourishing mart under the Arabs, who
_ corrupted its Roman name wo Sebtah; there the
_ first paper manufactory in the Western world is
_ said to have been established by an Arab who had
_ brought the industry from China. In 1415 it was
_ captured by the Portuguese, and annexed to

Portugal; it fell to Spain in 1580. It has resisted

es

|
|

several sieges by the Moors (1694-1720 and 1732),
and is still the most important of the four African
Presidios (q.v.).

Cevadilla, See SABADILLA.

Cévennes (ancient Cebenna), the chief moun-
tain-range in the south of France. With its con-
tinuations and offsets, it forms the watershed
between the river-systems of the Rhone and the
Loire and Garonne. Its general direction is from
north-east to south-west, commencing at the
southern extremity of the Lyonnais Mountains,
and extending under different local names as far as
the Canal du Midi, which divides it from the
northern slopes of the Pyrenees. The Cevennes
extend for over 150 miles, through or into nine
departments, the central mass lying in Lozére
and Ardéche, where Mont Lozbre attains 5584 feet,
and Mont Mézene (the vibe coarse point of the
chain ) 5754 feet. The average height is from 3000
to 4000 feet. The mountains consist chiefly of
primary rocks, covered with tertiary formations,
which in many places are interrupted by volcanic
rocks. For the religious wars of which the Cevennes
have been the arena, see ALBIGENSES, CAMISARDS,
WALDENSES; and for a vivid description of the
scenery and the peasantry, Mr R. L. Stevenson’s
Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes (1879).

Ceylanite. See SPINEL.

Ceylon (the Taprobane of the Greeks and
Romans, and the Serendib of the Arabian Nights),
an island and British crown colony in the Indian
Ocean, to the south-east of India, from which it is

79°

English Miles
Q5I0 20 30 40 Sp

separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait,
82 to 120 miles broad. It lies between 5° 55’ and
9° 51’ N. lat., and 79° 42 and 81° 55’ E. long.

78

CEYLON

Extreme length from north to south, from Point
Palmyra to Dondera Head, 266 miles; greatest
width, from Colombo to Sangemankande, 140 miles.
Area, 24,702 sq. m., of which more than one-fifth
is under cultivation,

Rhysical Features.—In natural scenery Ceylon
can vie with any part of the word; and as it rises
from the ocean, clothed with the rich luxuriance of
a tropical vegetation, it seems to the voyager like
some enchanted island of Eastern story. Its hills,
‘draped with forests of perennial green,’ tower
grandly from height to height, till they are lost in
clouds and mist. Near at hand, a sea of sapphire
blue dashes against the battlemented rocks that
occur at isolated points, and the yellow strands are
shaded by groves of noble palms. In shape Ceylon
resembles a pear, but its inhabitants more poetically
compare it to one of their elongated pearls. Un-
dulating plains cover about four parts of the island,
and the fifth is occupied by the mountain-zone of
the central south, which has an elevation of from
6000 to 8000 feet above the sea-level. Pedrotalla-
galla, the highest mountain in the range, attains
the height of 8260 feet ; the celebrated mountain of
Adam’s Peak, 7420 feet; and the tableland of
Nuwara-Eliya, 6210 feet.

Geology.—The mountain-system is mainly com-
posed of metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss, fre-
quently broken up by intrusive granite. With the
exception of some local beds of dolomitic limestone,
the gneiss is everywhere the surface rock, and the
soil is composed of its disintegrated materials.
The northern part of the island is rising ; and the
immense masses of corals continually increasing,
retain the debris brought from the Indian continent
by the currents of the sea, and thus form a flat,
ever-increasing madrepore plain.

Metals and Precious Stones.—Iron can be obtained
in great quantities, and anthracite and rich veins
of peaeeee exist on the southern range of hills.
Gold has recently been found. The gems of
Ceylon have been celebrated from time immemorial.
Sapphires, rubies, the oriental topaz, garnets,
amethysts, cinnamon stone, and cat's-eye are the
i ange gems and precious stones of the island.

he declared value of the precious stones exported
is about £10,000 annually; but as large numbers
are purchased by passengers calling at Colombo
and by native merchants for sale in Southern India,
the actual value is doubtless very far in excess of
thesum named. The pearl-fisheries of Ceylon were
known at a very remote date in the commercial
history of the world. Under the Portuguese and
Dutch governments, and now under the British
government, the pearl-fisheries form a monopoly,
and are under the inspection of an officer, who
reports when a sufficient number of pearl-yielding
oysters have reached maturity, and when the pro-
spect of a successful fishing is thus probable.

he fishings are intermittent and occur at irreg-
ular dates. In 1863 the value of pearls obtained
was £56,000; in 1874, it was £10,000; in 1877,
£19,000; in 1879-80, £29,500; in 1881, £59,800 ;
in 1887, £39,000; and in the intermediate periods
practically nothing. . In 1890 the value was £17,000,
in 1891 about £52,000, but in 1892-95 nothing.

Rivers.—The most important river in Ceylon is
the Mahavila-ganga. t has its source in the
vicinity of Adam’s Peak, and after draining more
than 4000 sq. m., it separates into several branches,
and enters the ocean near Trincomalee. The south
side of the island is watered by ten rivers of con-
siderable size.

Harbours.—Galle, at the southern extremity of
Ceylon, and Trincomalee on the eastern coast, are
the only natural harbours capable of containing
ships of large draught. The construction of a
breakwater at Colombo, the capital of the island,

/ reckoned as a third climatic division.

which provides safe anchorage for ships of any size
in all weather, has concentrated the commerce of
the island there, and has also attracted from Galle —
the mail and passenger steamers from Europe,

India, Australia, and China, which used to coal

and tranship at Galle. At Trincomalee are the
navai stores and dockyard, and the harbour is the
finest in eastern waters.

In climate, Ceylon has a great advantage over
the mainland of India, and as an island enjoys a
more equable temperature. The average for the —
year in Colombo (q.v.) is 80° in ordinary seasons.
April is the hottest month ; and in May the south-
west monsoon commences amid a de uge of rain,
and continues the prevailing wind till October,
when the north-east monsoon sets in: 80 inches is
the average annual fall of rain, though in an
cxeepiiaal year 120 inches have been registered.
The beautiful tableland of Nuwara-Eliya was first
visited by Europeans in 1826, and is now used as
asanatorium. Here the thermometer in the shade
never rises above 70°, while the average is 62°; the
nights are cool and refreshing. The north of the —
island, including the peninsula of Jaffna, the
plains of Nuwara-Kalawa, and the Wanny, may be
Here the
annual fall of rain does not exceed 30 inches, and
irrigation is largely employed in agriculture.

lora.—The general botanical features of Ceylon
are in many respects similar to those of Southern
India. A very large number of the species of plants.
is, however, peculiar to the island. About 800 species
(nearly 30 per cent. of the whole number found in
Ceylon) are endemic—that is, found nowhere else
in the world. The tree-vegetation of the forests
is almost wholly composed of such endemic species, |
and not a few of endemic genera. The affinities
and near alliances of these are with the plants of
the Malay Islands and Peninsula. ence, to
apes more correctly, the flora of Ceylon partakes
of an Indian as well as a Malayan character, but
is identical with neither. As may be expected
from the climatic peculiarities of the country
the flora is greatly diversified. In the south-west
mountainous parts of the island, with the exeep-
tion of some grassy tracts called patanas and the
plantations of tea, coffee, and cinchona, the slopes
and summits are forest-clad. The trees are ever-
green, with thick coriaceous leaves, growing closely
together and forming dark jungles. The under-
-lipihey is largely made up of gregarious plants
nown as Nilu, species of the genus Strobilanthes,
which only flower at regular intervals of five,
six, or seven years. Tree-ferns, often 25 feet in
height, scarlet-flowering rhododendrons, numerous.
tufted bamboos, melastomads, and orchids are
found in mountain forests. In the low country
the vegetation is marked by the prevalence of
alms, the cocoa-nut being pre-eminent. The
eautiful areca-palm, the feathery jaggery or
kitul, and the lordly talipat are the glories of
Ceylon lowland vegetation. In the recesses of
low-country forests the trees are high and closely
packed. Amongst the timber-trees the most
valuable are the calamander, satin-wood, and
ebony. Two very canine 2 and peculiarly
Siaivdek tree-ferns grow in the hot steamy forests
of Ceylon, as also the most admired of Ceylon.
orchids, Dendrobium Maccarthie. 'There has been
extensive cutting down of forest in the mountains.
of Ceylon to establish plantations, and the low-
lands have suffered no less severely by the indolent
and improvident practice of native cultivation.
As a consequence numerous foreign weeds, such
as the lantana, white weed, and Spanish needle,
have established themselves to the exclusion of
native vegetation in the hills; while in the low-
lands coarse grasses and worthless scrub have —

CEYLON

79

‘covered the country. The orchids of Ceylon
mber about 150 species. With the excep-

m of about a dozen Dendrobiums, Erias, and
Saccolabiums, and the lovely Wana-rdjah, there
» few of a striking character. The ferns num-
‘ber about 270 species. Among the latter is an
anomalous variety which bears spores on the
uy instead of on the under side of the frond.
of the handsomest native trees of Ceylon is

» Muruta (Lagerstremia Flos-regine). To this
night be added the Saraca indica, and the lovely
Na’ (Mesua ferrec), or irénwood. In the forests

-plants and epiphytes of prodigious size
and g appearance cover the trees with a
‘mass of parasitical foliage of extraordinary growth.
In the north of Ceylon the dry forest-region is
_ remarkable for its valuable timber-trees, such as
‘ Palu, Halmilla or Trincomalee wood, and
The characteristic palm of the north and
ninsula of Jaffna is the Palmyra (Boras-
liformis).
auna.—In Ceylon, quadrumanous animals are
eenented by the Loris gracilis and five species
monkeys. Sixteen species of bats exist in
_ Ceylon, including the flying-fox. Of the larger
_earnivora, the ar and leopard; and of the
smaller, the palm-cat and the glossy genette (the
¢ivet of Europeans) may be mentioned. The
tiger is not met with in Se Deer, buffaloes,
- and the humped ox of India are os ; the chev-
_ rotains (q.v.) are also said to abundant. The
elephant, which is for the most part tuskless, is
emphatically lord of the forests of Ceylon. The
_ wild boar is alsofound. Whales are captured off the
_ coast. Three hundred and twenty species of birds
are found. The song of the robin and long-tailed
thrush, and the flute-like voice of the oriole,
are heard over the whole mountain-zone and
_ far down into the neighbouring plains. Eagles,
_ the beautiful < Eat ge faleon, owls, swallows,
_ kingfishers, sun-birds, bulbuls, crows, parroquets,
_ pigeons, -fowl, jungle-fowl, and many others
_ of the feathered tribe, might be mentioned did
_ space permit. Myriads of aquatic birds and
J rs, amongst which the flamingo is conspicu-
ous, cover the lakes and | ns. The crocodile
is the largest reptile in the island; tortoises and
lizards are also found. There are a few species of
venomous snakes, and of these the ticpolonga and
cobra da capello are the most eater:
Inhabitants.—The Singhalese (Sinhalese, also
: avert Cingalese), the most numerous of the natives
, Ceylon, are sup to be the descendants of
_ those colonists from the valley of the Ganges who
first settled in the island 543 B.c., and speak an
_ Aryan language closely allied to the Pali (q.v.).
The dress of the men, who have delicate features
and slender limbs, looks singularly effeminate, and
consists of a comboy or waist-cloth, very much
_ resembling a petticoat; their long hair, turned
- back from the forehead, is confined with combs,
_ and earrings are worn by way of ornament. Poly-
andry still lingers in the interior of Ceylon; but
this and many other customs repugnant to Chris-
tianity are disappearing under the influence of
_ education, of which the Singhalese readily avail
| themselves. The Kandyans, or Highlanders, are a
more sturdy race, and maintained their independ-
ence for three centuries after the conquest of the
_ low country by European settlers. The Malabars,
_ or Tamils, have sprung from those early invaders
of Ceylon who from time to time swept across
from Southern Hindustan, and contended with
the Singhalese kings for the sovereignty of the
island. They have formed the chief population
of Jaffna for full 2000 years, and constitutionally
excel the Singhalese and Kandyans. The Moor-
men, who are the most energetic and intelligent

EF

of the
sus

of the native communities, are met with in every
rovince as enterprising traders, and are generally

lieved to be of Arab descent. The ‘ burghers’
of Ceylon are people of European descent, who
have me naturalised. Those of Portuguese
extraction hold the lowest place, and are mostly
tradesmen and artisans; but the Dutch burghers
frequently fill responsible posts, and are employed
in the government offices. There is besides a
remarkable tribe of outcasts—the Veddalis—hardly
removed from the wild animals of the forest, and
believed to be descended from the Yakkhos, the
aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They
oceupy a district in the eastern part of the island,
and have there preserved their ancient customs
and manner of living unaltered for more than

2000 pers

Religion.—The Singhalese are devoted to Bud-
dhism (q.v.), which is the prevailing religion of
the island. Its sacred books are identical with
those of Burma and Siam, and both record the
doctrines of Gautama in the Pali language ; the
deviations are in matters of practice. The Mala-
bar kings adulterated Buddhism to a considerable
extent with Brahmanism, introducing the worshi
of Hindu deities into the Buddhist temples, an
this continues more or less to be the case. More
than once have the Buddhists of Ceylon sought to
restore the purity of their faith—at one time send-
ing deputies to Siam, at another to Burma, with
this object in view. The Burman or Amarapura
sect have long been the reformers of Singhalese
Buddhism, and maintain no very friendly relations
with the party who, supported by the priests of
Siam, sanction the worship of Hindu deities and
the employment of the priesthood in secular
occupations, uphold caste, and restrict the sacred
books. Caste was acknowledged by the Singhal-
ese prior to the introduction of Buddhism, which
in principle is opposed to it; but so firmly was it
rooted that it still endures, though more as a
social than a sacred institution. Gautama Buddha
is said to have visited Ceylon three different times
to preach his doctrine, and his Sri-pada, or sacred
footstep, on the summit of Adam’s Peak (q.v.),
still commands the homage of the faithful. Bud-
dhism was not, however, permanently introduced
into Ceylon till 307 B.c. The influence of the
priests gradually increased, and, by the piety of
the Singhalese kings, monasteries were richly
endowed, and at the present day no less than one-
third of the cultivated land of the island is com-
eat to belong to the priesthood, and is exempt
rom taxation. The priests of Ceylon are divided
into two orders; any member is at liberty to lay
aside his ascetic character, and return to a secular
life. The most celebrated Buddhistic relic in
Ceylon is the Dalada, or sacred tooth of Gautama,
at Kandy, which is guarded with jealous care,
and preserved in an elegant shrine; but it is well
known that the original relic was destroyed by
the Portuguese, and the present substitute is a
piece of discoloured ivory, beavis g no resemblance
to a human tooth. Brahmanism or Hinduism (see
INDIA) is the faith of the Tamils or Malabars, but
the Moormen are Mohammedans. After the ex-
pulsion of the Dutch Christians, Protestant missions
to the natives of Ceylon were commenced by the
Baptists in 1813. The Wesleyan Methodists fol-
lowed in 1814, the Americans in 1816, the Church
of England in 1818, and Christian instruction has
made some progress amongst the native popula-
tions. Schools, collegiate institutions, and female
seminaries, under the direction of the missionaries,
are in successful operation ; and there is a govern-
ment system of education. :

Ancient Buildings.—In all Buddhist countries
the sacred buildings present, with certain modifica-

80

CEYLON

tions, the same general character (see articles
BUDDHISM, BuRMA, &c.); and in Ceylon we
find the three classes represented by the dagoba,
or relic-shrine, the temple proper, and the vihara
or monastery. The labour bestowed on these edi-
fices in the early ages of the Singhalese monarch

is truly astonishing. In the north of the island,
ruined cities buried for ages in the depths of the
forest have been discovered, revealing monuments
that in dimensions may almost compare with the
pyramids of Egypt. The most remarkable of
these vestiges of an early civilisation is Pollanar-
rua, the ancient capital of Ceylon; and here is
the celebrated Gal-wihara, a rock-hewn temple.

Entrance to the Temple of Dambula.

The cave-temple of Dambula was built 100 B.c.,
and is the most celebrated in the island. The
bell-shaped tapering dagobas of Ceylon, as relic-
shrines, answer to the pagodas of Burma—which
they very much veseinhtascaled the topes of
Afghanistan. The ruins of the Jaytawanarama
dagoba still reach the height of 249 feet; its
diameter is 360 feet; and from base to pinnacle

The Ambustella Dagoba, Mihintala.

it is covered with trees of the largest size. The
Ambustella of Mihintala is another remarkable
dagoba. A very famous object in connection with
Buddhism in Ceylon is the sacred Bo-tree (q.v.)
of Anuradhapura. Amongst the antiquities of
Ceylon must be mentioned those wonderful monu-
ments of the former greatness of the Singhalese

——__.

people—the ruined tanks, with which searcely any-
thing of a similar kind, whether ancient or modern,
can be compared. Thirty colossal reservoirs,
and about 700 smaller tanks, still exist, though
for the most part in ruins. The restoration of
these magnificent works of irrigation has been
for some time carried on by the government. In
February 1888 the largest and most important
tank in Ceylon, that of Kalawewa, was, after four
years of labour, completely restored. It was built
460 A.D. to supply Anuradhapura with water, but
has been ruinous tor centuries. Now again it con-
tains an area of seven square miles of water 20 feet
deep, and supplies smaller tanks more than 50
miles distant.

The history of Ceylon may be conveniently
divided into ancient and modern, and the latter
into the Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods,
The most famous of the Singhalese books is the
Mahdvansa, a metrical chronicle in the Pali lan-
guage, extending from the earliest period to 432 A.D.,
and ‘continued to 1756. The story begins with the
invasion of Wijayo (543 B.C.), son of a petty Indian
sovereign in the country watered by the Ganges.
He subdued the Yakkhos, the aboriginal inhabit-
ants; founded a dynasty that held undivided
sovereignty in Ceylon for nearly eight centuries ;
and bestowed on his kingdom his patrimonial name
of Sihala (whence Singhalese, Ceylon). In the
reign of King Devenipiatissa (307 B.c.), Buddhism
was established as the national religion, and his
reign was further remarkable by the planting of
the sacred Bo-tree, 288 B.c.; and now commenced
the erection of those stupendous buildings already
noticed. The next important epoch in Singhalese
history is the usurpation of the Malabars (237 B.c.),
foreign mercenaries from the Coromandel coast, to
whom the native sovereigns had intrusted the
defence of the island. In 1071 A.D. a_ native
dynasty was re-established in the person of Wijayo
Bahu, which, for 100 years, delivered the country
from the dominion of the Malabars. Prakrama
Bahu commenced a reign in 1153, the most re-
nowned in the records of Ceylon. He devoted
himself to religion and agriculture, and _ besi
many notable religious edifices, he caused no |
than 1470 tanks to be constructed, subsequently
known as the ‘seas of Prakrama.’ Thirty years
after the death of this monarch, the
landed with a large army, and speedily conquered
the whole island. In 1235 a native dynasty re-
covered a part of the kingdom. During the reign
of Dharma Prakrama IX. the Portuguese first
visited Ceylon (1505); but it was in 1517 that they
first formed a permanent settlement at Colombo
for trading purposes. Their encroachments soon
met with thers resistance from the patriotic Kan-
dyans. ‘Amity, commerce, and religion,’ was the
Portuguese motto; but their rule in Ceylon is a
sad story of rapacity, bigotry, and cruelty. The
were at last driven from the island by the Dute
in 1658, after a contest of twenty years, when the
fanatical zeal of Roman Catholic sovereigns for
the propagation of the faith was replaced by the
earnest toil of the Dutch traders to intrench their

But the perey military
tenure of the Dutch was destined to give place
to the colonisation of the British. It was durin
the great European war succeeding the Frene
Revolution that the English gained possession of
the island. On the Ist August 1795 an expedition

trading monopolies.

under Colonel James Stuart landed at Trincomalee, '

which was speedily captured, and finally the garri-
son of Colombo surrendered on the 16th February
1796. By this capitulation, all the Dutch settle-
ments and strongholds in Ceylon were ceded to the
English; though the island was not formally an-
nexed to the British crown till the Peace of Amiens,

alabars:

ne wd

Ee

CEYLON

CHADWICK 81

2

‘th March 1802. The native sovereigns, however,
mtinued in the possession of their mountain ter-
lory ; but at length the Kandyan king, Wikrama
Singha, after perpetrating the most frightful
ies on his own people, seized and murdered
2 native merchants, British subjects, trading
Kan War followed, January 1815; Kandy
us taken, and the tyrant sent a captive to the
yrtress of Vellore. On the 2d March 1815, a
y was concluded with the native chiefs, by
the king was formally deposed, and his
ferritories annexed to the British crown.

After the settlement of the Kandyan provinces,
attention was drawn to the hill country of Ceylon
a probable field for the profitable investment of
ritish capital and energy, and among other agri-
ltural enterprises the cultivation of coffee was
mitered upon. The condition of soil and climate
roved favourable, and the abolition of ay in
the West Indies, and the consequent labour diffi-
culties, caused a rush towards Ceylon, and the
a under coffee cultivation rapidly extended.
The enterprise, though subject to all the vicissi-
ies incidental to tropical agriculture, steadily

Trew, and coffee soon Soomene the staple export
1 the island; and the revenue directly and in-
etly derived from it enabled successive gover-
nors to bridge rivers, to make roads and railways,
wud to restore many of the ancient irrigation works
Which, in the period antecedent to British rule,
had fallen into disrepair. In 1869, however, a
fungus ( Hemileia vastatriz) attacked the leaves of
he coffee-trees, and the energy of the tree which
had hitherto produced fruit was now required for
‘the constant teproduction of leaf. Everythin
which practice or science could suggest was tri
to mitigate or overcome the pest, but in spite of
all efforts it steadily increased in virulence, and the
eolfee-planters were obliged to turn their attention
to other products of the soil.
_ Cinchona, cacao, cardamoms, and many other
products were introduced with varying success,
‘but it soon became plain that Ceylon was capable
_of becoming a great tea-producing country, and tea
has become the chief factor in restoring the finan-
tial equilibrium. Cinnamon and cocoa-nut cultiva-
tion are chiefly in the hands of natives; tea, cin-

¥
Lay

thona, cacao, and cardamom cultivation in the
hands of Europeans; and the export table shows
how, through the energy of the planters, new pro-
ducts have to a great extent replaced coffee.

Coffee incwt. Cacaoinewt. Teain lb.

ASS RE 995,493 Faas eine
Wea aenvivevesecsss 620,292 eaiee 8,515
Rap R SD < adap oen0 260,053 2 1,522,882
Sere 180,429 17,460 12,013,886
ss SAS ee 55,423 29,776 82,269,353

In 1898 the export of coffee had decreased to
12,871 ewt., while that of tea had increased to
(122,395,517 lb. The other principal exports were
tinchona, 977,760 lb., and cinnamon, 4,281,165 Ib.
In the same year the value of the exports to the
United Kingdom was; tea, £3,694,123; plumbago,
£198,833 ; oil, £180,402; nuts for oil, £164,469;
eocoa, £138,521; and cinnamon, £62,951. Minor
exports are ebony, cardamoms, areca-nuts, and
dyes. The epiepe) imports are cotton guods, salt
Aish, rice, coal and coke, spirits, and wines.

3 prion is the largest and most important of what
are known as the crown colonies of the British
The government is administered by a
ernor aided by executive and legislative coun-
ils (the former consisting of five members, the
ter of fifteen, partially elective), and municipal
ouncils. Local Saania and village tribunals give
measure of self-government to the povite: ne
ulation of Ceylon, 2,763,984 at the census of
1, had risen in 1891 to 3,008,239, of whom

2,000,000 were Singhalese, 750,000 Tamil immi-

= and settlers, 200,000 Moormen (Mohamme-
ans of Arab descent), 5500 Europeans, 20,000
Eurasian descendants of Portuguese and Dutch,
2500 Veddahs, 22,000 of mixed race.

The revenue in 1889 was 15,299,877 rupees, and
exceeded the expenditure by 400,000 rupees; in
1898 the revenue had incre: to 25,138,669 rupees,
while the expenditure was 22,843,852 rupees, show-
ing a larger surplus. The total imports, including
specie, were valued at 97,893,058 rupees, and the
total exports, including specie, at 85,372,622 rupees.
There are 298 miles of railways open, and 1727
miles of telegraph wire in operation.

See works on Ceylon by Sir James Emerson Tennent
(2 vols. 1859), Captain Suckling (2 vols. 1876), John
Ferguson (1887 and 1893), Miss Gordon Cumming (1891),
Alan Walters (1892), H. W. Cave (1894 and 1897), and
Emil Schmidt (Leip. 1897}.

Cezimbra, a coast town of Portugal, about 18
miles 8. of Lisbon. Pop. 6815.

Chabas, FRANCOIS, a great French Egyptolo-

ist, was born January 2, 1817, at Briancon.

hough at first engaged in commerce, he found
time to become a learned linguist, but it was not
till 1851 that he gave himself up to the study of
hieroglyphics. The first results of his studies
appeared in 1856, followed by a series of invaluable
books and papers, elucidative chiefly of two im-
portant periods of ancient ptian history—the
conquest of the country by the Hyksos, and the
time of their expulsion. Among the more import-
ant of his many books are—Les Pasteurs en Egypte
(1868), Histoire de la XIX. Dynastie et spécialement
des Temps de l Exode (1873), and Etudes sur U Anti-
quité historique d’apres les Sources égyptiennes (2d
ed. 1873). From 1873 to 1877 he edited L’Lgypto-
logie. He died at Versailles, May 17, 1882.

Chabasite. See ZEOLITE.

Chablis, a town in the French department of
Yonne, 12 miles E. of Auxerre. It gives name to
an esteemed white Burgundy (q.v.) wine. Pop.
2363.

Chaco, Et GRAN. See GRAN CHACO,

Chaconne (Fr.), an obsolete dance, probably
Spanish (chacona, from ue chocuna, ‘ pretty’).

e movement is slow, and the music, a series of
variations on a ground bass, mostly a bars in
length, appears in sonatas as well as in ballets.

Chad, LAKE. See Tsap.

Chad, St (Ceadda), was born in Northumbria,
became a pupil of St Aidan, spent part of his youth
in irelend: and in 666 became Bishop of York.
Doubt having been cast on the validity of his con-
secration, he withdrew in 669, but was immediately
made Bishop of Mercia, fixing the see at Lichfield
(q.v.). He died in 672, after a life eminent for
humility and sanctity. See Life by Warner (1871).

Chadwick, Epwin, C.B., a social reformer,
born in the vicinity of Manchester, 24th January
1801, studied law, and was called to the bar in 1830.
He attracted the notice of Jeremy Bentham by an
article on Life Assurances. He early devoted his
attention to questions of social, sanitary, and polit-_
ical science, and was by Lord Grey’s government
appointed an assistant-commissioner to inquire
into the operation of the poor-laws: His report,

ublished in 1833, commanded great attention, and
Taid the foundation of the later systems of _—
ment inspection. On the organisation of the new
Poor-law rd, Chadwick was appointed secretary.
In connection with this Board, and the General
Board of Health, Chadwick for twenty years was
energetic in improving the administration of poor-
law funds and the sanitary condition of the country.
His report on interments in towns (1843) laid the

82 CHARONEA

CHAFFINCH

foundation of later legislation on the subject. He
served on commissions as to the employment of
children in factories, on preventable diseases, and
on education. On a change being made in the
Board of Health in 1854, Chadwick retired with a
pension. He afterwards took great interest in
promoting competitive examinations for govern-
ment offices, and indeed in almost all questions of
social economy. He was an active member of the
Social Science Association. Some of his papers
appear in the Transactions of the Statistical Society
and of the British Association. Died July 5, 1890.
See Chadwick's Work and Works on Health and
Social Reform, by Richardson (2 vols. 1885).

Chzeronea, a town in ancient Bootia, near the
river Cephissus, memorable for the disastrous defeat
of the Athenians here by Philip of Macedon, 338 B.c.
This defeat struck a death-blow to the liberties of
Greece, and broke the heart of Isocrates; it was
the ‘ dishonest victory ’ that ‘ killed with report that
old man eloquent.’ A colossal marble lion, together
with the bones of 260 Greeks, was dug up here in
1880. Here also Sulla defeated the generals of
Mithridates in 86 B.c. The famous Plutarch was
a native of Cheronea.

Chzetoderma, a remarkable primitive gas-
teropod, which in some respects serves as a con-
necting link between the worm and snail type. See
CHITON.

Chietodon, a typical genus of a family of bony
fishes, known as Squamipennes. The body is
much compressed sideways, and consequently high;
the scales are more or less smooth, and cover portions
of the dorsal and anal fins in such a fashion that
the boundary between fins and body is indistinct.

Cheetodon setifer.

The mouth is generally small in front of the snout,
and the slender teeth are arranged in bands. The
lower rays of the pectoral fins are branched,. and
the hind fins are situated far forward on the thorax.
The Squamipennes, or as some would call them, the
Chastodonti ze, are tropical fishes, abounding near
coral reefs, and well suited in the beauty of their
colouring to such brilliant surroundings. They
feed on small animals, are never very large, and
but little used for food. Cheetodon itself is a large
genus, with some 70 beautiful species from the
tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. It has one
dorsal fin, and a moderately long snout. In Chelmo
' the snout is longer, and is used to draw animals
from their crevices. It often gets false credit for
catching insects by spouting water. Heniochus is
another pretty genus with horns on its head.
Holacanthus, one species of whichis called the
‘Emperor of Japan’ by the Dutch, is yet more
brilliantly adorned, and Pomacanthus is peculiarly
variable in its colouring. The Atlantic species of
Ephippus (2. faber) is peculiar in the pathological-
ike enlargement of some of the bones at the back
of the head. The Archer-fish (q.v.}) is an allied
genus. See Giinther, Study of Fishes (1880).

Chzetopods (Gr., ‘bristle-footed’), a class of
worms including familiar types like the Earth- —
worm, the Fisherman’s Lobworm, and the Sea-
mouse. They are often included under the title of
Annelids or ringed worms. The body consists of
numerous more or less similar joints; and the: —
locomotor organs are furnished with or represented
by bristles. The class is split into two main —
orders of Oligocheeta and Polycheta, of which
the latter is much the larger. The Oligocheta. —
have very rudimentary locomotor structures,
which are in fact reduced to bristles; they are: —
fresh-water or subterranean in habit; the familiar —
earthworm (Lumbricus) and certain river and
pond worms (e.g. Tubifex and Nais) are com-
mon representatives. The Polycheta are, with.
three or four exceptions, marine; the bristles, which:
are numerous, are fixed in special locomotor out- —
growths; and many other characters, such as the:
ossession of antennze, gills, &c., distinguish them
rom the earthworm order, and are in obvious asso- —
ciation with their very different habits. Many of
them, described as errant, lead a free life, and are
carnivorous in their diet. The common Nereis, or
Alitta, and the Sea-mouse (Aphrodite) are good.
examples. A large number, however, are sedentary
in habit, vegetarian in diet, and often inhabit tubes.
The lobworm (Arenicola), the common Serpula,
and Terebella are characteristic types. To the two
main orders of Cheetopods above mentioned, the
parasitic Myzostomata causing ‘galls’ on feather- —
stars (Crinoids), and the primitive aberrant Sacco- —
cirrus must be added. Polygordius is another —
common marine worm hich, along with a few
others, is usually regarded as a’survival of the
ancestral Cheetopods or Annelids. See EARTH-—
WORM, LOBWORM, SEA-MOUSE, WORMS, &c. q

Chafer, a common name for beetles or coleop-_
terous insects, especially for those which, either im —
the perfect or larval state, are destructive of plants,
oe tant of the wood, bark, or roots of trees.

he word is seldom used alone, but generally as.
part of a name, with some prefix; thus, we have
Cock-chafer, Rose-chafer, Bark-chafer, &e. Kédferis.
the German word for ‘ beetle.’

Chaffineh (Fringilla celebs), one of the com-
monest British birds, a species of Finch (q.v.), and —
probably that to which the name Finch, now so
extended in its signification, originally belonged.
Fink, the German form of the name, and pink and —
twink, still used in England as popular names,
have some resemblance in sound to the common —
call-note of the chaffinch. The whole length of
the bird is about six inches. The tail is very
slightly forked. The beak is almost equal in
breadth and height. The male, in summer, has the
top of the head and nape of the neck bluish-gray ;
the back, chestnut; the wings almost black, with —
two conspicuous white bars; the tail nearly black.
The lower surface is reddish. The colours of the:
female are much duller than those of the male..
The chaffinch is a very widely distributed species,
being found in almost all parts of Europe, in
some parts of Asia, in the north of Africa, and as.
far west as the Azores. In the colder northern
countries it is migratory; in more southern
regions it is stationary. Linneus gave it the
specific name celebs, from observing that the
flocks seen during winter in Sweden consisted
chiefly of males, the females having, as he sup- —
posed, sought a milder climate. A partial separa-
tion of the sexes is observed also in the great:
winter-flocks in Britain, but it is only partial;
and Yarrell thinks that the young males of the
previous season, which resemble the females mm
plumage, are associated with them, and have beem
mistaken for them. The flocks seen in Britain im

CHAGNY

CHAINS 83

‘inter are believed to be augmented by migration
rom Scandinavia, The eggs are usually four or
ve in number, of pale purplish buff colour, spar-
gly streaked and spotted with reddish brown.
» chaffinch feeds in great part on insects, and
oes much service in summer by destroying aphides
and caterpillars ; but eats also seeds, and is some-
nes persecuted, because in spring it pulls up and
turnips and radishes when in the seed-
uf. It is particularly fond of the seeds of beeches
nd conifers. Great numbers of chaffinches are
killed for the table in Italy. In Germany this
rd was formerly in the highest esteem as a song-
vird. Its notes are very clear and loud, but some
idividuals greatly excel the ordinary multitude of
weir species.—The common Scotch name of the
haffinch is Shilfa.
: | Chagny, an important railway junction and
commercial centre in the French department of
sabne-et-Loire, on the Canal du Centre, 32 miles S.
f Dijon. As the key of the roads to the Loire
district, it has been strongly fortified. Pop. 4291.
_ Chagos Islands. See Dieco Garcia.
3 a town of the republic of Colombia,
n the N. coast of the Isthmus of Panama, situated
‘at the mouth of the Chagres River. A poor place
at best, with a harbour for vessels drawing from
10 to 12 feet of water, it was almost forsaken on
the stoppage of the Panama Canal. Pop. 1000.
; river Chagres rises about 10 miles NE. of
Panama, makes an immense bend round to the NE.,
and enters the Caribbean Sea. Though towards its
mouth it varies in depth from 16 to 3v feet, it is, by
reason of its rapidity and its falls, of little use for
wigation. The line of the Panama Canal (see

PAnAma) lay partly by the valley of the Chagres.
Chaillu, Pavi pu. See Du CHariv,
_ Chain, in Surveying (called Gunter's Chain,
from its inventor, Edmund Gunter, q.v.), is a mea-
sure of 22 yards long, composed of 100 iron links,
each of which is thus 7°92 inches long. As an
acre contains 4840 square yards, 10 square chains
2 x 22x 10= 4840 square yards) or 100,000
Square links make an acre.

Chain Cable. See CABLe.
_ Chain-mail, or CHary-armovr, much used in
Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, and still

used in India
WZAS VAX OWN and the inte-
ILO
Six }

nae

Lhe

eer

Asiatic conti-

( ‘Asia of the

> Oa gg Pion
i
XK NY Y/ N W oon ee io
sp toget
\ . WI) ay ri vat a

links so that
each link em-
braces four
and worked into the form of a garment.
such armour was much more flexible and con-
fenient to the wearer than that which was formed
#f steel or brass plates, but was less fitted to bear
he thrust of a lance. See ARMOUR.
ponain-plate on shipboard (wood vessels),
ure iron plates bolted below the channels to serve
is attachments for the dead-eyes, through which
the standing rigging or shrouds and back-stays are
e and n most of the modern iron-steel

Piece of Chain-armour.

els rigging-screws take the place of the older
eyes, the chain-plates to which they are

| @ttached consisting simply of flat palms, having
_ & eye projection, riveted to the inside of the sheer
_ or top <e of shell plating.

. @hains. Chain-making being a distinct trade
-°f itself, thoroughly reliable chains can only be

i

made by men trained to the work, although
some of the very small sizes of common chains
are made by women, boys, and girls. Chains
are of two generally distinct kinds—short-link
or unstudded (frequently called close-link) chain,
and stud-link or stayed chain. The former usually
embraces the smaller sizes of chain up to 14 inches,
and the latter comprises ships’ cables and other
heavy chains. Short-link chain is made in the
following manner: The end of the bar from which
the link is to be made is heated, then cut to

nge, and while still hot is bent into U-form; the
ree ends are then heated to a white heat and flat-
tened or scarphed by a hammer, and in this state
they are brought together and welded so as to form
the other end of the link. The flattening or scarph-
ing of the two ends and the closing of them being
all done in one heat, the scarphed ends are again
heated to welding-point, and the link is placed in a
suitable recess under a hollow-faced tool, worked
mechanically, which strikes the roughened weld
and ultimately finishes it off as smooth as the other
end of the link. The result is the finished link,
and when the first has been completed, another
piece of iron is bent in the same way and threaded
or rove through it, and another link formed and
finished in the same manner as the first. In this
way each successive link is added until the required
length of chain is made.

e foregoing illustrates the way in which
chains generally are made, but as a rule, links
of chains of l-inch diameter and over are welded
at the side instead of at the end, and a stud
or stay-pin is welded across from side to side of
the link. The larger sizes of chains and chain-
cables are made by men, and the expert workman
when employed making first-class chains of all
descriptions gets an extra price for his skill and
labour. Common (not to say inferior) chains,
however, are too often welcomed by bargain-loving
users if they can at all be made to pass the statu-
tory tests. Chains which stand certain of the
standard tests may be found totally unequal to
meet certain others, and superior and inferior parts
are often Li ager mingled in one chain by dis-
honest makers to cheapen production and defeat
the system of testing. The iron used for very
superior chains is selected not only for its tensile
oo, and welding Propet: but for its ductility,
as high tensile strength is not infrequently
by a hard brittle iron, liable to snap upon the appli-
cation of a sudden jerk, and therefore totally un-
suited for chains. The system of testing cables
followed by Lloyd’s Register Society well exem-
plifies what should be adopted in the case of all
chains. Every 15-fathom length is subject to a
fair standard strain, sufficient to detect bad work-
sagen f by pulling asunder or opening any defec-
tive welds, yet not so severe as to injure the nature
of the material by crystallising it—a result invari-
ably produced by overstraining. This standard
test, however, not being the extreme limit of strain
which the chain ought to bear in actual use at sea,
a few links are required to be cut out at random
from any part of each 15-fathom length, and sub-
mitted to a so-called breaking strain of 50 per cent.
in excess of the standard test. If these trial pieces
are found to withstand this extra strain satisfac-
torily, they are then assumed to represent a fair
average of the strength of that particular length to
which they belong. This operation being gone
through with satisfactory results in each length of
eable, the whole is then , and certified
accordingly. Any perce ee lengths are con-
demned, marked, and sent back to the manufac-
turer.

In his treatise on Chain Cables and Chains, Mr
T. W. Trail, surveyor-in-chief to the Board of

84 CHAIN-SHOT

CHALEURS

Trade, says: ‘Since the Act of 1871, which came
into operation in the early part of 1873, until the
latter part of 1883, a period of about eleven years,
nearly 165,000 tons of chain have been certified
to, in accordance with the act of parliament, as
having duly withstood the statutory tests, repre-
senting about 3,199,000 fathoms of chain, and for
which it is computed that from about two and a
quarter million to about two and a half million
pounds sterling have been paid.’

Chain-shot, an obsolete artillery projectile,
consisting of two balls connected by a short chain,
formerly used to destroy the rigging of ships, &c.
As case-shot and shrapnel shell answer the same
purpose, its use has been discontinued.

Chalaza. The first layer of albumen deposited
upon the yolk of an egg as it descends the bird’s
oviduct, is peculiarly viscous, and thus becomes
twisted into two strands which keep the yolk in
the middle of the more fluid albumen. These
cords are also called chalaze.

Chalee’don, a city of ancient Bithynia, at the
entrance of the Euxine, opposite to Byzantium. It
was founded 684 B.c. by a colony from Megara, and
soon became a place of considerable trade and im-

ortance. Taken by the Persians, it finally merged
into the Roman empire, under which it was made
a free city. Chosroes, the Persian, captured it in
616 A.D., after which it declined, until it was
finally demolished by the Turks, who used its
ruins to build mosques and other edifices at Con-
stantinople. Chalcedon was the birthplace of the
philosopher Xenocrates.

The council of Chaleedon was the fourth ceeumeni-
cal council, and was assembled (451 A.D.) by the
emperor Marcian for the purpose of drawing up a
form of doctrine in tenant to the nature of Christ
which should equally avoid the errors of the Nes-
torians (q.v.) and Monophysites (q.v.). Six hundred
bishops, almost all of the Eastern Church, were
present. The doctrine declared to be orthodox
was, that in Christ there were two natures, which
could not be intermixed (this clause was directed
against the Monophysites), and which also were not
in entire separation (this was directed against the
Nestorians), but which were so conjoined, that their
union destroyed neither the peculiarity of each
nature, nor the oneness of Christ’s person,

Chalced’ony (often misspelled Calcedony), a
beautiful mineral of the quartz family, consisting
of quartz with some admixture of opal. It derives
its name from Chalcedon in Bithynia, near which it
is found in considerable abundance, and has been
known by the same name from ancient times. It
never occurs in crystals, but usually in mammillary,
botryoidal, or stalactitic forms, lining or entirely
filling the cavities of rocks, and more particularly
old igneous rocks, such as the basalt-rocks of Scot-
land, the Farée Isles, Iceland, &c. It constitutes
the whole or the principal part of many agates. It
is generally translucent, sometimes semi-trans-
parent, has a somewhat waxy lustre, and is in
colour generally white or bluish white, sometimes
reddish white, sometimes milk white, less frequently
gray, blue, green, yellow, brown, or even black.
Its fracture is even, or very slightly conchoidal.
Chalcedony is much used in jewelry, for brooches,
necklaces, and ornaments of all sorts, the largest
pieces being sometimes made into little boxes, cups,
&ec. It was much used by the ancients, and many
beautiful engraved specimens appear in antiquarian
collections. Chaleedonies with disseminated spots
of brown and red were once very highly prized, and
were called Stigmites or St Stephen's stones. Petyri-
fied plants are sometimes found in chalcedony, in
which they appear to have been incased whilst it
was in course of formation. Specimens of chal-

cedony are sometimes found inclosing a little water _
in the interior, which gives them a very beautiful
appearance ; but the water easily escapes, and to
prevent this, rings or other ornaments made of such
stones are kept in distilled water when not worn.
The ancients set a very high value on these en-
hydrites (Gr. en, ‘in,’ and hydor, ‘water’). See —
JASPER.
Chalced’onyx (or, erroneously, Calcedonyx), a
name given to agates formed of cacholong, or a —
white opaque chalcedony, alternating with a grayish
translucent chalcedony. ’
Chalchihuitl, the Indian name of a green-
coloured stone, taken from a quarry near Santa Fé, —
and by some regarded as a species of turquoise, b
others identified with Jade (q.v.). It was valu
above gold by the ancient Mexicans, who fashioned
it into beads and ornaments.
Chalcididz, a small family of short-tongued
lizards, restricted to America. Chalecides (C.
Jlavescens) occurs in tropical America. Hetero-
dactylus is an allied Brazilian genus. The same
title is applied to a family of insects. See CHALCIS. —
Chaleis, the capital of the Greek island of
Eubcea, on the Euripus, a strait separating the
island from Beeotia, and here only 120 feet wide.
Chalcis is a place of very great antiquity, and it —
soon became a great trade centre, sending out
colonies to Macedonia, where the peninsula of
Chaleidice commemorated its name, as well as to
Campania (Cume), South Italy, and Sicily. Sue-
cessively Athenian, Macedonian, and Roman, it
was a place of great military importance, nearly —
nine miles in circumference, and had many fine
temples, theatres, and other public buildings.
Aristotle died here. In the middle ages it was
prosperous under the Venetians, who held it for
nearly three centuries, until its conquest by the ~
Turks in 1470. Pop. (1879) 6877 ; (1889) 9919.
Chaleis, a typical genus of a large family of
Hymenopterous insects, not unlike small wasps.
The family (Chalcidide or Pteromalini) has this
great importance that the larvze of its members are
parasitic in the eggs, larvee, or pupze of other insects, —
and as some of the latter are very destructive to
lants, their parasites are animals to be thankful ©
or. Thus forms so different as the cabbage butter-
fly and the destructive Hessian fly have their attend-
ant Pteromalini. Many of the so-called gall-wasps
(Cynipidz) which cause many of the commonest
alls for instance on the oak, or the curious bunches
on rose and briar bushes—are preyed upon by Chal-
cidide. Some of the hosts of these Chalcide are
themselves parasitic, and thus we have parasites
within parasites, or double parasitism, there being
in this case no honour among thieves. Altogether —
over 2000 species of Chalcidide are known.
Chaldzea. See BABYLONIA ; for CHALDEE, see
ARAMA,
Chalder, an old Scotch dry measure,
taining 16 bolls. See BoLL and FIARs.

Chaldron (Lat. caldarium, ‘a vessel for warm
water’), an old dry measure used in selling coal,
and containing 36 heaped bushels (= 254 ewt.).
Coal is now sold by weight.

Chalet is the French-Swiss name for the wooden
hut of the Swiss herdsmen on the mountains; but —
is also extended to Swiss dwelling-houses generally,
and to picturesque and ornate villas built in imita-
tion of them.

Chaleurs, BAy oF, an inlet of the Gulf of St
Lawrence, between Gaspé, a district of Quebec, —
and New Brunswick, having a depth of 90 miles
from east to west, and a width varying from 12 to”
20. It is deep and well sheltered, and much
frequented for its mackerel fisheries. ‘

con-

CHALFONT ST GILES

CHALLENGER EXPEDITION 8&5

~~

Chalfont St Giles, a village of Buckingham-
ire, 16 miles SE. of Aylesbury, Milton's cottage
1665) was pure by the nation in 1887.
Chalgrove, a village 13 miles SE. of Oxford,

e scene of a skirmish in the Civil War between
Prince Rupert’s cavalry and a parliamentary force
nder Hampden, in which that patriot received his
eath-wound, June 18, 1643.

‘Chalice (Lat. caliz, ‘a cup’). The name has
mg been applied only to the cups used for the
iministration of the wine in the holy communion,
wnciently made of glass, precious stone, horn, and
i other substances,
chalices have for
many centuries
been formed of
silver, or some-
times gold, occa-
sionally enriched
with jewels.
Their fashion has
followed the art
of the times,
the hemispherical
bowl and plain
circular foot of

Romanesque or

Norman days
iving way to a
ere how) and
hexagonal foot in
_ the Perpendicu-

lar period, and

these in turn to

more modern
- shapes, seldom of
such beauty and excellence as those of Gothic
| design. Before the Reformation a crucifix or
othe sacred device always occupied one side of
| the foot. The chalice was usually accompanied
|

Chalice (1459) at Nettlecombe,
- County Somerset.
a (From Cripps’s Old English Plate.)

by a paten, which might serve as a cover to the
bowl, as well as for carrying the wafer or bread.
In medieval times a chalice of tin or pewter, if not
of silver, was placed in the coffin of ecclesiastics at
mrial. The chalice is the emblem of St John the
gelist. Old chalices are much amen after by
collectors. The glass ‘ Luck of Edenhall,’ preserved
in the family of Musgrave, near Penrith, is
apparently an old chalice. The use of the mixed
_ chalice, the mingling of water with the wine used

in the Lord’s Supper, and in the Roman rite, has
2en matter of controversy in the Church of Eng-
and. The chalice veil or corporale was a covering
for the chalice.

Chalk, a soft earthy variety of limestone or
‘arbonate of lime, forming great strata, and claim-
ng the attention of the geologist even more than of
jhe mineralogist (see CRETACEOUS SysTEM). It is
senerally of a yellowish-white colour, but some-
times snow-white. It is easily broken, and has an
earthy fracture, is rough and very meagre to the
ouch, and adheres slightly to the tongue. It
enerally contains a little silica, alumina, or mag-
hesia, sometimes all of these. Although often very

ft and earthy, it is sometimes so compact that it
an be used as a building-stone; and it is used for
Mis purpose either in a rough state, or sawn into

ocks of proper shape and size. It is burned into
lime, and nearly all the houses in London are
mted with mortar so procured. The siliceous
particles being separated by pounding and diffusing

_ mm water, it becomes whiting, of which the domestic
uses are iliar to every one. Carpenters and
ers use it for making marks, which are easily

ted : the blackboard and piece of chalk are now
mmon equally in the lecture-rooms of universities
d in the humblest village-schools. Chalk, per-

‘writing, &e.

fectly purified, is mixed with vegetable colouring
matters, such as turmeric, litmus, saffron, and sap-
en, to form pastel colours or coloured chalks ;
ut vegetable colours which contain an acid are
chan by it (see CRAYON). The Vienna white
of artists is simply purified chalk. In a perfectly
purified state it is administered as a medicine to
correct acidity in the stomach. Chalk is also
extensively used asa manure. See LIME, MANURE.
BLACK CHALK is a mineral quite different from
common chalk, and apparently receives its name
from resembling it in meagreness to the touch, in
soiling the fingers, and in being used for drawing,
t is also called Drawing-slate. It is
of a slaty structure, of a bluish or grayish-black
colour, easily cut and broken, and makes a per-
fectly black mark on paper. It is used for draw-
ing and as a black colour in painting. It becomes
by exposure to heat. It is essentially a kind of
Clay (q.v.), and derives its colour from carbon,
which it contains. It is found associated with
schists, &c. in Spain, France, Italy, &c., also in the
coal formation in Scotland.—BRIANCON CHALK and
FRENCH CHALK are popular names for Soapstone
(q.v.).—RED CHALK is ochry red clay-iron ore,
consisting of clay and much peroxide of iron. It is
of a brownish-red colour, and a somewhat slaty
structure, the cross fracture earthy. The coarser
varieties are used chiefly by carpenters for making
marks on wood ; the finer, by painters. It occurs
in thin beds in clay-slate and graywacke-slate in
some parts of Germany.

Chalking the Door, a mode of warning
tenants to remove from burghal tenements, long
known and still in use in Scotland. It is thus
described by Hunter in his work on Landlord
and Tenant: ‘A burgh-officer, in presence of
witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty
days before Whitsunday, having made out an exe-
cution of ‘chalking,’ in which his name must bé
inserted, and which must be subscribed by himself
and two witnesses. This ceremony now p
simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The
execution of chalking is a warrant under which
decree of removal will be pronounced by the burgh
court, in virtue of which the tenant may be ejected
on the expiration of a charge of six days. See
EJECTMENT.

Challenger Expedition, a circumnavigat-
ing scientific exploration of the open sea sent out
by the British government in 1872-76—earlier
expeditions being those of the Lightning (1868) and
Porcupine (1870). In 1872 the Challenger, a cor-
vette of 2306 tons, was completely fitted out and
furnished with every scientific appliance for ex-
amining the sea from surface to bottom—natural
history work-room, chemical laboratory, aquarium,
&c. The ship was given in charge to a naval
surveying stat under Captain Nares; and to a
scientific staff, with Professor (afterwards Sir)
Wyville Thomson at their head, for the purpose of
sounding the depths, mapping the basius, and
determining the physical and biological conditions
of the Atlantic, the Southern and the Pacific
Oceans. With this new commission, the Challen
weighed anchor at Sheerness on the 7th December
1872, and on the evening of the 24th May 1876 she
dropped anchor at Spithead, having in these three
pay a half years cruised over 68,900 nautical miles,
and made investigations at 362 stations, at each of
which were determined the depth of channel; the
bottom, surface, and intermediate temperatures,
currents, and fauna; and the atmospheric and
meteorological conditions. The route was_ by
Madeira, the Canaries, the West Indies, Nova
Scotia, Bermudas, Azores, Cape Verd, Fernando
Noronha, Bahia, Tristan d’Acunha, Cape of

86 CHALLIS

CHALMERS

Good Hope, Kerguelen, Melbourne, the Chinese
‘Sea, Hong Kong, Japan, Valparaiso, Magellan's
Strait, onte ‘Video, Vigo, and Portsmouth.
Between the Admiralty Isles and Japan the
Challenger made her deepest sounding, on the 23d
March 1875, 4575 fathoms. See the copious Reports
on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger, edited by Sir Wyville Thomson and
Sir John Murray, which mark an era in deep-sea
exploration. They extend in all to fifty volumes
(1880-95), the bulk of the large quartos devoted to
Zoology, the others representing Botany (3 vols.),
Deep-sea Deposits (1 vol.), Physics and Chemistry
(3. vols.), and a Narrative (2 vols.). To these in-
valuable reports many articles in the present work
are indebted for materials and illustrations. See
also the works of Sir C. Wyville Thomson, H. M.
Moseley, Spry, Lord George Campbell, Wild; and
the articles in this work on ATLANTIC OCEAN,
PACIFIC OCEAN, SOUNDING, and especially SEA.

Challis, JAMES, astronomer, born at Braintree
in Essex, 12th December 1803, graduated senior
wrangler and first Smith’s prizeman at Cambridge
in 1825, was ordained in 1830, and in 1836 became
professor of Astronomy at Cambridge, where he died
3d December 1882. e was also till 1861 director
of the Cambridge Observatory, and published a
number of works, including 12 vols. of astronomical
observations (1832-64). In August 1846, whilst
carefully preparing to test Adams’ results, he twice
unconsciously noted the position of the planet
Neptune before its discovery at Berlin on 23d
September. See ADAmMs (J. C.).

Challoner, RicHARD, a learned Roman Catholic
prelate, born at Lewes in Sussex, September 29,
1691. Becoming a Roman Catholic, he was sent
in 1704 to the English College at Douay, where
he became a professor, and remained until 1730.
In that year he was sent to labour in London, and
here he served as a missionary priest until 1741,
when he was raised to the episcopal dignity as
Bishop of Debra and coadjutor, of Bishop Petre,
whom he succeeded as Vicar Apostolic of the
London district in 1758. During the ‘No Popery’
riots of 1780 he was secreted near Highgate, and he
died in London, January 12, 1781. Of Challoner’s
numerous controversial treatises, the best known
is his Catholic Christian Instructed, an answer to
Conyers Middleton’s Letters from Rome. His
Garden of the Soul is still the most popular prayer-
book with English Catholics, and his revision of the
Douay version of the Bible (5 vols. 1750) is sub-
stantially the Bible used by them. Of his histori-
eal works the most valuable are his memoirs of
missionary priests and other Catholics of both
sexes who suffered death or imprisonment in Eng-
land on account of their religion, from the year 1577
till the end of the reign of Charles II. (2 vols.
1741), and his Britannia Sancta (2 vols. 1745), a
collection of the lives of British and Irish saints.

Chalmers, ALEXANDER, an industrious bio-
grapher and miscellanous writer, was born at
Aberdeen in 1759. After a course of study at his
native university, he abandoned a_ projected
medical career, and repaired to London, where he
soon became an active writer for the press and the
busiest of booksellers’ hacks. He died in London,
10th December 1834. His editions of Burns,
Beattie, Fielding, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, Shake-
speare, Johnson, and Boswell’s Johnson are now of
no importance ; but that of The British Essayists,
in 45 vols., is still esteemed as accurate and handy.
His prefaces to ‘ Walker’s’ Classics (45 vols.), and
his enlarged edition of Johnson’s Collection of the
Poets (21 vols.), contain much honest work. But
his reputation depends mainly on the General
Biographical Dictionary (32 vols. 1812-14).

Chalmers, GEORGE, Scottish antiquary, was
born in 1742 at Fochabers in Elginshire, and was
educated there and at King’s College, Aberdeen.
Having afterwards studied law at Edinburgh, in
1763 he went to North America, where he practised
as a lawyer at Baltimore till the breaking out of
the war of independence. Then returning to
Britain, he settled in London (1775), and was
appointed clerk to the Board of Trade in 1786.

he duties of this office he continued to discharge
with diligence and ability till his death on 31st
May 1825. Of his thirty-three works the chief is
Caledonia; an Account, Historical and Typo-

raphical, of North Britain (vols. i.-iii. 1807-24).
i 1888-89 it was reprinted at Paisley in 7 vols.,
comprising the matter prepared for the unpublished
4th vol., and furnished with a much-needed index.
Among his other publications are A Collection of
Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers
(2 vols. 1790); Lives of Defoe, Paine, Ruddiman,
and Mary, Queen of Scots; and editions of Allan
Ramsay and Lyndsay.

Chalmers, GEORGE PAUL, R.S.A., was born at
Montrose in 1833 (not 1836). He served as errand-
boy to a surgeon, and apprentice to a ship-chandler;
but he was resolved to become an artist, and in 1853
he came to Edinburgh, and studied under Scott
Lauder. His ‘Favourite Air,’ attracted attention
in 1854, and in 1867 he was elected an A.R.S.A.,
in 1871 an R.S.A. His untimely death at Edin-
burgh (28th February 1878) was due to injuries
received some days before either from violence or
by misadventure. His works are distinguished by
admirable breadth, effective concentration of light-
ing, freedom of handling, and rich and powerful
colouring. He executed some important portraits.
His landscapes, mainly of his later years, include
‘End of the H
(1875). He is represented in the National Gallery
of Scotland by ‘The Legend,’ a large unfinished
subject-picture, which, like ‘ Prayer’ (1871), has
been etched by Rajon. See his Memoir (1879).

Chalmers, THomas, D.D., LL.D., was born at
Anstruther, in Fife, 17th March 1780, educated
at the university of St Andrews (from 1791), and at
the age of nineteen licensed to preach the gospel.
In 1803 he was ordained minister of the parish
of Kilmany, in Fifeshire, about 9 miles from St’

Andrews. At this period his attention was almost
entirely absorbed by mathematics and natural
philosophy. He carried on mathematical and

chemistry classes in St Andrews during the winter
of 1803-1804, and by his enthusiasm and lucidity of
exposition obtained for himself a high reputation
as a teacher. In 1808 he published an hig bs: into
the Extent and Stability of National Resources.
Shortly after this, domestic calamities and severe
illness rendered him keenly susceptible of re-
ligious impressions. Having to prepare an article
on Christianity for Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclo-
pedia, he commenced a thorough study of the
evidences, and rose from his investigations con-
vineed that Christianit
Bible the veritable ‘word of God.’ Then the great

enius of the man broke forth like sunshine.

e grew earnest, devout, and faithful to his —

pastoral duties. In July 1815 he was translated to
the Tron Church and parish, Glasgow, where his
magnificent oratory took the city by storm. His
Astronomical Discourses (1817) and Commercial
Discourses (1820) had a widely extended popu-
larity. In 1817 he visited London, where his

reaching excited as great a sensation as at home.
But Chalmers’ energies could not be exhausted by
mere oratory. Discovering that his parish was in a
state of great ignorance and immorality, he began

to devise a scheme for overtaking and checking —

arvest’ (1873) and ‘Running Water’ Z

was the truth, and the —

ee

CHALMERS

CHAM 87

' eagening evil. It seemed to him that the
ly means by which this could be accomplished
r Af ‘revivifying, remodelling, and extendin
old parochial economy of Scotland,’ which
oved so fruitful of good in the rural parishes. In
rder to wrestle more closely with the ignorance
ul vice of Glasgow, Chalmers in 1819 became
nister of St John’s pares of whose 2000
1 mostly workpeople, more than 800 had
nection with any Christian church. Chalmers
oke up his parish into 25 districts, each of
rich he placed under separate management,
wnd established two day schools, and between
) and 50 local Sabbath schools, for the instrue-
on of the children of the ‘poorer and neglected

es,’ more than 1000 of whom _ attended.
: other ways he sought to elevate and
mirify the lives of his parishioners. While in Glas-
w, Chalmers had matured his opinions rela-
ve to the best method of providing for the D see
fe disliked the English system of a ‘compulsory
ment,’ and preferred the old Scotch method
f volun contributions at the church-door,
dministe yy elders. The management of the
poor in the parish of St John’s was intrusted to his
tare by the authorities as an experiment, and in
our years he reduced the pauper expenditure from
£1400 to £280 per annum. ward Irving was for
vO his assistant. But such herculean
toil to undermine his constitution, and in
[823 he accepted the offer of the Moral Philosophy
chair in St Andrews, where he wrote his treatise
on the Use and Abuse of Literary and Ecclesi-
astical Endowments (1827). In the following year
he was transferred to the chair of Theology in
Edinburgh, and in 1832 he published a work on
political economy, In 1833 appeared his Bridge-
water treatise, On the Adaptation of External
Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution
of Man, It was received with great favour, and
obtained for the author many literary honours ;
in 1834 he was elected by the Royal Society of Edin-
urgh first a fellow and then a ind Perggeack and
by the French Institute a corresponding member,
while in 1835 the university of Oxford conferred
on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he was
appointed convener of the Church-extension Com-
mittee; and after seven years of enthusiastic
dabour, he announced that upwards of £300,000
had been collected from the nation, and 220 new
churches built. pers Nie rete pe
were springing up in the bosom of the chure
ltse The Evangelical party had become pre-
dominant in the General Assembly; the struggles
in regard to patronage between them and the
*Moderate’ or ‘Erastian’ party became keener
and more frequent, until the decision of the civil
courts in the famous Auchterarder and Strath-
bogie cases brought matters to a crisis; and on
the 18th of May 1843 Chalmers, followed by 470
clergymen, left the church of his fathers, rather
than sacrifice those principles which he believed
essential to the purity, honour, and independence
of the church (see FREE CHURCH). e rapid
formation and organisation of the Free Church
Were greatly owing to his indefatigable exertions.
Chalmers was elected principal of the Free Church
College, and spent the close of his life in the
alous performance of his duties there, and in
completing his Institutes o comanag A He died
suddenly at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847.
__ The works of Chalmers extend to 34 vols. (9 of
which include his posthumous works). They con-
i n valuable and, in some cases, original con-
butions to the sciences of natural theology,
ristian apologetics, and social economy ; while
mm minor topics, such as the church-establishment
estion, they exhibit both novelty and ingenuity

hap
i.e,

of argument. As a religious orator Chalmers was
unique and unrivalled. There have been few men
in whom such gifts of intellect, feeling, and imagin-
ation were so harmonigusly combined with the
shrewdest common-sense and the highest admini-
strative ability. Never did Scotland produce a
greater or more lovable soul, one more gentle,
enagerer and genial-hearted, or yet more fervid
rom the strength of a resolute will, before whose
impetus difficulties were dashed aside as by a
torrent. There have been loftier and more purely
original minds in Scotland than Chalmers’s, but
there has never been a truer one, nor a heart
whose Christian faith and piety were more intense,
sincere, and humane.

See his Memoirs, by his son-in-law, Dr W. Hanna (4
vols, 1849-52), and his Correspondence (1853); also A Bio-
graphical Notice by Dean Ramsay (1850), an Essay by
Dr John Brown in his Hore Subsecive, and s ks
on him by D. Fraser (1881) and Mrs Oliphant (1893).

Chalons-sur-Marne, the capital of the
French department of Marne, on the right bank of
the river Gane. 107 miles E. of Paris by rail. An
old place, with timber houses and many spired
churches, it has an interesting cathedral, datin
chiefly from the 13th century, a handsome hétel-
de-ville (1772), and a fine public park, though the
Germans cut down its immemorial elms for fuel.
It still does a considerable trade in Champagne
wine; but its manufacture of the worsted cloth
known as ‘shalloon’ (Chaucer’s chalons) is a thing
of the past, and the population has dwindled from
60,000 in the 13th century to 19,639 in 1891. Near
Chalons, which takes its name from the Catalauni
of Latin writers, the Romans and Goths in 451
A.D. defeated Attila ( o7:) and his host of Huns.
In 1856 Napoleon III. formed the celebrated camp
of Chalons, 164 miles to the north-east of the town.
Hence, during the Franco-Prussian war, on the
night of August 21, 1870, MacMahon withdrew his
troops, and next day the town was occupied by
the Germans.

ChAlon-sur-Saéne (ancient Cabillonum), a
town in the French department of Sadne-et-Loire,
844 miles by rail N. of Lyons. Lying on the right
bank of the Saéne, at the point where that river
is joined by the Canal du Centre, uniting it with
the Loire, Chélon has an extensive traffic with the
central districts of France, as well as with the
Mediterranean and Atlantic. Fine quays and
houses line the river; and the chief building is
the church of St Vincent, 14th to 15th century.
The industries are copper and iron founding,
machinery and shipbuilding, and the manufacture
of glass, paper, and chemicals. Pop. (1872) 20,055 ;
(1886 ) 22,208 ; (1891) 22,974.

Chalybzeus, Hernricn Moritz, philosopher,
born at Pfaffroda in Saxony, 3d July 1796, spent
some years in teaching, and was appointed in 1839

rofessor of Philosophy in the university of Kiel.
He was dismissed, however, in 1852, owing to his
Germanic sympathies, and died at en, 22d
September 1862. His chief work is his System der
speculativen Ethik (1850); and his review of the
historical development of speculative philosophy
has been translated into English by Tulk (1854)
and Edersheim (1860).

Chalybéate Waters are those which contain
a Euptersble portion of iron in solution. See
MINERAL WATERS.

Chalybite, an iron ore. See [Ron.

Cham, the pseudonym assumed by the carica-
turist, nddse de Noe (Cham being the French
for Ham, the son of Noah), son of the Comte
de Noé by an English mother, and born at
Paris in 1819. He studied art under De

/

88 CHAMA

CHAMALEON ;

and soon acquired a great reputation as a skilful
and witty Aslinedecr of the humorous side of
Parisian life. In 1843 began his famous connection
with the Charivari, in which paper and in the
Journal des Pélerinages hé continued to delight
his fellow-citizens until close upon his death on
6th September 1879. He was profoundly sceptical,
but not unkindly, and Ghiahiel, as Edmond About

pointed out, the success of an homme d’esprit. His
masterpieces were chiefly social rather than politi-
eal, and among his skits may be mentioned Proud-

homana, Bagneurs et Buveurs d Eau, Souvenirs de
Garrison, and L’Haxposition de Londres. Several
good collections of his comic illustrations have been
made—for instance, Douze Années Comiques (1880),
with an introduction by L. Halévy, and Les
Folies Parisiennes (1883), with an introduction by
Géréme. In Sala’s Paris herself again (1882) are a
good many specimens of Cham’s art.

Chama, a genus of bivalve molluses, the only
surviving type of a family which was once ex-
tremely numerous and abundant, especially in the
Jurassic and Chalk times. The genus is represented
by about half a hundred living forms, restricted to
warmer waters, and especially common about coral
reefs. The general appearance is somewhat clam-
like, the valves are unequal, of considerable thick-
ness, and covered with leaf or scale-like outgrowths,
They are very passive animals, usually fixed, with
the mantle margins fused together, with very small
foot and respiratory apertures, with weet dexetopsd
hinge and an external ligament, and often of a
bright colour. Some forty fossil species are
known from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata, and
the genus is of interest as the sole survivor of a
once much Jarger family. The common English
name for shells of this genus is Clam (q.v.).

Chamzeleon (Gr. chamaileén, ‘ground lion’),
a large genus of lizards, forming a very distinct
family. Among the most distinctive features may
be noted the soft tuberculated skin, with its power
of changing colour; the coiled tail, adapted for
curling round the branches of trees; the division
of the toes of fore and hind feet into two bundles ;
the absence of an external ear-drum or tympanic
membrane; the long worm-like insect-catching
tongue, capable of extremely rapid protrusion.
Even more remarkably distinctive, however, are
certain peculiarities in the skeleton, and especially
in the skull, which separate the chameleons from
all other lizards.

Description.—The body is flattened, and bears a
toothed crest of skin along the back. The head is

Chameleon.

triangular, surmounted by a ridge.
stands unusually high upon its legs.

The animal
The fore-feet
are divided into three united internal digits and
two external; the reverse (and the digits, corre-
sponding to our great and second toes, form one
bundle, and the other three—external—another

scious insect.

.| and covered over with earth and leaves.

united group)
are tipped _by long sharp claws.
pressed tail 1s curled ventralwards.
aperture is small, but the tongue extremely long.
It is the most active part of the animal, is eup-
shaped at the end, covered with a viscid secre-
tion, and very efficient in insect-catching. The
large lateral eyes, with circular lids leaving only a.
small aperture, are very active, and can be rapidly
turned in all directions, a possibility which to some:
extent compensates for the stiffness of the head.
The skin is soft, loose, and shagreen-like, the scales.
being very small. The glandular pores common
on the thighs and near the anus of lizards are
absent.

Among the internal peculiarities may be noted
the largeness of the lungs, which admit of being
greatly distended, so as to puff out the body
into marked plumpness. They appear to be con-
nected with surrounding air-spaces.
the chameleon has of thus blowing itself out,
taken along with its power of fasting, gave origin
to the ancient supposition that it fed on air, The
skeletal peculiarities are numerous. The chame-
leons differ from all lizards except the Amphis-—
beena (q.v.), in having no ‘ columella’ or epiptery-_

oid skull-bone, and no interorbital septum, and
From all other forms in the fact that the pterygoid
and quadrate bones are not united. The latter is.
firmly fused to the skull, and the parietals are also-
peculiar in their firm attachments. The teeth are
confined to a ridge along the summit of the jaws.
The vertebrie are hollow in front; the breastbone
is small, and only a few anterior ribs reach it; as
in the geckos, many of the posterior ribs are united
rentals by hoops across the abdomen; there:
are no clavicles; the scapula and coracoid of the

shoulder-girdle and the ilia of the hip-girdle are —

peculiarly long and narrow. ;

Life and Habit.—Except as regards tongue and
eyes, the chameleons are very sluggish. ey are
strictly arboreal lizards, moving very slowly, in

erfect silence, and waiting rather than huntin
or their insect prey. At a distance of severa
inches, about half as long as the body in some
cases, they can most unerringly catch the uncon-
Probably the most familiar fact
about chameleons is their power of changing
colour. Under the thin outer skin there are two
layers of pigment-containing cells, the outer bright.
yellow, the inner brown to black. Under nerve
control the disposition and expansion of the pig-
ment-containing cells vary, and this produces.
change of colour. The change depends much more
on internal emotions, expressing themselves in
nervous stimulus and inhibition, than on external
physical influences. The change appears to be
rather emotional than protective. ost chame-_
leons are oviparous, and lay 30 to 40 thin-shelled
eggs, which are deposited in an excavated hollow —
Moseley
has described a South African species which brings.
forth its young alive.

Species and Distribution.—The genus Chameeleo
is a large one, and some naturalists split it up.
Chameleons are especially at home in the Ethiopian.
region, but may occur beyond its limits. The com-
monest of the numerous species is C. vulgaris, —
which is abundant in Africa, and is also found
in South Europe (Andalusia). The predominant —
colour varies in different species. any males
are adorned with horns on the head. One form,
distinguished as a distinct genus (Rhampholeon),
has a tail too short for clasping purposes, but this —
loss is made up for by accessory structures on the —
feet. The chameleon was well described by
Aristotle, but in later days became the subject of
numerous ridiculous fables. It was also in repute

occurs in the hind-feet. The digits —
The long com- —
The mouth- —

The habit. —

er p

—-

——

CHAMAROPS

CHAMBERLAIN 89

or supposed medicinal virtues. See LIzARp;
ixley’s Anatomy of the Vertebrates ; St George
vart in Nature, vol. xxiv. ; Krukenberg’s Ver-
sichend-Physiol. Studien, i. 3 (1880), for colour

ae
anc

oe

Ch props, a genus of palms, remarkable

wr its wide range into northern climates through-

at the world, and of which one species, C. humilis,

‘the only palm analy indigenous to Europe. This

ecies, the common Fan-palm, is widely distributed

rough Southern Europe, extending as far north

s Nice. This m is so tolerant of a cold

ate, that a specimen has lived in the open air

| the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh for more than

tty years, with the protection of matting in very

evere winters. It forms dense furze-like thickets

om the suckers which arise from its creeping roots,

mt when these are not allowed to grow, its stem

nay reach a height of 20 feet or more. In Algeria

it is troublesome to agriculturists, but its growth

inereasingly becoming of profit on account of the

xcellent fibre yielded by its stem. This the Arabs

mix with camel’s hair and make into hut-covers,

re. ; cordage and sailcloth, paper and pasteboard,

are also pre from it, and it also finds many

uses under the title of vegetable or African horse-

hair. The leaves are also used in paper-making,

and furnish a convenient thatching material. This

species is sometimes called palmetto in Europe.

The true Palmetto (q.v.) is é (Sabal) palmetto of

Florida and Carolina (see also BRAZILIAN GRASS).

In China and Japan C. excelsa and C. Fortuni are

specially prominent; both can be grown in the
open air in the south of England.

_ Chamal a peak (23,944 feet) of the Hima-

layas, between Tibet and Bhutan, 140 miles E. of

Mount Everest.

_,Chamba, one of the Punjab Hill States, imme-

diately SE. of Cashmere, with an estimated area

| f 31 4. m. Pop. (1891) 124,032, nearly all

Hindus. It is shut in on nearly all sides by lofty

hills, and traversed by two ranges of snowy peaks

| glaciers, with fertile valleys to the south and

est. The banks of the Ravi and Chenab, two of

® five great Punjab rivers, are clothed with

mighty forests, leased to the British government,

which takes £10,000 to £20,000 worth of timber

from them every year. Agriculture and ing

are the leading industries; iron, copper, and slate

are plentiful ; and the mountains teem with game.

The Pancipelity came into the hands of the British

in , Who in 1847 assigned it to the present

of rajahs ; an annual tribute is

id, reduced,
the establishment of a Britis

sanatorium
and two cantonments among the hills, to £500.

_Chambal, a principal tributary of the Jumna
Hiver, rises in the Vindhya Range, 2019 feet above
sea-level, flows in a north-easterly direction, and
aiter a course of 650 miles falls into the Jumna
40 miles below the town of Etawah. In heavy
tains its volume is greater than that of the Jumna.

_ Chamber, of a firearm, is the name given to
hat part of the bore which contains the powder,
when its diameter is not the same as the Calibre
{q.v.)of the gun. Formerly, chambers were always
maller in diameter than the bore, to prevent an
@r-space behind the projectile, but now that stee |
eavier charges are fired, they are made larger.
They tend to weaken the gun, but enable a shorter
eartridge to.be used, and so prevent the dangerous
Ve action which would be set up in a long one.
@ CANNON and (under Rifles) RIFLED ARMS,

_ Chamberlain, an officer appointed by a king
or nobleman, or by a corporation, to perform
_ domestic ‘and ceremonial duties. The Lorp
AMBERLAIN has been one of the principal officers

of state from at least the 13th century, and in 1406
parliament declared that he should always be a
member of the council ex a. Though he has
long ceased to have any share in the responsi-
bilities of government, the Chamberlain is still
an officer of very high standing in the royal
household. He has control over all the officers
and servants ‘above stairs,’ except those of the
bedchamber, over the establishment attached to
the Chapel Royal, the physicians, surgeons, and
apothecaries of the household. The shetaboslade
has further the oversight of the royal musicians,
comedians, trumpeters, messengers, &c. When the
office of Keeper of the Great Wardrobe was
abolished in 1782, the duties of providing the state
robes of the royal family, the household, and
officers of state, devolved on the Lord Chamberlain.
All theatres in towns in which a royal palace is
situated require to be licensed by the Lord
Chamberlain, and no new play can be performed
anywhere without his license. His duties as
licenser of theatres for the exhibition of plays (see
PLAYS) are defined by acts passed in 1751 and
1843. All persons desiring to be presented at
levees or drawing-rooms require to send their cards
to the Lord Chamberlain, and it is his duty to see
that the L gpa thus applying are entitled by
station and character to be presented to the sove-
reign. The Chamberlain also issues invitations
to royal balls, parties, and receptions. In accord-
ance with ancient custom the Lord Chamberlain
is still a member of the Privy-council. His salar
is £2000 a year, but his tenure of office depends
on that of the political party to which he belongs.
he Vice-chamberlain is the deputy and assistant
of the Lord Chamberlain, snd in his absence
exercises the full authority which belongs to his
rincipal. His office existed in the time of Richard
I. e is also dependent on the administration,
and is usually a member of the Privy-council. His
salary is £924 per annum.

Chamberlain, THE Lorp GRrEAr, is a heredi-
tary officer of great antiquity, and formerly of
great importance. He has the government of the
palace at Westminster, and upon solemn occasions
the keys of Westminster Hall and of the Court of
Requests are delivered to him. At these times the
Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, the Yeoman
Usher, and the door-keepers are under his orders.
At coronations, state trials, banquets, and the like,
the fitting-up of the Hall devolves on him. When
the King goes to parliament, the Lord Great
Chamberlain delivers the sword of state to any
member of the administration whom he chooses,
to be borne before His Majesty, he himself walk-
ing on his right hand. During the sitting of
parliament he has charge of the House of Lords,
and issues tickets of admission on the open-
ing or prorogation of parliament. Some fees and

rquisites belong to him. This office was con-
ferred by Henry IL. in 1101 on Alberic de Vere.
Mary, daughter of John de Vere, sixteenth Earl
of Oxford, married Peregrine Bertie, the ‘ brave
Lord Willoughby’ (1555-1601); and on the death
of their last male descendant in 1779, the honour,
after much litigation, was adjudged to belong con-
jointly to his sisters and co-heiresses—e.g. the Lady

illoughby de Eresby and the Marchioness of
Cholmondeley, by whose descendants or their
deputies its duties have since been discharged
alternately.

Chamberlain, THE Ricut Hon. Josern, M.P.,
is the eldest son of the late Mr Joseph Chamberlain,
and was born in London in July 1836. He was
educated at University College School, and entered
his father’s screw — at Birmingham (the
name of the firm being Nettlefold), from which,

90 CHAMBER MUSIC

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE

however, he retired in 1874. Mr Chamberlain had
by this time acquired considerable celebrity as a
Radical politician. In 1868 he was appointed a
member of the Birmingham Town-council; was
Mayor of Birmingham from 1873 to 1876, and chair-
man of the Birmingham School-board from 1874 to
1876. After unsuccessfully contesting Sheffield
against Mr Roebuck in 1874, he was returned for
Birmingham without opposition in June 1876. He
soon made his mark in parliament, and on the
return of the Liberals to power in 1880 he was
appointed President of the Board of Trade, with
a seat in the cabinet. To Mr Chamberlain’s exer-
tions was due the passing of the Bankruptcy Bill,
but his efforts to amend the Merchant Shipping
Acts were unsuccessful. Meanwhile his influence
was increasing rapidly outside the House; he came
to be regarded as the leader of the extreme Radical
party, and enunciated schemes for the regeneration
of the masses which were based on the doctrines
of the ‘restitution’ of land and the ‘ransom’ of
property. During the last hours of Mr Gladstone’s
government he was understood to be opposed to the
renewal of the Irish Crimes Act; iid during the
general election of 1886 he was most severe in his
strictures on the moderate Liberals, and produced
an ‘unauthorised’ programme (in opposition to that
of Mr Gladstone), which ineluded the readjustment
of taxation, free schools, and the creation of allot-
ments by compulsory purchase. He was returned
free of expense by the western division of Birming-
ham. On February 1, 1886, he became President
of the Local Government Board, but resigned on
March 26 because of his strong objections to Mr
Gladstone’s Home Rule measures for Ireland; and
after the ‘Round Table’ conference had failed to
reunite the Liberal party he assumed an attitude
of uncompromising hostility to his old leader’s new
policy, and was bitterly assailed by Home Rulers
as a renegade. He became leader of the Liberal-
Unionists when the Duke of Devonshire went to
the Upper House. Lord Salisbury sent him to
Washington as commissioner on the Canadian
fishery dispute ; and in 1895 he was made Colonial
minister in the Unionist Cabinet. As such he had,
besides sharing in responsibilities of his colleagues
(see SALISBURY), to face the troubles in South
Africa (see JAMESON, L. S.), and to cherish closer
fellow-feeling with the Colonies, as by welcoming
the colonial ministers and colonial troops to London
at the Queen’s ‘ Diamond Jubilee’ (1897), and by
concessions to Canadian commercial autonomy.
In 1896 he was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow
University. Collections of his speeches (one with
an introduction by Mr Lucy) have been published ;
and see the Life of him by 8. H. Jeyes (‘ Public
Men’ series, 1896).

Chamber Musie, as distinguished from con-
cert or church music or opera, usually means in-
strumental music for a single instrument or for a
small combination, up to the septett or octett.

Chamber of Commerce, a body of mer-
chants, traders, bankers, and others, associated
for the purpose of promoting local and general
interests of trade and commerce by (1) representing
and urging on the legislature the views of their
members in mercantile affairs; (2) aiding in the
preparation of legislative measures having refer-
ence to trade, such, for example, as the Bank-
rupt and Limited Liability Acts; (3) collecting
statistics bearing upon the staple trade of the
district ; (4) acting in some places as a sort of
court of arbitration in mercantile questions; (5)
attaining by combination advantages in trade
which might be beyond the reach of individual
enterprise.

The oldest chamber of commerce is that of

Marseilles, which dates from the end of the 14th
or commencement of the 15th century. It shared
in the municipal jurisdiction and in the admini-
stration of justice in mercantile questions. It
was several times suppressed and re-established,
and it was not till 1650 that it received its ulti-
mate organisation. The chamber of Dunkirk was
established in 1700. The same year a council-
general of commerce was instituted at Paris, which,
in addition to six councillors of state, consisted of
twelve merchants or traders, delegated by the prin-
cipal commercial towns of the country, an arrange-
ment which led within the next few years to the
formation of chambers of commerce everywhere in
France. We thus find that the chamber at Lyons
was instituted in 1702, those of Rouen and Toulouse
in 1703, of Montpellier in 1704, of Bordeaux in
1705, &e. These chambers were all suppressed by —
a decree of the National Assembly in 1791, but
they were re-established by a consular edict in
1802. Their organisation was modified in 1832, in
1851, and in 1852. The members of these bodies
are now elected by the chief merchants of each
town chosen for that purpose by the prefect, The
number of this elective body cannot be less than
9 nor more than 21. They hold office for six years,
one-third of their number being renewed every two

ears. The functions now assigned to these cham-
rs in France are—to give to the government
advice and information on industrial and com- —

mercial subjects ; to suggest the means of increas-
ing the industry and commerce of their respective
districts, or of improving commercial legislation
and taxation; to suggest the execution of works
requisite for the public service, or which may tend
to the increase of trade or commerce, such as the
construction of harbours, the deepening of rivers,
the formation of railways, and the like. On these
and similar subjects the advice of the chambers,
when not volunteered, is demanded by the govern-
ment. In most of the other countries of conti-
nental Europe there are similar institutions.

The oldest chamber of commerce in Great Britain
is believed to be that of Glasgow, which was
instituted Ist January 1783, and obtained a royal
charter, registered at Edinburgh on the 31st of
the same month. That of Edinburgh was insti-
tuted in 1785, and incorporated by royal charter
in 1786. The Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce
was the first public body which petitioned for
the abolition of the Corn Laws, and the adoption
of free-trade principles ; and it stood almost alone
in the United Kingdom in advocating the Suez
Canal project. It also originated the movement
which resulted in placing the telegraph service
in connection with the Post-office. Between
five and six hundred of the bankers, merchants,
and ship-owners of Edinburgh and Leith con-
stitute the chamber. The London Chamber of
Commerce (1882) may now be regarded as the most
important in the United Kingdom. The main
branches of commercial enterprise are dealt with
by separate departments of the chamber, while —
by public lectures and the frequent publica- —
tion of detailed reports it maintains com- —
munication with chambers of commerce throughout
the country, and serves when necessary to unite —
and concentrate their action in the promotion of —
reforms in our mercantile system and in the
development of the commercial resources of the
empire. The Manchester chamber, so famous
for its exertions in the cause of free trade, was not
established till 1820, and for many years it con-
tinued to be the only institution of the kind in
England. Its members number over 900. In Hull
there has been a chamber of commerce since 1837,
but those of Liverpool, Leeds, and Bradford, not-
withstanding the great trading and manufacturing __

—.
< :
.

——-
ro r

*

- -

CHAMBERS

91

terests of these towns, were not established till
0; in which year also a similar institution
established in South Australia. The Liver-
ool Chamber of Commerce numbers 550. The
mual income of the Manchester chamber is 4

ards of £1400, contributed entirely by the su
eriptions, ranging from £1, 1s. for individual
embers, to £10, 10s. for large firms. There are

) milar chambers in all the great mercantile
wns of Great Britain and Ireland, and in 1860
ere was established an ‘ Association of Chambers
‘Commerce of the United Kingdom,’ which meets
annual conference for the promotion of commerce.
he Chamber of Commerce of New York, organised
| 1768, was incorporated by a royal charter in 1770,
t is superseded by charter granted by the
ute government. Its aims are similar to those in
ritain, and it comprises some 800 members, who
we established a court of arbitration for differ-
es amongst members. Like bodies have been
med in iia large American cities. In Canada
1 Dominion Board of Trade consists of the
ambers of Commerce, or Boards of Trade, as
ey are indifferently called, of the most important
ities of the Dominion.

bers are private rooms attached to most
f the English courts, in which the judges, or more

ently the masters and chief clerks, transact a

.

arge amount of judicial business. In fact nearly
ll business which is begun by what is technically

stalled a Summons in England goes to chambers—
e.g. all such incidental matters as the recovery of
ocuments, examination of witnesses about to &
ubroad, investigation of accounts, settling of deeds
between parties. A decree of the court which
ects further procedure is carried out by a
summons to proceed in chambers. Counsel attend
in chambers only in important matters. In
| Beotland a good deal of this business takes the form
of a remit to an accountant or other man of business,
judicial reference, a commission to examine
Witnesses, but all initiated by a motion in court.
_ - Chamber-counsel, a barrister or advocate who
_ gives opinions in his own chambers, but does not,
_ or rarely does, plead in court.
_ Chambers, Erxraim, an amiable but frugal
und free-thinking encyclopzedist, was born about
1680 at Kendal, and began life as an appren-
tice to a globe-maker in London, where he con-
eived the idea of a cyclopedia that should surpass
Harris’s Lexicon Technicum (1704). It appeared in
‘folio vols. in 1728, and reached a 6th edition in
1750, Chambers having died meanwhile on 15th
lay 1740. A French translation gave rise to the
nore famous Encyclopedie of Diderot and D’Alem-
b; itself expanded into Rees’s ek oy Foire

D: ogg told Boswell that he had partly formed
us style

upon Chambers’s Proposal for his Dic-
See ENCYCLOPADIA.

_ Chambers, Sir W1LL1AM, architect, was born
if a Scotch family at Stockholm in 1726, but was
brought up in England. At first a sailor, he soon

arned to the study of architecture in Italy and at

aris. He rose rapidly, and as early as 1757 was
mployed by Augusta, Princess-dowager of Wales,
© construct the well-known semi-Roman and
riental buildings in Kew Gardens. The king of
weden made him a knight of the Polar Star.
somerset House (1776) was his design, which
‘ergusson pronounces ‘ the test architectural
of the reign of George III.’ His Treatise 0

Civil Architecture (1759) was successful, but his

Absurdly pretentious and ignorant Dissertation
on Oriental Gardening (1772) justly covered him
with ridicule. Chambers enjoyed the friendship

of Johnson, Reynolds, and Garrick, and died in

London, March 8, 1796. .

a

5

‘Twice elected Lord

Chambers, WILLIAM, publisher, was born 16th
April 1800 at Peebles, his father being a cotton
manufacturer there. The boy got a fair elementary
education ; but owing to the father's misfortunes,
his schooling terminated with his thirteenth year.
Hence his education for life-work was mainly due
to the habit, very early acquired and long main-
tained, of miscellaneous and extensive reading.
The household migrated to Edinburgh in 1813, and
next year William was apprenticed to a bookseller,
His five — up, he started business in a humble

way for himself (May 1819), to bookselling after-
wards adding printing. Between 1825 and 1830 he
wrote the Book

“st scotland, and in conjunction
with his brother Robert, a Gazetteer of Scotland.
His experience gained as a bookseller and printer
was next utilised in his attempt ‘to take advan-
tage of the universal aera for instruction
which at present exists,’ and to ‘supply that appe-
tite with food of the best kind,’ which resul in
the founding of Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal
on 4th February 1832. This was about six weeks
in advance of the Penny Magazine, and it may be
considered the pioneer of that class of cheap and
popular periodicals of a wholesome kind now so
generally diffused. At the end of the fourteenth
number he united with his brother Robert in found-
ing the business of William & Robert Chambers,
in which they were associated in writing, edit-
ing, printing, and pine. W. & R. Chambers
issued a series of works designed for popular
instruction, including besides the Journal, Infor-
mation for the People, 2 vols.; the ‘ Educational
Course’ series ; Cyclopedia of English Literature,
2 vols.; Miscellany of Useful and Entertaining
Tracts, 20 vols. ; Papers for the People, 12 vols. ;
and the present Encyclopedia, 10 vols. (1859-1868 ;
new edition, 1888-92). In 1849 William acquired
the estate of Glenormiston, Peeblesshire, and in
1859 founded and endowed an institution in his
native town for pur of social improvement.
rovost of Edinburgh, William
occupied that office for four years (1865-69),
during which he promoted several important public
acts, including one for the improvement of the
older part of the city, which has resulted in a great
diminution of the death-rate. (The death-rate
of the city in 1865-75 was 26°26 per 1000; in
1875-85, only 19°94.) He also carried out at his
own cost a thorough restoration of St Giles’
Cathedral. He died 20th May 1883, having shortly
before received the offer of a baronetcy. He was
made LL.D. of Edinburgh in 1872. A statue has
been erected to his memory in Edinburgh. Besides
many contributions to the Journal, he was author
and editor of various volumes, and wrote Zhe
Youths’ Companion and Counsellor, History of
Peeblesshire (1864), Ailie Gilroy, Stories of Remark-
able Persons, Stories of Old Families, and Histori-
cal Sketch of St Giles’ Cathedral (1879).

ROBERT CHAMBERS, born in Peebles, 10th July
1802, took to Latin and books at an early age, and
be; business as a bookseller in Edinburgh in
1818. His leisure hours were devoted to literary
composition, the impulse to which, his brother says,
came upon him like an inspiration at nineteen years
of age. In 1824 he published the Traditions of
Edinburgh, the writing of which procured him
the friendship of Sir Walter Scott, who furnished
some memoranda for the work. Between 1822
and 1834 he wrote in all twenty-five volumes,
many of them of great literary interest and per-
manent historical value. He had already won
reputation as an author when he joined his brother

r the success of the Journal in 1832; and this
success was materially promoted by his essays, and
by his versatility and elegance as a writer, his
diligence in collecting and working up stray

92 CHAMBERSBURG

CHAMBRE INTROUVABLE

material, and his perception of what was suited to
the popular taste in history, poetry, science and
arts. In 1844 he published anonymously the
remarkable work, Vestiges of Creation, which pre-
pared the way for Darwin’s great work, The Origin
of Species. The authorship, positively ascribed to
him in the Atheneum of 2d December 1854, was
first acknowledged in Mr Ireland’s introduction to
the 12th ed. (1884). He received the degree of
LL.D. from St Andrews in 1863. The labour in

reparing the Book of Days (2 vols. 1863) broke his
a th, and he died at St Andrews, 17th March
1871. Other works by Robert are Popular Rhymes
of Scotland, a valuable contribution to folklore
(1847), History of the Rebellions in Scotland, wa tg
of James I., Scottish Ballads and Songs (3 vols.
1829), Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, Ancient Sea
Margins (1838), The Life and Works of Robert
Burns (4 vols. 1851), Domestic Annals of Scotland
(3 vols. 1859-61), and Songs of Scotland prior to
Burns (1862). His Select Writings (7 vols.) were
“Aer in 1847.—His son ROBERT CHAMBERS,

orn in 1832, became head of the firm in 1883, and
conducted the Journal till his death, March 23,
1888.—See W. Chambers’s Memoir of William and
Robert Chambers (1872; 13th ed., with supple-
mentary chapter, 1884).

Chambersburg, capital of Franklin county,
Pennsylvania, in a pleasant valley 52 miles WSW.
of Harrisburg by rail, has several manufactories,
breweries, foundries, and machine-shops. A large
part of the borough was burned by the Confederates
in 1864. Pop. (1880) 6877 ; (1890) 8006.

Chambertin, a famous red Burgundy, obtained
from a vineyard (62 acres) of that name in the
French department of Céte-d’Or, 7 miles 8. of Dijon
by rail.

Chambéry, capital of the former duchy and
present French department of Savoy, beautifully
situated between two ridges of hills, amid gardens
and country seats, 370 miles SE. of Paris rail.
The scenery around, with the river Laisse flowing
through the valley, is exceedingly fine. The town
itself, however, is dull and uninteresting, with
narrow and gloomy streets winding between high
well-built houses, Notable edifices are the small
cathedral, the palace of justice, and the old castle
of the Dukes of Savoy, restored early in the 19th
century. Chambéry ae manufactures of clocks,
silk-gauze, soap, hats, paper, and a trade in silk,
wine, coal, &c. Pop. (1891) 20,922. From 1525 to
1713 Chambéry was under the dominion of France,
and again from the Revolution to 1815, when it was
restored to the House of Savoy ; but in 1860, by the
cession of Savoy, it came again under the rule of
France.

Chambeze, the farthest head-stream of. the
Congo, rises in the highlands south of Tan-
ganyika, about 9° 40’ S. lat., and 33° 15’ E. long.
Its tributaries are large, and form a considerable
stream, which flows south-west to Lake Bangweolo
(q.v.).

Chambord, a celebrated chateau in the French
lepartment of Loir-et-Cher, stands 12 miles E. of
Blois, in the midst of a walled, sandy park of 13,000
acres. Commenced by Francis I. in 1526, it is a
‘huge Renaissance pile, with numberless turrets,
chimneys, gables, and cupolas, and with four round
towers, each 63 feet in diameter. There are no
fewer than 440 rooms. Chambord, the ‘ Versailles
of Touraine,’ was a residence of the French kings
down to Louis XV., who conferred it on Marshal
Saxe; and here in 1670 Moliére gave the first re-
presentation of his Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Among
its various occupants were Diane de Poitiers, Stanis-
laus of Poland, and Marshal Berthier, upon whom
it was bestowed by Napoleon in 1809. It was

bought from his widow in 1821 for 1,542,000 franes,
and presented to the future Comte de Chambord,
who spent large sums on its restoration. He left
it to his wife, and, after her, to her nephews, by a
will which was more than once disputed, but recog-
nised by the state as valid. See La Question de
Chambord, by J. B. C. Arnauld (1887).

Chambord, Henri CHArtes DrEvDONNE,
COMTE DE, was born in Paris, 29th September 1820,
seven months after the assassination of his father,

the Due de Berri (4.¥- ). On the day of his baptism
with water brought by Chateaubriand from the
Jordan, the ‘Child of Miracle’ was presented by

the Legitimists with the chateau of Chambord ;
hence in 1844 he dropped the title of Due de Bor-
deaux for that by which he was most usually
known. When Charles X. abdicated at the
July revolution of 1830, he did so in favour of
his little grandson; but the people insisted on
the ‘citizen king,’ and the elder Bourbons were
driven into exile. They fixed their court succes-
sively at Holyrood, Prague, and Gérz, where the
old king died in 1836, and the young count was
trained in clerical and absolutist ideas by his aunt,
the Duchesse d’Angouléme, and his tutor, the Due
de Damas. A good, dull, timid soul, whom D’Orsay
likened to ‘a palace with no room furnished but
the chapel,’ ‘Henry V.’ had three times a chance
of regaining the crown of his ancestors—in 1848,
1870, and 1873, on which last occasion, three —
months after Thiers’s overthrow, he paid an incog-

nito visit to Versailles. Each time he fooled away
his opportunities, always vanishing just when his.
presence was indispensable, and ever protesting
that he would ‘never abandon the white flag of
Joan of Arc.’ A fall from his horse (1841) had
lamed him for life; his marriage (1846) with the
Princess of Modena (1817-86) brought him no sue~
cessor; and in keeping up a stately mimic court,
in stag-hunting from a phaeton, in issuing mani-
festoes, in visiting innumerable churches, and in
much travelling, he passed forty years of blameless.
inertia. His death, after long suffering, at his castle
of Frohsdorf, in Lower Austria, 24th August 1883,
was a relief at once to himself and to his adherents.
The Comte de Paris (1838-1894) inherited his
claims. See BOURBON; and the Comte de Fal-
loux’ Mémoires d’ un Royaliste (2 vols. Paris, 1888).

Chambre Ardente (‘the fiery chamber’), a
name given at different times in France to an extra-
ordinary court of justice, probably on account of
the severity of the punishments which it awarded,
the most common being that of death by fire. In
the year 1535, Francis I. established an Inquisitorial
Tribunal and a Chambre Ardente. Both were in- —
tended for the extirpation of heresy. The former
searched out cases of heresy, and instructed the
processes ; while the latter both pronounced and
executed the final judgment. Under Henri IL,”
the activity of the Chambre Ardente received a
new impulse. In 1679 Louis XIV. employed a
Chambre Ardente to investigate the numerous
reports of poisoning cases which the trial of the

archioness Brinvilliers (q.v.) caused to be cireu-
lated. Many persons of the first rank were exam-
ined on suspicion, but no one was executed except
the pretended sorcerer, Voisin (1680).

Chambre _Introuvable (Fr., ‘the chamber
the like of which is not to be found again’) was the
name given to that Chamber of Deputies in France —
which met after the second return of Louis XVIIL.
(July 1815), and which, by its fanatical royalty,
began to throw the country and society anew into
commotion. The name was given to it by the king
in his gratitude (though some think even he spoke
ironically); but it soon came to be used sarcasti-
cally for any ultra-royalist assembly. a

CHAMELEON

CHAMOIS 93

prleon. See CHAMALEON.

@hamfer. In Architecture, an angle which is
ghtly pared off is said to be chamfered ; a large
amfer, as in a wall at the window opening, is
a splay, The chamfer is sometimes made
ly concave, in which case it is called a hollow
nfers, in Gothic architecture, have
“yt Pesenental terminations of various
ds e term chamfer is applied to wood-
rk as well as stone.
*hamfort, NIcoLas, a famous writer of maxims
id anecdotes, was born in Auvergne in 1741. He
us of itimate birth, and was educated at one
“the Paris colleges, where he obtained a scholar-
ip. Having distinguished himself in the prize
mpetitions of the Academy, he gained an entrance
to the highest literary circles in Paris, and for
me ived literally ‘by his wit, if not by his
wits.’ At one time Madame Helvétius gave him
#e lodgings at Sevres, and he was afterwards
ade independent by a pension bestowed on him
vy a now forgotten man of letters named Chabanon.
it the Revolution he espoused the popular side,
md was hailed in the clubs as ‘La Rochefoucauld-
hamfort.’ After a time, however, certain incisive
vitticisms—such as, ‘Be my brother or 1 will kill
fou,’—drew down on him the anger of the Jacobin
eaders. Threatened with arrest, he tried to commit
muicide, wounded himself horribly, and died after
several days’ suffering, 13th April 1794. His writings
elude tales, dramas, and éloges on Molitre and
4a Fontaine—all of little or no worth—a brilliant
colle ection of maxims, and an even more admirable
sollection of anecdotes. Many of his sayings are
umong the sharpest and bitterest ever penned—
the utterances of a reluctant but sincere cynic,
vhose insight into human weakness was unusually
een. He has never been excelled as a writer of
anecdotes; his work under this head contains a
eries of portraits in miniature, drawn with the
hand of a master, of the Parisian society of his
ay. Auguis edited his works (5 vols. 1824-25).

Chamier, FREDERIC, an English novelist, born
n 1796, entered the navy in 1809, and retiring in
1833, was promoted to captain in 1856. He
iad settled near Waltham Abbey, and turned his
attention to literary pursuits. arryat’s success
in depicting sea-life led Chamier to try the same
ield, in which he was not without success, though
nf invention and humour he falls short of his model.
dis best romances, now almost forgotten, are Life
of a Sailor (1832), Ben Brace (1836), The Arethusa
1837), Jack Adams (1838), and Tom Bowline
1841). He also wrote a continuation of James’s
Vaval History (1837), and a somewhat prejudiced
lew of the French Revolution of 1848 (1849).
® died Ist November 1870.

Chamisso, ADELBERT Von, one of the most
elebrated of German lyric poets, was born in 1781,
it the chateau of Boncourt, in Champagne. The
‘rench Revolution driving his parents to settle in
russia in 1790, he became in 1796 a page of the
ueen, and two years later entered the Prussian
‘ervice. But when the campaign of 1806 broke out
e returned to France, for though no admirer of
apoleon, he would not fight against his native
und. At this time he was thrown into the circle
[ Madame de Staél at Coppet, and there began
hat study of natural science which he afterwards
ursued at Berlin. In 1815-18 he accompanied a
an exploring expedition round the world as
naturalist (see CoRAL); and on his return was
‘Appointed custodian of the Botanical Garden of
Berlin. In 1835 he was elected to the Academy of
science ; and, after a happy domestic life, he died

Berlin, 21st August 1838, universally loved and
ionoured. He wrote several works on natural

Ter,
—~r

history, but his fame rests partly on his poetical
pr egy pe still more on his quaint and humorous

ction called Peter Schlemihl (1813), the story of the
man who lost his shadow, which has been translated

into almost all the ee of Europe. The char-
acter of his poetry is wild and gloomy, and he is
fond of rugged and horrible subjects. In his politi-

cal re he succeeds well in humour and irony ;
nor is he deficient in deep and genuine feeling.
Indeed, several of his ballads and romances are
masterpieces in their way. His collected works
have been edited by Hitzig (6th ed. 1874). See
lives by Fulda (1881) and Lentzner (Lond. 1893).
Chamois ( Antilope or Rupicapra, Ger. Gemse),
a goat-like species or Ep of Antelope (q.v.).
It inhabits the Alps and other high mountains of
Central and Southern Europe, such as the Pyrenees,

¢
”
NAY

Ss

le

7

Chamois.

the Carpathians, and the mountains of Greece ; it is
also found on some of the Mediterranean islands,
and on the Caucasus, Taurus, and other mountains
of the west of Asia. In Europe it is now most
numerous on the Bavarian and Styrian Alps. The
chamois is about the size of a large goat, but the
neck is longer in pene and the body shorter ;
the horns on both sexes are seldom more than six
or seven inches long, black, rising nearly straight up
from the forehead, and so bent back at the tip as to
form a hook. A peculiar gland opens at the base
of each horn. The summer colour is reddish brown,
with a darker dorsal band, and a yellowish ventral
surface ; the winter colour is a darker brown, but
white below. A dark brown band runs from the
eye along each cheek. The rest of the head is pale
yellow. The short tail is black.

The usual summer-resort of the chamois is in the
higher regions of the mountains, not far from the
snow-line, and it is often to be seen lying on the
snow. In winter it descends to the higher forests.
The aromatic and bitter plants of the mountain-
pastures are its favourite food. Young twigs of
rhododendron, willow, juniper, &c. are greedily
devoured. It is—like the ruminants generally—
very fond of salt, and often licks stones for the
saltpetre which forms on them. The chamois is

arious : flocks of one hundred used sometimes

to be seen ; but in the Swiss Alps, where the num-
bers have been much reduced by hunting, the flocks
nerally consist only of a few (4 to 20) individuals.

ld males often live solitarily. The female bears
one or rarely two young at a birth, in the month of
March or April. The general cry of the chamois
is a goat-like bleat. :

Tt is an animal of extraordinary agility, and flocks
may often be observed sporting in a remarkable
manner among the rocky heights. It can leap over
ravines 16 to 18 feet broad; a wall 14 feet high
presents no hindrance to it; and it passes readily

94 CHAMOMILE

CHAMPAGNE WINE

up or down precipices which almost no other quad-
ruped could attempt. The hunting of the chamois
is attended with great hardship and much danger.
The hunter sometimes goes out on the adventurous
chase alone; but more frequently several go out
together, dividing into parties, of which one drives
and the other shoots. The scent, sight, and hearing
of the chamois are extremely keen. When a flock
is feeding, one is always on the watch, and by a
sort of whistle, announces apprehended danger.
The flesh is highly esteemed. The skin is made
into leather, and from it the original shammoy or
shammy leather (wash-leather), so much prized for
softness and warmth, was obtained, although the
name has now become common also to leather pre-
pared from the skins of other animals (see LEATHER
and Burr LEATHER). The horns are often used
to adorn alpenstocks. Hairy balls or Concretions
(q.v.) found in the stomach used to have a medic-
inal reputation. When taken young the chamois
is easily tamed, and its general disposition is gentle
and peaceable. See Keller, Die Gemse (Klagenfurt,
1885).

Chamomile. See CAMOMILE.

Chamouni, or CHAMONIX (Lat. Campus muni-
tus, from the shelter of the mountains), a cele-
brated valley and village among the French Alps,
in the department of ices Savoy, lying 53 miles
ESE. of Geneva, at an elevation of about 3400
feet above the level of the sea. The valley, bounded
on the E. by the Col de Balme, is about 13 miles
long and 2 broad, and is traversed by the Arve.
On the north side lies Mont Brévent and the chain
of the Aiguilles Rouges, and on the south, the
giant group of Mont Blanc, from which enormous
glaciers glide down, even in summer, almost to
the bottom of the valley. The chief of these are
the Glacier des Bossons, des Bois, de l’Argentiére,
and du Tour; the Glacier des Bois ex me in its
upper course into a great mountain-lake of ice
called the Mer de Glace. The village of Chamouni
owes its origin and its alternative name, Le Prieuré,
to the Benedictine convent founded here before
1099. Until 1741, however, the valley was little
sought ; the region was known, from the savageness
of its inhabitants, by the name of Les Montagnes
Maudites, or ‘accursed mountains.’ In that year
it was visited by two Englishmen, Pococke and
Wyndham, who described it in the Transactions of
the Royal Society, but it was only in 1787 that the
attention of travellers was effectually called to it by
the Genevese naturalist, De Saussure, and others.
Since then the number of visitors has gradually
increased ; now over 15,000 tourists are accommo-
dated annually in the large hotels that have sprung
up in the village, where an English chapel was
opened in 1860. Grazing and such farming as the
elevation allows are carried on, but most of the
people are in some fashion dependent on the
strangers for their income. Here the best guides
are to be found for the neighbouring Alps, and from
this point Mont Blanc is usually ascended. At
the article ALPS there is a view of Chamouni,
whose beauties have been celebrated by Byron,
Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, Lamartine, and
Ruskin. Pop. of village, 600. See E. Whymper’s ad-
mnirable Guide to Chamonix and Mont Blanc (1896).

Champac, or CHUMPAKA ( Michelia Champaca),
an Indian tree (order Magnoliaceze ) possessing great
beauty both of foliage and flowers, and venerated
both by Brahmanists and Buddhists. Images of
Buddha are made of its wood. Its yellow flowers
and their sweet oppressive perfume are much cele-
brated in the poetry of the Hindus. The timber
of this and other species is useful and fragrant,
and the bark and root are employed in native
medicine.

Champagne, a district and ancient province
of France, surrounded by Luxemburg, Lorraine,
Burgundy, Ile de France, and Orléanais; noy
forming the departments of Marne, Haute-Marne,
Aube, and Ardennes, and parts of Yonne, Aisne, —
Seine-et-Marne, and Meuse. It was popularly
divided into Upper and Lower Champagne
Brie Champenoise, and was fertile in its western,
barren in its eastern part. Its chief towns were
Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Leon, and Rheims. The

rovince was about 180 miles long by 150 broad,
its surface presenting extensive plains with ranges
of hills, especially in the north and east. !

In ancient times Champagne was known as @

art of Gallia Lugdunensis, was subjugated by
Ceause and afterwards was annexed tone ingdom
established by the Franks. After the 11th century
it had its own dukes, who were vassals of the
French kings. By the marriage of Philip IV. with
Joanna, heiress to the kingdom of Navarre, Cham-
pagne, and Brie, Champagne in 1284 came to the

rench crown, and was incorporated in 1328.

Champagne Wine is the produce of vine-
yards in the above-mentioned province of Cham-
pagne. There are white and red champagnes;
the white is either sparkling or still. Sparkling or
effervescent (mousseux) champagne is the result
of a peculiar treatment during fermentation,
In December the wine is venient off, and fined
with isinglass, and in March it is bottled
tightly corked. To clear the wine of sediment, the
bottles are placed in a sloping position with the —
necks downward, so that the sediment may be
deposited in the necks of the bottles. When this”
sediment has been poured off, some portion of a
liqueur (a solution of sugar-candy in cognae with
flavouring essences) is added to the wine, and every
bottle is filled up with bright clarified wine, and
securely re-corked. The fermentation being incom-
plete when the wine is bottled, the carbonic acid
gas generated in a confined space exerts pressure”
on itself, and it thus remains as a liquid in the
wine. When this pressure is removed it expands
into gas, and thus communicates the sparkle
property to champagne. The effervescence of the
wine thus prepared bursts many bottles, in some
cases 10 per cent.; and in seasons of early and
sudden heat, as many as 20 and 25 per cent. have
been burst. Still or non-effervescent champagne is
first racked off in the March after the vintage.
Creaming or slightly effervescent champagne (demé-_
mousseux) has more alcohol, but less carbonic acid —
gas than sparkling champagne. :

The best varieties of this wine are produced at
Rheims and Epernay, and generally on a chalky
soil. Among white champagnes of the first class,
the best are those of Sillery, which are of a fine
amber hue, dry, spirituous, and possessing a superior
bouquet ; those o Ay and Mareuil are less spiritu-—
ous, but are sparkling, with a pleasant bouquet, |
Other white wines of first class are those of Haut-
villiers, Dizy, and Pierry.

The cellars in which the vintages are stored are 4
cut out of the calcareous rock. The fact that the
sale of champagne is very extensive and lucrative,
has naturally given rise to adulterations. Spuriou
champagne is readily manufactured by simply
charging other light wines with carbonic acid gas.
The popular notions about gooseberry champagne
have but small foundation, if any. Gooseberry-—
juice is far more costly than grape-juice, wherever
the grape flourishes, and in this country there are
no such great gooseberry plantations as would be
required for a flourishing champagne industry, —
which would demand a few hundred tons of fruit

er annum. Recently, the German purveyors
ave succeeded in preparing light wines—such as
Rhenish, Main, Neckar, Meissner, and Naumburg

Ol nd

and

-

CHAMPAIGN

CHAMPOLLION 95

ery like genuine cham e. And much cham-
é is made on French methods in California.
ogether it is estimated that the French district
‘oduces about 25,000,000 bottles, of which nearly
100,000 are meposced (the export being five times
| great as in 1844). See Vizetelly’s monograph
a the subject (1882).
Champaign, a city of Illinois, 128 miles
iW. of Chicago by = It has furniture and
agon factories, a female seminary, and the IIli-
is Industrial University (1868). Pop. (1890)

Champaran, a British Indian district in the
W. corner of Behar, with an area of 3531 sq. m.
( party, or CHAMPERTY (a Norman-French
wd derived from campi gare =the right of the
idal lord to take part of the produce of land cul-
vated by his tenants), means in English law a
gain whereby the one party is to assist the other
recovering property, and is to share in the sae
eds. All such bargains are illegal, and therefore
qull and void. More particularly an agreement to
lvance funds, or supply evidence, or professional
ssistance, for remuneration contingent on success,
proportional to, or to be paid out of property
covered, is ps fort so is a purchase by a solicitor
rom his client of the subject matter of a pending
ait; so is every such purchase, if the object
only to enable the purchaser to maintain the
mit. A man may, however, lawfully sell evidence,
md may lawfully purchase an interest in property,
though adverse claims exist which make litigation
ecessary for realising that interest. ‘The sale of
mere right to sue is bad, the right to complain of
. fraud is not a marketable commodity.’ Cham-
arty, as one form of Maintenance (q.v.), was made
‘iminal by various old English statutes, but these
never enforced, and the Criminal Law Com-
lission recommended their repeal. In Scotland
here is no law against maintenance and champarty.
‘here is a common-law doctrine against what were
n the Roman law called pacta de quotd litis—i.e.
mrchases of litigations by professional men con-
ected with the suit, who thus had exceptional
antages in making such a contract. But this
vould not probably be held to strike against an
igreement by a non-professional yerecn to advance
funds for litigation on terms depending on the
e provided the terms were not extortionate or
meonscionable. A Scottish act of 1594 prohibits
purchases of pleas by advocates or agents. In
oth countries a solicitor can lawfully agree to
arge nothing except in event of success; and by

ofits between town and country agents are
ade legal. Although there are traces of the law
f champarty in the United States, the American
iw resembles that of Scotland more than that of
ngland. Contracts by solicitors for contingent
ses, to the extent even of one-half the property in
ispute, have been sustained. In general, however,
the American law construes professional contracts
merely giving security for the true worth of the
rvices rendered.
Chi Bpheury: the assumed name of JULES
"LEURY-Husson, French author, born at Laon,
10th September 1821, achieved some distinction as
realistic writer of plays and romances. Works
f greater value, however, are those on the history
if caric ape Abe ys rat of art fon
840, and his Bibliographie Céramique (1882). e
died director of the polaris at Ravens: 7th Decem-
ber 1889.
4 ») i

pion (Low Lat. campio, from Low Lat.
campus, ‘a combat,’ whence also A.S. camp, ‘a
fight’), In the judicial combats of the middle
ages, it was allowed to women, children, and

scent statute, agreements for the division of:

aged persons, except in cases of high treason
or of parricide, to appear in the lists by a repre-
sentative. Such a hired combatant was called
a champion. Those who followed this profes-
sion were generally of the lowest class, and were
held disreputable (see BATTLE, WAGER OF). At
a later period, in the age of chivalry, the word
champion came to have a more dignified accepta-
tion, and signified a knight who entered the lists on
behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one
incapable of self-defence (see CHIVALRY). In Eng-
land, the crown had its ‘et, a the Champion of
England, who, mounted on horseback and armed
to the teeth, challenged, at every coronation at
Westminster, all who should deny the king to be
the lawful soverei, This office is said b gdale
to have been conferred by William the Conqueror
on Robert de Marmion, with the Lincolnshire
manor of Scrivelsby ; and by reason of his tenure
of that manor, the championship was claimed under
Henry IV. by Thomas Dymoke. Henry Lionel
Dymoke, who died in 1875, was the nineteenth
member of this family who held the office. But
the ceremonies of the championship were last exer-
cised at the coronation of George IV. Notes
and Queries (1887) and Lodge’s Scrivelsby (1893).

Champlain’, a beautiful lake separating the
states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating,
at its north end, about 6 miles into the Dominion
of Canada. Lying 91 feet above sea-level, it is 110
miles long, by from 1 to 15 broad, empties itself
into the St Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and
has communication by canal with the Hudson.
The lake, now an important trade channel, was
the scene of several incidents of the French and
Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British
flotilla was defeated by the Americans, 11th Sep-
tember 1814. It was discovered by Champlain
in 1609.

Champlain, SAMUEL DE, French governor of
Canada, and founder of Quebec, was born at
Brouage in Saintonge in 1567, and in 1603 made
his first voy to Canada. In 1604-7 he was
engaged in exploring the coasts, anc on his third
voyage in 1608 he founded Quebec. In 1612 he
was appointed lieutenant of Canada (under an
hono governor); and the following years were
oceupied with attacks on the Iroquois, explor-
ations of the interior, and journeys to France,
until 1629, when he had to surrender to an English
fleet, and was carried captive to England. Liber-
ated in 1632, he returned to Canada in 1633, and
died there in 1635. He published several works,
reprinted at Quebec, in 4 vols. 1870.

Champlain Period, the name given by Pro-
fessor Dana to the period succeeding the glacial,
and therefore to some extent equivalent to the post-
glacial period of English geologists. See PLEIsSTO-
CENE OR GLACIAL SYSTEM.

Champollion, JEAN FRANcotIs, the founder
of modern Egyptology, distinguished from his
elder brother as ‘Champollion the younger,’
was born December 23, 1791, at Figeac, in the
French department of Lot. He was educated at
Grenoble, and devoted himself from his boyhood
to the study of oriental languages, especially
Coptic. In 1807 he went to Paris to pursue these
studies, and in 1816 he became professor of History
at the Lyceum of Grenoble. He had already pub-
lished (1811-14) the first two volumes of a large
work entitled L’Lgypte sous les Pharaons (3 vols.),
in which he reproduced, by as - borin coe
ments, the national yo » when he
was expelled from fin cals for +4 napartist
sympathies. Comparison of the monuments with
the fis. led him to the conviction that the three
systems of Egyptian writing, the hieratic, demotic,

96 CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC

CHANCELLOR

and hieroglyphic, were essentially one; and that
the hiero Apne were not signs for ¢deas, but for
sounds. e first results of his labours were
published in De l’Ecriture hiératique des anciens
FEgyptiens (1821) and his famous Lettre a M.
Dacier (1822); and in his Précis du Systeme
hiéroglyphique (1824; 2d ed. 1828) he established
the conclusion that the hieroglyphs were partly
phonetic or alphabetic characters. The final
solution by which he arrived at the whole alphabet

of twenty-five letters (see HIEROGLYPHICS) was |

pronounced by Niebuhr to be the greatest discovery
of the century. Champollion was sent by the king
on a scientific. mission to Italy in 1824-26, and in
1826 was appointed conservator of the Egyptian
collections ; and about the same time he pnblstied
his Panthéon Hgyption (1823), with drawings of
Egyptian deities from the papyrus-rolls and notes
regarding their Egyptian designations, and_ his
Lettres relatives au Musée royal Egyptien de Turin
(2 vols. 1824-26). In 1828-30 he accompanied a
scientific expedition sent to Egypt by the king of
France. On his return to Paris he was made a
member of the Académie des Inscriptions (1830),
and a new chair of Egyptology was founded for
him in the Collége de Biante: He died March 4,
1832. The MSS. which he left unpublished, ex-
tending to more than 2000 pages, were bought by
the Royal Library at Paris for 50,000 franes. His
posthumous works are Lettres écrites d’ Egypte et de
Nubie (1833; new ed. 1867); Grammaire Egypti-
enne, his principal work (3 vols. 1836-41); Monw-
ments de per et de la Nubie (5 vols. 1835-45) ;
Dictionnaire Egyptien en écriture hitroglyphique
(1842-44) ; my | Monuments de ? Egypte et de la
Nubie (1844), the last work being afterwards con-
tinued and completed under the superintendence of
Rouge.

Champollion-Figeac, JEAN JACQUES, an
archeologist, was born 5th October 1778 at Figeac,
in the department of Lot. After holding at
Grenoble the offices of librarian and professor of
Greek, he was appointed in 1828 conservator of
MSS. in the Royal Library in Paris; but after the
February revolution was deposed from office by
Carnot. In 1848 he was appointed librarian of the
palace of Fontainebleau. Besides the Antiquités de
Grenoble (1807) and Recherches sur les patois de
France (1809), his chief works include the Annales
des Lagides (2 vols. 1819; supplement, 1821), Les
Tournois du Roi René (1827-28), and numerous
publications of French historical documents. After
the death of his younger and more celebrated

brother, Pepe ae ay eros prepared, with the |

help of his MSS., L’ Egypte ancienne et moderne
(1840) and L’éceriture démotique égyptienne (1843).
Along with his son Aimé he wrote the text to
Silvestre’s Palwographie universelle (4 vols. 1839-
41). He died 9th May 1867.—AIME (1812-94)
wrote on the Dukes of Orleans, Francis I., and
Les Deux Champollions (1888).

Chance (through the French from Low Lat.
cadentia), in its original and strict meaning, may
be defined as that which determines the course of
events, in the absence of law, ordinary causation,
or providence. Strictly speaking, it is an idea
-which few would now be disposed to admit as
corresponding to anything which really exists ; the
religious mind excluding it as inconsistent with
the belief in the divine government, and the philo-
sophical mind rejecting it as inconsistent with a
recognition of universal laws of causation. As a
word, however, it has always been, and always
will be popularly accepted ; and its use is correct
so far as we overlook, or choose for the moment to
throw out of view, the more universal connection
of events, and regard them as their emergence, on

a superficial view, appears to be determined. It
is clear that chance, being only legitimate as an
expression in popular parlance, is a term which
is much too indefinite to admit of any kind of
measurement. What is sometimes called the

Doctrine of Chances is more properly the Theory

of Probabilities, and will be dealt with under the

head of PROBABILITIES. For games of chance, see
GAMBLING.

Chancel (Lat. cancellus, ‘a sereen’). The
chancel, choir, or eastern part of a church was,
often separated from the nave by a screen of
lattice-work, so as to prevent general access thereto,
though not to interrupt either sight or sound. As
it was in this part of the church that the service
was always performed previous to the Reformation,
the clergy were held to have a special right to it,
in return for which its repairs in general still fall
on the impropriator, rector, or vicar, and not on the
parish. The chief pew in the chancel belongs to the
rector or impropriator, but the disposal of the seats
in the church, with this exception, belongs to the
ordinary, or, practically, to the churchwardens, to
whom the authority of the ordinary is delegated.
No monument, moreover, can be set up without
the ordinary’s consent. And where the freehold of
the chancel vests in a lay pra Beg A nevertheless
the right of possession in it for publie worship vests”
in the minister or churchwardens, so that they
cannot be excluded from it, nor be charged with
tresspass for making a door into it from the chureh-
yard. The term chancel is usually confined to—
parish churches which have no aisles around the
choir, or chapels behind it or around it ; and in this ~
case the chancel and the choir have the same signi-—
fication. In small churches which have no con-
structional chancel, the space within the altar rails
is sometimes called by this name, but is more
strictly styled the ‘sanctuary.’ But in larger
churches there are sometimes chancels at the ends
of the side aisles, and this whether the choir has the
character of a choir in the larger sense, or of a
chancel. See CHURCH.

Chancellor (Lat. cancellarius). It is said
that the chief notary or scribe of the Roman
emperor was called chancellor, either because he
was intrusted with the power of obliterating,
cancelling, or crossing out (cancellare, ‘to make.
lattice-work’) such expressions in the edicts of the
prince as seemed to him to be at variance with
the laws, or otherwise erroneous; or (more prob-
ably) because he sat intra cancellos, within the
lattice-work or railings (cancelld) which were erected
to protect the emperor from the crowding of the
people when he sat in judgment. Neither the title ~
nor the office of chancellor is at all peculiar to”
England. The chancellor of France (Chancelier de
France) from a very early time was an officer of
state of great power and dignity, under whom
several other officers, bearing also the title of
chancellor, were employed in the administration
of justice and in the defence of the public order.
The office was abolished at the Revolution; and
though it was restored by the Bourbons, many of
the functions of the old chancellor were transferred
to the minister of justice, and have ever since been
held by him.

In most of the other countries of Europe there
are officers of state who bear this or analogous
titles, though their powers and duties are very
various.

In medieval Germany the archbishop and
elector of Mainz was Arch-chancellor of the Holy
Roman empire, and appointed a Vice-chancellor. |
The chief functionary in the Austrian empire has
often been termed chancellor ; and on the reconsti- —
tution of the German empire, Prince Bismarck was
made ‘Chancellor of the Empire’ ( Reichskanzler).

.

CHANCELLOR

CHANCE-MEDLEY 97

a) ke

he Russian minister of Foreign Affairs is some-
nes called Vice-chancellor. ides these state-
ancellors, there were officers in many other
ities to whom the title was given. Every
has his chancellor in the Church of Rome,
there are still chancellors of cathedrals,
) universities, &c.

Yhancellor, Lorp. It is usually said that
e existence of the office in England, as in the
ver states of Europe, is to be ascribed to the
ence which the constitution of the Roman
pire had on the constitutions of the modern
tions. This influence was exercised in no small
easure through the medium of the church, the
pfession of the law being generally exercised by
elesiastics ; and it is for this reason, probably,
at the bishop and the king are furnished with
ogous functions.

bearing the same title, and exercising

: Soon after the Norman Con-

t the English chancellor became a judicial
high rank (see CHANCERY), and a
ifidential adviser of the sovereign in state
fairs. Being charged with the supervision of
arters and other instruments, he obtained the
stody of the great seal. The office of chan-
ellor, or Keeper (q.v.), which in 1576 was
eclared to be exactly the same, is created with-
ut writ or patent, by the mere delivery of the
reat seal. The chancellor, if a baron, takes
recedence of every temporal lord not a member
the royal family, and of all bishops except the
rehbishop of epprahapst 6 To slay the chancellor
s treason. The chancellor is a privy-councillor
; office, and prolocutor, or speaker of the
douse of Lords, by prescription. Though the
wm in which his tenure of office is terminated
s by the resumption of the great seal by the
overeign, the chancellor is now always a cabinet
minister, and an office with the party to which
1 is attached. He has the appointment of all
ustices of the peace throughout the Sp sa but
nis privilege he exercises generally on the recom-
ndation of the lord-lieutenants. But the most
portant, and, as it now seems, somewhat anom-
lous branch of his patronage, arises out of his
laving been originally an ecclesiastic. Though the
ast bishop who held the office was John Williams,
Archbishop of York, who was Lord Keeper from 1621
‘to 1625, the chancellor still continues to be patron of
a large number of crown livings (though in 1863
tbout 300 were sold to augment the incomes of
bse sold and those retained), and visitor of all
_ hospitals and colleges of the king’s foundation.
As representing the paternal character of the
| 1) , again, the chancellor is the general
rotector of all infants, idiots, and lunatics, and
the supervision of all charitable uses in the
dom. His jurisdiction ‘in lunacy’ is com-
y special delegation from the

ha

a

overeign. As rds his judicial patronage, the
‘airangement is, that the Shasioslion Mppctith in
eneral all the judges of the superior courts,
“except the chief-justice, who is nominated by the
‘prime-minister of the day. He also appoints the
ges of the county courts, and various subordi-
ite officers. All these functions the chancellor
erforms in addition to his extensive duties as a
dge in the House of Lords, the Privy-council,
he Court of pares and the Chancery Division
[ the High Court of Justice. Objection has
oiten been taken to the combination of judicial
and political offices in the same person, but the
‘proposal to appoint a minister of justice has not

et found favour. The salary of the chancellor is
10,000 a year, and’ he has an annuity of £5000 on
iring from office.
_ Among the notable Lord Chancellors of England

= Cardinal Wolsey (1515), Sir Thomas

More (1529), Bishop Gardiner (1553), Sir Francis
Bacon (1617), Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1660),
Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury (1672), Lords Jeffreys
(1685), Hardwicke (1737), Thurlow (1778), Eldon
(1801, 1807), Erskine (1806), Lyndhurst (1827,
1834, 1841), Brougham (1830), Cranwarth (1852,
1865), Chelmsford (1858, 1866), Campbell (1859),
Westbury (1861), Cairns (1868, 1874), Hatherley
(1868), Selborne (1872, 1880), Halsbury (1885,
1886), Herschell (1886, 1892). See Lord Campbell’s
Lives of the Chancellors (1845-47 ).

The office of Chancellor of Scotland, which was
analogous to that of England, was abolished at
the Union, a keeper of the Great Seal (q.v.) bein
4, eos The English chancellor is descril
as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ire-
land ; but in Scotland he has scarcely any jurisdic-
tion, and in Ireland there is a separate chancellor,
whose powers and duties are similar to those of
the English chancellor.

CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL is an officer who
formerly had charge of the chapter library, custody
of the common seal, superintendence of the choir
practices, and headship of the cathedral schools ;
sometimes being also visitor of all church schools in
the diocese. Hends he was often styled Scholasti-
cus or Capischolius (= Caput Scholae).
tions are now generally in abeyance.

CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE is, as legal adviser
to the bishop, an ecclesiastical judge, uniting the
functions of vicar-general and official principal,
appointed to assist the bishop in questions of
ecclesiastical law, and hold his courts for him. By
an act of Henry VIII. it is provided that he may
be a layman, whether married or ries hig provided
he be doctor of the civil law, lawfully create and
made in some university. By the canons of 1603
he must be a bachelor of law, at the least, or a
master of arts. There are certain cases, however,
in which the bishop must sit in person.

For other Chancellors, see UNIVERSITIES, Ex-
CHEQUER, LANCASTER (DUCHY OF).

* Chancellor, Ricuarp, a daring English sea-
man, who seems to have been brought up in the
household of the father of Sir Philip Sidney, and
was chosen in 1553 as — of the Bonaventure
and ‘pilot-general’ of Sir Hugh Willoughby’s
Steet in search of a North-east P: to
India. The ships were parted in a storm off the
Lofoden Islands, and Phaneelion. after waiting
seven days at Vardéhus, the rendezvous that
had been agreed upon, proceeded alone into the
White Sea, and travelled thence overland to the
court at Moscow, where he was very hospitably
treated, and was able to conclude a treaty
giving freedom of trade to English ships. His
interesting account of Russia was published in
Hakluyt’s Navigations. Next spring Chancellor
rejoined his ship and returned to England, where
his hopeful reports led to the establishment soon
after of the Muscovy Company. In the summer
of 1555 he made a second voyage in the Bona-
venture to the White Sea, and was at Moscow
once more in the succeeding winter. In July 1556
he set sail on his voyage homewards, but on 10th
November was lost in the wreck of his ship in
Aberdour Bay off the Aberdeenshire coast.

Chancellorsville, « post-station of Spottsy!-
vania county, Virginia, near the south bank of the
Rappahannock, 11 miles W. of Fredericksburg. In
a desperate battle here, May 2 and 3, 1863, General
Lee defeated the Federal forces under Hooker.
The Confederates, however, suffered a severe loss
in ‘Stonewall Jackson,’ who was accidentally
wounded by his own men. See JACKSON (T. J.)

Chance-medley and Chaud-medley are
jaw expressions, wich practically both mean the

These fune-

98 CHANCERY

CHANDLER

same: thing, that a particular homicide was justi-
fiable because it was done in the hot blood caused
by an unprovoked assault. The phrase has no
reference to homicide by accident. See MAn-
SLAUGHTER, SANCTUARY.

Chancery, the office of a chancellor or ambas-
sador ; a place in which writs, &c. are prepared and
formally recorded. In England the Chancery was
in early times the office in which writs and forms
of process were prepared ; some of these forms being
kept in the Hanaper or hamper, and some in the
Petty Bag. When the chancellor became a judi-
cial officer of the first rank, the Court or CHAN-
CERY exercised a very wide jurisdiction. The
court could not maintain its hold on criminal
cases, or on civil cases in which the common-law
courts could do adequate justice ; but the equit-
able jurisdiction of the court was established, after
a keen struggle with the common lawyers. The
assistance of the chancellor, as ‘keeper of the
king’s conscience,’ was invoked in cases where the
common law might work injustice. A trustee, for
example, was in law the owner of the trust pro-
perty, but the Court of Chancery, which acted in
personam, would compel him to render an account
of his trust to the beneficial owner. This power to
enforce equitable claims gave the court an adminis-
trative jurisdiction which was used for the protec-
tion of infants, married women, mortgagors, &c.
The prejudice of the common lawyers against the
court was due to the fact that its extensive powers
were exercised at the discretion of the chancellor,
and not according to settled rules. So late as the
time of Charles II., Shaftesbury was thought to be
a good chancellor, though he was not a lawyer. A
succession of eminent chancellors, from Lord Not-
tingham to Lord Eldon, developed the rules of
equity into a logical system. They did so, it must
be admitted, at the expense of unfortunate suitors ;
and the Court of Chancery became a byword for
delay and expense. Some of the evils satirised,
and somewhat exaggerated, by Dickens in Bleak
House (1853) have been removed by modern
legislation.

he judges of the Court of Chancery were the
Lord Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls ( originall
a subordinate officer, but afterwards an independ-
ent judge), a Vice-chancellor added in 1813, and
two more Vice-chancellors added in 1841, when the
equity business of the Court of Exchequer was
transferred. Two Lords Justices of Appeal were
added in 1851. On the passing of the Judicature
Acts the inconvenient and indefensible distinction
between courts of equity and law was abolished,
and the judges of the Court of Chancery became
members of the Court of Appeal, or of the Chancery
Division of the High Court of Justice.

Among the officers of the Court of Chancery were
the MASTERS IN CHANCERY, whose office is now
abolished, their duties being for the most part
assigned to the chief-clerks in the Chancery
Division. The office of Accountant-general is also
abolished, and Her Majesty’s Paymaster-general
is charged with the duty of accounting for funds
‘in Chancery ’—i.e. for cash and stocks standing in
the account of any cause or matter before the
court. In 1886 there were 39,944 accounts open ;

.the balance of stocks was £71,946,527; balance
of cash, £3,931,054. In 1893 the total funds
were £65,481,866. The dormant and unclaimed
Chancery funds are only about £1,000,000, mostly
in very small sums. nder an Act of 1872, un-
claimed balances are transferred to the National
Debt Commissioners, but the Consolidated Fund
is liable in respect of any claim on these balances.

In various British ree Courts of Chancery
have been established, and the distinction between
courts of law and equity has been preserved. But

ei
in the colonies and the United States, as in —
land, the ‘fusion of law and equity’ has beem ©
effected by legislation. The anomalies of the old.
system have been removed; but many of the
distinctive doctrines and rules of the Court of
Chancery remain. In several of the original
thirteen states there are distinct Courts of ©
Chancery, but in most of the United States
equity powers have been conferred on the higher
law-courts, and the principles of equity are
administered therein. By the Unite Sta es

constitution and several Acts of Congress, equity
powers commensurate with those of the Court of
Chancery in England were conferred on the Federal —
Courts.

The CHANCERY OFFICE, in Scotland, is an office”
in the General Register House at Edinburgh, man-
aged by a director, in which all royal charters of
novodamus, patents of dignities, gifts of offices, re-
missions, legitimations, presentations, commissions,
and other writs appointed to pass the Great and
Quarter Seals, are recorded. Prior to 1874 a great
number of royal charters by progress passed through
this office; and this is still done with regard

recepts from Chancery in favour of heirs in crown
Foldings It is the duty of the director to keep a.
record of the decrees of service pronounced in favour
of heirs by the Sheriff of Chancery, who holds a
special court in Edinburgh for considering speh
petitions, and to send printed indexes of his record
to the sheriff-clerks in the various counties. The
record kept by the director also includes the decrees”
of service pronounced in the different sheriff-courts, —
and of these the director is bound to furnish
extracts. See SEAL. %

Chancre. See SYPHILIs.

Chanda, chief town of a district of India, or
the south-west frontier of the Central Provinces,
90 miles S. of Nagpur. Its stone battlemented
walls are 54 miles round, and 15 to 20 feet high.
Pop. 16,137.

Chandausi, a town of the North-west Pro-
vinces of India, 27 miles S. of Moradabad. Pop.
28,111.: .

Chanderi, a town of Central India, 105 miles
S. of Gwalior. It is now an insignificant place, but
its fort and many ruined buildings attest its
strength and splendour in former times, when it is
said to have contained 14,000 stone houses (not™
to speak of mosques), and 360 caravanserais. tf

Chandernagore (properly Chandan-nagar,
‘city of sandalwood’), a French city, with a scanty
territory of about 34 sq. m., on the right bank
of the Hugli, 22 miles above Caleutta by rail.
Established in 1673, the place for a while rivalled
Calcutta; now, through the gradual silting up of”
the river, it has lost most of its commercial advan-—
tages, and has little external trade. It is the seat
of a French sub-governor, with a few soldiers, and
has in all a population of 25,395, including some
500 Europeans and Eurasians. The town was
bombarded and captured by the English in 1757,
restored in 1763, twice retaken, and finally restored
to the French in 1816.

Chandler, RICHARD, a learned classical archee-
ologist, was born at Elson, Hants, in 1738, and edu-
cated at Winchester and at Queen’s and Magda
colleges, Oxford. His first important work was
Marmora Oxoniensia (1763), an elaborate deserip-
tion of the Oxford marbles. He afterwards trav-
elled through Greece and Asia Minor, with Revett,
architect, and Pars, a painter, at the expense of
the Dilettanti Society, to examine and describe the
antiquities. The materials collected were given to
the world in the following publications: Joniam
Antiquities (1769), Inscriptiones Antique (1774),
Travels in Asia Minor (1775), and Travels in Gi CeCe

y

%

CHANDLER

CHANNEL ISLANDS 99

776). Chandler was made D.D. in 1773, and
erwards held preferments in Hants and at Tile-
rst, near Readin , in Berks, where he died 9th
ruary 1810.
andler, SAMUEL, an English Nonconformist
rine, born at Hungerford in 1693, became minister
a Pres ian church at Peckham, and preached
‘the Old Jewry from 1726 until his death in
_ He was an industrious writer, and pub-
eigen a large number of works relating
th controversy and to catholicism.
Yhandor, a town in the province of Bombay,
‘miles NE. of Nasik. Its fort, commanding an
portant pass on the route between Khandesh
‘Bombay, crowns a hill 3994 feet high. It
rendered to the British in 1804, and was finally
led by Holkar in 1818, Pop. 4892.
Yhandos, a great English family, descended
D Sa follower of William the Conqueror, the last
resentative in the direct male line being Sir
in Chandos (died 1428), whose sister married
» Giles dges. Their descendant, Sir John
dges, was lieutenant of the Tower under Queen
ury, and was created Baron Chandos in 1554.
nes Brydges (1673-1744), eighth Lord Chandos,
it in parliament for Hereford from 1698 to 1714, and
us created Duke of Chandos in 1719. The lucra-
ve post of paymaster of the forces abroad (1707-
N lied means for building a palace at Canons,
ae Bioware, which cost £200,000, but was torn
wn at the duke’s death. Here Handel lived two
and produced ‘Esther.’ In 1796 the title
ssed gmerisee to the Grenvilles, till 1889 the
ukes of Buckingham and Chandos. See Memoir
Of first Duke by J. R. Robinson (1893).
Chandpur, a town of British India, in the
orth-west Provinces, 19 miles 8. of Bijnaur.
b. 11,182.
ndragupta. See SANDROCOTTUS.

Changarnier, Nicotas ANNE THEODULE, a
rench general, born at Autun in 1793, was edu-
ited at Saint-Cyr, and went in 1830 to Algeria,
here for eighteen years he saw all the active
service there was to be seen. On the proclamation
of the Republic in 1848 he acted as provisional
vernor-general of Algeria, but returned to Paris
} take command of the garrisons of Paris and of
ne National Guard. He did much to check the
breaks of the anarchist party during 1849. In
e Legislative Assembly he held a sort of neutral
ition between the Orleanists and the Legitimists,
ist opposing the Bonapartist party. At the
up détat in December 1851, after being im-
soned in Ham, he went into exile till the Franco-
ussian war, when he offered his services to
ypoleon III. He was in Metz with Bazaine,
d, on its capitulation, retired to Brussels. He
urned to France in 1871, entered the Assembly,
d assisted M. Thiers in reorganising the army.
tied at Versailles, February 14, 1877.
ng-Chow, a ey of China, in the province
_Fo-kien, 28 miles W. by S. of Amoy. Pop.
mated at 1,000,000.
_ Chang-Chow, a city of China, in the province
K ee. about 50 miles E. by S. of Nanking.

ageling. It was at one time a common
lief that infants were sometimes taken from their
“radles by fairies, who left instead their own
eakly and starveling elves. The children so left
re called changelings, and were marked by their
eevishness, and their backwardness in learning to
alk and speak. As it was supposed that the fairies
ad no Legge to change children who had been
‘hristened, infants were carefully watched until
uch time as that ceremony had been performed.

>,
a

This superstition is alluded to by Shakes 7
Spenser, and other poets, and is an essential part
of the doctrine of fairy-lore almost everywhere,
See Sikes’s British Goblins (1879).

Chang-Sha, a city of China, capital of the
province of Hu-nan, on the Heng-kiang, a tribu-
tary of the Yang-tse. Pop. 300,000.

Chank-shell (7 sjanka), the poplar name of
the shell of several species of Turbinella, a genus
of (Prosobranchiate) Gasteropod molluses, natives

Chank-shell.
of the East Indian seas. These shells (especially

T. rapa and T, pyrum) are obtained chiefly on the
coasts of the south of India and Ceylon, and form a
considerable article of trade to Caleutta. They are
much used as ornaments by Hindu women. A
chank-shell epening. to the right is rare, and is
highly prized in Calcutta, so that a price of £50,
or even £100, is sometimes paid for one.

Channel, THE ENG.IsuH (La Manche, ‘Sleeve,’
of the French, and the Mare Britannicum of the
Romans), is the narrow sea which, since the glacial
period, separates England and France. On the
east, it joins the North Sea at the Strait of Dover,
where it is narrowest, being only 21 miles wide
from, Dover to Cape Gris-Nez. From this strait it
runs west-south-west for 280 miles, and joins the
Atlantic Ocean at the Chops, with a breadth of
100 miles between the Scilly Isles and Ushant Isle.
With an average breadth of 70 miles, it is 90 miles
wide from Brighton to Havre ; 60 miles from Port-
land Bill to Cape La Hague; 140 -miles—its
greatest breadth—from Sidmouth to St Malo;
and 100 to 110 miles west of the latter line. It
occupies 23,900 square geographical miles, and
contains the Channel Isles, Ushant Isle, Isle of
Wight, and many islets and rocks, especially off
the coast of Brittany. It is shallowest at the
Strait of Dover, where a chalk ridge at the depth
of twelve to thirty fathoms joins England and
France. West of this, the average depth of the
central portion is thirty fathoms, with hollows
from forty to sixty-two fathoms deep. The
English coast-line of the Channel is 390 miles
long, and the French coast-line is 570 miles jonas
Westerly winds prevail, and the current, thoug
imperceptible, is always from west to east. The
English Channel abounds in fish, of which the chief
are pilchard, mackerel, and oysters. See CHANNEL
TUNNEL.

Channel Islands, THE, a group of small
islands off the NW. coast of France, which formed
part of the old duchy of Normandy, and has
remained subject to the British crown. The near-
est points are about twelve miles from the French
coast. The principal islands are four in number
—Jersey, Alderney, Sark, and Guernsey (q.v.);
amongst the others being the Casquets, Burhou,
Brecqhou, Jethou, Herm, the Minquiers, and the
Chausseys. The total area is 75 sq. m.; and the
total population has increased slightly, from 90,739
in 1851 to 92,272 in 1891. Originally a portion of
the Continent, they were paper td pe met by the race
—probably neolithic—who raised the cromlechs and
other monuments of unhewn stone which are com:

100 CHANNEL

ISLANDS

oe

mon to Brittany and the islands. This population,
which came to be represented by what may be
termed the Celtiberian nationality, was gradu-
ally isolated by the action of the tides and mari-
time currents. The Christian religion was intro-
duced into the islands by missionaries from Ireland
and from Brittany; and the Gallo-Roman_hier-
archy was centred at Dol. There is some evidence

CHANNEL
ISLANDS

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of a partial occupation of the islands by Saxon and
Danish sea-rovers. Guernsey is named in the Edda,
and arms of Viking character have been dug up
there. The islands were probably used as depéts in
the conquest of Neustria by the Northmen. Some
time elapsed after that event, during which they
continued subject to Brittany, but in the early
part of the 10th century A.D. the Cotentin was
added to the duchy of Normandy, and the islands
followed in the annexation. The institutions then
introduced were those already established on the
mainland of Normandy—derived from the Frankish
legal system as it existed when the duchy was
first separated from the Frank empire by the treaty
of St-Clair-sur-Epte (Stubbs’s Const. Hist. i. § 92).
The feudal system, however, was only partially
introduced. The arishes did not become manors
—as happened in England after the Conquest—nor
did the Norman seigneurs make a general practice
of residing in the islands. They drew rents as
absentee Tanalords from the allodial proprietors
who, willingly or otherwise, accepted their pro-
tection. But these did not yield military service ;
and the island militia, whee formed, adopted
and preserved, till comparatively recent times,
a parochial organisation. The 12th soupety is
the beginning of the authentic history of these
singular little communities, and of thes ecclesi-
astic organisation already transferred from the
see of Dol to that of Coutances. When Philip
Augustus declared the duchy of Normandy forfeit
on the ground of the alleged contumacy, as a vassal,
of John Lackland, he also pronounced the con-
fiscation of the fiefs of those seigneurs who might
' adhere to John; some of these then settled in
Jersey, where they formed the chief notables and
members of such local government as might be
in existence. John confirmed and strengthened the
privileges of this body, and appointed coroners
sworn to watch over the judicial interests of the
crown. By degrees the seigneurs ceased to attend
the sittings of the states, where the rural popula-
tion was represented by the constables or mayors
of the parishes or communes : these, together with
the rectors, became associated with the coroners,

or ‘ jurats,’ as they came to be called ; and the whole —
assembly was presided over by a bailiff, or lieutenant-
governor appointed by the crown. There was also—
a lord-lieutenant, comes, or governor, but he. was —
often an absentee. In the process of time this —
latter post became chiefly titular; the office of ©
lieutenant-governor was separated from that of ©
bailiff, though the two were occasionally held by
the same person, and a regular system of judicial
and executive administration came into action,
From the time of John to that of Henry VI., many
attempts were made by France to conquer the
islands. Guernsey was held by the French for
some years during the 14th century, though finally
reconquered by the English with hel from Jersey.
In 1461 Jersey itself was conquered, and was held
by a French governor for about six years, being
finally liberated early in the reign of Edward IV.
by Sir R. Harleston. Henry VII. carried his re-
Bip of the aristocracy into the islands, where

e curtailed the feudal jurisdictions and did some-
thing for the popularisation of the militia. The
Reformation took early and deep root in the Chan-
nel Islands, aided by a considerable immigration
of exiled Huguenots from the mainland ; but the
Anglican ritual was not introduced without diffi-
culty. For most of the time the islands con-
tinued subject to the spiritual sway of the
Bishop of Coutances; but in 1568 Elizabeth
attached them to the diocese of Winchester,
Other effects of Elizabeth’s reign are the founda-
tion of the college (grammar-school) of St Peter
Port, in Guernsey, the grant of Sark to the Car-
terets of Jersey, and the improvement of the Castle~
of St Helier, in Jersey, which, like the Guernsey
‘College,’ still bears the name of the virgin queen.

During the reign of Charles I. Guernsey sided
for the most part with the English parliament,
Jersey with the crown. In the former island,
however, Castle Cornet, which commands the
harbour, held out for Charles, and was not reduced
until after Jersey had been conquered. This took
place in 1651. Under the Commonwealth the
Channel Islands continued to enjoy their old
privileges, being specially excluded from the
‘Instrument of Cidcucncannie’ and from the opera-
tion of the excise, because not governed by our
laws, but by municipal institutions of their own
(Burton's Diary). i

In the reign of Charles II. the Channel Islands
were once more threatened by France, and the
militia was improved and formed into regiments.
The total population of the Channel Islands was
then about 25,000; and the chief towns began to
increase in importance. _The reign of William III.
witnessed the famous victory of the British navy
at Cape La Hogue, largely due to information
conveyed to the admiral by a gentleman of Guern-
sey. The privilege of neutrality was taken from
the inhabitants—to whom it had ceased to be
useful—and they entered upon a course of priva
teering, which made them, in the words of Burke,
‘one of the naval powers of the world.’ ¥

In 1781, after the French had espoused the cause
of the revolted British colonies in America, a semi
official landing took place in Jersey, headed by ai
adventurer named Mac uart, styling himself Baror
de Rullecourt. His defeat b ajor Pierson, whi
fell in the engagement, has been rendered famous
by Copley’s picture in the National Gallery. Sinee
then the chief event has been in Jersey the intro-
duction of elected deputies into the legislature
(1856). In the reign of William IV. the militia
the Channel Islands was declared ‘ Royal.’ Queen
Victoria visited them in 1849. gz

The present constitution of the islands is a
development of the ancient institutions, slowly
modified to meet changes in surrounding circum-—

CHANNEL ISLANDS

CHANNEL TUNNEL 101

>

aces. The people, especially in Guernsey and
y, adhere to their old speech, a dialect of the
ient Langue d’oil, which was once a literary
neuage. Its best-known monument is the Roman
, of Wace, a native of Jersey, who wrote in
12th century. In our own days it has been
vived by the late Georges Métivier, who has
n called the ‘Guernsey Burns.’ The late Sir
rt Marett was also the author of many poems
itten in the Jersey form of the language. The
is of the local law is the Covtwmier de Norman-
#, which is prima facie evidence of the common
w. Besides this, the local states enact statutes
two kinds—their bylaws (called ‘ordonnances’),
ying force for three — without royal assent,
nic statutes, which must be sanctioned by
; The French language, in its modern
upe, is the official 24 of the states and of
@ law-courts ; and a French service is held in the
rish churches.
The administration, generally speaking, is of
ie usual two sorts, the executive and the judicial.
he principal officer is the general commanding
troops in each bailiwick, of which Jersey is
1. and Guernsey, with its dependencies Sark and
ney, the other. He is called lieutenant-
vernor, and is appointed in that capacity for
e years. The chief civil officer is the bailiff,
aie in the executive and legislative
lies, represented when absent by a lieu-
t-bailiff. In judicial matters the bailiff is
so the chief, the superior courts being formed by
quorum of the jurats. In matters of legislation
he states are constituted in Jersey of the twelve
irats, twelve rectors, twelve constables, and four-
en deputies ; but in Guernsey almost all power
has been retained by the royal court. The other
- trown officers are the attorney-general, the solici-
| tor-general, and the viscount or prévét, who have
| right of sitting in the states, but not of voting.
The Channel Islands, as already mentioned, are
titac hed to the diocese of Winchester, but each
|

erown

wil
"

jiiwick has its own dean. The livings are in
‘the gift of the crown, but are of small value. The
‘administration is, to a great extent, gratuitous ;
uch offices as are not so being paid chiefly out of
2¢ local revenues of the crown. These islands
ave compulsory military service within their own
imits—about one-tenth of the population being in
eranks or the reserve of the militia. Their im-
unities have been fully and frequently recognised,
ad much loyalty to — is consequently felt.
he ind , thrift, and prosperity of the inhabit-
ts have n testified to by recent observers.
eir holdings are small, but the agricultural pop-
tion consists chiefly of yeomen-proprietors who
ybour with their own hands. The towns are busy
n¢ Beetous, and the houses, both there and on
th s, are large, substantial, and well kept.
® taxation is trifling, the customs duties being
y og Living is very cheap. Communication
b Bee e ports of the south of England is regular
cl uent.
Geology.—Most of the islands are composed of
im or itie rocks. Alderney is a mass of
enite, with hornblende, porphyry, and occasional
ndstone. The structure of Guernsey is hard
enite to the north, and gneiss to the south. The
logy of Jersey is more varied, presenting a
mixture of metamorphic rocks, conglomerates, and
andstones, with syenites and quartzites. Shale
md blown sand are also prevalent. Sark is com-
i of very hard syenite, with veins of greenstone
nd felspar. Granite is quarried from all the
lands, especially from Guernsey, Herm, and
Mont Mado in Jersey, both for home use and
for exportation.
The scenery is exquisitely varied and beautiful ;

a
f,
*,
+,

ay

sc gy in no other area of similar size could be
ound such a combination of savage rocks and
pleasing landscapes.

The climate is ble and suitable to invalids.
The prevailing winds are from north to north-
west. The mean annual rainfall is 35 inches
in Guernsey; but the climate is not over moist,
the soil being porous, and evaporation rapid.
The mean annual temperature of Jersey is 50°8°;
of Guernsey, 50°5°, or about 2° warmer than
Greenwich. The range of temperature is very
moderate; but the climate of Guernsey is rather
more equable than that of Jersey. August is the
hottest month ; February the coldest. Frost and
snow are rare. The autumns are very beautiful ;
and a second summer, called the Petit Lté de Saint
Martin, generally sets in about the 10th of October,
and lasts till the middle of December. Flowering
plants and shrubs are about a fortnight earlier in
the spring thanin England. The sunshine averages
nearly six hours a day throughout the year.

The produce of the islands is principally agrieul-
tural ; but horticulture and floriculture are success-
fully followed—the latter especially in Guernsey,
The soil is generally light, deep, and fertile. The
system of cultivation is very primitive. The prin-
cipal manure is seaweed, which is gathered in
vast quantities from the shores at certain seasons
under strict regulations. Its annual value to
Guernsey alone is estimated at £30,000. A great
quantity is burned for the manufacture of kelp and
iodine.

The land is held in small parcels ranging from
five to twenty English acres. The principal crops
are potatoes, hay, wheat, turnips, mangel-wurzel,

arsnips, and carrots. The Channel Islands are
canes for excellent breeds of horned cattle,
usually known as ‘ Alderneys,’ though each island
has its own speciality (see CATTLE). The other
main articles of exportation are granite, fruit, and
early potatoes.

There are no good recent books on the Channel Islands.
Physical phenomena will be found treated of by Professor
Ansted in The Channel Islands (4th ed. 1896). Useful
historical information will be found in Le Quesne’s
Constitutional History of Jersey (1856), and Tupper’s
History of Guernsey (1876). See the separate articles on
ALDERNEY, JERSEY, GUERNSEY, and SARK.

Channel Tunnel. The proposed tunnel
under the narrow channel dividing England and
France, which countries in very early geological
times were united, would be 23 miles long, includ-
ing land-approaches. It would be made entirely
through and within the area of the ‘old gray
chalk,’ or crate de Rouen, as designated b
French geologists. This bed of chalk extends
from shore to shore. It consists of a mixture of
65 per cent. of chalk and 35 per cent. of clay, and
is therefore impervious to water; though the ex-
perimental works have shown cracks here and
there which exude for a time a fresh or brackish
water, apparently imprisoned for — in these
small fissures. While the experimental works have
been suspended most of these. fissures have run
themselves dry. The French Tunnel Company,
who a concession for making a tunnel to the
middle of the Channel, and the nglish Tunnel
Company, associated under * limited liability,’ have
made many thousand soundings and experiments,
and consider it proved that the ‘gray chalk’ is not
only in the same position and of the same thickness
andi consistency on each side of the Channel, but
that no erosion or fault interfering with continuity
exists as between the two coasts.

The experimental works, already executed by a
headway of 7 feet diameter on the English side, have
been extended My the using of a ‘ boring machine,
from the foot of Shakespeare’s Cliff, near Dover,

102 CHANNING

for a distance of 2200 yards under the sea. The
similar work on the French side seaward, from
Sangatte, near Calais, is of about the same length.
Thus, about a tenth of the whole distance has
been successfully experimented; and the opinion

ae

< Pe
4

proposed tunnel,

of the engineers engaged is that the work presents
exceptionally favourable features for cheap and
rapid accomplishment. The original estimate,
before experiment showed the way through this
favourable stratum of ‘gray chalk,’ was about
£10,000,000 ; now that estimate is only £4,000,000.
The proposal is to have two single-line tunnels—
which can be multiplied to any extent side by
side as traffic might demand—one tunnel ventilat-
ing the other, and to work the lines by engines
which have been successfully designed and worked
experimentally, charged with highly compressed
air. In the construction hardly any pumping and
no ‘ timbering’ would be required. The machine
which bores takes up any modicum of water
with the debris it excavates; and every turn of it
gives out a portion of the air, which, at a pressure
of about 25 1b. to the inch, is its motive force (see
the article BORING).

The instruction to the engineers by Sir Edward
Watkin, the chairman of the English Tunnel Com-
pany, to ‘find the ‘‘ gray chalk” at its outcrop,
and never leave it,’ would seem to have reduced a
work which at one time appeared all but impractic-
able to the utmost simplicity and ease of comple-
tion. The scheme for a railway tunnel was dis-
cussed in 1867 and succeeding years. In 1876 a
convention for carrying it out was concluded
between the British and French. governments, and
in the same year boring was begun on the French
side; but the excavations on the English side were
stopped by order of the British government, mainly
for military reasons,

Amongst the supporters of such a submarine
means of intercourse between England and France
have been the late Prince Consort, Mr Cobden,
the late and present Lords Derby, the late Lords
Beaconsfield and Clarendon, and Mr Gladstone.

The engineers whose names have been associated
with various schemes for a Channel Tunnel have
been those of Thomé de Gamond and Raoul-duval

in France ; and William Low, Frederick Bramwell, -

' Francis Brady, John Hawkshaw, and Brunlees in
England.
he experiments near Dover have led to the
belief that there is a coal-bed under the Channel.
The English Channel Tunnel Company had in
1888 already bored to a depth of 950. feet, and
proposed going down to 12,000 feet with the view
of finding this mineral.
Channing, WILLIAM ELLERY, a great Ameri-
can preacher and writer, was born 7th April 1780,
at Newport, Rhode Island. He graduated at

Section of the Bed of the English Channel, showing the

although the name itself was re-
pugnant to him, and he would
gladly have seen liberal theology ©
growing naturally outwards from —
within the church herself. His
| famous sermon, preached at the
| ordination of the Rev. Jared
Sparks in 1819, was a fearless and
plain definition of the Unitarian
position. It involved him in con-—
troversy, a thing which he natu-—
rally loathed. To the end of his
life he preserved a devoutly Chris-
| tian heart, shrinking with the
delicate instinct of a pious nature —
from everything cold, one-sided,
and dogmatic, whether Unitarian
or Trinitarian. As late as 1841
he wrote, ‘I am little of a Unitarian, have little
sympathy with the system of Priestley and Bel-
sham, and stand aloof from all but those who
strive and pray for clearer light.’ He had sym-
pathy for social and political as well as purelig
religious progress, advocated temperance and edu-—
cation, and denounced war and slavery with more
than his accustomed eloquence. In 1821 he re-
ceived the title of D.D. from Harvard University, —
and next year he visited Europe, and made t
uaintance of several great English authors, such
ordsworth and Coleridge, both of whom were
strongly impressed in his favour. Coleridge said —
of him, ‘He has the love of wisdom and the
wisdom of love.’ Among his most popular works _
were his Lssay on National Literature, Remarks on —
the Character and Writings of John Milton, the
Character and Writings of Fénélon, his essay on
Negro Slavery, and that on Se/f-culture. Besides
these, he wrote a variety of other essays and_
treatises, all characterised by vigour, eloquence,
pate taste, and a lofty tone of moral earnestness.
e died October 2, 1842, at Bennington, Vermont.
His works were collected before his death in 5 vols.
(Boston, 1841), to which a sixth volume was afte
wardsadded. The American Unitarian Association
(Boston) has reprinted the whole in a single cheap
volume. An interesting memoir of him has been
published by his nephew, William Henry Channing
(3 vols. Boston, 1848; new ed. 1880). There is
also a short Life by Frothingham (1887).
Chansons de Gestes, long narrative poems,
dealing with warfare and adventure, which were
opular in France during the middle ages. estes,
ean the Latin gesta, signified, first, the deeds of
a hero, and secondly, the account of these deeds;
the family to which the hero belonged being spoken
of as gens de geste. One of these poems, and thai
the greatest of all, was composed in the llth
century—namely, the Chanson de Roland, which
is treated of in the article ROLAND. Most of th
others were produced in the 12th and 13th cen-
turies, only a few poems to which the name is
strictly applicable having been written after the
year 1300 A.D. They were mainly the work of
trouveres, and were carried by wandering min-
strels, jongleurs and jongleresses, from castle t
castle, and from town to town. They are distin
ished from the later Arthurian romances and
from the Romans d’Aventures both by their matt

ac
as

CHANSONS DE GESTES

CHANTIBUN 103

welve syllables, arranged in Jaisses, or stanzas of
regular length, throughout each of which the
me rhyme or assonance is repeated. _In his intro-
ition to the Song of Roland, M. Génin points
ut that it is the decasyllabic verse of the Chan-
ms and not the Alexandrine (a form introduced
n the 13th century) which is the true epic verse
n French literature. A e number of these
ems celebrate the exploits of the peers of Charle-
fagne, and form what is termed the Carlovingian
yele, which includes the Song of Roland. But
rhile the author of that poem depicts Charlemagne
son the whole a worthy and venerated sovereign
1¢ aim of the later writers is to exalt the v.

| obles at the expense of the emperor, who is in-

4

ably presented in an odious or ridiculous light.
The great emperor,’ says M. Géruzez, ‘ pays for the
nisdeeds of his feeble successors; the monarchy
' which he remains the representative has been
egraded ; consequently he is degraded along with
_ to the profit of the feudal hero who is opposed
to him.’ The sg fog of the Carlovingian
eycle (setting aside the Song of Roland) are Ogier
le Danois, Renaut de Montauban, de
Cambrai, Huon de Bordeaux, Les Saisnes, Doon
Mayence, Gérard de Viane, and Hugues Capet.
lgier is a typical chanson containing more
than 13,000 lines, written by Raimbert of Paris
in the first half of the 12th century. It tells
how the vassal noble Ogier, after vainly seeking
eparation for the death of his son, who has
been slain by a son of Charlemagne, is pursued by
the emperor into Italy and captured after a heroic
resistance ; how, saved from death by the inter-
vention of Archbishop Turpin, he lives in conceal-
ment until the Saracens invade France, and the
em oe is forced to implore his aid ; how he yields
ul t to repeated entreaties, frees the land from
the heathen, marries a princess, and lives happily
_ to the end of his days. The style of the poem
as clear and vigorous, the characters stand out
vividly, the narrative interest is considerable, and
“the hero rivets the sympathy of the reader. The
_ Voyage du Charlemagne a Constantinople, which
belongs to the same cycle, offers a strong contrast
to Ogier. It is a mock-heroic piece, full of broad
nd extravagant pleasantries, and is rather a long
liau than a true Chanson de Gestes. Among
e other chansons which have come to light, the
most remarkable are Garin le Loherain (ascribed to
Jean de F ), which takes us back to the times
of Charles Martel and Pepin, and describes the
feud between the Counts of Metz and the Counts
0 Boulogne ; Amis et Amiles, and its sequel Jour-
_ dains de Blaivies ; Berte aus grans Piés, one of the
most graceful of all; Gérard de Roussillon ; Fiera-
bras; Aliscans, which relates the wars of William
of Orange with the Saracens ; and Antioche, which
‘ives a singularly animated account of the siege
of Antioch by the crusaders, one of whom is sup-
posed to have written the original version of the
poem. The last forms one of the series known as
Le Chevalier au Cygne, which is concluded with
Baudouin de Seboure.
The Chansons de Gestes are not, strictly speak-
ng, epics, though they are frequently deseribed
issuch. They are rather the material out of
Which a genuine epic, such as the J/iad or the
Nibelungenlied, might have been wrought had a
rreat poet appeared to extract the gold from the
_ dross and mould—a work of art out of this rich mass
of national legend. There has been a natural
_ tendency to overestimate their worth on the part
_ ~f those by whom they have been exhumed and

edited. Their literary merit, however, is incon-
_ testable, and their historical interest is very great.

_ They faithfully reflect the beliefs and customs of the
yes in which they were written; they abound in

spirited battle-pieces, and contain not a few p.
marked by deep and simple pathos. Their plots
are somewhat monotonously alike. The strength
of their writers does not lie in invention, but in
fresh and vivid and sometimes (as in the picture
of the sack of the abbey in Raoul de Cambrai)
terribly realistic descriptions. Their verse is by
no means unmelodious, and their style is rich in
Lig pier and poetical epithets.

After lying in neglect for centuries, the Chan-
sons de Gestes have for the last fifty years been
assiduously studied and brought into notice by a
band of French and German scholars. Some fifty
of them are now in pet a number of these having
been edited by the late M. Paulin Paris, a scholar
who did more than any one else to promote the
study of this department of literature.

See Léon Gautier’s Les ZL Frangaises (2d ed.
1878); the Histoire Poétique de Charlemagne, by G. Paris
(1866); C. d’Héricault’s Essai sur l’ Origine de I Epopée
Frangaise (Frankfort, 1860) ; Génin’s introduction to the
Chanson de Roland (1850); the series, Les Anciens
Poétes de la France, which MM. Guessard and Michelant
began to issue in 1858; and Fauriel’s Epopée Chevaler-
esque au Moyen Age.

Chant, in Music, is the name applied to the
short tunes used in the English Church since the
Reformation for the psalms and, less properly, the
canticles. The adaptation of the form to the
structure of the psalms is obvious. Its distin-
guishing point is that each section is composed
of a reciting note of indefinite length, according
to the number of words sung to it, followed by a
few notes in regular time, called the Mediation
or Termination, The tunes were originally de-
rived, as the name indicates, from the Canto
Fermo, or Plain Song of the Roman Church, also
called heats aeigen Tones. These Gregorian tones
were preceded by a still earlier form, the Ambrosian
Chant, which was the first attempt to systematise
the traditional music of the Christian church,
carried out by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, in the
4th century. Of this, next to nothing is now
known, the statements of musical historians being
founded on slender authority, and curiously at
variance. If any fragments still remain in the
services of the "hanian Church, they cannot be
distinguished from the later Gregorian music (see
PLAIN-SONG, INTONING). There has been a re-
vival in the present day of the old Gregorian
chants, which are all ‘single,’ that is, composed
of only two sections, and adapted to a single
verse, and have the additional feature of an intro-
ductory ‘intonation’ of two notes before the first
reciting note; but many consider these of mainly
antiquarian interest. The double chant, adapted
to a couple of verses, and hence more suitable for
antiphonal singing, dates from the time of the
Restoration; and in later days there have been
added quadruple chants. The repertory has been
Suriohied by almost every English composer of the
last three centuries, famous or obscure. The objec-
tionable ‘ florid’ style has now happily gone out. On
the subject of ‘ pointing’ the psalms—i.e. indicat-
ing the division of the verses to accord with the
chant, there is great diversity of usage, and no
authoritative system. The best treatment of
the subject, theoretic and practical, will be found
in Helmore’s Psalter Noted and Plain Song, the
Cathedral Psalter, and Ouseley and Monk's and
Oakeley’s Psalters. Chanting is gaining ground
in the Presbyterian and other churches.

Chantenay, 2 western suburb of Nantes (q.v.).

Chantibun, or CHANTABON, an important
commercial port of Siam, near the mouth of the
Chantibun River, in the Gulf of Siam, occupied by
the French as security for the fulfilment of the
treaty of 1893. Pop. 30,000.

104 CHANTILLY

CHAPALA

Be |

Chantilly, a town in the French department
of Oise, 26 miles NNE. of Paris. One of the most
beautiful places in the vicinity of the capital, and
the headquarters of French horse-racing, it attracts
immense numbers of visitors. Apart from its
natural beauty, it is interesting as the place
where the Great Condé spent the last twenty years
of his life in the society of Moliére, Boileau, Racine,
La Fontaine, and Bossuet, and where his cook
killed himself, on the occasion of a royal visit,
because the fish failed to arrive. His magnificent
chateau was pulled down at the Revolution of 1793,
but was rebuilt by the Duc d’Aumale, who bought
back the estate in 1872, and who in 1886 presented
it to the French Institute, with its priceless art
collections, its celebrated stables for 250 horses, and
its 16th-century ‘ Petit Chateau,’ one of the finest
specimens of Renaissance architecture in France.
The grounds, park, and forest, 6050 acres in area,
are of great beauty—truly a princely gift, its
value nearly £2,000,000. The manufacture of silk
pillow-lace, or blonde, so famous in the 18th cen-
tury, is all but extinct. Pop. (1891) 4022.

Chantrey, Sir FRANcis LEGATT, an eminent
English sculptor, was bern at Jordanthorpe, in
Derbyshire, on 7th April 1781 (not 1782, as has been
generally said). His father, who was a carpenter,
and rented a small farm, died when Chantrey was
only twelve years of age, leaving the mother in
narrow circumstances. The boy was in 1797 appren-
ticed for seven years to acarver and gilder in Sheffield
called Ramsay. It was in these humble circum-
stances that Chantrey acquired the rudiments of art.
He began to model in clay and to draw portraits
and landscapes in pencil. iis efforts were encour-
aged by J. R. Smith, the mezzotint engraver: he
pe eae: some local celebrity as a portrait painter,
and in 1802 was enabled to cancel his indentures
with Ramsay. Soon afterwards he came to London,
and studied for a short time in the schools of the
Royal Academy, employing himself also in wood-
carving. In 1805 he received his first commission
for a marble bust, that of the Rev. J. Wilkinson,
for the parish church, Sheffield. This was followed
by commissions for colossal busts of admirals for
Greenwich Hospital ; and having in 1807 married a
cousin with some property, his early struggles were
over. In 1808 he was successful in the competition
for the statue of George III. for Guildhall, and
during the rest of his life he was largely employed
on works of portraiture. The features of the most
celebrated men of his time were transcribed by his
chisel, and it was in this class of severely realistic
work that he most uniformly excelled; though
probably his most widely known statue-group is
that of the ‘Sleeping Children’ in Lichfield
Cathedral, a subject—its design has been attrib-
uted, in error, to Flaxman—in which the real
and the ideal seem to meet and blend. His busts
include those of James Watt, Wordsworth, and the
two very celebrated heads of Sir W. Scott, which
he executed in 1820 and 1828. Among his statues
are Sir Joseph Banks (1827), Sir John Malcolm
(1837), Francis Horner, William Pitt, George
IV., and the Duke of Wellington; while his
head of Satan and his ‘ Plenty’ designs for Sheaf
House, Sheffield, and his ‘Penelope’ at Woburn,
are examples of his rare treatment of ideal and
imaginative subjects. In 1816 Chantrey was
elected an Associate, in 1818 a Member of the
Royal Academy ; and in 1835 he was knighted by
William IV. Allan Cunningham, the poet, was his
secretary and superintendent of works from 1814
till the date of Chantrey’s death, 25th November
1841. The sculptor acquired by the practice of his
art a fortune of about £150,000; and bequeathed to
the Royal Academy, with liferent to his widow,
who died in 1875, a sum yielding about £3000

annually, of which the president was to receive: —
£300 and the secretary £50, and the rest was to be:
devoted to the purchase of works of art executed
in Great Britain. Many national acquisitions have-

already been made by means of this ‘Chantrey
Fund.’ See John Holland’s Memorials of Chantrey _
(1851).

Chantry (Fr. chanterie, from chanter, ‘to sing’), —
a term applied alike to endowments or benefices.
to provide for the chanting of masses, and to the
chapels in which such masses are celebrated. These
endowments were commonly made in the form of
testamentary bequests, the object being to insure
the erection of a chapel near or over the spot where —
the testator was buried, and to remunerate the —
priests for saying masses in it for the repose of his
soul, or of the souls of others named in his will.
Many such chantry chapels are still to be seen in
English parish churches; but they were more
common in abbeys and monastic establishments, in.
which it was deemed a privilege to be buried, and
where some such offering to the brotherhood was in.
a measure the price of sepulture. These chapels, ©
which have generally the tomb of the founder in
the middle of them, are separated from the aisles.
or nave of the church by open sereen-work. Some- —
times, again, they are separate erections, pro
ing from the church externally ; but in cathedrals.
and the larger churches they are generally con-
structed within the church, often between the
piers. Many chantries are lavishly enriched with
sculpture and tracery of all descriptions, and some
of them are adorned with gilding and painting.

Chanzy, ANTOINE EvGrNE ALFRED, French.
general, born at Nouart (Ardennes); 18th March —
1823, entered the artillery as a private, received a.
commission in the Zouaves in 1841, and served —
almost uninterruptedly in Africa till 1870. After
the revolution of the 4th September the Govern-
ment of National Defence appointed him a general
of division ; in December he was placed at the head
of the second Army of the Loire, and resisted the
invaders inch by inch with a stubborn valour that
won the respect of the Germans and the confidence
of his countrymen, and which found a fitting close
in the great six days’ conflict about Le Mans.
He was elected to the National Assembly, and
narrowly escaped being shot by the Communists
in 1871. In 1873-79 he was governor-general of —
Algeria. Chosen a life senator in 1875, he was
put forward for the presidency in 1879. He was.
ambassador at St Petersburg in 1879-81, and after- —
wards commanded the 6th army corps at Chalons,
where he died suddenly, 4th January 1883. See
Chuquet, Le Général Chanzy (1884).

Chaos signified, in the ancient cosmogonies,
that vacant infinite space out of which spran
things that exist. Some poets make it the single:
original source of all ; others mention along with it —
Gea, Tartaros, and Eros. By some also only the
rough outlines of heaven and earth were suppo:
to have proceeded from Chaos, while the organisa- —
tion and perfecting of all things was the work of
Eros. till later cosmogonists, such as Ovid, —
represent it as that confused, shapeless mass out
of which the universe was formed into a kosmos,
or harmonious order. Hesiod makes Chaos the —
mother of Erebus and Nox. In Gen. i, 1-2, after
God created heaven and earth, the earth was yet —
‘waste and void (toha va-bohi), and darkness was.
upon the face of the deep’ (¢éhom, the Chaldee-
teamat). See ADAM AND EVE.

Chapala, a lake of Mexico, on the high —
plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by steep, bare
mountains. It has an estimated area of 1300
sq. m., contains many islands, and is traversed by
the Rio Grande de Santiago. “a

=
va

a CHAP-BOOKS

CHAPELAIN 105

pOoks are little stitched tracts written
le, and sold by chapmen, or travelling
whose _ representative are hr is so
vidl; ht before our eyes by Shakespeare in
‘winter's Tale. The literary wares of the chapman
wre mostly ballads or other broadsides, but he also
salt in these stitched booklets. Popular litera-

as naturally become scarce on account of the
eissitudes to which it is subject, and few of the
de books exist at the present day. Samuel
Py ected some of considerable interest which
uarto volumes and lettered

d} }
oil

. d in small
ulgaria. Besides these he left four volumes of
wap-books of a smaller size which he lettered
enny Merriments, Penny Witticisms, Penny Com-
iments and Penny Godlinesses. The small quarto
ap-books are the descendants of the black-letter
acts of Wynkyn de Worde, Copland, and other
ious printers, and were probably bought from
ooksellers as well as from chapmen. ith the
Sth onal came in a much inferior class of
iterature, which was printed in a smaller size, and
orms the bulk of what is known to us now in
ollections of chap-books. These tracts were
‘inted largely in Aldermary Churchyard, and after-
vords in Bow Churchyard, as well as at Northamp-
n, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Stokesley, Warring-
n, Liverpool, Banbury, Aylesbury, Durham,
irmingham, Wolverhampton, Coventry, White-
ven, Carlisle, Worcester, Penrith, Cirencester,
¢., in oi ore at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Falkirk,
Paisley, Dumfries, Kilmarnock, Stirling, &c., in
Scotland; and at Dublin. As ballads are frequently
reduced versions of romances, so chap-books usually
ontain vulgarised versions of popular stories. The
subjects of the chap-books are very various ; first
and foremost are the popular tales, such as
| Valentine and Orson, Fortunatus, Reynard the Fox,
J and the Giants, Patient Grissel, Tom Thumb,
and Tom Hickathrift; then come the lives of
heroes, historical abridgments, travels, religious
reatises, and abstracts of popular books like
| Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. Besides these
there are the more modern inventions of hack
Writers. Dougal Graham (1724-1779), bellman to
he city of Glasgow, was a popular writer who is
supposed to have done much to give a special
character to Scottish chap-book literature. Mother-
well has styled him ‘the vulgar Juvenal of his
age.” His works were reprinted at Glasgow in
2 vols. in 1883.
_ The chap-books of the 17th century are valuable
aS illustrations of manners; but little is to be
e from those of the 18th century, which are
altogether of an inferior character. An instance
‘of this may be taken from the ge f of Dick
Whittington. The earliest version of this tale
which has come down to us is a small quarto tract
mtitled ‘The Famous and Remarkable History of
‘ir Richard Whittington, three times Lord Mayor
if London, who lived in the time of King Henry
the Fifth in the year 1419, with all the remarkable
passages, and things of note, which happened in his
ime: with his Life and Death.’ It is without a
date, but was probably published about 1670. In
his the historical character of the subject is farly
kept up, although the dates are somewhat mixed,
md to this the widespread folk-tale of the cat is
added. In the later chap-book versions the histori-
il incidents are ruthlessly cut down, and the ficti-
tious ones amplified. The three chief points of the
_ Story are (1) the poor paren of the hero, (2) his
change of mind at Highgate Hill by reason of hear-
ig Bow Bells, and (3) his good fortune arising
from the sale of his cat. Now these are all equally
untrue as referring to the historical Whittington,
and the second is apparently an invention of the
‘48th century. In the 17th-century story we learn

| Notices of P
| Ashton

that Whittington set out before daybreak on All-
Hallows’ Day, and before he got as far as Bunhill
he heard Bow Bells ring out. Holloway replaced
Bunhill in the later versions, and hence arose the
myth connected with Whittington Store on High-
gate Hill.

Hannah More’s Repository Tracts, and after-
wards the publications of the Useful Knowledge
Society, Chambers’s Miscellany of Tracts, and the
growth of cheap magazines, greatly reduced the
popularity of chap-books; but Catnach, a London
printer, kept up the ar gd in the early portion of
the 19th century, and even now chap-books are
still produced in England and elsewhere.

The influence of chap-books can never have been
very great in Britain from the inferiority of their
literary character. This has not been the case in
other countries, and Mr Wentworth Webster has
discovered the curious fact that the Pastorales or
Basque dramas owe their origin to the chap-books
hawked about the country (see article BASQUES).
A valuable and standard work on the chap-books of
France was published in 1854, entitled Histoire des
Livres Populaires, ou de la Littérature du Colport-
age, by M. Ch. Nisard; but little has been done in

ngland for this class of literature. Mr J. O.
Halliwell-Phillipps printed in 1849 Notices of
Fugitive Tracts and Chap Books and Descriptive
ular English Histories; Mr John
ublished in 1882 a useful work on Chap-
books of the Eighteenth Century; and five of the
most interesting of the old chap-books have been
reprinted (1885) by the Villon Society, with intro-
ductions by Mr Gomme and Mr H. B. Wheatley.
For German chap-books, the reader should consult
Karl Simrock, Die deutschen Volksbiicher (55 parts,
Berlin and Frankfort, 1839-67), and Gotthard
Oswald Marbach, Alideutsche Volksbiicher (44 vols.
Leip. 1838-47).

Chapel (through Fr. from a late Latin capella,
which, according to Brachet, already in the 7th
century had the sense of a chapel, but earlier meant
the sanctuary in which was preserved the cappa or
cope of St Martin, and was next expanded to mean
any sanctuary containing relics). The term now
signifies a building erected for the A, peep of
public worship, but not possessing the full privileges
and characteristics of a church. In this sense all
places of worship erected by dissenters are now
called chapels in England, and the term is also
applied to supplementary places of worship, even
though in connection with the established chureh—
such as parochial chapels, chapels of ease, free
chapels, and the like. In former times it was
applied either to a domestic oratory, or to a place
ot worship erected by a private individual or a
body corporate. In the latter sense we s ik of
chapels in colleges. But its earliest significa-
tion was that of a separate erection, either within
or attached to a large church or cathedral, separ-
ately dedicated, and devoted to special services
(see CHANTRY). Chapels had no burying-ground
attached to them, and the sacrament of baptism
was not usually administered in them.—The name
is also given to a printer's workshop, hence toa
union of the workmen in a printing-office—said to
be so applied because Caxton set up his press in a
chapel at Westminster.

Chapelain, JEAN, a somewhat curious figure
in the gallery of French authors, was born in 1595,
and died in 1674. He was a learned, industrious
writer, who for a time as a poet, and was
accepted as the dominant aathority in the world of
French letters between the literary dictatorships of
Malherbe and of Boileau. He produced one of the
abortive epics which it was the fashion to write
during the regency of Mazarin, This work, tae

106 CHAPEL ROYAL

CHAPMAN

Pucelle, dealt with the story of Joan of Are, in
twenty-four books. Its appearance covered its
author with ridicule. Chapelain was gibbeted in
the satires of Boileau, and the critic’s severity
was in thiz case amply justified by the dullness
and grotesque absurdities of the work which he
attacked. Chapelain also wrote a number of odes,
one of which, composed in honour of Cardinal
Richelieu, is not without merit. An edition of
part of the Pucelle (1 vol. folio) was published in
1656. The last twelve books still remain in manu-
script in the Bibliotheque Impériale.

Chapel Royal, in England, consists of a dean,
sub-dean, forty-eight og ca ten priests in
ordinary, and a numerous lay choir, styled gentle-
men of the chapel, with a clerk of the closet, and
deputy-clerks of the closet, and an organist. The
chaplain’s duty is preaching, a certain number
being appointed belocobicnd to take duty each
month of the year; the liturgical offices are per-
formed by the dean, sub-dean, and priests in
ordinary. The establishment is bound to attend
the sovereign wherever the court happens to be ;
but in fact the services of the chapel are confined
to London—formerly to the chapel at Whitehall,
destroyed by fire after the Restoration, more
recently to the small oratory in St James’s Palace.
The earliest records concerning the Chapel Royal
date from the reign of Edward IV.

The CHAPEL ROYAL OF SCOTLAND was an ancient
foundation originally located in Stirling. Castle,
founded by Alexander I., and liberally endowed
by his successors. In the reign of Queen Mary the
Chapel Royal was transferred to Holyrood House.
After the Reformation ‘the minister of the king’s
household’ conducted service in it, and the chapel
was used as their parish church by the people of
the Canongate. It was endowed with the teinds
of various churches, and the revenues of the abbey
of Dundrennan. During the period of Episcopal
church government the Chapel Royal of Holyrood
was presided over by a dean, generally one of the
bishops, and served by a number of chaplains (see
Hotyroop). After the Revolution the revenues
of the Chapel Royal were bestowed on various
ministers and chaplains. In accordance with the
report of the University Commission issued in
1863 the whole revenues have latterly been taken
to augment the income of several professors of
divinity, among whom they are divided. The
present Dean of the Order of the Thistle is
appointed by his commission from the crown the
Dean of the Chapel Royal of Scotland. The other
members of the chapel are the chaplains in ordinary,
six in number, who are appointed during the
pleasure of the crown. Neither the dean nor the
chaplains receive any of the revenues of the Chapel
Royal, which have been all disposed of in the
manner stated, and their duties are purely honorary.

Chaperon, a hood or cap worn by knights of
the Garter. Such a hood was at one time in general
use, but was latterly appropriated to doctors and
licentiates in colleges. A person who acts as a
guide and _ protector to a lady at publie places is
called a chaperon, probably from this particular

iece of dress having been used on such occasions.
The name was also applied to devices which were
placed on the heads of | boca at pompous funerals.

Chaplain, originally an ecclesiastic who accom-
panied an army, and carried the relics of the patron
saint (see CHAPEL). It now signifies a clergyman
employed to officiate at court, in the household of
a nobleman or bishop, in prisons, with troops, and
on board ship. Such officials appear first in the
palaces of the Byzantine emperors. For the royal
chaplains in Britain, see CHAPEL RoyAL. For
prison and workhouse chaplains, see PRISON, Poor.

An ARMY CHAPLAIN, in Britain, is a clergyman |
not having charge of a parish, especially com-
missioned to do duty with troops. The office,
which has existed for many years, was at one
time regarded as a saleable perquisite; but the
ystem was reorganised and improved in 1796.
he Chaplains’ Department, a branch of the
Military Department of the War Office, consists
of a Chaplain-general, ranking as major-general;
16 Chaplains to the Forces of the first class,
ranking as colonels; 10 of the second class,
ranking as lieutenant-colonels; 18 of the third
class, ranking as majors; and 35 of the fourth
class, ranking as captains. Of these, 13 are Roman
Catholic and 6 Presbyterian. Their pay, which in
the fourth class is 10s. a day, rises to 22s. 6d. in
the highest rank, the chaplain-general receiving
£1000 a year. Chaplains are sent on active service
with the troops, and in peace are allotted to the
various military stations. Their duties are to con-
duct divine service in camp or barracks, officiate at
burials, baptisms, and churchings, visit the hospital
and barrack-rooms, give religious instruction in the
schools, and easatally treat the soldiers and their
families as though they were their parishioners,
Where the number of troops is small, the parish
clergyman is appointed acting chaplain, performs
these duties, and receives head-money. Soldiers
who do not belong to the Church of England are
marched to the nearest place of worship belonging ©
to their denomination, and head-money is gran ed
to the minister in charge. In the United States
army, regimental chaplains and post-chaplains may
be of any of the regular denominations. They —
mostly have the rank of captain. ;

Navy CHAPLAIN. Every large ship in commis-
sion has a chaplain. The Navy Estimates provide
for above 100 commissioned chaplains, at sie
varying from £219 to £401 per annum. The Chap
lain of the Fleet has an income (with allowances)
of £759 a year. The chaplains perform divine
service at stated times on shipboard, visit the sick
sailors, and assist in maintaining moral discipline
among the crew. The estimates also include a sum
of about £3500 as ‘allowances to ministers
religion,’ besides the salaries of chaplains. In the
United States navy, chaplains on the active list are
of various relative ranks, from that of lieutenant
to that of captain. ’

Chapman, a trader, but popularly spre ina
more limited sense to a dealer in small articles,
who travels as a pedlar or attends markets. Our
familiar chap, ‘a fellow,’ is a mere shortening of
the name, which is derived from A.S. cedp, ‘ trade,”
seen in Cheapside, Eastcheap, and in cognate form
in Copenhagen. See CHAP-BOOK.

Chapman, GEORGE, dramatist and translator of
Homer, was born near Hitchin, Hertfordshire, about
1559. He is supposed to have studied at Oxford
University, and to have afterwards proceeded to
Cambridge. From a passage in his earliest poem,
The Shadow of Night (1594), it has been somewhat
hastily inferred that he served as a volunteer under
Sir Francis Vere in the Netherlands. To Lawrence
Keymis’s Relation of the Second Voyage to Guiana
(1596) he prefixed a spirited poem, De Guiana,
Carmen Epicum. His earliest extant play, Th
Blind Beggar of Alexandria, which has little
merit, but was very popular, was produced in
February 1595-96, and printed in 1598. The excel.
lent comedy, Ald Fools, printed in 1605, was prob-
ably produced in 1599; and about this time
wrote ie weal ty s, which have perished. In 15'

he comple arlowe’s unfinished poem, Hero ana
Leander. The first of his Homeric translations

was Seven Books of the Iliads of Homer (1598).
is a translation of books i. ii. vii.-xi., and

brn
‘eo
18

CHAPONE

CHAPTER-HOUSE 107

written in rhymed verses of fourteen syllables. The
edicatory epistle to the Earl of Essex admirably
ustrates the writer's dignified temper. Later in
8 he published Achilles’ Shield, translated from
e th book of the Ziad. In this transla-
on he used — verses of ten syllables, the
netre that he afterwards employed in his render-
g of the Odyssey. 1t was not until 1610 or there-
01! t he published Homer, Prince of Poets:
anslated according to the Greeke in twelve Bookes
f his Iliads, with a fine dedicatory epistle in verse
} Prince Henry. The complete translation of The
liads of Homer, Prince of Poets, in rhymed verses
| fourteen syllables, appeared in 1611. In the
sface to the Reader he states that the last twelve
yooks had been translated in less than fifteen
yeeks. Having finished the Iliad, he set to work
mthe Odyssey, and in 1616 appeared The Whole
Works of Homer, Prince of Poets, in his Iliads and
} eys, Which was followed (about 1624) by 7'he
Jroune of all Homer's Workes, Batrachomyomachia,
w the Battaile of Frogs and Mice: His Hymns and
pigrams. In spite of all harshnesses, obscurities,
and conceits, Chapman’s translation of Homer is a
oble achievement. He was nota —_ scholar,
and has often missed the sense where a schoolbo
could set him right. But the work is instinct with
life, full of heat and ene By his contemporaries
—Jonson, Drayton, Daniel, and the rest—it was
pplauded, and in later days it has never lacked
admirers. Pope acknowledged its merits; Cole-
ridge declared that it was such a poem as Homer
might have written if he had lived in England in
the time of Elizabeth; Lamb admired it enthusi-
stically ; and Keats wrote a famous sonnet in its
praise. While he was busy with his Homeric
abours, Chapman was also writing for the stage.
He tl Jonson and Marston in the composition
of rd Ho (1605), and in 1606 published a
raceful comedy, The Gentleman Usher. In 1607
ippeared B d’Ambois: a Tragedie; and The
fievenge of Bussy d’Ambois followed in 1613.
These t ies contain much inarticulate bombast
intermingled with exalted poetry. Heavy and un-
dramatic though they were, they held the stage for
many years by reason of their impassioned earnest-
ness. Two other tragedies, The Conspiracie and
ragedie of Charles, Duke of Byron (1608), are also
undramatic, but abound in fine poetry. Lamb was
of opinion that of all the Elizabethan dramatists
Chapman came nearest to Shakespeare ‘in the
descriptive and didactic, in es which are
d Purely dramatic.’ Chapman’s other plays are
The May Day (1611), The Widow's Tears (1612),
and Cesar and Pompey (1631). Two posthu-
mous tragedies, published in 1654, Alphonsus and
fevenge for Honour, bear his name, but their
authorship is uncertain. The Ball, a comedy, and
The Tragedie of Chabot were published in 1639 as
the joint work of Chapman and Shirley. Among
Chapman’s non-dramatic works are Enthymice
Ktaptus (1609), Petrarch’s Seven Penitentiall
Psalmes (1612), The Divine Poem of Musceus
(1616), and The Georgicks of Hesiod (1618).
sh gr died in the parish of St Giles’s in the
Fields, 12th May 1634. Wood describes him ‘as a
erson of reverend aspect, religious and temperate,
jualities rarely meeting in a poet.’ A complete
dition of Chapman’s works in 3 vols., with an
essay by A. C. Swinburne, appeared in 1873-75.
_Chapone, Hester, authoress, daughter of
Thomas Mulso, was born at Twywell, Northamp-
shire, 27th October 1727. She wrote a short
Tomance in her tenth year, and after her mother’s
death her attention was divided between house-
d duties and the study of French, Italian,
fin, music, and drawing. She wrote for the
mbler (No. 10), Adventurer, and Gentleman's

Magazine, and soon became known to a li
circle, including Richardson ; but she is now chiefly
remembered by her Letters on the Improvement
of the Mind (1772), which went through many
editions, She married an attorney in 1760, but
next year was left a widow; she herself died at
Hadley, 25th December 1801. See her Works with
Life (4 vols. 1807).

Chapped Hands, a form of inflammation of
the skin of the back of the hands characterised by
abnormal va, eg and roughness, with the forma-
tion of cracks or fissures. It is caused by ex-
posure to cold, and can generally be prevented or
cured by carefully drying the hands after they
are washed, and applying glycerine, vaseline, or
other simple ointment. The hands should also be
protected in cold weather by warm gloves.

Chappell, Wim, F.S.A., the author of
the most learned work on ancient English music,
was born November 20, 1809. Most of his life he
lived in London, where he was for some years a
member of a great music publishing house. His
first work of Heh dre smi was A Collection of
National English Airs, consisting of Ancient
Song, Ballad, and Dance Tunes (2 vols. [1838-40}).
This work, which contained 245 airs, ultimately
grew into the greater and entirely rewritten work,
containing over 400 airs, re-harmonised on a con-
sistent plan by Macfarren, Popular Music of
the Olden Time; a Collection of Ancient Songs,
Ballads and Dance Tunes, illustrative of the
National Music of England (2 vols. 1855-59; new
ed. by Wooldridge, 1893). The first volume, con-
taining 200 airs, is a complete collection of English
airs, so far as known, down to the reign of Charles
I.; the second is rather a selection, containing,
however, all the more interesting or important airs
of later date. Mr Chappell took a principal part in
the foundation in 1840 of the Musical Antiquarian
Society and the Perey Society, and edi some
of Dowland’s songs for the former and several rare
collections for the latter. He published a few
papers in the Archeologia, contributed invaluable
notes to Hales and Furnivall’s reprint of the P
Folio MS. (1867-68), and annotated the first three
volumes (1869-79) of the Ballad Society edition of
The Roxburghe Ballads (continued by his friend Mr
Ebsworth). Mr Chappell published in 1874 the
first volume of a History of Music. He died in
London, 20th August 1888.

Chapra, a town in Bengal, on the Gogra, 1
mile above its confluence with the Ganges. It is
capital of the district of Saran.’ Pop. (1891) 57,352.

Chaptal, JEAN ANTOINE, COMTE DE CHANTE-
LouP, French statesman and chemist, was born
at Nogaret, Lozere, 4th June 1756, and studied at
Montpellier, where in 1781 the states of Langue-
doe founded for him a chair of Chemistry. A con-
siderable fortune left him by his uncle he devoted
to the establishment of works for the manufacture
of mineral acids, alum, soda, &c. He was made a
member of the Institute in 1798, and in 1800 Min-
ister of the Interior. He resigned in 1804, but in
1811 was made a count by the emperor. Durin
the Hundred Days he was a minister of state an
director of commerce and manufactures ; after the
Restoration he withdrew into private life, but was
admitted to the chamber of peers by Louis XVIII.
in 1819. He died in Paris, 30th July 1832.

Chapter. See Breve, Vol. II. p. 126.

Chapter-house (Fr. salle capitulaire), the
building in which the monks and canons of monastic
establishments, and the dean and prebendaries
of cathedral and collegiate churches, meet for the
management of the affairs of their order or society
(see CATHEDRAL). Chapter-houses frequently ex-
hibit the most elaborate architectural adornment,

108 CHAPULTEPEC

CHARA

as, for example, those of York, Southwell, and
Wells. The original stained-glass windows remain
at York, and are of exquisite beauty. On the walls
of that of Westminster the original painting has
been discovered. Chapter-houses are of various
forms: those at York and Westminster are
octagonal; those at Oxford, Exeter, Canterbury,

Chapter-house, York.

Gloucester, &c. are parallelograms ; Lichfield is an
oblong octagon ; Lincoln, a decagon ; and Worces-
ter a circle. In France the chapter-house is gener-
ally square. They are always contiguous to the
church, and are not generally placed to the west
of the transepts. They sometimes open into the
church, or are entered by a passage, but are more
frequently in connection with the cloisters. In
some instances there are arches or windows between
the chapter-house and the cloisters to enable those
standing in the latter to hear what goes on in the
chapter-house. A stone seat on a raised step gener-
ally runs round the apartment. _Chapter-houses
were often used as places of sepulture, and have
sometimes crypts under them, as at Wells and
Westminster.

Chapultepec, a rock 2 miles SW. of the city
of Mexico, rising to a height of 150 feet, and
crowned by a castle, which was erected by the
Spanish viceroy in 1785 on the site of the palace of
Montezuma.

Char, a fish. See CHARR.

Chara. The Characez or Stoneworts are a
small group of common aquatic plants found grow-
ing in large tufts, or even covering large expanses
on the bottoms of fresh-water ponds and shallow
lakes, brackish or even salt-water lagoons, &c., and
of which the systematic ot has undergone the
most extraordinary and instructive vicissitudes.
The early botanists, with K. Bauhin, had no hesita-
tion in describing them as horsetails (Equisetum).
In 1719 Vaillant proposed for them a separate genus
(Chara), while Linnzeus, although at first disposed
to regard them as Algee, as their habitat suggests,
decided that the small red male reproductive body
must be a stamen, and the larger green female one
a pistil, and accordingly placed them as flowering
plants among the Monacia Monandria. His pupils

at most ventured to remove these to the Monandria
Monogynia, while De Jussieu regarded them as a
gers of Naiadacez (q.v.), an order of monocoty-
edonous aquatics with much reduced flowers. In
similar opinions he was followed by De Candolle
and other eminent systematists : and it was not until —
1851 that a careful re-examination of their structure
and mode of reproduction by Thuret finally dis-
proved the phanerogamous view, and established —
their cryptogamic nature. Since that time the
group has attracted great attention, and is now on
ounds of peculiar instructiveness, both morpho-
ogical and physiological, one of the
classical forms usually presented to
the beginner, not only in ernie:
gamic botany, but general biology.
Commencing with the vegeta-
tive system, we find this apparently
consisting of a stem with regular
whorls of leaves arising at definite
points (nodes) of the stem. The
internodes, or distances between
these, are at first considerable ;
but as we approach the apex these
are shorter and shorter, and at
length we lose sight of them in
the crowded terminal bud. The
resemblance to a young shoot of
Equisetum is so far satisfactory,
and the mineral incrustation (in
some species so abundant as to
lead to the substitution of the
plant for scouring metal) appears
to confirm this. The incrustation, Fig. 1.
however, is calcareous, not silice- Shoot of Chara.
ous. Even under microscopic ex- |
amination we may at first sympathise with the
old observers, and seem to see in the stem a
multicellular structure, even a cortex; nay, to
see under our very eyes the actual circulation of
the sap. More careful scrutiny, however, enables”
us to repeat the work of later and more accurate
observers. We see that this movement is not the
circulation of the sap in a stem, but a streaming of
the protoplasm within what is simply a single
enormous cell stretching from one node to the
next (see CELL). The apparent cortex is a single —
layer of cells
covering this
internodal cell ;
and the whole
vegetative
structure is un-
ravelled when
we roughly dis-
sect out the
terminal bud,
harden, stain
and imbed this
in paraffin, and
thus cut a fine
longitudinal
section (fig. 2).
An apical cell
is seen which

continually i * 4
segments off a Fig. 2.—Longitudinal Section of

lower one; this the apical bud of Chara. i
divides (still f

transversely to the axis) into two new ones; and
the lower of these henceforth steadily lengthens
as the internodal cell, while the upper undergoes —
repeated division, until a plate of nodal cells
is formed. In the simpler family (Nitella) the
internode thus consists of a single naked cell:
in the higher (Chara), this is inclosed by the
so-called cortex, a layer of smaller cells proceed-—
ing from those of the upper and lower nodes;

CHARA

CHARADE 109

and itself showing a minor nodal and internodal
rrangement. In all cases, from the nodal cells
e divide off, parallel to the outer surface of the
1, anew set of apical cells, which proceed, like
ent one, to form the ‘leaves,’ reproducing,
iat is to say, the stem structure, until they lose
the power of division, and end in a 1, enlarged
wegetative cell. A branch may arise from a new
formed apical cell cut off in the axil of the oldest
leaf of any whorl, while the so-called roots, which
x the plant in the mud, are simply unicellular
rai peemmenings produced from the superficial
ells of buried 7 es. , es ear ee
The a ntly very complex and characteristic
Biistivs organs arise Sao at the nodes of the
m or leaves, in positions and numbers varying
the species. Commencing with the female
y. 3a), which arises in the position of a branch,
‘ we find this to
be obviously a
shortened and
modified one.
Its apical cell
forms only an
internode and
node, then ceases
division, and be-
comes enlarged
and filled with a
store of starch
and other re-
serve material
to form an egg-
cell; while the
cover or arche-
gonium inclosing
this is readily
seen to be a
mere modifica-

| 3.—Node, bearing reproductive

sz organs: — of the fami-
| @, Mature ; b, developing. The u iar cortex. In
3 na in each case is the female, —

the male appa-
: ratus, or anther-
- idinm, the branch structure is further modified : its
_ apical cell similarly remains all but sessile, forming
only a short node and internode ; but segmentation
now begins, thus recalling the behaviour of a nodal
-cell—with which, in having below it an internodal,
_ and not as in the case of the egg-cell, a nodal cell
_ (fig. 3b), it so far corresponds. Eight quadrant-
‘ike cells are formed, but these now segment off
new cells in the interior of the spherical mass, and
in the growth and development of these the nodal
and internodal alternation of ordinary vegetative
growth can still be traced. Soon, however, a num-
_ber of long segmented filaments are developed, and
the protoplasm of these undergoes rejuvenescence,
and mes modified into a ciliated spermatozoid.
When the reproductive organs are ripe, this arche-
gonium is easily broken, and its filaments spread
Tree in the water; the spermatozoids escape in a
_ myriad, and some reach the egg-cell of the arche-
gonium by means of a small opening, which is left
by the all but incomplete upgrowth of the cortical
‘¢ells which form the wall of the archegonium.
er a period of rest, the fertilised ovum germin-
/, ates, producing, however, not directly a new Chara
plant, but a simple filament of cells called a pro-
embryo, of which one cell segments into a node,
_ and the oldest cell of this becomes the growing
_ point of the new plant:
___ The affinities and systematic position of the group
_ thus Still afford ground for discussion, although now
_ within narrower limits than formerly ; some syste-
‘Inatists ing them as a somewhat aberrant
5 tens of Algwe, while others insist on their resem-
_ Dlance to
a KINGDOM).

.

|

e archegoniate cryptogams (see VEGE-

The fruits of what seem to
bo
1.

have been gigantic Characew (Spirangium) oceur
from the Carboniferous to the Wealden, and ordi-
nary Characew are abundant in the Tertiary strata.
See Howes’ Biological Atlas, and Sachs’ Botany.

Characin‘idw, See SALMonID2.

Characteristic, See LocAarirums.

Character to Servant, The master is under
no legal obligation, either in England or in Scot-
land, to give a character to his servant, however
long, faithfully, or efficiently he may have served
him ; but, if given, the character must be strictly
true, or, at all events, in accordance with the
master’s belief, otherwise he may be exposed to an
action of rae. either by the servant whom he
has calumniated, or by a subsequent employer
whom he has deceived. If true, however, the fact
of its bein sh bg will expyee the master to
no risk. In order to justify the giving of a bad
character, however, it must, in general, be asked
for by the servant, as the master is not entitled
needlessly to publish the servant's defects. Where
asked, it will lie with the servant to prove its false-
hood, not with the master to prove its truth. The
case of the servant being known by the master to
have committed a felony while in his service, is,
however, an exception to this rule, as, in a case so
extreme, the master is at liberty to warn others

ainst ene him into their employment. Even
though strictly true, the character, if prejudicial,
must not be more so than the circumstances render
necessary. Acts of petty dishonesty, such as are
too common among servants, will not warrant the
master in branding him asa thief. The safe course,
in such a case, is to state the offence, and not to
describe it by a general epithet, which may convey
an erroneous impression of its magnitude.

It is probable that, partly from thoughtless good-
nature, and partly from a selfish desire to get rid of
a bad servant in the most comfortable manner, false
characters are given in favour of servants bi
much more frequently than to their prejudice. It
is desirable that masters and mistresses should have
in view that they may render themselves liable in
reparation of any damage which can be shown to
be the direct result of thus inflicting on a stranger
a wrong which is unquestionably within the reach
of the law.

By an Act of 1816, personating a master, and thus

iving a false character to a servant, or asserting
in writing that a servant has been hired, contrary to
truth ; and any person offering himself as a servant,
pretending to have served where he has not served,
or producing a false certilicate, or altering a certifi-
cate, or pretending not to have been in any former
service, Re. are offences at common law, punishable
on conviction before two justices with a fine of £20.

Charade, or ‘ syllable-puzzle’ as the Germans
call it, is an amusement which consists in dividing
a word of one or more syllables into its component
syllables, or into its component letters, predicating
something of each; and then, having reunited the
whole, and predicated something of that also, the
reader or listener is asked to guess the word. Asa
specimen of the charade depending upon syllables
we adduce the following :

‘My first is ploughed for various reasons, and n is fre-
quently buried in it to little purpose, My second is neither
riches nor honours, yet the former would generally be given for
it, and the latter are often tasteless without it. y whole

applies equally to spring, summer, autumn, and winter; and
bath fish and flesh, praise and censure, mirth and melancholy,
are the better for being in it. Ans. Sea-son.’

As a specimen of the second class of charades,
we take the following happy example from the
French :

Quatre membres font tout mon bien,
Mon dernier vaut mon tout, et mon tout ne vaut rien.

The word is zero. It is composed of four letters, of

110 CHARADRITIDZ

CHARCOAL

which the last—viz. o, is equal to zero, the whole ;
zero itself being equal to nothing.

But besides charades of this nature there is
another kind rather popular at evening-parties—
the acted charade, the character of which is entirely
dramatic. Half a dozen or so of the company
retire to a private apartment, and there agree to
select a certain word as the subject of the charade ;
let us suppose Memento. The next thing done is
to take the first syllable, Me, and arrange a little
scene and dialogue, each member taking a certain
part. This being accomplished, the amateur actors
return to the drawing-room, and commence their
performance, the rest of the company constituting
the spectators, Care is taken to mention conspicu-
ously, and yet not obtrusively, in the course of the
dialogue, the word Me, which is the subject of the
scene. On its conclusion, they again retire, and
devise a new series of incidents for the word Men,
and repeat the same process for the final syllable
To. is being also represented, they retire for a
fourth time to contrive the final scene, into which
the whole word, Memento, must be dexterously
introduced at an odd moment when the spec-
tators are thought to be off the scent. The com-
pany are then asked to guess the word. In order
to the effective performance of a charade of this
sort, the actors must possess a good share of inven-
tiveness, self-possession, and ready talk, as the
greater portion of the dialogue has to be extem-
porised. ;

Charadriid, a large family of birds, placed

among the so-called Grallatores, including about
120 species, distributed throughout the world, and
especially frequenting the shores of lakes and
_Yivers. They run and yd with equal success, are
often seen in migratory flocks, use simple excava-
tions for nests, and feed, often at night, on worms,
insects, molluses, and amphibians. Plovers (q.v.,
Charadrius), Oyster-catchers (Hzmatopus), Turn-
stones (Strepsilas), Crocodile-birds (Pluvianus),
and Sandpipers (A¢gialitis) are good examples of
the family.

Charbon. See ANTHRAX.

Charbon Roux. See CHARCOAL (Woop).

Charcoal is a term most frequently applied to
charred wood, or coal produced by charring wood.
Formerly, charcoal was the name for charred sea-
coal or mineral coal; and the word is popularly
used for the carbonaceous residue of vegetable,
animal, or mineral substances when they have
undergone smothered combustion.

ANIMAL CHARCOAL, BONE-BLACK, or IvoRY-
BLACK, is prepared from bones by heating them in
close retorts till they undergo the process of
destructive distillation, when combustible gases
and water, together with the vapours of various
salts of ammonia, and oil, are given off, and bone-
black is left in the retort. It is generally reduced
to coarse grains from about the size of small peas
down to large pin-heads, and is extensively used in
the arts for decolourising liquids, such as the syrup
of sugar, and solutions of argol (impure cream of
tartar) and of the alkaloids, as also in filters (see
FILTER) for separating chemical impurities from
water. The general mode of using the bone-black
isto allow the coloured liquid to percolate through
a layer of the charcoal, when all colour is arrested,
and the syrup or water runs clear and colourless
from under the stratum of charcoal. This power
of absorbing colouring matters is also observable in
vegetable (peat or wood) charcoal, but not to such
an extent as in bone-black. The application of
heat to the liquids before filtration greatly facili-
tates the decolourisation, and where the volume of
liquid to be operated upon is not great, the most
expeditious method is to boil the liquid and bone-

black together, and then strain through filtering”
paper or cloth. The composition of bone-black im
100 parts is 10 of pure charcoal, associated with 90
of earthy salts—i.e. in the proportion of one of
ve charcoal in 10 of the commercial bone-black.
he power of absorbing colours appears to be due
to the porosity of the substance, and is not resident.
simply in the pure charcoal; indeed, the earthy
matters (principally phosphate of lime and carbon-
ate of lime) can be dissolved out of the bone-black
by dilute hydrochloric acid, and the pure charcoal
thus obtained only possesses about one-third the
decolourising power of the total amount of bone-—
black it was obtained from. Thus, if 100 parts of
ordinary bone-black have the power of arresting
the colour from ten volumes of a given col omeel
liquid, then the 10 parts of pure charcoal which can
be obtained from the 100 parts of bone-black will
be found to decolourise only three volumes of the
same coloured liquid; so that it is apparent the
earthy matters in the bone-black influence and
increase the absorption of the colouring matter,
and thus render a given weight of the chareoal of
greater commercial value. hen syrup of sugar
and other liquids have been run through bone-
black for some time, the pores of the latter appear
to get clogged with the colour, and the clarifying
influence ceases, and then the bone-black requires.
to undergo the process of revivification, which con-—
sists in reheating it carefully in ovens, or iron pipes.
inclosed in a furnace, when the absorbed colour is
charred, and the bone-black can be of service once —
again as an arrester of colour, After several re-
burnings, the bone-black becomes of very inferior
absorptive quality, and is then disposed of for the
manufacture of bone-ash and dissolved bones (see —
BoNE MANURES). Bone-black has likewise a great
power of absorbing odours, cepa those of a
disagreeable nature, and can thus be employed
to deodorise apartments, Cot Gust
or wherever animal matter may be passing into a —
state of active putrefaction. ;
Woop CHARCOAL is the most important, though
not the purest kind of Carbon (q.v.). Wood con- —
sists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the last
two being in the proportion to form water. When
heated in the open air, it burns completely away,
with the exception of a small white ash; but if the —
supply of air be limited, only the more volatile ~
matters burn away, and most of the carbon remains,
This is the principle of the process of charcoal-
burning in countries where wood is abundant.
Billets of wood are built up vertically in two or —
three rows into a large conical heap, which is
covered over with turf or moistened charcoal-
ash, and holes left at the bottom for the air to —
get in. An open space is also left in the middle
of the heap to serve as a flue. The heap is set_
on fire by putting burning wood into the top
of the central opening. he combustion pro-
ceeds gradually from the top to the bottom, and
from the centre to the outside of the heap; and
as the central geheipe burn away, fresh w
is continually thrown in at the top, so as to-
keep the heap quite full. The smoke is thick and
white when the process is going on pro if it
becomes thin, and especially if a blue flame a
pears, the wood is burning away too fast, and the
combustion must be checked by closing the holes”
at the bottom, or by heaping fresh ashes on the
top and sides. As soon as the combustion is com- —
pleted, the heap is completely covered with turf or
ashes, and left to cool for two or three days. It is
then taken to pieces, and the portions still hot are
cooled by throwing water or sand upon them. It ©
is found that 100 parts of wood yield on the ave
from 61 to 65 parts by measure, or 24 parts 4G
weight, of charcoal. The charcoal thus trepatll

CHARCOAL

CHARENTON-LE-PONT 111

the best suited for fuel. In England a lage
uantity of charcoal.is obtained in the dry dis-
ation of wood in cast-iron cylinders, for the pre-
aration of crude acetic acid. The charcoal thus
repared is preferable for making gunpowder, but
s inferior for other purposes. A peculiar kind of
of a reddish-brown colour, and hence
ermed charbon roux or red charcoal, is frequently
wepared for the manufacture of the gunpowder
sed for sporting parposes, by subjecting wood in
fon cylinders to the action of superheated steam
nder a eg of two atmospheres. Powder
nade with this charcoal absorbs moisture more
apidly than ordinary gunpowder.
_ The general ene of wood-charcoal are, that
t is black and brittle, and retains the form of the
wood from which it is derived ; it is insoluble in
water, infusible and non-volatile in the most in-
tense heat; its power of condensing gases is
noticed under Carbon (q.v.); and from its power of
destroying bad smells it has been regarded as
possessing considerable antiseptic properties. It is
frequently stated that cha is a bad conductor
if heat, but a good conductor of electricity. These
properties depend upon the nature of the charcoal,
the lighter wood, such as willow, yielding a porous
charcoal, with little power of conducting heat or
tricity ; while boxwood yields a very compact
chareoal, which is a good conductor of heat and
electricity, and is admirably adapted for the exhi-
bition of the electric light. Charcoal never consists
entirely of pure carbon, the degree of purity vary-
ing directly with the temperature at which it is
formed ; thus, charcoal charred at 480° (249° C.
contains 65 per cent. of carbon, while that charr
| at 750° ( C.) contains 80, and that charred at
2730° (1499° C.) contains 96; but the loss of char-
| @oal occasioned by these high temperatures is ve
| great, the percentage yield of charcoal correspond-
ing to these temperatures being 50, 20, and 15.
_ The uses of wood-charcoal are numerous and
It is very largely employed as a ons,

ee ensive,
taking the same place in many countries that ¢
yecupies here. From its being proof inst all
linary chemical agencies, superficial charring is
en employed to protect wood from decay, as in
ne case of fence-posts, of telegraph poles, or of
les which are driven into mud or into the beds of
Tivers to serve as foundations. With the same
design it is not unusual to char the interior of tubs
and casks destined to hold liquids. In a finely-
divided state it is commonly regarded, as has been
already stated, as an antiseptic; and there is no
doubt that the offensive effluvia from animal
matter in an advanced stage of putrefaction dis-
appear when the putrefying substance is covered
| vith a layer of charcoal; but in reality the decay
es on, without the emission of any odour, till at
Jength the whole of the carbon is dissipated as
carbonic acid gas, and the hydrogen as water,
while the nitrogen remains as nitric acid. It
has been shown that the action consists in a rapid
ocess Of oxidation, dependent upon the power
which finely-divided charcoal possesses of condens-
ing oxygen. In a finely-divided state, charcoal not
mly condenses to a marvellous extent, but
1as the power of absorbing colouring matters, bitter
nciples, &c. ; and hence it is of extensive use in
ne laboratory. From the rapidity of its absorbin
action, the use of a respirator filled with ch
has been suggested to protect the mouth and
nostrils in an infected atmosphere ; trays of pow-
dered wood-charcoal in dissecting-rooms, in the
wards of hospitals, and in situations where putres-
tent animal matter is present, exert a most bene-
ial influence in sweetening the atmosphere, by
orbing and decomposing the offensive
Charcoal is accordingly valuable in filters, not only

for decolourising purposes, but likewise for assist-
ing in purifying water for domestic use. It is also
successfully to prevent the escape of noxious
vapours at the ventilating openings of sewers,
as it allows the free passage of air, but condenses
the offensive effluvia in its pores, where they are
destroyed by a process of oxidation, Besides its
employment in the manufacture of gunpowder it
has re senlicetons in the arts. In medicine it
is used estroy fetor, applied in the form of
ssigog or poultice to gangrenous sores, ulcers,
» 3 it is also largely employed in tooth-powders.
In indigestion cate sre by flatulence it ma
given in doses of two or three teaspoonfuls
suspended in water, or as charcoal-bisenits (see
Biscuits). For the charcoal blacks, see BLACK.

Charcot, JEAN Martin (1825-93), pathologist,
was born at Morvan (in Niévre), studied at Paris,
where he became a Y pi pemess? doctor at the Sal-

étritre hospital, and a member of the Institute.

e contributed much to our knowledge of chronie
and nervous diseases, their diagnosis and pathology,
and made hypnotism a scientific study. He pu
lished numerous works on these subjects.

Chard, a municipal borough of Somersetshire,
15 miles SSE. of Taunton by rail, with manufae-
tures of lace. Pop. 2575.

Chardin, Sir JOHN (1643-1713), traveller, was
born in Paris, travelled as a trader in jewels in
India, Persia (where he resided four years), Ar-
menia, Turkey, and published his Voyages (4 vols.)
in 1686-1711. To escape the persecution of Protes-
tants, he settled in England in 1681, became court-
mera was knighted, and for some years lived in

olland as agent of the East India Company.

Charente, a department of France, formed
chiefly out of the old province of Angoumois.
Area, 2285 sq. m. Pop. (1866) 378,218; (1891)
360,259. It is generally level, with granite off-
shoots of the Limousin range in the north, and
chalk-hills in the south, abounding in marine de-

its ; and it is watered by the river Charente and
its tributaries, with the rivers Vienne and Dronne.
The hills are in many places clad with chestnut
forests. The climate is generally mild and healthy,
and a sixth of the surface is devoted to vines, which
flourish in the dry, hot limestone soil. The wines

wn are spirituous and fiery in flavour, and
are chiefly distilled into brandy, which forms the
most important of the exports. Truffles grow
abundantly in several parts. The principal manu-
factures besides iasdy are paper, leather, felt,
and pottery, Charente is divided into the five
arrondissements of Angouléme, Cognac, Ruffec,
Barbezieux, and Cinfalesd, Angouléme is the
chief town.

Charente-Inférieure, a maritime depart-
ment of France, formed principally from the former
provinces of Saintonge, Aunis, and a small portion
of Poitou. The Bay of Biscay washes its western
boundary. Area, 2625 sq.m. Pop. (1866) 479,529;
(1891) 456,202. It is watered on its boundaries by
the Sévre-Niortaise and the Gironde, and in the
centre by the navigable Charente and the coast-
stream Seudre. The surface is level ; the soil, near
the coast protected from the sea by dikes, is mostly
chalky and sandy, but very fertile. The commerce
is mainly in brandy and sea-salt ; the evaporation
from the salt-marshes from which the latter is
taken renders some parts of the coast very un-
healthy. The oyster and pilchard fisheries are
important. The chief harbours are those of Roche-
fort and Tonnay-Charente. La Rochelle is the
chief town. ,

Charenton-le-Pont, a town in the Frenc
department of Seine. on the right bank of the

112 CHARGE

CHARITIES

Marne, 4 miles SE. of Paris. The bridge over the
river, which is important from a military point
of view, is defended by two forts forming a part
of the fortifications of Paris. At the other side
of the river is the National Lunatic Asylum. Pop.
(1872) 7141; (1886) 13,535 ; (1891) 14,458.
Charge is the exposition of the law made by
the judge to the jury, in which he comments on
the evidence and instructs the jury as to the appli-
cation of the law to the facts. Charge is also the
exhortation of a bishop or archdeacon to the clergy.

Chargé d’Affaires is a fourth-class diplo-
matic agent, accredited, not to the sovereign,
but to the department for foreign affairs ; he also
holds his credentials only from the minister. See
AMBASSADOR. :

Chariot, in ancient times a kind of carriage
upon two wheels used both in peace and in war.

e Roman form, the currus, was entered from
behind, was closed in front and uncovered. It was
drawn by two, three, or four horses, and earried
either one or two persons, both standing. The
word biga is often applied to a two-horse chariot
for battle or for racing; triga was a name for a
chariot drawn by three horses yoked abreast, of
which two drew from the pole ; while the guadriga
was drawn by four horses abreast, the two centre
ones (jugales) only yoked, the two outside ones
(funales) being attached by ropes. The last was
a form common in the racing chariot of the
circus, and in processions. The currus triumphalis,
in which the Roman generals rode during their
triumphal entrance into the city, was a chariot
of particular form, being quite round and without
any side open, while its panels were richly decorated
with carvings in ivory. The Roman writers speak
of the use among the Britons and some other foreign
nations of war-chariots carrying iron blades or
scythes fixed to the end of the pole and axle-tree.
The war-chariot of the Homeric heroes (harma) was
somewhat lighter than the Roman currus, being

artly formed of open rail-work instead of panel-
ing. The oldest war-chariots of which we read are
those of Pharaoh (Exodus, xiv.7). All the eastern
nations used them, and many Assyrian tablets
represent heroes, such as Sennacherib or Esarhad-
don, riding in triumph at the head of their armies
in chariots much heavier but otherwise not unlike
the Roman forms of chariots with which we are
familiar. Two fine four-wheeled chariots with rich
ornamentation in bronze-work were dug up by Dr
Petersen in a peat-bog in Jutland in 1881 and 1883,
and dated by him a hundred years before Christ.
See ASSYRIA.

Charities constitute a marked feature of
English life. There are also many excellent insti-
tutions in Germany and France. The Deaconess
House at Kaiserwerth, founded by Pastor Fliedner,
Father Zeller’s School at Benggen, near Basel, the
Asylum for Poor Neglected Children at Dussel-
thal, the Blind School at Illzack, the Evangelical
Asylum for Discharged Male Prisoners at Lintorf,
the establishments of Mr J. Bost at Laforce—
these with many others recur to the mind, and
forcibly testify to the amount of philanthropic
work being done on the Continent; while in the
United States the splendid medical and kindred
benevolent institutions of New York and other
ate towns bear witness to the synbeny and

eneficence of that large-hearted nation. But in
no country are so many charities of such wide and
far-reaching influence to be found as in Great
Britain. Taking as an example London alone,
there are no less than 1025 institutions of various
kinds. This does not include the different bequests
under the control of the opulent city companies,
which if counted seyanakely would amount to as

many as 300 more, or the smaller semi-religious
missions of which each parish, as a rule, possesses
two or three. Of the 1025 charities, 813 havé been
established in the nineteenth century, and 58 since
the year 1879. The oldest institution is St Bar-
tholomew’s Hospital, Smithfield, founded in 1123.
Next to this comes St Katharine’s Hospital, insti- —
tuted 1145, though the present building was erected —
in 1827. The educational charities are mostly of —
ancient origin, and the majority were founded in ©
the 16th century—during the reigns of Edward
VI. and Elizabeth ; but some of less importance, in —
the gift of the city companies, for the making of ©
small school grants and so on, are even still older.

In the 16th century such well-known institutions
as St Paul’s School (1509), Christ’s Hospital (1553),
St Peter’s College, Westminster (1560), Merchant
Taylors’ School (1561), and Sir Roger Cholmley’s ©
School, Highgate (1565), were founded. There —
are upwards of 80 different almshouse buildings
connected with the metropolis, affording shelter
to more than 2000 inmates. Many are of great —
oT indeed, as land rose in value, have been
abolished, and the money thus gained devoted to
pensions; the oldest are the Salters’ Compare
Almshouses at Watford, founded in 1454. he
hospitals and dispensaries number 135. The longest —
established are the general institutions ; those de-
voted to special forms of disease are of more recent —
origin, a remark that applies with additional force
to the provident dispensaries. A curious feature is
to be noticed in the principal lying-in charities. —
These were all folisided between the years 1749 and —
1765. For the missionary societies, see MISSIONS.
The institutions for the blind number 29; in
the majority of cases, the benefit conferred takes
the form of a small annuity or pension. A few —
of the orphan asylums date their existence from
the middle of the last century, but the greater
proportion have been founded since 1850. It is
to this form of charity that the present generation
seems especially prone. Whereas in 1850 there
were only 17 institutions of this kind, there are
now 58. A great increase has also taken place in —
the number of convalescent homes, reformatory
institutions, night refuges, and societies for the
relief of the destitute. Following the example —
so admirably set at Kaiserwerth, various nursing
and philanthropic sisterhoods have been estab- —
lished, and within the last five years no fewer —
than three prominent charities have been formed
to provide poor city children with the means of
getting away for a limited period to the country
or seaside. Finally, it may be mentioned that
the receipts of the metropolitan charities for the —
year 1887 amounted to upwards of £4,500,000.

See Low’s Handbook to the London Charities (annual),
and Fry’s; De Liefde, The Charities of Europe (1865);
Cammann and Camp, The Charities of New York (1868);
Kenny, Legislation with regard to Property given for
Charitable Uses (1880).

CHARITY COMMISSIONERS were first appointed in-
1853, under an act for the better administration of
charitable trusts. For many years previous to—
this the subject of the endowed charities had been

adually growing in interest. The old Court of
Chanheers! with its slow, cumbrous, and ruinously
expensive procedure, was felt to be out of date, a
new order of things was required, and in especial —
some investigation into the condition of the chari-
table funds was needed. By an act dating so far
back as 1601 (43 Eliz. chap. 4), the Lord Chancellor —
was empowered under certain conditions to appoint
commissioners of inquiry, but these commissions —
had fallen into disuse, and action was now takenin ~
the person of the Attorney-general—a method that
was at once calculated to give rise to many abuses, —
and prove infinitely vexatious. The first endeavour

CHARITIES

113

yrocure the necessary inquiry was in 1786, when
ier Mr Gilbert's Act (26 Goo. IIL. chap. 58) in-
mation had been obtained on oath
srochial clergy, churchwardens, and overseers; but
received no direct authority from the Charity
U to make such inquiry, and their know-
ledge was therefore found to be unreliable and
nadequate. According to the returns then made
» parliament, the endowed charities amounted to
258,710, 19s. 3d. a year—a sum, as was after-
vards shown, greatly low their actual value. In
812 Mr Lockhart, who was strenuously opposed
yy the city companies, succeeded in passing an
Act (52 Geo, III. chap. 102) which required that par-
eulars of the income, capital, object, and trustees
# every existing charity, together with the names
f the persons holding the deed of endowment,
10uld be registered with the clerk of the peace for
the county within six months of the passing of the
et; and a similar provision was made for all
uture charities. A copy of each registration was
» to be enrolled in Chancery. Four years later
commenced the memorable investigations with
which the name of Lord Brougham is so closely
connected. In 1816 he moved for the appointment
of a Committee of the House of Commons on
he subject, and as a result of its deliberations
Committee recommended that an inquiry
into the condition of the endowed charities should
be undertaken. The first commission for this
purpose was appointed by the crown, under an
Act of 1818, and further commissions of inquiry
were issued and prosecuted under that and sub-
equent acts until 1837. In the words of Lord
John Russell, these successive inquiries ‘ destroyed
many flagrant abuses, detected the perversion of a
_ large amount of charitable funds, and led the way
those further inquiries and those remedial
‘measures of which we have seen the commence-
ment and the progress, but of which the consumma-
tion is yet to come.’ As showing the magnitude
and extent of these investigations, it may be men-
‘tioned that the printed reports occupy no fewer
than 38 folio volumes, consisting of some 25,000
pages, describe 28,880 charities with an aggregate
aneome of £1,209,395, and were compiled at a cost
of upwards of half a million of money. The result
of wide attention thus drawn to the subject
was that in 1853, after much parliamentary and
private agitation, the great Charitable Trusts Act,
for the public supervision of public endowments,
| ‘was passed. The powers placed in the hands of the
commissioners and inspectors appointed under the
act, however, were at first exceedingly limited.
Beyond a veto on suits by any one but the Attorney-
general, the commissioners had only rights of in-
quiry, of advice, and of rendering assistance in a
_tew cases where the trustees themselves might
desire such aid. The act enabled the Lord Chan-
cellor to ghar two persons to be, jointly with the
secre or the time being, ‘the official trustees
of charitable funds ;’ and those officers were con-
Stituted in 1854. In 1855 another act empowered
the board to apportion parish charities under £30 a
ear; but in regard to the remodelling of these
institutions, or in any way making new schemes
for their extended usefulness, its operations were
still subordinate, not only to Chancery, but to the
county courts. A further act, p in 1860, for
the first time gave the commissioners judicial power
over charities of £50 a year, and like power, with
the consent of the trustees, over larger charities ;
but being judicial, the authority of the com-
“missioners can only be called into operation at the
“suit of "Sage interested in each case. The powers
_Tormerly exercised CY the Court of Chancery still
a, in the High Court of Justice, but are very
y _ into execution. Should trustees prove

rom the

ae

| Te
UM

obstinate, or in other ways refuse to apply for
new schemes in relation to their institutions, de-
veloping combative tendencies with which the
commissioners have a difficulty in dealing, then
the aid of the High Court of Justice is in-
voked. Otherwise the whole administration of
charitable endowments, under such conditions as
above mentioned, lies in the hands of the Charity
Commissioners. Under the jurisdiction thus given
various improved schemes have been established,
and trustees numbering upwards of 400 annually
appointed. By the Act 37 and 38 Vict. chap. 87, the

wers previously exercised by the Bodowed Schools

ommissioners were transferred to the Charity
Commissioners for a period of five years, and the
two bodies have since been amalgamated. The
commissioners have also an important power under
the Municipal Corporations Act, 1883, of framing
schemes for the application of the property of the
corporations dissolved under that act. Since the
year 1854 the amount of stock transferred to the
official trustees of charitable funds has amounted
to £16,139,017 (of which sum £674,212 was handed
over in 1887 ), and £2,853,815 has been retransferred,
leaving the total sum held by the trustees at the
end of 1886, £13,285,202, divided into 14,729 separate
accounts.

THE CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, founded
in 1869, took its rise in a sense of the evil of tem-
porary relief, which manifestly tends to lower the
self-dependence of the recipient and to encourage
pauperism. Previous to the advent of the wocletys
many attempts had been made to cope successfully
with the dangers that attend the bestowal of
thoughtless charity. Amongst others, Edward
Dennison and Octavia Hill had been especially
noticeable for their efforts to raise the condition,
both morally and physically, of the struggling poor,
and for some time district visiting committees and
several societies for the relief of distress through
the agency of unpaid almoners had been at work.
Attention, too, had been powerfully directed to the
method of poor-law administration carried on at
Elberfeld and other continental towns. It was felt
that some scheme for uniting the charities of Lon-
don in friendly business sympathy, so as to utilise
their efforts more effectively and prevent imposition,
was needed. This impression gaining ground may
be said to have originated the Eharity Organisation
Society. The object of the society, as stated in its
report, is the improvement of the condition of the
poor (1) by bringing about co-operation between
the charities and the poor-law, and amongst the
charities; (2) by securing due investigation and
fitting action in all cases; and (3) by repressing
mendicity. At least one representative committee
is formed in each of the r-law divisions of the
metropolis, and the society itself may be said to
consist of a federation of those committees, at
present numbering forty. Each committee appoints
one or more charity agents to act under its instrue-
tions, and an important part of their duties is to
collect particulars as to the actions of the charities
of the district and the relief given by them; to
receive applications from persons referred to the
office, and to investigate their claims; and to keep
up communication with the relieving-officers of the

ians. That there is great n for organisa-
tion in the matter of charitable relief is amply
evidenced by the fact that the society computes
that in London alone from four to seven millions
sterling are annually dissipated in indiscriminate
almsgiving, thus not only encouraging systematic
mendicants and impostors, but recklessly wastin
money which, if directed into the right channel,
Would far to relieve the poverty and distress
that exist. J Dowty ik

The number of affiliated or corresponding institu-

114 CHARITY

CHARLEMAGNE

tions throughout the three kingdoms is upwards
of eighty. A society based on similar lines to the
English Charity Organisation Society was founded
at Buffalo, U.S., in 1877; and Philadelphia, Brook-
lyn, Boston, Newport, Detroit, Baltimore, Wash-
ington, New York, and many other American towns
have since followed the example.

Charity, Sisters or. See SISTERHOODS.

CharivaTi is a French term used to designate
a wild tumult and uproar, produced by the beating
of pans, kettles, and dishes, mingled with whistling,
bawling, groans, and hisses, expressive of displea-
sure at the person against whom it is directed. Its
etymology is obscure ; the Germans translate it by
Katzenmusik, to which in English Cat’s-concert
corresponds. In France, during the middle ages, a
charivari was petit raised against persons con-
tracting second nuptials, in which case the widow
was specially assailed. On these occasions the
participators in it, who were masked, accompanied
their hubbub by the singing of satirical and inde-
cent verses, and would not cease till the wedding
couple had purchased their peace by ransom.
Charivari answers to the English concert upon
‘marrow-bones and cleavers,’ popularly termed
‘rough music,’ with which it was customary to
attack a married couple who lived in notorious dis-
cord, It was also got up against an unequal match,
such as where there was great disparity in age
between the bride and bridegroom. The charivari
or ‘shiveree’ is not uncommon in the frontier
districts of the United States.

Sometimes these customs were of such a licentious
and violent character as to require military interfer-
ence. As early as the 14th century the church was
forced to threaten punishment, and even excom-
munication, against those who participated in them.
In more recent times, the charivari, from its sug-
gesting derision, ridicule, and satire, has come to be
employed as the name of several satirical journals,
the most famous among which is the CHARIVARI,
which was established in Paris, December 2, 1832.
Punch (q.v.) is the English Charivari.

Charjui, a Russian town of Central Asia, on
the Amu-Daria or Oxus, where the Transcaspian
railway between Merv and Bokhara crosses the
river by a great bridge opened in 1888.

Charkoff’, See KHARKOFF.

Charatan, a mountebank, quack-doctor, or
empiric, and hence any one who makes loud
pretensions to knowledge or skill that he does not
possess. The word was introduced in the 16th
century from the Italian ciarlatano, from ciarlare,
‘to babble.’

Charlemagne, i.e. Charles the Great, king
of the Franks (768-814), and Roman emperor
(800-14), was born on 2d April 742, perhaps at
Aix-la-Chapelle, and was the eldest son of Pepin
the Short, the first Carlovingian (q.v.) king of the
Franks, and grandson of Charles Martel. On
Pepin’s death in 768, Charles and his brother
Carloman jointly sueceeded to the throne; and by
Carloman’s death, and the exclusion of both his sons
from the throne, the former became sole king in
77). In 772 it was resolved in the Diet at Worms
to make war against the Saxons, for the securit
of the frontiers, which they continually threatened,
and for the extension of the Christian religion.
Charlemagne advanced as far as the Weser in 772,
securing his conquests by castles and garrisons.
Pope Adrian I. now jailed him to his aid against
Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Charlemagne
had married the daughter of Desiderius, and had
sent her back to her father because she bore him no
children, and married Hildegarde, daughter of the
Swabian duke, Godfrey. Desiderius had sought

revenge by urging the pope to er he sons of
Carloman, and on the pope’s refu laid waste: —
the papal territory. arlemagne crossed the Alps
from Geneva, with two armies, by the Great 5t
Bernard and Mont Cenis, in 773, and overthrew the
kingdom of the Lombards in 774. The Lombard
dukes acknowledged him as their king, and he
secured the pope’s favour by confirming the gift
which Pepin had made to the papal see of the”
exarchate of Ravenna. In 775 he was again
employed in the most northerly part of his
dominions, reducing the Saxons to subjection ; in
776 he suppressed an insurrection in Italy; in 777
he so completed his victory over the Saxons that
their nobles generally acknowledged him as their
sovereign in an assembly at Paderborn. Being now
invited to interpose in the wars of the Arabs and
Moors in Spain, he hastened to that country in 778,
and added to his dominions the region between the
Pyrenees and the Ebro, From Spain he was”
summoned in haste by a new insurrection of part of
the Saxons, who had advanced almost to Cologne,
but whom he drove back to the Elbe. In 781 he
went to Italy, where the pope crowned his second
son, Pepin, king of Italy, and his third son,
Louis, a child three years old, king of Aqui-
taine. The Saxons, once more rising in arms,
defeated and destroyed a Frankish army in 782,
which Charlemagne, after a new victory, fearfully
avenged by causing no fewer than 4500 prisoners.
to be executed as rebels in a single day. A more
general rising of the Saxons followed, but in 783-
785 the Frankish monarch succeeded in reducing
them completely to subjection, and in persuading
their principal chiefs to submit to baptism and
become his faithful vassals. In 788 Bavaria was
absorbed in the empire of Charlemagne, an event
which brought the Franks into contact with the
Avars. They, too, were now subdued, and the
Frankish dominions extended to the Raab. The
eastern ‘mark,’ the nucleus of the Austrian empire,
was established to defend the frontier in that
direction (798). 4

In 800 Charlemagne undertook an Italian cam-
paign which was attended with the most moment-_
ous consequences. Its immediate purpose was
to support Pope Leo III. against the rebellious.
Romans. When Charlemagne, on Christmas Day
800, was worshipping in St Peter’s Church, the
pope unexpectedly, as it appeared, set a crown
upon his head, and, amidst the acclamations of the
people, saluted him as Carolus Augustus, emperor
of the Romans. Although this added nothing
directly to his power, yet it greatly confirmed and
increased the respect entertained for him, such was
still the lustre of a title with which were associated
recollections of all the greatness of the Roman
empire. A scheme for the union of the newly
revived Western Empire with the Empire of the
East by Charlemagne’s marriage with Irene (q.v.),
the Byzantine empress, failed by reason of Irene’s
overthrow. The remaining years of his reign were
spent in further consolidating his vast empire,
which extended from the Ebro to the El
Bishoprics were founded in the Saxon counti
many of the Slavs beyond the Elbe were brought
into dependence on the empire, and the Eider was:
recognised as the boundary between the Frankish
dominions and Denmark. The empire was divided
into districts ruled by counts; counts speci
called markgrafen, or counts of the marches,
defended the frontiers against attack; and
the unity. of rule was maintained by officers,
the misst dominici, who were sent out in
directions as the organs of the imperial will. 1
organisation was promoted also by a great anni
ro litae muster and by an annual assemblage
the high officials of the empire. Charlemag

CHARLEROI

CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND 115

ulously endeavoured to promote education, agri.

re, arts, manufactures, and commerce. e
yjected great national works, one of which was a
ial to connect the Rhine and the Danube; but
deemed nothing beneath his attention which
neerned the interests of his empire or of his sub-
He required his subjects to plant certain
of fruit-trees, the cultivation of which was
us extended northward in Europe. His own
mains were an example of superior cultivation.
e had a school in his palace for the sons of his
vants. He built sumptuous palaces, particularly
ch favourite residences, Aix-la-Chapelle and

lheim—for he had no fixed capital—and many
urches. Learned men were encouraged to come

at

3%

is court. He himself possessed an amount of
arning unusual in his age; he could speak Latin
d read Greek. He attempted to draw up a
wnmar of his own language. Charlemagne was
‘more than ordinary stature, and of a noble and
ommandi presence. He was fond of manly
rcises, particularly of paar, His fame spread
parts of the world ; in 798 Haroun Al-Raschid
mt ambassadors to salute him. He enjoyed good
ealth till shortly before his death, 28th January
. He was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.), in
¢ h which he had built there. The greatness
his dynasty terminated with his own life. The
ile of Charlemagne was a noble attempt to con-
lidate order and Christian culture among the
ations of the West. It was a mighty task which
wild have been continued and consummated only

@ succession of serereigne of like energy and
ugacity with himself. his successors were
reaklings, his empire fell to pieces; yet in many
Ways he has had a permanent influence on Euro-
pean history. He established much of what were
fined to be the beginnings of a new order.
ides his Capitularies (q.v.), there are extant
ters and Latin poems ascribed to him. His life
as written in Latin by his secretary, Eginhard
.¥.), the best editions being by Jaffé (1876) and
older (1882). See works by Cutts (1882), Mom-
bert (1889), Hodgkin (1897), and Wells (1898) ; also
HHANSONS DE GESTES and ROMANCEs.

Charleroi, a town in the Belgian rovince of
f iles S.

ainault, on the Sambre, 35 m by E. of
russels il. It carries on considerable manu-
ures in hardware, glass, woollen-yarn, &c. The

istrict is rich in coal, and the number of smelting-
imnaces and nail-factories in the neighbourhood is
ry great ; whilst the huge ironworks of Couillet
} within a mile of the town. The fortifications,
, ge Spaniards in 1666, fell next year into
hands of the French, and were completed by
auban. After six exchanges of ownership between
é French and Spaniards, the Peace of Aix-la-
iapelle (1748) left Charleroi in the possession of
astria. In 1794, after a protracted and desperate
istance, it capitulated to the French, when the
‘tifications were dismantled. The importance
the place from a strategic point of view became
ent during the campaign of 1815, when,
se days before Waterloo, Charleroi was occupied
Napoleon, and the fortifications were restored ;
bat in 1866 sf were finally demolished. Pop.
: 66) 12,150 ; (1886) 20,511; (1891) 21,376.

U les, surnamed Martel &. the Hammer’),
the natural son of Pepin of Heristal, mayor of
he palace under the last Merovingian kings, and
Ss born about 688. After his father’s death in
he was chosen as their duke by the Austrasian
s, and at the close of a struggle with the
N ¢ an Franks became in 720 -praeg, Mwee mayor
{ the ig Moe real ruler of _ tem be os
las g mere puppets in his e
baa diay dhe fighting with the Saxons and other
; r
: 4

— vs

stubborn Teutonic races, as the Alemanni and
Bavarians, but his great service to Christendom
and to civilisation was that he rolled back the
urging tide of Moslem conquest. The Saracens
had already taken Bordeaux, overrun the duchy
of Aquitania, and advanced to the Loire, when
Charles met them between Tours and Poitiers
732), and after a desperate battle, in which their
eader, Abd-ur-Rahmdén, fell, completely defeated
them. This was one of the most important victories
in the world’s history, and saved western civilisa-
tion from hopeless retrogression and ruin. ‘ But
for it,’ says Gibbon, ‘ | pie y the inteipreta-
tion of the Koran would now be taught in the
schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demon-
strate to a circumcised people the sanctity and
truth of the revelation of Mahomet.’ harles
finished his work by defeating the Saracens in
in 737, when they had advanced in the Burgundian
territories as far as Lyons, and by driving ‘oun out
of Languedoc. He died on 22d October 741 at
Quiercy on the Oise, in the midst of his victories,
his projects, and his greatness, leaving the govern-
ment of the kingdom to be divided between his
two sons—Carloman and Pepin the Short.

Charles I., born at Dunfermline on 19th
November 1600, was a sickly child, unable to speak
till his fifth year, and so weak in the ankles that
till his seventh he had to crawl upon his hands and
knees. Except for a stammer, he outgrew both
defects, and became a skilled tilter and marksman,
as well as an accomplished scholar and a diligent
student of theology. He was created Duke of
Albany at his baptism, Duke of York in 1605, and
Prince of Wales in 1616, four years after the death
of his dear brother, Prince Henry, had left him heir
to the- crown of three kingdoms. The Spanish
match had been mooted as early as 1614; but it
was not till 17th February 1623 that, with Buck-
ingham, his inseparable friend, Charles started on
the romantic incognito journey to Madrid, its
objects to win the hand of the Infanta, and to pro-
cure the restitution of the Palatinate to his brother-
in-law, Frederick. Both he and his father swore to
all possible and many impossible concessions to the
Catholics, but nothing short of his own conversion
would have satisfied the Spanish and papal courts ;
and on 5th October he landed again in England,
eager for rupture with Spain. The nation’s joy was
speedily dashed by his betrothal to the French
princess, Henrietta Maria (1609-69); for the mar-
riage articles pledged him, in violation of solemn
engagements to a ero to permit her and all
her domestics the free exercise of the Catholic
religion, and to give her the upbringing of their
children till the age of thirteen.

On 27th March 1625 Charles succeeded his father,
James I.; on 13th June he welcomed his little
bright-eyed queen at Dover, having married her by
proxy six weeks earlier. Barely a twelvemonth
was over when he packed off her troublesome
retinue to France—a bishop and 29 priests, with
410 more male and female attendants. Thence-
forth their domestic life was a happy one; and
during the twelve years following the murder of
Buckingham (1592-1628), in whose hands he had
been a mere tool, Charles gradually came to yield
himself up to her unwise influence, not wholly in-
deed, but more than to that of Strafford even, or
Laud. Little, meddlesome Laud, made archbishop
in 1633, proceeded to war against the dominant
Puritanism, to preach ive obedience, and =e:
hold the divine right of kings; whilst great Strafford,
from championing the Petition of Right (1628),
capa over to the king’s service, and entered on
hat policy of ‘Thorough’ whose aim was to make
his master absolute. Three parliaments were sum-
moned and dissolved in the four years of the

116 CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND

|

CHARLES II. OF ENGLAND

reign ; then for eleven years Charles ruled without
one, in its stead with subservient judges and the
courts of Star Chamber and High Commission. In
1627 he had blundered into an inglorious French

war; but with France he concluded peace in 1629, »

with Spain in 1630. Peace, economy, and arbitrary
taxation were to solve the great problem of his

olicy—how to get money, yet not account for it.

ot that Charles cared for money in itself, or had
far-reaching projects of tyranny (he failed to enter
into Strafford’s scheme). But he had inherited a
boundless egoism, and, content with his own petty
self, had little sympathy with the dead heroism of
the Tudor age, none at all with the nascent ardour
of democracy. The extension of the ship-tax to
the inland counties was met by Hampden’s passive
resistance (1637); Laud’s attempt to-Anglicise the
Scottish Church, by the active resistance of the
whole northern nation (1639). Once more Charles
had to call a parliament: two met in 1640—the
Short Parliament, which lasted but three weeks,
and the Long, which outlasted Charles. _

It met to pronounce Strafford’s doom; and, his
plot with the army detected, Charles basely sac-
rificed his loyal servitor, his own kingly word,
to fears for the queen’s safety: no act weighed
heavier on him afterwards. The same signature
that sent Strafford to the block gave assent to a
second bill by which the existing parliament might
not be dissolved without its own consent. That
bledgs. as extorted by force, Charles purposed to

isregard ; and during his visit to Edinburgh, in
the autumn of 1641, he trusted by lavish concessions
to bring over the Scots to his side. Instead, he got
entangled in dark suspicions of plotting the murder
of the Covenanting lords, of connivance even in the
Ulster massacre. Still, his return to London was
welcomed with some enthusiasm, and a party was
forming in the Commons itself of men who revolted
from the sweeping changes that menaced both
church and state. Pym’s ‘Grand Remonstrance’
justified their fears, and Charles seemed to justify
the ‘ Grand Remonstrance’ by his attempt to arrest
the five members (4th January 1642); but that ill-
stricken blow was dictated by the knowledge of an
impending impeachment of the queen herself. On
22d August he raised the royal standard at Not-
tingham; and the four years’ Civil War commenced,
in which, as at Naseby, he showed no lack of
physical courage, and which resulted at Naseby in
the utter annihilation of his cause (14th June
1645).

No need here to track him through plot and
counterplot, with Catholics, Presbyterians, and
Sectaries, with the Scots and the Irish, with the
pe encnt and the aig enough, that, quitting

is last refuge, Oxford, he surrendered himself on
5th May 1646 to the Scots at Newark, and by
them in the following January was handed over
to the parliament. His four months’ captivity at
Holmby House, near Northampton; his seizure, on
“3d June, by Cornet Joyce; the three months at
Hampton Court; the flight on 11th November; the
fresh captivity at Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of
Wight—these lead up to the ‘trial’ at Westminster
of the ‘tyrant, traitor, and murderer, Charles
Stuart.” He had drawn the sword, and by the
- sword he perished, for it was the army, not parlia-
ment, that stood at the back of his judges. Charles
faced them bravely, and with dignity. Thrice he
refused to plead, denying the competence of such a
court ; and his refusal being treated as a confession,
on the third day fifty-five out of seventy-one jndges
—sixty-four more never were present—affixed their
names and seals to his death-warrant; four days
later, sentence was pronounced.

No need here to tell the well-known story of his
meekness towards his persecutors, of the pathetic

parting from two of his younger children, of his
preparation for a holy death; or how, on the
morning of the 30th January 1649, he passed to that
death on the scaffold in front of Whitehall, with a
courage worthy of a very martyr. On the snowy
7th of February they bore the ‘white king’ to his
grave at Windsor in Henry VIII.’s vault; in 1813
the Prince Regent had his leaden coffin opened.
Six children survived him—Charles and James, hi
successors; Mary, Princess of Orange (1631-60);
Elizabeth (1635-50); Henry, Duke of Glouceste;
(1639-60); and. Henrietta, Duchess of Orlean:
(1644-70), the last born ten weeks after Charles’
final parting from his queen. At the Restoration
Charles II. appointed, on his sole authority, ;
‘form of prayer, with fasting, for the day of the
martyrdom of the Blessed King Charles L.,’ to be
annexed to the Common Prayer-book; with th
other ‘state-services,’ it kept its place there til
1859.
A far stronger man than Charles might seareely
have extricated himself from the difficulties thas
beset him; true, those difficulties were largely ¢
his own creating. But was he right in abandoniz
Strafford? should he also have sacrificed wife, faith
and crown? If yes, then was he wholly in th
wrong ; if no, he was prin See once at least—in
the right. Vices, other than duplicity, he
none, as we use the word. He was vague, v.
lating, obstinate ; unable to lead or be led; super
stitious, heedful of omens; unsympathetic an¢
reserved where he did not love; intolerant of opposi
tion to his will. But he was a good husband,
good father, a good churchman—no man so goo
was ever so bad a king; no man so fallible believe
so honestly in his infallibility. For Charles wa
honest to his own convictions. His very duplicity
was due sometimes to schooling in “kingeraft,
but oftener to inability to see two sides of 4
question. Now he saw one, and now the other, bu
never both sides at once; and, just as he saw, si
he spoke. He was not a liar because he loved a lie
Milton’s charges against him of ‘all manner of lewd
ness’ rank with Milton’s charge that he poisoned his
father; and Bishop Heber’s rash statement tha
Jeremy Taylor’s second wife was ‘generally believe
to be a natural daughter of Charles, when Prince of
Wales,’ is backed by no tittle of evidence. Ind
as a pattern of culture and purity, one prince al
is worthy to be named beside him—the late Prinee
Consort ; and had Charles’s lot fallen, like his, or
peaceful days of settled monarchy, admiration, no’
ity, might now be our feeling towards him. Bu
Charles was predestined to sorrow. ‘A trag
face !’ said the sculptor Bernini, as he looked
the triple portrait by Vandyke; already, t
shadow of a violent death overclouded those fine,
weak features. a
See the articles Erkon BaAsiLikr, HENRIETTA MARIA
ENGLAND, ScoTLAND, IRELAND, Lavup, STRAFFORI
Exiot, HAMPDEN, PRYNNE, PYM, CROMWELL, BRAI
SHAW, &c.; the Histories of Clarendon, Hallam, Green
Guizot, and Ranke; I. D’Israeli’s Commentaries on tf
Life and Reiyn of Charles I. (5 vols. 1828-30) ; Letters 0)
Charles I. to Henrietta Maria (Camden Soc. 1856)
Chancellor’s Charles I., 1600-25 (1886 ) ; Calendar o;
Papers 1625-45 (20 vols. 1858-90); three long
on the trial in the Atheneum for Jan. and Feb. 1881
sumptuous Life by Sir J. Skelton (1898); and, specially
8. R. Gardiner’s Puritan Revolution (1876), History o
England, 1603-42, (10 vols. 1863-82 ; new ed. 1883-84),
History of the Great Civil War, 1642-49 (3 vols. 1886-
Charles II., born at St James’s on 29th Me
1630, was present at Edgehill (1642), and in 1646
after a twelvemonth in the western counties
escaped to France by way of Scilly and Jersey. Hi
got Bttle good from two years Geen in Paris; then
he passed on to Holland, where he met with a better
reception, and whence in 1648, with nineteel

CHARLES II.

OF ENGLAND 117

nglish royalist war-ships, he made an expedition
the Thames. His father beheaded—Charles did
s utmos' to save him, even sending a carte blanche
the English parliament—and his hopes disap-
jinted from Ireland and Montrose, in 1650 he
cepted the terms of the Scottish commissioners,
‘ led on 23d June at the mouth of the Spey.
at was a dreary time of prayers, fastings, and
rmon — sermons a day) for the gay young
nce a king than state-prisoner, he must
mn and re- the two Covenants, must put awa
s old friends, must acknowledge the sins of his
e, his father’s blood-guiltiness and mother’s
latry. But the defeat at Dunbar and his ‘start’
‘the Highlands gained Charles somewhat more
erty; and, having on Ist January 1651 been

<<

den marched, with 10,000 men, into England.
ew joined the Scots, and, catching them up at
‘oreester, Cromwell utterly routed them on 3d

ember. For six weeks Charles wandered a
gitive, a thousand pounds set on his head, through
» western and southern counties, now hiding in
oak at Boscobel, now riding disguised as a
erving-man, anon lurking at Stonehenge. More
jan forty persons were privy to his secret, yet on
Sth October he embarked at Shoreham for Nor-
andy. Then followed nearly three years of exile
| France, nearly two at Cologne, then three in the
ow Countries, needy everywhere, everywhere pro-
igate; but at last, on 26th May 1660, Charles
ded at Dover, recalled to the throne by the
ull of the Protectorate, and the nation’s dread of
hilitary despotism. ‘It must be my own fault,’
e jested, ‘that I did not come sooner back, for I
find no one but tells me he has always longed for

y home-coming.’
_ Of the four ee that sueceeded the Con-
ention, the first or ‘Cavalier’ parliament lasted
hrough nearly two-thirds of the entire reign, from
y 1661 to January 1679; from March 1681

harles ruled without one. The first seven years
660-67) were the period of Clarendon’s ascend-
acy, of constitutional loyalty to church and state,
@8 anti-Catholic as it was anti-Puritan. Next
ume the Catholic-Presbyterian Cabal, broken up
y the Test Act of 1673; and then the fierce struggle
‘tween the Court and Country factions, in which
haftesbury played the chief part, and from which,
1 the end, Charles issued victorious.
As early as 1661 he accepted a secret subsidy
m France, and no act of his reign was more un-
ypular than the sale next year of Dunkirk. In
) a naval Dutch war, due to commercial jealousy,
as forced on by Clarendon’s enemies, who saw in
a chance of ousting him. In spite of two English
etories, with an indecisive en ment between
westoft, Downs, and North Foreland), in June
67 De Ruyter sailed up the Thames, and burned
Weral war-ships lying at Chatham—that night
les was very merry in his harem. the pene
Breda (21st July), which in August was followed
* Clarendon’s downfall, left both nations ex-
msted, and France the sole gainer. Temple’s
tiple Alliance (23d January 1668), between Eng-
nd, Holland, and Sweden, was on Charles’s part
mere bid for popularity, a means too of raising
$ price with Louis XIV, ; and by the secret Treaty
Dover (20th May 1670) he entered on an offensive
ance with France, became its pensioner, and
ndertook to effect the conversion of England. A
aa-fight with the Dutch in Southwold Bay (1672)
ya ok edgy indecisive; and the strong anti-
‘rench feeling forced Charles to conclude a peace
1674), and’to consent to the marri of his niece
lary with his nephew William of Orange (1677).
still, by two other secret treaties (1676-78), and b
also intriguing with the opposition, Louis promt:

owned at Scone, in the following August he-

his end, to cut England off from continental
politics.

At home, the abortive Savoy Conference was
followed by the ejection of nearly 2000 Noncon-
formist ministers (24th August 1662); the Great
Plague (May to December 1665) carried off nearly
seventy thousand Londoners; and the Great Fire
a to 6th September 1666) consumed 13,200

ouses, St Paul’s, and 86 churches. Sir John
Coventry, for plain speaking, got his nose slit by
Charles’s bullies (1670); the ‘stop of the Ex-
at bak (1672) ti oe the chief city bankers in
bankruptey; and Charles’s two Declarations of
Indulgence (1662-72) were met by the Conventicle
and Test Acts, the Dissenters themselves declinin
to share toleration with the Catholics, for whom such
toleration was designed. Clarendon’s foes had
cause to dread Clarendon’s son-in-law, the king’s
brother, James, Duke of York ; and his open pro-
fession of Catholicism (1672) gave a pretext for
Shaftesbury’s Exclusion Bill, and colour to Oates’s
trumped-up ‘ Popish Plot’ ( August 1678 to Decem-
ber 1680), which Shaftesbury fostered, and which
cost the lives of fifteen Catholic victims. Himself,
if anything, at heart a Catholic, Charles sacrificed
them basely to his fears; still, honour, brotherly
affection, or French gold, would not let him
acknowledge Monmouth for his heir. But the tide
had already turned. Men’s shame at that shame-
ful panic, and disgust at the thought of a bastard
on the throne, caused a Tory reaction; and the
Tory reaction drove the Whigs on to open resist-
ance—the Rye-house Plot (1683). Shaftesbury
died beyond seas, Lord Essex by his own hand
in the Tower, and Russell and Sidney by the
headsman’s axe.

What English king so absolute as Charles, that
Sunday evening, when Evelyn saw him Bria.
with his concubines in the glorious gallery’ o
Whitehall? But on the morrow he was struck with
apoplexy, and for three days lay in a stupor. When
he came to himself on the Thursday, he would not
receive the communion from Bishop Ken; but,
thanks to the Duchess of Portsmouth, a priest who
had aided him in his escape from Worcester was
brought to his bed-side, and by him he was recon-
ciled to the Catholic Church. Then he blessed his
children ; blessed, too, the Protestant ee ; and
at last passed away on Friday the 6th of February
1685. On the night of the 14th he was buried in
Westminster ‘Abbey.

So ended the worst reign in English history,
whose sole great measure was the Habeas Corpus
Act (1679), and whose tortuous politics are gener-
ally referable to one or other of the following
motives : Charles’s fear of again being sent on his
travels, the nation’s fear of a second great civil war,
its hatred of Popery and hatred of the French, the
littleness of men’s aims and greatness of their greed,
and ‘backstairs’ influence, omnipresent, omnipotent.
Such as the reign was, such was Charles himself.
With a taste for the arts and for science, he was
able, shrewd, affable, easy-going, active of habit,
hysically brave. His talents serve but to enhance
his vices of utter selfishness and abject sensual-
ism. And yet with his subjects he was always

pular; the nicknames ‘Old Rowley’ and ‘The
Mts Monarch’ attest even now the liking that
tte him.

the

On 22d May 1662 Charles had married r
plain Catharine of Braganza (1638-1705). he
marri was childless, and her influence on
English politics was slight as compared with that
of his numberless mistresses. Of these, before the
Restoration, two only call for notice—t brown,
beautiful, bold, but insipid’ Lucy Walter (1630-
58), the mother of James, Duke of Monmouth
and Buccleuch (1649-85); and Catherine Peg, the

118 CHARLES VII. OF FRANCE

CHARLES X. OF FRANCE

mother of Charles Fitzcharles, Earl of Ply-
mouth (1657-80). Then came the splendid ter-
magant, Barbara Villiers or Palmer (1640-1709),
whom Charles made Countess of Castlemaine in
1661, Duchess of Cleveland in 1670, and who was
mother of the three Fitzroy Dukes of Southamp-
ton and Cleveland (1662-1730), Grafton (1663-90),
and Northumberland (1665-1716). By ‘pretty,
witty ’ Nell Gwynn (1650-87) Charles was‘ father of
Sharles Beauclerk, Duke of St Albans (1670-1726);
almost his last words were ‘Let not poor Nelly
starve.’ There were, besides, ‘la belle Stewart’
(Duchess of Richmond), the Duchess of Mazarin,
‘and many more, with, last but not least, the hated
‘Madam Carwell,’ i.e. Louise de Keroualle (1649-
1734), the subtle, ‘baby-faced’ Breton. She was
made Duchess of Portsmouth in 1672, French
Duchesse d’Aubigny in 1684; and she was the
mother of Charles Lennox, Duke of Richmond
(1672-1723).

See the articles ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, Monk, LAUDER-
DALE, LEEDS (Danby), Hauirax, &c.; the Histories of
Clarendon, Burnet, Hallam, Macaulay, Ranke, and Green;
the Diaries of Pepys and Evelyn; Grammont’s Memoirs ;
Masson’s Life of Milton ; the Calendars of State Payers,
1649-67 (21 vols. 1860-87); Harris’s Life of Charles II.
(2 vols. 1766) ; Jesse’s Court of England under the Stuarts
(4 vols. 1840); Hoskyn’s Charles II. in the Channel
Islands (2 vols. 1854); P. Cunningham’s Story of Nell
Gwynn (1852; new ed. 1893); Molloy’s Royalty Restored
(1885); Forneron’s Louise de Keroualle (trans. 1887) ;
Allan Fea, The Flight of the King (1897).

Charles VII., the third son and successor of
Charles VI. of France, was born 22d February
1403. On his father’s death (1422) his army held
possession of the southern provinces; Paris and
the north being in the hands of the English, who
proclaimed Henry VI. of England king of France,
and appointed the Duke of Bedford regent. For
some time the events of war were unfavourable to
Charles, who was compelled to evacuate in succes-
sion i ngpo , fy and Maine. In 1426 the Count
Dunois gained the first victory over the English at
Montargis; but in the sear following the latter
laid siege to Orleans, a place of great importance
to the French, as securing a connection with the
north. At this time also, Joan of Arc, the famous
Maid of Orleans, by her wonderful courage and
confidence of a heavenly mission, roused the fervour
both of nobles and people. The siege of Orleans
was raised in May 1429; the English retired dis-
heartened, and gradually lost all they had gained
in France, while their cause finally became hopeless
after the treaty concluded at Arras (1435), between
the French king and the Duke of Burgundy.
Bayonne, the last stronghold in the south, fell in
1451, and with the death of Talbot under the walls
of Castillon in 1453, the whole south finally passed
to France, and the Hundred Years’ War came to
an end. Nothing now remained to the English
across the channel but Calais, with Havre and
Guines Castle. In 1436 Charles entered Paris.
He next devoted himself to the reorganisation of
the government, in which everything had fallen
into confusion, and under his rule France recovered
in some measure from the effects of the terrible
calamities which it had endured. His last years
‘were embittered by the conduct of his son, the
Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. He died at Melun
on 22d July 1461. See the great work by De Beau-
court (6 vols. 1881-92).

Charles IX., king of France (1560-74), the
second son of Henry II. and of Catharine de’ Medici,
was born at St Germain-en-Laye in 1550, and suc-
ceeded his brother, Francis II., in 1560. He was a
proficient in manly exercises, possessed much physi-
cal energy, and considerable literary accomplish-
ments. ut weak and wavering, with all his

‘1773 married Maria Theresa of Savoy. The taking

cruelty and cunning, he was ony a te tO
the will of his mother, whose counsels drove hi ;
authorise an act so diabolical that all Europe stil.
shudders at the recollection. The atrocious mas-
sacre of St Bartholomew’s Day, 24th August 1572,
was the culmination of a series of disgrace
treacheries towards the Huguenots. Its con-
sequences politically were the very reverse of
favourable to the Catholic cause, while scarce two
years later (May 30, 1574) the wretched king
died miserably, with all the horrors of hell before
his eyes. See BARTHOLOMEW (MASSACRE OF S®).

Charles X., king of France (1824-30), third
son of the Dauphin Louis, and grandson of Louis
XV., was born at Versailles, 9th October 1757.
He received the title of Comte d’Artois, and in

of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, prevented the
success of a coup d'état planned by Artois and the
court party. e first emigration headed by Artois
and Condé then followed, and a more disastrous:
policy was never conceived. The attempts of the
émigrés to restore the old state of things in France
by means of foreign intervention did more than
any single event to insure the fall of the monarchy,
After taking a small part in the war of 1792,
Charles went to St Petersburg ; thence in May 1793
to England. In spite of the failure of the expedi-
tion to Quiberon Bay in June 1795, another was
attempted under Artois’ leadership in October, but
he had not courage to land and place himself at the
head of the insurgents, whom he basely left to the
vengeance of Hoche and the republicans. After
this he lived in obscurity, partly at Holyrood and
partly at Hartwell, until the allies entered Paris in
1814, when he appeared in France as lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, and issued a proclamation
announcing the end of despotism, of conscriptions,
and of oppressive taxes. After the second restora,
tion, in alliance with the priests, he headed th
party of the Ultras in their struggle with the Con-
stitutionalists. The accession of Villéle to office
and the unconstitutional character of .the latter
part of Louis XVIII.’s reign attested the success 0}
Artois’ reactionary ag The death of Louis,
on 16th September 1824, brought him to the throne
as Charles He took the oath of adherence to
the Charte, and was at first popular with all parties;
but he soon displayed his intention of restoring as

affairs the Prince shes fone an extreme royalist.
royal speech, of a threatening character, on 2d
March 1830, was followed by an address of remoi

strance, signed by 221 deputies, upon which the
king dissolved the chambers. The deputies who
signed the address were all re-elected, but the court
taking fresh courage from the success of the expedi-
tion to Algiers, the celebrated five ordinances 0
25th July were signed by the king, putting an end
to the freedom of the press, sireay largely cur
tailed, appointing a new mode of election, and dis
solving the recently elected chamber. Paris took
up arms, the guards were repulsed, the reva lu
tion was accomplished in three days, and the king
found himself compelled to retire to Rambouillet.
As a last resource, he abdicated the throne on 2d
August 1830 in favour of his grandson, the litth
Comte de Chambord. But it was too late; the
revolution was completed, and Louis-Philippe, D
of Orleans, was chosen king of the French. Char
then travelled through France to Cherbourg, and
embarked for England in an American ship.

>

CHARLES V,

OF GERMANY 119

sidec ong _ Sie ire Holyrood again, and Sen
war e, ing no part in the politica
itrigues and attempts et the Dachess de Berri.
died of cholera at Gérz on 6th November

Charles V., emperor of Germany, by the
x s. his ee and by virtue of Fo =
1 e test European tentate of the
th centu Pitas born at Ghent in 1500. From
is father Philip, the son of the Emperor Maxi-
nilian and Mary
ominion of the Low Countries, the county of
surg rd and a strong claim to the imperial
‘@rown ; from his mother, Joanna, the daughter of
|Perdinand and Isabella, he also inherited the king-
| of Spain and Naples, and the Spanish
equisitions in America. Charles’s education was
ntrusted to Adrian of Utrecht, afterwards pope
ler the title of Adrian VI., and William de
Uroy, an experienced politician, who early initiated
is pupil into the arts of government, and gained
1 ascendency over him which determined Charles’s
bliey during the early years of his rule. To
Adrian Charles owed little, and to the end his
cholastic uirements were but meagre. His
randfather, Ferdinand, died in 1516, and the
ext year Charles left the Netherlands for Spain,
here he was acknowledged joint ruler with his
mother Joanna, who was incurably insane. On
he death of his grandfather, Maximilian, in
519, he was elected to the imperial crown from
a number of competitors, little, however, to the
watisfaction of his Spanish subjects, who saw in
his honour a blow at their own interests and
mportance. The following year Charles was
«rowned emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a few
months later (1521) presided at the famous Diet of
Worms. The main question he had here to settle,
he pe of the respective claims of the
itholies and the followers of Luther, was to the
nd of his reign the great problem which Charles
had to settle in Germany. At this his first diet,
he displayed the policy which, whenever it was in
is power, he ever afterwards pursued—the restora-
tion of Germany to the papal see. The finding of
his diet was an edict oes Luther and his
op nions, and by this edict Charles, at the outset of
us reign, leagued himself with Rome against the
national sentiment of Germany.
_ The history of Western Europe during the next
juarter of the century is in large degree the history
of the rivalry of Charles and Francis I. of France.
ecording to their respective interests, Henry VIII.
England and the successive popes now favoured
the one, and now the other ; and the result of the
mnflicting interests of all these potentates was
r continuous war during the whole of that
eriod. The hr of Madrid (1526), the Ladies’
bace of Cambrai (1529), and the Peace of Crespy
1544) may be regarded as marking the successive
steps in the struggle. The points in dispute between
tharles and Francis were these : Charles laid claim
» the duchy of pee as having been unj

ig cg
propriated by Louis XI., and also to the duch

~ ar

ILLOS
y

.
|
t Milan as a fief of the empire. Francis, on his
art, maintained his right to these territories
emanded penuege of Charles for Flanders and
rtois, and made it a ground of offence that
ain had dispossessed Jean d’Albret of his king-
om of Navarre. It was in Italy that the war
tween the two monarchs was carried on most
figorously ; and — the first period the result
vas altogether in Charles’s favour. Mainly at the
mstance of Wolsey, Henry VIII. actively aided
= emperor, who was still further strengthened
y cis’ quarrel with his greatest subject, the
‘onstable Bourbon, who formed a league with
Jharles and Henry VILL. for the complete subjuga-

of Burgundy, he inherited the |

tion of France. In 1524 the troops of Charles drove
the French out of Italy, invaded Provence, and
unsuccessfully besieged Marseilles, Next year
Francis, in the endeavour to recover the duchy of
Milan, was defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia,
and afterwards conveyed to Madrid. In 1526 he
was released after signing a treaty in which he
yielded to Charles on all the points at dispute be-
tween them. In this year Charles married Isabella,
sister of John III. of Portugal, to whom he was
much devoted. Meanwhile, there was a growing
alarm at the successes of Charles, and the Holy
League was formed against him by Pope Clement
VIL, Henry VIII., Francis, and the Venetians. In
1527 a ay! army of Spaniards, Italians, and
Germans, led by Bourbon, who fell in the assault,
sacked Rome, and imprisoned the pope, to the
horror of all Christendom. Charles was denounced
as the author of the sacrilege, and cartels of
defiance were sent to him by Henry and Francis.
He disclaimed all part in the affair; yet it was
altogether in his interest that it should have
happened, as the ie was then the most active of
his enemies. The failure of Francis to seize the
kingdom of Naples led to the Peace of Cambrai
(1529), by which Charles was left master of Italy,
and was relieved from his homage for Flanders and
Artois.
During all these years Charles had been resi-
dent in Spain, where, on his arrival from Ger-
many, he had found things in an extremel
settled state owing to certain encroachments fa
made on the cba of the great cities.
general insurrection had taken place during his
absence, which only after a protracted struggle
had been a by the help of the nobles.
Charles, by his tact and policy, succeeded in com-
pletely putting down the sedition; and, while
argely increasing the power of the crown, con-
trived to render himself highly popular throughout
the eg § All through his reign, however, he
had great difficulty in extorting from the —
Cortes the funds necessary to carry on his foreign
schemes. In 1529 Charles proceeded to Italy, and
at Bologna was crowned by the pope king of Lom-
bardy and emperor of the Romans. As he was on
his way to Germany, where the religious difficulty
was still the burning question, he urged the pope,
pic unavailingly, to call a general council
which should settle once for all the points at issue.
At the Diet of Augsburg (1530) Charles confirmed
the Edict of Worms, and the Protestants (now first
so called), in self-defence, formed the League
of Schmalkald. The threat of an invasion by the
Turkish sultan, however, forced Charles to make
important concessions, and with the support of the
rg Cage Protestants he was enabled to take the
field against the Turks. No battle ensued, but the
sultan was forced to retire; and Charles was again
at liberty to return to Spain by way of Italy, where
once more he earnestly urged on the pope the
necessity of a general council. In 1535 Charles
achieved in person the most brilliant of all his
exploits—the destruction of the power of the great
corsair Barbarossa, and the capture of Tunis.
Meanwhile, Francis was still in active hostility
against him; and in 1536 Charles himself once more
roceeded to Italy and invaded Provence with a
large army. By making the country a desert,
Francis forced his enemy to retire without effecting
any actual conquest. As another expedition into
Picardy had also miscarried at the same time,
this was the most disastrous year that Charles
had yet experienced. War, however, still pro-
ceeded; and Francis, in desperation, and to the
disgust of Christian Europe, called in the aid of
the Turk. In 1538, both parties being now ex-

un
z

hausted, the pope (Paul III.), Francis, and Charles

120 CHARLES V. OF GERMANY

CHARLES X. OF SWEDEN

met at Nice, and agreed to a ten years’ truce on
the condition that they should retain the possessions
then in their hands.

The year 1539 was for Spain one of the most
important during Charles’s rule. To meet his
extraordinary expenditure, Charles held in that
year a meeting of Cortes with the view of gain-
ing its consent to the imposition of new taxes.
As at this meeting the nobles were especially
refractory, they were thenceforward excluded from
the Cortes ; and from this time dates the decline of
their power in the state. In the same year, by the
romantic courtesy of Francis, Charles travelled
through France to the Low Countries, where the
insurrection of Ghent, on account of a certain
illegal tax, called for his presence. After having
quelled this insurrection with the utmost severity,
and stripped the town of all its ancient privileges,
Charles proceeded to Germany, where another diet
held to settle the religious differences was as un-
successful as its predecessors. During this journe
also Charles engaged in the most disastrous of all
his enterprises. In the autumn of 1541, against
the advice of his most experienced seamen, he con-
ducted from Italy a fleet against Algiers, whose
piracies had been the terror of the south of Europe.
A succession of storms completely destroyed the
fleet, and Charles himself with difficulty reached
the coast of Spain. A new quarrel having arisen
between Charles and Francis regarding the duchy
of Milan, the ten years’ truce fell through, and
war again went on for the next three years, The
most notable event of the war was the wintering
of the Turkish fleet at Toulon, by arrangement
with the French king, at which Henry VIII.
was so indignant that he concerted with Charles
an invasion of France, when the emperor actually
came within two days’ march of Paris. By this
double invasion Francis was again forced to make
an unfavourable peace—that of Crespy (1544), by
which he once more renounced all claims to Italian
territory, and agreed in conjunction with Charles
to make war on the Turks.

Having thus triumphed over Francis, whose
death in 1547 left his hands freer than they
had ever been since the beginning of his reign,
Charles now sought to carry out the policy he
had always had at heart with regard to Ger-
many. In this policy he had two objects—the
rig Tiggiey of Protestantism ‘and the succession
of his son Philip to the imperial crown. The
news that Charles had made a league with the
pope for the extinction of heresy drove the Pro-
testants to arms, but two campaigns saw their

ower broken, and two of their most important
eaders, the Landgrave of Hesse and the Elector of
Saxony, taken prisoners. The Augsburg Interim
(1548) followed as a temporary arrangement till a
eneral religious council should settle all difficulties.
This arrangement did not satisfy the Catholics,
but it was especially objectionable to the Protest-
ants, upon whom it was forced with great violence.
Charles’s severe enforcement of the Interim, his
cruel treatment of the Landgrave of Hesse and the
Elector of Saxony, and his evident design to make
himself absolute master of Germany, led to the
overthrow of all his plans. Maurice of Saxony,
a young man of extraordinary talents and great
ambition, who, although a Protestant, had hitherto
seemed to support Charles in all his schemes,
saw that the emperor’s power rested in reality on
a most insecure foundation. By a subtle line of
olicy Maurice contrived to gather round him a
arge army, while Charles, still trusting in his
fidelity, had dismissed the troops by whose aid he
had lately had Germany at his feet. The emperor
all but fell into the hands of Maurice, who was now
n a position to command the most favourable con-

ditions for the Protestants. Accordingly, by the —
Treaty of Passau (1552), and, after the death of
Maurice, by the Peace of Augsburg (1555), Pro-—
testantism received legal recognition, and Charles.
saw his life’s schemes finally baffled. In his other
object he was equally unsuccessful. He had tried
in vain to persuade his brother Ferdinand to waive
his claims to the empire in favour of Philip, and
the princes of Germany, Catholic as well as Pro-
testant, refused to entertain Charles’s suggestion. —
Thus disappointed in his dearest hopes, and broken
in health by repeated attacks of the gout, to which
he had been subject since his 29th year, Charles”
resigned his kingdoms to his son (1555-56), whom
he had married the previous year to Mary of Eng-
land, and the empire to the electors (1556). Retir-
ing to the monastery of Yuste in Estremadura, he
spent the rest of his life in complete seclusion ;
but he never ceased, almost till his death on 21st.
September 1558, to take the keenest interest in
affairs of state, and his advice, still given in
emergencies, was received by his son with the
greatest respect. a

Charles V. and Luther, the two most prominent
figures of the 16th century, are also the best re

resentatives of its great conflicting principles

he religious revolution, and the spirit of nation-
ality which that revolution evoked wherever it
realised, are the ideas associated with the name of
Luther. The aim of Charles was a great empire in
Western Europe, of which the pope should the
spiritual, the House of Austria the temporal, head.
n opposing this aim, and thus preserving the
balance of power as well as the indivicnee of the
Western nations, Francis, according to Ranke, was
justified in calling in the Turks. Charles had
a mind and heart equal to great undertakings ;
yet he not only filled to achieve his purpose
during his life, but bequeathed to his son a olicy
attended by the most disastrous results. It was
in carrying out this policy that Philip lost the
Netherlan s to Spain, and that he arrested Spain
itself in its national development. The position
also in which Charles left the religious question
by the Peace of Augsburg inevitably led to the
Thirty Years’ War, with all its frightful conse-
quences to Germany. _ Charles’s personal quali-_
ties were such as to win him the affection of his
immediate dependents, and to render him popu-
lar with all classes of his subjects among all th
pennies under his sway. He was sincerely devoted
to the church, and religious motives greatly influ-
enced him in all his counsels. His private morals.
bear a favourable comparison with those of contem.
porery rinces. In person he was slight and grace-
ul, and his manners were marked by singular
refinement and dignity; but throughout all his
life he was haunted by the dread of his mother’s
mental affliction. Don John (9-¥-) of Austria was:
an illegitimate son of Charles V.

See Robertson’s Life of Charles V., and Prescott’s con
tinuation; Ranke’s History of the Reformation in Ger-
many ; Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell’s Cloister Life of Charles
V. ; and Mignet’s Charles-Quint.

Charles X., or CHARLES-GusTAVUS, king of
Sweden (1654-60), the son of John Casimir,
Count Palatine, and Catherine, sister of Gustavus-
Adolphus, was born at Nyképing, 8th Novembei —
1622. After his studies at Ui pests, he took part in
the Thirty Years’ War under Torstensohn. On the
abdication of his eccentric cousin, Queen Christina,
whom he had wooed in vain, Charles succeeded as
next heir to the throne of a kingdom which the
folly and extravagance of the queen had reduced
to an almost bankrupt condition. Charles was
the second of the three great warrior-monarchs of
Sweden, but unlike his uncle, who could plead
religious grounds, and his grandson, who was at

c
jj

7

a) ~

OHARLES X. OF SWEDEN

CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN 121

rst forced to fight for self-preservation, Charles
eemed to e war principally for war’s sake.
© was now free to gratify his passion for war.
rst he attacked Poland in July 1655, because the
lish king had not resigned his claim to the
wedish throne, and in a few weeks overran the
thole country. Next he forced the Great Elector
Brandenburg to acknowledge his lordship over
he duchy of Prussia, then crushed the forces of the
lish king anew in a terrible three-days’ battle at
‘arsaw (July 28-30, 1656). He next assailed the
lanes, who had declared war against him, crossed
he Great and Little Belt on the ice, and speedily
nade himself master of all the continental es-
ms of Denmark. rear ie gr 4 from isle to isle over
he frozen sea, he extorted the Treaty of Roeskild
7th March 1658), which gave to Sweden Halland,
cania, Blekinge, Bornholm, and the other Danish
ossessions gst the Sound, and emancipated
veden from the Sound Dues. His offers to the
teh and English to share in the partition of
Denmark being declined, he invaded Zealand alone
n 1659, and attacked Copenhagen, but was beaten
r the Danes, aided by the Prussians and
Du Soon after he died suddenly at Gothen-
z, February 23, 1660. He was succeeded by his
ion, Charles XI. (1660-97), then only four years
old. See SWEDEN.
Charles XII, king of Sweden (1697-1718),
was the son of Charles XI., and was born at Stock-
holm, 27th June 1682. On the death of his father
in 1697 he ascended the throne, and notwithstand-
ing his youth the States declared him of age to
assume the reins of government. The neigh ‘
ing ress thought this a favourable time to
mumble Sweden, then the on power of the
north ; and Frederick IV. of Denmark, Augustus
IL of Poland, and the Czar Peter the Great
concluded a league for this object. The Danes
egan by invading the territory of the Duke of
Hols ein Gottorp, husband of the eldest sister of
Charles. The young king at once flung an_ army
in Zealand, and in concert with Sir George
Rooke’s Anglo-Dutch squadron so threatened
Copenhagen both by land and sea that the
‘king was fain to sue for Charles now
hast ened to meet the Russians, who lay under
‘the walls of Narva, 50,000 strong, stormed their
camp with but 8000 Swedes, and routed them
with t slaughter, 30th November 1700. He
next dethroned Augustus II., and procured the
election of Stanislaus Leszezynski as king of
Poland. Angustas ba a himself safe at least
in Saxony, his hereditary dominion, but was
followed thither, and humbling terms of peace
were dictated at Altranstidt in 1706. Patkul,
orn a Livonian, but now the Czar’s ambassador
itt Dresden, Charles caused to be broken on the
heel for treason, after a form of trial. In the
atumn of 1707 he had collected an army of 43,000
nen i ony, and in the January of the follow-
ng year suddenly burst into Russia, and almost
aptured the Czar at Grodno. He next drove the
tussians before him, and had already forced the
Beresina and won a battle at Smolensk, which
pened up to him the road to Moscow, when he
udden y turned southwards to the Ukraine, trust-
ig to the promises of the Cossack hetman Mazep
ut Mazeppa failed to bring forward his 30,000
Jossacks, and the king’s reinforcements from
sweden were cut off by the watchful Czar, so
at the Swedes had no alternative but to endure
‘the hard winter of 1708-9 in the midst of an
_ Mnpoverished and hostile country. In spring
Charles, with a force reduced to 23,000 men, lai
siege to Pultowa, but the Czar hastened to oppose
im, and defeated him after a desperate straggle,
, on the 8th July. Charles fled with a han

ae

of attendants across the Turkish
Bender,

Augustus now revoked the treaty of Altranstidt,
and the Czar and the king of Denmark in concert
assailed the Swedish territories, But the regency
in Stockholm adopted measures of effective resist-
ance, and Charles prevailed upon the Porte to
commence a war against Russia, in which Peter
seemed at first likely to suffer a severe defeat.
But Russian agents succeeded in inspiring the
Turks with suspicions concerning the ultimate
designs of their impracticable guest, and accord-
ingly Charles was seized, resisting desperately sword
in hand, and conveyed to Demotica. At last he
contrived to escape, and made his way through
Hungary and Germany in sixteen days, till Ee
reached Stralsund on the 2lst of November 1714.
A month later the town was forced to capitulate
to an allied army of Danes, Saxons, Prussians, and
Russians, on which the king crossed to Lund. His
ore a for war led him to attack Norway early in

716; and soon after, under the advice of the Baron
von Gértz, he formed a scheme which commended
itself to his love of fighting and his vast ambition.
He was to make terms with the Czar by surrender-
ing the Baltic provinces of Sweden, then conquer
Norway, next land in Scotland and replace the
House of Stuart on the English throne, with the
help of the Jacobite party within and that of
Cardinal Alberoni without No sooner had he
purchased his peace with the Czar than he burst
into Norway. Early in 1718 he commenced the
siege of Fredrikshall, and while hastening on the
works in the dead of winter with all his character-
istic impetuosity of impatience, was killed by a
musket-shot from the fortress. Some writers have
maintained that his death was due to treachery,
and a somewhat unscientific examination of his
skull in 1746 seemed to give some colour to the
belief; but a new examination by command of
Charles XV. in 1859 proved conclusively that the
fatal shot must have been fired from a height down-
wards, and that therefore the king’s death was due
to his own reckless exposure of his person to the
fire of the enemy.

The character of Charles was full of strange
contradictions. He was brave to the pitch of
reckless folly, determined to the point of foolish
obstinacy. Dinagire had no attractions for him :
he shared the coarsest food and severest labour
of the common soldier with an easy cheerfulness
that won him the passionate devotion of his
men. All external marks of rank he despised :
his dress was simple, and Swedish in form and
colour—a loose blue coat, with turned-down collar,
and large plain brass buttons; buff-coloured waist-
coat; a black kerchief, doubly folded round his
neck ; coarse felt hat, and high broad-toed riding
boots with massive steel spurs. His hardy frame
defied alike fatigue and the extremes of heat
and cold. He was able and sagacious in counsel,
and had a mind capable of the vastest designs.
But his ambition was fatal to his country, and
after his death, Sweden, exhausted by his wars,
ceased to be numbered among the great powers.
The strange vicissitudes of his career are reviewed
in thirty of the finest lines of Johnson’s noble poem,
The Vanity of Human Wishes—the ee
rem is as well known as anything in Englis
iterature :

frontier to

His fall was destin’d to a barren strand,

A petty fortress, and a dubious hand,

He left the name at which the world grew pale,
To point a moral, or adorn a tale.

Voltaire’s well-written Histoire de Charles XII.
will continue to be the chief life, spite of its errors.
An eloquent sketch of his career, read by King
Oscar ne then Duke of Ostergitland, at the

122 CHARLES XIV. OF SWEDEN

2

CHARLES OF AUSTRIA

inauguration of a statue to Charles XII. on the
150th anniversary of his death, was translated by
Apgeorge, 1879 ; and see the Lives by Nisbet Bain
(‘ Heroes’ series, 1896) and Oscar Browning (1899).

Charles XIV., king of Sweden and Norway
(1818-44), originally JEAN BAPTISTE JULES BER-
NADOTTE, was born at Pau, in the south of France,
January 26, 1764, and was the son of a lawyer.
He entered the French army in 1780 as a common
soldier ; became an ardent partisan of the Revolu-
tion, and fought his way up to the command of a
division in 1794, and a marshal’s baton in 1804.
He distinguished himself greatly in the German
campaigns in 1796, and the yout after under the
eye of his great chief himself in Italy. In 1799
he was minister of war, and for his conduct at
Austerlitz was named in 1805 Prince of Ponte-
corvo. In the campaigns of 1806 he commanded
the first army corps. After Jena he pursued the
Prussians to Halle, cut off the reserve under the
Prince of Wiirtemberg, next pursued the redoubt-
able Bliicher to Liibeck, and compelled him to
surrender (November 7). He received the com-
mand of the French troops in North Germany and
Denmark, and led the Saxon troops at Wagram
in the war against Austria. But he had never
been liked or trusted by Napoleon, whose jealousy
and dislike now became so apparent that Berna-
dotte left the army in disgust, and returned to
Paris. He was altertrasde sent by the minis-
terial council to oppose the British, who had
landed at Walcheren, but meantime the breach
between the emperor and him grew wider. In
1810 he was elected crown prince and heir to the
throne of Sweden. Almost the only condition
imposed on him was that of joining the Protestant
Church. He changed his name to Charles John;
and the health of the Swedish king, Charles XIIL.,
failing in the following year, the reins of govern-
ment came almost entirely into his hands. He
refused to comply with the demands of Napoleon,
which were opposed to the interests of Sweden,
particularly as to trade with Britain, and was soon
involved in war with him. He took part in the
great and final struggle of the allies with Napoleon
at Leipzig, but showed much reluctance to join
in the invasion of France, and was tardy in his
progress southward. There seems good reason to

elieve that the French throne was within his own
ambition, and that his disinclination to act against
his native country was due as much to policy as
to patriotism. He became king of Sweden on the
death of Charles XIII. in 1818, and won for him-
self the character of a wise and good king. Edu-
cation, agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and
great public works, as well as the military strength
of the kingdom, were promoted by his care. e
died March 8, 1844, and was succeeded by his son
Oscar. See French Life by Schefer (1899).

Charles d'Orléans, son of Louis d’Orléans, a
duke who was murdered by the Burgundians, and
of Valentina of Milan, was born in May 1391. He
was the ag of Charles V. of France, and the
father of Louis XII. He was taken prisoner at
Agincourt, and kept in captivity in England from
1415 to 1440, when he was ransomed. e wrote a
number of lyrics while in prison and after his return
to France. At Blois, where he held his court, he
gathered together the chief French writers of his
time, and took part with them in poetical tourna-
ments, in one of which Francois Villon competed
successfully. He died in 1465. He has been termed
the father of French lyrie poetry, but he has no
claim to the title. His light and graceful lyrics are
the last flowering of the courtly poetry of the middle
ages 5 they show no trace of the modern spirit
which appears so strongly in the works of his con-

temporary Villon (q.v.). His favourite themes are
love and the spring-time ; his favourite form is th ¥
rondel, with two rhymes, of which he is considered
the chief master, as Villon is of the ballade, a:
Voiture of the rondeau. An edition of his works
(ed. J. M. Guichard ) appeared in 1842, and another —
(ed. Héricault) in 1874.

Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1467—
77), son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and of
Isabella of Portugal, was ‘born at Dijon on 10th
November 1433, and bore, during his father’s life,
the title of Count of Charolais. From his youth
he was a declared enemy of Louis XI. of France
the nominal feudal superior of Burgundy, and he
early formed an alliance with the Duke of Brit-
tany and some of the great nobles of France
for the maintenance of feudal rights against the
crown. Their united forces ravaged Picardy and
Isle-de-France, threatened Paris, defeated the king
at Montlhéry, and extorted from him favourable
terms. In 1467 Charles succeeded his father as
Duke of Burgundy. Richer and more powerful
than any prince of his time, he conceived the
design of restoring the old kingdom of Burgundy,
and for this purpose of conquering Lorraine, Pro-
vence, Dauphiné, and Switzerland. Whilst he was
making preparations for war, Louis invited him to
a conference, and while his rival hesitated, by his
agents stirred up the citizens of Litge to revolt.
Charice next consented to the conference, and the
news coming of what had taken place at Liége,
he seized the king, and had not he been withheld
by his councillor Comines, would have put him to
death. He compelled Louis, however, to accom-
pany him to Liége, and sanction by his presence
the cruelties which he inflicted on the citizens,
War raged between them afterwards with little
intermission till 1475. In September of that ye
Charles turned anew to his favourite scheme
conquest, and soon made himself master of Lor-
raine. Next year he invaded Switzerland, stormed
Granson, and hanged and drowned the garrison;
but was soon after terribly defeated by the Swiss
near that place, and lost his baggage and much
treasure. Three months later he appeared n
in Switzerland with a new army, and laid sieg
to Morat, where he sustained another and more
terrible defeat (June 22, 1476). The news that
the young Duke René of Lorraine was attempting
to recover his territories roused him from despair.
He laid siege to Nancy; but his army was small,
and his Italian mercenaries went over to the enemy.
Charles fought in vain with all his wonted reckless-
ness and courage, and perished in the battle, Janu-
ary 5, 1477. His daughter and heiress, Mary,
married the Emperor Maximilian I. Charles's
great size and strength, his immense ambition, and
reckless audacity, combined to make him the me st
striking figure of his time. With his life ended
the long successful resistance of the great Fre
vassals to the central power of the monarchy.
Comines, Mémoires ; De Barante’s Histoire des Dues
de Bourgogne ; and special books by Kirk (3 vols. —
Lond. 1863) and Hoch (Basel, 1876). :

Charles Edward. Sce Stewart. 4

Charles (Kari Lupwic JoHann), Archduke
of Austria and Duke of Teschen, third son of th
Emperor Leopold II., was born at Florence, 5th
September 1771. Already, spite of his youth, a
distinguished soldier, he was intrusted in 1796
with the chief command of the Austrian army on
the Rhine. He fought with great success against
Moreau at Rastadt, defeated Jourdan in several
battles, drove the French over the Rhine, and con-
cluded his victories by taking Kehl in the winter.
In 1799 he was agcin at the head of the army
on the Rhine, was several times Tina over

@

a
-

CHARLES ALBERT

CHARLESTON 123

n, and even successfully opposed Massena.
Next year bad health compelled him to retire
rom active service ; but he accepted the governor-
en hip of Bohemia, where he soon formed a
w army. After the battle of Hohenlinden he
yas ag called to th Car) Jeong ers suc-
eded staying the rapid progress of Moreau
intil the Seerteaies which preceded the peace of
mnéville. In 1805 he commanded the army
pposed to Massena in Italy, and fought the hard
wattle of Caldiero; but upon bad tidings from
yerm ny made a masterly retreat from the left
ank he Adige to Croatia. In 1809 he won
ne great battle of Aspern, which first showed to
murope that Napoleon was not invincible; but
Napo m soon retrieved his fortunes at Wagram,
and the archduke had to give way before the
enemy, till he reached Znaim, where an armistice
s concluded. In the campaigns of 1813-14 he
had no part; and he died 30th April 1847. See
lis Ausgewdhilte Schriften (6 vols. 1893-94).

Charles Albert, king of Sardinia (1831-49),
born 29th October 1798, was the son of the Prince
Charles Emmanuel of Savoy-Carignan, and in 1800
ueceeded to his father’s title and estates in France
and Piedmont. In 1817 he married Maria Theresa,
daughter of the Archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany.
When the revolutionary movement took place in
Piedmont in 1821, he was made regent, upon the
abdication of Victor Emmanuel, until Charles
Felix, the brother of the late king, should arrive
to assume the sovereignty. In 1829 he was ap-
pointed viceroy of Sardinia, and on the death of
Charles Felix in 1831 he ascended the throne. His
prudent moderation brought upon him the im-
patient denunciations of Mazzini, but earned him
the ip tage of all moderate and far-sighted men
throughout the peninsula, who began to see that
the salvation of Italy could be worked out through
the house of Savoy alone. The king’s zeal for
the cause of a united Italy was no mere selfish
eagerness for the disement of his house,
but a feeling as enlightened and patriotic as the
‘Sagacious calculation of Cavour, the fiery and
reckless valour of Garibaldi, or the prophetic
ardour of Mazzini. In the March of 1848 he
declared war against Austria; but gradually lost
ground in the struggle, until, after the fatal battle
of Novara, 24th March 1849, to save his kingdom
the to resign the crown in favour of his son,
Victor Emmanuel. He next retired to Portugal,
where he died, broken-hearted and misunderstood,
Oporto on 28th July of the same year. See
Life by Cibrario (Turin, 1861).

Charles Martel. See CHArtes, p. 115.
_ Charles’s Wain. See Ursa Masor.
| Charleston, the metropolis of South Carolina,
| @port of entry rr the capital of a county of its own
name, is situa on a tongue | copyri Me
Mf land between the rivers ‘Aah. 1900 in the US. by Je he
ey and Cooper, which unite | MPpieet Company.
immediately below the town and form a beautiful
ind spacious harbour, communicating with the
ocean at Sullivan’s Island, a popular sea-bathin
resort, 7 miles below. It is 115 miles NE. o
Savannah, 580 miles SW. of Baltimore, and 540
niles SSW. of Washington. The ground on which
the city is built is elevated 8 or 9 feet above the
el of the harbour at high tide, which rises about
5 feet, flowing by the city with a strong current,
thus contributing to its salubrity. It has a water
ront of 9 miles. A shifting po, extends across
he mouth of the harbour, affording, however, two
mtrances, of which the deepest, near Sullivan’s
island, has 16 feet of water at low tide. Jetties,
Which are ted to give a depth of 25 feet of
water on the bar, have since 1878 been under con-

struction by the national government. The har-
bour is defended by Castle Pinckney and Fort
Sumter, each on an island, the former 2 and the
latter 6 miles below the city, and also by Fort
Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island. Forts Ripley and
Johnson, now abandoned, have only an historic
interest. At the entrance of the harbour is a
lighthouse, with a flashing light, 125 feet high.
+ Charleston is regularly built, and extends about
3 miles in length and ay 14 miles in breadth.
It has a copious water-supply from a large artesian
well (1970 feet in depth). The streets, many of
which are broad and bordered with shade-trees,
ass, for the most part, parallel to one another,
rom the Cooper to the Ashley River, and are
intersected by others nearly at right angles. Many
of the houses are of brick, some of them of
superior elegance; others are of wood, neatly
painted, and embowered during the summer season
amid a profusion of foliage. Among the public
buildings are the custom-house, the city hall, the
court-house, the citadel, the academy of music,
the theatre, the orphan asylum, and the police
barracks. The custom-house is a handsome edi-
fice, built of granite and white marble. At the
southern extremity of the city is a small park
called the Battery or White Point Garden, with a
fine promenade on the sea-wall. The most im-
portant educational and literary institutions are
the Charleston College (non-sectarian), which was
founded in 1785 and reorganised in 1837; the
Medical College of South Carolina (1833); the
State Military Academy, also called the Citadel ;
the high school; the female eine le a normal
school for girls ; and the Charleston Library (1748).
The Charleston College has an excellent museum
of natural history. There are good public, private,
and parochial schools for white and coloured chil-
dren. Charleston is the seat of an Episcopal and
a Roman Catholic bishop, and contains forty
churches. St Michael’s Church og meg al) is a
brick structure, with a steeple 180 feet high, and
a chime of bells imported from England in 1764.
Among the benevolent institutions are the city
hospital, the Confederate Home for Widows, the
almshouse, the asylum for the aged and infirm,
and the orphan asylum, which is liberally en-
dowed, and can accommodate three hundred chil-
dren. There are also Catholic orphan asylums
and a convent.

Charleston is the chief commercial city of South
Carolina, and has an advantageous position for
trade. Steamships ply regularly between this

rt and New York, Philade phia, Baltimore, and

lorida; and three railroads meet here, with a
large wharf frontage, elevators, and every facility
for through shipments and the quick despatch of
freight. The coastwise trade far exceeds the
foreign in extent and importance. The chief
articles of export are cotton, rice, naval stores
(rosin, oil of turpentine, tar, &c.), cotton goods,
timber, market-garden produce, Bee age rock,
and crude and manufactured fertilisers ; the value
of the principal exports reaches $30,000,000 in a
year (the most important being poe ). The
imports are chiefly salt, iron, ale, brimstone, kainite,
and fruits from the West Indies. There is a large
wholesale distributing trade in dry goods, clothing,
drugs, &e. ; and the city has large machine-shops,
cotton-presses, grist-mills, cotton-mills, rice-mills,
ship-yards, a dry-dock for large ships, and exten-
sive manufactures of phosphate of lime, which
abounds in the vicinity. Whereas only 6 tons of
phosphate were mined in 1867, the amount now
annually raised is about 300,000 tons.

The city was founded in 1680; a few years
later a company of French Huguenots, exiled

for their religion, settled at this place. On the

124 CHARLESTON -

CHARON

28th June 1776 a British squadron attacked the
garrison on Sullivan’s Island, consisting of 400
men under Colonel Moultrie, who defended the

lace with success. Charleston was afterwards

esieged by Sir Henry Clinton from April 1, 1780,
to May 12, when it was surrendered by General
Lincoln. On the 12th of April 1861, the Confed-
erates initiated the civil war by the bombardment
of Fort Sumter, which they took the next day.
In 1861 about half the city was destroyed by fire,
and a considerable part was not rebuilt until after
1865. In April 1863 a Federal fleet of nine ironclad
vessels, commanded by Admiral Dupont, attacked
the fortifications of Charleston without success.
After a long siege the place was evacuated by the
Confederates, February 17, 1865. On 31st August
1886 the city was visited by a severe earthquake ;
nearly 7000 buildings were either destroyed or
seriously injured, an several lives were lost. The
earthquake was followed by a very general recon-
struction of the business part of the city. Pop.
(1800) 18,711 ; (1820) 24,780; (1840) 29,261; (1860)
40,522 ; (1870) 48,956 ; (1880) 49,984 ; (1890) 54,955
(more than half coloured ) ; (1900) 55,807. Charles-
ton was the state capital till 1790.

_Charleston, a city, the capital of West Vir-
ginia and of Kanawha county, is situated on the
Great Kanawha River, at the mouth of the Elk,
369 miles WNW. of Richmond by rail. Large
quantities of bituminous.coal and salt are procured
near by. Charleston was made state-capital in
1885, having been so previously from 1870 to 1875.
Pop. (1880) 4192 ; (1890) 6734.

Charlestown (Massachusetts).
and BUNKER HILL.

Charlet, Nicotas Toussaint, a French
painter and engraver, born at Paris in 1792, held
a clerkship under the Empire, but lost it at the
Restoration (1815), and in consequence betook him-
self to art. After studying awhile under Gros, he
Be past formed for himself a style in which he

ad no rival. The Béranger of caricature, he was
eee, successful in his sketches of children and
military incident. His drawings numbered about
2000. Charlet died October 29, 1845. See his Life
by Lacombe (1856) and the study by Dayot (1892).

Charleville, a town in the French department
of Ardennes, on the Meuse, opposite Méziéres,
with which it communicates by a suspension
bridge. It has manufactures of hardware, leather,
and beer; and the Meuse affords facilities for trade
in coal, iron, slate, wine, and nails. Pop. (1872)
12,059 ; (1886) 16,856 ; (1891) 16,440.

Charlevoix, PrerRE FRANGOIS XAVIER DE,
a French Jesuit traveller, was born in St Quentin
in 1682, twice visited Canada, and voyaged down
the Mississippi to New Orleans. He published his
journal, histories of San Domingo, Japan, and

araguay, and a Histoire de la Nouvelle France
(1744; Eng. trans. New York, 6 vols. 1865-72).
He died at La Fléche in 1761.

Charlock., See Mustarp.

Charlotte, capital of Mecklenburg county,
North Carolina, 265 miles ENE. of Atlanta, is
the terminus of several railways, has manufac-
tures of carriages, cotton goods, tobacco, &c., and
is the seat of a Presbyterian university (1867).
Pop. (1880) 7094 ; (1890) 11,555.

Charlotte, Princess, born at Carlton House,
London, 7th January 1796, was the only child of
the future George TV. and Caroline of Brunswick,
who parted immediately after her birth. A bright,
lively, warm-tempered girl, she was brought up in
strict seclusion, under various governesses and
sub-governesses, seeing her father rarely, and her
mother only for two hours a week. Her six

See Boston

months’ engagement to Prince William of Orange
she herself broke off in June 1814, Peaty
George’s fury ; haa the match come off it might
have been as momentous in its consequences as
that of the Princess Mary to another Pri
William of Orange. On 2d May 1816 she ma
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg ; but the marri
a happy one, was cut short on 5th November 18
by her death, after giving birth to a still-born boy,
See the Memoir by Lady Rose Weigall (1874),
and the monograph by Mrs Herbert Jones (1885).
Charlotte Amalie, the capital of the West
Indian island of St Thomas (q.v.). 4
Charlottenburg, a town of Prussia, on the
Spree, 3 miles W. of Berlin, with which it is con
nected by a road leading through the Thiergarten,
It contains a royal palace, which was founded in
1696 for Sophie Charlotte, the second wife oi
Frederick I., and which has a fine park, with a
large orange-grove, a theatre, and a mausoleum ;
here are the remains of Frederick William III. and
his queen, with their statues by Rauch, and her
their son, the Emperor William I., was interred in
1888. In the town are a royal institute of glass
painting, an artillery and engineering school ; the
manufactures include iron-wares, machinery, por.
celain, glass, paper, leather, chemicals, and beer.
Pop. (1885) 42,371; (1890, as extended) 76,859.
Charlottetown, the capital of Prinee
Edward Island, on the south coast, stands on the
Hillsborough estuary, which forms a secure an¢

ate
a

commodious harbour for the largest vessels. The
town has two colleges, an iron-foundry, a woollen.
factory, and shipbuilding yards. op. (1881)

11,485; (1891) 11,374.

Charm (through Fr. from Lat. carmen, ‘a
song’), properly a form of words, generally in
verse, supposed to possess some occult power of 4
hurtful, a healing, or a protective kind; hence
applied to anything which exercises an irresistible
power to please and attract. Charms exert their
influence either by being recited, or by being
written and worn on the person; and, in this
latter case, they may be classed with Amulet
(q.v.). The nature of this superstition is consid-
ered under INCANTATION ; see also MAGIC.

Charnel-house, a chamber situated in a
churchyard or other burying-place, in which the
bones of the dead which were thrown up by the
grave-diggers were reverently deposited. It was
often a chapel with a vault beneath.

Charnock, Jos, went to India about 1655, an¢
as head of the factory at Hugli, transferred the
headquarters to Calcutta (thus founding the city)
in 1686-90. He died in 1693.

Charnwood Forest.

Charolais is a district in the French depart
ment of Saéne-et-Loire, noted for its fine cattle.

Charon, in classical mythology, the son of
Erebus and Nox, is first mentioned by the later
writers of Greece. His duty was to ferry th
shades of the buried dead across the rivers of th
under-world. For this service he exacted , am
obolus from each, and consequently this coin
was placed in the mouth of the dead. If th
rite was neglected, Charon refused to conv
the unhappy shade across, and it was doomed to
wander restlessly along the shores of Acheron. He
is generally represented as a gloomy old man, wit
a rough used and wretched clothes. In the
Etruscan monuments he holds a hammer. In the
folklore of modern Greece Charon still survis
as a kind of shadowy representative of dea
and a mysterious under-world. (The Greek
charon ; the English pronunciation, kdrdn.)

|

See LEICESTERSHIRE.
4

CHARPIE

CHARTER

125

rpie is Lint (q.v.) for medical purposes.
ni, See JERKED BEEF.

Ch , or CHAR, a name applied to a number of
esh-water fishes in the salmon and trout genus
almo, They are found almost exclusively in moun-
inous lakes—e.g. in Switzerland, Scandinavia, and
the lish Lake district. The presence of charr
us also been recorded in Scotland (especially in
och Earn), Ireland, and Wales; but their British
eadquarters are in Windermere and the adjacent
umberland and Westmoreland lakes. The charr
ffers from the true salmon only in a few small
ints, such as the restriction of the vomer teeth
> the head of that bone; and the distinctions
tween the numerous recorded species of charr
eem rather local variations than of specific im-
ortance. The title S. salvelinus is one of the
mmonest; S. alpinus is also applied to both Swiss
English charrs; S. wmbla is sometimes re-
pted as the title of the ombre chevalier of the
kes of Constance, Neufchatel, and Geneva; and
any other names indicate slight differences in
ze, form, colour, &e. The common English and
s charr is distinguished by the bright red and
orange colour of the abdomen during the breeding
son, but at all seasons the variable colours are
ight and pleasing. They thrive only in clear
water, frequent the bong parts of the lake, and
eed on insects and small crustaceans. At the end
f autumn and beginning of winter they leave the
ake to find in the inflowing streams the stony
bottom necessary for the deposition of the ova.
fhe charr is as palatable as it is beautiful, and is
much valued as a dainty, both when fresh and
votte It is to be regretted that the habit of
-eatching them by wholesale netting at the mouths
of streams at the beginning of the spawning season
has led to a t reduction of their numbers in
(the English lakes. The American charr (S. fonti-
nalis) is bred by the Fish Commission, and has
deen introduced into Britain.
_ Charron, Prrere, a French moralist and theo-
ogian, born at Paris in 1541. He studied for the
Taw, but after being called to the Paris bar, entered
the church, and became a conspicuous member of
the politiques, or party of moderate Catholics. He
assailed the League in his Discours Chrétiens (1589),
indicated Catholicism against Protestantism in his
reatise Les Trois Verités (1594), and in his chief
work, the treatise De /a Sagesse (1601), took ascepti-
tal attitude towards all forms of religion. He died
in 1603.. He was a friend and disciple of Montaigne,
> whom he was, as a writer, immeasurably in-
erior, and from whose essays he borrowed freely.
An edition of his principal work was published at
s in 1789.
_ Chart, a marine or hydrographical map, exhibit-
ing a portion of a sea or other water, with the
islands, coasts of contiguous land, soundings, cur-
rents, &c. (see MAP). Chart-making has been
_ traced back to about the beginning of the 13th cen-
tury; now most civilised countries have their sys-
tem of charts. In the English service, when coasts
we been surveyed by the Admiralty, charts are
ngraved, and are sold at various prices, from 3s.
n to 6d. each. This price is below their cost,
he object being to encourage their general use
‘much as possible. The navigating charts, show-
ng the dangers of coasts with sufficient clearness
} enable mariners to avoid them, are generally
the scale of half an inch to a mile; those of
larger size show all the intricacies of the coast.
The merchant-service is supplied with charts by
agents, who receive a stock from the Admiralty,
é fare pag he ale. wee aaa poh ot charts
is of the duty of the rographi epart-
ment at the Admiralty. in the nancial year
4

@

82

i oa
7

as represented in the national estimates, a sum of
about £14,000 is provided for the branch that takes
charge of the engraving of the charts, irrespective
of the surveying, which always costs a much larger
sum. The Admiralty sells annually some 140,000
charts, besides supplying the navy gratis. Several
ships of the navy, besides colonial gunboats and
hired steamers, are usually engaged in examining
and charting seas and coasts. See the articles
GEOGRAPHY, SEA, SOUNDING, CHALLENGER Ex-
PEDITION, &c.

The United States coast survey, a vast under-
taking, was begun in 1807, carried on intermit-
tently till 1845, and since then more systematically,
save during the civil war, under Professor Bache
and his successor, Professor Pierce. In the Ameri-
can service, the coasts of the United States are
surveyed and the charts produced by the coast and
geodetic survey attached to the Treasury Depart-
ment, and the unsurveyed foreign coasts are sur-
veyed by the Bureau of Navigation, the charts
being produced by the fe se Office, Navy
Department. The coast and geodetic charts are
sold at from 10 cents to $1 each, being the cost of

rinting and paper. Naval vessels are supplied

e. The charts are obtainable at coast and
Casemtey survey agencies at all seaports of the

nited States. ‘They exhibit accurate and minute
topography as far inland as will supply landmarks
for the navigator, or serve for purposes of defence ;
the shore line at high-water and sanding to mean
low-water; soundings, contours, and material of
bottom at different depths ; bars, channels, sailing
ranges and directions ; true meridian and compass
variation, rocks, reefs, buoys, beacons, lights ; tide
establishment, detailed explanation of lighthouses
and signal stations. They are carefully corrected
for every substantial change in any of those feat-
ures. hey range in scale from gq5y (30°401 inches
to the nautical mile) to yz5}500 (x$45 of an inch to
the nautical mile), and comprise sailing charts,
general charts, coast charts, and harbour charts.

The term chart is also given to a graphical repre-
sentation, by curves or otherwise, of the fluctua-
tions of any varying magnitude—temperature,
barometric pressure, population, prices, &e.
GRAPHIC METHODS, TEMPERATURE, STORMS, &e.

Charta, Macna. See MAGNA CHARTA.

Charte, a charter or system of constitutional
law, embodied in a single document. The first
such charter in France is known as the Grande
Charte, or the Charter of King John (in 1355).
But the constitution to which the term Charte is
most frequently applied is that in which Louis
XVIII. Aaeeaen B acknowledged the rights of the
nation on his restoration in 1814. This Charte has
ever since been considered the fundamental law of
constitutional monarchy when that form of govern-
ment has existed in France. A modification of it
was sworn to, 29th August 1830, by Louis-Philippe,
in which the sovereignty of the people is explicitly
recognised. This Charte in its turn became a
nullity by the revolution of February 1848.

Charter (Lat. charta; Gr. charté, Bp or
‘anything written upon,’ from charasso, ‘I scratch’
or ‘write’). In its most general signification, char-
ter is nearly synonymous with deed and instrument
(see DEED), and is applied to almost any formal
writing, in evidence of a grant, contract, or other
transaction between man and man. In private law,
its most important use is in the alienation of real
estates, the writing given to the new proprietor by
the old, in proof Ak the transference title, being
usually called a charter. In public law, the name
is given to those formal deeds by which sovereigns
guarantee the rights and privileges of their subjects,
or by which a sovereign state guarantees those of a

126

CHARTER

colony or other dependency (see CHARTE, MAGNA
CHARTA). There is another sense of the term in
which it is in a measure intermediate between the
two we have mentioned—viz. where we speak of
the charter of a bank or other company or associa-
tion. In this sense it signifies an instrument
by which powers and privileges are conferred by
the state on a select body of persons for a special
object (see BANKING, CORPORATION, and (under
Company) JOINT-STOCK COMPANY, &c.).

This is the general use of the term in the United
States. It is a grant of authority from the state
or the United States, creating a corporation, defin-
ing its powers, privileges, rights, and franchises.
A charter of a private corporation, on the faith of
which property has been given, is a contract within
the meaning of the United States Constitution,
Article I., sect. 10, which declares that no state
shall make a law impairing the obligation of con-
tracts. And while the state legislatures have no
power to set aside or essentially modify charters
that come within this prohibition, without the con-
sent of the corpora*ors, it is confined to transac-
tions involving property and rights which may be
asserted in a court of justice. This prohibition does
not debar the state hea exercising the right of
eminent domain, nor prevent the exercise of its
general police power. Charters of municipal and
public corporations are not beyond legislative
control; and the power to change and adapt them
to the purposes for which they were created is
implied in every enactment creating them. But
most of the charters in the United States have in
them a clause reserving to the state the power to
alter, amend, or repeal them at pleasure. In some
states the courts have power to grant charters to
social, charitable, and religious organisations, while
the state officers are authorised by law to grant
charters for manufacturing, mining, railroad, and
other corporations for purposes of trade.

Royal Charters, generally written in Latin,
are of two kinds: I. Grants of lands, houses,
honours, or liberties to persons who did not previ-
ously possess them ; II. Charters confirming grants
peevonety made, and therefore called ‘ Charters of

onfirmation.’ Confirmation charters are of three
kinds: (1) Charters confirming previous grants,
without reciting them ; (2) Charters of simple con-
firmation, without addition of anything new;
(3) Charters reciting previous charters and confirm-
ing them, with addition of something new. These
last two classes of charters are called charters of
‘ Inspeximus,’ or ‘ Vidimus,’ from the word used
by the granter in saying that he has seen the
shitter which he confirms. Royal charters gener-
ally contain seven clauses : (1) The ‘ Premises ’—i.e.
the name and style of the granter, the persons to
whom the charter is addressed, the name and style
of the grantee, the reason why the grant is made,
and the description of the thing granted ; (2) the
‘Tenendum and Habendum ’—i.e. the way in which
the thing granted is to be held and had; (3) the
‘ Reddendo,’ the return of rent or service which is
to be made to the granter by the grantee; (4)
the ‘Quare Volumus,’ or order that the grantee
should have the thing granted, under certain
penalties ; (5) the ‘Sealing’ or ‘Signature’ clause,
setting forth the seal, signature, or subscription
by which the charter is authenticated; (6) the
‘His Testibus,’ or testing-clause, enumerating
the persons present as witnesses to the granting
of the charter; (7) the ‘ Date,’ setting forth the
time when, and the place where, the charter was
granted.

Charter in the law of Scotland is the written
evidence of a grant of heritable property under the
conditions imposed by the feudal law—viz. that
the grantee, or person obtaining, shall pay at

| notarial instrument.

stated periods a sum of money, or perform certain
services to the granter, or person conferring the
property. The granter of a charter, in virtue of
the power which he thus retains over the property
and its proprietor, is called the superior; and the
grantee, in consequence of the services which he
undertakes to feGiee, the vassal ; whilst the stipu-
lated sum to be paid, or service to be rendered, i
called the duty. K
Charters are either blench or feu, from the natur
of the service stipulated—a me or de me, from the
kind of holding or relation between the grantei
and grantee; and original or by progress, from
being first or renewed grants of the subjects i
question.
Blench and Feu Charters.—The duty which
superior required of his vassal in former times was
almost always military service, and the vassal was
then technically said ‘to hold ward ’—to hold o
condition of warding or defending his superior,
But subsequent to the rebellion of 1745, in whiel
the dangerous tendencies of the feudal relatior
were experienced, this holding was abolished (2
Geo. III. chap. 50), and the only duties which it has
since been lawful to insert in charters are blene/
and few duties. The former is a wee nomini
payment—a penny Scots, a red rose, or the like, s
petatur tantum (should it be asked); the latter i
a consideration of some real value, Original blene
charters having lost all object, and having no othe
effect but that of subjecting superiors to consider
able expense in keeping up their titles, have becom
rare in modern practice. The forms of charter:
varying according to the circumstances in whie
they are granted, and the relations established be
tween the granter and grantee, are of a highh
technical nature. i
The Charter of Resignation proceeds upon the
formal surrender of the lands or other rights int
the hands of the superior for the palo of obtain.
ing a new grant in favour of the resigner, wit
some change of the destination, or in favour of a
purchaser or other disponee. This is termed
resignation in favorem. But when the prope
surrendered in order to remain with the superior,
the resignation is then said to be ad remanentiam
In former times resignations were transacted witk
solemn formality by delivery of a staff or baton,
as the symbol of surrender, into the hands o
the superior, who, if the purpose was im favorem,
returned the symbolic staff to the person to bi
invested with the lands, or to his attorney, the
whole transaction being recorded in the form of

Crown charters of resignation or confirmation
proceed upon the warrant of the Barons of Ex
chequer, as the royal commissioners in Scotlar
since the union of the crowns, for receiving resig
nations and granting new infeftments to crow!
vassals. The charter is preceded by the signatur
or order under the royal superscription, with con
sent of the barons, setting forth the terms in whie
the charter is to be expressed. After several othe
proceedings, the charter is finally completed b
sealing. Previous to 1707 the Great Seal of Scot.
land was appended to crown charters, but by thi
treaty of union another seal was substituted. The
royal charters of Scotland are recorded in_ tht
Register of the Great Seal, which is extant from
about 1300 A.D., and continued to the presen
time. There are, however, numerous charters by
the early Scottish kings not recorded in th
Register, but extant in private collections and u
the chartularies of religious houses. Ancient
charters are usually remarkable for the excellence
of their writing and the brevity and conciseness
of -their style. See Innes’ Lectures on Lega
Antiquities; Chassat’s Traité des Statuts,

a CHARTERHOUSE

CHARTER-PARTY

127

Pari , 1845); Bell’s Law Dictionary ; Menzies on

rterhouse (a corruption of Chartreuse,
husian’) is the name of a famous hospital and
which occupied a joint-building in Charter-
Square, London, till 1872, when the school
8 transferred to Godalming in aga The
wterhouse was instituted in 1611 by Thomas
it of Castle Camps, Cambridgeshire. The
e had been occupied by a Carthusian monastery
anded in 1371), but on the dissolution of the
masteries by Henry VIII. it was made a place
leposit for his nets and pavilions. After under-
ng many alterations, and passing into the posses-
m of various distinguished persons, it was finally
rehased from Lord Suffolk for £13,000 by
omas Sutton, who endowed it with the revenues
ds of twenty manors, lordships, and other
ates in various parts of England. This ‘ master-
sce of Protestant English charity,’ as old Fuller
it, serves three uses—it is an asylum for poor
‘jrethren, an educational and a religious institu-
fon ; hence Bacon terms it a ‘triple good.’ The poor
tthren are eighty in number. None are admitted
ader fifty years of age, and only those who have
‘een householders are eligible. “Each brother has
‘Separate apartment, a share of attendance from
omestics, an ample though plain diet, and an
lowance of about £36 a year for clothes and other
atters, and four weeks’ holiday every autumn.
ie brethren must be bachelors and members of
ie Church of England. Among the poor brethren
_ bygone years were Dryden’s arian me Elkanah
et Jo ord, antiquary ; Isaac de Groot,
descendant of Grotius ; Alexander Macbean, who
Sisted Johnson in his Dictionary; John Grey,
lectrician ; and—one could not omit him—‘ Colonel
iVewcome,’
There are thirty junior scholarships, worth
75 @ year, open to all pers between twelve
id fourteen years of age by public competi-
m on conditions settled in accordance with the
rection of the Public Schools Act (1868), the
d eaneee of direct nomination by the gover-
1 or ving been wholly abolished. There are
so thirty senior scholarships, of £95 value, for
ys of between fourteen and fifteen who have
een at least a twelvemonth in the school 3; and
ve annual exhibitions of £80 for four years for
tvs leaving school. In addition to the scholars
) large number of boys are sent to the Charter-
{ ouse use of its reputation. These either
toard with the masters or attend ret during
ae day. The number of extra boarders is now
about 460. The institution is under the direction
»{ the Queen, fifteen governors, and the master
simself, whose ont from the foundation is £800
er annum. The hospital has now a separate
overning body. Among the eminent persons
lucated in this establishment have been Isaac
sarrow, Sir William (Judge) Blackstone, Addison,
», Thackeray, n Leech, and Sir Charles
ake. ‘The new school at Godalming, designed
gatehouse tower 130 feet
lt sta ned g&

b .
er

— 4

Steele, John Wesley, Bishop Thirlwall, George
7 oh
ardwick, forms a large quadrangle, with a

7 r-party (charta partita—as being orig-
aa written in estionte on one chment,
hich was then divided by a straight line, so

that the parts should tally) is the common written
form in which the contract of affreightment is
expressed—viz, the hiring of the whole or part of
a ship for the conveyance of goods. The case of
carriage of passengers at sea is under different
regulations. The carriage of goods is often left to
rest on bills of lading, or even mere oral arrange-
ment, but a charter-party with a sixpenny stam
is the proper and safe arrangement. It is execu
by the owner or his accredited agent ; abroad, the
master has authority to sign. It identifies the ship
by name, by tonnage measurement, and by place.
e obligations of parties are generally expressed
with fullness. The chief of these are that the ship
is seaworthy, and is furnished with necessary
tackle, and with a fit master and crew. Unsea-
worthiness may be caused by the manner of stow-
age. The master’s knowledge of the particular
rts and perils on the voyage is included in his
tness. The ship is also bound to have the proper
papers and clearances. The ship must be ready to
receive cargo at the time specified ; and in neral,
delay on the part of the ship would entitle the
charterer to cancel the contract. The voyage must
be performed according to the rules of good sea-
manship, necessity being required to justify an
deviation from the route. The matter of compul-
sory pilotage depends upon the Merchant Shippin
Acts. e care is to be shown in loading an
unloading, and the goods must be safely delivered
at the port of discharge. On the other hand the
freighter must have a lawful cargo ready at the
time eed upon; in this case also delay would
generally entitle the shipowner to cancel the con-
tract, or at least to claim damages for detention.
The freight is sometimes a lump sum for the
voyage : Sometimes so much per ton or per week.
he execution of a charter-party does not super-
sede the granting of a Bill of Lading (q.v.) or
receipts for the cargo, which are not only useful in
fixing the condition and quantity of the goods,
but are the documents of title by which the owner-
ship of cargo may be transferred during voyage.
In the case of general ships, which are advertised
for a certain voyage, the sh#powner becomes a
common carrier, bound to carry goods tendered
subject to the conditions of the advertisement, but
in this case no charter-party is exeeuted. In coast-
ing voyages mere receipts, not formal bills of
lading, are often used. In settling freight at the
port of discharge, the weight or measurement of
cargo there is prima facie the criterion, but it may
be shown that the weight, &c. has altered during
voyage. Where an sy vial against or prepay-
ment of freight is made, the law of Scotland is
that this ma recovered, even though the voyage
fail ; in Rigland, on the other hand, both shipper
and consignee are liable for freight, and the master
has a lien on cargo for freight. But it is common
under a cesser clause for the charterer to stipulate
that his personal liability for freight and demurrage
shall cease when the loading is completed, so that
in most cases the master looks to his lien for
security. When the goods arrive damaged, the
consignee is bound to take them, and settle the
freight subject to a claim for caengee he cannot
abandon the goods for the freight. If the freighter
take the s at an intermediate port, the ship
being unable to proceed further, a proportion of
freight is due ; pal this is also the case where some
of the goods are lost, if enough was not lost to
justify abandonment. Except on a time charter,
the duration of a voyage, which may depend on
closing of navigation by ice, &c., is entirely at the
risk of the shipowner. Dead freight is paid for
unoccupied space in the ship where a full Mar
has been promised. Apart trom stipulation, t 1e
shipowner is liable for the goods shipped in their

128 CHARTERS TOWERS

CHARTISM

original condition, except where that condition is
altered by perils of the sea, hostile force, and
inevitable accident. It is now common, however,
by indemnity clauses in charter-parties to protect
the owner from liability for every damage that can
be covered by insurance. By statute, owners are
not liable for fire, or for the fault of a compulsory
pilot ; and in no case are they liable beyond a sum
representing £15 per ton of the ship’s measurement.
It is always an important question whether the
arrangements made about the ship place the
charterer in the position of an owner, or whether
the owner retains such a possession and control
of the ship as to be able to exercise a lien for
freight, and on the other hand to incur liability
for repairs and supplies, and for damages caused
by negligence of the master or crew.

In the United States, the law relating to charter-
parties is the same as that which has just been
explained. When the charterer has complete con-
trol over the voyage, he is generally considered the
owner for the voyage. But if the charter-party lets
only the use of the vessel, the owner retaining
possession and control over its navigation, the char-
terer is regarded as merely a contractor for a par-
ticular service, and the rights and duties of the
owner are unchanged. The usual printed parts of
a charter-party are construed like covenants in a
deed, but charter-parties are often informal instru-
ments, and are therefore construed as liberally as
other mercantile contracts, preserving the inten-
tion of the parties. The courts incline to construe
a charter-party as a contract for affreightment,
charging the shipowners as carriers.

Charters Towers, 2 mining township of
North-east Queensland, situated on the northern
spurs’ of the Towers Mountain, 820 miles NW. of

risbane. It dates from the gold discovery here
of 1871-72, and was incorporated in 1877. It has
railway connection with Townsville on the coast.
Up till 1891, when the pop. was 4597 (of the field,
14,129), the gold-field had yielded over 2,300,000 oz.

Chartier, ALAIN, who was born at Bayeux in
1386, and died before 1441—perhaps in 1435—lived
at the court of Charles VI. and Charles VII.
as Cisiaioes | According to a famous (but quite
unhistorical) story, the Dauphine Margaret,
daughter of James I. of Scotland, and _ herself
a poetess, once kissed him as he lay asleep, in
token of her admiration of his verses. His chief
poetical piece is the Livre des Quatre Dames,
which was written shortly after Agincourt, and in
which four ladies alternately bewail the deaths
of their lovers who fell in the battle. The senti-
ment of the poem is sincere, and the expression
is often graceful and dignified. Chartier showed
considerable skill in handling the ballade and
other lyrical forms, but he is more interesting as
a prose-writer than as a poet. In his own day
he was known as the father of eloquence.’ His
chief prose works are Le Curial, an exposure of
the vices of the court; L’Espérance, an attack on
the corruption of the clergy; and the Quadriloge
Invectif, a noble appeal dattewnihiank to unite for
the deliverance of their land from the foreigner.
Chartier was a sincere patriot, and his writing
_often rises into grave and moving eloquence.
He bravely espoused the cause of the oppressed
labouring class, and he did much to re-animate his
countrymen in their struggle with England. ‘It
is the eternal glory of Alain Chartier,’ says M.
Géruzez, ‘to have announced the mission of Jeanne
dAre.’ His writings summoned his countrymen
to the task which they performed under the Maid
of Orleans. He has not received the attention
which he deserves. There is no better edition
of his works than Duchesne’s (1617). See mono-

en by Delaunay (1876) and Joret-Desclosiér
(1877). a
Chartism, a movement in Great Britain fi
the extension of political power to the workir
classes, rising out of widespread national distres
and aphias disappointment with the results ¢
the the orm Bill of 1832. Before that period th
middle classes had sought popular aid towar
obtaining their own enfranchisement. The assist
ance was given, the i expecting to
help in their turn. After the passing of the R
Bill, agitation ceased for a time, and the membe
returned to parliament were indifferent, or oppose
to any further change in the political arrangemen
of the country. The middle classes were satisfie
with their own success, and generally looked wit
small favour on projects for the further extensio
of political influence among the masses. Lord Jeh
Russell especially deprecated further change as
breach of faith with those who had carried #
Reform Bill of 1832. This political discontent ¢
the part of the workmen was greatly increased |
the misery due to failing harvests and to a seas¢
of commercial depression which set in about 183
Food became dear, wages fell, factories were close
and work was scarce. The paople associated the
sufferings with their want of direct influence upe
the government, and agitation for an extende
franchise began. ;
In 1838 the representatives of the working-mi
drew up a programme embodying their views ¢
Aiiical veharns. and called the ‘ People’s Charte
Tes six ‘points’ were: (1) Manhood suffrage; (|
equal electoral districts; (3) vote by ballot; (:
annual parliaments ; (5) abolition of property qual
fication for members of the House of Commons
and (6) payment of members of parliament fi
their services. The programme thus drawn 1
was received with enthusiasm. Immense mee
ings, attended by enormous crowds of peopl
were held all over the country. The most pr
minent leader of the Chartist agitation was Feargu
O’Connor, an Irishman, whose paper the Norther
Star had a circulation of 50,000. Others wel
Attwood, Lovett, Stephens, Vincent, Ernest Jone
and Thomas Cooper. The mass of the worl
ing-men in the industrial centres supported th
movement; and while many of them exclusivel
advocated an appeal to moral force, a great numb
insisted on violent methods. A body calling its
the National Convention, elected by the Charti
throughout the kingdom, met in London and afte
wards in Birmingham in 1839. It proposed to tl
people various means of coercing the legislature ini
submission, recommending, among other things,
run on the savings-banks for gold, abstinence r¢
excisable articles, exclusive dealing, and in tl
last resort, universal cessation from labour. Du
ing its sittings a collision took place with #
military in Birmingham. Public meetings wet
forbidden, and alarming excesses were committe
by the irritated mob. In June 1839 a petition i
favour of the Charter was presented to the House ¢
Commons signed by 1,280,000 persons. The How
refused to name a day for its consideration, by
majority of 237 to 148, and the National Convei
tion retaliated by advising the people to cea
from work throughout the country. Fortunate}
this advice was not followed; but the disturh
increased, and in November an outbreak at
port, in Monmouthshire, took place, which resu te
in the death of ten persons and the woundin
of great numbers. For taking part in thisy wi
insurrection, three of its leaders were sentenced t
death, but their punishment was afterwards com
muted to transportation. In 1842 great riots too
lace in the northern and midland districts, no
irectly originated by the Chartists, but encourage

2 CHARTRES

CHASE 129

ad aided by them after the disturbances began. It
‘a strong proof of the revolutionary spirit which
mimated the Chartists, that they op the
ritation for the Re of the Corn Laws as a
easure likely to make food cheap, to keep w:
m, and thereby to benefit only the middle
usses. In 1848 the Chartist movement came to
ead through the agitation consequent on the
‘olution in France. Great uneasiness prevailed,
‘ at many of the industrial centres, and
's were f . But the greatest demonstra-
on of the movement took place in London, where
gigantic meeting on Kennington Common was
punced for the 10th of April. It was to be
aded by half a million of men, who were to
‘to parliament a petition for reform signed by
on names. Such rumours excited great
wm. The procession was forbidden. Military
easures were taken by the Duke of Wellington to
revent violence, and about 200,000 special con-
ables were enrolled (amongst whom was Louis
apoleon, afterwards emperor). After all this pre-
ation the demonstration proved a failure. Only
000 gathered on Kennington Common, and their
aders shrank from a conflict with the authorities.
' On examining the monster petition it was found
hat the signatures were fictitious to an unheard-of
ent, yet the genuine ones amounted to nearly

ns.
Since 1848 Chartism has gradually died out. Its
olitical {thay ey were not new. The Duke of
tichmond in 1780 introduced a bill into the House
f Lords to give universal suffrage and annual
irliaments, and earlier than this John Cartwright
.v.) had advocated earnestly not only these but
so vote by ballot. In 1780 Charles James Fox
leclared himself in favour of the identical six
vints which were afterwards included in the
Charter. And in 1792 Grey, Erskine, Mackintosh,
and many others, formed a ‘Society of Friends of
the People,’ which aimed at obtaining a very large
xtension of the franchise.
_ But while the political side of Chartism was the
nost prominent, it should be recognised that the
ssence of it was economic and social. As one of
ts leaders said, it was a ‘knife and fork question.’
the movement was primarily due to economic
uffering, and many of the remedies proposed were
strongly socialistic in tendency. The reviving and
ncreasing Bs obit of the country after the
lapse of Chartism in 1848 effectually prevented a
‘turn of the same spirit of discontent. This pros-
erity was due not only to the Repeal of the Corn
but to the great industrial and colonial
spansion of Britain which took a fresh start
bout the same time. Through the Reform Bills
1867 and 1885, and the Ballot Act of 1872, the
ost important demands of the Charter have been
antially conceded. Industrial prosperity and
litice orm, with the development of trades-
lions and of the co-operative system, have worked
a decided change in the position of the working-
‘¢lasses as contrasted with their wretched lot in the

mM
_
8

O'CONNOR; Cooper’s Life, written by Himself;

Carlyle’s Chartism ; Kingsley’s Alton Locke ; Wal-
le’s History of England ; and R. G. Gammage’s

istory of the Chartist Movement (1894).

res, the capital of the French department

ill overlooking the river Eure, which is here
livided into two channels, one flowing within, and
the other without the former ramparts, which are

converted into agreeable promenades. It consists
an upper and lower town, connected by very

ep streets ; and the highest point is crowned by
h glorious cathedral of Notre Dame—in Street’s

\)

4

'

sriod about 1840. See the articles on COOPER and:

opinion, the finest in France. Built chiefly be-
tween 1194 and 1260, it has two spires, of which
the south-western is 342} feet high, and the north-
western, 371; the latter, built in 1507-14, being,
‘on the whole, the most beautiful spire on the Con-
tinent.’ Other features are the three rose-windows,
the splendid portals, and the 13th-century stained-
glass that fills no fewer than 130 windows. The
church of St Pierre (12th century), the Porte
Guillaume (14th century), and the obelisk to the
memory of General Marceau, are also noteworthy.
The weekly corn-market is one of the largest
in France, and is remarkable as being under a
corporation of women. It has manufactures of
woollen, hosiery, and leather. Chartres usually
ave the title of Duke to the eldest son of the

rleans branch of the Bourbons (see BOURBON).
Pop. (1872) 19,322; (1886) 21,523 ; (1891) 23,108.—
The Autricum of the Carnutes (hence the present
name), Chartres in 1594 was the scene of the
coronation of Henry IV.

Chartreuse, LA Granpg, the original Car-
thusian monastery, founded by St Bruno in 1084,
is situated in the French department of Isére, 14
miles NNE. of Grenoble, in a wild and romantic
valley, at an altitude of 4268 feet above the sea.
The convent is a huge ungainly structure, dating
mostly from the 17th century, earlier buildings
having been several times destroyed by fire. The
monks, who long manufactured a famous green,
yellow, or white liqueur from various herbs, had
at one time considerable roperty, but they
were despoiled at the Revolution, being exiled
from 1793 till 1816; and in November 1880 they
declined to accept indulgence from the decrees for
the expulsion of the religious orders. A remnant
of monks still left received Queen Victoria and
the Princess Beatrice on the occasion of their
visit in 1887. Ruskin in part iv. of his Preterita
(1888) describes his disappointment in both the
monastery and its occupants. Certosa and Charter-
house are Italian and English forms of the French

name. See CARTHUSIANS.
Chartulary means a collection of charters. So
soon as any y, ecclesiastical or secular, came to

be possessed of a considerable number of charters,
obvious considerations of convenience and safet

would suggest the advantage of a iy omy classi-
fied and copied into a book or roll. Such book or
roll has generally received the name of a Chartulary.
Mabillon traces chartularies in France as far back
as the 10th century, and some antiquaries think
that chartularies were compiled even still earlier.
But it was not until the 12th and 13th centuries
that chartularies became common. They were
kept not only by all kinds of religious and civil
corporations, but also by private families. Many
of them have been printed, and their contents
generally are of the greatest value in historical,
archeological, and genealogical inquiries. The
name is in Scotland applied to the record of
feu-charters kept by the superior’s law-agent.

Charybdis. See ScyLLaA AND CHARYBDIS.

Chase, SALMON PorTLAND, American states-
man, born at Cornish, New Hampshire, 13th Janu-
ary 1808, in 1830 settled as a lawyer in Cincin-
nati, where he acted as counsel for the defence
of numerous fugitive slaves. An uncompromising
opponent of slavery, his political course was for
many years iuiided by the attitude of the two great
parties towards this question. In 1841, foreseeing
as little assistance from the Whigs as from the
Democrats, he was largely instrumental in founding
the Liberty party, which in 1844 brought about
Clay’s defeat. Chase was returned to the United
States senate in 1849 by the Ohio Democrats,
but separated from the party in 1852, when it

130 CHASIDIM

CHASSE

committed itself to slavery. He was twice elected
governor of Ohio by the Republicans (1855-59),
and in 1861-64 was secretary of the treasury. His
management of the country’s finances during these
trying years has met with nothing but praise:
taking office at a time when public credit was low,
and the revenue barely adequate for the needs of
the government in time of peace, he secured loans
on reasonable terms, issued treasury notes (‘ green-
backs’) bearing no interest, and obtained the
establishment of national banks. In 1864 he was
appointed by Lincoln chief-justice of the United
States, in which capacity he presided at the trial
of President Johnson (1868). Unsuccessful efforts
were made to secure for Chase the Republican
pene nomination in 1860 and 1864, and the

emocratic nomination in 1868. He died at New
York, 7th May 1873. See his Life by J. W.
Schuckers (1874).

Chasi'‘dim (Heb., ‘ pious’), the name by which
the Jewish party afterwards known as_ the
Pharisees was first distinguished. The Chasidim
first took definite form as a party in the course
of the struggle between Judaism and Hellen-
ism during and immediately before the Macca-
bean period. When in 167 B.c. the great
majority of the Jewish people rose against
their heathen masters, the Chasidim joined in
the conflict, though separated from the other
adherents of Judas Maccabeus as a closer com-
munity of those who were distinguished by
especial ‘ piety ’—i.e. especial strictness in the
observance of the law. They took part in the
struggle only so long as the freedom of religion was
the question really involved ; at a later time, when
this was no longer the case, they seem to have
withdrawn from it, for under Judas’s brothers
Jonathan and Simon (160-135 B.c.) they are not
mentioned. Under Simon’s successor, John Hyr-
canus (135-105 B.c.), they appear for the first time
in history under the name of Pharisees, and here
we already find them in opposition to the family of
the Maccabees or Hasmoneans, with whom they
had originally pursued a common interest. See
PHARISEES.—The modern Chasidim are not, like
those in the times of the Maccabees, marked by any
peculiar spiritualistic tendency in religion, but
rather by a strict observance of certain traditional
forms and a blind subservience to their teachers.
Their doctrine was promulgated in the middle of
the 18th century b faa of Podolia, called Baal-

Shem (‘Lord of the Name,’ so called because he |

professed to perform miracles by using the great
cabalistic name of the Supreme Being). Though
condemned by the orthodox rabbis, this new
teacher had great success in Galicia, and when
he died (1760) left 40,000 converts. They are
now broken into several petty sects; their religion
is utterly formal, and its ceremonies are coarse
and noisy.

Chasing. Metal casting and other raised metal-
work, whether stamped or vepoussé—i.e. hammered
or punched up—may be defective in sharpness, or
detail, or finish, When such defect is remedied
by hand-cutting, as with a chisel or graver, such
finishing is called chasing, but this term is not
properly applied to the raising of the figures them-
selves, The backs of watches are sometimes
elaborately chased in floral or other designs,
When similar work is applied to flat surfaces, such
as salvers for example, it is called elther chasing
or engraving. It was called celatura by the
Romans ; in modern Italian, ceselatura ; in French,
ciselure ; in German, ciselirung—i.e. ‘ chiselling ’ in
each case.

Chasles, MICHEL, was born near
15th November 1793. He entered the

hartres on
cole Poly-

technique in 1812, and on leaving was classed
among the engineers ; but with rare generosity he
renounced his place as an officer in order to assure.
a career to one of his unsuccessful comrades. In
December 1829 he addressed to the Brussels
Academy a memoir on two general principles of
geometry, duality and homography. The intro-
duction to this memoir expanded into the well-

known Aperecu historique sur V Origine et le Dévelop- —

pement des Méthodes en Géométrie, the first edition
of which was published in 1837. In 1841 he was.
appointed to the chair of Machines and Geodesy
at the Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1846 to that of
Higher Geometry, which had just been instituted.
at the Sorbonne. In 1852 appeared his Traité de:
Géométrie supérieure ; in 1860, Les Trois Livres de:
Porismes @ Euclide rétablis pour la Premiere Fois;
in 1865, the Traité des Sections Coniques ; in 1870,
the Rapport sur les Progrés de la Géométrie.
These, his principal works, are geometrical and
historical. His contributions to the Comptes
rendus of the Academy of Sciences and to other
scientific publications are extremely numerous, and.
though in the main geometrical, are not exclusively
so. In particular he treated in several memoirs the

uestion of attraction, and gave the first synthetic

emonstration of a celebrated theorem of Maclaurin
on the attraction of ellipsoids. Two of his memoirs.
on the properties of cones of the second degree, and
on the spherical conics, were translated into English,
and published, with additions, by Charles Graves.
in 1841. The best account of Chasles’s writings is.
that given by himself in the Rapport above men-
Gane During his long life he was the recipient.
of many scientific distinctions, and he will always
be cited as one of the great geometers of the 19th
century. He died at Paris on 18th December
1880. An unfortunate episode in his life was that.
of the autographs. In 1867 he reported to the
Academy that he had come into possession of auto-
graphs of Pascal’s which proved that Pascal had
anticipated Newton’s greatest discoveries. Ulti-
mately, however, he had to admit that these and
about 27,000 other autographs (including letters.
from Julius Cesar, Dante, and Shakespeare) were-
forgeries. The forger, Irene Lucas, was convicted
and punished,

Chasles, PHILARETE, a voluminous French
writer, was born at Mainvilliers, near Chartres,
8th October 1798. Early imbued with Rousseau’s.
ideas by his father, an old Jacobin, he was.
apprenticed at fifteen to an ardent Jacobin book-
seller, along with whom he was sent to jail after
the Restoration. Released by Chateaubriand’s
influence, he went to England, where he found
employment in a houkusller's shop, and during
his seven years’ residence laid the foundation of his.
large knowledge of English literature. After his.
return to France he contributed reviews of English
books to the Revue encyclopédique. In 1824 his
Discours sur Jacques Auguste de Thou, and in 1828
his Tableau de la Langue et Littérature Francaise,
1500-1610, were crowned by the Academy. In 1837
Chasles became librarian of the Bibliothéque Maz-
arin, and in 1841 professor of Northern Languages.
at the Collége de France, which chair he filled.
until his death, at Venice, July 18, 1873. Besides
showing indefatigable activity as a journalist, he
published books on Charles I., Cromwell, the middle
ages, the 16th century in France, and studies on
Spain, on Germany, on the 18th century in Eng-
land, 19th-century manners, Shakespeare, Mary
Stuart, and Aretino. His Mémoires fill two volumes
(1876-78).

Chassé, DAvip HENDRIK, BARON, a famous
Dutch soldier, was born at Thiel, in Guelders, March.
18, 1765, began his military career when but ten

_ afterwards fought with the French in
and §

CHASSEPOT

CHATEAUBRIAND 131

age, became a lieutenant in 1781, and

years

2 of
captain in 1787. After the failure of the revolu-

bi movement he took French service; was
appointed lieutenant-colonel in 1793; and two

¥ i later found himself poy towards the
sf i

etherlands under the command of Pichegru. He
vermany
pain, gaining great distinction, and from
Napoleon himself, from his fondness for bayonet

, the name of ‘Général Baionette.’ He

i was made a baron by Louis Bonaparte in 1809. As
lieutenant-general of the Dute

forces in 1815
did gees service at Waterloo against his old
comrades, the French. As governor of Antwerp he
became famous by his heroic three-weeks’ defence of
the citadel with 5000 men against 60,000 Belgians
and French (1832). He died May 2, 1849.
Chassepot, ANTOINE ALPHONSE, French in-

_ ventor, born 4th March 1833, was an employee in
the Paris arsenal of St Thomas, where he became

an official in 1858, and in 1863 brought before the
government the model of his rifle, adopted three
eet afterwards (see BREECH-LOADING, RIFLES).
n 1895 he was keeping a hotel in Nice.

Chasseurs (Fr. ,‘ hunters’) is a name used since
1741 for certain corps d’élite of the French army.
The Chasseurs-a-cheval and the Chasseurs d’ Afrique
are light cavalry. The latter were raised in 1831
for service in Africa, mounted on Arab horses, and
wearing a distinct uniform. There were in 1888
twenty regiments of Chasseurs-i-cheval, and four
of Chasseurs d’Afrique. Uniform, sky-blue tunic
with red trousers. The Chasseurs-d-pied are light
infantry corresponding to the Rifle Corps of the
British and the Jédgers (‘hunters’) of the German
and Austrian armies. One regiment, the Chasseurs
de Vincennes, formed in 1838, has always been
especially famous for rapidity and precision of
movement, as well as accuracy of fire. There are
now thirty battalions of Chasseurs-i-pied in the
French army. Uniform, dark-blue tunic and iron-
gray trousers instead of red.

Chastelard, PIERRE DE BOoscosEL DE, a
epyaeee French poet, born in Dauphiné about
1540, became a page in the household of the
Constable Montmorency, afterwards in that of the
Marshal Damville, and accompanied the latter to
Scotland in his escort of Queen Mary (1561).
Here he fell madly in love with the queen, and
Mary was indiscreet enough to amuse herself with
his passion, receiving without displeasure the
amorous verses which the poet laid before her.
Misinterpreting the goodwill of the queen, Chaste-
lard ventured to conceal himself under her bed,
was discovered and forgiven, but on a repetition of
his offence at Burntisland early in 1563, where the
queen was resting on her journey to St Andrews,
was seized and executed on the genial morning.
He is the subject of a tragedy, the first of the
trilogy devoted by Mr Swinburne to the history
of Mary.

Chaste Tree. See ViTEx.

Chasuble (Lat. casula, casubula, and cas-
sibula; also penula, planeta; Gr. phelonion or
phainolés), the uppermost ent worn by priests
in the Eastern and the Haman Catholic Church
when robed for the celebration of the mass ; having
been at first a secular garment of ceremony com-
mon to both sexes. When adopted as an ecclesias-
tical robe, it was for some centuries used by all
grades of the clergy, even as low as that of the
acolytes, and its earliest restriction to priests
os in Canon xxviii. of the Fourth Council of

oledo, in 633 A.D. It was called also ‘the Vest-
ment,’ though this term more properly denotes col-
lectively all the robes worn at mass, of which the
chasuble is the principal item. Originally it cov-

ered the priest from head to foot, like a little house,
whence some writers think it had ite name of casula
(Isid, Hispal., Orig. xix. 24).
The earliest direct evidence for
it as a sacerdotal robe is in
the mosaics of San Vitale at
Ravenna(547 A.D.), where Arch-
bishop Maximian is depicted
wearing it. Rich materials,
cloth of gold or silver, silk,
and velvet, elaborately em-
broidered, were used for it. In
the middle ages it was of an
elliptical shape, like a vesica
iscis, With i in the middle
or the head; it had no sleeves.
When put on it showed two
ks, one hanging down be-
ore; another, on which a cross
was embroidered, hanging down
behind, though in Italy the
cross was and is usually in
front. The Greek chasuble is
ampler and rounder than the
Latin form, having more 'the
nature of a mantle, and the
episcopal chasuble is provided
with a pattern of crosses. Arch-
bishops do not wear the chas-
uble, but another vestment named Sakkos, which
is worn by bishops also in Russia. The modern
Latin form is commonly a allelogram with
rounded angles, or else resembles a violin. In the
Reformed Church of England the chasuble was
enjoined as the celebrant’s robe at Holy Com-
munion by the Prayer-book of 1549, prohibited by
that of 1552, but again legalised in 1559. It _re-
mained, however, in practical abeyance (its place
in cathedrals and on solemn oécasions being sup-
est by the cope) till recent times, when its use
as been partially revived, first in 185] at St
Thomas the Martyr in Oxford. In France the
press or wardrobe in which chasubles were kept
was called the chasubdlier.

Chat (Sazicola), a genus of small birds in the
Thrush family (Turdide). The bill at the base
is broader than its height, and the upper portion
is not hooked. The genus includes some thirty-
six species, especially at home in northern tem-
perate regions, frequenting dry stony places, and
nesting in holes. They are lively birds, flitting
about rapidly and untiringly in pursuit of insects,
on which they chiefly feed. the Wheatear (S.
enanthe) is a good example, found in Europe,
North Africa, and North America, and along with
other chats frequent in Britain. Yellow-breasted
Chat is a popular name for a bird common in the
United States, and technically known as Jcteria
virens,

Chata (Pierocles alchata), a desert fowl of
the nature of a grouse, occurring in waste places
in Southern Europe, North Africa, Arabia, and
Syria. It is very good to eat, and large numbers
are shot.

Chateau, CHATEL, or CAsTEL, from the Lat.
castellum, ‘a fort,’ enters as a compen part
into many names of places in France. See CASTLE.
A ‘chateau en Espagne’ is a castle in the air.

Chateaubriand, Francois RENE, VIcoMTE
DE, a distinguished French writer and politician,
was born at St Malo, in Brittany, on September 4,
1768. He belonged toa noble Breton family, and
was the youngest of ten children. His early years
were spent partly by the sea at St Malo and partly
in the seclusion of the woodland chateau of Com-
bourg. He was educated at Dol and Rennes,
and served for a short time as an ensign in the

p.

Wl
i

132 CHATEAUBRIAND

CHATELET-LOMONT

regiment of Navarre. In 1791 he sailed to North
America, and spent eight months there in the
travels which are recounted in his Voyage en
Amérique. On hearing of the arrest of Louis
XVI. he returned to France and joined the
army of the émigrés. During the Prussians’
retreat he was left behind for dead near Namur,
but contrived to make his way to that town,
and thence, with no little difficulty, to England.
For some years he maintained himself in London
by teaching and writing translations; in 1797 he
published an Essai sur les Révolutions, and in
1800 he was enabled to return to France. Atala,
a love-story of savage life, the scene of which
is laid in the American forests and _ prairies,
appeared in 1801, and established Chateaubriand’s
literary reputation. The Génie du Christianisme
(1802), a vindication of the Church of Rome, raised
him to the foremost position among the French
men of letters of the day. He was neither a sound
thinker nor a skilful controversialist, and the
merit of his famous treatise lies almost entirely
in its brilliant passages of description. These,
however, are often curiously out of place in a work
of the kind. Sainte-Beuve, who spoke of the
Génie as a coup de théatre et d’autel, declared that
many of them would have been more warrantabl
included in a Génie du Paganisme. But the book
appeared when there was a widespread reaction
against scepticism, and its eloquent pleadings
were favourable to the conciliatory policy which
Napoleon had adopted in regard to the nope
Its success in consequence was enormous. Its
author was in 1803 appointed secretary to the
embassy at Rome, where he wrote his Lettres sur
UTtalie, and in 1804 was sent as ambassador to
the little republic of Valais. But on the murder
of the Due d’Enghien, Chateaubriand refused to
hold office under Napoleon. He set out to the
East in 1806, visited Greece, Palestine, and Egypt,
and returned to France in 1807. Two years later
he issued Les Martyrs, a prose epic, of which the
action passes in the days of Diocletian. There is
much that is false, much that is extravagant in
this singular book, and the borrowed epical machin-
ery works clumsily throughout. But there is
genuine passion in the A bas of Velleda; and in
calling up a vision of the beauty of the ancient
world the writer exhibits an almost unsurpassable
mastery of ornate prose. In 1814 Chateaubriand
published a pamphlet, De Bonaparte et des Bourbons,
which Louis XVIII. declared to be worth an army
to the Legitimist cause. From 1814 to 1824 he
gave a thorough-going support to the Restoration
monarchy. He was made a peer and a minister
of state, and from 1822 to 1824 held the post of
ambassador extraordinary at the British court. It
was his ambition to become the guiding power in
French politics; he believed that it lay in him
to reconcile Legitimism and liberty. He was
disappointed, however, in his hope of becomin
prime-minister, and from 1824 to 1830 he figure
as a Liberal politician. On the downfall of Charles
X. he refused to swear allegiance to Louis-Philippe,
and went back to the Royalist party. His changes
of front were not due to mere selfish ambition. A
Breton noble, he was by his birth and associations
a Royalist ; his writings prove that he was deeply
imbued with the anti-social sentimentalism of
Rousseau (he claimed Byron as his pupil) ; he had
almost no logical faculty, and he was by tempera-
ment imperious and rebellious. ‘In natural dis-
saps? he wrote in 1831, ‘I am still a Republican.’
is politics were thus a tissue of inconsistencies,
but to regard him as a mere time-server is to
misunderstand his character. During the reign
of Louis-Philippe he withdrew from public affairs,
and occupied himself in preparing his Mémoires

d’outre Tombe for posthumous publication. Parts
of this eloquent autobiography appeared, however,
before his death, which occurred on July 4, 1848.
Besides those mentioned above, his writings inelude
the Itinéraire de Paris a Jérusalem ; Les Natchez,
a prose epic dealing with savage life in North
America; and two works of fiction, René and Le

‘ Dernier des A bencérages.

Chateaubriand is a writer whom it is difficult
to criticise justly. He was not a thinker, and he

produced no book which has the unity and sustained —

excellence of an enduring work of art. He dealt in
false sentiment and extravagant imagery ; he was
blind to the virtues of simplicity and restraint.
Sainte-Beuve said he transferred the capital of prose
from Rome to Byzantium and introduced the style
of the lower empire. But when he is at his best his
brilliant and glowing diction acts on the reader like
an enchantment. His writings revealed new capa-
bilities in the French language. There is no
French author of earlier date whose prose can
compare with Chateaubriand’s in the power of
conveying the beauty and mystery of nature. His
style, with its magical play of colour, its cunning
felicity of descriptive phrase, was a new thing in
French literature. It fascinated readers accus-
tomed to the cold and polished prose of the
classical school, and marked the beginning of a
new literary epoch. Chateaubriand has been justly
called the father of the romantic school, and the
beauty and grandeur of his finest descriptive pass-
ages have been surpassed by none of his followers.
See Sainte-Beuve’s Chateaubriand et son Groupe
Littéraire (2 vols. 1877).

Chateaubriant, a town in the French depart-
ment of Lower Loire, on the Chére, 40 miles NNE.
of Nantes by rail, with several old churches and a
castle, iron-founding and bell-casting, and produe-
tive iron-mines close by. Pop. 5450.

Chateaudun, a pretty town in the French
department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Loir, a tribu-
tary of the Loire, 83 miles SW. of Paris by rail.
It was almost destroyed by fire in 1723, and on
18th October 1870 was captured by the Germans
after an obstinate resistance. Dunois is buried
in the chapel of the stately castle. Pop. 6709.

Chateau Gaillard. See ANDELYs.

ChaAteau-Gontier, a town in the French de-
Ree. of Mayenne, on the Mayenne, 180 miles

SW. of Paris by rail. It has linen and woollen
manufactures. Pop. 7334.

Chateau Margaux. See MArcavx.

Chateauroux, the capital of the French de-

artment of Indre, on the left bank of the river
ndre, 88 miles 8. of Orleans by rail. It has manu-
factures of woollens, iron, leather, and tobacco.
General Bertrand was born and died here, and a
statue was erected to him in 1854. Pop. (1872)
16,858 ; (1886) 21,995 ; (1891) 20,503,

ChAteau-Thierry, a town in the French de-

parisnss of Aisne, 59 miles E. by N. of Paris
y rail, with manufactures of mathematical and
musical instruments, dye-works, and quarries.
It has the ruins of an old castle (720), and is
the birthplace of Lafontaine ; here, too, Napoleon
defeated the Prussians and Russians, 12th Feb-
ruary 1814. Pop. 6405

Chatelaine, the wife of the chatelain or Cas-
tellan (q.v.), the commander of a feudal castle. A
chaine chdtelaine or simply chdtelaine, a chain such
as a lady chatelaine might wear (cf. the English
housewife), is a chain depending from the waist, to
which are attached keys, scissors, &c.

Chatelard. See CHASTELARD.

ChAtelet-Lomont, GABRIELLE EmMILiz, Mar-
QUISE DU, a very learned Frenchwoman, notorious

CHATELLERAULT

CHATHAM 133

_ for her intimacy with Voltaire, was born at Paris,
17th December 1706. At an early period she dis-
be a great aptitude for the acquisition of

knowledge. She studied Latin and Italian with

her father the Baron de Breteuil, and subsequently
betook herself with zeal to mathematics and

_ the physical sciences. Distinguished alike for her
beauty and talent, she soon found a host of suitors

‘for her hand. Her choice fell on the Marquis du

ChAtelet-Lomont, but her sya did not hinder
her from forming, in 1733, a tendresse for Voltaire,
who came to reside with her at Cirey, a chAiteau on
the borders of ee and Lorraine, belonging
to her husband. ere they studied, loved, quar-
relled, and loved again, for several years. In 1747,
however, she became ‘not insensible to the brilliant
qualities ’ of a certain M. Saint-Lambert, a captain
of the Lorraine Guards; and the result was, that

_ the philosopher had to make room for the soldier,

and content himself for the future with being

the ‘devoted and indulgent friend’ of his former
mistress. She died at Lunéville, 10th Septem-

ber 1749, a few days after having given birth
to a child. Her first writing was Institutions
de Physi (1740), a treatise on the philosophy

of Leibnitz. She also translated the Principia of
Newton into French, accompanying it with alge-
braic elucidations. It did not, however, appear
till 1756. See VoLTarreE, and the Life of the
Marquise by Capefigue (1868).

Chatellerault, a town in the French depart-
ment of Vienne, on the river Vienne, 40 miles S. of
Tours by rail. A handsome stone bridge, with a
gateway built by Sully at one end, connects it with
a suburb on the other side of the river. It is a
smoky, dingy place, one of the chief seats of the
cutlery manufacture in France, and since 1820 has
had a government small-arms factory. Its river-
port makes it the entrepdt for the produce of an
extensive district. The title of Duke of Chatel-
lerault was conferred by Henry II. in 1548 on
James Hamilton, Earl of Arran and Regent of
Scotland; and it now is claimed b
Duke of Abercorn and the Duke of Hamilton—
by the latter under an imperial decree (1864) of

apoleon III. Pop. (1872) 13,360; (1891) 18,112.

Chatham (Ang.-Sax. Ceteham), a parliament-

, and, since 1891, municipal borough, river-port,
fortified town, and naval arsenal, in the county of
Kent, situated on the right bank of the Medway,
at the upper part of its estuary, 30 miles ESE.
of London. It forms almost one continuous town
with Rochester (q.v.) on the west, but itself has
few objects of interest, being much of it ill built
and irregular, although great improvements have
been effected in recent years. The High Street is
1} mile long, parallel to the river. Chatham owes
its importance to its naval and military establish-
ments, situated at Brompton, a suburb on high

und overlooking the Medway. There is also a

convict establishment. The Chatham forti-
fied lines are the uent scenes of sham-fights and
reviews. Pop. (1851) 28,424; (1871) 45,792; (1891)
59,389, of whom 31,711 were in the municipal
borough. The borough sends one member to par-
liament. Traces of Roman villas have been found,
with Roman _ bricks, tiles, coins, and weapons.
The dockyard was founded by Elizabeth before
the threatened invasion of the Spanish Armada.
In 1662 it was removed to its present site. In
1667 the Dutch, under De Ruyter, sailed up the
Medway, and, in spite-of the fire from the castle,
destroyed much shipping and stores.

Ina russes point of view, the lines of detached
forts connected with Chatham constitute a fortifica-
tion of great strength ; and the whole is regarded
as a flank defence for London in the event of an

both the |

—

invader seeking to march on the capital from the
south coast. In 1888 an additional chain of forts
was being built by convict labour over a wider area.
The place is also defended by some strong forts on
the Medway. In and near Chatham are Fort Pitt,
a military hospital and strong fort; Melville
Hospital, for marines and sailors; barracks for in-
fantry, marines, artillery, and engineers ; a park of
artillery ; and magazines, storehouses, and dep6ts
on a large scale.

Chatham is one of the principal royal ship-
building establishments in the kingdom, and 2
visit to it never fails to impress the stranger with a
sense of the naval power of England. The dock-
yard is nearly two miles in length, containing
several building-slips, and wet-docks sufficientl
capacious for the largest ships; and the whole is
traversed in every direction by tramways for loco-
motives, with a gauge of 18 inches. Three t
wet-docks on reclaimed marsh land were completed
in 1883 after the labour of 17 years, and ata total
cost of about £3,000,000 (including cost of site; as
also convict labour valued at £400,000). The re-
claimed land extended to 400 acres; and the aggre-
gate water area of the three new wet-docks is 67
acres. A duplicate of Brunel’s block-making
machinery is kept at Chatham to supplement that
at Portsmouth. In the navy estimates provision
is made for about 5000 artisans and labourers. A
statue of Lieutenant Waghorn, the pioneer of the
‘overland route’ to India, was erected near the
railway station in 1888; but Chatham’s most
cherished memories are of Dickens and Gordon : of
the latter there is a statue, mounted on a camel,
by Onslow Ford (1890). Lord Rosebery opened a
new town-hall, English Renaissance in style, 23d
January 1900.

Chatham, (1) atown of Ontario, on the Thames,
67 miles SW. of London by rail, with a number of
mills and foundries, soap and candle works, and an
active trade in grain, pork, and wood. Pop. 9052.
—(2) A port of entry in the north of New Bruns-
wick, on the Miramichi, 6 miles NE. of Newcastle,
with a harbour, ship-yards, foundries, a
Catholic cathedral, and a college. Pop. 5000.

Chatham, WILLIAM Pitt, EARL oF, some-
times styled PIrT THE ELDER, one of the greatest
English orators and statesmen of the 18th century,
was the younger son of a country “Age raps. Robert
Pitt of Boconnoc, in Cornwall, and was born
November 15, 1708. After an education at Eton
and Oxford, he travelled on the Continent, and on
his return obtained a cornetcy in the Blues. In
1735 he entered parliament for Old Sarum—that
synonym for electoral corruption—a borough then
belonging to his family. He espoused the side of
Frederick, Prince of Wales, then at deadly feud with
the king, and offered as the leader of a number of
young discontented Whigs known as the ‘ Patriots’
a determined opposition to Walpole, who was at the
head of affairs. He was deprived of his commission
in consequence—an insult and injury which only
increased the vehemence of his denunciations of the
court and the government. His influence, both

.in and out of the House of Commons, increased

rapidly ; and Walpole being driven from power in
1742, dive king, envethatanting his hatred of Pitt,
found it necessary, four years later, to allow of his
admission to a subordinate place in the Broad
Bottom administration ; subsequently he was ap-

inted to the lucrative office of paymaster-general.
The Duchess of Marlborough, pleased with his
patriotism and powers of oratory, left him £10,000 ;
and later, Sir William Pynsent, struck with similar
admiration, left him his whole nb ol amounting
to some £3000 a year, and including what became
the family place of the Pitts in Somersetshire. In

te
ev

pe ee

134 CHATHAM

CHATSWORTH

1755, when Henry Fox (afterwards Lord Holland)
was made secretary of state, finding himself opposed
to the foreign policy of the new minister, Pitt
resigned office as paymaster. In the following
year, when the king, unwillingly acceding to
popular demands, had to dismiss Fox, Pitt became
nominally secretary of state, but was virtually
premier. He immediately began to put into exe-
cution his own plan of carrying on the war with
France, and inaugurating a brilliantly successful
foreign policy. He raised the militia and strength-
ened the naval power; but the king’s old enmit,
and German predilections led him to oppose Pitt’s
policy, who thereupon resigned office in April 1757,
ut was recalled in June, in obedience to the loud
demands of the people.

Now firmly established in power, Pitt’s war
policy was characterised by unusual: vigour and
sagacity. Success returned to the British arms.
French armies were beaten everywhere by Britain
and her allies—in India, in Africa, in Canada, on
the Rhine—and British fleets drove the few French
ships they did not capture or destroy from almost
every sea. But the prime mover of all these bril-
liant victories found himself compelled to resign
(1761), when, on the accession of eae III., and
owing to the influence of Lord Bute, an attempt
was made to introduce a vacillating policy into
the government ; his immediate cause of resignation
being the refusal of the majority of the cabinet to
declare war with Spain, which Pitt, foreseeing as
imminent, wished to commence before the Spaniards
were thoroughly prepared. As some recompense
for his important services Pitt received a pension of
£3000 a year; and his wife, sister of George Gren-
ville, was created Baroness Chatham. Until 1766
Pitt remained out of office, not offering a factious
Opp een to seen but employing all his
eloquence to defeat some of its most obnoxious
measures. In that year he received the royal com-
mands toform a ministry. He undertook the task,
choosing for himself—to the astonishment of the
public, and the sacrifice, to a considerable extent,
of his popularity—the almost sinecure office of
Privy Seal, with a seat in the House of Lords as
Viscount Pitt and Earl of Chatham. Ill-health
prevented Chatham from taking any active part in
this ministry, of which he was nominally the head,
and which was weak and embarrassed throughout,
and he resigned in 1768, to hold office no more.
He did not, however, cease to take an interest in
public affairs. He spoke strongly against the
arbitrary and harsh policy of government towards
the American colonies, and warmly urged an
amicable settlement of the differences. But when,
America having entered into treaty with France,
it was proposed by the Duke of Richmond to re-
move the ministers, and make peace on any terms,
ill though he was, Chatham came down to the
House of Lords. In a powerful address he pro-
tested against the implied prostration of Britain
before the throne of the Bourbons, and declared
that war, with whatever issue, would be prefer-
able to the proposed terms of peace. This
address a a majority against the motion,
and the war was continued. But it was the
orator’s last effort; for, exhausted by speaking,
on rising again to reply to a query addressed
to him by the Duke of Richmond, an physical
powers suddenly failed, he fell back into the
arms of his friends, and was carried by his second
son, William, less than five years later him-
self prime-minister, from the House. He died
May 11, 1778. He was honoured with a public
funeral in Westminster Abbey, where a statue was
also erected to his memory at the public expense ;
and in addition, government voted £20,000 to pay
his debts, and conferred a pension of £4000 a year

on his descendants. Chatham’s personal appear-
ance was dignified and imposing, and combined

with a voice of the most magnificent compass, —

added greatly to the attractions of his oratory,
which was of the most powerful kind. It is said
that even his whispers were, when he pleased, dis-
tinctly heard outside the House in the lobby. His
upright and irreproachable character demanded the
admiration of his enemies; but his affectedness
and haughtiness not unfrequently disgusted his
friends, and pride rather than principle seems to
have stint his course at some important con-
junctures of his life. He had, however, an intense
lows of country; the grand object of his ambition
being to make his native land safe against all
contingencies, and powerful among nations. See
his Life by F. Thackeray (2 vols. 1827), and his
Correspondence (4 vols. 1838-40).

Chatham Islands, a small group in the
Pacific, lying 360 miles E. of New Zealand, to
which they politically belong. They are the anti-

odes of Toulouse in France. There are three
islands—of which the largest, Chatham Island, is
25 miles long—and some rocky islets. Total area,
375 sq. m. ; ae dprin? (1891) 459, of whom 148
are Maoris, and 40 Morioris or aborigines. The
Chatham Islands were discovered in 1791 by Lieu-
tenant Broughton, of the brig Chatham. x large
brackish lake occupies the interior of Chatham
Island, which is of voleanic origin and hilly. Stock-
rearing and seal-fishing are the chief industries, the
islanders having no fewer than 65,000 sheep and
about 500 cattle, with which they supply passing
whalers. Timber of any size is unknown, so that
the native canoe is merely wicker-work bound
together by cordage of indigenous flax. The Morioris
numbered 1200 in 1831, when 800 Maoris were
landed from New Zealand, by whom the former
were reduced to 90 in nine years’ time.

Chati, a small leopard-like cat, smaller than an
ocelot, found in South America.

Chatillon, a town in the French department of
Céte d’Or, on the Seine, 49 miles NNW. of Dijon.
A congress of allied sovereigns was held here in
1814, from February 5 to ets 19, and opened
fruitless ce palo with Napoleon respecting
conditions of peace. Pop. 5120.

Chat Moss, a bog in Lancashire, the largest
in England, 7 miles W. of Manchester, and 10 sq.
m. in extent. It is celebrated as having in 1793-
1800 been the scene of the first great and success-
ful efforts for the reclaiming of bogs, largely
through the instrumentality of Roscoe the his-
torian, and in 1829 of one of George Stephenson’s
great engineering triumphs in the construction of
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. It is
very slightly elevated above the sea, and from
20 to 30 feet in depth. Stephenson laid branches
of trees and hedge-cuttings, and in the softest
places rude hurdles interwoven with heather, on
the natural surface of the ground, containing inter-
twined roots of heather and long grass; a thin
layer of gravel was then spread above all, and on it
the sleepers, chairs, and rails were laid in the usual
manner. Drains were at the same time cut on
both sides of the line, and in the central part of the
moss a conduit was formed beneath the line of
railway of old tar-barrels placed end to end. Not-
withstanding difficulties which every one but him-
self deemed insuperable, Stephenson constructed
the portion of the line through Chat Moss at a
caller expense than any other part of the railway.

Chatrian. See ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN.

Chatsworth, the magnificent seat of the Duke
of Devonshire, one of the most splendid private
mansions in England, is situated in Derbyshire, on
the Derwent, 25 miles N. by W. of Derby. The

CHATTAHOOCHEE

CHATTERTON 135

_ domain was purchased by Sir William Cavendish,
who in 1553 the old mansion, which, after
oy death in 1557, was completed by his widow,
_ * Bess of Hardwick,’ afterwards Countess of Shrews-
‘bury. Here Mary, Queen of Scots, was five times
_ imprisoned during 1573-81. The present edifice in-
_ eludes the old Palladian pile built in 1687-1706 by
: first Duke of Devonshire, and the north win
-,sadded in 1820. The facade is 720 feet long, or wit
_ the terraces, 1200 feet. The building is nearly a
square, with an inner quadrangle. atsworth is
famed for its library, and for its pictures and seulp-
tures by Holbein, Titian, Teniers, Murillo, Rey-
nolds, Daadsoer: Canova, Thorwaldsen, pearing 6
_ &e. The gardens and park, 10 miles in circuit, offer
- an exquisite variety of hill and dale. They were
laid out by Loudon and Paxton, and are celebrated
for their trees, shrubs, rockwork, deer, and water-
_ ‘works—only surpassed by those at Versailles. The
_ tonservatory, unrivalled in Europe, covers nearly
‘an acre, measures 300 by 145 feet, is 65 feet high,
.and has 70,000 square feet of glass, with a carriage-
road through it. Hobbes, the philosopher, lived
much at Chatsworth. See CAVENDISH.

Chattahoo’chee, a headstream of the Appa-
lachicola (q.v.).

Chattanooga, capital of Hamilton county,
‘Tennessee, a shipping centre on the Tennessee
River, 151 miles a of Nashville, with good rail-
way connections. The town has cotton and other
manufactories, ironworks, tanneries, and sawmills.
‘There was much fighting near here during the civil
war. Pop. (1870) 6093 ; (1880) 12,892 ; (1890) 29,100.

Chattel (Old Fr. chatel, from Low Lat. capitale,
meaning the capital or principal sum in a loan;
hence goods in general, especially cattle, as dis-
tinguished from land), in the law of England, is a
‘term used to designate any kind of property which,
with reference either to the nature of the subject
or the character of the interest possessed in it, is
not freehold. Ownership in personal or movable
property is generally, absolute. Any estate or
interest in lands and tenements not amounting to
freehold is a chattel. But as, between property
‘thus ‘savouring of realty’ and mere personal
movables—money, plate, cattle, and the like—
there was a manifest distinction, chattels were,
consequently, distinguished into chattels-real and
chattels-personal. These classes of property differ
considerably as to the method of holding and trans-
ferring them and their devolution on death. For
treatment of real and personal property, see REAL.

Chatterer, a significant a ber name, often
pyrlind to the birds of a smal amily (Ampelidee )
ot finch-like Perching birds (Insessores). The short
broad beak with only a hint of a hook, the soft

lumage, and tolerably long wings are character-
istics of the family. Only about nine species, of
small size, are known, and confined to the warmer
rts of the nearctic and palearctic regions. The
hemian Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus), living in
the north of Europe, Asia, and America, but com-
ing south in winter, sometimes in vast numbers,
-and the Cedar Bird of America are the best-known
examples. See WAXWING.

Chatterton, THomas, was born at Bristol,
‘20th November 1752. His father, a sub-chanter in
‘the cathedral, and master of a charity school, was
a roystering fellow, yet a lover of poole and coins,
a dabbler in magic; he had died in the August
before the poet was born. The mother, a poor
schoolmistress and needlewoman, brought up her
boy and his sister beneath the shadow of St
Redcliffe, that glorious church where their fore-
fathers had been sextons since the days of Eliza-
beth. He seemed a dull, dreamy child till his
seventh year; then he ‘fell in love’ with an old

illuminated music folio, and, quickly learning to
read from a black-letter Bible, began to devour
every book that fell in his way. He was a scholar
of Colston’s bluecoat hospital from 1760 till 1767,
and then he was bound apprentice to Lambert, an
attorney. In December 1762 he wrote his first
m, On the Last Epiphany; in the summer of
1764, the first of his udo-antiques, Elinour and
Juga, which im on the junior usher of his
school, and which he prof to have got from
Canynge’s Coffer in the muniment room of St
Mary’s. Next, early in 1767, for one Burgum, a
wterer, he concocted a pedigree of the De Berg-
am family (this brought him five shillings); and
in 1768 he hoaxed the whole city with a deserip-
tion, ‘from an old manuscript,’ of the opening of
Bristol Bridge in 1248.

His life at Lambert’s was a sordid one; he slept
with the footboy, and took his meals in the kitchen.
Yet, his duties over—and he discharged them
well—he had ample leisure for his darling studies,
poetry, history, heraldry, music, antiquities. An
attempt to draw Dodsley had failed, when, in
March 1769, he sent Horace Walpole a ‘ eyes #2 ‘
of The Ryse of Peyncteynge, written by T. Rowlie,
1469, for Mastre Canynge. Walpole, quite taken
in, wrote at once to his unknown correspondent,
expressing a thousand thanks for the manuscript,
deploring his ignorance of the ‘Saxon language,’
sas half offering to*usher the Rowley poems to the
world. Back came a fresh batch of manuscript,
and with it a sketch of Chatterton’s own history.
The poems, however, being shown to Mason and
Gray, were pronounced by them to be forgeries ;
and Walpole’s next letter was a letter of advice,
to stick to his calling, that so, ‘when he should
have made a fortune, he might unbend himself
with the studies consonant to his inclinations.’ A
curt request for the return of the MSS. lay six weeks
unanswered during Walpole’s absence in Paris. A
second, still curter ; and, ‘snapping up pone and
letters,’ Walpole ‘returned th to him, and
thought no more of him or them ’—until, two years
after, Goldsmith told him of Chatterton’s death.

Was it jest or grim earnest, a boyish freak or a
suicide’s farewell, that ‘ Last Will and Testament
of Thomas Chatterton . . . executed in the pres-
ence of Omniscience this 14th of April 1770?’
Anyhow, falling into his master’s hands, it pro-
cured the hasty cancelling of his indentures ; and
ten gay later the boy quitted Bristol for London.
There he arrived with his poems, and V cate five
So ae in his pocket, and lodged first at one

almsley’s, a plasterer, in Shoreditch ; next, from
the middle of June, at Brooke Street, Holborn.
Abstemious, sleepless, he fell to work as with a
hundred hands, pouring forth satires, squibs,
stories, political essays, burlettas, epistles in
Junius’ style (for ‘Wilkes and liberty’), and the
matchless Balade of Charitie. For a while his
pore seemed golden. The publishers spoke

im fair; he obtained an interview with the Lord
Mayor Beckford ; in the first two months he earned
eleven guineas (at the rate of from a farthing to
twopence a line) ; and he sent home glowing letters,
with a box of presents for his mother and sister.
Then Beckford died; the ‘patriotic’ publishers
took fright ; the dead season set in ; he had over-
stocked the market with unpaid wares; a last
desperate application failed for the post of surgeon
to a Bristol ainver. He was penniless, starving, yet
too proud to accept the meal his gna | offered
him, when, on 24th August 1770, he locked himself
into his garret, tore up his papers, and was found
the next morning dead—poisoned with arsenic.
They buried him in the paupers’ pit of the Shoe
Lane Workhouse, a site usurped fifty-six years
later by Farringdon Market.

136 CHATTERTON

CHAUCER

For eighty years the pe Rey, controversy was
waged with no less bitterness than ignorance, the
Rowleyans including Jacob Bryant (1781), Dean
Milles (1782), and Dr S. R. Maitland (1857); the
anti-Rowleyans, Tyrwhitt (1777-82) and Warton
(1778-82). The subject was once and for ever
laid to rest by Professor Skeat in his edition of
Chatterton’s Poetical Works (2 vols. 1875). Vol. i.
contains Chatterton’s acknowledged poems, 78 in
number ; vol. ii. the 43 Rowley poems, with an
essay thereon by the editor. Almost unconsciously
the laced professor establishes Chatterton’s won-
drous originality. Theft from an unknown poet ?—
there is not ‘ the slightest indication that Chatter-
ton had ever seen a MS. of early date.’ Indebted-
ness to Chaucer ?—he had ‘read very little of this
excellent author. . . . If he had really taken pains
to read and study Chaucer, or Lydgate, or any old
author earlier than the age of Spenser, the Rowley
Poems would have been very different. They
would then have borne some resemblance to the
yanenage of the 15th century, whereas they are
rather less like the literature of that period than of
any other. . . . The metres are mostly wrong, the
rimes are sometimes faulty; the words [taken
mostly from Kersey’s Dictionary, and 93 per cent.
of them misused] are wrongly coined, or have the
wrong number of syllables; and the phrases often
involve anachronisms, or, occasionally, plagiarisms.’
These last from such recent poets as Dryden and
Gray—from the former of whom he boldly stole the
line, ‘And tears began to flow ;’ from the latter
adapted the conception, ‘closed his eyes in endless
(everlasting) night.’

‘ An owl mangling a poor dead nightingale,’ said
Coleridge of Dean Milles ; the words apply to many
more critics of Chatterton. There are those among
them whose patronising praise and commonplace
censure enable us to Fou how Chatterton was
worsted in life’s battle, why he blew up the ship
sooner than strike his colours. Others there are—
Coleridge, Wordsworth, Shelley, Rossetti— whose
ever tributes attest the boy-poet’s divinity.

o man can tell what Chatterton might have done ;
what he did do is patent to every one. Had Shake-
speare died, or Milton, in his eighteenth year, or
even Keats, the world had never heard of their
existence. But he, a lad, with chances infinitely
less than theirs, had written his name by then so
high in Fame’s temple, that purblind pilgrims must
accept his achievement on hearsay. If he had dived
to be famous, the fraud of the ‘ poet-priest Rowley’
would not, belike, have been more hardly blamed
than that of ‘Jedediah Cleishbotham.’ As it is,
the conscientious critics have found it less difficult
to dilate on Chatterton’s pride and scepticism, his
vices and deceit, nay, on the meteorology of 1770,
than to master the difficult Rowleyan dialect, and
to gauge the genius of this nursling of medievalism,
this harbinger of the Renascence of Wonder, to use
Mr T. Watts-Dunton’s definition of the neo-Roman-
tic movement. For him it was reserved to point
out Chatterton’s metrical inventiveness, and his ‘un-
deniable influence, both as to spirit and as to form,
upon the revival in the 19th century of the romantic
temper—that temper, without which English
poetry can scarcely perhaps hold a place at all when
challenged in a court of universal criticism. .. .
As a youthful poet showing that power of artistic
self-elfacement which is generally found to be in-
compatible with the eager energies of poetic youth
—as a producer, that is to say, of work purely
artistic and in its highest reaches unadulterated b
lyric egotism—the author of the Rowley Poems (if
we leave out of consideration the acknowledged
poems), however inferior to Keats in point of
sheer beauty, stands alongside him in our litera-
ture, and stands with him alone.’

ee Mr Watts-Dunton’s essay in vol. iii. of Ward’s:
Enolish Poets (1880) ; Sir Herbert Croft’s Love and Mad-
ness (1780); and Lives of Chatterton by Dix (1837), Sir
D. Wilson (1869), and Prof. Masson (1874; new ed. 1900),

Chaucer, GEOFFREY. The date 1328 for
Chaucer’s birth is now justly rejected as having no-
authority and being quite incompatible with some
ascertained facts of his later life. There can be little
doubt he was born in or about 1340. He was the,
son of John Chaucer by his second wife Agnes, of
unknown surname, a niece of one Hamo de Content
(His first wife, Joan de Esthalle, was certainly
living as late as 1331.) This John Chaucer was
son of Robert Chaucer, of Ipswich and London, so
that the poet’s family can be traced to the eastern
counties. John Chaucer was a vintner and a tavern-
keeper, and may perhaps be identified with the
John Chaucer who was deputy to the king’s butler’
in the port of Southampton in 1348, and ‘seems.
afterwards to have held the same situation in the
port of London.’ John’s house was in Thames.
Street by Walbrook, at or near the foot of Dow-
gate Hill; and there we may well suppose the
future poet was born.

Of his boyhood we know nothing. There were

ood’ schools in London then as now—e.g. Paul’s.
Cathedral School and Anthony’s, and Chaucer
probably was sent to one of them. Ata later period
the variety and the minuteness of his knowledge
are remarkable, and we know that he was an assid-
uous student. Likely enough his studious habits.
were more or less formed and the basis of his know-
ledge laid in his early days. It is possible he ma
have gone to Oxford or to Cambridge, but there is.
no evidence of value on this point. In his works.
he shows some acquaintance with both universities ;.
but this may have been picked up incidentally.
What is certain is that in 13857 and 1358 he was a.
page in the service of Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster,
wife of Lionel, Duke of Clarence. From that ser-
vice he would seem to have been presently trans-
ferred to the king’s household. In 1359 he first.
‘bore arms.’ He served in the campaign in France
in that year—a ee, famous for the bitter
sufferings which the English army had to endure.
Chaucer was taken prisoner at Retiers in Brittany,
but was presently ransomed, the king contributing:
£16 towards the required amount.

And now we lose sight of Chaucer for some eight.
years. His father died in 1366, and his mother soon
after married one Bartholomew Attechapel; but.
of Geoftrey no mention has yet been found till 1367,
when the king grants him a pension for life, ‘ or
until we shall think it right to make some other
order to suit his condition.’ He is described as.
‘dilectus valettus noster’ (‘our beloved yeoman’),
and in an Issue Roll as ‘unus valettorum cameree
regis’ (‘one of the yeomen of the king’s chamber’). ~
It seems fairly certain that by this time Chaucer
was married. In 1366 one Philippa Chaucer
ae amongst the ladies of the queen’s bed-
chamber, and there is no good reason for doubting’
that this was the poet’s wife. Her maiden name
was in all probability Roet. It is commonly sup-

osed that she was the daughter of Sir Payne

oet of Hainault and king-at-arms of Guienne, and
so the sister of Katherine who married Sir Hugh.
Swinford, and afterwards became the mistress and
eventually the wife of John of Gaunt. After the
queen’s death in 1369 she passed into the house-
hold in which her sister was such an important.
figure, and very likely remained there till her death
in 1387. She gave birth, it would seem about 1362:
or 1363, to Thomas, a noticeable personage in the
House of Commons in the following century ; prob-
ably to Elizabeth (circa 1365), for whose novitiate
at the Abbey of Barking John of Gaunt paid some:
£50 in 1381, and to Lewis, born in the same year im

>

CHAUCER

137

which his sister was admitted at Barking, for whom
his father wrote some ten years later a treatise on
the Astrolabe. But the whole matter of Chaucer's
_ married life is involved in much obscurity. It is in
evidence that when he was certainly married he

of himself several times as one unblessed
with love’s favour; nor can these expressions be
explained away as being dramatic and not auto-
biographical. ‘The picture he draws of himself in
the House of Fame, a poem undoubtedly written
after his marriage, is assuredly that of a forlorn
bachelor. On the whole, we believe him to have
married about 1360, and that for some reason or
other not at present discovered, if ever to be, his
married life was disturbed and unhappy.

In the year 1369 Chaucer comes certainly before
us as a poet, with his Death of Blanche the hess.
This is not probably his first writing; but it is
highly important, because the date of it is exactly
fixed aia eubject. It laments the death of the
Lady Blanche, the first wife of John of Gaunt, which
took place in September 1369. It is in many ways
a crude composition, and a sufficient proof that
Chaucer’s art was, like that of many of the greatest
masters, not precocious but of slow growth. But
even so it illustrates his great gift of style, and
gives satisfactory promise of his future excellence.

The following years of Chaucer’s life exhibit him
to us both as a much-employed man of business
and as a rapidly developing man of letters. In
1370 he went abroad on the king’s service; in
1372-73 on a royal mission to Italy—to Genoa, Pisa,
Florence ; in 1376, abroad, it is not known where ;
in 1377, to Flanders and to France; in 1378, to
Italy again. Thus he seems to have been highly
valued as a commissioner and a diplomatist. Mean-
while in 1374 he was appointed Comptroller of the
Customs and Subsidy of Wools, Skins, and Tanned
Hides in the port of London; in 1382, Comptroller
of the Petty Customs ; and in 1385 he was allowed
to nominate a permanent deputy—a most important
concession, as by the terms of his appointment he
was, like his predecessors, to write the rolls of his
office with his own hand and to be continually
ange Nor were other marks of royal and of

ucal favour wanting. In 1374, on St George’s
ang, ibe ae granted him a pitcher of wine daily,
to be received in the port of London from the hands
of the king’s butler. In the same year John of
Gaunt conferred on him tal fires of £10 for life for
good service rende by him and his wife
heen ge to the duke, to his consort (the duke’s
second wife, Constance, daughter of Peter the
Cruel, married in 1371), and to his mother the
queen. In 1375 he received from the crown the
custody of the lands and person of Edmond Staple-
te of Kent, which brought him in £104 ( well over

1000 of our money), and the custody of some pro-
perty at Soles, also in Kent. In 1386 he was elected
a knight of the shire for Kent. These were Chaucer’s
most prosperous years in an income-making sense.

To turn to his literary work during these years
the following writings certainly belong to the period
between 1369 and 1387—i.e. between the composition
of The Book of the Duchess, and that of the Pro-
logue to The Canterbury Tales—and were probably

aye in the order in which they are here named :
The Assembly of Fowls, The House of Fame, Troilus
and Cressida, and The Legend of Good Women;
_ and besides these in unascertained order the Tale
of Griselda (afterwards assigned to one of the
Canterbury pilgrims—the Clerk ), the Tale of Con-
stance (afterwards assigned to the Man of Law), the
md of the Martyred: Christian Boy (afterwards

ned to the Prioress), the Legend of Saint
Cecilia (afterwards assigned to the Second Nun),
and the Story of Palamon and Arcite in its first
shape (afterwards rewritten and assigned to the

Knight). None of these pieces represents the poet's
oa in all its fullness or its maturity ; they ex-

ibit its ual expansion and growth. As we see
Chaucer in these he is not yet completely master of
himself, or wholly satisfied with the instruments at
his command—e.g. with the metrical forms then
current around him. By far the most important
influence acting upon him during this middle period
of his literary life was the influence of Italy ; and
in this respect his going to Genoa in 1372, as
already mentioned, had an importance other than
commercial or political. That was a journey that
made an i in his artistic development. It
introduced him to ey in its noblest medieval
shape, and in one of the noblest shapes it has ever
assumed in any age. Chaucer seems to have felt
deeply the greatness of Dante. He appreciated
worthily the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio; but
to the credit of his judgment, it was Dante that
most profoundly impressed him. The Assembly o
Fowls and The House of Fame \argely reflect this
impression, the latter so closely that Lydgate,
as Professor Skeat points out, speaks of it as
‘Daunt in English.’ Much of his subject-matter
he derived from his great Italian contemporaries,
especially from Boccaccio. Thus the Reeve’s Tale,
the Franklin’s, and the Shipman’s are all’ to be
found in the Decameron ; Troilus and Cressida is to
a considerable extent a translation of Boccaccio’s
Filostrato ; and the story of Palamon and Arcite
is based upon that poet’s Teseide. The tale of
Griselda is taken from a Latin letter of Petrarch’s,
to whom Chaucer acknowledges his obligation
in the Clerk’s Prologue. Oddly enough, he never
mentions Boccaccio. In one passage in Troilus
and Cressida he would seem to denote him by the
name of Lollius; but certainly in another, when
he speaks of ‘mine author called Lollius,’ he de-
notes Petrarch, for he proceeds to give a version
of one of Petrarch’s sonnets. Dante he mentions
by name several times. With both Petrarch and
Boccaccio it is probable that he was personally
acquainted, cio was living at or near Flor-
ence when Chaucer was there in 1372, and Petrarch
near Padua, only some 120 miles away. Certainly
what is said in the Clerk’s Prologue points to an
actual meeting with Petrarch.

However this may be, the influence of the Italian

pole on Chaucer is beyond question. Nor is it to
measured by what he borrowed in the way
It was far

of age or incident or expression.
profounder than such debts might suggest. It
recreated him as an artist, giving him a new
and loftier conception of artistic form and beauty.
This “syste is soon visible in the improve-
ment of his style—in its growing dignity and
shapeliness. It is strikingly indica by his
metrical egrey The old four-accented couplet
seems to him ‘light and lewd ;’ he needs some-
thing weightier and statelier. He does not satisfy
this need by importing the favourite Italian metres.
The sonnet form does not appear in any extant
work of his, though conceivably he may have
attempted it. The terza rima he does seem to
have essayed, as Professor Skeat has been the
first to notice; but he did not take to it, or it
to him. What he did was to imitate not the letter
but the spirit of the Italian masters. And in
the heroic heptastich, and peony in the heroic
couplet, he found metrical forms that satisfied the
highest ideal. The crowning work of the middle
period of his life is certainly 7roilus and Cressida—
a work in which the abundant wealth of his genius
is lavishly displayed. Probably about the year
1384, when his official duties were so considerably
lightened, Chaucer, now a complete master of the

tie craft, began to seek for some great subject.
The first selection he made proved unsatisfactory ;

138 CHAUCER

CHAUMETTE

it was the Legend of Good Women. The Prologue
to this famous fragment is an admirable piece of
writing ; but the theme was soon felt to be weari-
somely monotonous, and was abandoned. His
second choice was happier, as it provided full
scope for his various powers—for his humour and
his dramatic faculty, as well as for his pathos
and more purely poetical gift. This was the Can-
terbury Pilgrimage.

But before that final choice was made, having
been suggested probably by an actual journey to
St Thomas’s shrine, some strange reverses of fortune
had befallen Chaucer. About the close of the year
1386 he was deprived of both his places in the civil
service ; and from this time to very nearly the end
of his life, with slight intermissions, things went
ill with him. The cause of his dismissal is obscure ;
poestbly he was involved in the intrigues that

isturbed and disordered the court in the reign
of King Richard II. ; possibly also there was some
genuine dissatisfaction with the way in which his
official work had been or was being performed. In
1389 he received a new appointment—he was ap-
poenied Clerk of the King’s Works at the palace of
estminster, Tower of London, castle of Berk-
hamstead, the king’s manors of Kennington,
Eltham, Clarendon, Sheen, Byfleet, Langley, and
Feckenham, and elsewhere, in this case, too, being
allowed to nominate a deputy; but his previous
fate seems to have pursued him. Two years after-
wards we find him superseded by one John Gedney.
It was during this term of office that he went
through the odd experience of being robbed twice
in one day. What glimpses we have of him in the
succeeding years show him in perpetual impecuni-
osity and distress. It seems fairly clear that thrift
was not one of his virtues. No sort of provision
seems to have been made against a ‘rainy day ;’ and
now came many rainy days. For some two years
he had to subsist as best he might on John of
Gaunt’s pension of £10, his salary as one of the
foresters of North Petherton Park, Somersetshire,
and whatever wages, if any, were paid him as a
king’s esquire. In 1394 King Richard granted him
a pension of £20 for life; but the advances of pay-
ment he applies for in the following year, and again
and again later on, and other signs, such as the
issue on his behalf of letters of protection from
arrest for debt, sufficiently indicate his unpros-
perous condition. An improvement came with the
accession to the throne of the son of his old friend
and patron John of Gaunt. In October 1399, King
Henry IV. granted him a pension of 40 marks
(£26, 13s. 4d.). This would raise his income to at
least £500 a year of our san i And we may
believe his few remaining months were spent in
comfort. The following Christmas he took a lease
for 53 years, at an annual rent of £2, 13s. 4d.,
of a house situated in the garden of the Lady
Chapel, Westminster, the site now of what is
commonly known as Henry VII.’s Chapel. But
the end was near. Our last trace of him is the
payment of a pension instalment in June 1400,
made not to him personally, but to one Henry
Somers in his behalf. Before the close of the cen-
tury, of which he was in England the supreme
literary glory, he was laid in that part of the abbey
which through his burial there came afterwards to
be called the Poet’s Corner. His tombstone says
he died October 25, 1400; and though the present
tomb dates only from the 16th century, it probably
perpetuates some older inscription.

In spite of all his reverses and troubles, it was
during this last period of his life that Chaucer’s
genius shone brightest.

A merry heart goes all the day;
Your sad tires in a mile-a.

Having formed a design that permitted the full

expression of his abundant and many-sided genius, —

he vigorously pursued it amidst the darkness that
peoisnned him. The design was indeed too huge
for completion ; and no doubt for all his vigour and
buoyancy his troubles interfered with his prone
Moreover he was approaching or had reached what
amidst the unhealthy ways and conditions of medi-
eval life was accounted old age. Hence his work
remains but a fragment; but it is a fragment of
large and splendid dimensions, consisting of parts
that are admirably finished wholes, each one of
which illustrates some special feature of the poet’s
versatile mind and art, and justifies and insures
his fame. His greatest achievement is the Pro-
logue to the Canterbury Tales, which for its variety,
humour, grace, reality, and comprehensiveness is,
as a piece of descriptive writing, unique in English
literature—unique in all literature indeed. It por-
trays for us the society of the later middle ages in
untading colours, and historically as well as artistic-
ally is of inestimable excellence and value. Chaucer
is in order of time the first great poet of the English
race, if the term English may be used as distin-
guished from Anglo-Saxon ; and in order of merit
he is amongst the first of all our poets. It might
indeed be Sopated whether he does not deserve the
piece next to Shakespeare. In the middle ages in
ngland he stands supreme.

See Skeat’s edition of Chaucer’s works (Oxford, 6 vols.
1894-95, vol. vii. the doubtful works), and his one-volume
edition (1895); Pollard’s Canterbury Tales (1894); his
‘Globe’ Edition of Chaucer’s Works (1899); Lounsbury’s
Studies on Chaucer (1892); Tyrwhitt’s Introductory Dis-
course to the Canterbury Tales (1775-78); Nicolas’ Life
of Chaucer in the Aldine Edition ; the magnificent Kelm-
scott Edition (ed. Ellis, folio, 1896); Ten Brink’s Chaucer-
Studien (1870); Child On Chaucer's Language (in Ellis’s
Early English Pronunciation). As to Chaucer’s lan-
guage—the East Midland variety of Middle English—
much will be found in the Clarendon Press volumes of Dr
Morris and of Professor Skeat ; editions of the Prologue
and three of the tales, issued by W. & R. Chambers;
Sweet's Middle English Primers; and in Ten Brink’s
Chaucer's Sprache und Verskunst (1884). Invaluable to
the Chaucer student is Dr Furnivall’s Six-text Print of
the Canterbury Tales, and the other issues of the
Chaucer Society. A Concordance has been prepared
by members of the same society. It must be noted that
many works have been ascribed to Chaucer, and are still
printed in popular editions, that are certainly not his—
e.g. The Court of Love, Chaucer’s Dream, The Complaint
of the Black Knight, The Cuckoo and Nightingale, The
Flower and the Leaf, and in all probability the extant
Romaunt of the Rose.

For criticism of the poetry, see Ward’s Chaucer in the

‘English Men of Letters’ series; Morley’s English Writers _

(vol. iv. in new ed.); Warton’s History of English
Poetry ; and a fine essay by J. R. Lowell in My Study
Windows.
Chaudes-Aigues, a town in the French de-
partment of Cantal, 90 miles S. of Clermont, with
four mineral springs, which vary in temperature
from 135° to 177° They have the property of

discharging grease from sheep’s wool, and vast,

numbers of fleeces are sent hither annually to be
washed. The waters are also useful in rheu-
matism and cutaneous diseases. Pop. 1182.

Chaudfontaine, a Belgian village chee
situated in the valley of the Vesdre, 5 miles SSE.
of Liege by rail, with mineral springs (92° F.). Pop.
1552.

Chaudiére, a river and lake of Canada. The
river joins the St Lawrence from the south 7 miles
above Quebec, and, 24 miles from its mouth, forms
the celebrated falls of Chaudiére. The lake—
merely one of the many expansions of the Ottawa
—has on its right the city of that name, the capital
of the Dominion.

Chaumette, PIERRE GASPARD, one of the

French Revolutionists, was born a shoemaker’s son

a ee ee ee

be

CHAUMONT

CHAZARS 139

Nevers in 1763. He was some years a seaman,
but the opening of the Revolution found him a clerk
at Paris. He attached himself to Camille Des-
moulins, and soon gained such preety by his
extravagant sansculottism that he was appointed
Reoekrator of the commune of Paris. In his zeal he
his own Christian name, Pierre, as havin
been sullied by saintly associations, and styl
‘Anaxagoras.’ The institution of the
tribunal of the Revolution, the decree for a revolu-
B army, and the law @ see suspected
aristocrats, were largely due to his efforts. One
is p rat all Parisians should wear
sabots, another that the Tuileries and Luxembourg
gardens should be planted with potatoes. His
antics in connection with the ‘ worship of reason’
excited the disgust of Robespierre, who devised
measures for bringing the whole company of actors
under Hébert to the scaffold. He was executed
_ April 13, 1794.

Chaumont, a town in the French department
of Haute-Marne, on an elevation (1023 feet above
sea-level) between the rivers Marne and Suize, 140
miles SE. of Paris. There are manufactures of
dla cutlery, ve. In 1814 the allied powers

ere bound themselves by treaty against Napoleon.
Pop. (1872) 8474; (1886) 12,333; (1891) 11,110.

Chauny, 2 town in the French department of
Aisne, 77 miles NNE. of Paris by rail, partly
on the navigable river Oise. It is an old, rather
uninteresting place, with manufactures of glass,
beetroot sugar, gloves, &c. Pop. (1891) 9242.

Chausses, in the armour of the middle ages,
from the 12th to the 16th century, were defence-
pieces for the legs. Some were made of padded
and quilted cloth, with metal studs ; some of chain-
mail; and some of riveted plates. It was not
unusual to fasten them by lacing either below the
knee or behind the leg.” The word is used also
in the general sense of hose, and when armour is
meant in the Norman romances the phrase is
chauces de fer.

Chautauqua, famous as the seat of the Chau-
tauqua Assembly, a summer-resort on Chautauqua
Lake, in a county of the same ) gop.rignt 1989, 1997, and
name near the south-west ex- | 1900 in the U.S. by J.B.
tremity of New York. The As- | PPincott Company,
sembly was founded in 1874 by John H. Vincent,
D.D., and Lewis Miller (1829-99), to provide sys-
tematic instruction for Sunday-school teachers, to-
gether with popular lecture courses in literature,
science, and art. In 1878the Chautauqua Literary
and Scientific Circle was organised. The distinctive
mission of this ‘ circle’ is stated to be ‘ to direct the
reading habits of grown people, both those who
have received the best that the educational institu-
tions can give, and desire to pursue an “after
school” course, and those who for any reason
failed to receive a college education in early life,
but who now desire to secure to themselves the
college student’s general outlook upon the world
and life, and to develop the habit of close con-
nected persistent thinking.’ The system compre-
hends a four years’ course of home reading and
study, to be pursued under the advisory supervision
of the officers of the institution, on the completion
of which diplomas are awarded. Post-graduate
and special courses are also provided for those who
desire to prosecute particular branches of study
beyond the limits laid down in the regular course.
On the tenth anniversary of the Circle’s organisa-
tion, it was stated that about 200,000 persons,
scattered through all parts of the world, belonged
to the association ; most of them are members of
local circles formed in accordance with the general

lan of the scheme for the more efficient prosecu-

on of the studies. Particulars concerning the

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, with
directions for forming local circles in connection
therewith, may be obtained from the secretary of
the institution at Plainfield, New Jersey. ‘The
Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts’ is another
department of the work. A faculty of able pro-
essors gives instruction by correspondence ; rigid
examinations are conducted by the University of
the State of New York, and regular collegiate de-
grees are conferred. The Chautauquan, a magazine
of large circulation, the organ and exponent of ‘The
Chantauqua Idea,’ is published at Meadville, Pa.
See F. t Armstrong’s Chautauqua (1886), and
Vincent’s Chautauqua Movement (1886).

Lake Chautauqua is a beautiful sheet of water
about 20 miles long, with an average breadth of
2 miles, lying about 700 feet above Lake Erie, from
which it is distant 10 miles. The Chautauqua
Assembly Grounds, situated upon the northern
shore of the lake, comprise about 165 acres, con-
taining over 500 attractive summer cottages, a fine
hotel, a museum of archeology, an amphitheatre
with a seating capacity of over 5000, several halls
for meetings, and numerous other appliances for
combining recreation with instruction. Lar,
numbers of students and visitors congregate here in
the summer season. ‘Chautauquas,’ more or less
on the plan of the vas BR, with buildings, lectures,
&c., have been established in various parts of the
United States.

Chauvinisme, a term that has come to mean
an extravagant and absurd patriotism and pride in.
one’s own country, with a corresponding enmity to-
wards and contempt for foreign nations. It is the

French equivalent for the Jingoism of the London
music-halls after Lord Beaconsfield’s return from
the Con of Berlin in 1878. The origin of the

word is due to Chauvin, the name of a figure in the
comedy La Cocarde tricolore (1831), by the brothers
Théodore and Hippolyte Cognard, the action in
which includes the conquest of Algeria. Chauvin
is a young recruit who speaks much, displays great
courage, and sings several couplets with the re-
frain : ‘ J’suis Frangais, j’suis Chauvin, j’tape sur
le Bédouin.’ The authors of the comedy, however,
borrowed the name from that of Nicolas Chauvin,
an old soldier of Napoleon, well known in his time
in Paris for his devoted enthusiasm for the
emperor. Calvin is a Latinised form of the same
family name.

Chaux de Fonds, a town of Switzerland, in
the canton of Neuchatel, 18 miles by rail NW.
of the city of that name. It is situated in a bleak
valley, at an elevation of 3254 feet above the sea,
and is scattered over a large area, almost every
cot being surrounded by a garden. It has for
two centuries been one of the chief seats of the
manufacture of watches in the canton. The
mechanists work chiefly at home, each devoting
himself to a particular portion of machinery. Pop.
(1834) 6500 ; (1880) 22,456; (1893) 27,511.

Chay Root, Cxoya, or Sayan (Oldenlandia
umbellata), a perennial herb of the order Cin-
chonacee, cultivated on the Coromandel coast and
in Java for the sake of its long, bees here yor
roots, the bark of which affords a beautiful red dye.
It is the Indian madder.

Chazars were a people of the Finnie stock
known in the 7th century on the shores of the
prow eral in the 9th century their kingdom occu-
pied the south-east of Russia from the Caspian
and the Volga to the Dnieper. Their capital was
long at Astrakhan, called by them andshar.
They were singularly tolerant of all religions,
Jewish, Christian, and Moslem; and a large
of the nation formally adopted the Jewish faith
from Jews who fled from the persecutions of the

140 CHAZY EPOCH

CHEESE

Emperor Leo. Cyril converted many to Chris-
tianity in the 9th century. The power of the
Chazars was ultimately broken in the 12th century
by the Byzantine emperors and the Russians.

Chazy Epoch, the name given by American
geologists to that division of Silurian time during
which the Chazy limestone of New York, Canada,
&e. was formed.

Cheadle, a market-town in the moorland dis-
trict of Staffordshire, 14 miles NNE. of Stafford.
Lying in a pleasant vale, engirt by wooded hills, it
has a parish church, rebuilt in 1837-38, and a
Roman Catholic Church, erected in 1846 from
designs by Pugin, at a cost of £60,000. Pop. of
parish about 5000.

Cheating. In the technical language of the
English law, cheating means the offence of fraudu-
lently obtaining the property of another by any
deceitful or illegal practice short of felony, ‘ait in
such a way that the public interest may possibly
be affected. In order to constitute cheating, the
fraud must be of such a kind that it could not
be guarded against by common prudence. Cheat-
ing, in this sense, is an offence at common law, and
indictable, which is not the case with imposition in
a private transaction. The law of Scotland has no
such distinction. The following are instances of
cheating : Selling by a false weight or measure
(which is also a statutory offence under the Weights
and Measures Act, 1878); selling unwholesome
bread as if it were wholesome. Cheating seems,
therefore, to be distinguished from obtaining pro-
perty or credit on false pretences by the absence of
any definite false statement. Cheatin is also
technically used in connection with frauds at play
with cards or dice, but is popularly applied to almost
every form of fraud. In Scots law, cheating is
generally prosecuted under the name of falsehood,
raud, and wilful imposition, and has by one
authority been called practical cheating, as distin-
guished from those cases in which a spoken or
written false pretence occurs. See FRAUD, FALSE
PRETENCES.

Checkerberry. See WINTERGREEN.

Checquy, or CHEcky, in Heraldry, a term
applied to a field or charge divided into small
squares by trans-
verse es
lar and horizontal
lines. Cheequy or
and azure is the
coat of Vermandois
in France, and of
Warren, Earl of
Surrey, in Eng-
land. The well-
known coat of the
Scottish family of
Stewart, or, a fess cheecquy azure and argent, is
allusive to the checkers of the Steward’s board, by
which money computations were in old times made.

Cheddar, a village in Somersetshire, on the
south side of the Mendip Hills, 214 miles SSW. of
Bristol by rail. It lies at the entrance of a deep
rocky gorge, nearly 1 mile long, whose stupendous
limestone cliffs contain caverns—one 300 feet long
—filled with fantastic stalactites and stalagmites.
For the famous Cheddar cheese, originally made
here, see CHEESE. Pop. of parish, 1941.

Chedu’ba (or Man-aung), a well-wooded island
of Arakan, in the Bay of Bengal, with an area of
240 sq. m., and a pop. (1881) of 23,867. The soil is
fertile, rice and tobacco being the chief crops; and
petroleum is found in several localities.

Cheese is a highly nutritious food substance
made from milk by elaborate processes which can

Checquy.

Fess Checquy.

only be explained in the light of a knowledge of —
science, chiefly chemistry. Cheeses may be roughl
divided into two great classes—hard and soft.
The various English, Scotch, and American cheeses
belong to the first class, and are made so that they
will generally keep for months, and often continue —
to improve in quality. Soft cheeses are those which
prevail in some parts of the Continent. Many of
them require to be consumed immediately after the
are manufactured. Their rapid decomposition is

associated with a strong and to most people an ob- —

jectionable smell. Cheese is made from the solids
of milk—viz. the casein or chief albuminoid con-
stituent, along with the greater part of the cream or
butter-fat, and much of the mineral ash. In fresh
milk, which is slightly alkaline, these substances
maintain a sort of indescribable union with the
watery portion and the ee ee whole, as
is well known, being liquid. The presence of an
acid, or of Rennet (q.v.), counteracts the natural
affinity of the substances for each other, and the
bulk of the solids separate out, forming a soft jelly
in the early stages, leaving the bulk of the water
containing the sugar as a greenish liquid called
Whey (q.v.). The chemical procgsses involved are
as yet only very imperfectly understood.

Milk in decomposing, as it rapidly does in hot and
sultry weather, becomes sour in virtue of a natural
rocess of fermentation. Rennet induces another
orm of fermentation which does not end when the
product ceases to be milk, but is carried on in the
cheese during the period of its ripening or mellow-
ing. In the early stages of the process of hard
cheese-making, the incipient acidity which induces
that condition in milk termed ‘ripeness,’ aids and
hastens the action of the rennet. As the work pro-
ceeds, and the acidity intensifies, it hardens and
contracts the curd, giving it a leathery character,
thereby aiding in the expulsion of the whey. One
of the most important matters in cheese-making is
to watch the development of acidity both in the
milk and its first product, the curd. If this is
allowed to go too far, the quality of the cheese
is seriously injured, and its keeping power is
reduced. It cracks through becoming too dry
and brittle. The delicate flavouring oils seem
to be expelled, and the smell becomes high and
the taste ‘acrid’ or ‘biting.’ The formation
of the acid is one of the great helps in cheese-
making so long as it is kept in due control. If
the acid develops rapidly, as in hot weather, in a
temperature which suits the germs producing it,
the whole process of manufacture has to be pushed
on quickly, whereas in cold weather acidity comes
slowly, and the operator must wait until it has
come sufficiently. There are several methods
adopted in inducing acidity. Acid used to be
largely added, as sour whey or buttermilk, but
greater uniformity is got by delaying until natural
acidity develops. This it does most quickly when
the temperature of the material is kept up near
to blood-heat. Chilly draughts paralyse the active
organisms producing acidity.

Heat is communicated to milk or to its products
in the early stages of cheese-making by two
methods—either by warming a portion of the milk
or whey (though not allowing it to rise much above
100° F.—say a limit of 150° F.—as to boil it would
do injury by changing its constitution), and
putting it into the main bulk, or by having an
outer shell of wood to the tin or iron cheese-tub,
with a space between into which steam or hot water
can be injected. This arrangement possesses the
additional advantage of being clean and of saving
labour, although the cost of the apparatus is
greater. When the temperature of the evening’s
milk requires to be reduced to insure its keeping
overnight, as in hot weather, cold water can be

TERE SE Ae

PP NR I re Ey ee ys

CHEESE

141

‘employed in the same manner as hot water or

It would be misleading to fix definite tempera-
or assume definite rules of any kind in speak-

_ ing of the broad principles and practices of British

cheese-making, because there are so many systems

_ which differ materially in important particulars,

A thermometer should be used at all times and

in all systems. The old method of testing by the

hand hardly now exists, and certainly not among

cheesemakers. The ordinary temperatures at
which milk is set or steeped vary with the system
adopted and the temperature of the atmosphere—
from 80° to 90°, more or less, is the nearest indica-
tion that it is safe tomake. High temperatures
are used in making deep cheeses, such as Cheddars ;
low temperatures in making shallow cheeses, as the
old-fashioned Dunlops. The Gloucester is a well-
known variety set at a temperature nearer to 80°
than 90° F. y setting at too high a temperature
the curd gets hard and tough, though it needs a
considerable amount of consistency if it is to retain
asymmetrical fofm in a deep cheese. If worked
too cold, the curd is soft and the whey difficult to
get out of it, the processes of rennet fermentation
and acid fermentation do not go on sufficiently, and
their work is imperfect. In all cases the greatest
regularity in method should be maintained from
day to day.

After heating, the colouring matter (now almost
invariably Annatto, q.v.) is put in. This is not
considered an adulteration, as it is innocuous.
It in no way improves the quality of the cheese,
the effect being only upon the colour. All cheeses
are not coloured, though the practice is widespread.
Rennet is put in about the same time, and after
thorough stirring for the purpose of mixing these
added ingredients, as well as for keeping down the
cream, it is left for 40 or 60 minutes. ,

aie | the curd to let out the whey is the next

rocess. etworks of thin wire, or series of thin
ives, are passed through it in various directions
with great caution, to prevent the curd substance
being carried off with the whey, which would give
it a white rather than its natural green hue. As the
curd hardens it is more quickly worked and finally
broken into small particles, so as to allow the whey
to escape. The expulsion of the latter is helped
on by the contraction of the curd, due to the
gradual increase of acidity. Acidity develops
naturally if time is allowed, but it is judicious to
hasten it by the addition of warm whey during the
process of working. Another method of bringing
about the necessary amount of acidity is to ex
the curd to the air for a time before it is salted.
Salt, besides giving a flavour, stops the action of
the acidity in cheese after it has done its work
of expelling the whey. If allowed to go on, the
acidity would destroy the cheese by curtailing the
ripening action of rennet. Excess of salt retards
the latter process.

After the curd has been broken thoroughly, on
boing allowed to settle so as to drain off the whey,
it adheres together into an india-rubber-like mass ;
this is cut and broken up into small pieces by its
passage through a ‘curd-mill.’ The finest quality
of dairy salt should be used; the crystals being
large is an indication of its purity, especially from
magnesia salts, which give a bitter taste and other-
wise injure all dairy products. The quantity em-
ployed is, more or less, about 1 Ib. of salt to 56 lb.
of curd dry enough to be made up and put into the
cheese-press. Its amount should vary with the
degree of acidity and the amount of moisture
present. In some cases salt is applied wholly or in

‘part dry, or as a brine, to the outside of the cheese

after it/has been so far pressed. In very rare cases
salt is put into the milk before coagulation.

The curd is finally packed into a ‘chesset’ or
press vat, which has as a temporary lining a cloth
of open texture called a ‘ cheese-cloth.’ The vat,
which is a strong wooden or tinned-iron vessel
with perforations in the sides and bottom to allow
of the escape of any little surplus moisture, is
placed in a press, and the cheese subjected gradu-
ally to a pressure of about one ton. The curd
soon assumes the form in which it is to remain as
a cheese. For a few days the cloths are taken off
or and changed; the cheese being turned
over each time to make it keep itsshape. Ripening
is the next process of importance. Deep cheeses are
bandaged, and some are covered with cotton cloths
(caps) made to fit tightly. They are then placed
in the curing or ripening room, which should be
dry, well ventilated, and maintained at an even
temperature of about 70° F. There the green indi-
gestible and insipid curd changes naturally into
the sweet, mellow, nutty, and full-flavoured pro-
duet cheese, which, if taken in moderation, and
especially towards the end of a meal, is an aid
to digestion. The ripening process, which is
also associated with drying and shrinkage of
about 10 per cent. in weight, varies in length
from a few weeks to a few months. Acid cheeses
are soon ready for market, and spoil if kept for
a long time. Sweet cheeses are slow in matur-
ing, and continue to improve even if kept for
years. The tendency in cheese-making both in
Great Britain and in America has recently been to
early maturity, the strong inducement being that
of early returns.

The Cheddar system of cheese-making, which
first originated in Somersetshire, is, if we embrace
Great Britain, Canada, and the United States of
America, the most widely practised system of all.
The old methods have been much altered in recent
times to suit the tendency in the market for early
maturity. The following is an account of the
system as now practised, with improvements sug-
gested by American and Canadian experience.

The cream is removed from the evening’s milk
after standing overnight, and is only returned to
the full bulk immediately before putting in the
rennet; the object is to prevent the cream being
made oily by heating to a high temperature. The
rennet is added at a temperature ranging from 82°
to 88° F., but the milk is heated a few degrees
above the point fixed upon for steeping, and left to
ripen. The temperature falls to the required point
meanwhile. The higher range of temperature is
adopted when the milk is sweet and recently
drawn from the cow. Low temperatures suit old
milk or warm weather. If the cheese is to be
marketed within twenty days, enough rennet
should be added to induce the initial stages of
coagulation within eight to twelve minutes. After
this it should be left for twelve to eighteen
minutes, then breaking begins with the perpen-
dicular and horizontal cutting knives. It is stirred
for about’ fifteen minutes with a hand-rake, and
the temperature afterwards raised to 96°-98° F.,
or even by some up to 102° F. The whole is allowed
to settle and remain nearly an hour to ‘cook’ the
eurd. As soon as the latter is elastic enough for
the particles to retain their independent shapes on
being grasped and squeezed by hand, the bulk of
the whey is run off. What remains and the curd,
still in small pieces, are removed bodily from the
steep-tub or vat, and placed in a flat cooler
with an inner movable, sparred, false bottom, to
secure drainage. The vessel is lined with a cheese-
cloth. On this the curd is exposed to the air and
well worked by hand, so as to press out the whey
and keep the particles from adhering to one another
at too early a stage. After being well worked and
exposed it is left to run together, being covered up

142

CHEESE

to preserve heat. It is subsequently cut, piled,
and left covered with a cloth for perhaps half an
hour. The curd then smells and tastes slightly
acid. It is either milled or put through Harris’s
stamp lever breaker, which cuts it into pieces like
‘fingers. It is subsequently weighed, and should
amount to fully 1 lb. to the gallon of milk, and is
again exposed to the air to get quit of taints, and
to toughen before salting, which should be done
when a velvety feeling is noticeable. The salt is
added dry at three separate times, and well mixed.
The curd is then left to cool down to about 70° F.
before being put into the vat. Pressure for about
two and a half days is followed by ripening or
seasoning. The whole operation of making up the
curd may be over in five hours, or may take six or
seven hours, according to circumstances. A good
Cheddar cheese contains when ripe about 28 per
cent. of casein, and nearly 34 per cent. both of
butter and of moisture.

Cheshire Cheeses are manufactured in Cheshire,
Staffordshire, and Shropshire. In their deep shape
and also in many details of their working they
resemble Cheddars. Setting is done in a square
covered vat, and after making up they are often put
into an oven to cook for a night before going to

ress. In the latter they remain for nearly a week.

erbyshire Cheeses are steeped and worked in a
manner which closely corresponds to the Cheshire
system. The salt, however, is applied externally.

loucester Cheeses are made by a sweet process
very much the same as the Derbyshire process.
Double and Single Gloucesters are identical, with
the exception of the thickness and the consequent
rate at which they ripen. After a time they are
scraped clean and painted with Spanish brown.
Leicester Cheeses are small and flat, and made b
a sweet process. They are at first lightly salted,
but salt continues to be added externally. They
take a long time to mature.

Stilton Cheeses are made mostly in Leicester.
They used to be double cream cheeses, but are now
successfully made of the milk as it comes from the
cow. The curd is not subjected to pressure like
that used in making the previously mentioned
forms. While on the shelves ripening it is sup-
ported by a bandage, and during that time the
characteristic blue mould should sinh throughout
its substance.

Gruyére Cheese, made in the canton of Fribourg,
Switzerland, is a whole-milk cheese, as are also the
Dutch cheeses of Gouda and Edam. The fancy
cheeses of the Continent, as Camembert, Brie, Roque-
fort, Limburg, Gorgonzola, &c., command a high
retail price in Britain because of their perishable
nature and because their consumption is restricted
to a limited and wealthy class. Imitations have
been made, but of a spurious and imperfect kind,
owing to the impossibility of securing the secrets
of their manufacture. The broad facts are known,
but not the details. For example, it is quite
understood that some soft cheeses are made by
mixing old and new curd together. The quality. of
the natural pastures also affects some, notably the
Parmesan cheeses from northern Italy. See the
works on dairying named at BUTTER; and Harris’s
Cheese and Butter Maker’s Handbook (1885).

AMERICAN CHEESE AND CHEESE-MAKING.—Since
the introduction of the factory system the art of
cheese-making in America has | g,,,:ient iss9, 1897, and
undergone a radical change. | 1900 in the U.S. by J. B,
Formerly American cheese was | MPPinctt Company.
pungent in flavour and decom rapidly, and
consequently it was not popular in foreign markets.
With the perfecting of the system, however, the

roduct has been brought to a high condition of excel-
tae. and American cheese now competes favour-
ably, in even the English market, with the home-

made Cheddar, Cheshire, and other popular kinds.
The system practised in American factories is
an improved Cheddar process, and prominent —
English experts have at times referred to the
American system as being worthy of imitation in
English dairies. Under the prevailing system the
manufacture of cheese in America (the United
States and Canada) increased more than 100 per
cent. in 20 years, as the following figures show :

United States. Canada.

Product of Cheese— ;

Tr S60... oso vb siate'nta avelpre em 103,663,927 1b. none.

if AB7O. awians Caen tieebaue 162,947,382 6,000,000 lb

tt 1880; cv aaaiayeret aie kame 199,022,984 15,000,000 1
Number of Factories—

In 18516035 2123Sen.s ees 1 none,

00 2860, sca eoincrehe ghtennton 87 ”

10 1806, cas cacsearaeeieare 501

a1. ISTO. Ve resvemenwstemenres 946 75

1 TB80i 24. ee deh teow seewate 2532 105:
Exports of Cheese—

1n'1830 5 os asi ease caboose 10,000 1b none.

it, 2860 si, wateos acres meee ae 15,000,000 1 "

tt L8GO.5 jute >. pares eepits 23,159,391 "

ww RSTO, piites os vce sis civaerne 49,755,842 12,000,000 ir

1 3880. ces at b walabee pe ee ete 129,584,981 40,000,000

From 1880 onwards the manufacture and export
of cheese from the United States decreased : thus
in 1893 the export was $7,624,648, and in 1897 it
was only $4,636,063. The Canadian product and
export, on the other hand, increased from $13,407,-
470 in 1893 to $14,676,239 in 1897. In 1893, Britain
imported in all 232,675,744 lb., worth £5,160,918.
The decrease in exports from the United States was.
due to the too prevalent adulteration of cheese with
oleo-margarine and lard oils, through which the
quality fell off, and an unfavourable reputation was.
acquired, while Canadian cheese has been kept pure.
After 1880, Canadian cheese of the best autumn
makes sold in England for more than the average
English Cheddar.

The American system of cheese-making has been
reduced by improved mechanism and association in
the form of the factory method to the most eco-
nomical sore This method of manufacture was a

owth by necessity rather than a discovery. A

arge dairy was divided by the death of the owner,

who left three sons. The sons united and manu-
factured their milk at the old dairy, and in time
neighbours joined, and the first factory was estab-
lished in 1851 under the management of the oldest.
of the three brothers. In course of time the busi-
ness increased and became reduced to a most
economical basis, while by the employment of
skilful operatives the quality of the product was
gradually raised. The factories were gradually
enlarged until the milk of 1200 cows could be
worked up in the largest, and an ee factory
received the milk of about 400 cows. One Cana-
dian factory makes 216,000 lb. of cheese yearly
from the milk of 1300 cows.

The curing occupies about three months, the
temperature of the curing-room being kept at 65° F.
Gang presses are used, in which a large number of
cheeses laid on their sides are pressed at once by
turning one screw. A common test by which the
ripeness of the curd for pressure is determined is
by touching it with a hot iron, and when long
strings are drawn from the curd by the iron, the
curd is ripe.

Milk is brought to the factory twice daily, and
is weighed and run into the vat from the delivery
window. The milk is either bought by the factory,
or is worked up at a stated charge, or the factory
is managed on the co-operative plan in which the
net proceeds are divided periodically. Under this
factory system the quality of the cheese is uniform *
and as high as is secured in any well-managed
private dairy. About one-fifth of the cheese pro- _

CHEESE-HOPPER

CHEETAH 143

duced in America is made in private dairies in
which the same system prevails.

There are several other kinds of cheese made in
both factories and private dairies, as Edam (the round
Dutch cheese), a small cylindrical cheese similar to
the English Wiltshire, weighing 10 to 14 lb. ; a flat
cheese called English dairy cheese, similar to the
double Gloucester cheese and coloured as highly ; a
few Stilton cheese; cream cheeses for immediate
use; and very good imitations of the European
-onartaa Sal Schweizer, Neufchatel, Brié, Gouda,
Camembert ; and some other fancy makes to supply
the French, German, and other immigrant popula-
tion.

The cows used in the cheese dairies in the
United States and Canada are mostly ‘grade’
shorthorns, or native cows improved by crosses of
shorthorn, Devon, Ayrshire, and Dutch breeds.
Jersey and Guernsey cows, and the best of the

her bred animals, are used for the highest class
of cheese of the fancy kinds. The profitable ex-
ploitation of the dairy in America has raised the
value of lands suitable for grazing cows to an
ave value of nearly $100 (£20) per acre for the
fee simple, which is twice as much as that of
grain farms. The aheereceey business prevails
mostly in the states of New York, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and in the province of
Ontario, Canada. The cows are chiefly fed upon
perturege aided in the latter part of the summer
y soiling crops, of which maize is almost uni-
versally chiefly depended upon. The cheese-making
season begins in April and continues until Novem-
ber. See X. A. Willard’s Practical Dairy Hus-
bandry (1875), L. B. Arnold’s American Dairying
(1877), and Henry Stewart’s American Dairyman’'s
Manual.

CHEESE-PRESS.—The most common form is the
lever press. A powerful steel coil or spring is
sometimes substituted for. the lever. In large
factories the gang press is employed to press a
large number of cheeses at one time by means of a

owerful horizontal screw. The old method was
placing a aad | stone (hence the name stoning
cheese) on the lid of the chesset, or by hanging it
by a ring fixed to its upper side from the end of a
ooden Baca which acted as a lever and passed
over the lid of the cheese-press vat.

Cheese-hopper, the larva of Piophila casei,
a small dipterous (two-winged) fly, of the large
family Muscidie, to which the house-fly, blow-fly,
&e. belong. The perfect insect is about a line and
a half in length, mostly of a shining black colour ;
antenne, forehead, and some parts of the legs red-
dish. It is a pest of dairies and store-closets, lay-
ing its eggs in cracks or crevices of cheese, the
destined food of its numerous, active, and voracious
larvee. To preserve cheeses from this pest, it is of
advantage to brush or rub them frequently, and to

a, larva, natural size; b, larva, magnified, preparing to s Z
: ce, perfect insect, natural size ; yhpek oleh Prine

remove all cracked or injured cheeses from large
stores, besides keeping them dry and in a well-aired
me. The same rules are applicable in regard to

e other insect larvee by which cheeses are some-

times infested. Of these the most notable are the
larve of the Bacon Beetle (see DERMESTES), and
of another species of dipterous fly, Musca corvina.
Cheese-mite (Tyroglyphus siro), familiar on
old dry cheese. It is a true Mite, and belongs
to the division without special breathing organs.
The body is rounded behind, conical in front
with a well-marked groove between the secon
and third pairs of legs, and with relatively long
smooth hai The male differs slightly from
the female, for instance in the possession of two
posterior suctorial pits. The larvae have only three
irs of legs, and pass through an immature eight-
‘egged ‘nymph’ stage before becoming like the
ts. he cheese-mite is not confined to cheese,
but attacks dried fruits and the like. See ACARINA
(with cut), ARACHNIDA, CHEESE-HOPPER; also
Michael, Journ. Roy. Microscop. Soc. 1884, 1885.
Cheetah, or HuntTING LEOPARD ( Felis jubata
or Cynailurus jubatus), an animal of the feline
family, distinguished by its longer and narrower

feet and less completely retractile claws, which are
also more blunt and less curved. It also differs
from other Felidz in certain dental characters—
e.g. of the upper sectorial tooth. With these pecu-
liarities are associated a ter length of limb
than is usual in feline animals, and the habit of
taking its prey by running rather than by leaping.
The cheetah is in size about equal to a leopard, but
the body and limbs are longer. The colour is yel-
lowish brown, with black and brown spots. It is
very widely distributed, being found in Senegal,
South Africa, Persia, India, Sumatra, &e. Its geo-
graphic range extends from the Cape of Good Hope
as far north as the Caspian Sea and the steppes of
the Kirghiz Tartars. The African form is some-
times distinguished as C. guttatus, but the differ-
ences are trivial. The animal has been long domes-
ticated and employed in the chase, both in Persia,
where it is call Youze, and in India. Deer
and antelopes are the game principally hunted,
and packs of cheetah are kept for this purpose by
Indian princes. The head of the cheetah is kept
covered with a leather hood till within 200 yards of
Sees When the hood is taken off, the cheetah
stealthily creeps towards the herd, taking advan-
i of every bush and inequality for concealment,
till, on their showing alarm, he is amongst them at
a few bounds, and striking down his victim with a
blow of his paw, instantly tears open its throat,
and begins to suck the blood. It is then somewhat
difficult to withdraw him from his prey, which is
eoealy done by offering him meat. te unsuccess-
ul, the cheetah does not attempt to follow the herd
by running—nor does this animal seem to

the power of maintaining s through a length-
ened chase, but slowly, and as if ashamed, creeps
back to the hunters. In a domesticated state it is

144 CHEEVER

CHELONIA

extremely fond of attention, and seems to repay
kindness with affection.

Cheever, GrorGE BARRELL, American clergy-
man, born in Maine in 1807, was educated at
Bowdoin College and Andover Theological Semi-
nary, and from 1832 to 1870 was pastor of Con-
gregational and Presbyterian churches in Salem
(Massachusetts) and New York. He delivered
numerous lectures on religious, literary, and gocial
questions, and published a number of works, the
most popular of which is his Lectures on the Pil-
grim’s Progress (1844), which, with his Wander-
ings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont Blanc
(1845-46), has had a wide circulation in England
as well as in America. In his prime Dr Cheever
was an active and uncompromising opponent of
intemperance and slavery. Died October 1, 1890.

Che-foo (properly the name of the European
colony of the Chinese town of Yen-Taz), a treaty
port on the north side of the peninsula of Shan-tung,
at the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili, in which it
is the only port that remains open throughout the
winter. The foreign quarter, with about 120 Euro-

eans and Americans, is in some sense a colony of
shanghai, and, having the wholesomest climate of
all the treaty ports, it is much resorted to by conval-
escents. The Chinese town, built on the sandy
shore, with exceedingly dirty streets, has a fort, a
signal-station, and about 32,000 inhabitants. As a
market for foreign manufactured goods, particularly
English cotton yarn and American sheetings, Che-
foo is of great and increasing importance. The
annual value of the direct foreign imports is about
£300,000, and, of the exports direct to foreign lands,
£150,000. The principal articles of import besides
those mentioned are sugar, paper, iron, edible sea-
weed, matches, and opium. The chief exports are
silk, straw-braid, bean-cake, and vermicelli. About
2000 ships, of 1,600,000 tons, of which three-fourths
of the tonnage represents British Bottoms, annually
enter and clear. The Che-foo Convention, which

settled several disputed points between China and |

Great Britain, and extended certain commercial
advantages to the latter country, besides throwing
open four new treaty ports, was signed 13th Sep-
tember 1876.

Cheiranthus. See WALLFLOWER.

Cheiro'lepis, a genus of fossil ganoid fishes,
characteristic of the Devonian strata. The generic
name, meaning ‘scaly-hand,’ was given in allusion
to the large pectoral scaly fins.

Cheiromys. See AYE-AYE.

Cheironectes, an aberrant ‘pee of Opossums
(q.v.), with webbed hind-feet and of unique aquatic
habit.. There is but one species, C. variegatus,
palmatus, or Yapock (q.v.).

Cheiroptera (‘wing-handed’), the technical
name for the order of bats. See BAT.

Cheirothe’rium (Gr., ‘hand-beast’), the name
originally given to the Labyrinthodonts (q.v.), from
the peculiar hand-like impressions left by them in
the Triassic rocks.

Cheke, Sir Jon, one of the revivers of Greek
learning in England, was born in 1514 at Cam-
bridge, and in 1529 obtained a fellowship of St
John’s College, where he embraced the Reformed
doctrines. e laboured earnestly to advance the
study of the Greek language and literature ; and
when a regius professorship of Greek was founded
at Cambridge in 1540, Cheke was appointed its first
occupant. A new mode of pronouncing Greek
which he introduced was assailed by Bishop
Gardiner, the chancellor of the university; but
notwithstanding, Cheke’s system prevailed. It
resembled that still in vogue in England, as
opposed to the continental system. In 1544 Cheke

became tutor to the Prince, afterwards Edward VI.,
whose elevation to the throne secured him rank,
wealth, and honour—a seat in pbaeges (1547),
the provostship of King’s College (1548), and
knighthood (1552). He was stripped of everything
at Mary’s accession, and went abroad, but in 1556
was treacherously seized in Belgium, and brought
to the Tower. Fear of the stake induced him to
abjure Protestantism, and fresh lands were given
to him in the place of those he had forfeited, but
his recantation preyed on his mind, and he died in
the course of the following year, 13th September
1557. _Of more than thirty Latin and English
books by him, one is a translation of St Matthew’s
Gospel (edited by Goodwin, 1843), exemplifying a
plan for reforming the language by eradicating all
words save those of English origin. See his Life
by Strype (best ed. Oxford, 1821).

Che-Keang, an eastern and maritime province
of China (q.v.). Capital, Hang-chow.
Cheli'cerz, biting appendages in spiders (q.v.).
scorpions, and other Reachihle: ° bes
Chelifer. See Boox-scorpion.

Chelmsford (perhaps the Roman Cw&saroma-
gus ; Anglo-Saxon Celmeresforde), the county town
of Essex, and, since 1888, a municipal borough,
at the confluence of the Chelmer and the Cann,
29 miles NE. of London. It has a corn exchange
(1857), a shire hall (1792), a grammar-school,
founded by Edward VI. in 1551, and a parish
church, which, all but the tower and spire, was
rebuilt between 1803 and 1878. There is a con-
siderable trade in agricultural produce. On a
small island in the Chelmer there has long been a
ludicrous mock-election during the county elections.
Pop. (1851) 6033 ; (1881) 9885; (1891) 11,008.

Chelmsford, FREDERIC THESIGER, BARON,
born in 1794, was a midshipman in the navy, but
exchanged the sea for law, and was called to the
bar in 1818. He was knighted and made solicitor-
general in 1844, attorney-general in 1845 and 1852
and lord chancellor in 1858 and 1866. He di
October 5, 1878.—His son, FREDERIC AUGUSTUS
THESIGER, second BARON, was born in 1827, entered
the Rifle Brigade in 1844, became major in the
Grenadier Guards in 1855, and served through the
Crimea, the Indian Mutiny, and the Abyssinian
campaign of 1868. He was adjutant-general in
Bengal (1869-74), and commanded the forces in the
Kaffir war of 1878 and in the unfortunate Zulu war
of 1879, having resigned the governorship of Cape
Colony. Appointed lieutenant-general in 1882, he
was lieutenant of the Tower of London in 1884-89,
and retired in 1893.

Chelonia, an order of reptiles including the
various forms of tortoise and turtle. Their most
distinctive character is the more or less complete
inclosure of the body by a dorsal and a ventral
shield, of which the former is in part due to a
modification of the vertebral spines and of the
ribs. Within these shields the head, limbs, and
tail can be more or less retracted. The absence of
teeth is also very characteristic. The Chelonia
include marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial forms ;
the known living species number about 260, the
majority occurring in warm countries; they are
represented by numerous fossil forms from the
Upper Jurassic onwards. The large family Tes-
tudinidz, with oval, horny-plated dorsal shield,
includes both terrestrial and marsh forms, such
as Testudo—e.g. the Greek tortoise, Terrapin,
Emys, Chelys ; a second small family, Trionychide,
with oval, softer shield, includes river forms, such
as the well-known snapping-turtle ( Trionyx ferox) ;
a third family, Chelonide, with heart-shaped
shield, includes five species of marine turtles—e.g.

eee

I Ee Rm gy

7

CHELSEA

CHEMICAL AFFINITY 145

Chelone viridis. The order is chiefly discussed
under the title TorToIsEs AND TURTLES.

_ @Ohelsea, a suburb of London, on the north
thank of the Thames, here crossed by bridges to
Battersea (q.v.). In the 16th century the village
of Chelsea was the residence of Sir Thomas More
‘Quieen Catharine Parr, the Princoss Blizabeth, and
eof Cleves. Afterwards Walpole, Swift, Steele,
‘and Sir Hans Sloane, and, in later years, Leigh
Hunt, Carlyle, Rossetti, and George Eliot lived
here. In the 18th century Ranelagh was much
resorted to, and Cremorne (closed 1877) was at
one time a popular attraction. Besides its Hospital,
Chelsea has a Royal Military Asylum for soldiers’
children, large barracks for the Foot Guards, a
botanic Seed water-works (1722) to supply
London, a river-pier, and an embankment (183)
extending to Battersea Bridge on the west. The
famous 18th-century porcelain is noticed under
Potrery. The borough has returned one member
to parliament since 1885, when its limits were
greatly reduced. Pop. of parish (1891) 96,272.

CHELSEA HOspPITAL is an asylum for old and
disabled soldiers of the British army. The gradual
«decay of the feudal system rendered it necessary
to make some new provision for sick and maimed
soldiers, consequently various statutes were passed
during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and
Charles I., throwing their maintenance on their
respective parishes, under directions from the
county justices. This system was abrogated during
the Commonwealth as a matter of policy, and the
expense met out of moneys arising from sequestra-
tions of the estates of the vanquished royalists.
After the Restoration a new act was passed (1662)
again throwing their maintenance on the parishes,
‘but this was so burdensome that it was never re-
enacted. Sir Stephen Fox, the first paymaster-
general of the forces, who had long been an exile
in France, and was no doubt well acquainted with
the erection in 1671 of the Hépital des Invalides
at Paris, first suggested the building of Chelsea
Hospital. The foundation stone was laid by
Charles II. in 1682, and the building, designed by
Wren, was opened in 1692.

The funds for its lands and buildings, and for
many years the maintenance of its inmates, were
derived chiefly by deductions from the pay of the
troops themselves—viz. ls. in the £1, as well as
one day’s pay in each year. Since 1783 it has,
however, n almost entirely supported by
annual parliamentary grants. All Pensions (q.v.)
granted to soldiers are awarded by the Commis-
sioners of Chelsea Hospital, who are appointed
by the crown. Originally it was contemplated
tha

v all nsioners would become inmates of
‘Chelsea Hospital, but this was soon found im-
possible, and thus those who could not gain

admittance were granted allowances termed out-
‘pensions. The out-pensioners number about 84,000
men, including negroes in the West Indies and
West Africa, Maltese, Singhalese, and Lascars, and
cost annually some £1,800,000. The in-pensioners
numbered about 550. They are selected from such
out-pensioners as desire to become inmates, ac-
cording to merit, age, and sufferings from wounds

or other disabilities, and are provided with board, .

lodging, clothing (including the well-known red
coat and cocked hat), nursing, and medical at-
tendance, together with a small weekly allowance
in money according to rank. The in-pension vote
annually amounts (including, however, charges
relating to the grant of out-pensions, but ex-
orig cost of repairs to buildings, &c.) to about
£27,000, against which there is to set off the
amount of the out-pensions, which must by statute
‘be surrendered on admission. Those within can at
any virrt become out-pensioners again. Chelsea

Hospital is locally known as ‘Chelsea College’—
the Hospital having been erected nearly on the site
of James I.’s short-lived ‘College for Religious
Controversy’ (1610). See the official Karly Histor
of the Royal Hospital at Chelsea (1872); Martin's

ld Chelsea (1888); and Alfred Beaver’s Memorials
of Old Chelsea (1893).

Chelsea in Massachusetts, U.S., is a north-
eastern suburb of Boston, from which it is sepa-
rated by the estuary of Mystic River (see Boston).
Pop. (1870) 18,547 ; (1880) 21,782 ; (1890) 27,909.

Cheltenham, a fashionable watering-place of
Gloucestershire, on the Chelt, a little uent of
the Severn, 44 miles NNE. of Bristol, 47 SSW. of
Birmingham, and 121 WNW. of London (by road
only 95). It lies in a picturesque and fertile valley,
on the east and south-east half encircled by the
Coteswolds. A saline spring was discovered here
in 1716, and from a mere village the place gradually
increased till 1788, when the benefit derived by
George III. from its waters suddenly made it a
resort of fashion. The four spas—Royal Old Well,
Montpellier, Pittville, and Cambray—are all saline
but the last, which is chalybeate ; they are deemed
efficacious for liver complaints and dyspepsia.
With its squares, crescents, and terraces, its gar-
dens and promenades, its clubs and pump-rooms,
its August ‘cricket week,’ its healthy climate, the
cheapness of living, and the happy absence of manu-
factures, the town offers many attractions both to
visitors and residents, the former largely foxhunters
in winter, the latter retired Anglo-Indians. It is,
besides, a great educational centre, the seat of the
Proprietary College, for 700 boys, founded in 1840,
and oceupying a splendid Tudor pile of 1843; a

mmar-school (1586; reconstituted 1883); a large
adies’ college (1854); a Church of England training
college for schoolmasters (1847); and private schools
beyond number. Noticeable buildings are the
14th-century parish church; the Roman Catholic
Church (1857), with a spire 205 feet high; the Corn
Exchange (1863); and the handsome Free Library.
Cheltenham has memories of Handel, Tennyson,
Frederick Robertson, Sydney Dobell, and Dean
Close, under whom (1824-56) it became a strong-
hold of Evangelicalism. It was incorporated
as a municipal borough in 1876, and has returned
one member to parliament since 1832, the
parliamentary boundary having been extended
in 1885. Pop. (1804) 3076; (1841) 31,411; (1881)
43,972; (1891) 42,914.

Chelyuskin, CAPE (formerly North-east Cape,
and se her ap called Cape Ricera), the most
northerly point of Asia, on a peninsula of the same
name, which forms the western arm of the eastern
half of the Taimyr peninsula. It is named after a
Russian officer who led an expedition thus far in
1742, and here succumbed, with his wife, to the
fatigues of the journey; it was not revisited till
1878, when Nordenskjild, in the Vega, spent the
19 and 20th of August here. He found it a low
promontory, divided into two parts by a small bay ;
the lat. of the western is 77° 36’ 37” N., that of
the eastern 77° 41’ N.

Chemical Affinity is the name given to the
tendency to combine with one another which is
exhibited by many substances ; or to the force by
which the substances constituting a compound are
held together. The tendency of any given element
to unite with a number of other elements varies
greatly. Chlorine, for instance, unites with great
readiness with most metals and with many non-
metallic elements, much heat being produced dur-
ing the union; but it has little or no affinity
for, or tendency to combine with, oxygen, so that
compounds of chlorine with oxygen can only be
obtained by roundabout methods, and are very

146

CHEMISTRY

liable to sudden and explosive decomposition into
chlorine and oxygen. Wherd the affinity of ele-
ments for each other is great, the compounds pro-
duced by their union are decomposed with difficulty,
and where the affinity is feeble, decomposition is
easily effected. See also CHEMISTRY.

Chemistry. Although chemistry has only
taken its place as an exact science based upon
accurate experimental investigation within a com-
paratively recent period, yet its origin dates back
to the earliest times of philosophical study. It
will be convenient to give in the first place a short
sketch of the history of chemistry, and then to
state some of the principles of the science, illustrat-
ing these from the simplest facts. When possible,
such illustrations will be chosen as are likely
to be not altogether unfamiliar to non-scientific
readers.

Historical Sketch.—The word chemistry has
come to us from the Greek through the Arabic,
as shown in our article ALCHEMY. With regard
to the chemistry of the ancients, we know
that the ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks,
and Romans were acquainted with a very con-
siderable number of useful substances, and that
their processes for preparing some of these did not
differ in any essential particular from those now in
use. It does not appear, however, that they have
left any chemical records behind them, or that they
knew anything of the science of chemistry. Several
metals were known to, arid employed by, these
ancient peoples, who were acquainted with processes
for reducing them from their ores. Amongst these
metals were gold, silver, mercury, copper, tin, lead,
and iron; whilst they also knew and worked with
brass, although they were not aware that it was
an alloy of copper and zine. Various alloys were
employed for bronzes for statues, and these usually
contained copper, lead, and tin. The processes for
manufacturing soap, starch, glass, leather, vari-
ous mineral and vegetable pigments, stoneware,
and other useful substances, were all known and
carried on in very early times; and wine and beer
appear likewise to have been prepared and used as
beverages long before the process of distillation,
which was unknown to the ancients, had been
introduced. Vinegar, sulphur, and carbonate of
soda were also known.

We find the application in medicine of man
chemical products at a comparatively early period,
and the Arabians appear to have a the first
who tried to prepare new medicines by chemical
methods. Geber, who lived in the 8th century A.D.,
is the most noted of the Arabian chemists, and he
has left some writings which show us what was the
state of chemistry at that early date. Geber knew,
for instance, how to make and distil vinegar and
nitric acid, and even sulphuric acid was made and
used as a solvent by him. He knew, amongst
other substances, white arsenic, borax, common
salt, alum, sal-ammoniac (ammonium chloride), cop-
peras (ferrous sulphate), nitre (potassium nitrate),
and corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), and
was acquainted with a number of their properties.
He used almost all the kinds of apparatus that
were commonly in use down till the 18th century,
and understood the processes of distillation, filtra-
tion, sublimation, and crystallisation. In one of
his works he describes the construction of furnaces
for chemical purposes.

From the 8th till the 17th century but little
real progress was made in chemistry as a science.
The new knowledge that was gained during this
period was mainly due to the assiduity of the
alchemists, who, in their vain search for the philo-
sopher’s stone, necessarily made useful discoveries
from time to time. Many of the alchemists so
called were mere tricksters who deceived their

more or less clumsy experiments, which
appeared to demonstrate the production of gold
from baser metal. Others, however, were really
earnest and untiring in their labours, and held the:
fullest belief in the prospects of the ultimate-
success of some fortunate worker. The new sub-
stances obtained by the alchemists were frequently
used in medicine, and it is to these infatuated.
workers, therefore, that we owe our first knowledge:
of many potent medicines. The writings of many
of the alchemists are pee but numbers of
them are entirely worthless from a scientific point
of view, as the descriptions of processes are mixed
up with so much of mystery and extravagance that
they present a wholly unintelligible jargon. For
more detail, however, regarding this remarkable
period in the history of chemistry, see the article:
ALCHEMY,

As Geber has been called the patriarch of chem-
istry, so Robert Boyle (1627-91) has been called
the father of modern chemistry, since it was.
Boyle who first tried to free chemistry from the
trammels of alchemy and to place it upon a true
scientific basis. Boyle in his Sceptical Chemist
tried to discredit the salt, sulphur, and mercury of
the alchemists (as well as the Aristotelian earth,
air, fire, and water) as elements or ultimate con-
stituents of substances, and he gave a scientific:
definition of an element. Boyle was an experi-
mental investigator of considerable skill, and to
him we owe the introduction of the air-pump and
the thermometer into this country. His experi-
ments upon the physical properties of gases led to-
the formulation of the law concerning the relation
of the volume of a gas to the pressure, which is.
commonly known as Boyle’s Law.

Theory in modern chemistry begins with Becher
(1635-82) and Stahl (1660-1734). The latter
adopted, with some modifications, a theory pro-
pounded by the former concerning elements and.
compounds, and formulated the phlogiston theory
of combustion. The views of Becher and Stahl.
regarding elements were not so enlightened as.
those of Boyle, and must be considered as retro-
grade. Stahl’s phlogiston theory (1697) was at once
adopted almost universally by chemists, and for
fifty years it was held to give the full explanation
of the phenomena of combustion. According to-
this theory phlogiston was a constituent of all com-
bustible substances. When a substance burned,
the ss cee made its escape, and the product of
combustion was regarded as the other substance:
with which the phlogiston had been previously
united. When a metal such as lead was heated in
the air, it lost its phlogiston, and the oxide formed
was looked upon as the other constituent of lead
besides phlogiston. The process of reduction of
lead from its oxide by means of charcoal was the
transfer of phlogiston from the charcoal to the lead.
It did not present itself to the adherents of the
theory as an absurdity that a metal, in losing its.
phlogiston on oxidation, gained weight, although
some of them at least were aware of the fact. The
idea of gain of matter being a necessary accompani-
ment of gain of weight is so familiar to us that we:
can scarcely realise that it was not always so
regarded. To this may fairly be attributed the:
persistence with which the pane theory held
its ground for so long a period.

The Dutch chemist Boerhaave (1668-1738), who-
did not accept Stahl’s theory, published in 1732 his.
system of chemistry, which was a compilation of
practically all that was known up till that date,
collected with great labour from a large variety of
alchemical and other writings.

The interval between the introduction of the
phlogiston theory and its overthrow by Lavoisier in
1772-85 was one of great advance in chemicali

dupes b

——

tioned

CHEMISTRY

147

| ‘knowledge, and a number of very eminent chemists

preceded and were contemporaries of Lavoisier.
In Germany, Mar, (1709-82) studied the

properties of the almost unknown alumina and

esia, and made considerable advances in the

tative analysis of substances in solution.
Amongst British chemists of note may be men-
ales (1677-1761), who was amongst the
first to experiment on gases ; Black (1728-99), who
in 1756 published his research on Magnesia Alba
papeing the nature of fixed air or carbonic acid
and of the difference between caustic and mild
el carbonated) alkalies; Priestley (1733-1804),
who, in addition to his discovery of oxygen in 1774,
investigated nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, sulphurous
acid, carbonic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and
ammonia gases, being specially attracted to the
study of us substances and their properties ;
and Cavendish (1731-1810), who investigated the
nature and properties of Be Spr tp analysed atmo-
spheric air, and discovered the compound nature
and composition of water and of nitric acid.
Lavoisier (1743-94) was one of the ablest chemists
of his time, and his labours include a vast variet
of subjects. His attack upon, and eventual demoli-
tion of the phlogiston theory, and his experiments
in connection with his new theory of combustion,
occupied him for a considerable number of years.
He taught that combustion was the union of the
combustible substance with atmospheric oxygen ;
he was the first to introduce system into chemistry
and chemical research; he determined the con-
stituents of a large number of substances, including
sulphuric, phosphoric, and carbonic acids, numerous

metallic oxides, and many animal and vegetable

substances ; and he, along with Berthollet, Four-
roy, and Morveau (1737-1816), introduced a new
and consistent system of chemical nomenclature.
Two contemporary Swedish chemists, Bergman
(1735-84) and Scheele (1742-86), must be men-
tioned before leaving the phlogiston age. Berg-
man investigated, amongst other things, carbonic
acid gas, studied the phenomena of affinity, and
made advances in the processes and reagents used
in qualitative analysis. Scheele was one of the
most laborious chemists of his time. He discovered
citric, malic, tartaric, oxalic, lactic, hydrocyanic,
arsenic and other acids, and chlorine, besides in-
vestigating the nature of a large number of other
bodies an esd Rea aS discovering oxygen.

It was towards the end of the 18th century that
the value of quantitative analysis of substances
began to be eee recognised. The question as
to whether the quantitative composition of a given
substance was always the same gave rise to a dis-
cussion which las for several years, and was at
length decided in favour of constant composition.

e researches of Richter (1762-1807) on the
quantities of various acids neutralised by a given
uantity of a base, and of various bases neutralised
y a& given quantity of an acid, led him to the
general conclusion that the quantities of two acids,
a and a’, which form neutral salts, a 6, and a’ b’,
with the quantities of two bases, 6 and 6’, are just
the quantities requi ed to form two other neutral
salts, a 6’ and a 6b. This fundamental discovery
was erroneously attributed to Wenzel by Berzelius
-in 1819, and the error has been carefully per-
petuated in a considerable number of text-books
since that time (Kopp, Entwickelung der Chemie
in der neueren Zeit, p. 251).

Berthollet (1748-1822), who was one of the most
active opponents of the theory of the constant com-
position of chemical substances, contributed valu-
able researches into the laws of chemical affinity,
and applied chlorine to processes of bleaching. The

rocesses of chemical analysis were improved, and
os numbers of analyses, especially of minerals,

were carried out ss Klaproth (1743-1817), Vanque-
lin (1763-1829), Foureroy (1755-1809), and others ;
and many quantitative observations of all kinds
were made about the end of the 18th century, all
preparing the way for Dalton’s statement of the
Atomie Theory (q.v.) in 1803-4.

The progress of chemistry during the present
century has been immense, and it is not possible to
do much more than mention the names of some of
the most prominent workers. A stimulus was given
to research by the publication of Dalton’s atomic
theory ; and the labours of Gay-Lussac (1778-1850),
who experimented with gases, of Dulong (1785-
1838), and Petit (1791-1820), who pointed out the
relation between specific heats and atomic weights
of elements, and of others, supported and amplified
Dalton’s views.

Wollaston (1767-1829) discovered palladium in
1803, and rhodium in 1804. The first alkaloid
(morphine) was obtained pure by Sertiirner in 1816,
and this led to the discovery of a number of others
in a short time.

The decomposition by electricity of the bases
potash and soda by Davy (1778-1829) in 1807, and
the separation from these of the metals potassium
and sodium, threw an entirely new light on the
nature of these substances. The metals were more
fully investigated by Gay-Lussac and Thénard
(1777-1857). Davy is noted also as the inventor of
the miners’ safety-lamp, and for experiments on the
respiration of nitrous oxide and other gases.

mongst the foremost chemists of the earlier re
of the 19th century was the Swede Berzelius (1779-
1848), whose careful and exact analyses of mineral
substances contributed a good deal to the confirma-
tion of the law of constant proportions and to the
fixing of the atomic weights (see ATOMIC THEORY)
of the elements. Berzelius was a conservative
with regard to new theories, which he declined to
accept without putting them to the strictest experi-
mental tests. e formulated the electro-chemical
theory of the constitution of salts, introduced great
improvements into the methods of quantitative
analysis, increased the value of the blowpipe as an
aid in mineral analysis, discovered many new sub-
stances, and further examined and elucidated points
concerning many already known, both inorganic
and organic. :

The artificial production of urea in 1828 by
Wohler (1800-82) marks the beginning of a new
era in the branch of organic chemistry, and enor-
mous strides have been made in this department
since that time by Dumas (1800-84), Liebig (1803-
73), Laurent (1807-53), Gerhardt (1816-56), Wurtz
(1817-84), Kolbe (1818-84), Baeyer, Cannizzaro,
Frankland, Hofmann, Kekulé, Williamson, and
many others. Advances in general inorganic
chemistry and analysis have been made by Leopold
Gmelin (1788-1853), H. Rose (1795-1864), Sainte-
Claire Deville (1818-81), and Bunsen; whilst in
connection with advances in chemical physics ma
be mentioned Faraday (1791-1867), Mitscherlic
(1794-1863 ), Graham (1805-69), Regnault (1810-78),
Andrews (1813-85), and Berthelot. These lists do
not include all of even the most prominent names
that might be mentioned in connection with each
department.

he most striking feature of modern chemistry is
the extraordinary development of organic chemistry,
the account of one branch of it—the chemistry of
the coal-tar products—constituting of itself quite a
literature which receives additions every day.

Amongst the most recent — of chemical
research may be mentioned the artificial production
of indigo and grape-sugar, and the isolation, in
sufficient quantities to study its properties, of the
hitherto all but unknown element fluorine.

Of the greatest possible interest from a theoretical

148

CHEMISTRY

point of view is the fact that since 1870 three new
elements have been discovered—gallium, scandium,
and germanium—the existence of all of which had
been predicted, and the properties of which had
to a certain extent been described beforehand by
Mendeleéff. (See periodic law in article ATOMIC
THEORY. )

Of late much attention has been given to
measurements of the quantity of heat produced
in various chemical changes, notably by Berthelot
and Thomsen.

Elementary Principles of Chemistry.—The science
of chemistry deals with a certain class of changes
which matter undergoes when subjected to —
ticular conditions. Similar treatment may produce
very different effects upon different substances, as,
for instance, the effect of strong heat upon a piece
of quartz, a piece of limestone, and a piece of sugar.
The quartz Be not suffer any permanent change,
that is, it has the same properties after it is cold
again as it had before the action of heat. The
limestone, although not necessarily much altered in
appearance, has its properties entirely changed, and
what remains is a new kind of matter—quicklime.
The sugar melts, darkens, and chars, and becomes
quite manifestly changed into more than one new
kind of matter, for gaseous products, having the
smell characteristic of ‘burnt sugar,’ go off, whilst
a black coaly mass remains.

The first of the above changes is merely a
physical change, from cold to hot; the other two
are chemical changes, which result in the pro-
duction of new kinds of matter having properties
entirely different from those of the kinds of matter
from which they were obtained. The existence of
chemistry depends upon the existence of different
kinds of matter, and it is with such different kinds
of matter and the change from one kind to another
that chemistry has to do. ,

When the properties of matter are studied, it is
found that for chemical purposes all kinds of
matter may be divided into two great classes,
which are called respectively elements and com-

ounds. The name element is applied to any

ind of matter that has not been proved to be com-

osed of more than one simpler kind of matter.

his conception of an elementary substance we
owe to Boyle, and it will be noted that some of
those substances which are now looked upon as
elements (see article ATOMIC THEORY for a list of
the 68 known elements) may hereafter be proved
to be compounds, or kinds of matter composed of
more than one simpler kind, just as some sub-
stances which were at one time rightly classed as
elements (according to Boyle’s definition) are now
known to be compounds of two or more elements.

The compound nature of a specimen of matter
may be proved in one or other (or both) of two
ways. One of these methods is called Synthesis
(q.v.), and consists in building up the compound
from the component simpler kinds; the other is
called Analysis (q.v.), and consists in separatin
aoe than one simpler kind from the compoun

ind.

The distinction between chemical compounds
and mere mechanical mixtures is a fundamental
one, and must be fully understood. The substance
gonponyaets for instance, is an intimate mixture of

nely powdered sulphur, charcoal, and saltpetre
pony nitrate), certain precautions in,
observed during the mixing in order to avoi
explosion. These substances are not combined
together chemically in gunpowder, but are only
mixed, a fact as to which we can easily satisfy
ourselves in various ways. We may examine the
gunpowder under the microscope. and identify the
separate particles of the ingredients; or, by the
use of appropriate solvents, we may dissolve out

first the saltpetre and then the supe and thus
recover all three ingredients separately. The explo-
sion of gunpowder when heated to a sufficiently
high temperature is due to the occurrence of a series
of changes of the kind we call chemical, for these
changes result in the production of new kinds of
matter, gaseous and solid, which possess properties
in no way resembling those of sulphur, charcoal, or
saltpetre, and from which these substances cannot
now be dissolved out.

A mixture possesses to a greater or less extent
the properties of its respective ingredients ; a com-
pound, on the other hand, has not as a rule an
properties resembling those of its constituents.
piece of magnesium wire heated in the air to a
sufficiently high temperature takes fire and burns.
This is a chemical change in which the metal mag-
nesium combines with the oxygen of the air to form
a white, brittle, solid compound called magnesia or
magnesium oxide. This magnesia does not in the
least resemble either magnesium or oxygen in its
properties, and the most powerful microscope fails
to reveal particles of either of these substances to
our vision.

The Atomic Theory (q.v.) is based upon the
assumption that matter of every kind is made
up of extremely minute indivisible particles called
atoms. The atoms which exist in a substance may
be all of the same kind, as in elements, or of -differ-
ent kinds, as incompounds. Chemists believe that
the element hydrogen consists of molecules or
aggregates of atoms—each molecule consisting of
two atoms ; further, that the compound substance

water consists of molecules, each composed of two:

atoms of hydrogen and an atom of oxygen united
to each other by that force which is called Chemi-
cal Affinity (q.v.); and that similarly every other
compound substance is composed of molecules,
each molecule consisting of two or more different
kinds of atoms united by chemical affinity. The
weight of a new compound formed by the union of
two or more substances is in every case equal to
the sum of the weights of its constituents. In
chemical actions it is only the kind of matter
which is changed, whilst, as in every physical
change, the guantity of matter concerned remains
constant ae unalterable.

It has already been seen that one of the char-
acteristics of the chemical combination of two sub-
stances is that the properties of both disappear and
are not observable in the compound. Another and
a most important characteristic is the evolution of
heat, which is a very frequent although not an in-
variable accompaniment of chemical action. The
best examples of this may be seen in the ordinary
phenomena of Combustion (q.v.). All combustion,
whether it be of magnesium wire, coal, phosphorus,
paraffin oil, or a candle, is nothing more than a
chemical action accompanied by the evolution of
heat and light, oxygen gas of the atmosphere being
almost invariably one of the substances taking
part in such action.

The conditions under which substances act chemi-
cally upon each other are very various for different
substances. In the first place, certain substances
cannot be got to act upon each other at all. Such
substances may have little affinity for each other,
as chlorine and oxygen, or no affinity, as fluorine
and oxygen. Other substances, again, only act upon
each other with difficulty. The main conditions
upon which action of one substance upon another
depends are the state of physical acereeeust and
the temperature. Certain chemical actions take
place at ordinary temperatures, as, for instance,
the combination of chlorine with metallic antimony
or copper, or the spontaneous ignition of one of the
compounds of phosphorus and hydrogen when
brought into contact with oxygen. Other actions

sufficient!

CHEMISTRY

149

4 take oo when the temperature of the sub-
stances which are to take part in them has been
raised, Thus magnesium uires to

be strongly heated in air before it takes fire; once

the action is started, however, the heat given out
by the combustion of one part of the magnesium is

_ sufficient to raise another part to the temperature

necessary for combustion to go on, and so the

change is propagated. Coal-gas only burns in air
when it is raised to a bright-red heat. A jet of
coal-gas escaping into the air may be easily ignited

_ by applying a brightly red-hot poker, but when the

ker cools to dull redness it will no longer ignite

jet. A bar of metallic iron does not undergo
aa! chemical change on ic oman to dry air at
ordinary temperature, but if iron in the state of
very fine powder (a form in which it can easily be
obtained by appropriate methods) be thrown into
air, combination at once takes place with the
evolution of heat and light. When a piece of iron

(say a moderately fine iron wire) is heated to red-
ness in air, combination with the oxygen of the air
takes place with the formation of a scale composed
of a black oxide of iron, but the quantity of heat
oYge out —— combination is not sufficient

ro te the combustion from particle to
= of the iron after removal of the source of
eat. If, however, iron wire be raised to a red
heat in an peemieyen of oxygen, it takes fire and
burns with great brilliancy. The difference noticed
here is due to the presence in the one case, and the
absence in the other, of the diluting nitrogen which
forms nearly four-fifths of the air by volume.

There are certain chemical actions which in tak-
ing place are accompanied, not with evolution, but
with absorption of heat. In such cases heat has to
be supplied throughout the action, and not merely
to start it. This is frequently noticed in the com-
bination of substances which have feeble affinity
for each other, and the compounds produced are
less stable, or more readily break up into their con-
stituents, than those which are produced with the
evolution of heat. In general terms it may be
stated that the quantity of heat given out in the
formation of a compound is a measure of the
stability of the compound. When a given weight
of magnesium unites with oxygen to form magnesia,
a quite definite and measurable quantity of heat is
iven out. In order to separate the magnesium

m the oxygen again, exactly the same quantity
of heat must be supplied. In the case of those sub-
stances in the formation of which heat is absorbed,
we find, as we should expect, that heat is given out
during their decomposition, and that its quantity
is exactly that which was absorbed during their
formation.

Chemical Notation.—For the purpose of shortly
~h yparged the composition of chemical substances,
and for representing chemical changes, chemists
employ a system of notation which is in extremely
common use. In the table of Atomic Weights (see
ATOMIC THEORY) it will be noticed that after the
name of each element is placed its symbol, which
usually consists of the first, or of the first and another
letter of the Latin name of the element. Each
symbol distinetly indicates the element which it is
intended to represent, but it must always be borne
in mind that the symbol for an element is not merely
a contracted form of its name, but that it stands
for a definite quantity of that element, this quantity
being the atomic engi expressed in terms of the
unit of weight employed. The unit of weight
almost universally emp ome by chemists and scien-
tific men in general is the gramme (see METRE),
and that unit will be adopted for illustrations
throughout this article. ith the gramme as
unit, H stands for 1 gramme of hydrogen, Cl for
35°4 grammes of chlorine, O for 16 grammes of

‘chemical

oxygen, Mg for 24 grammes of magnesium, and so
on. In order to represent the composition of a
compound, the symbols of the various elements
which occur in the compound are written side by
side, and this collection of symbols is called a
Sormula, Thus, MgO represents 40 (= 24 + 16)
grammes of magnesium oxide, and HCl is 36°4
(= 1 + 35°4) grammes of hydrogen chloride. When
a compound contains more than one atom of the
same element the symbol for that element is not
repeated, but the number of atoms is indicated by
a subscribed numeral. Thus the formula for water
is written H,O, which indicates that the molecule
of water contains two atoms of hydrogen and one
of oxygen; and the formula for sulphuric acid is
written H,SO,, which indicates that the moleeule
of sulphuric acid contains two atoms of hydrogen,
one of sulphur, and four of oxygen (besides the
quantitative signification of these formule already
mentioned ). number subscribed to a portion
of a formula inclosed in brackets multiplies the
portion so inclosed. Thus the formula Ba(NO,),
represents one atom of barium united to twice the
quantity of the group NO,, which is represented as
united to one atom of potassium in the formula
KNO,. A number prefixed to a formula multiplies
the whole of the formula that follows. Thus 2H,O0
ese twice the quantity of water represented
vy 4

Chemical symbols and formule are used to repre-
sent shortly chemical changes. A simple illustra-
tion of the method of using them jay be given to
oe the case of the burning of magnesium.
The symbols for the magnesium and the oxygen
entering into combination (connected by the sign
+) are written on one side of what is called a
uation, whilst the product is written on
the other side, thus :

2Mg + 0. = 2Mg0.

The formula for free (or uncombined ) oxygen is
written O,, because a molecule of oxygen is believed
to consist of two atoms (see ATOMIC THEORY).
In order to represent the element magnesium, the
simplest possible formula (Mg) is employed be-
cause there is no evidence for writing a more com-
plicated one. 2Mg simply represents twice as
much magnesium as Mg does.

The above equation when fully interpreted gives
a great deal of information about the change which
it is intended to represent. It shows that mag-
nesium and oxygen unite with each other (under
conditions which are not expressed) to form an
oxide of magnesium, and that these elements are
united in the compound in the proportions by
weight of 24 of magnesium to 16 of oxygen;
and, further, it enables us, by applying a simple
and easily remembered rule, to calculate the volume
of oxygen taking part in the action as well as its
weight. This rule for ascertaining the volume
may be conveniently stated here. From certain
theoretical considerations, as well as for con-
venience in calculations concerning the volumes of
gases, chemists write the formule of us sub-
stances in such a way that the quantity’of a
represented by its formula, in terms of any unit of
weight, shall occupy, under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure, the same volume as
two units weight of hydrogen. Thus, the unit
being the gramme, H, represents 2 grammes of
hydrogen, and 2 grammes of hydrogen at stand-
ard temperature (0° C.) and pressure (760 milli-
metres Giaearensy) occupy a& volume of 22°33 litres.
See (under Métre) METRIC SysTEM. Similarly,
the quantities in grammes of oxygen, carbonic
anhydride, and nitrous oxide, represented by their
respective formule, O, (16 x 2 = 32 es), CO,
(12 + 32 = 44 grammes), and N,O (28 + 16 = 44.

150

CHEMISTRY

grammes), each occupy, when measured at 0° C.
and 760 mm. pressure, 22°33 litres. This rule
holds for other gases, and also, with a certain
aerreene for the vapours of volatile liquids.

n the case of the latter, of course, conditions of
temperature and pressure must be chosen such that
the substance is in the state of vapour; and the
sop in grammes which, as a vapour, occupies
the same volume as 2 grammes of hydrogen under
the same conditions, is the quantity which the
formula is chosen to represent. Thus, the formula
H,O informs us that 18 (=2+ 16) grammes of
water occupy, in the form of steam, the same
‘volume as 2 grammes of hydrogen when both are
measured at the same temperature and pressure.
It must, of course, be understood that the formula
for a substance is chosen so as to represent the
observed facts. The formula of a volatile liquid is
deduced from the determination of the vapour
density of the liquid; this determination is made
by ascertaining the weight of that quantity of the
liquid which, when converted into the state of
vapour, occupies the same volume as a given weight
of hydrogen, both being measured at the same
temperature and pressure.

Returning to the equation already given, it will
be seen that from it we learn that 48 (= 2 x 24)
grammes of magnesium unite to form magnesium
oxide with a quantity of oxygen (32 grammes)
which at 0° C. and 760 mm. occupies 22°33 litres.
What volume this quantity of oxygen would occupy
under other conditions of temperature and pressure
can be calculated from formule deduced from the
laws of Charles (relation of the volume of a gas to
the temperature) and Boyle (relation of the volume
of a gas to the pressure). See further in article
GAS AND GASES.

As there are certain conditions under which chemi-
cal combination takes place, so there are definite laws
which regulate combination. The first of these has
been called the law of constant proportions, and it
states that any chemical compound always contains
the same constituents and in the same proportions.
Thus magnesium oxide, MgO, always consists of
magnesium and oxygen in the proportions by
weight of 24 to 16—one atom of magnesium weigh-
ing 24, being combined with one atom of oxygen
weighing 16. No compound of magnesium and
oxygen containing these elements in any other
proportion has ever been obtained. If in preparin
magnesium oxide quantities of magnesium an
oxygen were employed differing from this propor-
tion, then some either of the magnesium or of the
oxygen would remain over after the action, accord-
ing as the former or the latter had been employed
in excess of the right quantity.

Intimately connected with the foregoing law is
the law of multiple proportions. Whilst certain
elements combine with each other in only one pro-
portion by weight, others combine in two, and
sometimes more than two different proportions.
The law of multiple proportions states that when
elements combine in two or more proportions these
various proportions can be expressed by simple
multiples* of the atomic weights of the elements
concerned. Thus carbon and oxygen unite with
each other to form two different compounds: 12
parts by weight of carbon unite with 16 parts by
weight of oxygen to,form carbonic oxide, CO; 12
parts by weight of carbon unite with 32 parts by
weight of oxygen to form carbonic anhydride, CO,.
Here the relation is of the simplest kind, for the
one compound contains exactly twice as much
oxygen for the same quantity of carbon as the
other. Again, iron aa oxygen unite with each
other to form three different compounds : 56 parts
by weight of iron unite with 16 parts by weight of
oxygen to form ferrous oxide, He ; 112 parts by

weight of iron unite with 48 parts by weight of .

oxygen to form ferric oxide, Fe,0,; 168 parts by
weight of iron unite with 64 parts by weight of
oxygen to form ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe,O, 1

case is not quite so simple as that of the oxides
of carbon, for here it is necessary to employ

multiples of the atomic weights of both elements —

concerned in order to see the simplicity of the
quantitative relations existing amongst these
oxides of iron. The law of multiple proportions
is, however, fully illustrated by
oxides.

It may be useful to call attention here to the
simple explanation furnished by the Atomic Theory
(q.v.) for the oceurrence of compounds illustrating
this law of multiple proportions. There is no com-

ound intermediate in composition between car-

onic oxide and carbonic anhydride.
theory explains this very simply. Under one set
of conditions we can obtain a compound of one
atom of carbon with one atom of oxygen, whilst
under other conditions we obtain a compound of
one atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen, or
exactly twice as much. This is why we find such
marked intervals in composition between two or
more compounds of the same elements. The mole-
cule of one compound cannot differ from that of the
other by less than an atom, and the addition of an
atom to a molecule necessarily forms a new mole-
cule differing in weight from the old one by the
weight of the added atom.

The last law of combination has been called the
law of volumes. It states that when gases combine
to form new compounds, the volumes taking part
in the action bear a very simple relation to each
other and to the volume of the product if gaseous
when all the volumes are measured at the same
temperature and pressure. Thus, one volume of
hydrogen combines with one volume of chlorine to
form two volumes of hydrochloric acid gas; two
volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of
oxygen to form two volumes of water vapour; two
volumes of carbonic oxide combine with one volume
of oxygen to form two volumes of carbonic anhy-
dride, and so forth. The very simple relations of
the volumes concerned in these examples are suffi-
ciently manifest, and much greater complexity is
not frequently met with.

Chemists divide the elements into two great
classes, the typical members of which are very
different in their physical and chemical characters.
These are metals and non-metals, and as representa-
tive of each class may be mentioned copper and
sulphur. The more prominent physical character-
istics of metals are the metallic lustre, malleability,
ductility, and the Repent of conducting heat and
electricity, all of which are possessed to a more or
less marked degree; whilst non-metallic elements
as a rule possess these properties to a very limited
extent, if at all. Differences in chemical behaviour
are also very striking in typical representatives of
each group. It must be borne in mind, however,
that all the members of each group are not typical,
but that there is a gradual transition from one
group to the other, and certain of the transition
elements possess some of the properties of both
groups, as in the cases, for instance, of arsenic and
antimony.

With the exception of bromine and fluorine, all
the elements enter into combination directly or
indirectly with oxygen to form oxides. The oxides

roduced from metallic elements are quite different
in chemical character from those produced from
non-metallic elements. We shall look first at the
oxides of the metals. Every metal forms one or
more oxides, and at least one oxide of every metal
is a basic oxide—i.e. an oxide which has the pro-
perties of a Base (q.v.).

th series of

The atomic |

A distinction is made>

—

“between what are called anh

#@alcium oxide, CaO (a
_ & hydrated base (or hydroxide).

CHEMISTRY

151

rous bases and

bases or hydrowides, The oxide of lead,

, is an anhydrous base (or basic oxide), whilst

the compound obtained by the action of water upon

banks oxide, and the only

compound of calcium and oxygen known), is called

The formation of
the latter is represented by the equation

CaO + H,O = Ca(HO),.

The oxides produced from non-metallic elements
are very frequently acid oxides—i.e. oxides which
unite with water to form the class of bodies called
Acids (q.v.). The oxides themselves are often
called acid anhydrides, whilst the compounds pro-
duced by the action of water upon them are called
acids, or hydrogen salts. When phosphorus burns
in air, phosphoric anhydride, P,Os, is obtained.
‘This is a white solid substance which unites with
water with the evolution of much heat to form a
‘solution of metaphosphoric acid, or hydrogen meta-
phosphate :

P.O; + H,O = 2HPO,.

There are a few acids known which do not con-
‘tain oxygen, and are not obtainable by the com-
bination of an oxide with water. Examples are
hydrochloric acid, HCl, hydrobromic acid, HBr,
and hydrocyanic acid, HCN. These are also called
vr Asie chloride, bromide, and cyanide respec-
tively.

The two classes of substances, bases and acids,
are nearly related to the very large class of salts.
A salt is a compound which can be obtained,
amongst other ways, by the action of an acid upon
a base, water being almost invariably eliminated
at the same time ; and just as we saw that the pro-
ue of two elements are totally different from

hose of the compound formed by their combination,
so we find that in the formation of a salt the
properties of both acid and base to a great extent
or altogether become neutralised and disappear.

If to a solution in water of potassium hydroxide,
KHO (which is a powerful bake: we add a sufli-
cient quantity of nitric acid, HNOs, that is until
the liquid on thoroughly mixing does not possess
either the acid or the alkaline reaction, we obtain
a solution in water of potassium nitrate (saltpetre ),
and nothing else—the water eliminated in the
action simply mixing with that which is already
present :

KHO + HNO; = KNO, + H,0.

Acids have already been mentioned as hydrogen
salts. The above equation shows how hydrogen
nitrate is exactly comparable with potassium
nitrate—an atom of potassium taking the place of
an atom of hydrogen—and a characteristic of all
hydrogen salts, or acids, is that they contain hydro-
gen, which is capable of removal and of having its
place thus taken by an equivalent quantity of
another metal. In the example above mentioned
every 1 part by weight of hydrogen has its place
taken by 39 by weight of potassium. These
quantities of hydrogen and of potassium are equiv-
alent, both being capable of uniting with the
group NO; This group is an example of what
is called a compound radical—i.e. a group of
elements which is capable of going as a whole
through a series of changes. Acids which contain
in their molecule one atom of hydrogen replaceable
by another metal are call monobasic acids.

itric acid is thus a monobasic acid, whilst sul-
pu acid, H,SO,, is dibasic, orthophosphorie acid,
is tribasic, and so on.

, likewise, are sometimes spoken of as
‘monacid, diacid, triacid, and so on, according as
one molecule of the base requires one, two, three,

&c. molecules of a monobasic acid (as nitric acid)
to form what is called a normal salt, that is, a
salt in which all the replaceable hydrogen has
been replaced Ly another metal. Thus potassium
hydroxide, KHO, is a monacid base; calcium
hydroxide, or slaked lime, Ca(HO),, is diacid;
bismuth hydroxide, Bi( HO),, is triacid, and so on.
Equations may make this clearer (see the equa-
tion above for a monacid base) :

Ca(HO), + 2HNO, = Ca(NO,), + 2H,0:
Bi (HO), + 3HNO, = Bi (NO,), + 3H,0.

Salts are formed in many cases by the replace-
ment of only a pact of the replaceable hydrogen of
a hydrogen salt uy another metal. Such are called
acid salts, and KHSO, is an example. This salt,
KHSO,, may be looked upon as intermediate be-
tween the acid, H.SO,, and the normal salt,

K,SO,.

any salts are known which may be looked upon
as bases which have their basic character only par-
tially neutralised by an acid. Such salts are called
basic salts, and as examples may be mentioned
BiONO, and Pb(OH)NO;. The former is inter-
mediate between the normal nitrate, Bi(NO,),,
and the oxide, Bi,O,, the latter between the nor-
mal nitrate, Pb(NO,),, and the hydrate, Pb(OH),
Such basic salts are often produced by the action
of water upon the normal salts, as, for instance,
in the case of the basic bismuth nitrate :

Bi(NO,), + H,O = 2HNO, + BiONO,.

Salts are looked upon as being composed of metal
and salt radical, the latter name being given to all
of the salt that is not metal. Thus SO, is the salt
radical of the sulphates, NO, the salt radical of the
nitrates, &e. This way of looking at salts arises
from the phenomena observed when salts are
decomposed by Electrolysis (q.v.), metal and salt
radical being the primary products of decom-
position.

Chemical Nomenclature.—Chemists endeavour to
make the nomenclature of compound substances as
systematic as possible, and a certain amount of
system has even been introduced into the nomen-
clature of the elements themselves. The oxides of
the metals are named after the metal which they
contain, as magnesium oxide, MgO; aluminium
oxide, Al,O,; and the series of salts derivable from
these oxides are similarly named after the metal.
Thus MgCl, is magnesium chloride, and Al,(SO,),
is aluminium sulphate. When a metal forms more
than one basic oxide, adjectival terminations are
employed to distinguish these ; thus the two basic
oxides of iron are named ferrous and ferric oxides
(FeO and Fe,0,) respectively, and correspondingly
there are ferrous and ferric salts. FeSO, is ferrous
sulphate ; Fe,Cl, is ferric chloride. Acid salts and
in general salts which contain more than one metal
are named after the metals which they contain, the
compound radical NH, (ammonium ; see AMMONIA)
being regarded as a metal for purposes of nomen-
clature. Thus, KHSO, is potassium hydrogen
sulphate, whilst HNaNH,PO, is hydrogen sodium
ammonium orthophosphate.

The nomenclature of non-basic metallic oxides
has been rendered systematic by the use of names
descriptive of the number of atoms of metal and of
oxygen contained in the oxide, as, for instance,
trimanganic tetroxide for Mn,O, A considerable
number of non-basic oxides, as BaO,, PbO,, MnO,,
&e., are somewhat less systematically called per-

es.

The acid anhydrides, which, as has already been
stated, are oxygen compounds or oxides of the non-
metallic elements, are named after the elements of
which they are oxides. As there are frequently
two or more such acid anhydrides derived from one

152

CHEMISTRY

element, different terminations and, where neces-
sary, other devices of nomenclature are employed
to distinguish amongst these. Thus there are two
acid anhydrides derived from sulphur—sulphurous
anhydride, SO,, and sulphuric anhydride, SO,. The
latter unites with water to form sulphuric acid,
H.SO,, and it is believed by some chemists that
the solution in water of su phurous anhydride (a
gaseous substance) contains at least some of the
corresponding sulphurous acid, H,SO,. From sul-
phurie acid there is derived the series of ‘salts
called sulphates, from sulphurous acid the series
called sulphztes. It sometimes happens that an
acid and series of salts are known of which the
corresponding anhydride is unknown, just as the
existence of certain acids is doubtful although the
corresponding anhydride is known. In other cases
series of salts are known, although both the corre-
sponding anhydride and acid are unknown. Certain
of these peculiarities, as well as some further forms
of nomenclature, are illustrated by the table given
below of the compounds corresponding to known or
unknown oxides of chlorine :

Oxide. Acid. Salt. Name of salt.
ClO HClO KCIO Potassium Hypochlorite.
— HClO, KCIO, " Chlorite.
[C10,, not an acid anhydride}.
— H 10, 3 " Chlorate.
— HClO, KCIO, " Perchlorate.

It has recently been proved that the substance
described in most text-books as chlorous anhydride,
Cl,0;, is really a mixture, and that as yet Cl,O,
has not been prepared. The hypothetical chloric
and perchloric anhydrides would have the composi-
tion Cl,0; and Cl,O, respectively.

A very large number of salts and other chemical
compounds are commonly known by popular names,
the latter: being frequently of extremely ancient
origin. The popular name as a rule conveys no
information as to the composition of the substance.
For instance, ih apa (ferrous sulphate, FeSO,)
is not recognised by its name as an iron compound,
nor calomel (mercurous chloride, HgCl) as a mer-
cury compound, nor litharge (lead oxide, PbO) as
a lead compound. It is the aim to convey, by the
systematic name of a substance, the greatest
possible amount of information as to its composi-
tion. ‘It is not possible to attain to a perfect
system of nomenclature, as new discoveries render
changes necessary from time to time.

Graphic Formule.—In addition to representing
the composition of a substance by means of
formule, chemists endeavour to express certain
ideas as to the constitution, or arrangement of
the atoms in the molecule of substances by
means of ee formule. It must not be sup-
posed (as has sometimes erroneously been done)
that graphic formule are intended to represent
the shape of molecules or the arrangement in
space of the atoms constituting such molecules, but
simply as a short method of expressing on paper
certain facts. No one supposes that a printed word
in any modern language is an attempt to draw the
object spoken of, or that it is more than a method
of representing on paper a given series of sounds,
and yet criticism based upon assumption scarcely
less absurd, has been directed against a for-
mul. Ina graphic formula we have the symbols
for the different elements grouped in a particular
way, so as (1) to indicate the valency (see the
article ATomMiIc THEORY) of each element, and
(2) to\express ideas based upon observed facts
as to the most likely arrangement of the atoms
in a molecule, when various arrangements are
conceivable.

The following may be given as simple illustra-
tions of (1):

H—Cl, hydrochloric acid ; H-S— He
hydrogen ; Mg=O, magnesium oxide ; NCH, am-
H Cl
monia ; H-¢_H, marsh-gas ; H-¢_o1, chloro--

Cl
form ; o=c<¢l phosgene; O=C=O, carbonic:

anhydride ; S=C=S, carbon bisulphide, &e.
letters representing monovalent atoms are written
with one stroke proceeding from them, those
representing divalent, trivalent, and tetravalent
atoms being written with two, three, and four such.
strokes respectively.

Illustrations of (2) are:

Urea,

H H
N

0=0€ a and oncan-nCf
N<: H

These two substances illustrate two other points of
importance. One of these is the occurrence of the
nitrogen atom sometimes trivalent, as in ammonia,
NH, sometimes pentavalent, as in the ammonium
salts—e.g. ammonium chloride, NH,Cl. In am-
monium cyanate one atom of nitrogen is represented
as trivalent and the other as pentavalent. The
two substances, moreover, illustrate Jsomerism.
(q.v.), or the existence of two or more com-

ounds containing exactly the same elements and
in the same proportions, and yet differing from one
another in chemical and physical properties.

Chemical Changes.—There are several kinds.
of chemical changes which are of very frequent
occurrence, and may conveniently be classified.
The simple union of one element with another
has already been mentioned, and closely related
to this kind of change is the union of a compound.
with an element or with another compound.
Along with these changes may be classed those in
which a compound breaks up into two or more
elements or simpler compounds, or into one or
more of each. All these variations are illustrated.
by the following equations :

Ammonium cyanate.

C lg Oy: ie OO
co +Ch, = COC) direct union.
CaO + CO, = CaCO,

ow O Ontee S O, + 4H,O + N decomposition:
Ca(HO), = CaO + H,0 * | (by heating).

One of the most important kinds of chemical
change is that called double decomposition. This.
occurs perhaps most frequently when solutions of
salts are mixed with each other, and it is charac-
terised by a mutual exchange of metal and salt.
radical. If an aqueous solution of sodium chloride:
be mixed with one of potassium bromide, although
no visible change takes place, we have reason to:
believe that double decomposition goes on to a.
certain extent, with formation of some sodium
bromide and some potassium chloride, whilst some
of each of the original salts also remains, a state:
of equilibrium being eventually established amongst.
the four salts. If, however, one of the new pro-
ducts formed by double decomposition be insoluble:
or practically insoluble in water, as soon as any of
it is formed it will appear as a opr iteos and be
thus removed from solution, so that no condition of
equilibrium can be established until formation of a

recipitate no longer occurs—i.e. until the double
jl ccceapeniiik is complete. Thus, if solutions of
sodium chloride and silver nitrate be mixed in the
proper proportions, the extremely insoluble silver

The >

ia lian

CHEMISTRY

153

‘chloride will be precipitated, and only sodium

nitrate will remain in solution.
be represented by an equation :
NaCl + AgNO, = NaNO, + AgCl (precipitate).
The action of sulphuretted hydrogen on many
metallic solutions illustrates double decompositions
in which the action is complete, as,

HgCl, + H,S = HgS + 2HCl,
where the mercuric sulphide formed is insoluble in
water, and is consequently obtained as a pre-

ci

connection with the subject of double decom-
position the bearing of the law of Richter (already
mentioned in the historical sketch) may be illus-
trated. Looking at the quantitative signification
of the following equations,

KCl + AgNO, = AgCl + KNO,,
NaCl + AgNO, = re + NaNO,,

we see that the quantity of chlorine which was
united with 39 parts by weight of potassium or
23 of sodium to form a salt is exactly the quantity
required to form a salt with 108 parts by weight of
silver, whilst, similarly, the quantity of the group
NO, which was united to these 108 parts by weight
of silver is exactly the quantity required to form a
salt with 39 parts by weight of potassium or 23 of
sodium. The same holds good generally for double
decompositions.

Another very important kind of chemical change
is the displacement of one element in a compound
by another. Chlorine, for instance, displaces the
iodine in potassium iodide and takes its place :

The greater affinity of potassium for chlorine than
for iodine is the explanation given of this displace-
ment. Displacement of one metal by another is a
familiar phenomenon, although the chemistry of
what is taking place may not be familiar to all who
have seen it. hen a pe of bright iron or steel,
as a key or the blade of a knife, is di into an
acidulated solution of cupric sulphate ( blue vitriol),
a reddish deposit of metallic copper is formed
almost immediately upon the surface of the metal.
This copper is derived from the ga sulphate
solution; but what is not manifest from observa-
tion alone, is that at the same time an equivalent
quantity of iron is dissolved away and goes into
solution as ferrous sulphate. The action is,

CuSO, + Fe = FeSO, + Cu.

The whole of the copper would eventually be
separated from the solution in the metallic state if
enough iron were present, and for every 63 parts of
= precipitated 56 parts of iron would go into
solution.

Inorganic and Organic Chemistry.—The whole
subject of chemistry has been divided into two
great divisions, named _ respectively «organic
and 8. Sime Made originally to separate from
each other the chemistry of purely mineral sub-
stances, and that of substances of animal or
vegetable origin, which were at the time sup-
posed to be capable of formation only as products
of vital processes, this subdivision is retained still
mainly as a matter of convenience. The division
of organic espe sometimes spoken of now as
the chemistry of the compounds of carbon; but
this is not a very strict definition, as many carbon
compounds occur in nature as purely mineral sub-
stances, and having really no connection with
organic chemistry, such as numerous mineral car-
bona As has been already stated, it is mainly
for convenience that the consideration of the
majority of the compounds of carbon is taken as a
separate branch, not because of any difference in

The action may

most vine yet prosecuted, and with the

the chemical principles involved, but really on

account of the very great number of these com-

tani and of the great complexity of many of
em.

It is in the domain of organic chemistry that the
study of the constitution of substances has been
test
apparent success, The graphic formula
(to take a

amount 0
which chemists assign to acetic aci
= example) is,

H—¢_c_0_H. This formula is adopted in order

nt 6

to express a number of ideas concerning the sup-

mode of arrangement of the atoms in acetic
acid, deduced from the study of its formation, its
decompositions, and the action upon it of various
substances. The known facts find suitable expres-
sion in the formula, and there is no observation
yet made as to the chemical relations of acetic acid
which is at variance with the constitution indicated
by it. It would not be possible here to quote
evidence in favour of a particular constitution for
any substance, but it may be stated generally that
chemists endeavour to fix the constitution of the
simplest compounds on the firmest yen basis,
and, in passing from the simple to the more com-
plex, to make secure every step.

The tetravalent character of the carbon atom,
and the great facility with which carbon atoms
enter into combination with other carbon atoms and
with the atoms of other elements, give their impress
to the whole of organic chemistry. The graphic —
formule of organic substances amply illustrate the
former, whilst the ‘syntheses of a long array of
simple and complex organic compounds as amply
illustrate the latter.

A certain amount of knowledge of chemistry is
eminently useful in almost every walk of life. An
intelligent knowledge of the chemistry involved in
the processes of the kitchen, the dairy, the dye-
house, the farm, or the manufactory, places the
pattie en oe in any of these processes on a

ifferent level from the rule-of-thumb worker, who
is as ignorant of the reason for adopting a particular
method as he is of the properties of the materials
he employs. Technical chemistry deals especially
with the application of the principles and processes
of chemistry to the arts and manufactures, and it
is to those who are engaged in manufactures of
almost every kind that a knowledge of chemistry
is a particular advantage. It is not a question of
expediency alone, but one of absolute necessity
that a technical education, including chemistry as
one of its principal subjects, should form not the
least important part of the equipment for his work
of any artisan who is to excel in his employment in
intelligence and skill.

In connection with this article should be read the
articles AToMIC THEORY, which is to a certain ex-
tent supplemen to this, ANIMAL CHEMISTRY,
and VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. See also separate
articles on the several elements, those on the vari-
ous acids, those on the great chemists, and the
following as amongst the most important of the
many chemical articles throughout this work :

Acids. Atmosphere. Isomerism. | Salts.
Alchemy. Base [in Chemistry).| Isomorphism.)| Soap.
Alcohol. Distillation. Lime. Soda.
Alkalies. Elements. Manure, Spectrum.
Alkaloids. Ether. Metals. Starch.
Allotropy. Fats. Oils. Sugar.
Analysis. Fermentation. Oxides. Synthesis.
Aromatic Series.| Glycerine. Radical. ater.

For further information readers may consult : Professor
Crum Brown’s Chemistry (Chambers’s Science Manuals) ;
Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Z'reatise on Chemistry (187

154 CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS

CHEMNITZ

89); Watts, Inorganic Chemistry, and Organic Chemistry ;
Wilson, Inorganic Chemistry (new ed. 1885); Watts,
Dictionary of Chemistry (new ed. 4 vols., 1890-94) ;
Thomson, History of Chemistry (1830-31) ; French works
by Hoefer, Chevreul, Berthelot; Ladenburg, Hand-
worterbuch der Chemie; Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie ;
Von Meyer, A History of Chemistry (trans. by McGowan,
1892); Mendeléef, Zhe Principles of Chemistry (1892) ;
Perkin and Kipping, Organic Chemistry (1894); Thorpe,
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (3 vols. 1890-93).

Chemists and Druggists. Up to the pass-
ing of the Pharmacy Act of 1868, any one was
free to describe himself as chemist and drug-
ist and to prosecute that calling to the best of

is ability, untouched by any special legislation.
The class, like the Apothecary (q.v.), was in its
beginnings closely allied to, if indeed at all dis-
tinguishable from, that of merchants and grocers,
- and never formed a distinct guild, and, until the
Pharmaceutical Society was founded, was with-

out permanent organisation. And owing to the
absence in Scotland of the apothecaries, as a class
distinguishable from druggists, the history of the
latter class in that country does not, at least up to
the passing of the Pharmacy Act of 1882, correspond
accurately with that of their English brethren.
The policy these latter pursued for a long period of
their history may be described as purely defensive,
and any organisation they formed was in response
to some attack from one of the other orders. As
early as 1802 such a defensive association was
formed, and from 1812 to 1815 engaged in very
active opposition to the bill promoted by the
‘ Associated Apothecaries.’ One of the objects of
that bill was to bring the chemists and druggists
“under the control and surveillance of a body
consisting chiefly of apothecaries, on which the
chemist and druggist was not represented at all.
The upshot was that the promoters of the bill
introduced a clause into the Act of 1815, which it
was understood at the time would completely
exempt the chemist and druggist from the operation
of the bill. In spite, however, of this understand-
ing, which seems to have been respected for twenty-
six years, the bill was in 1841 made use of to
punish a chemist and druggist for prescribing
medicine, although that was a function which,
rightly or wrongly, he had exercised previous to
1815. In 1841 a Al again threatened to subject the
chemist and atapeine to the control of the apothe-
caries, but was at length defeated. It now became
evident, not only that a permanent society to pro-
tect the interests of the craft was necessary, but
that the only wise policy was to educate and organ-
ise themselves in such a way as would deprive the
physicians and apothecaries of any-excuse for fur-
ther interference. This led to the formation of the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, which
was founded in 1841 and incorporated by Royal
Charter in 1843. As declared in the charter, the
main objects of the society were those of ‘advancing
chemistry and pharmacy and pranouny a uniform
system of education of those who should practise the
same ; and also for the protection of those who carry
on the business of chemists and druggists ;’ and to
enable it to carry these out successfully the society
appointed professors and examiners, and afterwards
proceeded to promote a bill in parliament for the
recognition and protection of the titles they pro-
posed to confer on those who passed the examina-
tions. This was naturally a work of time, and in
the meanwhile an important act in relation to the
sale of poisons—viz. the Sale of Arsenic Act (1851 )—
was passed, and drew the attention of government
to the absence of a definite class of persons qualified
by training and education to have the custody and
sale of poisonous substances intrusted to them ; so
that this to some extent led up to the passing of

the first Pharmacy Act of 1852, The main result
of this act was to create a class of ‘ Pharmaceutical
Chemists,’ alone empowered to use and exhibit that
or any equivalent title, and consisting, Ist, of those
already members of the society ; and 2dly, of such
ersons as should pass the examinations, as con-
ducted by its two Boards in England and Scotland.
The bill, as passed, involved no compulsion on any
ersons to go through these examinations, nor did
it confer any privilege or mone on the pharma-
ceutical chemist except the exc
title. The dispensing of medicines and sale of
poisons was still left open to any one who chose to
engage in it. Nor was it till the Act of 1868 that
the term chemist and druggist came to signify a
specially qualified person or one possessing ex-
clusive rights. By that act all persons not in
business on their own account prior to Ist
August 1868, had (except some who for a time
were allowed to pass a ‘modified examination’) to
pass two Preliminary and the Minor Examina-
tions, and after that were entitled to have their
names placed on the ‘ Register of Chemists and
Druggists for the United Kingdom;’ and no
person who was not on that register could legally.
use the title, or (with certain exceptions in favour
of physicians, apothecaries, veterinary surgeons,
&c.) sell or dispense certain poisons specified in
schedules to the act. Any person wishing to use
the style ‘Pharmaceutical Chemist,’ had to pass
a further examination called the ‘ Major,’ and thus
arose the twe grades in what we may now call, in
view of its educational qualification, the profession
of pharmacy. See PHARMACY ACTS.

Chemnitz, a town of Saxony, is situated at the
base of the Erzgebirge, and at the confluence of the
river Chemnitz with three other streams, 51 miles
SSE. of Leipzig by rail, and 43 WSW. of Dresden.
It is the principal manufacturing town of the king-
dom—the ‘Saxon Manchester’ its townsfolk call
it—its industry consisting in weaving cottons,
woollens, and silks, and in printing calicoes, chiefly
for German consumption. It supplies the world
with cheap hosiery, and makes mixed fabrics of
wool, cotton, and jute for the markets of Europe
and America. It has several extensive machine-
factories, producing locomotives and other steam-
engines, with machinery for flax and wool spinning,
weaving, and mining industry. Created a free im-

erial city as early as 1125, Chemnitz suffered much
uring the Thirty Years’ War, Pop. (1801) 10,835:
(1861) 45,532 ; (1885) 110,817; (1890) 138,954.

Chemnitz, MARTIN, the most eminent Lutheran-
theologian in the second half of the 16th century,
was born at Treuenbrietzen, in Brandenburg, 9th
November 1522. He had a hard struggle with
poverty in his early years, and had repeatedly to
interrupt his university studies at Frankfort-on-
the-Oder and Wittenberg in order to obtain by
school-teaching the means of pursuing them; but
at length his proficiency in astrology led to his
being appointed librarian of the ducal library at
Konigsberg in 1550, and from that time he devoted
himself entirely to theolo In consequence of
his opposition to the teaching of Osiander he was
obliged to leave Kénigsberg and proceed to Witten-
berg (1553), where he delivered lectures on the
Loct communes of Melanchthon, which were pub-
lished after his death as Loci theologict (1591). He
was appointed a preacher at Brunswick in 1554, and
‘superintendent’ in 1567, and died there 8th April
1586. The chief works of Chemnitz were his
Examen Concilii Tridentini (4 vols. 1565-73; new
ed. Berlin, 1862), which was the first thorough-
going criticism of Tridentine doctrine from a Pro-
testant point of view; and his share in preparin
and securing the acceptance of the ‘ Formula

*

usive right to that —

ee eee ee

‘one of the three treaty

-ing from the

‘to the Punjab, rises in the Kashmir ran

CHEMNITZIA

CHENONCEAUX 155

Concord ’.-the next in importance to that of Jacob

Andreii. His Corpus Doctrine Pruthenicum, writ-
ten in conjunction with Miérlin (1567), became a
standard work of orthodox Lutheranism. In his
De duabus Naturis in Christo (1571) Chemnitz

- developed the doctrine of the ‘ubiquity’ of Christ

between Luther and Melanch-
thon. In every other point of his theology he was
a steadfast follower of Luther. His Life has been
written by Pressel (1862), Lentz (1866), and Hach-
feld (1867).

Chemnitzia, a large genus of gasteropod
molluses, named in honour of a German concholo-
gist of the 18th century. They have a slender,
elongated, many-whorled shell, the whorls striated,
a simple semi-oval aperture, and a horny oper-
culum. There are many recent species scattered
all over the world. No less than 180 fossil species
have been described from the Lower Silurian up-
wards, but it is probable that different animals with
similar shells are included under this one title.

Chemosh, the national god of Moab, called
in 1 and 2 Kings ‘the abomination of the Moab-
ites.’ The derivation of the name is uncertain, the
most probable being that of Gesenius, from kémash
{ = kabhash), ‘to trample under foot,’ with which
the Syrian kemish, ‘nightmare,’ is connected.

in a form mediatin

-Chemosh was essentially one with the Moloch or

Milcom (‘king’) of the Ammonites, and both were
simply forms of the Canaanite Baal (q.v.). On the
‘Moabite Stone’ King Mesha attributes the
Israelite successes over Moab to the wrath of

Chemosh, and Moab’s deliverance to his assistance.

His worship was marked by cruel rites and lascivi-
ous orgies. Mesha’s first-born son was doubtless
sacrificed as a burnt-offering to him (2 Kings, iii.
27). Solomon in his later years consecrated ‘high
places’ (Baméth) to Chemosh in Jerusalem.

Chemulpo, a town on the west coast of Corea,
25 miles by road WSW. of the capital, Séul. It is
rts opened in 1883 to
are commerce, the volume of which has since
8 ily advanced, in spite of the drawbacks result-
t difference between high and low
water here (33 feet), and the want of wharves. The
imports attain a value of $3,500,000 in some years ;
the exports, $1,500,000. Pop. 30,000; the bulk of
the 3000 foreigners are Japanese. Small steamers
owned by Japanese run to Séul in summer, and a
railway is projevted and Chemulpo is connected
by telegraph both with China and Japan.

Chemung Period, name given by American
Sake to one of the principal divisions of
vonian time.

Chenab’, one of the five rivers which give —
of the
Himalayas, winds through the gorges of Jammu,
and enters British territory in Sialkot district. It
absorbs the Tavi, forms the boundary between Sial-
kot and Gujerat districts, and enters Jhang desert,
where it runs through a broad cultivated valley.
Here its depth varies from 10 feet in the dry season
to 16 feet in the rains; but its course often shifts.
It unites with the Jhelum at Timmu, afterwards
receives the Ravi, and, as the Trimab, joins the
panels: 50 miles above Mithankot. Its longils is
es.

755

Chenery, THoMAs, journalist and orientalist,
was born in Barbadoes in 1826, and educated at Eton
and Cambridge. He was called to the bar, but was

soon after sent out as Times correspondent to Con-
stantinople, where he remained during the Crimean
war. terwards he was constantly employed on
the Times staff until 1877, when he became its
editor, a post which he laboriously filled till within
ten days of his death. But this was only one side

of his life. As a singularly thorough Hebrew and
Arabic scholar he had few equals among his con-
temporaries, and his translation of the Arabic
classic, the Assemblies of Al Hariri (1867), led to
his appointment to a chair of Arabic at Oxford in
1868. He was one of the company of Old Testa-
ment revisers, and besides other works, published
an edition of the Machberoth Ithiel (1872), a
Hebrew version of the ‘ Assemblies.’ He died 11th
February 1884.

Chengalpat. See CHINGALPAT.

Chénier, MARIE- ANDRE, a_ distinguished
French poet, was born at Constantinople in 1762.
He was the third son of Louis Chénier, French
consul-general in that city. His mother was a
Greek lady of remarkable uty and accomplish-
ments. While quite a child he was sent to France ;
and in his thirteenth year he was placed at the
Collége de Navarre, Paris. Partly from predilee-
tion, and partly through the influence of his mother,
Greek literature was from the beginning his special
subject of study. At the age of twenty he entered
the army, and served for six months in Strasburg
as sub-lieutenant ; but disgusted with the frivolity
of the military life of that day, he returned to
Paris, and gave himself up to a strenuous course
of study. To this period belong two of his most
famous idyls, Le Mendiant and L’Aveugle. His
health giving way, he travelled in Switzerland,
Italy, and the Archipelago. In 1786 he returned to
Paris, and began several of his most ambitious
poems, most of which, however, remained frag-
ments. The most noteworthy are Suzanne, L’Inven-
tion, and Hermés, the last being in plan and spirit
an imitation of the t poem of Lucretius ; for
Chénier shared the beliefs of the 18th-century

hilosophers of France. In 1787 he went to Eng-
and as secretary to the French ambassador, but
seems to have found his residence there as uncon-
enial as Heine did. Returning to Paris in 1790, he
ound himself in the ferment of the Revolution.
OE to a certain point he gave the movement his
ardent support; but alarmed by its excesses he
mortally offended Robespierre by certain denuncia-
tory pamphlets. He was thrown into the prison of
Saint-Lazare, and after six months was executed
on the 25th July 1794, just three days before the
close of the Reign of Terror.

Chénier holds in France a somewhat similar posi-
tion to Keats in England. They suggest each
other also by their early deaths, and by a certain
affinity of genius. Other pieces of Chénier that
deserve special mention are La Jeune Captive, Le
Jeune Malade, and Versailles. Sainte-Beuve thus
sums up the claims of Chénier: ‘Chénier was one
of the great masters of French poetry during the
18th century, and our greatest classic In verse since
Boileau and Racine.’ The best edition of his
ms is Joubert’s (1883). See Sainte-Beuve,
iques et Portraits ; Becq de Fouquitres, Lettres
critiques sur Chénier (1881); Haraszti, La Poesie
@ André Chénier (1891).—His younger brother,
MARIE-JOSEPH DE CHENIER (1764-1811), was an
ardent republican, sat in the Legislative Assembly,
and wrote satires and heavy declamatory plays.

Chenille (Fr., ‘caterpillar’), a thick, velvety-
looking cord of silk or wool (and so resembling a
woolly caterpillar), used in ornamental sewing and
manufactured trimmings.

Chenonceaux, a famous French chiteau,
standing partly on an island in the Cher, partly
on a bridge spanning the river, near a station 20
miles E. a iy of Tours by rail. It was com-
menced in 1524 by the Chancellor Thomas Bohier,
continued by Diana of Poitiers, and completed by
Catharine de’ Medici, who richly embellished the
building, and surrounded it with a beautiful park.

156 CHENOPODIACEZ

CHERASCO

It passed into the hands of the Condés, and after-
wards of Madame Dupin, widow of a /fermier
“stepdad who here was visited by Montesquieu,

lingbroke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Buffon, and
others. The castle is in excellent preservation ;
it possesses a fine chapel, a theatre, and memorials
of its former occupants in furniture, personal relics,
ciphers, and a collagen of portraits.

Chenopodiacez, an order of apetalous dicoty-
ledons usually regarded as reduced types of Cary-
Ly ecveoniy and closely related to Amaranthacez,
with which some include them as Oleracez. They
are herbaceous or half-shrubby plants, with simple,
alternate, exstipulate leaves, and inconspicuous
flowers, Rormashanlite or unisexual, usually wind-
fertilised. There are about 500 species, mostly
wood-like, and growing in waste places. They are
widely diffused over the world, particularly northern
Europe and Asia. Beet and spinach are among the
best known and most useful plants of the order,
but many others are occasionally used as pot-herbs,
as some species of Chenopodium, Orache (q.v.), &e.
The fruit of Strawberry Blite (Blitum capitatum
and B. virgatum), a common weed in the south of
Europe and the colder parts of North America,
has a sweetish, insipid taste, and some resem-
blance to a strawberry, from the coherence of
the fleshy perianths of a whole head of flowers.
The seed of Quinoa (q.v.) is used for food as a kind
of grain. Some are aromatic (see CHENOPODIUM).
Some inhabit salt-marshes, and abound in soda.
See SALTWORT.

Chenopodium, a genus of Chenopodiacez, of
which some of the common species are well known
by the name of Goosefoot, as weeds growing in

ardens, on heaps of rubbish, and in waste places.

he species are mostly annuals, with entire or
toothed leaves, often with a sort of mealy hoari-
ness, and are widely distributed, or becoming
naturalised in all climates. The leaves of many
species are used as a substitute for spinach, particu-
larly those of the Good Harry, Wild Spinach, All-
good, or English Mereury (C. bonus-Henricus), a
common wayside perennial, which is still some-
times cultivated; the young shoots are also used
as asparagus. C. intermedium, C. album, &c.,
annuals, common in waste places, are also excellent
substitutes for spinach. C. Vulvaria (Stinking
Goosefoot), an annual with an odour compared to
that of stale salt fish, growing in waste places,
especially near the sea, was formerly in popular
repute as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.
C. purpurascens (Atriplex) is a handsome annual
introduced from China. C. Botrys, a native of the
south of Europe, with pinnatifid leaves resembling
those of the oak, and hence called Jerusalem Oak,
is in use as an expectorant and anthelmintic. It is
agreeably fragrant. OC. ambrosioides has a strong
aromatic odour, is used in Mexico instead of tea,
and is occasionally cultivated in France, an infusion
of it being deemed useful in nervous disorders. The
closely allied C. anthelminticum, the Wormseed
of the United States, has a strong and somewhat
aromatic odour, and a high reputation as a vermi-
fuge, due to the presence of an essential oil. More
important than any of the species, as affording a

rincipal article of food in the countries of which
it is a native, is Quinoa (q.v.).

Cheops (a Grecised form of Khufu) was a kin
of Memphis in Egypt, belonging to the fourt
dynasty, famous as the builder of the largest of the
existing pyramids. The date usually assigned to
him is about 3000 B.c. His successor was his
brother Chephren (Khafra), who built the next
largest pyramid. See Egypt, PYRAMID.

Chepstow, 2 river-port of Monmouthshire, a
sub-port to Gloucester, on the right bank of the

Wye, 24 miles from its influx to the Severn
estuary, and 17 ENE. of Newport. It lies
between bold cliffs, on a slope rising from the
river, in the midst of exquisite scenery. Its.
noble ruined castle, later chiefly than the 12th
century, stood two sieges during the great Re-
bellion, and has been held successively by Fitz-
Osbornes, Clares, Bigods, Herberts, and Somersets.
The railway crosses the Wye by Brunel’s tubular
suspension bridge (1852), 600 feet long, and 50

above high-water, the principal span being 300 feet —

long. Here occurs the highest tide in the British
Islands ; though the accounts of it have been fre-
uently exaggerated. In January 1846 it rose 47
eet above low-water mark, but this level, though
often approached, is not known to have been
cxeeetion. Pop. (1851) 4295; (1891) 3378. See
Fitchett Marsh, Annals of Chepstow Castle (1883).

Cheque is a money order on a banker, payable
on demand. It is really a Bill of Exchange (q.v.),
and is subject to the provisions of the Act of 1882,
which contains special clauses relating to cheques.
If it is not presented within a reasonable time, the
drawer is discharged should the banker fail, but the
holder can claim against the banker's estate. The
banker bears the risk of the forgery of the drawer’s.

signature, but is not responsible for a forged -

indorsement. A cheque is held as payment of a
debt until dishonoured on presentation ; it is not
payable after the drawer’s death or bankruptcy.

A crossed cheque is an ordinary cheque with two
transverse lines drawn across it, which have the
effect of making it payable only through a banker.
When a particular banker’s name is written be-
tween the lines, the cheque is said to be specially
crossed, and is only payable to the banker whose
name it bears. anting a particular name, or
with the words ‘& Co.,’ it is said to be generally
crossed, and is payable through any hanae An
ordinary cheque may be crossed either generally
or specially by the holder. The crossing is a
material Psa of the cheque, and may not be
obliterated or altered, except as provided by the
Bills of Exchange Act, 1882.

In the United States a cheque is not a bill of
exchange, though it has many of its properties.
It is not a legal tender, nor is it a payment of
debt till honoured at the bank. It has no days of

race, and is due only after presentation. The

ank is responsible for paying a forged cheque,
and is liable for wrongfully dishonouring it.

Cher, a French river, flowing 200 miles north-
ward and north-westward till it falls into the
Loire below Tours. It is navigable from Vierzon.
—CHER, to which the river gives its name, is the
central department of France. The surface con-
sists of FA ain and well-wooded hills (1600 feet),
and produces corn, fruits, wine, hemp, flax, &c.
The climate is mild and pleasant, except in the
swampy district in the north, which has, however,
been istasky drained in late years. Agriculture,
sheep and cattle er and bee-keeping, give
em fount to many. The rivers abound in fish,
and wolves are still sometimes seen. Education
is backward, nearly two-thirds of the people being
unable to read or write. Area, 2770 sq. m.; pop.
(1872) 335,392; (1886) 355,349; (1891) 359,276.
Bourges is the chief town.

Cherasco, a walled town in the
Cuneo, North Italy, 37 miles SSE. o
rail. Pop. 3341. In the middle =e Cherasco was
one of the chief fortresses of North Italy, but
its works were destroyed by the French in 1801.
A peace was concluded here between Louis XIII. of
France and the Duke of Savoy in 1631, and another
between the Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon
in 1796.

Turin by

rovince of’

and were sup to

CHERBOURG

CHERBULIEZ 157

f Cherbourg, a fortified seaport town and
arsenal of France, in the department of Manche,

at the head of a deep bay on the northern ex-
tremity of the peninsula of Cotentin, 70 miles 8S.
of the Isle of Wight, and 230 WNW. of Paris. Be-
by Vauban in 1687, the harbour-works and forti-
cations were pushed on by the great Napoleon,
have been completed in
1858 by Napoleon III. at a total outlay of 200
million francs ; but less than thirty years after, the
French government resolved to spend 49 millions
more on the construction of fresh works between
1883 and 1894. The stupendous digue or break-
water, inclosing a space of nearly 2000 acres, is
described in the article BREAKWATER. In connec-
tion with its fortifications, this breakwater assumes
an importance that attaches to no other work of
the kind in existence. At the apex of the angle
formed by the meeting of the two branches of the

gs there is a centre fort or battery, measurin

feet on the inner line of the parapet, whic
forms a flat semi-ellipse. The circular forts at the
extremities of the breakwater are remarkably well
gem for purposes of defence. Behind the centre
ttery there is an elliptical tower, measuring

225 feet on the major, and 123 feet on the minor

axis. The entrances to the harbour are round
the ends of the digue; and the passages are further
defended by the fortifications of the Ile Pélée, and

_by the batteries of La Roche Chavaignac and Fort

Querqueville. A series of coast redoubts, and the
large fortifications of Les Flamands, du Homet,
Digosville, and patgevills, are situated behind
this outer zone of defence. ‘The arsenal,’ says
Dr Russell, ‘is inclosed by a continuous line of
bastion and curtain of a very elevated profile,
defended by outworks, wet and dry ditches, and
by profuse batteries of the heaviest guns, either
in casement or en barbette. Wherever you look,
you fancy that on the spot you occupy are speci-
ally pointed dozens of the dull black eyes from
their rigid lids of stone.’ The town itself is
commanded by La Roule on the heights behind.
The commercial harbour of Cherbourg consists of
an outer harbour, 786 feet in length by 654
feet wide, and of an inner basin, 1338 feet long
by 416 feet wide. The great inner naval float-
ing-harbour was inaugurated by the Emperor
Napoleon in 1858, in presence of Queen Victoria.
Entirely cut out of the solid rock, it is 20 acres in
area, and is surrounded by building-slips and capa-
cious ving-docks. It is calculated that the
roads of Cherbourg cannot, on account of the small
depth of the greater portion, shelter more than 25
or 30 sail of the line, and about as many frigates,
at one time. The commercial port displays little

activity, the principal exports being eggs, butter,

and cattle. he town itself is insignificant, the
Streets being narrow and dirty; the only build-
ings of note are Trinity Church, found Wd the
English about 1450, the hdtel-de-ville, and the
theatre. There are some manufactures of hosiery,
chemicals, lace, and leather, sugar and salt re-
fineries, sawing and flour mills; but the industrial
energies of the great bulk of the Bg grime: are
absorbed in the arsenal and dockyards. Cherbourg
is a very ancient place ; originally Casaris Burgum,
in the 11th century it was known under the name
of Carusbur. In 1758 Cherbourg was taken by
the English, who destroyed the naval and military
works, and levied a contribution on the town.
Pop. (1872) 34,785; (1886) 37,013; or 51,774 with
the three suburbs of Tourlaville, Octeville, and
Equeurdreville. Pop. in 1891, 38,554.
Cherbuliez, the name of an influential family
at Geneva, which has produced many eminent
scholars and men of letters. Its founder was
Abraham Cherbuliez, a prosperous bookseller, who

left three sons—(1) ANDRE (1795-1874), professor
first of Latin, next of Ancient Literature at the
Geneva Academy, author of De Libro Job (1829), and
an Essai sur la Satire Latine (1829),—(2) ANTOINE
ELISEE (1797-1869), an eminent publicist ; professor
of Law and Political Economy at Geneva; after-
wards at Paris the Sedoubeahia antagonist, in the

of the journals, of Proudhon and the social-
ists; died professor at Zurich; author of De la
Démocratie en Suisse (1843), Etudes sur les Causes
de la Misére (1853), and Précis de la Science
Economique (1862).—(3) JOEL (1806-70), wlio suc-
ceeded to his father’s business, and became well
known as editor of the Revue Critique (1833 et seq.),
and an occasional contributor to the Revue des Deux
Mondes. His book, Le Lendemain du dernier Jour
Wun Condamné (1829), was a clever burlesque and
more upon Victor Hugo’s well-known tour-de-force
on the question of capital punishment, while his
Genéve, ses Institutions, ses Maurs, &e. (1867),
was a solid contribution to the history of the city.
Of the sisters, two made some reputation: the
eldest, Madame TOURTE-CHERBULIEZ (1793-1863),
wrote tales and novels, among them Annette
Gervais, and Le Journal d’ Amélie ; and the young-
est, ADRIENNE, born in 1804, translated into
French the tales of Zschokke and H. von Kleist.

,See Rambert’s Lerivains nationaux Suisses (vol. i.

Geneva, 1874).

VicTOR CHERBULIEZ, son of André, was born at
‘Geneva in 1829, and studied there, at Paris, Bonn,
and Berlin, first mathematics, then philology and
philosophy ; after which he lived in Geneva as a
teacher, until his call to Paris in 1864 to join the
Revue des Deux Mondes. Since 1882 an Academi-
cian, he died Ist July 1899, near Melun. Cher-
buliez began his literary career with books which
were compounds between fiction and criticism.
In the first of these, A propos d’un Cheval, Causeries
Athéniennes (1860; 2d ed. under the title, Un
Cheval de Phidias, 1864), beauty in art, and especi-
ally in the sculptures of Phidias, is discussed in a
series of conversations by the attendants of a
French marquise who is visiting Athens ; Le Prince
Vitale (1864) treats in a similar way the subject
of Tasso’s madness; Le Grand (uvre (1867) con-
tains, with many incongruous enough discussions
of social and political questions, an account of
the unfortunate attempt of an English baronet to
grow a wife for himself. From these the author
turned to work which really proved his powers.
In 1863 he published Le Comte Kostia, a strong
and striking novel, which at once found its author
an audience. It was followed by a series of novels
which, always clever and original, if sometimes
mannered and over-inventive, have lifted Cher-
buliez into the front rank of contemporary French
writers of fiction. His style is brilliant and epi-
aera ee his dialogue natural and lively ; while

e is readable from beginning to end, and his
situations are not only full of interest for the
moment, but are remembered long. Many of his
earlier stories take the form of a narrative by the
chief character, but those difficulties in developing
a plot in such a method which have been too great
for many novelists, M. Cherbuliez has surmounted
with consummate art. His best novels, besides
those named already, are: Le Roman d'une honnéte
Femme( 1866), L’ Aventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869),
La Revanche de Joseph Noirel (1872), Méta
Holdenis (1873), Mise Bovel (1875), Le Fiancé de
Mlle. de Saint-Maur (1876), Samuel Brohl et C*
(1877), L’Idée de Jean Teterol (1878), La Ferme
du (1883), and La Vocation du Comte
Ghislain (1888). He published, besides several
volumes of political studies on Germany and Spain,
as well as Hommes et Choses du Tempes présent
(1883), a series of papers which appeared in the

158 CHERIBON

CHERT

Revue des Deux Mondes—as did also L’Art et la
Nature (1892)—under the name of ‘G. Valbert.’ See
Saintsbury, Essays on French Novelists (1891).
Cheribon, a seaport of Java, on the north
coast, 125 miles ESE. of Batavia. It has a con-
siderable trade in coffee, indigo, and teak-wood, and
is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 11,000.
Cherimoya, or CHIRIMOYA (Anona_cheri-
molia), the most esteemed fruit of Brazil and Peru,
now common, and even naturalised in some parts of
the East Indies, and other tropical countries of the
Old World. It is a fruit of most delicious flavour,
is sometimes described as the finest of all fruits,
and sometimes as inferior only to the mangosteen.
Both flowers and fruit emit a pleasant fragrance,
but when the tree is covered with blossom the
odour is almost overpowering. The fruit varies
from the size of an orange to 16 lb. or upwards in
weight. See CUSTARD-APPLE.
Cherkask. See TCHERKASK.
Chernigov. See TCHERNIGOFF.
Cherokees, one of the most civilised of the
American Indian tribes, of the Appalachian stock,
and formerly the owners of a wide tract of country
on either side of the southern Appalachian Moun-
tains. In 1838 the great majority of the tribe
were deported from Georgia to west of the Missis-
sippi, and now they occupy the north-east angle o:
Indian Territory (q.v. ; and for the Cherokee Outlet,
bought by government and thrown open to settle:
ment in 1893, see OKLAHOMA). The Cherokees
have a syllabic alphabet of eighty-five characters,
invented in 1826 by George Guess or Sequoyah, a
half-breed. They number about 17,000.
Cheroots. See ToBacco.
Cherry (Cerasus), a sub-genus of Prunus (see
P.LumM), of which the species and their cultivated va-
rieties (see CULTIVATED PLANTS) yield the familiar
stone-fruit of the same name. The most obvious
distinction between the cherries and the plums or
Prunus proper is that in the former the leaves
are conduplicate, in the latter convolute in bud.

Common Cherry :
a, blossom.

Two species are chiefly regarded as the parents of
the garden cherries usually cultivated, P. Avium
and P. Cerasus, the former attaining a height of
40 or 50 feet, and having its leaves and peduncles
drooping, with: small austere fruit; the latter
having erect smooth shining leaves and a more
juicy fruit, but being a much smaller tree. Both
ave white flowers in clusters or nearly sessile
umbels, and both are generally regarded as natives
of middle and southern Europe, if not also of
Britain, where they are both at anyrate also
haturalised. According to the usual reading of
Pliny, P. Cerasus was, however, introduced by

Lucullus from Cerasus in Pontus to grace his
triumph after his victory over Mithridates;
Belon, however, plausibly identified this as his
own cherry-laurel (see LAUREL). In the wild

state, both are often called gean (Fr. guigne); —

more accurately, however, this is P. Aviwm. The
latter is frequently planted, not only because it
is exceedingly ornamental when in flower, but
also on account of its value as a timber-tree,
being of a Be growth, with firm strong close-
grained wood, suitable for the purposes of cabinet-
makers, turners, and musical instrument makers.
Double varieties of both species are also grown in
our shrubberies. The cultivated varieties of the
cherry are very numerous, and differ considerably
in size, colour, and flavour; opinions hence differ
seriously as to their parentage. The fruit is largely
eaten fresh, and as an ingredient in preserves, We. ;
the woodcutters and charcoal-burners in some
parts of France make it a principal ingredient in
soups. Besides its use for the dessert and for
preserves, the cherry is extensively used for
making liqueurs (see KIRSCHWASSER and MARA-
SCHINO). Cherry Brandy is a liqueur made
by steeping Morello cherries in brandy; whereas.
kirschwasser is a spirit distilled from p EB In
some parts of Germany the roads are fringed by
avenues of cherry-trees; and the cherry ripens in
Norway and East Bothnia as far north as 63° lat.
The other species of cherry are numerous. Some
species are low or even prostrate shrubs, as
. chamecerasus, the Oana Cherry of the south
of Europe and of Siberia; and P. pumila, the
Sand Cherry of North America. The name
cherry is also shared by the closely allied Bird-
cherry (q.v.) and Choke Cherry (q.v.), ineludin
the American Wild Cherry, famous for its medicin
bark; the Mahaleb (P. Mahaleb) of the south of
Europe, famous for the fragrance of its flowers,
and grown in pots to make symmetrical pipe-
stems ; the Capollim (C. or P. capollim) of Mexico
and Peru, famed for the fragrance of its fruit;
and the Laurel-cherry (q.v.). The name cherry
is also vaguely and po diate applied in different
countries to plants of any kind which happen
to recall the true cherry, especially by the size,
colour, or taste of their fruit ; among these,
see BARBADOES CHERRY, WINTER CHERRY, &c.
Thus the ‘ Native Cherry’ of Australia is the fleshy

fruit-stalk of Exocarpus cupressiformis (Santa-—

lace), while the Hottentot Cherry is Ilex ( Cassine)
Maurocenia. The ‘Beech Cherry’ or ‘Brush
Cherry’ of Australia is Trochocarpa laurine
(Epacridacee ), and so on.

Cherry-laurel, See LAUREL.

Cherso, an island of Illyria, belonging to
Austria, in the Gulf of Quarnero, 13 miles SSW. of
Fiume. A bridge unites it with the adjoining isle
of Lussin. Area, 127 sq. m.; Pop. (1880) 9550.
On its rugged hills sheep are fed; there are
large forests, and on the coast, wine, olives, and
fruits are produced. Cherso, the chief town, on
the west side, has a spacious harbour. Pop. 4670.

Cherson. See KHERSON.

Chersone’sus, the ancient name of several
peninsulas and promontories in Europe, the most
important of which are the Crimea (q.v.), C. Tau-
rica; Gallipoli (q.v.), C. Thracica; and Jutland
(q.v.), C. Cimbrica. When we speak of the Cher-
sonese, the Malay Peninsula is usually meant.

Chert, or HORNSTONE, a variety of quartz,
always massive, not unlike flint, but more brittle,
breaking with a splintery fracture. It is common
in limestones of Paleozoic age, but occurs also in
Mesozoic strata (Jurassic, Cretaceous), sometimes
forms rocks, and often contains petrifactions. It

passes into common quartz and chalcedony, also —

a
ee

CHERTSEY

CHERUBINI 159

into flint and flinty slate. Its colours are gray,

white, red, yellow, n, or brown. The name
Chert is sometimes limited to the finer varieties,
and the coarser are called Hornstone.—The name
_ Chert is very commonly given to the siliceous con-
eretions which occur as nodules and layers in lime-
stone rocks, much in the same way as flints in the
chalk. When these materials exist to such an
extent as to render the limestone useless for eco-
nomical purposes, it is said to be ‘cherty.’

Chertsey, a town in Surrey, near the right
bank of the Thames, here ¢ by a seven-arch
bridge (1785), 21 miles WSW, of London. It is
irregularly built, chiefly consisting of two long
eross-streets, and is surrounded by villas. The
chief trade is in malt and flour. Many vegetables
are raised for the London market. Chertsey arose
in a monastery founded in 666, and refounded in
964 by Edgar for Benedictine monks. Charles
James Fox lived on St Anne’s Hill, an abrupt
elevation about a mile from the town; and the
Cowley spent the closing years of his life in
hertsey, in a house that is marked with an inscrip-
tion. Pop. of parish (1861) 6589 ; (1891) 11,298.

Cherub (Heb. /’ribh), in the plural Cherubim
or Cherubs, is the Hebrew name of a winged
creature with a human countenance, which in the
Scriptures is almost always represented in con-
nection with Jehovah, and especially as drawing
his chariot-throne. In Scripture the cherubim
appear to be quite distinct from the angels, who
are Jehovah’s messengers, while the cherubim are
found where God himself is pecs present,
and are the living bearers of God manifesting
himself in his glory on the earth. It is possible
to trace a development both of their form and
their significance. While they are always con-
ceived as living creatures, their perfectly free

wer of movement seems to suggest a connec-
ion with the thunder-clouds which reveal to the
world the majesty of God. In the 18th Psalm
it is said Jehovah ‘rode upon a cherub, and did
fly; yea, he flew cacy # upon the wings of the
wind ;’ and elsewhere the clouds are called the
chariot of Jehovah. To the Hebrew idea of the
cherub (in this aspect of it) is allied the Indian
conception of the bird Garuda, the swift bearer
_of Vishnu, and the swift-winged four-footed bird
which in Aschylus carries Oceanus through the
ether, as well as the (later) Greek and man
representations of the griffins bearing Apollo or
Artemis. According to Sayce, the word is prob-
ably connected with the Assyrian kirubu, the
name denoting the winged bull which guarded
the house from the entrance of evil spirits, and
at the same time with kurubu, the ‘circling’ bird
—i.e., according to Franz Delitzsch, the vulture.
Phenicia took the idea from Babylonia, and
‘the two cherubs made for Solomon (1 Kings vi.
23-28) were wrought by Pheenician artificers.
Cherubim are mentioned in the Old Testament
as guards of Paradise; a cherub with a flaming
sword hindered the return of the expelled human
pair. In the Holy of Holies cherubim wrought
in em metal were represented above the
mercy-seat, or covering of the Ark of the Cove-
nant, so that they appeared to rise out of it.
Figures of cherubim were also wrought into the
hangings of the Holy of Holies. The cherubim
that appear in the visions of Ezekiel and the
Revelation of John depart much from the early
S cgtgemgger ms In Ezekiel they have the body
of a man, whose head, besides a human counten-
ance, has also that of a lion, an ox, and an engi
they are A capi rye with four wings, two of which
serve to fly, while the other two cover the body ;
four human hands and arms are under the wings,

and the whole body, before and behind, and on
the hands and wings, as well as the wheels of
their chariot, is spangled with innumerable eyes.
In the Revelation, four cherubim, covered with
eyes, and having six wings, surround the throne
or Jehovah ; the first has the face of a lion, the
second of an ox, the third of a man, and the fourth
of an eagle. As the Gospel is a unity, but four-
fold, the four elements of the cherub came to be
divided among the four evangelists, the human
countenance being the symbol of Matthew, the
lion of Mark, the ox of Luke, and the eagle
of John. Most Jewish writers and Christian
Fathers conceived the cherubim as angels; and
Dionysius the Areopagite, in his Celestial
Hierarchy, makes them a separate class in the
first hierarchy. Most theologians also considered
them as angels, until Michaelis showed them
to be a poetical creation. Herder, in his Spirit
of Hebrew Poetry, compared them to the ffins
that watch treasures and other fabulous figures,
In Christian art they are generally represented
as sexless figures, with wings from the shoulders,
the legs also being either covered by wings, or
having wings substituted for them. Very often
they have also an aureole round the head.

Cherubini, Maria Luigi CARLO ZENOBIO
SALVATORE, an eminent composer, was born at
Florence on the 8th or the 14th September 1760,
the tenth of a family of twelve children. He began
to study music at the age of six, under his father,
and at nine was sent to the academy of Bartolommeo
Felici. Church works to the number of seventeen
proceeded from his juvenile pen at this period,
and were mostly actually performed in Florentine
churches. In 1778 he went to Bologna and studied
under the famous Sarti for four years, ae
with him in 1779 to Milan; here he was ground
in the old Italian contrapuntal style, and also fre-
quently assisted his master in writing minor parts
of operas. In 1780 his own first opera, Quinto
Fabio, was produced at Alessandria, and for the
next fourteen years a succession of dramatic works

followed. In 1784 he was invited to London, and
held the post of Sogg tang to the king for one year.
In 1785 he visited Paris, and after another short

visit to Turin, returned in 1788 to Paris, which
remained thenceforth his home. Up to this period
his operas had been in the light Neapolitan style
of Paisiello or Cimarosa; they are now forgotten.
But < his arrival im Paris a chaaee sennnes
gradually apparent, contemporaneously with an

in the same direction as the” Geveliimeats of the
style of Mozart in Figaro and Don Giovanni.
Cherubini, however, had no opportunity of hearing
these works at this time, and advanced quite
independently on the same path. This change is
already distinguishable in his first Parisian opera,
Demophon, given in 1788, but is more distinctly
developed in Lodoiska, which was received in 1791
with astonishment and admiration. Subsequent
works were Elise (1794), Medée (1797), Les deux
Journées (or ‘The Water-carrier,’ 1800), his operatic
masterpiece, and Anacreon (1803). His lofty
unbending manner, however, had excited a pre-
judice against him in the mind of Napoleon. He
visited Vienna in 1805, and made the acquaint-
ance of Haydn, Beethoven, and Hummel. Two
of his operas were produced there; but the war
between Austria and Napoleon cut short his stay,
and he returned to France dispirited. In 1808,
on a casual visit to Belgium, he entered on a
third Brod of musical activity with the composi-

0

tion the first of his great church works, the
Mass in F. In December 1814 Louis XVIII. made

him a knight of the Legion of Honour. Next year
he paid a short visit to England which left a bad
effect on his health. Shortly after, he succeeded

160 ° CHERUSCI

CHESHIRE

to the post of maitre-de-chapelle to King Louis.
The list of his works from this period comprises
a Mass in C (1816), and Requiems in C and D
(1817 and 1836), all of the highest rank, besides
numerous other church pieces, and six string
quartets. In 1822 he became director of the Con-
servatoire of Paris, which his energetic adminis-
trative talent soon raised to the greatness it still
preserves. His work on counterpoint and fugue
appeared in 1835, and remains a standard book.

is severe rule over the institution continued till
1842, when, after only a month’s retirement, he
died on 15th March. The universal feeling in
musical Europe at the time was that its foremost
figure was gone. Though the greater part of his
career was run in Paris, and the most famous
French operatic composers of the early part of the
century, Boieldien, Auber, Halévy, &c., came
under his instructions, he has not permanently
influenced the French school; his music lives and
preserves a strong hold rather in Germany, with
the musicians of which he has more affinity.. His
style has been aptly called that of effect, the
means employed being unusual harmonic and
orchestral combinations, the agreement of the
music with the dramatic situation, and a remark-
able architectural structure in point of form. He
is always careful, however, to keep within ortho-
dox limits. As already indicated, his operas have
numerous parallels with those of Mozart ; but along
with the ite and polish of agen cut gems,
they possess also somewhat of their coldness. The
emotional element is often strong, but is always
dominated by the intellectual. is artistic ideal
was a lofty one, and he never stooped from it.
His music commanded high admiration from Beet-
hoven, who even took him as a model of style in
composition for the voice. His masses and over-
tures are well known, and frequently performed in
this country, and at least Medée and the Deux
Journées have kept a place on the stage. The
stern manner of the ‘grim Florentine’ finds illus-
tration in his stereotyped reply to all requests in
connection with his office, ‘It cannot be done,’
from which, however, he frequently departed ; and
he inspired almost enthusiastic attachment in many
of his pupils. The antagonism between him and
Berlioz, on the other hand, is strongly brought
out in the memoirs of the latter; and he was
prejudiced against Beethoven. See the Life of
Cherubini by Bellasis (1874); the Life by Pougin,
which appeared first in Le Ménéstrel (1882-83), and
vindicates him from the repellent asperity with
which he has been reproached; and Crowest’s
Cherubini (‘ Great Musicians,’ 1890).

Cherusci, a German tribe first mentioned by
Cesar, whose exact locality is somewhat uncertain,
save that they touched the Weser and lay north
of the Harz Forest. They are chiefly memorable in
connection with their great leader Arminius (q.v.).

Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefolium), an umbelli-
ferous tye which has been long cultivated,
especially on the Continent, as a pot-herb, and
used in soups and for a garnish, &c. in the same
manner as parsley. The leaves have a peculiar,
somewhat sweetish, pleasantly aromatic smell and
taste, by which the plant may be known from its
congener Anthriscus vulgaris or Scandix Anthriscus,
a poisonous weed, whose leaves have a disagreeable
smell, and which is also distinguished by its hispid
fruit. A. sylvestris has large roots, for the sake of
which it is cultivated. The allied Venus’ Comb or
Shepherd’s Needle (Scandix pecten-Veneris), often
found in cornfields, as also S. australis of southern
Europe, have a similar taste and smell, and are
used in the same way on the Continent. Sweet
Chervil or Sweet Cicely (Myrrhis odorata ; Scandix

—e

odorata of the older botanists), a native of the south
of Europe and of some parts of Asia, common in
the neighbourhood of houses in Britain, although
probably not a true native, is frequently cultivated
in Germany under the name of Spanish or Anise
Chervil. In Scotland the | et is popularly called
Myrrh. Its smell is considered attractive to bees ;
and the insides of empty hives are sometimes
rubbed with its leaves. to induce swarms to enter.
—The species of Cherophyllum, coarse weeds, are
also called chervil.

Cherwell, a stream falling into the Isis o
Thames near Oxford (q.v.).

Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland and Virginia,
and dividing the former state into two parts, is the
largest inlet on the Atlantic coast of the United
States, being 200 miles long, and from 4 to 40
broad. Its entrance, 12 miles wide, has on the
north Cape Charles, and on the south Cape Henry,
both promontories being in Virginia. The bay has
numerous arms, which receive many navigable
rivers, such as the Susquehanna on the north, the
Potomac, Rappahannock, and York on the west,
and the James on the south-west. Unlike the
shallow sounds towards the south, this network of
gulfs and estuaries, with ‘its noble feeders, affords
depth of water for ships of any burden, virtually
carrying the ocean up to the wharves of Baltimore
and the arsenals of Washington.—For the Chesa-
peake and Shannon sea-fight, see BROKE.

Cheselden, WILLIAM, a great surgeon and
anatomist, was born in 1688, at Somerby, near
Melton-Mowbray, and having in 1711 established
himself in London as a lecturer on anatomy, was
next year elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He
was afterwards appointed surgeon to St Thomas’s,
St George’s, and Westminster hospitals, where he
acquired great reputation, especially by his ‘lateral
operation for the stone’ in 1727 (see LITHOTOMY).
In 1728 he operated on a young man born blind,
and the successful result of the operation did much
to develop the theory of Vision (q.v.). He died at
Bath, 10th April 1752. His four works included
Anatomy of the Human Body (1713), long a text-
book on the subject in England; and Osteolo-
graphia, or Anatomy of the Bones (1733). See an
article in the Asclepiad (1886).

Chesham, a market-town of Buckinghamshire,
18 miles NW. of London. Pop. of parish (1891) 8018.

Cheshire, a maritime county in the west of
England, on the Welsh border, bounded N. by
the river Mersey, separating it from Lancashire,
and partly also by the Irish Sea. Its greatest
length from north to south is 48 miles; greatest
breadth from east to west, 32; total area of land and
water, 1102 sq. m., of which 76 per cent. is under
cultivation. The coast-line is confined to the
hammer-headed peninsula, called Wirral, about 8
miles broad, between the estuaries of the Mersey
and Dee. The surface forms an extensive Roane.
level plain between the Derbyshire and Wels
mountains, well wooded, and studded with small
lakes or meres. This plain, comprising four-
fifths of the surface, rests on new red sandstone,
and is crossed, near the middle, by a tract of high
ground running south-west from a promontory over-
looking the Mersey, near the mouth of the Weaver,
to Beeston Castle rock, 366 feet high. On the east
border of the county is a line of new red sandstone
hills. In the east are large tracts of peat, and much
of the county is wet and rushy, Coal-measures
appear on the Flintshire border, and also on the
borders of Staffordshire and Derbyshire. The chief
rivers are the Dee, Mersey, and Weaver, which are
navigable. The Dee skirts the county on the west
for 55 miles, and the Mersey on the north for 40
miles. The Weaver rises in the east part of the

CHESHUNT

CHESS 161

amg fi and runs 40 miles west-north-west to
the Mersey. In addition to its river navigation,
the gel has an er hee unrivalled eyevemn -
anals, and contains the greater part of the
_ Manchester Ship Canal. It is well intersected
by railways. The chief mineral products are rock-
salt and coal. The rock-salt, discovered in 1670,
_ and mined by gunpowder, is found near the Weaver
and its branches, es ially near Northwich (a. v.);
and at Middlewich, Winsford, and Sandbach.
Much salt is also made from brine-springs 20 to 40
yards deep. Coal is worked near Chester and on
e eastern borders of the county. Lead and copper
vera is now almost extinct. In almost every
part of the county freestone, limestone, millstone,
and marl are found. The climate is moist. The
soil is mostly a clayey or sandy loam, with marl
-and peat, and very fertile. The soil and climate
are well fitted for pasturing, and dairy-farming is
y carried on, the county being noted for its
cheese (see CHEESE). About 90,000 cows are kept
in Cheshire, capable of producing about 15,
tons of cheese. In the cattle-plague of 1865-66
upwards of 70,000 cattle perished, 36,000 of these
ts slaughtered as a preventive measure. va
ap ) 194,305; (1841) 395,660; (1891) 730,052.
here are extensive manufactures in the principal
‘towns, especially Birkenhead, Congleton, Chester
rey county town), Crewe, Macclesfield, Staly-
ridge, and Stockport. The county is formed into
eight parliamentary divisions, each returning one
‘member, and includes the parliamentary boroughs
of Birkenhead and Chester, with a of the
y

boroughs of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge, Stock-
port, and Warrington. It contains 503 civil parishes,
and is mostly in the diocese of Chester. Cheshire

has some Roman roads, tumuli, barrows, remains
of religious houses, and many old castles and halls.
Egbert, in 828, added Cheshire to the Anglo-Saxon
kingdom of Mercia. William the Conqueror erected
Cheshire into a county palatine, under Hugh Lupus,
with an independent parliament and eight barons.
Henry VIII. subordinated it to the English crown ;
but Cheshire did not send representatives to the
English parliament till 1549. See Ormerod’s History
of Cheshire (3 vols. 1819; new ed. 1875), and
aker’s Hast Cheshire (1877).

Cheshunt, a large village of Hertfordshire, 14
miles N. of London. It is famous for its rose-
gardens, and is the seat of a college, founded in
1768 by the Countess of Huntingdon (q.v.) at
‘Trevecca in Brecknockshire, and removed hither in
1792. The buildings were much enlarged in 1868.
Pop. of parish (1881) 7735; (1891) 9620.

Chesil Bank or BrEAcu, a bank of
and shingle extending 16 miles from Bridport
harbour and Burton Bradstock to Portland. It
varies in height from 20 to 43 feet, and in width
from 170 to yards. For some part of its course

_ it hugs the shore, but the Fleet comes between it
~ and the land for nearly 10 miles from Abbotsbury,
famous for its swannery. Towards its west end the
bank is composed of sand, grit, and fine gravel,
but the materials get gradually larger and larger
as it is followed eastward. Good authorities
believe this bank was formed by the sea as a
‘shingle beach in the ordinary way, that it former!
touched the land throughout its entire course, an
that it has since been se ted from the shore,
and converted into a bar, by the denudation of the
land behind it. (See map at BREAKWATER.)

Chesney, FrRANcis Rawpon, the explorer of the
Euphrates, was born in 1789 at Annalong in Count
Down. He was tted to the Royal Arti.
mgd in 1805. In 1 he epee the route for
a ec’ Rage which he proved to be practicable.

vel

His first exploration of the route to India, by
way of Syria and the Euphrates, was made in
1831, and he made three other voyages with the
same object. The idea was taken up by govern-
ment, who made a grant of £20,000 after his
first expedition, but ver J to the opposition of
Russia it was never brought to a practical issue.
He commanded the artillery at Hong-kong from
1843 to 1847. In 1850 he published his Lxpedition
Sor the Survey o the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris,
and in 1868 a Narrative of the Euphrates E. i-
tion. He died at Mourne, 30th January 1872.
General Chesney’s Life by his wife and daughter,
edited by Stanley Lane-Poole, was published in
1885.—His nephew, Colonel Charles Cornwallis
Chesney (1826-76), was the author of the well-
known Waterloo Lectures (1861), which were
delivered by him as professor at Sandhurst.—
A younger brother of the latter, General Sir George
Tomkyns Chesney, K.C.B. (1830-95), was syoemees
member of the Council of the Viceroy of India in
1886, and became M.P. for Oxford in 1892. He was
the author of the clever jeu d’esprit, The Battle “a
Dorking (1871), and of a remarkable novel, 7)
Private Secretary (1881).

Chesnut. See CHESTNUT.

Chess (Fr. échecs ; Ital. scacchi; Ger. schach ;
Dutch schaak ; Low Lat. ludus scaccorum. Origin-
ally from Persian shah, ‘a king,’ thus literally ‘ the
game of kings’), a game of skill for two players or
parties, played with figures or ‘ pieces,’ which are
moved on a chequered board. The game has ac-

uired a great and unique importance throughout
a world ; mainly, no doubt, in consequence of its
extreme difficulty. It is the subject of a most ex-
tensive literature, and its study has become rather
that of a science than a recreation. The laws
governing its = od are identical in all countries.

History.—The origin of chess is the subject of an
almost hopeless controversy. It has been claimed,
by writers and by legends, for China, India, Persia,
and recently with some show of reason, by a Spanish
archeologist, for Egypt. Asa matter of fact, traces
of the game Gitend héyond history, and are found
among races so widely different that any scientific
investigation of the matter may now be considered
impossible. The game was y wrwaig introduced
into Western Europe by the Arabs, or about the
time of the Arab invasion (8th century); at all
events it was known among the cultured classes
before the Crusades (1095). As then played, it
differed somewhat from modern chess po from the
game as played in the East. One of the earliest
references to it in literature is in a work, written
about 1300, by Jacobus de Cessolis, a preaching
friar, and entitled Liber de moribus hominum et
officiis nobilium super ludo Scaccorum. This work
seems to have found its way into several European
countries, MS. copies of it existing in various lan-
guages. An — ish translation from the French
was printed by William Caxton in 1474-75 under the
title of The Game and Playe of the Chesse, and was
the first book printed with metal types in England.
Modern chess—i.e. the game as now played, dates
from about the middle of the 15th century. A MS.
discovered in the university library of Géttingen and
dated 1490 is the earliest treatise extant, although
en mention of chess is made by earlier poets
and writers. The game found its, first home in
Spain, where Vicent (1495) and Lucena (1497) pub.
lished two volumes, now of little value, of games.
They were succeeded in 1510 by Damiano, a
Portuguese, whose work, though restricted to a
few openings, evinces considerable genius. It was
plagiarised most unscrupulously by several later
writers. Damiano was followed by Ruy Lopez, a
cleric of Safra in Estremadura, who is perhaps

162

CHESS

the most valuable of the earlier masters. His
work, first published at Alcala in 1561, may be
said to have laid the foundation of the modern
theory of play, and the opening which bears his
name is that which modern analysis has shown
to be one of the soundest yet invented. Lopez’s
treatise was republished in Venice in 1584, and
from this date the game seems to have left Spain to
find a home in Italy. Here should be mentioned
Paolo Boi, a native of Syracuse, who, finding no
worthy opponent in his own country, made a
lengthened tour through the then most civilised
part of Europe. He encountered and defeated
every master of the game, including the hitherto
invincible Ruy Lopez. His genius, added to a pre-
possessing appearance and a courteous demeanour,
gained for him general admiration; he was pat-
ronised by Catharine de’ Medici and by Sebastian,
king of Portugal, both of whom conferred high
favours upon him. The early Italian school, which
extended from about 1550 to 1620, is identified with
the names of Polerio (1590) and his followers,
Salvio, Greco, and others. It may claim to be the
most versatile and prolific yet founded, some of the
most brilliant openings having come down to us
from it. At its close, about the time of the Thirty
Years’ War, the study of chess was somewhat
neglected, and there are no writers of note until
the middle of the 18th century. At this time,
however, two powerful, and to some extent rival,
schools sprang up—the later Italian, led by Ercole
del Rio and his commentators, Lolli and Ponziani,
and the Northern school of Philidor. The former
still confined itself to the study of openings and
end-games ; the latter turned its attention more to
the middle game, advocating what is now known
as ‘ play for position.’ Both schools, though opposed
in theory, were of the greatest practical benefit to
students ; their work was in a great measure com-
bined by Allgaier, of Eltern, in his well-known
treatise published at Vienna in 1795.

Begun in 1745 by Stamma, a Syrian, and led so
dela by Philidor, the English school had,

uring this period, been steadily gaining strength
and importance. Writers like Sarratt, Cochrane,
Lewis, and Walker were doing their best to popu-
larise the game, and they succeeded in giving it a
footing in Britain which it has never since lost.
Throughout northern Europe its study became
general ; in France, though there were few analyti-
cal writers—Alexandre being the only one of import-
ance—such players as Pee, Boncourt, and
De la Bourdonnais earned for the Parisian school a
very high reputation; the last-named player was
by far the strongest of his day. In Germany, then
as now, chief attention was given to theory ; there
were no very brilliant Bap but the analytical
work of Bilguer and Von der Lasa still remains
the standard. England, however, continued to
maintain its supremacy. Some of the greatest
European players crossed the Channel and settled
in London, and Howard Staunton, who defeated
the French champion, St Amant, came to be re-
garded as the leading player in the world. Up to
this time America had produced no player of more
than local eminence; but at the congress held at
New York in 1858, the first prize in the chief
tourney was won by a youth of twenty-one, Paul
Morphy (1837-84), of New Orleans. This player,
who from the age of ten had shown a remarkable
aptitude for the game, is admitted to be the
greatest chess genius that has yet appeared. After
his victory in New York he came over to Europe,
meeting and defeating in turn the strongest players
of London and Paris. It must always be a source
of regret that the world so soon lost his wonderful
power. After his visit to Europe he abandoned
the game in order to follow his profession, that of

advocate. He only partially recovered from amr
attack of insanity, and died at the age of forty-
seven. From this time the history of chess ceases:

to be that of a few celebrated players, and must be: .

gathered from the magazines and weekly news-
paper columns devoted to it in nearly every civil-
ised country. Public interest in it has of late:
ears increased with great rapidity, keeping pace,
it would seem, with the progress of intellectual
development. In England, where at one time or
other nearly every great modern player has resided,
the game has attained a dignity and importance:
altogether beyond that of a mere pastime, and its.
recognition by the state as a means of mental
training has been seriously demanded. Every
town and many villages have at least one club—

London having upwards of twenty; and such:

centres as Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Man-
chester, five or six. here are also numerous.
county and district associations, holding periodical
meetings in different towns in their provinces, and
offering prizes for competition among their mem-
bers. he British Chess Association, the most.
important federation of this kind, may fairly claim
to represent national chess. Having its admin-
istrative centre in London, it is governed by a.
committee of the most eminent players through-
out the kingdom, and its masters’ tournaments.
attract the strongest players from the Continent.
and America. In Germany, where almost equal
enthusiasm for chess prevails, every town has its.
club; there are many state and class associations ;
national tournaments are held at least once every
year, and international tournaments in turn wit
other countries. One significant association is that-
of the university and college chess clubs, which,
supported by many of the professors and more
advanced students, are alow beginning to com-
pee with the lay clubs in their respective cities.
n France there are yet few provincial clubs,
though their number is now increasing. Paris is.
the centre of a very strong circle of players, and
in the Café de la Régence possesses the most cele-
brated chess resort in Europe. The French govern-
ment has shown its regard for the game by pro-
viding prizes in more than one national tournament.
anon other European countries where chess is-
studied, must be mentioned Austria and Italy. Of
the former it is sufficient to say that the metro-
politan club can produce ten players (the ordi-
nary match team) who could probably defeat the:
same number from any club in the world. In
Italy the game is played in every town, and the
Italian Chess Association holds an annual tourna-
ment. In the New World, the United States of
America is, as may be supposed, in advance of
all other countries. Besides numerous city clubs.
(New York alone having nine), there are six state:
associations, and a recently organised federation
of the university clubs. In Canada the game has.
gained entrance into the public schools; there
are clubs in nearly every town, and a national
association. In Australasia there are _ state:
associations in Victoria, New South Wales, and
New Zealand. A national tournament has been.
held with great success, and it is probable will
now take place annually in one or other of the.
chief cities.

Description.—THE BoARD.—Chess is player, on
a square board divided by intersecting lines into.
64 squares. To facilitate calculation, every alter-
nate square is black, or of a dark colour. The
board should be placed so that each player has a
white square at his right-hand corner.

THE MerNn.—There are 32 men: 16 white, or
of light colour, and 16 black, or of dark colour.
Each player has 8 pieces (one king, one. queen, two
rooks or castles, two bishops, and two knights)

te,

CHESS

163

“and 8 pawns. The following diagram represents

board and men properly arranged for play :
BLACK.

wget IE pes the main rules governing chess
play are identical throughout the world, there are
several minor eee awaiting a general
settlement. complete code of laws

Sow
nn
Yy

7;
Z

“Me
|B

_(which would necessarily be complex),
published with approval and authority of
the various national associations, has be-
come almost a necessity. Where no pub-
lished code has been fixed upon, the follow-
in — be enforced without injustice :

tN. .—In cases where no distinction is
implied, the word ‘piece’ is to be under-
stood to include piece and pawn.)

Lots to be drawn for first move, and
afterwards throughout a match or sitting
each player has the first move alternately,
whatever has been the result of the previous
game. The player having first move has a
right to choice of men. If board or pieces
have been wrongly placed at the beginnin
of a game, the mistake may be rectifi
before four moves have been made, but
not after. A piece touched must be moved,
if it can be legally, or unless, before touch-
ing it, the anes say jadoube, or words to
that effect. (If the piece cannot be legally
moved, the king must be moved, but may
not castle.) If more than one piece be
touched, the adversary may select which is
to be moved. An enemy's piece touched
must be taken if it can be legally ; if not,

Fig. 1.

(N.B.—The king and queen occupy the two
middle squares, the queen being on the square of
her own colour. )

@

The King, = K, “moves only one square at
a time, but in any direction.

The Queen, = Q, may move any number of
bg in any direction in a straight
ne.
The Rook or Castle, = R, may move any
E number of squares, but only in a direction
oo to the sides of the board—not
diagonally.
, The Bishop, = B, may move any number
of squares in a straight line diagonally.
ae (It will be seen that each bishop remains
throughout the game on squares of one colour.)
The Knight, = Kt (or sometimes in American
2) literature, S, from the German Springer),
moves to the next square but one of
a different colour from that on which it rests. Its
move forms the diagonal of a parallelogram of three
squares by two. (The knight is the only piece
having power to move over an intervening piece. )
The Pawn, = P, moves one square forward
8 only, but captures diagonally. For its first
move, but not afterwards, a pawn may
move two squares, but if in doing so it an
opposing pawn, the latter may take it as if it had
moved one square only. A pawn which succeeds in
crossing the board must be exchanged for a os
or any other piece of the same colour, except a king.

All pieces, except the knight, can move only
across unoccupied squares, and all pieces (not the
pawns) capture in the direction of their moves.

The object of the ay is to take the opponent’s
king, and when the king is attacked, warning must
be given by the call of ‘check.’ If the king can-
not avoid the ‘check ’—that is, if he cannot esca
capture by his opponent’s next move, he is ‘check-

mate,’ and the game is over. The game therefore
always stops one move short of the actual capture
of the king.

the king must be moved, but may not castle.
Moving the king is a penalty enforceable
by the opponent, who must, however, en-
force it before he makes his next move. A false or
illegal move, and all moves made su uently,
must be revoked, and legal moves made in their
stead. No penalty can be enforced if the opponent
has made a move or touched a piece in reply. If a
player move out of his turn, he must retract the
move, but may be called upon by the opponent to
play the piece touched on his next move. If a
Pca touch more than one square with a piece,
e may not, for that move, play it to any of the
er so touched. If he touch a// the squares to
which it can be played, he must play it to any
one of them his opponent chooses. In castling,
the king must be moved first, or both pieces to-
gether. A pawn advanced to the eighth square
must be exchanged for a piece (not a king) of
the same colour, and the move is not complete
until a piece is demanded. It is not necessary
to call ‘check,’ but the Lag ea neglecting to do so,
cannot enforce a penalty if his opponent does not
notice the ‘check.’ A player may at any time
call upon his adversary to mate him within fifty
moves, and if at the expiration of such fifty moves,
no capture has been made, no pawn moved nor
mate given, a draw may be claimed. Bystanders
may not interfere unless appealed to by a player,
unless board or men have been wrongly placed,
or unless a false or illegal move has been made.
In the last case, however, they have no right to
interfere until a move has been made in reply.
Notation.—The necessity for some method of
recording moves and games of chess has been re-
cognised from a very early period. It is to be
tted that no universal notation has been
opted; as it is, the systems which are in vogue
are all more or less dependent upon the language
of the nation using them. The modern systems
of notation are separable into two classes, which
differ essentially: The first, that adopted by
English and Latin speaking countries (France,
Italy, &c.), has reference to the pieces. It is
somewhat cumbrous, but is more descriptive and
intelligible. The second, adopted by Germany

and northern Europe, has reference mainly to the

164

CHESS

board.

It is more concise and exact than the first

class.
The following diagram will explain the English
or Latin system of notation :

Ovid
‘bs xO |bsq7O|"bs qo] “bs © | -bs w |-bsay |bsyy | ‘bs aH
QR8\Q KtsiQB8| Q8 | K8 |KB8/K KtsikKR8
UOlZx dO 2a0| 2d | oa |ZaMsIM su
QR7/Q Kt7/QB7| Q7 | KT |KB7|KKt7}KR7
sud|iemdiead| sd | su |\eaulsarwleuy
QR6\Q Kt6hQB6] Q6 |} K6 |KB6|K KteKR6
PUOWPIN OF ad| Fd | FH [FAM UF UD
QR5iQ Kt5|QB5| Q5 | K5 |KB5|K Kt5|KR5
csud|sixdicad| ¢d | $¥ |SaUsMUsUy
QR4/\Q Kt4;QB4| Q4 | K4 |KB4|K Kt4/KR4
9nd doadd|] 9d | 9M |9TMOIN WIA
QR3iIQKt3IQB3| Q38 | K8 |KB3\|K Kt3} KR8
LM0(4970 2440] 240 |] L4H [LAM iLIM WAZA
QR2/1Q Kt27AQB2| Q2 | K2 |KB2\/K Kt2KR2
sudlsxdisaqd}] so |] 8 [Sais MsUuy
QR sq.|QKtsq! QBsq.| Qsq. | K sq. | KBsq.|KKtsq) KRsq.

WHITE.

Fig. 2.

The squares on the first rank are named after the
pieces which occupy them at the beginning of the
game; thus (beginning at the left hand) the first
square is called the queen’s rook’s square = Q R sq.,
since it is occupied by the queen’s rook. The
second square is called queen’s knight’s square =
Q Kt sq.; the third, queen’s bishop’s square =
Q Bsq.; the fourth, queen’s square = Q sq., and so
on. The squares on the first rank are called home
squares. e files are numbered according to their
dintanee from the home square, and take

should follow these moves with a board and men,
and will see then that White can only move one of
his bishops—i.e. the king’s bishop—and can only
move it to one bishop’s fourth square—i.e. queen’s
bishop’s fourth. (The queen’s bishop cannot of
course move at all, until released by the move of
either the queen’s pawn or queen’s knight’s pawn.)
Black’s third move requires no further explanation.
White’s fourth move, 4 B takes P (ch.), means that
his bishop captures one of the enemy's pawns and
gives check. It is not necessary to say which
awn, since only one can be captured—i.e. Black’s
<ing’s bishop’s pawn. For his fourth move, Black
has little choice; he must avoid the threat of
capture, and he does so by taking the checking
piece—i.e. king takes bishop.

The English notation is shortened in some cases as
follows, the same moves being recorded in each case:

(a) White. Black.
1 P= 1 P-K4,
2. Kt-KB3. 2. Kt- QB3. >
3. B- B4. 3 B- Baa
4. B x P(ch.). 4, K x B.

Here the dash - signifies ‘to,’ and x signifies
‘takes.’ The numbers of Black’s moves are omitted,
since they correspond with those of White.

(6) In some cases the dash is omitted, and the
moves recorded simply P K 4, Kt K B 3, BB4, &e.

(c) The moves are arranged in line, White’s
move being first, thus: 1 P to K 4, P to K 4, 2 Kt
to K B3, Kt to QB3, 3B to B4, BtoB4,4B
takes P (ch.), K takes B.

(dad) The moves are written in the form of a
fraction, White’s move being the numerator, and
Black’s the denominator, and the number of the
move is denoted by a figure prefixed—e.g :

1 P-K4 , Kt-KB3 3 B-B4 4 Bx P(ch.)
"P-K 4’ “Kt-Q B3’ “B-B4#’ “ KxB °

We give a diagram of the board after the above

moves have been played :

the latter’s title. Thus the squares in BLACK.

front bg be a4 3 8 nate as eed sine Y) WU Y/ Yjflly

second or , King’s third = , and so U4 YY4 Y g Y
to K 8. Each player numbers the 77 @ Ay 7 7

squares a his oven cde of the board. 80 E Y b= Y LL & Z = J

that each square has two names ite WHT, . WH . F TEE

K B square is Black K B 8, Black Q R4= ey 3 U7, é Y gig YG é

White Q R 5, &c.). A reference to the Vp GY py, Y, Yy yp, Yj

diagram will make this clear. a

In recording a game, the moves of White
and Black pieces are each arranged in
column, the name of the piece is then

iven, an is indicate i Y Yop YW) Y

a oe
couivcrmmcee | 0d le
fourth are ck thn has fo play, | we zg

CY

his side of the board. For his second move,

White plays his knight to king’s bishop’s
third square, and again it is not necessary
to say which knight, since only the king’s
knight can move to K B3. Black’s second
move is his queen’s knight to queen’s bishop’s
third square. hite’s third move is king’s bishop
to queen’s bishop’s fourth square. The student

WHITE.
Fig. 3.—Position after Black’s Fourth Move.

The German notation (known sometimes as
Philidor’s, from having been used in that master’s

treatises on chess) consists in denoting the ranks ~

ae

CHESS

165

a figure, and the files by a letter, in | Castling, a double move allowed once on the
th fig. 4: part of each gr be ina game. The rook is moved
BLACK. to the Sacer next the king, and the

king is then moved to the other side.

Figs. 5 and 6 show the operation of

a
4

ue, 7
a

we
Tey

y

YY
a

é

7, Y Z
Lib hhh

}

A

OZZZZE a

—-

ZY
Y

WZ, y

|

Ei

]
Ve
R

ZL

Uj

G

castling :

The conditions under which castling
is allowed are: (a) That neither king
nor rook have been moved; () that no
piece intervenes ; (c) that the a is
not in check; (d) that the king does
not cross a square commanded by an
opposing piece or pawn.

6 Check, the warning which must be
given when the opponent’s king is
attacked.

5 Checkmate, a ition in which the

king cannot avoid capture on his oppo-
nent’s next move. Checkmate is from
the Persian shah mat, ‘the king is dead.’

Discovered check, an attack which is
opened on the king by the removal of
an intervening piece or pawn.

In the diagram (fig. 7) the king is not
in check ; but if the rook be moved, the
diagonal with the bishop is opened, and

2 the rook is said to ‘ discover check.’
En passant.—A pawn which, having
moved two squares for its first move,
1 and thus passed an opposing pawn,

may be taken, on the next move only,

square byd 8. In the German system all the

uares are counted from White’s side only.

o denote a move, the first letter of the piece
is given, then the square on which it stands,
and lastly, the square to which it moves.
The moves of pawns are not preceded by
any initial letter. A capture is denoted by
a colon placed after the move, check is repre-
sented by +, or a check and nag Re <
Castling on the king’s side is denoted by
O — O, and on the queen’s side by O - O - O.
Taking the same moves as before, the game

would be recorded therefore as follows :
White. Black.
1. e2-e4. lL e7- e656,
2. Ktg1~/f3. 2. Ktb8-—c6.
3. Bfl-c4. 3. BS8 - ¢ 5.
4. Be4-f7t 4. Ke8-f7:
This pag may be and is in some cases
still further abbreviated by the omission (a)

of the initiai letters of the pieces, or (6) of
‘the square from which the piece moves ; and
the moves may also be written in line or
fractionally as in the Latin system.

TECHNICAL TERMS.—The following list is
not exhaustive, only the terms in general use
being given :

Blindfold Chess, or Chess sans voir, the
game played mentally, without sight of board
ormen, This almost inexplicable feat is not
altogether one of memory, as is generally
supposed ; it is rather the result of a special
faculty not necessarily corresponding with
that for ordinary chess. Some great masters,
notably Mr J. H. Blackburne, of London,
can conduct as many as twelve es blind-

Thus, referring to the English system, the White
king’s square is denoted’ by e 1, the Black queen’s | 1

oss of one of equal value.

by the latter, en passant.

Yn prise.—A piece is said to be en
prise when it is in a position to be cap-
tured by an opposing piece or pawn,
and is not properly defended.
Exchange, the capture of a piece in return for the
o ‘ win the exchange’

Fig. 5.—Castling with King’s Rook.
a, before.castling.

BF 4.

YW.
UNY
=

b, after casting.

_E

ay,
Fig. Boating ith Queen's Rook.

“ie

CLLLLELLL EL

Wf

: =

Y

b, after castling.

is to capture a rook in return for the loss of a bishop

fold simultaneously ; and most players of first and
second rate strength can play at least one in this

or knight. To ‘lose the ex ’ is to capture a

way bishop or knight in return for the loss of a rook.

166

CHESS

Gambit, a game in which one player, at the be-
ginning, voluntarily sacrifices part of his force (often
a pawn) for the sake of an ultimate advantage.

J’adoube, an expression necessary before a piece
or pawn may be touched for the purpose of adjust-
ment, &c. The rule otherwise is that a piece or
pawn touched must be moved.

Opening.—The various methods of beginning the
game have been the subjects of much study, and
are so complex as to elude anything like exhaustive
analysis. Openings are classed as: (a) Gambits
(see above), (b) Games, in which the line of play
does not involve any sacrifice, and (c) Defences,
which have reference to the line of play adopted
by the second payer Openings in which both
players move the king’s: pawn to king’s fourth
square for their first moves are arbitrarily classed
as ‘ Regular,’ all others as ‘Irregular.’ All open-
ings of repute have distinctive titles, often being
named after their inventors or from some country
where they are popular. Steinitz Gambit, Scoteh
Game, French Defence, are examples. The stud
of openings is most difficult and practically end-
less, and should not be begun until the student
has some practical acquaintance with the game.

Problem, an imaginary position in which the win-
ning line of play is artfully concealed, and has to
be discovered in accordance with given conditions.

another piece. (Of course a queen is selected in
most cases, as the most valuable piece. )

Stalemate, a position in which the king, though
not attacked, cannot move without being
subject to capture, and in which no other
move by any other piece or pawn is possible.
The game in this case is drawn.

Time Limit, a condition of modern play
under which each player is compelled to make’
a certain number of moves (generally twenty )
in each hour. The time is recorded by an
ingenious arrangement of clocks, one being
set going when the other is stopped.

See The History of Chess, by Forbes (1860);
Geschichte des Schachspiels, by Van der Linde
(Berlin, 1880); Falkener, Games, Ancient and
Oriental (1892); The Chess Player’s Handbook,
by H. Staunton (1847-49) ; Chess Openings (1889
and Chess Endings (1892) by Freeborough an
Ranken; works by Gossip (1894), Green, Mortimer,
&c. ; Handbuch des Schachspiels, by Bilguer and Von
der Lasa (Leip. 1843; 6th ed. 1880); Fuhrer durch
die Schachtheorie, by O. Cordel (Berlin, 1888); Cook’s
Synopsis ; Book of the London Tournament, 1883 ; The
Chess Problem, by Planck and others. See also the
Chess magazines.

Chest, or THORAX, in Anatomy, is the part of
the body which lies beneath the neck and above
the Abdomen (q.v.), constituting the uppermost of
the two divisions of thé trunk, or that which
contains the heart and lungs. The chest is some-
what conical in form. Its sides are rounded, but
in front and behind they are flattened. The apex, or
upper end, is truncated, sloping downwards and
forwards ; of small size, it permits of the passage
of the gullet, windpipe, certain large veins and
nerves from the neck into the chest, and of certain
large arteries out of the chest. The broad or lower
end of the cone slopes downwards and backwards,
and is shut in by the diaphragm—a large muscular
partition which projects upwards from the lower
ribs, being convex towards the chest, and concave
towards the abdomen. In Respiration (q.v.) the
diaphragm descends by its own muscular con-

traction, while at the same time the ribs

are drawn upwards and outwards by the

é

intercostal muscles.

The structures forming the walls of the
chest are: (1) The backbone or spinal
column ; (2) twelve pairs of ribs; (3) the
sternum or breastbone; (4) the Diaphragm
(q.v.); and (5) the intercostal muscles.
See SKELETON, SPINAL COLUMN, &e.

LL
ls

The contents of the chest are the heart,
the great arteries and veins, the lungs, the
trachea or windpipe, the bronchi or branches
of the trachea, leading to the lungs, the
cesophagus or gullet, and the thoracic duct,
or general terminus of the lymphatic system
of vessels, by which the chyle and lymph
are discharged into the blood. For the
organs of the chest, see the cut at ABDO-
MEN.

The very great importance of these parts
to life, and their great liability to deranged
action, renders the chest the seat of a large

roportion of the diseases which afflict
haunt, and especially of those which
end in death; for of the three organs which
Bichat called the ‘tripod of life ’—viz. the
brain, heart, and lungs—the chest contains
two. The diseases of the chest, depend in

some cases on alterations in its form, as

WHITE (5 pieces). White to play and mate in two moves.
Fig. 8.—Problem by W. Skinkman (Key move, B to R4),

Queening a pawn, the promotion of a pawn
which has crossed the board, to the power of

by Rickets (q.v.) and other diseases affect-
ing the bones in early childhood or in
youth, as by too tight lacing in girls.
What are commonly called chest diseases are
mainly those of the lungs and air-tubes, of which

Ta TS ie * ~ _— ———
¥ att

ie oe

chest, see MAN.

Aan

gateways have been all rebuilt.

CHEST

CHESTER 167

‘the principal are consumption, pneumonia, pleurisy,
eat bron itis. These are treated in special articles :
and for the diseases of the heart and other organs
of the chest, see HeArT, AorTA, CESOPHAGUS,
&c. The examination of the chest in disease is
largely conducted by Auscultation (q.v.) and
Percussion (q.v.). For measurement round the
See also DIAGNOSIS.

Chest, MILITARY, is a technical name for the
money and negotiable securities carried with an
sagt b and intended to defray the current expenses.
In the British army it is in the charge of officers of
the Army Pay Department.—CHEst AT CHATHAM
was the name of a fund for maimed and super-

annuated seamen, administered at Chatham from

1590 till 1803, and subsequently at Greenwich,
till superseded by the regular naval pension

ssystem.

Chester, an ancient episcopal city, municipal

‘and parliamentary borough, and river-port, the

capital of Cheshire, on the right bank of the Dee,

22 miles from the mouth of its estuary, 16 miles
SE. of Liverpool, and 179 miles NNW. of London.

Chester is one of the most picturesque towns in
England. It stands on a rocky sandstone height,
is still surrounded by the entire circuit cf its
ancient walls, nearly 2 miles round, 7 or 8 feet
thick, and forming a promenade with parapets,
where two persons can walk abreast. The ancient
The castle, with
the exception of ‘ Ceesar’s Tower,’ has been removed,
its site being occupied by barracks and county
‘buildings. The Dee is crossed by
two bridges, the old picturesque
bridge of seven arches, and the new
-or Grosvenor Bridge, with a noble
‘single arch of stone 200 feet in
length(see BRIDGE, Vol. IT. p.437 ).
The two main streets cross each
other at right angles, and were
cut out of the rock Dy the Romans
4 to 10 feet below the level of the
houses. These streets exhibit the
curious arrangement called the
‘rows :’ the front parts of their
second stories, as far back as 16
feet, form a continuous paved
promenade or covered gallery,
‘open in front, where there are
pillars and steps up from the
‘street below, with private houses
above, inferior shops and ware-
houses below, and the chief shops
of the town within. There are a
considerable number of the pic-
turesque old timber houses of the
16th century, and many of the
‘more modern buildings are in
the same style of architecture.
‘Chester Cathedral is an irregular massive struc-
ture of crumbling sandstone, 375 by 200 feet, with
a massive tower of 127 feet. It was formecly
the church of the abbey of St Werburgh, whic

for 650 years was one of the richest in England.
‘It became a cathedral church after the dissolution
‘of the monasteries. It is of various dates from
Norman to Late Perpendicular, its most strik-
‘ing feature being the fine Perpendicular window
of the west front. The building has undergone
extensive restoration under the direction of the
late Sir Gilbert Scott. A part of St John’s Church,
‘a ruined Norman edifice, has lately been restored.
It was a cathedral church for some years during
‘the 11th century, when the See of Lichfield was
‘temporarily transferred to Chester. The present
*bishoprie of Chester dates from the reign of a
‘VIII. Other public buildings are the town-hall,

the Grosvenor Hotel, the general post-office, the
free library, and the music-hall. Suburbs of villas
have recently grisen outside the walls ; and a public
ark was opened in 1867. On the common called
the Roodee there is a racecourse. The huge rail-
way station, with a frontage of 1010 feet, is the
centre of several important railways. Chester has
manufactures of lead, oil, and chemicals, iron-
foundries, and an iron-shipbuilding yard. The
making of boots and shoes is an important
industry. The navigation of the Dee has lately
been greatly improved. The chief exports are
cheese, copper, cast-iron, and coal. Pop. (1851)
27,756 ; (87 ) 35,257 ; (1881) 36,788 ; (1891) 37,105.
The city is a county in itself. It has returned
members to parliament since the reign of Henry
VIII., but by the Distribution of Seats Act, 1885,
it lost one of its two members.
Chester was Deva or Devana Castra, an im-
rtant Roman station, and has yielded many
oman remains—as masonry, coins, inscriptions,
fibule, altars, a hypocaust, and a statue of Pallas.
The British name was Caerleon: Chester, alone or
in composition, represents the Anglo-Saxon Ceaster,
from the Roman Castra. After the departure of
the Romans it was held by Britons, Saxons, and
Danes ; and in 605 was laid utterly waste by Ethel-
frith of Northumbria. It remained an inclosure of
waste walls—occupied at times, as in 894, by a body
of marauding Danes, till in 908 it was rebuilt by
Ethelred of Mercia; and prosperity came after
942. Chester was the last place in England that
held out against William the Conqueror; not till

In the Rows, Chester.

its capture (1070) was the duke really king of
England. Henry Lupus, nephew of the Conqueror,
was created Earl of Chester, and until the time of
Henry III. the Earls of Chester had their own
courts and parliaments at Chester, with eight
subfeudatories and the miperions of the great
religious houses, Cheshire being then a county
alatine. On the death of John, Earl of Chester,

enry III. made his eldest son Earl of Chester,
and since that time the title has usually been held
along with that of Prince of Wales by the eldest sons
of English sovereigns. Llewelyn ravaged Chester
in 1255. The twenty-five famous Chester mysteries
or religious plays by Randle, a monk (1250-60),
were acted in the chureh., After a long and
memorable siege (1643-46), the inhabitants, who
held out bravely for the king, were starved into
surrender. A projected Fenian attack on the

168 CHESTER

CHESTNUT

castle in 1867 proved abortive. Among the bishops
of Chester have been Pearson, Porteus, and Stubbs.
Trinity Church contains the graves of Matthew
Henry, the commentator, and the poet Parnell.

See CHESHIRE; and books by Rupert Morris (1895)
and G. L. Fenwick (1897).

Chester, a city of Delaware county, Pennsyl-
vania, on the Delaware, 15 miles SW. of Philadel-
phia by rail, with a military academy, shipbuildin
yards, and many manufactures. Onginally cael
Upland, it was founded by the Swedes in 1643, and
is the oldest town in the state. Pop. (1860) 4631 ;
(1890) 20,226.—SouTH CHESTER, a inanufacturing
suburb, had a pop. of 7076 in 1890.

Chester, Jos—EpH LEMUEL, genealogist, born
in Norwich, Connecticut, 30th April 1821, was a
newspaper editor in Philadelphia, and in 1858 came
to England, where he edited the Registers of West-
minster (1876) and other registers; part of his
copy of the Oxford matriculation register has been
printed (1887), and his extracts from the Bishop
of London’s register were published under the
title London Marriage Licenses (1887). Chester
was an LL.D. of Columbia College, and D.C.L. of
Oxford, but always retained the title of Colonel, a
reminiscence of the honorary post of aide-de-camp
to a Pennsylvania governor which he had once
held. He died in London, 26th May 1882. See
Dean’s Memoir (1884).

Chesterfield, a municipal borough in Derby-
shire, on the Rother rivulet, 124 miles SSE. of
Sheffield by rail. All-Saints’ Church (circa 1350)
has a curious crooked spire, 228 feet high, and 6 feet
off the perpendicular; in Trinity Church (1838) is
buried George Stephenson. Other buildings are
the town-hall (1857), the Stephenson memorial
hall, and the grammar-school (1574; rebuilt 1846).
There are: manufactures of silk, lace, earthenware,
and machinery ; and the neighbourhood is rich in
coal, iron, and other minerals. Brindley’s Chester-
field Canal (1776) extends 46 miles to the Trent.
Pop. (1851) 7101 ; (1881) 12,221 ; (1891) 13,242. See
books by Yeatman (1885) and A. J. Foster (1896).

Chesterfield, PHitip DorMER STANHOPE,
EARL OF, was the eldest son of the third Earl of
Chesterfield, and was born in London, September
22, 1694. He studied at Cambridge, made the
grand tour, and sat in the House of Commons as
member for St Germains in Cornwall from 1716 to
1726, when he became Earl of Chesterfield. In
1730 he was made Lord Steward of the Household.
Until then Chesterfield, who was a Whig, had
fuppered Walpole; but being ousted from his
office because he had objected to an excise bill
introduced by that minister, he went over to the
opposition, and proved himself one of Walpole’s
bitterest antagonists. He joined the ministry
formed by the Pelhams in 1744, and was in 1746
one of the principal secretaries of state. In 1748 he
was com dlled by ill-health and deafness to retire
from public life. He was at one time on terms of
intimacy with Swift, Pope, and Bolingbroke. Later
in life, by obtruding on Samuel Johnson the patron-
age which he had withheld till the publication of
the Dictionary, he drew from the lexicographer
the indignant letter which will keep his name in
remembrance while English literature is read.
Besides writing the well-known Letters to his Son,
Chesterfield contributed several papers on subjects
of the hour to The Craftsman and The World. He
died on March 24, 1773. The object of the Letters
was to form his natural son, Philip, into an
accomplished man of the world. They contain a
good deal of shrewd and solid observation, but
their teaching is not of an elevating nature. To
shine in the world, to conform to the minute code
of etiquette which then ruled society, are the ends

on which the writer sets most store. The:
expression is occasionally coarse, but the worst-
feature of the book is the manner in which Chester-
field handles the topic of gallantry.

His letters were edited by Lord Mahon (1845-53), Lord
Carnarvon (1890), and J. Bradshaw (1892). See his Wit
and Wisdom by W. E. Browning and the Memoirs of him
by W. Ernst (1893), the Essay by Sainte-Beuve (trans.
1870), and Churton Collins’s Hssays and Studies (1895).

Chesterfield Inlet, a narrow gulf penetrating

to the westward from the NW. of Hudson Bay, |

its extreme dimensions being 250 and 25 miles.

Chester-le-Street, a market-town in_ the
county of Durham, near the left bank of the Wear,
6 miles N. of Durham city. The seat of the Bishop
of Bernicia from 883 to 995, it has an old collegi-
ate church (restored 1862), with a spire 156 feet-
high ; whilst in the neighbourhood are Lambton,
Lumley, and Ravensworth Castles, the seats of the:
Earls of Durham, Scarborough, and Ravensworth.
Coal-mines and ironworks are numerous. Pop, of
township (1851) 2580; (1891) 8623.

Chestnut, or CHESNUT (Castanea), which.
must be clearly distinguished from the Horse Chest-
nut described below, a genus of Cupuliferze, closely
allied to the Beech (Fagus), and distinguished from:
it by long male catkins, longitudinally set with.
groups of flowers, a 5-8-celled ovary, and com-
pressed rounded nuts. The name is derived from

Branchlet, with Catkins, of Common Chestnut

(Castanea vulgaris) :
a, fruit; b, seed.

Spanish, or Sweet Chestnut (C. vulgaris), is said to»
have been first brought from Asia Minor, but has.
long extended over the south of Europe, where:
it has become completely naturalised, and forms.
extensive woods. It is an ornamental and stately,
or, in exposed situations, a very spreading tree, of

reat size and longevity: the famous chestnut of

ortworth in England was known as a boundary-
mark in the reign of King John; while a yet more:
celebrated tree on Mount Etna is said to have:
measured 204 feet in circumference. The timber is.
durable and hard, and is used in house-building,.
for making furniture, and for many other purposes.
The timber described as chestnut in ancient build-
ings is usually, however, really oak. The bark iss

the town of Castanum, in Thessaly. The Common, ~

;

CHESTNUT

CHEVALIER 169

~ BODE ste ae

i al

used for <a but is worth only about half the

price of oak-bark. Young chestnut-trees are much
esteemed for hop and espalier poles. The chestnut
is therefore frequently grown in England as coppice-
wood ; but it waabenee well as a timber-tree even in

Scotland, although it does not generally ripen its

fruit. In Devonshire, however, and in some other
parts of England, it is planted as a fruit-tree. It
succeeds throughout the middle latitudes of
Germany, but dislikes a damp foggy atmosphere.
It prefers a dry light soil, and succeeds only where
there is a dry subsoil. The nuts are generally three
in each husk. They form an important part of the
food of the poor in the south of Europe, being used
either roasted or boiled, and are ground into flour,
and made into a kind of bread. They contain 15
per cent. of sugar, and by pressure yield a fer-
mentable sugary juice. en cultivated as a
fruit-tree it is generally grafted, by which means
the better varieties are secured. A variety with
_ pope a De foliage, and another with thin thread-

ke divided leaves, are sometimes cultivated for
their foliage. Other species also bear eatable
fruits: those of the American Chestnut (C. awmeri-
cana), a tree much resembling the common chest-
nut, and of the Dwarf Chestnut, or Chinquapin
(C. pumila), a low tree, or more generally a shrub
of 7-8 feet high, are used in America.—A number
of species are natives of the East. The inhabit-
ants of the mountains of Java eat the fruit of the
Silvery Chestnut (C. argentea), and the Tungurrut
(C. Tungurrut), boiled or roasted, like the common
chestnut. Both of these are large trees, the Tun-
gurrut reaching a height of 150 feet. Closely akin
to the true chestnuts is the Californian Chinquapin
( Castanopsis Chrysophylla).

The HORSE-CHESTNUT ( 4’sculus Hippocastanum)
is a wholly distinct Sapindaceous tree, supposed to
have been introduced from Asia about the middle
or latter half of the 16th century; and of which
the exceptionally magnificent foliage and blossom,
rapid growth, stately size, and general effect have
made it a favourite among arboriculturists, though
the timber is soft and of little value. It forms
singularly effective avenues: those of Bushy Park
at Hampton Court Palace near London are well
known and largely visited, particularly when in

Branch, with Blossom, of Horse-chestnut
( Zisculus Hippocastanum ) :
a, vertical section of single flower; b, fruit; c, a single seed,
its coat partly removed,

flower. The palmate leaves and terminal racemes
or icles need no description, while the charac-
teristic 3-lobed, thick, prickly capsule, with its one
or two (rarely three fully deve oped) beautifully
marked and coloured , is among the most
familiar recollections of childish treasure-trove in
early autumn. Other species and varieties have

also been introduced, of which 4. indica is prob-
ably the handsomest. 4. rubicunda, the so-called
scarlet-flowered horse-chestnut, although sometimes
described as a native of North America, is perhaps
only a variety of the preceding. The American
os of Aisculus and its practically indistinguish-
able ally, a sub-genus Pavia, are popularly termed
Buck-eye. None isso beautiful, or at least possesses
such a combination of beauties, as the common
horse-chestnut ; but P. californica, although only
reaching a height of 12 to 15 feet, has a singular
wealth of fragrant blossom. P. rubra, with its
many varieties, is the Red Buck-eye.

In Queensland the seeds of Castanospermum, a
leguminous tree, are sometimes eaten like chestnuts,
and so called ; similarly is it at the Cape with the
seeds of Brabejum stellatum, a Proteaceous plant.
The so-called water-chestnut of Europe is the
curious horned nut of Zrapa natans (order Halora-

iacew), and is an article of food in southern
urope, China, and Cashmere. See TRAPA.

Chetham, Humpurey (1580-1653), a Man-
chester merchant and cloth manufacturer, founder
of a bluecoat hospital and of a public library at
Manchester (q.v.). See BooK-CLUB.

Chettle, HENRY, a dramatist and pamphleteer
of the 16th century, was editor of Greene’s Groat’s-
worth of Wit (1592), wrote thirteen plays of con-
siderable merit, and was part author of thirty-five
others, including Robin Hood in two parts, Patient
Grisel, The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, and
Jane Shore. In Meres’s Palladis Tamia (1598) he
is mentioned as one of ‘the best for comedy
amongst us.’ Of his other works, his Kind-Hart's
Dreame (1593?) and Englande’s Mourning Garment
(1603) are of interest, the former as containing an
apolo undoubtedly intended for Shakespeare as
one of those whom Greene had attacked ; the latter,
a stanza supposed to be addressed to Shakespeare
as ‘silver-tonged Melicert.’ Chettle died about
1607.

Chevalier, an honorary title given, especiall
in the 18th century, to younger sons of Frene
noble families. Brought up in comparative luxury,
and left at the death of their fathers almost entirely
unprovided for, these men generally lived at the
expense of others, as a sort of aristocratic parasites,
even when they did not prefer recourse to such less
honourable means of livelihood as gave occasion to
the synonym for swindler, chevalier d’industrie.
In the plays of the 18th century the chevalier is a
constant figure.—Both the Old and Young Pretender
were called the Chevalier by their partisans.

Chevalier, Micuet, an eminent French
economist, was born at Limoges, January 13, 1806,
and “was trained as an engineer. At first an
ardent St Simonian and busy contributor to the
Globe, he attached himself to the party of Enfantin,
and took an active part in the compilation of the
famous propagandist Livre Nouveau. After six
months’ imprisonment in 1832, he had the prudence
to retract all that he had written in the Globe con-
trary to Christianity and against marriage. Soon
after he was sent by Thiers to inquire into the
systems of water and railway communication in
the United States. In 1837 he published his chief
work, Des Intéréts Matériels en France. He was
made a councillor of state in 1838, and was
appointed in 1840 to the chair of Political Economy
in the Collége de France. In 1845 he was returned
by Aveyron to the Chamber of Deputies. After
the revolution of 1848 he made onslaughts that were
never met upon the socialism of Louis Blane in

ions de Travailleurs, as well as in the Revue
Deux Mondes and the Journal des Débats.

A number of these vigorous and masterly articles
were collected under the titles, Lettres sw

170 CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE

CHEVROTAINS

LOrganisation du Travail (1848) and Questions
politiques et sociales (1852). A free-trader in
economics, Chevalier in 1860 aided Cobden in carry-
ing into effect the commercial treaty between
France and England. For this he was created a
senator and Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour.
He took an active interest in the great exhibitions
at London (1862) and Paris (1867). He died at
Montpellier, 28th November 1879.
Chevaux-de-Frise (Fr., ‘Friesland horses,’
so called as having been first used in Fries-
land during the wars of the 17th century) is a
mnilitary obstacle of the form shown in the

Chevaux-de-Frise.

figure. It is difficult to make unless skilled
labour and the necessary materials, such as iron
railings, gas-pipes or hop-poles, are at hand, but
is kept in a fortress as an article of store. The
pattern used by the British army consists of a
cylindrical iron tube, 6 feet long and about 5 inches
in diameter, pierced with 12 holes to receive as
many spears of the same length, which are packed
in the tube when not required. Several lengths
connected by chains may be used as barriers or as
obstacles in the ditch of a fort, or in any place
where required. It is, however, generally easy
to roll them out of the way, though at the siege
of Badajoz, during the Peninsular war, one formed
of sword-blades fixed into beams of wood, and
placed in the breach, was found to be a very
serious obstacle by the British storming party.

Chevet. See APSE.

Cheviot Hills, a mountain-range occupyin
contiguous parts of the counties of Norchuniberiaae
and Roxburgh, on the English and Scotch borders,
and running 35 miles from near the junction of the
Till and Tweed, in the NE., to the sources of the
Liddel, in the SW. The principal points are
Cheviot Hill (2676 feet) and Peel Fell (1964). West
of Carter Fell, these hills chiefly consist of Silurian
rocks overlaid by Old Red Sandstone, and Lower
Carboniferous strata, with which various igneous
rocks are associated. The east portion of the range,
including higher and more or less conical and
abrupt hills, is built up almost exclusively of
ancient lava-flows and tuffs pene hy site and por-
phyrite-tuff), which are traversed by a mass of
augite-granite, and by veins of felsite, dikes of
basalt, &c. In the Cheviot Hills are the sources of
the Liddel, Tyne, Coquet, and some of the branches
of the Tweed. Grouse abound, and the golden
eagle is occasionally seen. These hills afford pas-
ture for the Cheviots, a superior breed of sheep.
They have been the scene of many a bloody contest
between the English and Scotch, and the name is
commemorated in that of the famous old ballad of
Chevy Chase, for the history in which see OTTER-
BURN. See five articles by Professor James Geikie
in Good Words (1876).

Chevreul, Miche, EvGéENE, a great French
chemist, born at Angers, August 31, 1786. At
seventeen he went to Paris, where he pursued the
study of chemistry at the College of France, under
the famous Vauquelin, with such zeal and success
that at twenty he was allowed to take charge of
the laboratory. He next lectured at the College
Charlemagne, and was appointed special professor
of Chemistry in charge of the dyeing department

at the Gobelins. In 1826 he took his seat in the
Academy of Sciences, and in 1830 became director
of the Museum of Natural History. One of his
earliest discoveries was that of margarine, oleine,
and stearine in oils and fats. His studies in fat
bodies and his theory of saponification opene
up vast industries. Between the years 1828 and
1864 Chevreul studied colours, publishing important
memoirs from time to time. This patriarch of the
scientific world, ‘le doyen des étudiants de France,’
as he loved to be called, kept u
age seen by but few. In 1886 the hundredth anni-
versary of his birth was celebrated with great enthu-
siasm. A medal was struck, and a grand féte given
at the Museum in his honour, while he was presented
with his bust by his colleagues at the Academy of
Sciences, _Chevreul was F.R.S. and a Commander
of the Legion of Honour. Besides papers and me-
moirs innumerable in the learned journals, he pub-
lished works on dyeing (1831), on the optical efiects
of silk stuffs, on colours and their application to the
industrial arts (1864), and histories of chemical sci-
ence (1866) and of theories of matter (1878). His De
la Baguette divinatoire, du Pendule explorateur et
des Tables tournantes (1854), is the best book on the
subjects which it treats. Died April 9, 1889.
Chevron, in Architecture, a moulding in the
form of a succession of chevrons, otherwise called
a zigzag moulding. In general, it is characteristic

Chevron or Zigzag, Andover, Hants.

of Norman architecture, but is also found with the
inted arch, during the transition period from
orman to Early English.
CHEVRON, in Heraldry, an ordinary formed of
two bands, joined together at the top, and descend-
ing to the extremities of the shield in the form of

Per Chevron,

Chevron. Chevronel.
a pair of compasses. Chevronel, a diminutive—half
the size—of the chevron.

CHEVRON is also the name of a V-shaped band
of worsted braid or gold lace, worn on the sleeve
by non-commissioned officers of the British army as
a badge of rank. Four chevrons indicate a ser-
geant-major or staff-sergeant, three a sergeant, two
a corporal, and one a bombardier in the artillery,
a second corporal in the engineers, and a _lance-
corporal in other branches. Good-conduct badges
are preset similar, but the point is upwards in-
stead of downwards. ‘They are worn by non-com-
missioned officers below the rank of sergeant, and
as private soldiers as well. A similar use is made
of chevrons in the army of the United States and
other countries.

Chevrotains, or MOUSE-DEER (7ragulide), a
family of small ungulates, intermediate between
true deer and hogs. The family includes two
genera, Tragulus and we ponies tay often confused
with musk-deer, with which they have no special
connection. As to characters it may be noted that
they have no upper front teeth, but well-developed

his studies to an

Ak i tat

CHEVY CHASE

CHIAR-OSCURO 171

ted canines, especially in the males; there are
complete toes on each foot; there are no horns
nor musk-glands; the stomach has no distinct
manyplies, and thus only three chambers; the
placenta is diffuse. Tragulus is represented by a
number of small species from southern and south-
eastern Asia, Malay Archipelago, &c.; 7’. javannicus
is much eaten. Hyomoschus is represented by a
single species (H. aquaticus) from the west coast
of Africa. It is rather larger and stouter than
Tragulus, and has aquatic habits. The family
dates from the Miocene period. See UNGULATA.

Chevy Chase. See OTTERBURN.

Chewing-gum, a preparation the use of which
has become a widespread habit in the United
States. It is made from a gum called Chicle, pro-
duced by a Moxican tree allied to the india-rubber
tree, and first imported in 1867 with a view to its
ene in india-rubber manufacture. The
gum sweetened, and may be flavoured with
peppermint, liquorice, tolu, or other flavouring
su ces. Spruce-gum is also much used in its
manufacture.

Cheyenne, capital of the state of Wyoming,
is situated on the eastern slope of the Laramie
Mountains, at the height of 6000 feet above the.sea.
It is an important station of the Union Pacific
Railroad at its junction with the Denver Pacific and
Colorado Central railroads, and is 106 miles N. of
Denver, and 516 miles W. of Omaha. Coal and
iron are found in its neighbourhood. Cheyenne,
settled in 1867, had in 1870 a population of 1450;
in 1880, 3456; in 1890, 11,690.

Cheyenne Indians, « warlike branch of the
Algonquin stock, originally on the Red River
of the North, later on the Cheyenne River in
Wyoming, and as far south as the Arkansas. From
1861 to 1867 the government had frequent wars
and other troubles with them. ‘To the number of
2137 they are now (1891) settled in Oklahoma.

Cheyne, GEORGE, physician, was born in 1671
at Methlick, in Aberdeenshire, and, after studying
at Edinburgh under Pitcairn, started a London
sent in 1702, in which year he was elected a

ellow of the Royal Society. Full living made him
enormously fat (thirty-two stone weight), as well
as asthmatic, but from a strict adherence to a milk
and vegetable diet he derived so much benefit that
he recommended it in all the later of his dozen
medical treatises, which included A New Theory
ov Fevers (1701); Phil hical Principles of

atural Religion (1705); Essay of Health and
Long Life (1725), and The English Malady, a
Treatise on Nervous Disorders (1733). Cheyne
died at Bath, 13th April 1743.

Cheyne, THomaAs KELLY, one of the foremost
Old Testament scholars in England, was born in
London, September 18, 1841. Educated at Mer-
chant Taylors’ School and Worcester College,
Oxford, he carried off among other honours the
Chancellor’s medal for the English essay, and be-
came Fellow of Balliol College in 1869. He was
rector of Tendring in Essex from 1881 to 1885, when
he was appointed Oriel professor of the Interpreta-
tion of bs igs bast at Oxford, and Canon of
Rochester. He was a member of the Old Testa-
ment Revision Company, and has contributed
many articles on biblical Fee yg to the magazines
and reviews. A critic of ripe scholarship and re-
markable clearness in exposition, free from the
tendency to rash destructiveness that mars the
work of so many of the best contemporary critics in
Germany, he has done much to advance biblical
science in England without weakening the real
buttresses of the faith. His chief books are The
Prophecies of Isaiah (1880; 3d ed. 1885); Eaposi-

tion of Jeremiah and Lamentations (1883); Book
of Psalms (1888); Introduction to Isaiah (1895) ;
saiah (revised text and translation, 1897).

Chhatisgarh is the south-east division of the
Central Provinces of India, with an area, including
feudatory states, of 25,013 sq. m. ; pop. 3,115,997.
It is mainly a vast, fertile, grain-producing plateau.
Dongargdon is the capital.

Chiabrera, GABRIELLO, an Italian t, born
at Savona, 8th June 1552. He was educated at
Rome under the care of his uncle, after whose death
he entered the service of Cardinal Cornaro, but was
obliged to leave it for revenging himself upon a
Roman nobleman who had wronged him. He
married at fifty, and after an easy and well-spent
life, died at See ae 14th October 1637. hia-
brera’s poetical faculty blossomed late. An en-
thusiastic student of Greek, he conceived a great
admiration of Pindar, and strove not unsuccessfully
to imitate him. He was not less happy in catching
the naif and pleasant spirit of Anacreon ; his can-
zonette ese) distinguished for their ease and
elegance, while his Lettere Famigliari was the first
attempt to introduce the poetical epistle into
Italian literature. Chiabrera also wrote several
epics, bucolics, and dramatic poems. Collections
of his lyries, under the title Rime, were published
at Rome in 1718 (3 vols.), at Venice in 1737 (5
vols.), and at Milan in 1807 (3 vols.). Prefixed is
a naif but interesting fragment of autobiography.

Chia’‘na (ancient Clanis), a river of Central Italy,
orlginey, a tributary of the Tiber, watering the
perfectly level Val di Chiana, which its overflow
(see CHIUSI) rendered once the most pestilential
district of Italy. The bed was deepened in 1789-
1816, and in 1823 extensive hydraulic works were
undertaken for further improving the river-course,
and for leading a northern branch, through canals,
to the river Arno, a few miles below Arezzo, the
southern stream reaching the Tiber, through the
Paglia at Orvieto. The double stream is 60 miles
long, and 4 to 1 mile broad; and the district has
since become one of the most fruitful in all Italy.

Chianti, an Italian mountain-range, in the
province of Siena, clothed with olive and mulberry
trees and vines ; the mountain gives name to an
excellent red wine grown here.

Chiapas, LAs, a state of Mexico, on the Pacific,
adjoining Guatemala. Largely a part of the table-
land of Central America, it enjoys a delicious
climate ; and where the navigable Rio Chiapas cuts
through the middle of the plateau, the valleys are
among the most fertile portions of the republic,
pS ge the country is still almost everywhere
clothed with primeval forest. Area, 27,250 square
miles; pop. 270,000, chiefly aborigines. Capital,
San Cristobal. Near Palenque, one of its towns,
are most extensive and magnificent ruins.

Chiaramon’te, a town of Sicily, 30 miles W.
of Syracuse, with trade in wine. Pop. 9364.

Chia’‘ri, a town of Lombardy, 13 miles W. of
Brescia by rail, with manufactures of silk. At one
time strongly fortified, it is memorable for the
victory here of the Austrians, under Prince Eugene,
over the French and Spaniards, under Villeroi, 2d
September 1701. Pop. 5999.

Chiar-oscu'ro (lItal.), an artistic term, com-

of two Italian words, the one of which
signifies light, the other darkness or shadow. But
chiar-oscuro signifies neither light nor shadow;
neither is it ps de uately described My saying that
it is the art of isposing of both the lghts and
shadows in a picture, so long as either is
apart from the other. It is rather the art of

representing light in shadow and shadow in tig

so that the parts represented in shadow shall

172 CHIASTOLITE

CHICAGO

have the clearness and warmth of those in light,
and those in light the depth and softness of those
in shadow. It is not the making of the one die
softly and gradually away into the other, but the
preservation of both in combination, as we con-
stantly see it in nature, when the light is not the
mere glare of the sun striking on a particular
object, nor the shadow the entire absence of the
influence of light. That the skilful treatment of
chiar-oscuro is a matter of extreme difficulty is
plain enough from the very small number of artists
who ever attain to it. ‘Still, it is a branch of art
without the mastery of which no painting can be
successful in any department. It is as indispens-
able in pore rene as in the highest depart-
ments of ideal arts; and though a just and even a
lofty conception of the subject may be distinctly
indicated by attention to form alone, it is im-
possible that its realisation can ever be satisfac-
torily accomplished by any one who has not
mastered this most subtle mode of handling colours.
The only mode by which a knowledge of chiar-
oscuro can be attained, so as to apply it to
practice, is by studying it as exhibited in the
works of such painters as Titian, Rubens, Rem-
brandt, and Correggio.

Chiastolite, a variety of the mineral Anda-
lusite (q.v.).

Chia’vari, a port of Italy, 24 miles ESE. of
Genoa by rail, with a number of fine churches and
palaces, fisheries, and some trade. Pop. 8582.

Chiavenna, a town of Lombardy, beautifully
situated to the north of Lake Como, on the way
to the Spliigen Pass. Pop. 2848.

Chica, a dyestuff giving an orange-red colour
to cotton. It is obtained by boiling the leaves of
a species of Bignonia (B. chica), a climber of the
banks of the Cassiquiare and the Orinoco. The
Indians use it for painting their bodies. See
BIGNONIACEX.—CHICA, or CHICHA, is also the
name of a kind of beer made from Maize (q.v.).

Chicacole, a town of the district of Ganjam,
in the Madras ponranets on the Languliya River,
567 miles NE. of Madras by the Grand Trunk Road.
For many years it was a military station, and has
a reputation for muslins. Pop. (1891) 15,587.

Chicago (pron. She-kah’-go), the second largest
city on the American continent, and the most re-
markable example of rapid and
substantial municipal growth in
the nineteenth century, is the
commercial, financial, and political metropolis of
the United States west of the os pred Moun-
tains. It is situated at the mouth of the Chicago
River, on the west shore of Lake Michigan, in 41°
52’ N. lat., and 87° 35’ W. long., and covers an area
of 187 square miles. The Chicago River intersects
the city first into the north and south sides, and
then by its two main forks, parallel with the lake,
forms a western division, these divisions being con-
nected by three tunnels and fifty swinging bridges,
of which three are used by elevated railways.

The early French explorers Joliet and Marquette
visited the spot in 1673, where they found the port-
age used by the Indians to pass from the Mississippi
River to the lakes and the St Lawrence. A church
and fort were built on the present site of the city by
the French, but their possession of the place was
never continuous, that practically beginning with
the building of ‘Fort Dearborn’ in 1804 by the
Americans, who succeeded to the title wrested
from the French by the British. For nearly thirty
years after that Chicago was little more than a
trading post, suffering from the various vicissi-
tudes common to the frontier, its growth being
best shown by the United States censuses, viz. :

Copyright 1888, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J. B.
Lippincott Company.

1850, 29,963; 1860, 112,172; 1870, 298,977; 1880,
503,185 ; 1890, 1,099,850. In 1892 the school census
gave the city a population of 1,438,010, which
was increased to 1,616,635 by the census of 1896;
the best estimate for 1897 was 1,752,000, and for
January 1, 1899, 1,850,000; but the United States
census of 1900 lowered this to 1,698,575.

From the date of its incorporation Chicago liter-
ally began to rise out of its antediluvian mud,
just as subsequently it rose above the ashes of
the most devastating fire of all history. The eity
ordinances required streets to be graded some 8
to 12 feet above the natural level. Houses of all
sizes were jacked up to the new grade of the streets,
and these gradually became among the finest busi-
ness and pleasure thoroughfares in America. With
some half a dozen diagonal exceptions, these streets
are laid out at right angles with mathematical
regularity. The minimum width is 60 feet, but
those on the quarter section (half-mile lines) are’
70, while State street is 100, and some of the
boulevards are 120 feet. Including the boule-
vards, which are under the control of Park com-
missions, the streets of Chicago measure over 2100
miles, and they are daily being extended into the
prairies to the south, west, and north, which are
now covered by the richest market gardens in the
world near a great city. Almost before these streets
are staked out, drained, and curbed they are occupied
by street car lines, of which there are ten, having a
total length of over 500 miles and stretching from
the centre of the city in all directions. Some of
these carry passengers from the outskirts to the
business centre, a distance of fifteen miles, for the
single fare of five cents. Originally operated by
horses, these are now almost exclusively worked by
the cable or electric trolley systems.

Chicago boasts a park system without a parallel
in the world. It embraces Lincoln Park along the
lake on the north side, Jackson Park on the lake
south, Washington Park two miles west of the
latter, with which it is connected by the Midway
Plaisance of World’s Fair fame, and Douglas, Gar-
field, and Humboldt Parks. These parks are linked
together by ‘pede boulevards twenty-six mileslong,
and are each accessible by boulevards from the busi-
ness centre of the city. The total road mileage in
the park system approaches 100 miles. Besides the
parks mentioned, Chicago is now engaged in re-
claiming 163 acres of land from the lake immediately
in front of the business centre. When this work is
completed, the total park area of the city will be 2169
miles. Jackson Park, to the south-east of the city,
was the scene of the national Columbian Exposition
or World’s Fair, which opened May 1, 1893, in cele-
bration of the fourth centenary of the discovery of
America by Columbus. The leading architects of
America had been given carte-blanche to design
and construct giant buildings upon a common scale
so that they would complement each other by con-
trasts and hiend in a whole of wondrous consist-
ency and beauty. The result was the White City.
The area occupied for the exposition was 633 acres.
Some idea of the size of the buildings may be
gained from that of the Manufactures and Liberal
Arts building. This was 1687 feet long by 787 wide,
and covered 304 acres of ground. The exposition
remained open until October 30, 1893, and was
visited by 23,529,400 persons. Its cost was over
$18,000,000, the citizens of Chicago bearing the
enormous loss represented in the difference between
the expense and the receipts, amounting to over
$10,000,000.

Chicago has the finest water supply and system
of any large city in the world. It is drawn from
the depths of Lake Michigan through four tunnels
extending from two to four miles from the shore.
As the lake is fed by subterranean springs through

limestone at a depth reaching 1000 feet, the purity
as well as the inexhaustible nature of this supply
is evident. The danger of its contamination from
the sewage of a city rapidly approaching two mil-
lions, led in 1889 to the adoption of a plan to cut a
monster canal from the Chicago River to Joliet on
Let Desplaines sited a mer esere 7 30 miles, for the

urpose of disposing of the city’s sewage,
vier ite vilution b ,000 sabes feet of lake cae
per minute, and the ultimate utilization as a shi
eanal to connect Chicago with New Orleans an
the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi. This canal
was commenced in 1891, and was expected to be
completed in five years, at a cost of $22,000,000;
but July 1, 1897, the cost had amounted to
$24,000,000, and it was not until January 17, 1900,
that the canal was opened. Through ten miles of
its course it is 200 feet wide and 35 feet deep, cut
through the solid rock ; the minimum depth is 22
feet. It is altogether one of the great engineering
works of the century.

The health of the city is as phenomenal as the

wth of Chicago itself. For the year ending March

1, 1897, calculated on a school census notoriously
below the actual Vo ga the death-rate of the
city was 14°22 per 1000. The weather bureau gives
Chicago the lead with more miles of wind per
annum than any other observation station in
America. Hence its sobriquet of ‘The Windy City.’

A railway map of the United States shows that
Chicago is the rail centre of the continent. Over
114,000 miles of railroad, or more than one-half of
the mileage of the United States, Canada, and
Mexico, converge here. The amount of tonnage
forwarded via the Chicago lines during 1890 was
4,595,440 tons. Chicago is a port of entry ; this in-
land city is the greatest shipping port on the conti-
nent. In 1896, 8663 vessels arrived at Chicago and
8773 cleared. A remarkable change has recently
come over the size of the vessels entering Chicago.
In 1890 there were 10,507 entered with a total ton-
nage of 5,138,253 ; the 8663 which entered last year

a tonnage of 6,481,152.

The Union Stock-yards, situated in the south-
western part of the city, compose the largest live-
stock market in the world. They cover over 400
acres of land and have accommodations for 25,000
head of cattle, 150,000 hogs, 20,000 sheep, and
stabling for 1000 horses. The receipts of live-stock
handled here in 1896 comprised 2,600,476 cattle,
138,337 calves, 7,659,472 hogs, 3,590,655 sheep, and
105,978 horses, gating 14,094,918 head, valued
at $187,745,655, received in 277,437 cars. The ship-
ments of dressed beef made from Chicago to every

uarter of the globe amounted for the year 1896 to
the enormous total of 980,930,688 pounds. ‘

The city is also the largest grain market in the
world. Of the nd total of 612,714,283 bushels
of flour and grain received at the eight principal
grain centres of the United States in 1896, no less
than 253,802,134, or not far from one-half, were
received at Chicago.

One of the first things to attract the attention
of the visitor to the city is the number and mag-
nificence of its tall buildings called ‘sky-scrapers.’
All the weight of these immense structures is car-
ried on ariveted steel framework instead of walls of
masonry. In fact, the steel frame carries the outer
shell. Their foundations are laid on cross-sections
of steel beams embedded in cement built right on
the top of the substratum of blue clay which un-
derlies the whole city. This settles gradually and
regularly from 6 to 8 inches as the building goes up,
and then stops, affording a foundation seemingly as
firm as if laid on the eternalrock. These buildin
(twenty stories tall) have stood as stiff in an 84-mile
gale as solid masonry.

Chicago has many public buildings noteworthy

CHICAGO

173

—_—_— — —

for their architectural beauty, among which the Art
Instituteand the Public Library on Michigan Boule-
vard and the Newberry Library eee ashington
Square on the north side are especially worthy of
study. The city-hall and county court-house are
twin buildin cecupying an entire block. They
are built of Silurian limestone and Maine granite,
and are more noticeable for their massiveness and
cost ($6,000,000) than beauty. The Auditorium is
one of the finest and best-appointed public halls in
the country. Chicago is amply ot ied with thea-
tres and music halls, and has such large hotel ac-
commodations that it is known as the great conven-
tion city of the continent.

The vicinity of cheap coal-fields and its splendid
transportation facilities have made Chicago a great
manufacturing centre. In 1890 it had 3250 manu-
facturing establishments, employing $190,000,000
capital, giving employment to 177,000 persons, who
received $96,200, in wages, with an annual
product valued at $538,000,000. The volume of the
wholesale trade of Chicago for the same year was
$486,600,000. Chicagohas45 banks, with a total capi-
tal of $33,000,000 and deposits (December 17, 1896)
amounting to $184,000,000. The bank clearings for
1896 were $4,413,054,108.. In 1892, before the panic
of the ensuingyear, they amounted to $5,135,771, 186.

The assessed valuation of the real and personal

' property in Chicago for the year 1896 was $244,-

357,286, upon which the rate of taxation was 5-03
per $100. This gives no adequate idea of its true
value, being about one-tenth of what it should be,
the assessment being kept down because the rate of
the tax permissible is excessive.

Chicago spends more than $6,000,000 a year on its
system of public schools. Of this amount $3,843,504
was paid for salaries for teachers alone in 1896.
The enrolment of pupils for that year was 213,825.
The private parochial and denominational schools
of the city afford education to about 50,000 pupils.
In 1892 the University of Chicago, founded by John
D. Rockefeller, was tba It has a grand quad-
rangle of granite building situate on the Midway
Plaisance, with accommodations for over 2000 pupils.
Its endowment and building funds now amount to
over $12,000,000, of which sum Mr Rockefeller has
contributed $7,426,000. The Yerkes observato
at Lake Geneva, 74 miles from the city, whic
boasts the most act aay telescope in the world, is a
de ment of the University of Chicago.

n libraries Chicago easily takes first rank among
American cities. Its pees library, founded after
the fire and supported by taxation, contains 160,287
volumes. A new building has just been completed
for it at a cost of $2,200,000. The Newberry Li-
brary has a building that cost $500,000 and an en-
dowment of over $2,000,000. The John Crerar
Library has 25,000 volumes and an endowment of
over $2,000,000, and there are many other smaller
libraries, notably those of the Chicago Historical
Society and the Bevis Institute, with a foundation
of over $1,000,000. The Field Columbian Museum,
which is an outcome of the Columbian Exposition,
has an endowment of $2,000,000 and a collection
of remarkable scope contributed by numerous ex-
hibitors at the World’s Fair.

The great fire of Sunday, October 7, 1871, laid the
business heart of the city in ashes. Some 17,450
buildings were burned, 98,500 persons—one-third of
the population—were rendered homeless, and about
200 lives were lost. The total money loss was esti-
mated at $190,000,000, with the result that scores
of fire insurance companies were ruined. Not a
scar of that terrible conflagration is visible to-day.
In the place of the cheap wooden structures and
wretched pavements of the sixties, a city of mag-
nificent fire-proof bu’ldings and grand thoroughfares
has arisen, with the best water supply and fire de-

174 CHICHA |

CHICKWEED

partment in the world, both the children of that
‘Great Fire.’ See Andreas’ History of Chicago
(Chicago, 1885).

Chicha, See STERCULIA.

Chichen’, one of over fifty ruined towns in the
Mexican province of Yucatan, a few miles WSW.
of Valladolid, with the remains of an ancient
Indian city, comprising a vast temple with bas-
reliefs, a dese houses containing sculptured
chambers, &c.

Chichester, a municipal borough and episcopal
city in Sussex, 17 miles ENE. of Portsmouth,
and 28 W. of Brighton. It stands on a plain
between an arm of the sea and the South Downs,
which rise gently on the north. It is well built,
and has wide streets. The two main streets cross
at right angles, and meet in an elaborate eight-
sided market-cross (circa 1500). Within the sub-
urbs the city is surrounded by an ancient wall,
14 mile in cireuit, with some semicircular bastions,
and now a promenade under the shade of elms.
The cathedral, erected in the 12th and 13th cen-
turies, on the site of a wooden one founded 1108,
and burned 1114, measures 410 by 131 feet, with a
spire 277 feet high (rebuilt 1865-66, after its fall in
1861), and a detached bell-tower or campanile, 120
feet, the only structure of the kind retained by an
English cathedral. The aisles are double—a mode
of construction elsewhere seen only in Manchester
Cathedral and in. some parish churches, The
choir, lady repel. and cloisters offer interesting feat-
ures. The bishop's palace is supposed to have been
erected on the site of a Roman villa. Chichester
has twelve parish churches, a market-house, corn
exchange, guildhall (formed out of the chapel of the
Franciscan monastery), council-house, a theologi-
cal college (1872), and several other educational
establishments. The chief trade is in agricultural

roduce and live-stock. Wool-stapling, malting,

rewing, and tanning are also carried on. Pop.
(1851) 8662; (1891) 7842. From the time of
Edward I. till 1867 Chichester returned two
members, and till 1885 one. The port of Chiches-
ter, 2 miles to the south-west of the city, is
situated on a deep inlet of the English Channel,
of about 8 square miles, and is connected with
Chichester by a canal. Chichester was the Roman
Regnum, and has afforded Roman remains—as a
mosaic pavement, coins, urns, and an inscription
of the dedication of a temple to Neptune and
Minerva. Chichester was taken and partly de-
stroyed in 491 by the South Saxons. It was soon
after rebuilt by Cissa, their king, and called
Cissanceaster, or Cissa’s Camp. It was for some
time the capital of the kingdom of Sussex. The
South Saxon see was removed by Stigand from
Selsey to Chichester towards the close of the 11th
century. Among its bishops have been Reginald
Pecock, Lancelot Andrews, John Lake, and Simon
Patrick. In December 1642 the royalists of
Chichester surrendered to the parliamentarians
after an eight days’ siege, recaptured the city in
the December of 1643, but had again to surrender
to Waller a month later after a siege of seventeen
days. Among the prisoners of war was the famous
Chillingworth, who was allowed to die here, and
lies buried in the cathedral. See works by Willis
(1861), Stephens (1876), and Swainson (1880).

Chickadee (Parus montanus or atricapillus),
a North American titmouse, of sober black and
gray plumage, and lively active habit. It is fond
of pine-trees, feeds on insect larve, has a hardy
constitution, and remains through the winter. Its
cheerful song is echoed in one of Emerson’s poems.
See TITMOUSE.

Chickahom’‘iny, a river of Virginia, which
flows within 5 miles of Richmond, and enters the

James, after a south-easterly course of 90 miles.
Four battles were fought near its banks in June
1862.

Chickamauga, a tributary of the Tennessee
River, rising in Georgia, and flowing north-west
into Tennessee, in which state the Confederate
General Bragg defeated Rosecrans in a battle
fought on the banks of the stream, September 19
and 20, 1863.

Chickaree is a name given to the red, pine, or
Hudson Bay squirrel. See SQUIRREL.

Chickasaw, a tribe of Indians, allied to the
Cherokees (q.v.), formerly occupying the northern

arts of Alabama and Mississippi, but now settled
in Indian Territory. They number about 6000.

Chicken-pox, a contagious febrile disease,
chiefly of children, and bearing’ some resemblance.
to a very mild form of Smallpox (q.v.). Chicken-

ox is distinguished by an eruption of vesicles or
ite, which rarely become pustular or yellow, and
leave only a very slight incrustation, which falls,
off in a few days, leaving little or none of the
marking or pitting which is such a prominent
feature in smallpox. From its vesicular character
it has been called the crystal pock. It has been
argued that chicken-pox is, in fact, only smallpox
modified by previous vaccination ; but this opinion,
though maintained on good authority,. is not
accepted by most medical men. It is a disease
of little or no danger, the fever being often hardly
perceptible, and never lasting long.

Chick Pea (Cicer), a genus of the vetch tribe
of Leguminose. The common chick pea (C.
arietinum) is an annual, 14 to 2 feet high, of a
stiff upright habit, covered with glandular hairs,
with inflated pods containing a few angular and
wrinkled peas. It is largely cultivated in southern
Europe and in many parts of the East, and hence
occurs frequently also as a weed in cornfields. It
is also grown in Spanish America. Large quan-
tities of the peas are exported from British India.
under the name of gram, now well known in com-
merce; but the name is extended to other East
Indian kinds of pulse. The peas are used as food,
either boiled or roasted, and are the most common
parched pulse of the East. They are a notable
article of Spanish and French cookery ; while their
importance in Roman times is evidenced by the
phrase, fricti ciceris emptor (‘buyer of roasted
chick peas’), as a conversational equivalent for a
poor fellow. Its cultivation extends as far as
southern Germany; but in the climate of Britain
it is found too tender to be profitable. The herbage
affords fodder, and the seeds are one of the occa-
sional substitutes for coffee. In summer weather
drops exude from this plant, which, on drying,
leave crystals of almost pure oxalic acid. The too
free and prolonged use of chick peas as food is.
believed to be liable to become the cause of danger-
ous and obstinate forms of disease.

Chickweed (Stel/aria media), one of the most
common weeds of gardens and cultivated fields,
is a species of Stitchwort (q.v.). It is a native
of most parts of Europe and of Asia, appearin
during the colder months even on the plains o
India; an annual, with a weak procumbent stem
and ovate leaves, very variable; some of the
smaller varieties in dry sunny situations sometimes.
puzzling young botanists from having no petals or
only five or three instead of ten stamens; but
always characterised by having the stem curiously
marked with a line of hairs, which at each pair of
leaves changes from one side to another, and in
four changes completes the cirtuit of the stem.
The leaves of chickweed afford a fine instance of
the sleep of plants, closing up on the young shoots

ee

an
‘fornia, for its roots, while its herbage is

CHICLANA

CHIGNECTO BAY 175

“at ht. Chickweed is a good substitute for
spinac

or greens, although generally little regarded
except as a qroublesctie Weel, or gathered only by
the poor to make poultices, for which it is very
useful, or for feeding cage-birds, which are very
fond of its leaves and seeds. A number of
species of a nearly allied genus, Cerastium, also
the name of Chickweed, or Mouse-ear Chick-
weed, and the name is occasionally given to other
plants, either botanically allied, or of somewhat
similar appearance.

Chiclana, a pretty town of Andalusia, Spain,
12 miles SE. of Cadiz, with a notable bull-ring and
vineyards. Its mineral baths are much frequented.
Pop. 11,627.

Chiclayo, a town of Peru, 12 miles SE. of
bayeque, is the centre of a valuable sugar
district. Pop. 11,325.

Chic’opee, a post-village of Hampden county,
Massachusetts, on the nat banks of the Connecti-
cut River, 4 miles N. of Springfield, with manu-
factures of cottons, bronze cannon, cutlery, and
locks. Pop. 5900; of the aioe including the

manufacturing village of Chicopee Falls,
(1885) 11,528 ; (1890) 14,050.

Chicory, or Succory (Cichorium), a genus of
Composite (sub-order Liguliflore ), with few species,
all herbaceous perennials, with spreading branches
and milky juice, natives of Europe and West Asia.
The Common
Chicory or Suc-
cory (C. Inty-
bus) is wild in
England and
most parts of
Europe, grow-
ing in way-
sides, borders
of fields, &e.
It has a long
carrot-like
root, externally
of a dirty or
brownish-
yellow colour,
and white with-

rises 1 to 3 feet,
the leaves re-
sem bling those
of the dan-
delion; the
flower -heads

Chicory ( Cichorium Intybus) :
a, single flower ; b, a separate floret.

utiful,
generally blue, more rarely pink or white. Chicory
1s gen extensively cultivated, both in England
on the continent of Europe, as also in Cali-
good food
for cattle. The blanched leaves are sometimes used
as a salad, and are readily procured in winter by
placing the roots in a box with a little earth ina
cellar. To this genus belongs also the Endive (q.v.).
Chicory. has nm used as a substitute for coffee,
or to mix with coffee, for at least a century. The
roots are pulled up, washed, cut into small pieces,
and dried on a kiln, which leaves a shrivelled mass
not more than one-fourth the weight of the original
root. It is then roasted in heated iron cylinders,
which are kept revolving as in coffee-roasting, durin
which it loses 25 to 30 per cent. of its weight, an
evolves at the same time a disagreeable odour,
resembling burned gingerbread. An improvement
to the chicory during roasting is the addition of
2 lb. of lard or butter for every ewt. of chicory,

in. The stem’

which communicates to it much of the lustre and
general ap nce of coffee. It is then hand-
picked, to remove chips of wood, stones, &c., and is
reduced to powder, and sold separately as chicor

owder, or is added to ordinary pews few anc
is sold as a mixture. Chicory contains a good deal
of sugar, but otherwise does not serve to supply the
animal economy with any useful ingredient. It

ives off a deep brown colour to water when an
infusion is made, and hence its main use in coffee.
Some people dislike the taste of chicory, and when
largely used, it has a tendency to produce diarrhea ;
but many people prefer to use coffee mixed with
chicory owing partly to the taste it communicates,
but mainly to the <pponanes of strength which it
gives to the coffee. See ADULTERATION.

Chief, in Heraldry, an ordinary consisting
of the upper part of the field cut
off by a horizontal line. It is AT
generally made to occupy one-third
of the area of the shield. The
expression ‘in chief’ means not on
a chief, but that the charge is borne
in the upper part of the shield.

Chief-justice. See Justice In Chief.
(LORD CHIEF),

Chiem-See, a lake of Upper Bavaria, the
largest in the country, lies about 40 miles SE. of
Munich, at an elevation of 1650 feet above the sea,
with a length of 12 miles, a breadth of 7, and a
greatest depth of 512 feet. It has three islands ; its
surplus water is discharged by the Alz into the
Inn. The lake is famous for its fish; and a small
steamer plies on it, although the primitive dug-
out canoes are still its characteristic craft.

Chié'ri, a town of Northern Italy, 12 miles SE.
of Turin by rail, with some fine churches, and silk,
cotton, and linen manufactures. Pop. 9494.

Chié'ti, _an_archiepisco city of Italy,
beautify situated on . hill near the Pescara, 69
miles E. of Aquila by rail, and only 8 from the
Adriatic. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a lyceum,
and a theatre, and manufactures cloth and silk.
Pop. (1891) 23,528. Chieti was built on the site
of the ancient Teate of the Romans, many of the
remains of which are still visible. In 1524 St
Gaetano founded here the order of the Theatines.

Chiff-chaff (Syvia hippolais), a small species
of warbler, of very wide distribution. It is common
in the south of Europe, and arrives in Britain in
early spring as a summer visitor, but does not reach
Scotland. Its general colour is brown; the under
Ea lighter. It is a very sprightly little bird ;

ut its song consists merely of a hx rag repetition
of two notes resembling the syllables chiff-chaff.

It is also called the Lesser Pettychaps. Phyllo-
scopus tristis is sometimes called the Siberian Chiff-
chaff. See WHITETHROAT.

Chigi, a princely Italian family, whose founder
was Agostino Chigi (died 1512), of Siena, who in
Rome beeame banker to the popes, and was noted
for his pom and encouragement of art. See
Cugnoni's dino Chigi il Magnifico (Rome,
1881).—A descendant, FABIO CHIGI, occupied the
pape throne as Alexander VII. (1655-67 ).—FLAVIO

HIGI, born in 1810, was till 1848 in the papal
guard, and then became Bishop of Mira in partibus,
nuncio at Munich, and till 1873 at Paris, and died
a cardinal, 15th February 1885. The head of the
family is Prince of Campagnano and Duke of
Ariceia, and is also hereditary marshal of the
Conclave.

ecto Bay, an inlet at the head of the

Bay of Fundy, in British North America. It
separates Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, is 30
es long and 8 broad, and has an isthmus of only

176 CHIGNON

CHILD

14 miles in width between it and Northumberland
Strait, in the Gulf of St Lawrence.

Chignon (Fr., originally the ‘nape of the
neck’), a general term for the long back hair of
women when gathered up and folded into a roll on
the back of the head and neck. Padded and
powdered, it was a common mode of the 18th
century; in 1866 it reappeared, and with the
generous assistance of false hair attained such
ungraceful proportions as by 1875 brought about its
dismissal.

Chigoe, or JIGGER (Sarcopsylla penetrans), a
genus of flea, somewhat smaller than the familiar
Pulex, and without its jumping legs. It is an
American pest, found for about 30 degrees on each
side of the equator, but especially abundant in the
West Indies and in the north of South America.
It is found also in the West African coast region.

Chigoe (Sarcopsylla penetrans) :
a, male; b, gravid female.

One of its many names—the ‘sand-flea ’— indicates
its favourite haunt among sand. It seems always
to keep near the abodes of men. The males and
immature females live like other fleas on chance
bites, and relish of course the blood of animals as
well as of man. It is the impregnated female which
is the chief trouble. Like many other animals it
seeks a safe and quiet breeding-place. This is
found under the skin of animals, on the feet or
under the toe-nails of man. There the minute
creature swells up enormously, attaining under the
ressure of the growing eggs the size of a pea.

espiratory communication with the outer world is
kept up by an air-hole at the posterior end. In less
than a week the eggs are ready to be liberated, for
the larvee are not parasitic. The mother-animal
has meanwhile undergone a marked degeneration,
the internal organs being much squeezed and
atrophied by the growth of the ova. The entrance
of the female chigoe is marked by a tingling and
itching sensation, but if the development be
allowed quietly to proceed no evil results seem
to follow. Pressure and premature attempts to
isolate the intruder may, however, lead to ulcera-
tion. Its evil effects seem to have been exaggerated.
When the development of eggs has been completed,
the entire animal with its progeny may be gently
removed, and in this operation the West Indian
negresses are experts. Washing with tobacco-
juice is also resorted to, and the leaves are some-
times pressed on the feet as a preventive.

Chigwell, a village of Essex, on the border of
Hainault Forest, 13 miles NE. of London. Its
‘Maypole Inn’ is familiar to readers of Barnaby
Rudge; and it has a grammar-school, founded by
Samuel Harsnet, Archbishop of York, in 1629, and
improved and enlarged since 1871 at ‘a cost of
£10,000. Penn was a pupil. Pop. of parish (1861)
2676 ; (1891) 6324.

Chihuahua, the largest state of Mexico,
bounded on the N. and NE. by,New Mexico and
Texas, has an area of 87,802 sq! m., and a popu-
lation of 298,073. In the east is the Bolson dé
Mapimi, a vast desert of sand and alkali plains;
in the south and west the surface is mountainous,

and there are numerous rivers. The state is better
adapted for stock-raising than for agriculture;
the fertile districts are mainly confined to the
valleys and river-courses. Cotton is grown in the
south. The silver-mines were for centuries among
the richest in Mexico, and though many are now
abandoned, mining is still the chief industry. The
state is traversed by the Mexican Central Railway.
—The capital, Chihuahua, 225 miles 8. of El Paso
by rail, rises like an oasis in the desert, amon
roses and orange-groves. It is well built, wit
broad, clean streets, an imposing cathedral (1717—
89), a mint, and an Runa 3 miles long, and is
the centre of considerable trade with Texas.
Founded in 1691, it had in the 18th century 80,000
inhabitants. Pop. (1880) 12,116.

Chikislar, a small port in Russian Turkestan,
on the eastern shore of the Caspian, north of the
mouth of the Atrek.

Chilblains are localised inflammations of the
skin which occur in cold weather, and affect the
parts farthest from the centre of the circulation—
viz. the hands and feet, more rarely the ears or
nose. They are at first bright red, but as they dis-
appear assume a purplish tinge. Sometimes they
break and give rise to ulcers, which are slow te
heal. They occur most frequently in young people,
affect women more often than men, and are gener-
ally associated with weak health and a sluggish
circulation. They are often extremely irritable
and painful, especially when the affected part has
been chilled, and is quickly warmed again. In
their treatment, regard must be had to the general
health ; good feeding, exercise, and tonics should
be prescribed. It is very important that tight
shoes, gloves, garters, and bracelets should be
avoided; and that the affected parts should be
warmly covered when exposed to the open air.
Locally, when the skin is whole, some stimulating
agent answers best; tincture of iodine, spirit of
camphor, or mustard applied moist and rubbed till
it dries. If the skin be very tender, collodion

ainted over it is useful. Broken chilblains should
dressed with resin ointment or Peruvian balsam
on lint.

Child. See Brrtu, Farus, FoUNDLING, HER-
EDITY, INFANT, MAN;; for legal standing, see AGE,
PARENT AND CHILD, GUARDIAN, HEIR, INFANT,
Kin (NEXT OF); see also ABDUCTION, CHILDREN
(PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO), FAacToRY ACTS,
ILLEGITIMACY, INSURANCE, INFANTICIDE.

Child, Francis JAMES, the most learned of
ballad editors, was born in Boston, Massachusetts,
February 1, 1825. He graduated at Harvard in
1846, and was an instructor there for some time in
the department of mathematics, and afterwards in
that of rhetoric. After a year or two spent in
Europe, he was in 1851 appointed to the chair of
Rhetoric at Harvard, pels. he exchanged in 1876
for that of Anglo-Saxon and sa English Litera-
ture. His first work was Four Old Plays (1848) ;
but more important were his annotated edition
of Spenser (5 vols. Boston, 1855), and of the
English and Scottish Ballads (8 vols. Boston, 1857—
59), in a great American series of ‘ British Poets.’
The latter was at once recognised as the best
collection of English ballad poetry—a place which
it will lose only on the completion of the great
comparative collection by the same editor (already
9 parts, Boston, 1882-94). This may be accepted
as the final work on its subject, as it contains
all the versions and variants collected from all
sources, while the introductions to each ballad are
masterpieces of luminousness and learning. An
édition de luwe in form, and singularly free from
typographieal and other errors, this work will con-
tinue to be indispensable to all serious students of

popular

_ «nd Gower,’ in the Memoirs of the

CHILD

CHILI 177

try. Professor Child also contributed
some valuable notes to Hales and Furnivall’s re-
end of Bishop Percy’s folio manuscript (1867-68),

is ‘Observations on the Language of Chaucer
merican Aca-
demy, and reprinted in Ellis’s x English Pro-
muneiation (1869) show a marvellous grasp of
— English grammar. He died 11th September

— Child, Str Jostan, writer on commerce, was
born in 1630, the second son of a merchant of
London. He himself made a fortune of £200,000
as a navy victualler at Portsmouth and a director
of the East India Company. In 1678 he was made
a baronet, and he died 22d June 1699, His prin-
cipal work is Brief Observations concerning Trade
and the Interest of Money (1668); a 3d edition
(1690), much enlarged, is entitled A New Dis-
course of Trade, and has as an appendix, ‘A small
Treatise Rents Usury.’ In this work he explains
his plans for the relief and employment of the poor,
including the substitution of districts or unions for
parishes, and the compulsory transportation of
‘paupers to the colonies.—His brother, Sir JOHN

HILD, was governor of Bombay, where he died,
4th February 1690.

Child (born Francis), LyprA MARIA, American
author, born in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1802,
ublished her first novel in 1821, and in 1828 married
vid Lee Child (1794-1874), a journalist, with
whom she edited the Anti-slavery Standard in New
York in 1843-44. She was a conspicuous champion
of the slaves, for whom she published an Appeal in
1833 ; the principal of her numerous other works
are novels, the best of them relating to early New
England history, and an ambitious but inaccurate

work on the history of religion (1855). She died

“20th October 1880.

Childermas, or Hoty INNOCENTS’ Day (28th
December), is observed by the Church of Rome
with masses in commemoration of the children
killed by Herod. It was long considered unlucky
to marry or to begin any work on this day, and
‘from Fenn’s Letters we learn that the coronation of
King Edward IV. was put off till the Monday,
‘because the preceding Sunday was Childermas
Day. Innocents’ Day is also a red-letter festival
of the Church of England.

Children, PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO. Ex-
perience has proved that defenceless children, even
within the range of our boasted civilisation, are
not infrequently grossly maltreated by parents,
their natural protectors, and that therefore special
legislation is necessary to secure their po
treatment. To ameliorate the condition of chil-
dren has therefore entered largely into the scope
of modern legislation. The Factory Acts (q.v.),
‘the Education Acts, the Reformatory and Indus-
‘trial Schools Acts, the Criminal Law Amend-
‘ment Act, and the Dangerous Performances Act
are all evidence of this fact. The operations of
the recently formed Societies for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children show in the strongest light the
necessity for their action, though it is but a very
few years since this special agency was introduced
among us. The first societies of the kind were
established in the United States. That in New
York was the earliest, as it is the | t and
most influential. Liverpool in 1883, and London
‘in 1884, followed this example, and now, by means
of other local societies, or of local aid commit-
tees affiliated to the London society, the work
‘they have undertaken is ca ef spreading ; con-
victions for cruelty are secured and children are
sheltered and fed. The Rev. Benjamin Waugh
deserves mention as the main promoter of the
society — incorporated by royal charter) and its

ll

work. The Prevention of Cruelty to Children
Act of 1894 has given great help to the cause. It
imposes penalties on those who inflict needless suf-
fering on children; punishes neglect, exposure,
and pipes Sp oe where insurance money is
a bait; specially deals with offences by drunken
parents, and with parents who make their children
under eleven beg or vend in the street between
nine at night and six in the morning. It also
provides for Plann inspection of places where
acrobats and pantomime children are trained, and
abolishes the necessity of the oath in many cases.
Sentences of from three months’ imprisonment to
three years’ penal servitude may be inflicted. And
the Act further modifies the conditions of guardian-
ship, and brings in the authority of the Home Office
in connection with the emigration of ill-treated chil-
dren. Yet further legislation is required. A wife
cannot give evidence against her husband of his
drunken midnight cruelty to their child which she
alone has witnessed, though a mother’s evidence
is legally admissible if she is not married to her
child's ether. State protection should be as
freely accorded to the lives and limbs of chil-
dren as, through the Court of Chancery, it is
to their property. This benevolent work for
children is indeed essentially a special work, and the
police have not the sufficiency of time, resource,
and special training which its full discharge re-
quires. Municipal corporations should be em-
powered to regulate as in America what is called
‘street peddling,’ as of evening newspapers and
the like. The hours, varying with the season of
the year, in which it may be carried on at all, and
the ages of the boys and Neer who may be engaged
in it, should be fixed and enforced. nee give the
necessary powers, and many present evils will
cease.—For the Criminal Law Amendment Act,
see ABDUCTION ; see also INFANTICIDE.

Childs, GEORGE WILLIAM, born in Baltimore,
Maryland, 12th May 1829, became clerk in a book-
store in Philadelphia, by 1850 was head of a publish-
ing firm, and in 1864 purchased the Public Ledger.
He died 2d February 1894. He devoted much of
his wealth to beneficence, and he erected a memo-
rial window in Westminster Abbey to Cowper and
George Herbert, a monument to Leigh Hunt at
Kensal Green, and a fountain to Shakespeare at
Stratford-on-Avon. See his Recollections (1890).

Chili (written CHILE by its own citizens), one
of the republics of South erica. It is situated
on the west coast, and may be described as a long
strip of territory lying between the summit of the
Andes and the Pacific Ocean, extending from about
the 18th parallel of south latitude to the southern
extremity of Tierra del Fuego. Boundaries: N. by
Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentine Republic, W.
and §. by the Pacific Ocean. By recent treaties
the territory of Chili has been considerably ex-
tended. After the war with Bolivia and Peru
(1879-81), Chili acquired the coast between 23° and
25° S. claimed by Bolivia, and annexed the Peru-
vian province of Tarapacd. She also occupies the
Peruvian provinces of Arica and Tacna, subject to
the payment of a war-indemnity by Peru. In the
south the disputed claims of Chili and Argentina to
Patagonia have been settled by Chili wre all
territory and islands south of the 52d parallel and
west of 68° 30’ W. This includes the larger portion
of Tierra del Fuego. The Strait of Magellan is by
treaty considered neutral. The length of Chili is
about 2500 English miles. Its breadth varies
from 40 to 200 miles. The Andes extend in two
parallel lines throughout nearly the entire length
of the country. Between these two ranges of the
‘Cordillera’ there is a central valley or tableland
which attains its greatest breadth between 33° and

178

CHILI

40° 8. The streams in the north are of little
importance, being mostly shallow brooks, which,
after a short course, are licked up by the thirsty
land; in the south they are larger and more
numerous, although most are navigable for oo
a few miles. The principal are the Maipu, whic
waters the valley of Santiago; the Maule; the
Biobio (q.v.), the largest river in the country; the
Cauten, or Rio Imperial; the Bueno; and the
Callecalle, or Rio de Valdivia (100 miles), the
most important of all, because of the sheltered
harbour at its mouth. In the south are also many
deep lakes, such as Llanquihue (30 miles long by
22 broad) and Ranco (32 miles by 18). Mineral
waters, chiefly saline and sulphureous, are abun-
dant; the principal spa is at Chillan (q.v.). The
most important islands are those constituting the
province of Chiloé (q.v.); Juan Fernandez (q.v.)
also belongs to Chili. Owing to its great extension
from north to south, Chili comprises regions of
very different nature and climate. The north pro-
vinces, Tarapacd, Atacama, and part of Coquimbo
are arid, rainless districts, where the principal
industry is mining and extraction of saltpetre.
The middle and southern provinces—viz. Acon-
cagua, Valparaiso, Santiago, Colchagua, Curicé,
Talea, Linares, Maule, Nuble, Concepcion, Arauco,
Biobio, and Valdivia, are agricultural and viti-
cultural, and have also valuable coalfields. The
Patagonian region is densely wooded and sparsel
inhabited by a few Indians. The climate of Chili
is températe. In the north it is moderately hot
and rainless, but banks of clouds always hang over-
head, and heavy dew falls at night. In the south
it is dry for about “eight months of the year, and
rainy the other four. The temperature is remark-
ably even and pleasant, and always cool at nights.
The south wind blows fiercely during many days
of summer dry and cold; the north wind brings
heat, tempest, and rain ; other winds are unknown.
In Southern Chili generally the land is poor and
of hardly any value for agriculture, which, indeed,
is carried on in a very primitive fashion; but the
soil of the valleys, where large herds of cattle
graze, is very fertile. Vines, also, grow well on
the hillsides, and the wines of the country are
superseding in Chili the French red wines. The
Andes are almost everywhere visible, covered with
perpetual snow. The highest peak is Aconcagua,
22,867 feet. The average height of the great range
is 8000 feet. There are many volcanic peaks,
mostly extinct. Amongst these may be mentioned
Tupungato, Descabezada, Chillan, Osorno, Villa
Rica, &c. Chili is subject to frequent shocks
of earthquake, and occasionally to destructive
terremotos. The most notable of these recorded
was in 1822, when the coast near Valparaiso was
thrown up permanently between 3 and 4 feet:
this elevation’ extended over 100,000 sq. m. In
1835 Concepcion and Talcahuano were destroyed b
a fearful earthquake which produced disaster all
over the southern provinces. In 1868 Iquique was
destroyed by a shock which was felt more in the
northern districts, and again in 1875.

The population of Chili according to the census
of 1885 was 2,524,476, an increase of 352,813 since
the preceding census of 1875, making allowance
for the new territories. In 1894 the population was
estimated at 2,920,000. The number of foreign
residents increased from 26,635 to 40,000 during
that period. The natives of Chili are a mixture of
Spanish with the Araucanian Indians. In the
upper classes the race has been kept more purely
Spanish than in any other South American country.

he working-classes are laborious and docile,
but it cannot be said that there is as yet an
effectual protection for property. Wages are still
very low. On estates labourers receive about

Is. 6d. per day, but are allowed a patch of land to
cultivate for themselves. Since the acquisition of
the territory of the Araucanian Indians in 188] the-
government has been anxious to attract Euro
emigrants, but British adventure in that direction
has been deprecated. There is practically no:
demand for English mechanics, and the manufac-
tures, properly so called, are confined to copper-
smelting, sugar-refining, tanning, brewing, manu-
factures of soap and candles, biscuits, boots and
shoes, woollens, flax, and nitrates.
effort is being made to introduce new manufacturing’
industries’which will be protected by tariff.

The established religion of Chili is Roman
Catholic, but public opinion is now very liberal,
and other religions are tolerated. Education re-
ceives much attention, and is gratuitous and at the
cost of the state. There are 1200 public elementary
schools, with 110,000 pupils, besides 500 private-
schools ; but in spite of the elaborate educational.
apparatus, less than 650,000 persons can both read
and write. There is a first-class university at.
Santiago, normal and agricultural colleges, and a
lyceum in every provincial capital. The language:
spoken in Chili is Spanish, but with many local
words of Indian origin.

The value of imports in 1890-94 varied from
$63,000,000 to $78,000,000; and of exports from
$69,000,000 to $72,000,000; a third of the imports.
and two-thirds of the exports were British, the
German and French trade being next in import-
ance. Mineral products represented five-sixths of
the total exports. The chief articles of export
were nitrate and iodine, copper, silver, gold, man-
ganese, hides, wool, wheat, and barley. The-
principal imports were cotton, woollen, and jute
goods, iron, hardware, coal, machinery, timber,
rice, sugar, earthenware, cement, paper, beer,
glassware,
coffee.

The railway system of Chili is well pee
A government broad-gauge line runs from Valpa-
raiso to Santiago, crossing the coast-range of the:
Andes, and thence southwards through the central
valley to Concepcion, and through Araucania towards.
Valdivia, making a total length of about 1500»
miles. A branch from the Valparaiso and Santiago.
line also runs to Santa Rosa at the foot of the
Andes, from which a line is now in progress, to:
unite with the Argentine railway system, wid the:
Uspallata Pass, which it will cross at the elevation.
of 9843 feet above sea-level by means of a tunnel
6} miles in length. When this is finished there-
will be a through communication from the Pacifie to-
the Atlantic Oceans, and by many it is argued that.
this will be the shortest route from England to the:
Australian colonies. The length of the railway
from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres will be 880 miles.
In the northern provinces there are several mineral
railways belonging to English companies. One of
these, the Antofagasta line, has been prolonged
into Oruro in Bolivia.

The financial position of Chili is satisfactory, and
its credit stands higher than that of any other
South American state; it has borrowed money in
the London market at the rate of 44 per cent. per
annum, as well as at 5 and 53. The public debt
in 1894 comprised an external debt of £71,780,000»
(usually stated in English pounds sterling), and an
internal debt of $66,000,000 (paper pee the rae
peso being worth little more than 1s.). he
revenue of 1895 was stated at $70,502,000 (paper),
and the expenditure at $57,090,000, showing a.
large surplus, as is not unusual. The revenue is.
mainly derived from customs—now producing about.
$40,000,000 (paper) annually. The poogrest of the
country may be tested from this branch of the

revenue, which in 1856 amounted to $4,147,298, im.

A special.

kerosene, tallow, matches, tea and,

lalla

CHILI

CHILLINGWORTH 179

1866 to $3,053,416, and in 1876 to $7,422,791, in 1886
reached $23,416,346. The current money of Chili

: previous to the late war was gold and silver and

a restricted bank-note issue which stood at par.

_ The necessities of the government caused an issue

of inconvertible paper notes which subsequently

to aserious depreciation, The par value of a
dollar is equal to 5 francs or a little over 48d., but
its value in exchange during the war with Peru
was as low as l6d. Its value in 1895 was about
38d. Owing to this circumstance it is difficult to
form an exact estimate in sterling of the exports
and imports. Elaborate statistics are regularly

published by the government. The values are
arrived at by official valuation, which is not always
in proportion to the real value. Government

accounts are also still kept as though the dollar
uivalent to 48d. he foregoing statistics
must therefore be modified in view of these con-
ditions.

The constitution of Chili is republican and based
upon that of the United States. Every citizen is
entitled to a vote who can read and write and prove
that he earns $150 or upwards a year, and is
twenty-one years of age if married, or twenty-five if
single. The president is appointed by a body of
electors chosen by the people. His term of office is
five years, and his salary $18,000 perannum. The
cabinet consists of six ministers—viz. of Finance, the
Interior, Foreign Affairs, War, Commerce and Publie
Works, and of Justice, Public Worship, and Instruc-
tion. The Council of State consists of five members
nominated by the president, and six appointed by
congress. he legislature is composed of two
chambers—viz. the Deputies, about 100 in num-
ber, being in proportion of one to 20,000 inhabit-
ants ; and the Senate, numbering one to every five
deputies. Deputies must have an income of at
least $500, and senators of $2000. The elections
are conducted with considerable fairness, but as
the majority of the representatives chosen have
come from the ranks of a few leading families,
Chili has been well described as ‘an aristocratic
republic.’ This state of affairs, however, has
brought excellent results, as the Chilian govern-
ment has long had a deservedly high reputation for
ability and integrity.

History.—The name Chili is supposed to be
derived from an ancient Peruvian word signify-
ing ‘snow.’ The northern portion, as far as the
river Maule, formed i of the dominions of
the Incas of Peru. he southern was held by
the valiant Araucanians, the only aboriginal race
which was not subdued by the Spaniards, and
which until a few years maintained their
independence against the Chilians. The first
Euro to land in Chili was the Portuguese
discoverer Magellan, after his famous voyage
through the strait which now bears his name. Tie
landed at Chiloé in 1520. After the conquest of

‘Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chili

from that country overland under the leadership of
Diego de Almagro in 1535. This expedition pene-
trated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned un-
successful, Another was sent under command of
Pedro Valdivia in 1540, which succeeded in annex-
ing the territory as far as the river Maipu, Sant-
iago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542.
During the colonial period the governors of Chili
were appointed by the viceroys of Peru. In 1810
a revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in
which Don Bernardo O'Higgins, son of one of the
last viceroys of Peru, but a native of Chili, played a
conspicuous part, and finally became the first dicta-
tor of the new republic. The conflict between the
Spanish troops and the republican army continued
until 1826, when peace was definitely settled, and
Chili left to govern itself. Thé first constitutional

president was General Blanco Encalada. The gov-
ernment was unsettled until 1847. A_ revolution
broke out in 1851, but since then there has been no
serious attempt to overturn the government by
force of arms. In 1864 Chili gave Peru very valu-
able wt 5 ke in her war with Spain. Valparaiso
was bombarded by the Spaniards in 1866. In 1879
Chili declared war against Bolivia, and immediately
thereafter against Peru, with which Bolivia was
allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the
Chilians in check, but in August 1879 the Pern-
vian ironclad Huascar was captured by the Chilian
men-of-war Cochrane and Blanco Encalada, both
armour-plated. After this event the success of
the Chilians was uninterrupted—Peruvian towns
were bombarded, war-ships captured, and Lima
taken by storm 2Ist June 1881. The Chilians
occupied Lima and Callao until 1883, when a treaty
of peace was signed. President Balmaceda’s un-
constitutional government led to civil war in 1891,
when the congressionalists were victorious. The
decisive battle was fought near Valparaiso on 28th
August, and Balmaceda committed suicide.

See books on Chili by Dr W. H. Russel (1890), M. H.
Hervey (1891), Hancock (1894), W. Anderson Smith
(1900), Rumbold (Paris, 1877), Robiano (Paris, 1882),
Ochsenius (Leip. 1884), Boyd (1881), Sir Clements R.
Markham 1833 ); Lord Cochrane, in the Fortnightly
Review (1884); the Historia General by Arana (1863),
and that by Rosales (1878 ).—For Chili Pine, Chili Nettle,
see ARAUCARIA, LOASACER.

Chiliasm. See MILLENNIUM.

Chilkoot Pass, a difficult pass through the
coast range of the Rocky Mountains, on the main
route from the South Alaskan strip of coast to the
Canadian north-western district of Yukon, includ-
ing Klondike and other rich gold-bearing regions
in the upper basin of the Yukon river.

Chillan, capital of the Chilian province of
Nuble (pop. 16,000), with bathing establishments,
near the extinct voleano of Chillan (9445 feet).

Chillesford. Beds. See PLIOCENE.

Chillies, See Capsicum.

Chillianwalla, a village of the Punjab, 5
miles from the east bank of the Jhelum, and 85
miles NW. of Lahore. It was the scene of an
indecisive but sanguinary battle during the second
Sikh war, 13th January 1849, and is the site of. an
obelisk erected to the memory of the British officers
and men who fell in the engagement.

Chillico’thé, capital of Ross county, Ohio,

leasantly situated on the Scioto River and on the

hio Canal, 50 miles 8. of Columbus by rail. It
has manufactures of "paper, leather, farming imple-
ments, &c., and was from 1800 to 1810 the aes
of the state. Pop. (1880) 10,938 ; (1890) 11,288.

Chillingham, a village in the north of North-
umberland, on the river Till, 8 miles SW. of Bel-
ford. To the south is Chillingham Castle, seat of
the Earl of Tankerville, built in the reign of
Edward Ili. In the park, as at Cadzow, are pre-
served a herd of wild white cattle. See CATTLE.

Chillingworth, WILLIAM, one of the greatest
of English controversial theologians, was born at
Oxford in 1602, the son of a prosperous citizen,
who afterwards became mayor. Laud, then Fellow
of St John’s College, was his ather. In 1618
he became a scholar of Trinity College, and in
1628 was elected to a sprees in his college.
Aubrey’s story that he acted here as a kind
of spy for Laud rests on Sir William Davenant’s
dubious authority alone, and may safely be
neglected. His great parts soon secured him
the intimacy of Sir Lucius Carey, afterwards
Lord Falkland, John Hales of Eton, and Gilbert
Sheldon, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury ;

180

CHILLINGWORTH

and his restless intellect soon turned to the ques-
tion of chief interest at that time in his university
—the controversy between the Church of England
and the mother Church of Rome. The arguments
of an able Jesuit, known by the name of John
Fisher, at length convincing him of the necessity
of an infallible living judge in matters of faith, he
embraced the Romish communion ‘with an in-
credible satisfaction of mind.’ In 1630 he went to
Douay, and here being urged to write an account
of the motives of his conversion, a fresh examina-
tion of the whole questions at issue, and a series of
letters from Laud, at length brought him from
doubt of the soundness of his recent conclusions to
acomplete renunciation. But although he had
become convinced that the claims of the Church of
Rome to an infallible judgment on matters of faith
had no real foundation, he adhered alone to Scrip-
ture as interpreted by the light of reason, and for
a time declined to take orders in the Church of
England, regarding her Articles as themselves a
needless ‘imposition on men’s consciences.’ Mean-
time he had become involved in a succession of
controversies with John Lewgar, a Catholic con-
vert ; Floys, a Jesuit, who went under the name of
Daniel; and White, the author of Rushworth’s
Dialogues. His papers in answer to these—mere
reliminary studies for the great work that was to
ollow—are contained in his Additional Dis-
courses, published in 1687. Another Jesuit, known
as Edward Knott, having published in 1630 his
Charity Mistaken, &c., which was answered by Dr
Christopher Potter, provost of Queen’s College in
Oxford in 1633, rejoined in 1634 with Mercy and
Truth, &c. This second book Chillingworth under-
took to answer, and with that view retired to the
ance of Lord Falkland’s house and library at

reat Tew in Oxfordshire. Meantime, Knott
hearing of his intention, hastened to take an unfair
pete ¥ of his antagonist, by an attempt to pre-
judice the public mind beforehand. In 1636 he
issued in a forty-two page pamphlet a series of mere
scurrilous insinuations, the main drift of which
was that Chillingworth was a Socinian, whose
opinions tended to the overthrow of all super-
natural religion no less than of Catholic doctrine.
At length, in 1637, appeared Chillingworth’s famous
book, The Religion of Protestants a safe Way to
Salvation: or an Answer to a Booke entitled Mercy
and Truth, &c. This great work suffers from its
being necessarily to some extent an answer to a
now completely forgotten book, and being thereby
weighted with a great mass of extraneous matter.
Indeed, it is only after the author has demolished
the arguments of his temporary antagonist that
he is at liberty to follow the unembarrassed
course of his own thought, and it is evident that
only a writer of consummate talent could so have
surmounted the disadvantages of such a form, as
to make a book of enduring interest and value.
Yet it is all this and more, for we have here not
only a masterly demonstration of the sole authority
of the Bible in the essential matters relating to
salvation, but an assertion of the free right of the
individual conscience to interpret it, laid down
once for all with perfect confidence and fullest
plainness —the freedom of religious opinion and the
right to toleration for honest difference of opinion
placed on its true basis, and this two centuries
and a half ago. The great question at issue is
that of the basis of religious certitude, or ‘the
means whereby the truths of revelation are con-
veyed to our understanding,’ whether this is to
rest on the infallible authority of the Church,
sf ultimately on the authority of the Scriptures
alone. ;

Here Chillingworth’s conclusion is, in his own
oft-quoted words: ‘The Bible, I say, the Bible

only, is the religion of Protestants.’ The great
principles of religion, and everything of faith
essential to salvation, are herein clearly revealed

patent to the ‘right reason’ and judgment of
every man. Religious certitude can thus be
reached by every honest mind, from the plain
interpretation of the Bible, which is necessarily
itself intelligible and sufficient, without need of
any medium to transfer it or judge to interpret
it. Indeed, the measure of the responsibility of
faith is just the measure of the clearness and sim-
plicity of the divine revelation. Seripture and the
candid mind acting together, under the quickening
grace of God and the guidance of the Holy Spirit,
are thus the sole factors of religious certitude,
which is necessarily based on rational personal
conviction. The simplest creed is the best creed,
and the only possible basis on which to reconstruct
the divided church is such a simple, assured, and
accepted religious minimum as the apostles’ creed,
with full freedom to individual opinion in every-
thing supplementary and unessential. ‘For why,’
he asks, ‘should men be more rigid than God?
Why should any error exclude any man from the
Church’s communion, which will not deprive him
of eternal salvation?’ It may be that Chilling-
worth’s ideas carried out would have made any
kind of church polity or even successive organised
religious life impossible, but at least they would
have preserved something perhaps quite as precious
—an intellectual conception of toleration, that
would have saved England years of misery and
blood; and which need not necessarily have
eliminated also the religious enthusiasm of the
individual, together with his confidence in the
absolute infallibility of his own opinions.

The reasoning throughout the great work of
Chillingworth is marked by strong and clear
intellect ; singularly simple but direct and straight-
forward style, warming at times into a suppressed
but vehement eloquence, and informed throughout
with an honesty, an earnestness, and, above all, a
fairness but rare in controversial literature. Locke,
in his Thoughts concerning Reading and Study for
a Gentleman, commends ‘the constant reading of
Chillingworth, who, by his example, will teach both
perspicuity and the way of right reasoning better
than any book I know.’ Chillingworth left little
besides his masterpiece—nine sermons, the ‘ Addi-
tional Discourses’ already referred to, and a brief
fragment on the apostolical institution of episcopacy
forming the Gia. The rest of his life is soon
told. At length he found himself able to give a
general assent to the Articles, and in July 1638 he
was made Chancellor of Salisbury, with the pre-
bend of Brixworth in Notts annexed, and soon
after master of Wigstan’s Hospital in Leicester.
In 1640 he was elected proctor to convocation by
the Chapter of Salisbury. At the outbreak of the
Civil War he accompanied the king’s forces,
though his heart sank within him to see ‘ publicans
and sinners on the one side, against scribes and
Pharisees on the other.’ He was with the royal
army before Gloucester, where, we are told, he
devised an engine for purposes of assault after the

attern of the old Roman testudo. At Arundel

‘astle he was taken ill, and when the garrison sur-
rendered to Waller, being too ill to be carried to
London, was lodged in the bishop’s palace at
Chichester, where he died, 30th January 1643. His
last hours were pestered by the ill-timed and cruel
exhortations of one Cheynell, an ignorant and
rabid Puritan preacher, who, at his burial in
Chichester Cathedral, flung a copy of the noblest
theological treatise of the age into the grave, that
it might ‘rot with its author and see corruption.’
The Chillingworthi Novissima, &e. (1644), in which
this Westminster divine did such dishonour to

| Det et ee

a me ee

eet, i a atl oh oe Me

—_——

a

CHILLON

_—~s

CHIMARA 181

himself, is one of the most melancholy monuments
that exist of fanatical and unchristian bigotry.
It was Chillingworth’s fate to be assailed with
‘great asperity and reproaches’ all his life, and
hout to be misunderstood by blind Papist
and blind Puritan alike.

See the Life by Des Maizeaux (1725), and that by Rev.
Thomas Birch, prefixed to his edition of the works (1742),
Of these the best edition is that published at Oxford in
8 vols. in 1838. See chapter v. (vol. i.) of the late
Principal Tulloch’s Rational Theology in England in the
Seventeenth Century (2 vols. 1872).

Chillon, a celebrated castle of Switzerland, at
the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva, 14 mile
SSE. of Montreux. It stands on an isolated rock,
22 yards from the shore, and connected therewith by
a bridge, though the strait between them is dry.
Dating perhaps from the 8th century, it seems to
have been partly rebuilt in 1238, by Amadeus IV.
of Savoy, and it long served as a state prison.
Here for six years (1530-36) Bonivard (q.v.)
endured the captivity immortalised by Byron’s
Prisoner of Chillon (1821). Among the thousands
of names inscribed on the pillars of the dungeon
are those of Byron, Georges Sand, and Victor
Hugo. The castle is now used as a magazine for
military stores. ;

Chiloé, the insular province of Chili, consists of
the island of that name on the west coast, which is
separated from the mainland by a narrow strait on
the N., and by a gulf 30 miles wide on the E., and
has a length of 115 miles, and an extreme breadth
of 43 miles, and of a number of neighbouring islets,
mostly uninhabited ; total area, 3980 sq. Mm. ; pop.
about 83,000, almost all Indians living on the
principal island. Chiloé proper is hilly in the
interior, and everywhere covered, except imme-
diately along the shores, with nearly impassable
forest. The climate is mild and not unhealthy,
although inordinately wet. The Indians belong to
a subdivision of the Araucanian family ; they are
a gentle and honest race, mostly engaged in fishing
and in lumbering, timber being at present the
chief export from the island, although immense
deposits of coal have been ——- he capital,
Ancud, on the north coast, has a good harbour,
but is meanly built ; it is the seat of a bishop, and
has a population of 6000.

Chilog’natha, Chilop’oda. ‘See Myrt-
OPODA.

Chiltern Hills, the southern part of the low
ehalk range which runs north-east, about 70 miles,
from the north bend of the Thames, in Oxfordshire,
through Bucks and the borders of Herts and Beds.
In Oxford, Herts, and Beds the Chiltern Hills are
15 to 20 miles broad, and the highest point is near
Wendover (950 feet). In his sketch of John
Hampden’s home, Mr Green paints finely ‘the
quiet undulations of the chalk country, billowy
heavings and sinkings as of some primeval sea
suddenly hushed into motionlessness, soft slopes of
pray grass or brown-red corn falling gently to dry

ttoms, woodland flung here and there in masses
over the hills. A country of fine and lucid air, of
far shadowy distances, of hollows tenderly veiled by
mist, graceful everywhere with a flowing unac-
centuated grace, as though Hampden’s own temper
had grown out of it.’

Chiltern Hundreds. In former times the
beech-forests which covered the Chiltern Hills
were infested with robbers, and in order to restrain
them it was usual for the crown to appoint an
officer, who was called the Steward of the Chiltern
Hundreds. The hundreds in question (see HuN-
DRED) are those of Bodenham, Desborough, and
Stoke, in Buckinghamshire. The stewardship,
which has long ceased to serve its primary purpose,

now serves a secondary one. A member of the
House of Commons cannot resign his seat unless
disqualified either by the acceptance of a place of
honour and profit under the crown, or some
other cause. Now, the stewardship of the Chiltern
Hundreds is held to be such a place, and it is con-
sequently applied for by, and granted, usually as a
matter of course, to any member who wishes to
resign, though it has been refused in a case of
sional As soon as it is obtained, it is again re-
signed, and is thus generally vacant when required
for the purpose in question. The granting of the
Chiltern Hundreds to this end began in the year
1750; the git lies with the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer. The powers, duties, and remuneration
are sane things of nought. Northstead in York-
shire has been used in the same way since 1841 ;
and other manors formerly so used were Old Shore-
ham in Sussex (1756-99), East Hendred in Berks
(1763-1840), Poynings in Sussex (1841-43), Hemp-
holme in York (1845-65). See Quarterly Review,
Jan. 1894, and Foster’s Chiltern Hundreds (1897).
Chimera, a fire-breathing monster, described
by Homer as having a lion’s head, a goat's body,
and the tail of a dragon. In Hesiod’s account a
daughter of Typhaon and Echidna, she devastated
Lycia until killed by Bellerophon. Gigantic carvings
of the chimera on rocks have been Seaud in Asia
Minor, representing the monster as a lion, out of
the back of which grows the neck and head of a
oat. It is frequently depicted on shields as a
eraldic charge.

ra, a genus of cartilaginous fishes, and

Chime
‘type of a distinct order, Holocephali, which is often

ranked along with the sharks and rays, or Elasmo-
branchs. The chief distinctions are the presence
of a fold of skin covering the (4) gill-clefts, the
nakedness of the skin, the fusion of the upper jaw
to the skull, the — of anal, urinary, and
genital apertures. There are no ‘spiracles,’ nor
‘spiral-valve.’ Except in the above particulars,
and a few others of a more technical nature, the
members of this small order agree with the ordinary
Cartilaginous Fishes (q.v.). There are only two
living genera—Chimera and Callorhynchus. The
best-known species of chimzra (C. monstrosa) is
often called the reg) of the Herrings, and is
occasionally taken in herring-nets in British seas,

-

Chimera monstrosa.

It is found on the coasts of Europe and Japan, in
North Atlantic, and at the Cape of

In the United States it is called Sea Cat.
an ugly fish, seldom over 3 feet in length, of a
whitish colour, spotted with brown above. The
males have clasping organs; the | eggs are
inclosed in a leathery case. The C. Colliet is found
on the west coast of North America; and the C.
Affinis on the coast of ay as In the other
genus, Callorhynchus, in the South Pacific, the
snout bears an appendage, and the tail is not sym-
metrical as in the above, but slightly shark-like.

182 CHIMAPHILA

CHIMPANZEE

Chimaphila. See WINTER-GREEN.

Chimbora’zo, a conical peak of the Andes, in
Ecuador, 20,517 feet above the sea, but only about
11,000 above the level of the valley of Quito, to the
north. The ‘silver bell’ of perpetual snow and
glacier was long erroneously regarded as the loftiest
mountain not only in America but in the whole
world. In 1745 La Condamine ascended to 16,730
feet; no complete ascent had been made, till
Whymper in 1880 twice reached the summit.—The
peak gives name to the province of Chimborazo,
to the south, with an area of 5523 sq. m., and a pop.
of 120,000.

Chimbote, a port of Peru, 85 miles SE. of
Truxillo. Pop. 1500.

Chimere, a bishop’s upper robe, to which the
lawn-sleeves are Sitbihedd, That of Anglican
bishops is of black satin, that of English Roman
Catholics is of purple silk.

Chimes. See BELL.

Chimney, a flue constructed in the thickness
of a wall or in a separate ‘stalk’ for the purpose of
carrying off the smoke from a fireplace or furnace.
The heated air being lighter than the atmosphere
which maintains the fire, presses the smoke up-
wards, and rises with a rapinite primers to the
difference in weight, assuming that the chimney is
of proper construction and size. It has been found
in practice that a diameter of from 9 inches to 12
inches is suitable for the fireplaces of ordinary
rooms, but in the case of kitchens and other large
fires a greater width is required. In olden times it
was usual to build fireplaces of great size, with very
large chimneys, but as these admit a great quantity
of air at the ordinary temperature, the draught is
thereby checked, and the chimneys are apt to
smoke. Experience has taught that the ‘ throat’
or entrance to the chimney from the fireplace
should be made as small as possivle compatible
with its task of carrying off the products of com-
bustion from the fire. A proper draught depends
also on the height of the chimney, which ought to
be sufficient to be above the interference of swirls
of air caused by surrounding buildings or other
objects. The higher the chimney, the greater the
draught.

Chimneys are of comparatively modern origin.
Only traces of them are found in classic antiquity ;
but there must have been some such means of dis-
charging the smoke from the fires which heated the
hypocausts of the Roman baths. In medieval times,
the earliest examples of fireplaces with chimneys,
such as those in the Norman castles of Rochester
and Castle Hedingham, erected in the 12th century,
have only a short flue ascending a few feet, and
discharging by an oblong aperture in the outer face
of the wall. These were no
doubt found very smoky and
inconvenient, and ultimately
the chimneys were carried to
the roof. In Gothic buildings
they are often detached, and
the outlet is ornamented with
trefoil and other openings.
In the English halls the
centre hearth was long re-
tained, without any chimney,
the smoke being allowed to
find its way out through an
opening in the roof called the
Louvre (q.v.). In Scottish
mansions and castles the
fireplace was an invariable
feature in every apartment
(From Parker's Glossary.) from the 13th century. The

hall has always a large fire-
place and capacious chimney, while those of the

Chimney, Tisbury,
Wilts.

bedrooms are smaller. In the late Gothic and
Elizabethan styles the chimneys are amongst the
most striking features of the design, being carried
up in lofty and highly ornamented stalks, fre-
quently built in brick.

In modern times the external a pearance of

chimneys has been greatly neglected, to the sad
disfigurement of our houses, but a better taste is
now beginning to prevail. In
one direction, however, modern
chimneys have received a great
development in connection
with furnaces and steam-en-
gines. In order to create a
draught, and so cause the fire
to burn with intense heat,
these chimney-stalks are car-
ried to a great height. The
difference of pressure of the
atmosphere between the top
and bottom, added to the light-
ness. of the air caused by the
heat, acts as the motive power
to the ‘draught,’ which thus
increases with the height of
the stalk. Amongst the
highest existing chimneys may
be mentioned the following :
(1) the Townsend shaft, Port
Dundas, Glasgow, which is
468 feet in total height, and
has a diameter of 32 feet at
base, and 13 feet 4 inches at
top; weight, about 8000 tons.
(2) St Rollox shaft, Glasgow
—total height, 455 feet 6
inches; diameter at base, 50
feet ; at top, 13 feet 6 inches.

Chimney, Thornbury
Castle, Gloucester-
shire, 1514,

(From Parker.)

(3) Mechernich shaft, Cologne—total height, 441

feet ; diameter (square) at base, 39 feet; at top
(round), 11 feet 6 inches; weight, about 5459 tons.

An act to regulate chimney-sweeping was passed
as early as 1789; and in 1842, to prevent the fear-
ful cruelties practised on young chimney-sweepers,
it was rediitored penal to compel or knowingly
allow any person under the age of twenty-one, to
ascend or descend a chimney or enter a flue for the
purpose of cleaning or curing it; and no child
under sixteen could be thereafter apprenticed to
the trade. The act was extended and made more
stringent in 1864 and 1875.

To extinguish a chimney on fire, it is only neces-
sary to hang over the fireplace a piece of wet
carpet or blanket: some handfuls of salt thrown
into the fire at the same time will greatly aid the
extinction. It is also recommended to scatter a
handful of flowers of sulphur over the dullest part
of the burning coals, the vapour arising from which
will not support combustion, and will consequently
extinguish the flames. Throwing water down from
the top is a clumsy expedient, by which much dam-
age is frequently done to furniture ; so also is stop-
ping at the top, by which the smoke and suffocat-
ing smell of the burning soot are driven into the
apartment. If every fireplace were provided with
a damper, or shutter of sheet-iron, sufficiently large
to choke it thoroughly, fire in chimneys would
become of little consequence, as it would only be

necessary to apply this damper to extinguish them.
All good modern grates are furnished with such
dampers. To set chimneys on fire with a view to

clean them is highly objectionable, even where
there is no. danger of fire to be pled ary, as
the intense heat produced rends and weakens the
walls. For other connected subjects, see SMOKE,
VENTILATION, WARMING.

Chimpanzee (TZroglodytes niger), one of the

highest of the anthropoid or more manlike apes, |

PAs

———

ee

CHIMPANZEE

CHINA 183

sheoging to the same genus as the gorilla (7.

History. —The first historical notice of the chim-
seems to be that given in an account of a
Carthaginian exploration of the north-west of
Africa, conducted by Hanno in 470 B.c, Along
with other anthropoid apes, it was known to the
Romans in their varied communications with
Africa. The first thorough investigation of the
anatomy was made by Tyson in 1699. Various
travellers gradually gathered information in regard
to its habits, and captured specimens were known
in France and England by the 18th century. The
structure of the animal has been studied by several
famous anatomists, such as Owen, Duvernoy,
Bischoff, and Huxley ; and much information, both
historical and anatomical, will be conveniently
found in Professor R. Hartmann’s Anthropoid
Apes (Inter. Sc. Series, 1885). To this naturalist
mueh of our knowledge as to the exact anatomy
of the chimpanzee al related forms is due. .For
more general considerations, Huxley’s work en-
titled Man’s Place in Nature may rofitably
consulted. See also his Anatomy of Pertebrate
Animals.

Characteristics.—As the general features of
Anthropoid Apes (q.v.) have been already sketched,
it will be enough to sum up the more strikin
characteristics of the chimpanzee. The anima
stands about four feet high, has very dark, all but
black hair, a broad, leathery, reddish-brown face,
small nose, large mouth, protruding lips, large brow-
ridges, and small ears. The face has an angle of
‘70 degrees. The head hangs down upon the chest.

Saw Sy BA rf oe kD SS SBS te Me
Ph (ices

Chimpanzee (after Hartmann).

‘There are no cheek-pouches. The arms are ve

long, and reach the knee; their span is about half
as much again as the height. The hand is narrow,
but as long as the foot. The sole of the foot can
rest flatly on the ground, and the animal readily
stands or walks erect. But his favourite attitude
is leaning forward, and supporting himself on the
knuckles of the hand. he backbone begins to
exhibit the curves characteristic of man, and the
chimpanzee is alone among anthropoids in having
the spine of the second neck vertebra bifurcated as
in man. It has one pair of ribs in addition to the
twelve possessed by man, There is of course no
tail, nor are there any sitting-pads or ischial cal-
losities. ‘The volume of the brain is about half
the minimum size of a normal human brain. All
the gyri (ridges ) of the human brain are represented

in the cerebral hemispheres of the chimpanzee ; but
they are simpler and more symmetrical, and larger
in proportion to the brain.’

abits.—The chimpanzee is found on the coast
of Guinea and farther inland. It occupies a wider
area than the gorilla, and is even said to have been
found in East Africa, to the south of Abyssinia.
It lives in forests, is an adept climber, but ceeps &
good deal to the ground. The diet consists mainly
of wild fruits; but animal food seems to be occa-
sionally eaten. The chimpanzees live in families
or in small societies. They construct pent-houses
in the thick forest darkness, and the males are said
to pe the night below the family nest. They
make a great deal of noise, of a dreary and horrible
character, especially when provoked by other
monkeys. Though they generally flee at the sight
of man, they can with hands and teeth make them-
selves in extremity most formidable ——
The natives shoot them with arrows or javelins, or
in recent days with firearms. The flesh is eaten by
the natives of some parts of Africa ; the skulls may
serve as fetiches.

There is considerable dispute as to the species
or varieties of chimpanzee. Hartmann discusses
the a at length in the work already referred
to, describing one distinct variety in addition to
the typical Troglodytes niger, and admitting the

ossibility of hybrids. Chimpanzees are occasionally

ibe to European zoological gardens, but rarely
stand the climate for more than two or three years.
They are known to exhibit great cleverness, and
admit of some education.

China. The Chinese Empire, consisting of
China Proper and Manchuria (q.v.), with its
dependencies of Mongolia, I-li, and Tibet (q.v.),
embraces a vast territory in Eastern Asia only
inferior in extent to the dominions of Great Britain
and Russia. The dependencies are not colonies,
but subject territories; and China Proper itself,
indeed, has been a subject territory of Manchuria
since 1644. It will be convenient, however, to
confine ourselves in this article to the former.

China is not known among the people them-
selves as the designation of the country, and
the use of the term is spreading among them
only through its all but universal employment by
other nations. In the oldest classical writings
the country is called Hwd Hsid, ‘The Flowery
Hsia.’ Chung Kwo, ‘The Middle State,’ or king-
dom, grew up in the feudal period as a name for
the royal domain in the midst of the other states,
or for those states as a whole in the midst of the
uncivilised states around them. The idea of its
being ‘in the middle of the earth’ did not enter
into the designation, though the assumption of
universal sovereignty, de jure if not de facto, that
has been so injurious to the nation, appears in the
very ancient names 7’ien Asid, ‘all beneath the
sky,’ and Sze Hai, ‘all within the four seas.’ In
the treaties with western nations concluded in the
present century the empire is called by the title of
the niyo sin dynasty, ‘the Kingdom of the Great
Pure (dynasty ) ;’ and this is in accordance with the
practice of Chinese writers, who are fond of calling
their country ‘the Land of Han,’ and ‘the Hills of
T’ang,’ from the two great dynasties so named.

Serica, Sera, and Seres, in Ptolemy and other
ancient geographers, indicate China and the
Chinese as the country and people ape, silk,
being taken from sze (silk), originally the pictorial
symbol of a packet of cocoons.

Cathay, a poetical name with us, and _ still
apparent in the Russian name for China ( Kitaz),
came into use as a designation for the northern
part of the empire through Marco Polo and other
medieval writers. It was the Persian designation
of the Tartar K’itan tribes which contended with

184

CHINA

the Sung dynasty for the supremacy of the empire,
then merged in the dynasty of Chin (Kin), and
were extinguished by the Mongol conquest. The
country south of the Yang-tsze River was then
styled Manzi or Manzy, from the old name of Man
for all the southern aboriginal tribes.

The name China has come to us from India
through Buddhism. In a conversation he tanger
probably), related by Nien Ch’ang in his History of
Buddhism, between the Han emperor who, wel-
comed them to his capital and the first two of the
Buddhist missionaries, there appear the names of
Chi-na and Chin-tan (‘the Land of Chin’). We
do not know how long before our first century the
name had obtained in India, nor how it origin-
ated. If it had begun with ¢s instead of ch, the
view of many that it was derived from the great
state of Ts’in, whose fortunes culminated in the
first but short-lived imperial dynasty (221-209 B.c.),
might have been npnelaened as certain. This ques-
tion must be left as hardly capable of determina-
tion; as also how it is that we find the empire
called by other Asiatic peoples Sin, Tsin, T'sinistan,
and the inhabitants 7siniste. ‘The land of Sinim,’
in Isa. xlix. 12, is another denomination.

CHINA PROPER was divided in the K’ang-hsi
reign (1662-1722) into eighteen provinces; from
1887 to 1895, when it was ceded to Japan, For-
mosa, detached from Ff-chien, was a separate
province under the name of T’Ai-wan; and the
constitution of Sin-chiang or Sin-tsiang as a
new pone on the extreme west of the empire
raised the number of provinces again to nineteen.
One of the easternmost portions of the Asiatic
continent, bordering on the Pacific Ocean, China
Proper lies, if we include the island of H4i-nan,
between 18° and 49° N. lat., and 98° and 124° E. long.
Its area is given at 1,298,000 sq. m., being more than
twenty-five times that of England ; but if we in-
clude outlying parts of Chih-li and Kan-sf, the
total area is not much, if at all, short of 2,000,000
sq.m. (The whole empire, without Corea, has an
area more than twice as large. )

On the north there are four provinces—Chih-li,
Shan-hsi, Shen-hsi, and Kan-si; on the west, two—
Sze-ch’wan (the largest of all) and Yun-nan; on
the south, two—Kwang-hsi and Kwang-tung; on
the east, four—Ff-chien ( Kien—the initial ch used
to be pronounced /), Cheh-chiang, Chiang-si, and
Shan-tung. The central area enclosed by these
twelve provinces is occupied by Ho-nan, An-hui
(Gan- and Ngan-hwei), Hfi-pei, Hfi-nan, Chiang-
hsi, and Kwei-chéu (parts of which are lar ied
oceupied by tribes of aboriginal Mido-tsze). The
province of Sin-chiang, Sin-kiang, or Sin-tsiang,
recently constituted, includes Eastern Turkistan
(q.v.), Western Kan-sf, Ili, and Zungaria (q.v.).
Formosa, till then Chinese, was ceded to Japan in
1895 ; and Manchuria, one of the most valuable of
the outer provinces, is, since it came under Russian
supremacy in 1898, Chinese only in a very limited
sense. (See below at page 194).

The population of these provinces has been so
variously estimated as to justify Dr S. W. Williams
in holding that, ‘until there has been a methodical
inspection of the empire’ guaranteed by the govern-
ment, questions concerning the population must
be held in abeyance. The Almanach de Gotha
for 1900 gives for the provinces of China Proper
a population of 346} millions, and for the whole
empire, including Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet,
but without Corea, 357} millions. It is probably
safe to say that 400 millions is hardly an over-
estimate of the population of the Chinese em-
pire. Of the twenty-two ports open to foreign
commerce, only five have a population under
50,000. That of Canton was in 1890 estimated at

2,500,000; of T’ien-tsin at 950,000; of Han-k’auw
at 750,000; of Fa-chéu at 650,000; of Shang-hai
at 450,000; of Ning-po at 250,000. The total
number of foreigners resident in the open ports.
was in 1897 stated by the Customs authorities at
11,667, of whom 4929 were British subjects, 1564
American, 1106 Japanese, 975 Portuguese, 950.
German, 698 French, 439 Swedish and Norwegian,
and 362 Spanish.

As to the physical features of China Proper, the:
whole territory may be described ‘as sloping from

the mountainous regions of Tibet and Nepal

towards the shores of the Pacific on the east and
south. The most extensive mountain-range in it
is the Nan Ling or Southern Range, a far-extend-
ing spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yun-
nan, it bounds Kwang-hsi, Kwang-tung, and
Ffa-chien on the north, and, passing through Cheh-
chiang, enters into the sea at Ning-po. It thus.
forms a continuous barrier, penetrated only by a
few steep passes (of which the Mei Kwan is the
best known) that separates the coast-regions of
South-eastern China from the rest of the country.
This great chain throws off numerous spurs to the
south and east, which, dipping into the sea, appear
above it as a belt of rugged islands along the sea-
board. Of this belt the Chusan Archipelago is the-
most northerly portion.

North of this long range, and west of the 113th
meridian, on to the Borders of Tibet, the country is.
mountainous, while to the east and from the great.
wall on the north, to the Po-yang lake in the south,
there is the Great Plain, comprising the greater

art of the provinces of Chih-li and Shan-tung,

o-nan, An-hui, and Chiang-si—an area of about.
210,000 sq. m., estimated to support a population.
of 177,000,000.

In the provinces west from Chih-li—Shan-hst,
Shen-hsi, and Kan-si—the soil is formed of what
are called the loess beds, which extend even to the:
Koko-nor and the head-waters of the Yellow River.
The name loess is adopted from that of a Tertiary
deposit which appears in the Rhine Valley—a.
brownish coloured earth, extremely porous, erumb-
ling easily between the fingers, and carried far and
wide in clouds of dust. It covers the subsoil to an
enormous depth, and is apt to split perpendicularly
in clefts which render arate difficult. And
yet by this cleavage it affords homes to multitudes.
of the people, who live in caves excavated near the:
bottoms of the cliffs. Sometimes whole villages are
so formed in terraces of the earth that rise above-
one another. But the most valuable quality of the-
loess is its fertility, the fields composed of it hardly
pic any other manure than a sprinkling of
its own fresh loam. The husbandman in this way
obtains an assured harvest two and even three
times a year.
sufficient rainfall, seems inexhaustible.
vince of Shan-hsi has borne the name for thousands
of years of ‘the Granary of the Nation ;’ and it is.
no doubt to the distribution of this earth over its.
surface that the Great Plain owes its fruitfulness.

The rivers of China—called for the most part Aoin

the north, and chiang (kiang) in the south, are one

of its most distinguishing features. Two of them
stand out conspicuous among the great rivers of the:
world ; the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the
Chiang, generally misnamed the Yang-tsze. They
rise not far from each other ; the Ho, in the plain of
Odontala, called in Chinese the ‘Sea of Stars ’—i.e.
of springs or lakelets, in 354° N. lat., and 96° E. long. ;
and the Chiang ( Kiang), from among the mountains.
of Tibet. The Ho pursues a tortuous eastward course
to Kan-sf, and the Chiang with a southern inclina-
tion enters China at Batang, in Sze-ch’wan. From
the prefecture of Lan-chéu the Ho flows north-east
more or less along the Great Wall, till it arrives.

This fertility, provided there be a. —
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CHINA

185

nearly at the northern limit of Shen-hsj, when it
sean eurootly south, and flowing for 500 miles
that province and Shan-hsi, comes to the

edge of the Great Plain, and pursues an eastward

course. The Chiang on the contrary flows south

_ from Batang, between Sze-ch’wan and Yun-nan,
till it reaches the southern limit of the former pro-
vince. Then it turns north, and holds its way east-

ward through Sze-ch’wan and the other intervening
rovinces till it enters the ocean in lat, 32°. The

o does not pursue so regular a course. Its direc-
tion indeed from the edge of the plain is eastwards,
but in the course of time it has ever and anon
ch its channel. Chinese history opens, in the
Sha King, in the 24th century B.c., with an account
of one of its inundations, described in terms which
have suggested to some students the Noachian
deluge, and the labours on it of the Great Yii.
The terrible calamities caused by it so often have
procured for it the name of ‘China’s Sorrow.’ So
recently as 1887 it burst its southern bank near
Ching Chau, and poured its mighty flood, with
hideous devastation and the destruction of millions
of lives, into the pegelone rovince of Ho-nan.
It is now the task of the Mancha rulers of the
empire to remedy this disaster, and regulate the
terrible river for the future. Both the Ho and the
Chiang must have a course of more than 3000 miles.
These two rivers are incomparably the greatest in
China, but there are many others which would
elsewhere be accounted great. And among those
rivers we may well account the Grand Canal, in-
tended to connect the northern and southern parts
of the empire by an easy water communication ;
and this it did when it was in good order, extending
from Peking to Hang-chéu in Cheh-chiang, a dis-
tance of more than 600 miles. The glory of naking
this canal is due to Kublai, the first sovereign
of the Yiian dynasty, of whom Marco Polo says:
‘He has caused a water communication to be
made in the shape of a wide and deep channel
dug between stream and stream, between lake
and lake, forming as it were a great river on
which large vessels can ply.’ Steam communi-
eation all along the eastern seaboard from
Canton to T’ien-tsin has very much ont its
use, and portions of it are now in bad condition,
but as a truly imperial achievement it continues to
be a grand memorial of Kublai. Even Barrow
wrote of it in 1806: ‘In point of magnitude, our
most extensive inland navigation in England can
no more be compared to the grand trunk that inter-
sects China than a park or garden fish-pond to the
great lake of Winandermere.’

After the Grand Canal a few sentences may be
given to the Great Wall, another vast achieve-
ment of human labour, especially as in 1887 there
were paragraphs in many of our newspapers re-
presenting its existence as merely a myth. Not so
useful as the canal, and having failed to answer the

for which it was intended—to be a defence
st the incursions of the northern tribes, there
it still stands, while the walls of Hadrian and
Antoninus in our own country have crumbled to
the ground, and their course can only be indistinctly
It was in 214 B.c. that
Shih Basen Ti determined to erect a grand barrier
all along the north of his vast empire. The wall
commences at the Shan-hai Pass (40° N. lat., 119°
50’ E. long.), where it was visited by a squadron of
Her Majesty’s vessels of war in 1339, and was seen,
as Lord Jocelyn describes it, ‘scaling the leg oe.
and topping the c hills of the country.’ From
this point it is carried westwards till it terminates
at the Chia-yii barrier gate, the road through which
leads to the ‘Western Regions.’ Its length in a
straight line would be 1255 miles, but, if measured
along its sinuosities, this distance must be increased

to 1500. It is not built so dly in its western
rtions after it has met the Ho River, nor should it
supposed that to the east of this point it is all solid
masonry. It is formed by two strong retaining
walls of brick, rising from granite jomileiicns, the
space between being filled up with stones and earth.
he breadth of it at the base is about 25 feet, at the
top 15, and the height varies from 15 to 30 feet. The
surface at the top was covered with bricks, and is
now overgrown with grass. What foreigners go to
visit from Peking is merely a loop-wall of later
formation, inclosing portions of Chih-li and Shan-

i.

The /akes are very many, but not on so great a
seale as the rivers. It will be sufficient to mention
three—the T’ung-ting Hf, the largest, having a
circumference of 220 miles, and entering into the
names of the provinces Hfi-pei and Ha-nan; the
Po-yang Hf, in the north of Chiang-hsi, the seat
of the manufactories of the best porcelain ; and the
Tai Ha, partly in Chiang-si and partly in Chebh-
chiang, famous for its romantic scenery and
numerous islets.

The country is rich in the products necessary for
the support and comfort of the people, and for the
adornment of their civilisation. There is in it
every variety of climate ; but the average tempera-
ture is lower than in any other country in the same
latitude. The Chinese themselves consider Kwang-
tung, Kwang-hsi, and Yun-nan to be less healthy
than the other provinces; but foreigners using
proper precautions may enjoy their life in every
province.

Wheat, barley, maize, millet, and other cereals
are chiefly cultivated in the northern regions, and
rice in the southern. The writer once had a bag of
oatmeal sent to him from Kalgan, north of the loop-
wall mentioned above. Culinary or kitchen herbs,
mushrooms, and aquatic vegetables, with ginger
and a variety of other condiments, are everywhere
produced and largely used. From Formosa there
comes sugar, and the cane thrives also in the
southern provinces. Oranges, pummeloes, lichis,
pomegranates, peaches, plantains, pine-apples,
mangoes, grapes, and many other fruits and nuts,
are supplied in most markets. Tea is noted
below. Opium has been increasingly grown of
late within the country. The Chinese are em-
phatically an agricultural people. From time
immemorial the sovereign has initiated the year,
which begins with the spring, by turning over a

few furrows in the ‘ sacred field ;’ and in each pro-

vince the highest authority performs a similar
ceremony—to impress on the people the importance
of husbandry. The hoe holds the place of our
spade ; the plough retains its primitive simplicity ;
irrigation is assiduously and skilfully employed.
The tsing, or well, which was anciently in the
centre of the plots of land assigned to the families
which cultivated them, is still seen in the north;
and where the canal or river-beds are below the level
of the fields much ingenuity is displayed in raising
the water to them by wheels and scoops. Noother
people show such a sense of the value of human
ordure as manure. Nothing that comes from man
or beast is allowed to be lost. All is preserved
and prepared for use. This does not conduce to the
cleanliness of the towns or the fragrancy of the
country ; but it largely increases the productiveness
of the field and the garden.
The horse, the ox, the sheep, the fowl, the dog, the pig;
These are the six animals which men breed for food,

are well-known lines; but we do not now hear of
horses being eaten; and though dogs are to be
seen in baskets in the markets, or cut up on the
stalls, they are such as have been ly fed.
Fowls, including ducks and geese, are abundantly
bred and consumed; of ducks, immense numbers

186 CHINA

are artificially hatched. Comparatively little beef
is eaten, not so much because of the prevalence
of Buddhism, which forbids the taking of life, as
from a feeling of gratitude to the animal which
renders the most important service in tilling the
ground. Pork is the most used of all flesh meat,
and the number of pigs is enormous. In addition
to these animals, the seaboard, rivers, lakes, and
ponds supply an immense quantity of excellent fish
taken by the net. Angling is not much practised ;
but a boat with its complement of cormorants,
trained to dive for the fish and bring them to their
masters, is a pleasant sight. Shellfish also yield
‘their quota to the food of the people. An idea is
prevalent that the Chinese are gross feeders, but
this is true only of the very poor. A first-class
Chinese dinner with its twenty-seven courses may
hold its own with most luxurious tables. The
famed birds’-nest soup is a misnomer. Nests of the
Collocalia esculenta, brought from the Indian Archi-

elago, are sliced into other soup, and supposed to
impart to the compound an invigorating and stimu-
lating quality, but the writer never felt that it
added either to its flavour or piquancy.

For beverages the use of tea has nearly superseded
every other. The plant does not grow in the north,
but is cultivated extensively in the western pro-
vinces and in those south of the Great Chiang. The
infusion of the leaves was little, if at all, drunk in
ancient times, but now its use is universal. Fa-
chien, Ha-pei, and Hf-nan produce most largely the
black teas; the green comeschiefly from Cheh-chiang
and An-hui; both kinds come from Kwan-tung
and Sze-ch’wan. Next to silk, if not equally with
it, tea is China’s most valuable export; and by
nothing does it contribute more to the comfort and
well-being of the rest of the world. To the people
themselves’ its use has been invaluable, re more
than anything else has promoted the temperance
that is characteristic of them. They are acquainted
with distillation, and from rice and millet produce
alcoholic liquors. Their literature abounds from
the 12th century B.c. to the present dynasty with
warnings against the injury of strong drink; but
more effectual than the proclamations of authority
has been the habit of drinking tea. As compared
with the populations of western nations, the Chinese
are sparing in the use of strong drink, and it is rare
to see one of them intoxicated. They do not sit
down to tea as a special meal, nor do they make it
so strong as we do, or add sugar or cream to it,
but they have it at hand, and offer it to visitors,

all day long. The ordinary name of the plant is
ch’aé; but the leaf was first imported into England
from Amoy in Ff-chien, where the dialectical

pronunciation of the name is ¢/ay, which the Irish-
man still retains. The use of opium will be dis-
cussed in a separate article.

The next essential to food and drink in the
economy of life is clothing, and for this China
has abundant provision in its stores of silk, linen,
and cotton. Tt was no doubt the original home
of silk. From the 23d century B.C. and earlier,
the care of the silkworm, and the spinning and
weaving of its produce, have been the special work
of woman. As it is the mers§ of the sovereign to
turn over a few furrows in the spring to stimulate
the people to their agricultural tasks, so his con-
sort should perform an analogous ceremony with
her silkworms and mulberry-trees. The tree grows
everywhere, and in allt the provinces some silk is
produced ; but Kwan-tung, Sze-ch’wan, and Cheh-
chiang furnish the best and the most. The manu-
factures of silk are not inferior or less brilliant than
any that are produced in Europe, and nothing can
exceed the embroidery of the Chinese. Indigenous
to the country also are hemp and other fibrous
plants, such as the Behmeria nivea, from which

the grass-cloth is made. The cotton-plant, though
not indigenous, appears to have been introduced
from Khoten (Eastern Turkestan) in the 11th cen-
tury, and is now found everywhere, but is culti-
vated most extensively in the great basin of the
Chiang. The well-known nankeen is named from
Nanking, a centre for its manufacture. The
Chinese cotton is inferior to the imported cloth in
its finish, but is heavier and more durable. (For
the flora of China, see Ast, Vol. I. p. 491.) Of
woollen fabrics the production is not large; but
we meet with felt caps, rugs of camels’ hair, and
furs of various kinds. As the houses have no
fireplaces, people keep themselves warm in cold
weather by increasing the number of garments
which they wear. On the whole China has more
resources in itself for the comfortable support and
clothing of its vast population than most other
countries.

For building materials the Chinese use, like our-
selves, timber, bricks, and stone; but in the south
inexpensive houses are often made of a kind of
concrete called ‘sifted earth,’ a compound of
decomposed punite and lime, with the addition
sometimes of a little oil, pounded in a wooden
framework, which is shifted till the walls have
reached their intended height. Anciently, as we
learn from the Shih King, the largest structures
were raised in this way. The walls, if well
protected by overhanging eaves and plaster against
wet, are strong and durable. Granite and lime-
stone are found in many places, and the largest
rocks are ingeniously split and wrought into build-
ing blocks. The architecture of China is defective,
however, in the grandeur and grace which mark
that of some other countries ; the best specimens of
it are seen in the marble bridges and altars of
Peking, and in the Buddhistic buildings on the ‘ Hill
of Longevity’ and other places in the neighbour-
hood. No one who has seen them can ever forget
the gigantic figures of animals and the statues
lining the road that leads to the tombs of several
of the Ming emperors, a considerable distance north
from the capital. In the country, houses are
seldom of more than. one story. Even in the
cities the public offices and large business establish-
ments are not remarkable for their height, but for
their depth, as you pass from one series of rooms to
another through intervening courts. Rising con-
spicuous above the other buildings are the pawn-
brokers’ establishments, whilst the most substantial
and elegantly finished structures are the guildhalls
belonging to the various trades, or to the merchants
congregating in them from the different provinces.

The most picturesque buildings are the pavilions
and pagodas. Of the former the most striking is one
in what has become famous by being miscalled the
‘Summer Palace’ at Peking, about 14 feet square
and 20 high, made of pure copper. The pagodas
are Buddhistie structures, borrowed from the topes
of India, where they were built at first as deposi-
tories for the relics of Buddha and distinguished
Arhats. In China they have taken a peculiar form,
and are supposed to exercise mysterious geomantic
influences. They are the most remarkable objects
in the landscapes of the country, and there are few
cities which cannot boast of one or more, always
of an uneven number of stories. The most cele-
brated of them, the Porcelain Tower of Nanking,
is now a thing of the past, having been blown up
by the joctanadia T’ai-p'ings in 1856. It was of
an octagonal form, and was intended to be of thir-
teen stories, rising to a ore of 329 feet; but onl
nine stories were completed, the building of whic.
took nineteen years (1411-30). It was built mass-
ively of brick and faced with slabs of glazed

orcelain—green; red, yellow and white; with
amps hanging outside from the projections of the

)

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t
F
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;

ae at ee > ge eee siete A

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———

a) ae

a construction as it was. They are

of people hurrying through them
give the stranger an idea that they
are more populous than they really

Eempeon must be set the rarity

CHINA 187

different stories—one of the architectural wonders
of the world.

In the cities, and studding the country also, are
many P’di-laus or Honorary Portals, which often

carried the writer's thoughts to the old Temple

Bar, though not of so substantial

the deer family. The musk-deer is greatly valued.
Among the more domestic quadrupeds, the breed
of horses and cattle is dwarfish, and no attempts
seem to be made to improve them. The ass is a

more lively animal in the north than with us, and

tokens of imperial favour, erected
nhonour of distinguished persons,
and many of them signalising the
virtue of widows who steadfast
refused to be married a secon
time.

The streets of the cities, espe-
cially in the south, are not wider
than somany lanes, and the streams

are, though against this hasty as-

of the appearance of women in
them. They are paved with slabs
of stone, but b y drained, and
the heat and stench render a pro-
menade through them anything
but agreeable. Most of them have
high-sounding names, such as ‘The
Street of Benevolence and Right-
eousness.’ As in the old Roman
cities, tradesmen of the same pursuits are found
very much together in the same street. The streets
are wider in the northern cities, till we arrive at
Peking, where the wide ways of the Manchti portion
combine with the imposing walls and their lofty
towers to make the visitor think for a time that
he has arrived at the grandest city of the world.

When you enter the house of a well-to-do family,
you find the furniture sufficient, though somewhat
scanty and not luxurious. The floor may be
covered with matting, but not with a carpet or rugs.
The tables and straight-backed chairs are of a dark,
heavy wood resembling ebony. A few pictures,
not works of art, are hung on the walls, along with
scrolls of fine writing, expressing moral sentiments
or historical and topographical references, while
some jars and other specimens of fine porcelain are
put down here and there. There may be a couch
or two made of bamboo and rattan, and stools of
the same materials. The bamboo, that queen of
the Arundinacez, deserves especial mention. A
clump of bamboos adds a graceful charm to the
scenery, and there seems to be no end to the uses
which the plant serves. The schoolmaster employs
it for his ferule, and the mandarin or magistrate
for his most common instrument of punishment.
The writing-paper is made from it. Its youn
shoots are used for food, and for comfits an
pickles. Its stems, according to their size, are
employed for pencil handles, for canes, and for
poles. Fans, cages, baskets, and fish-creels are
all constructed with it. Its roots are carved into
grotesque figures, and fashioned into blocks of a
peculiar shape to be used in divination, China
would not be China without the bamboo.

The eountry is too thickly peopled and well
cultivated to harbour many wild and dangerous
animals, though one occasionally hears of a tiger
that has ventured from the forest and been killed
or captured. The lion was never a denizen of
China, and is only to be seen rampant in stone
in front of temples. The rhinoceros, elephant, and
tapir are said still to exist in the forests and
swamps of Yun-nan; but the supply of elephants
at Peking for the carriage of the bape ee when he
Broncos to the great sacrificial altars has been

ecreasing for several reigns. Both the brown and
black bear are met with, and several varieties of

Temple of the Goddess Ma Tsu-pu, Ning-po.
(From The Middle Kingdom, by 8. W. Williams, LL.D.)

one is
struck by many beautiful specimens of the mule.
Princes are seen riding on mules, or drawn by them
in elegant litters, while their attendants accompany

receives more attention. About Pekin

them on horseback. The camel is only seen in
the north. One of the first things that strikes a
stranger in the capital is the troops of the shaggy
animal lying or feeding about the walls, with their
Mongol keepers, looking as uncouth as their charge.

The birds of prey are many. Minos, crows, and
magpies abound. The last are ‘sacred birds,’
which it is not safe for the traveller to shoot. The
people are fond of song-birds, especially the lark,
the thrush, and the canary. he song of the
nightingale is familiar. The smaller birds are not
so afraid of man as with us. Buddhism, with which
life is sacred, has done much to secure for birds,
both with old and young, immunity from moles-
tation and death. The lovely gold and _ silver
pheasants are well known, and also the Yiian-yang
(Anas galericulata), or mandarin duck, the emblem
to the Chinese of conjugal fidelity.

The people are fond of flowers, and make
excellent gardeners. You look in vain, however,
in the gardens of the wealthy for the gay parterres
which so please the eye in England. They cultivate
their favourites mostly in pots; and the ‘ willow-
plate pattern,’ with its arbours, bridges, and ponds,
glowing often with the large and brilliant flowers
of the nelumbium, supplies a good picture of a
Chinese garden of a superior order.

While the Chinese have, as we have seen, done
justice to most of the natural capabilities of their
country, they have greatly failed in developing its
mineral resources. The skill which their lapidaries
display in cutting crystal and other quartzose
minerals is well known, and their work in jade,
which they so highly prize, is very fine. But a
mineral more valuable than any other has been
comparatively neglected. The coalfields of China
are enormous—more than twenty times the extent
of those of Great Britain ; but up to this time the
majority of them can hardly be said to have been
more than scratched. Immense quantities of iron
ore, moreover, must have been extracted from the
earth during the millenniums of its history, but a
much greater amount is still untouched. Copper,
lead, tin, silver, and gold are known to exist in

188

CHINA

many places, but little has been done to make the
stores of them available. More attention has been
directed to their mines since the government and
companies began to have steamers of their own;
and a scheme has been approved by the govern-
ment for working the gold-mines in the valley of
the Amoor River. The government has become
conscious of its mineral wealth, and there is no
calculating the resources to which it may attain.

A gold and silver currency is one of the’ first
things which it has to provide. Thus far the only
currency has been the copper cash, cumbrous and
often debased, varying in its relative value in every
district, and the source of endless trouble to the
traveller. Even foreign silver coins are treated as
bullion, and taken by weight. What is called
‘sycee silver’ is made from them. After they
have been defaced and broken to pieces, they are
melted and cast into ingots of different sizes called
‘shoes.’ Much inconvenience is caused by the
necessity of keeping small fine scales or steelyards
to weigh every outlay and receipt. Since 1890
silver dollars have been coined at Canton. Paper
money is indeed in circulation, but the banking sys-
tem exists as yet only in a rudimentary condition.

Another want in China is that of good roads and
comfortable conveyances. The necessity for good
roads first presented itself to Shih Hwang Ti (214
B.C.), who, after he had extended the empire to
nearly its present limits, ordered the preparation of
them seven years before he commenced the building
of the Great Wall; and it has been said that there
are now 20,000 roads in China ; but according to the
reports of travellers in the present century, the
good roads among them are very few. The govern-
ment couriers peiform their journeys on horseback.
Where communication by water is abundant the
want of roads is not so much felt; but in their
absence in times of scarcity it is a most difficult
thing to convey supplies to starving populations,
as in the famine wit prevailed in shan-hst and
other northern provinces a few years ago. It is
owing doubtless to the want of roads that the
wheelbarrow is so much used as the chief vehicle of
communication and commerce from the Chian
northwards. The writer once had an experience o}
this, when, along with a companion, he was con-
veyed 280 miles on one of those ‘cany wagons
light’ in about 8 days. Slow as the journey was,
the fatigue was much less than if they had been
jolted over the same distance in a springless mule-
cart in half the time. Even at Peking roads once
paved with marble slabs have been allowed to fall
into such a state of dilapidation as to be full of dis-
comfort and danger; and the route and convey-
ances from the capital to T’ien-tsin, its port, are
disgraceful to the government.

octal Habits.—The dress of the poor is very
much alike in both sexes; and though it is regu-
lated for all classes by sumptuary laws, it is varied
among the wealthy by the richness of the materials
and the various ornamentation. The most striking
thing in the appearance of the men to a foreigner
is the queue or plaited tail from the hair of the
crown, all the rest of the head being shaved. This
was not the old fashion of doing up the hair, but
was enforced on the Chinese by the Manchfss in
1627, when they had commenced the conquest of
the empire. Inscriptions on stone tablets in old
temples in Japan, erected by refugees of the 17th
century, mention this degrading requirement as
one of the reasons why they had fled from their
country. All dislike to the custom, however, has
now disappeared. A foreigner is surprised in the
same way by the small feet of the more respectable
women. These were not enforced upon them by
the Manchfi conquerors, whose women allow their
feet to grow to the natural size, nor was it a very

ancient practice in the country, though it seems te
have prevailed since our 6th century. The distor-
tion is produced by bandaging the feet in early

Foot of Chinese Girl (aged 16 Years), in three positions:
Copied from a cast in Trinity College, Dublin,
(Length of foot, 4 inches.)

years, so as to prevent their further growth. The
very poor and servants are not subjected to this
torture, but such is the force of fashion that we
have known humble girls of twelve or thirteen
vainly try to reduce the size of their feet, thinking
thereby to make themselves more attractive.

The separation of the sexes until marriage has
been a feature of the social life from the earliest.
times. In the old feudal period, ‘at the age of
seven, boys and girls of the same family did not.
occupy the same mat, nor eat together, and at the
age of ten a girl ceased to appear outside the
women’s apartments. Her governess taught her
the arts of pleasing speech and manners, to be
docile and obedient, to handle the hempen fibres,
to deal with the cocoons, to weave silks and form
fillets, to learn all woman’s work, how to furnish

arments, to watch the sacrifices, to supply the
iquors and sauces, to fill the stands pe 9 dude
with pickles and brine, and to assist in setting
forth the appurtenances for the ceremonies. At.
fifteen she assumed the hairpin (as a token that
she had arrived at woman’s estate), at twenty she
was married, or if there were occasion for the delay,
at twenty-three.’ We read nothing of any lite-
rary training for the daughters then, nor is there
any now, though Chinese history is not. without
instances of learned women and distinguished
authoresses. In the important event of marriage
the parents exercise a supreme control; and this
has given rise to the class of match-makers or go-
betweens, who are consulted by the parents, make
inquiries, and by an examination of the horoscopes
of the parties and other methods of their profession
determine the question of the mutual suitability of
the match. When a marriage has been agreed
upon, it is carried through with a great variety
of ceremonies, the parties most concerned bein
supposed never to have previously seen eac
othe In the majority of cases the husband
and wife thus brought together seem to take
to each other very well. Notwithstanding its
defects and differences from our ideal, its result.
seems to be a fair amount of peace and happi-
ness. When the wife becomes a mother she
is treated as a sort of divinity in the household.
There is but one proper wife (chdng-ch't) in the
family, but there is no law against a man’s having
secondary wives or concubines ; and such connec-
tions are common wherever the means of the family
are sufficient for their support. Many of the
greatest names in the nation’s history are stained
with this practice, and the evils of it have been and
are very great. There are seven legal grounds for
divorcing a wife: Disobedience to her husband’s
esti not giving birth to a son; dissolute con-
uct; jealousy (of her husband’s attentions—i.e.
to the other inmates of his harem); talkativeness ;

CHINA

189

thieving; and leprosy. These grounds, however,
may be nullified by ‘the three considerations ;:’ If
_ her parents be dead; if she have passed with her
husband through the years of mourning for his

_ parents; and if he have become rich from being
_. In many cases the betrothment of children

made at an early age, leading often to injurious
and melancholy issues.

The charge of infanticide has been brought
ane the family life in China, the victims in

vast majority of instances being the female
children, hat it is stained by this crime,
though not to the extent that has often been
alleged, cannot be denied. It is among the very
poor that the barbarity is chiefly perpetrated, and
their poverty is the reason of it. From the ances-
tral worship which Y nidag among the people, the
desire for male children is greater in China than
perhaps in any other lege In one case the wife
of a professing Christian asked the writer whether
her husband might not be allowed, like any other
meres, to bring a concubine to the house, as chil-

were denied to herself, and she would bring up
any boy that might be born on her knees as her
own child. Public opinion is certainly against the
crime of infanticide; the government is to blame
in that it does not address itself to punish the deed
and put it down. Even the public opinion against
it is not so emphatic as it ought to be. Foundlin
hospitals and asylums for the aged are to be foun
in most of the large towns, but their cleanliness
and management are not satisfactory.

The complexion of the Chinese inclines to yellow
—is, as they say themselves, of ‘the colour of the
olive.’ The same coarse black hair and apparentl
oblique eyes, with high cheekbones and roundis
face, belong to them all from the Great Wall to the
island of Hai-nan. They are stout and muscular
as compared with other eastern peoples, temperate,
industrious, cheerful, and easily contented. They
are addicted to gambling, and are generally held to
be given also to mendacity and larceny. Many of
them are so; and where is the country where there
are not many such? The longer one lives amon
them, however, the better he likes them, an
the better he thinks of them.

They bury their dead in graves which are built
ene disp = eas of a horseshoe, = often with
much display and at great expense. e mournin,
rites are tedious, and aatnase x variety of ieorifises
and other observances. No subject occupies so
ge a portion of the Classic of Ritual Observances.

here is no weekly day of worship and rest like
our Sunday. At the New Year the government
offices are shut for about a month. New-year’s
Day is the one universal holiday, and at this time
shops are closed for several days. The whole
nation seems to be dissolved in festivity and joy.
The people dress in their best; the temples are
visited ; gambling tables are surrounded by crowds ;
the noise of fireworks or ‘crackers’ is incessant.
Throughout the year every month has its festivals,
of which the most general are that of ‘ Lanterns,’
on the full moon of the first month ; of the ‘ Tombs,’
later on in the spring; of ‘Dragon Boats,’ in the
fifth month; and of ‘ All Souls,’ in the seventh
month, for the benefit of departed relatives and
hungry ghosts in the world of spirits. Theatrical
representations are immensely popular. ‘ Strolling
companies’ can easily be hired; with the bamboo
and matting, sheds, often very large, can be readily
erected for the exhibition. Individual actors be-
come celebrated as with us, and their services are
well remunerated. Females do not ap on the
awe. Their parts are performed by boys got up
or the p ade

History.—The chronology of China is measured
not by centuries, but by sexagenaries, the first

cycle being made to commence with the sixtieth
year of colby, Ti in 2637 B.c. But this is merely
a conventional arrangement. There were Chinese
in China before Hwang Ti, and the cycle names for
the years prior to 827 B.C. cannot be fully relied on.
The documents of the Sha King begin with the
reigns of Y4o and Shun (2356- B.C.); and
from various intimations in that work we are
brought to conclude that the nation then consisted
of a collection of tribes or clans of the same race,
ruled by a sovereign, nominated by his predecessor,
and approved by the people as the worthiest man
to reign over them.

With Yii, the successor of Shun, and the hero of
Y4o’s deluge to which we have already made refer-
ence, there came a change in the principle of suc-
cession to the throne. As it is expressed, ‘He
Samilied the kingdom.’ Then commenced the
Feudal State, which lasted under three dynasties
(Hsié, 2205-1767 B.c.; Shang or Yin, 1766-1123
B.c.; and Chau, 1122-255 B.c.) for a period of
nearly two thousand years. The feudal system of
China was very similar to that which prevailed in
Europe during what we call the middle ages. At
a grand durbdr held by Yii after his accession
there were, it is said, ten thousand princes present
with their jade symbols of rank. But the feudal
states were constantly army! absorbed by one
another. On the rise of the Shang dynasty they
were only somewhat over three thousand, whic
had decreased to thirteen hundred when King Wa
established the sovereignty of the Chiu. In 403
B.C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or
later claiming to be ‘the kingdom,’ and contending
for the supremacy, till Ts’in (Ch’in ) put down all the
others, and in 221 B.c. its king assumed the title of
Hwang Ti, or Emperor, and determined that there
should be no more feudal gener or, and that,
as there is but one sun in the sky, there should be
but one ruler in the nation.

From that year dates the imperial form of the
Chinese government, which has thus existed for more
than 2100 years. The changes of dynasty have been
many, two or more sometimes ruling together, each
having but a nominal supremacy over the whole
nation. The greater dynasties have been those of
Han (206 B.c.-220 A.D.), T’ang (618-906), Sung
(960-1279), Yiian (the Mongol, 1280-1367), the
Ming (1368-1643), and the Ching (Manchtii-Tar-
tar, 1643 to the present date).

The long and persistent existence of the Chinese
nation has been owing partly to its geographical
position keeping it apart from other great nations,
and partly to its educational culture and training.
Where the race came from at first takes us beyond
the feotsteps of history. The Chinese were not the
earliest inhabitants of the country. They made
their way from the north and west of China
proper, pushing before them the older inhabitants,
exterminating them or absorbing them, or leaving
em of them within their own ever-enlarging

rders, as wrecks of tribes still subsisting here
and there, and apparently mouldering to extinction.
From the first appearance of the Chinese we find
among them written characters (see the next
article), and certain elements of intellectual and
moral culture and religious beliefs. (The connec-
tion of Chinese culture with that of ancient Baby-
lonia has been suggested but not proved.)

The Ruler and the Sage confront us in the
earliest records of the nation; the Ruler to govern
the people, and the Sage or Man of Intelligence to
assist and advise him, and spread ab among
them the lessons of truth and duty. It is said ina
document of the 18th century B.c., ‘Heaven gives
birth to the people with such desires that without
a Ruler they will fall into all disorders, and heaven
again gives birth to the Man of Intelligence to

190

CHINA

regulate them.’ Thus the sovereign and the sage
are both the ordinances of heaven ; and it has been
the rule in the various stages of the nation’s
history that officers of the government should pos-
sess whatever educational culture its institutions
could supply. The same written character (shzh)
serves to designate both a scholar and an officer,
and of the ‘four classes of the people, scholars or
officers, agriculturists, mechanics, and merchants,’
the first has always been held to be ‘the head.’
Even in the feudal times the system of examina-
tions for the selection of the officials existed in a
rudimentary state, though it was not till our 7th
century that it began to assume its present form,
open to all, excepting ‘monks, play-actors, and
menial servants.’

This competitive system, as now existing with
all the necessary machinery, is organised in three
principal gradations—the provincial, the metropoli-
tan, and the palace examinations. The students
of each province who have attained at the district
examinations to the style of Hsiz Ts'di, or ‘men
of talent,’ assemble at the provincial capital,

where as a rule every third year special examiners
from Peking conduct the examination for the degree
of Chii (Ki) jan, or ‘men for promotion,’ which
perhaps three in a thousand of them may obtain,
and which entitles them to some minor appoint-
ments. To take the third degree of 7s’in shih, or
‘men to be presented to the emperor,’ the success-
ful Chii-jdn from all the provinces must proceed to
the metropolis, perhaps about six thousand in all,
and there, also as a rule triennially, pass a test

examination, the successful candidates at which —

then go in for the palace examination, conducted
within the precincts of the imperial palace itself ;
after which the lists are published in three classes,
the first being a tripos of the three best men, who
become for the time the heroes of the day. They
and a proportion of the others are admitted to the
ranks of the members of the Han-lin, the ‘ Forest
of Pencils,’ or ‘Grand Academy of Literature.’
The remainder receive appointments in the pro-
vinces or at the capital, according as vacancies
occur. Such is an outline, as large as our space
will allow, of the competitive system of examina-

A Chinese School when the master has gone out (Peking).

tions by which the government of China seeks to
secure the ablest men of the empire for. its service.
The examinations are testing and fairly conducted.
The subjects are taken from the literature of the
country itself. There are already indications not
a few that the system will undergo the modifica-
tions made necessary by the new relations with
other countries which have arisen in our own time;
mathematics became a subject of examination in
1888. The system has tended to impress the people
with the value of education; but it must not be
supposed that as a whole they are highly educated.
Everywhere indeed there are primary schools, not
governmental, but maintained by the people them-
selves. A smattering of education is widely
diffused ; but apart from the official classes, those
who can read freely or write readily are few.

The three religions of China are Confucianism,
Taoism, and Buddhism. Most writers represent
the first not so much as a religion, but as a
morality ; but there always underlies its teachings
a recognition of the relzgion which prevailed in
the country from the most ancient times—the
belief of a Supreme Power, expressed at first by
the name ‘ Heaven,’ which soon came to be desig-
nated also by the personal names 77%, ‘the Ruler,’

(From a Chinese Picture.)

and Shang-Ti, ‘the Supreme Ruler.’ The state
worship of Heaven or God was, and still is, con-
fined to the sovereign as the father and priest
of the people. The will of God is to be learned
from the moral principles of man’s nature. Govern.
ment is ordained by God for the good of the i
and as soon as a sovereign ceases to seek that
ood and his rule is antagonistic to it, he has
orfeited his title to the throne; and thus it is
that the changes of dynasty are always referred to
as ‘the will of Heaven,’ and the sovereign professes
to be such ‘ by the grace of God.’ Associated with
the worship of Heaven or God, there was the
worship of heaven and earth and the powers of
nature, but only as subordinate to God and fulfill-
ing His will for the good of men; and also of
distinguished men, as having by their discoveries
and achievements defended, benefited, and blessed
the people of their own and future times. There
was also common to their sovereign and all the
people the worship of their ancestors. This last
was and is considered as an expression of filial
piety, the perpetuation of ‘the duty which every
one owes to his parents—the first and chief of
all virtues.’ On this Confucius laid great stress,
endeavouring to develop all other virtues from it.

>

CHINA

.y

191

His great object may be said to have been the
inculcation of duty, setting forth with wondrous
iteration the character of his superior or ideal man.
Several times he enunciated ‘the golden rule’ ina
negative form, ‘What ye would not that men
should do to you, do not do to them.’ Téoism
derives its name from the treatise of Li Urh,
commonly called Léo-tsze, a spegae. gi of
Confucius, called ‘The Z7é@o or Way and its har-
acteristics.’ The Way is the quiet, passionless
discharge of all which our nature and relations
prompt or require us to do, without striving or
erying, and the method of maintaining and pre-
serving life. ‘Heaven’ in this ‘Way’ is not
a ruler or yo oped as in Confucianism, but only
a pattern. The system was older than Léo-tsze,
and indigenous in China, but associated with
meet superstitions; and after the entrance ‘ of
Buddhism into China it adopted many of its
uliarities. The recognised head of Taoism has
is seat on the Lung-hi Mountain in Chiang-hsi.
L&o-tsze has the merit of having formulated the
Seni principle that good will overcome evil, and
ould be returned for it. For Buddhism, which
was introduced or rather invited to China in our
first century, see the article BUDDHISM.

There is no priesthood in Confucianism; but
Buddhism has its monks and nuns, and Taoism
its monks. The _Gepitincaors while not interfering
with the internal organisation of either of these
systems, has established a scheme of gradations of
rank and authority in order that it may have the
control of them in its own hands. It would no
doubt recognise Christianity in the same way, if
the different missions could possibly be amalga-
mated, and would unitedly try to adapt themselves
to the bed of Procrustes which it would prepare
for them in the various departments and districts.
This is not the place in which to speak of the
comparative number of the adherents of the ‘three
religions’ in China. To claim a majority for those
of any one of them is very absurd. As a matter
of fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence
and morality of China ; Téoism its superstitions ;
and Buddhism its ritualism and idolatry, while yet
it acknowledges no God.

The GOVERNMENT of the empire (omitting the
regulation of the imperial court and family, or the
special Manchfi department) is conducted from
the capital, supervising, directing, controlling the
different provincial administrations, and exercisin
the power of er ce Bagiy his post any officia
whose conduct may irregular or considered
yg to the state.

There is the Grand Cabinet, the privy-council
of the emperor, in whose presence it meets daily to
transact the business of the state, between the
hours of four and six A.M.! Its members are
few, and hold other substantive offices. There is
also the Grand Secretariat, formerly the supreme
council, but under the present dynasty very much
superseded by the cabinet. It consists of four
grand and two assistant-grand secretaries, three
of them Manchfis and three Chinese.

The business on which the cabinet deliberates
comes before it from the Six Boards—of Civil Office,

of Revenue, of Ceremonies (including all matters
pertaining to religion), of War, of ishment,
and of Works. h Board has two presidents

and four vice-presidents, three of them again
Manchis and three Chinese. In 1861 the changed
relations between the yeh and foreign nations
led to the formation of what we may call a
seventh Board, styled the ‘ Ya-mdn (or court)

of Forei Affairs.’ There is also another im-
portant department which should be mentioned
—the ate—members of which exercise a

supervision over the Boards, and, distributed

through the provinces, have it as their duty to
memorialise the emperor on all subjects connected
with the welfare of the people and the conduct of
the government.

In the administration of the provinces, a governor-
general and governor are for the most part associ-
ated as colleagues ; though ‘in Chih-li, Kan-sf, and
Sze-ch’wan there is only the governor-general, and
in Shan-hsi, Shan-tung, and Ho-nan only the
governor. Below these two functionaries there
are the lieutenant-governor (commonly called the
treasurer), the provincial judge, the salt comp-
troller, and the grain-intendant. The provinces
are further divided for the purposes of adminis-
tration into fa or prefectures (amounting in all
the provinces to 191), chdu or departments (in all,
58 independent of the fi, within which they
are comprehended, and 155 subject to it), and
hsien or districts, subject to the f@ (in all 1288).
There are also four fa occupied principally by the
aboriginal ples, twenty-eight chdu and four
hsien. The rank of the different officials in these
hse om is indicated by a knob or button on the

p of their caps. In the two highest it is made
of red coral ; in the third it is clear blue; in the
fourth, of lapis lazuli ; in the fifth, of crystal ; in
the sixth, ofa an aor nw white stone; and in the
three lowest it is yellow, of gold or gilt. They
also wear insignia or badges embroidered on a
square patch, in the front or back of their robes,
representing birds on the civilians and animals on
the military officers.

As regards the revenue of the empire we need
more information than we possess at present.
Each pln is required to “opine itself and to
furnish a certain surplusage for the imperial govern-
ment; but both the provinces and the court are
constantly finding their income insufficient. Of
the income of the several provinces for local pur-

we cannot speak ; but we take the followin
estimate of the imperial revenue from a series 0
carefully prepared articles contributed to the China
Mail of Hong-kong in 1885 :

1, Land-tax portion, payable in silver........... 20,
2. " rice tribute to Peking at
T.1.50 per pecul, and rice levy in provinces
or money commutation....................: 7,000,000
8. Salt Gabelle, and likin or transit duty on salt 9,500,000
4. Maritime customs under foreign supervision... 13,000,000
5. Native customs, maritime and inland, and first

inland levy on foreign opium................ 5,000,000

6. Likin on miscellaneous goods and opium, both
foreign and native..............scceceeeeees 9,500,000
OUR daictac ek 14s odes inweon 64,000,000

In 1894 the revenue was estimated at near 75,000,000
teals. But as the Teal (q.v.) has fallen in value to
about 4s., however we stretch its value we do not
obtain the amount of £20,000,000; surely a very
small imperial revenue for so great an empire wit
It has been increased at
times by sales of office and by forced contributions,
both dangerous expedients ; but the former was put
a stop to by an edict in 1879. China had no foreign
debt till 1874; but when in 1895 the first war loan
of £3,000,000 was raised, the total external debt
had grown to £9,000,000.

The imperial army proper consists of Manchis,
Mongols, and the discdadate of Chinese who
revolted from the Ming dynasty and joined the
Manchtss on their invasion of the empire, the first
defection taking place in 1621. These are divided
each into eight corps with different coloured
banners, and as a whole are styled ‘The Eight
Banners.’ Their headquarters are in Peking, and
they are distributed in garrisons in most of the
provinces, and also in Turkestan and I-li. Their
number available for actual service amounts to
nearly 350,000, of whom 100,000 are supposed to be

so vast a 12S te rpm

192

CHINA

reviewed by the emperor at Peking once a year.
In addition to this there is the national army,
distributed in more than one thousand camps
throughout the provinces, nearly twice as numerous
as the imperial, and called ‘ The Army of the Green
Standard,’ being in fact little more than a vast
militia or gendarmerie. These forces may in
times of emergency be added to considerably by
patriotic gentlemen calling out bands of ‘ braves,’
effective enough to cope with insurgents, but all
unfit to encounter the disciplined forces of any
foreign power. Of this character at first were the
troops of the T’4i-p’ing rebellion, which, till its
suppression in 1867, for about twenty years proved
a match for the imperial and national forces, and
threatened the overthrow of the Manchfi dynasty.
See T’Arp’/INGS, and GORDON (CHARLES GEORGE).
The utter inadequacy of the army system was
shown by the collapse of China as a military power
in the war with Japan in 1894-95, and the much
vaunted navy, though fought with bravery at the
Yalu and Port Arthur, effected little: five vessels
—an armour-clad barbette and four cruisers—were
sunk in the first engagement, and the most of the
remaining ships subsequently fell into the hands
of the Japanese.

Intercourse with Western Nations and Commerce.
—It was not till after the Cape of Good Hope was
doubled, and the passage to India discovered by
Vasco da Gama in 1497, that intercourse between
any of the European nations and China was
possible by sea. It was in 1516 that the Portu-
guese first made their appearance at Canton; and
they were followed at intervals of time by the
Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English in 1635.

e Chinese received none of them cordially ; and
their dislike of them was increased by their
mutual jealousies and collisions with one another.
The Manchfi sovereignty of the empire, more-
over, was then in the throes of its birth, and its
rulers were the more disposed to assert their own
superiority to all other potentates. They would
not acknowledge them as their equals, but only
as their vassals. They felt the power of the for-
eigners whenever they made an attempt to restrict
their operations by force, and began to fear them.
As they became aware of their conquests in the
Philippines, Java, and India, they would gladly
have prohibited their approach to their territories
altogether. In the meantime trade gradually in-
creased, and there grew up the importation of
opium (see OPIUM TRAFFIC) from India, and the
wonderful eagerness of multitudes to purchase and
smoke it. Before 1767 the import rarely exceeded
200 chests, but that year it amounted to 1000.
In 1792 the British government wisely sent an
embassy under Lord Macartney to Peking with
Sa sai to the emperor, to place the relations
petween the two countries on a secure and proper
footing ; but though the ambassador and members
of his suite were courteously treated, the main
objects were not accomplished. In 1800 an imperial
edict expressly prohibited the importation of opium,
and threatened all Chinese who smoked it with
condign punishment. It had been before a smug-

ling traffic, and henceforth there could be no
danke of its real character. Still it went on, and
increased from year to year. A second embassy
from Great Britain in 1816 was dismissed from
Peking suddenly and contumeliously because the
ambassador would not perform the ceremony of
San kwet chit k'au (‘the repeated prostrations’),
and thereby acknowledge his own sovereign to be
but a vassal of the empire.

So things went on till the charter of the East
India Company expired in 1834, and the head of
its factory was superseded by a representative of
the sovereign of Great Britain who could not con-

duct his intercourse with the Hong merchants as
the others had done. The two nations were
brought defiantly face to face. On the one side
was a resistless force, determined to prosecute its
enterprise for the enlargement of its trade, and the
conduct of *t as with an equal nation ; on the other
side was the old empire seeming to be unconscious
of its weakness, determined not to acknowledge
the claim of equality, and confident of its power to
suppress the import of opium. The government of
China made its grand and final effort in 1839, and
in the spring of that year the famous Lin Tséh-hsii
was appointed to the governor-generalship of the
Kwang provinces, and to bring the barbarians to
reason. Out of his measures came our first war,
which was declared by Great Britain against China
in 1840. There could be no doubt as to the result
in so unequal a contest ; and we hurry to its close
at Nanking, the old capital oi the empire, where
a treaty of peace was signed on the 29th August
1842 on board Her Majesty’s ship Cornwallis. The
rincipal articles were that the island of Hong-
ong should be ceded to Great Britain; that the
ports of Canton, Amoy and Faé-Chau (in Fa-
chien), Ning-po (in Cheh-chiang), and Shang-hai
(in Chiang-sit}) should be opened to British trade
and residence; and that thereafter official corre-
spondence should be conducted on terms of equality
according to the standing of the parties. Nothing
was said in the treaty on the subject of opium, the
smuggling traffic in which went on as before.
Before fifteen years had passed away, because
of troubles at Canton not all creditable to Great
Britain, and the obstinacy of the governor-general
Yeh Ming-chin in refusing to meet Sir John Bow-
ring (q.v.), it was thought necessary by the British
overnment that war should be commenced against
hina again. In this undertaking France joined as
our ally. Canton was taken on the 29th December
1857, when Yeh was captured and sent a prisoner
to Caleutta. Canton being now in the possession
of the allies, arrangements were made for its
government by a joint commission; and in Feb-
ruary 1858 the allied plenipotentiaries, accom-
panied by the commissioners of the United States
and Russia as non-combatants, proceeded to the
north to lay their demands before the emperor at
Peking. There was not so much fighting as there
had been in 1842, and on June 26 a second treaty
was concluded at T’ien-tsin, renewing and confirm-
ing the former, but with many important additional
stipulations, the most important of which were
that the sovereigns of Great Britain and China
might, if they saw fit, appoint ambassadors,
ministers, or other diplomatic agents to their re-
spective courts ; and that the British representative
should not be required to perform any ceremony
derogatory to him as representing the sovereign —
of an we case nation on an equality with
China, Other stipulations erovided: tne the pro-
tection of Christian missionaries and their con-
verts ; for liberty for British subjects to travel, for
their pleasure or for purposes of trade, under pass-
pores into all parts of the interior of the country ;
or the opening of five additional ports for com-
merce—Nifi-chwang (in Shing-king, the chief pro-
vince of Manchuria), Tang-chéu (with port of Che-
foo, in Shan-tung ), Taéi-wan (Formosa, several ports),
Ch’4o-chau (with port of Swa-t’au, in Kwang-tung),
and Ch’iung (Kiung-chéu, in H4i-nan)— and for
authority for merchant-ships to trade on the Yang-
tsze River, ports on which would be opened when
rebellion should have been put down and peace and
order restored. (The river was not opened to
steamer traffic till 1888.) Treaties on the same lines
were concluded also with the United States, France,
and Russia. A revision of the tariff regulations of
1842 was to take place subsequently in the year at

CHINA

193

$hang-hdi. This was done in October, and then
um was entered among the legitimate articles
import, .and the arrangement confirmed that
the government should employ a foreign official in
the collection of all maritime duties. It might seem
_ that these treaties secured everything which foreign
nations could require, and that the humiliation
of the Chinese government was complete. But
aed were nearly wrecked by one concluding stipu-
lation in all of them but that of the United
‘States, that the ratifications of them should be
exchanged at Peking within a year. The em-
beg and his advisers, when the pressure of the
at T’ien-tsin was removed, could not bear
the thought of the embassies entering the sacred
-eapital, and foolishly cast about to escape from the
condition. The forts at Ta-kQ, guarding the en-
trance to the Pei-ho, and the approach to T’ien-tsin
and thence to Peking, were rebuilt and strongly
fortified. When the English, French, and Ameri-
-can ministers returned to Shang-hai with the
ratified treaties in 1859, the Chinese commissioners
who had signed them at T’ien-tsin were waiting for
them, and urged that the ratifications should be
exchanged there. The French and English minis-
ters then insisted on proceeding to Peking as the
place nominated for the exchange. But when they
arrived at the mouth of the river, with the gun-
boats under their command, they were unable to
foree the defences. A severe engagement ensued,
and the allied forces sustained a eae with heavy
loss. It was the one victory gained by the Chinese.
The British and French governments took imme-
diate action. A third expedition under the same
ier ages as before, with a force of nearly
20, men, was at the same place in little more
than a year. The forts were taken on August 21,
and on the 25th the plenipotentiaries were again
established in T’ien-tsin. We can only refer to
their march in September on Peking, with all its
exciting details. ‘The emperor ( Hsien-fung) fled to
Jeh-ho in the north of Chih-li, the imperial sum-
mer-retreat; and his brother, Prince Kung, whose
name is well known, came to the front in the
management of affairs. On the 13th October he
surrendered the north-east gate of the city; and
on the 24th the treaties were exchanged, and an
additional convention signed, by which of course an
additional indemnity was exacted from the Chinese,
and an arrangement made about the emigration of
coolies, which had become a crying scandal, while
a small piece of the continent of the empire, lying
opposite to Hong-kong, was ceded to that colony.
So it was that the attempt of China to keep itself
aloof from the rest of the world came to an end,
and a new era in the history of the empire was
initiated.

Hsien-fung died at Jeh-ho in August 1861,
oo ay empire to his young son only six years
-old. cabal at Jeh-ho tried to keep the boy in

their ession, but his uncle, Prince Kung,
succeeded in getting him to Peking, and along
with the young emperor’s mother and the empress-
_ dowager, by whom Hsien-fung had had no child,
loyally and successfully administered a regency in
accordance with the new conditions of the govern-
ment. The style of the reign was T’ung-chi, or

‘Government in Union;’ and on February 23,

1873, the emperor announced publicly, and speci-

ally to the foreign ministers, that he had taken the

overnment into his own hands. This brought u
the question of an audience, but, after a good deal
of protocolling and negotiation, it was_finall
settled on June 29 by the emperor receiving all
the ministers then in Peking without the ceremony
of prostration. His reign did not last long, for he
‘died in January 1875. As he left no son, and had
peetiznated no successor, the members of the im-

1

perial house, according to the rules in such a case,

arenes as his successor Tsai-t/ien, the son of
rin

ce Shun, a younger brother of Prince Kung.
The new sovereign was a child of four years old,
and began to reign under the style of Kwang Hsii,
or ‘The Illustrious Succession.” He assumed the
government in March 1887.

Soon after the ratification of the treaties of T’ien-
tsin, the promised ports on the Great Chiang,
pre Nan-king, were opened—namely, Han-k’au
a fi-pei), Nis ariecog | (Kit-kiang, in Chiang-

si), and Chin-chiang (Kin-kiang, in Chiang-s@).
I-chang (in Hfi-pei), W-ha (in An-hui), Wau-chiu
(in Cheh-chiang), and Pih-hai (Pak-hoi, in Kwang-
tun’g) were opened by the Chefoo convention
(1876), which also made concessions about the
opium traffic. The treaty of Shimonoseki (1895),

ter the war with Japan, opened four additional
yr ig -king, ang-chow, Soo-chow, and

ha-tsze. The foreign debt of China, contracted
almost wholly in connection with the Japanese war
(1894-95), was in 1898 estimated at £40,000,000.

According to the customs returns for the year
1893, the vessels entered and cleared at the various
be 4 ports were 37,902 (of 29,318,811 tons) of
which 19,365 (of 19,203,978 tons) were British.
The total value of the imports from abroad in-
creased from 110,885,000 teals in 1889 to over
157,360,000 in 1893, while the value of the exports
rose from 97,000,000 teals in 1889 to 116,635,000 in
1893. In the latter year the imports direct from
Britain were 28,156,000 teals, the exports thither
11,668,000 teals. Most of the foreign trade is set
down as with Hong-kong, which is a distributing
centre for trade to and from Britain, Germany,
France, America, India, &. After Hong-kong,
the order in which foreign countries participate
in Chinese trade is Britain, India, the United
States, Japan, and Russia. The principal im-
ports are opium (31,700,000 teals), cotton goods
(45,100,000), metals (7,200,000), oil and kerosene,
seaweed and fishery products, woollens, coal, and
raw cotton. The chief exports are silk (38,115,000
teals), tea (30,550,000), straw braid (2,430,000),
sugar, clothing, paper, and chinaware. By the
British returns, the exports from Britain to China,
which in 1889 had a value of £7,220,600, were
in 1893 only £6,435,000 ; the imports from China
to Britain, which in 1889 were £7,260,000, were
in 1893 only £4,786,850. The disparity between
them and the Chinese reckoning is owing to the
fall in the value of the silver teal (5s. 84d. in 1882;
4s. in 1893).

China has in the t been mainly a self-con-
tained nation, but of late the Chinese have shown
an increasing tendency to seek a livelihood abroad,
especially in California, British Columbia, the
Straits Settlements and Eastern Archipelago, and
Australia. More than half the population of
Singapore is Chinese; and in 1880 there were
200,000 Chinese in Java. In the Australian colo-
nies there have never been more than 60,000.
From 1855 to 1867 the immigration of Chinese
into the United States varied from 3000 to 7000;
from 1868 to 1881 it was usually between 10,000
and 20,000; in 1882 it was 33,614. But the im-
position of prohibitory taxes on Chinese immigrants
reduced this to 17 in 1886. And in 1888 the immi-

tion of Chinese workmen was absolutely for-
idden for twenty-one years. British Columbia
and some of the Australian colonies have also
sought to restrict Chinese immigration by im-

posing a heavy poll-tax on immigrant Chinese.
The empire has to some small extent taken
advantage of Western civilisation—telegraphs have

been established, a small beginning made with
railways, and trustworthy foreigners employed
in training the army, in the arsenals, and in the

194

CHINA

custom-houses ; and a powerful navy of ironclads
was acquired. But the rottenness of the military
and naval systems was shown by the Japanese
war of 1894-5, arising out of the state of Corea
(q.v.). A Japanese invading force, after a battle
at Ping-yang and a naval battle on the Yalu
(17th September 1894), drove the Chinese out
of Corea, and, entering Manchuria, took the strong

naval station of Port Arthur (22d November 1894).
’ The corresponding station and arsenal south of the
Gulf of Pe-chi-li, that of Wei-hai-wei, yielded to
the Japanese assaults on the 30th January 1895, the
Chinese troops having nowhere made any effectual
resistance. And the remaining ships of the fleet
which had escaped the battle of the Yalu were,
after some sharp fighting, captured by the Japanese
navy. The colossal Chinese Empire was, after
a few months’ fighting, reduced to sue for peace.
The Japanese terms included the cession of For-
mosa and the Pescadores Islands, the cession of
the Liaotung Peninsula, including Port Arthur, and
the payment of a war indemnity of thirty-three
millions sterling. But Russia, France, and Ger-
many constrained the Japanese to refrain from
insisting on the cession of Liao-tung, in considera-
tion of an increase of the war indemnity by sixteen
millions. By 1898 China, become the ‘sick man’
of the Farther East, was the object of the anxious
solicitude of the European powers. Russia had
arranged that its Siberian railway was to pass
through Kirin and Moukden to Port Arthur and
to Peking, and by help of-garrisons and Cossack
settlers had secured military and commercial con-
trol of Manchuria (q.v.), and on an extensible lease
was in possession of Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan.
Germany had occupied, on a lease of ninety-nine
years, the port of Kiao-chow in Shan-tung; and
regarded | the valley of the Hoang-ho as its
special sphere of interest. Britain, insisting on
full freedom of trade with China (‘the open door’),
had a definite promise that no part of the Yang-
tsze basin (to t henceforth a British ‘sphere of
influence’) should be alienated by China, secured
the opening of additional treaty ports and the free
navigation of part of some of the great rivers,
and occupied Wei-hai-wei on its evacuation by the
Japanese on the same terms as Russia holds Port
Arthur. European diplomacy was entangled in
rival schemes for giving China loans and securing
(for subjects of Russia, Britain, Germany, France,
Belgium, and the United States) the right of
making railways in China, some of them of doubt-
ful commercial value. France secured some recti-
fication of the Tong-king frontier, and some tradin
privilegesin south China, Li-Hung-Chang, believe
to be supporting Russian interests, fell from power,
and the emperor started a brief and violent system
_ of reforms on Western ideas, but was summarily
checked in this career by the dowager empress.
The innovating advisers of the emperor fled or were
slain or imprisoned ; the emperor, found by a French
doctor to be in very poor health, was kept under
strict surveillance ; in 1900 large anti-foreign riots,
with loss of life, broke out, necessitating the landing
of foreign troops for the restoration of order.

See works on China by Du Halde (4 vols. folio, Paris,
1735), Sir John F. Davis (1857), A. Williamson (1870), S.
Wells Williams (1883), Richthofen (1877-83), E. Simon
(1887 ), Maule (1891), R. K. Douglas (1887), Gundry (1893
and 1895); and on the Chinese by Martin (1881), Doolittle
(1887), Coltman (1891), H. A. Giles (1876-90), A. H.
Smith (1894), and Holcombe (1895) ; histories by Boulger
(1881-84 and 1893) ; on the Manchu dynasty and govern-
ment by John Ross (1880) and Mayers (1887); also
Curzon’s Problems of the Fur East, The Life of Sir Harry
Parkes, Norman’s Peoples and Politics of the Far Eust
(all in 1894) and J. Thomson’s Through China with a
Camera (1898). On the physical geography, fauna, and
fiora, see also ASIA and GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

LANGUAGE, WRITING, AND LITERATURE. —
The speech and the written composition of the:
Chinese differ more widely than those of an
other people. The former addresses itself, like all
other languages, to the mind through the ear; the
latter speaks to the mind through the eye, not.
as-words, but as symbols of ideas. All Chinese:
literature might be understood and _ translated.
though the student of it could not name a single
character. The words and the names of the written
characters are all monosyllabic, and are inconju-
gable and indeclinable, without inflection or change
of any kind, and at the same time so versatile that
there are few of them which may not perform the
réle indifferently, according to their position in a.
sentence, of most of what we call Parts of Speech.
That the speech has never advanced to anything
like agglutination even (see PHILOLOGY) can be.
owing only to the early origin and cultivation of
the written characters, referred to a reign preceding”
that of Fa Hsi, which, on the least unlikely of the
chronological schemes, must be assigned to the:
34th century B.c. We may safely say that the
written characters of the Chinese existed—probably
in a very rudimentary condition—more than 5000-
years ago.

These characters are divided into six classes,,
according to the principle regulating their forma-
tion: (1) Pictorial characters (Hsiang hsing),
being originally rude pictures of objects; (2):
Indicative characters (Chih shih), intended by
their form and the relation of their parts to Wa 0 3
to the reader the idea in the mind of their makers ;
(3) Composite characters (Hui 7), made up of two.
or more characters, the meanings of which blend in
the meaning of the compound ; (4) Inverted char-
acters (Chwan chi), formed from others by the:
inversion of the whole, or of parts, of them; (5)
Borrowed characters (Chia tsieh), used in other
than their proper signification ; and (6) Phonetieal
characters (Hsieh shang), of which one part has a.
phonetic use, and indicates, exactly or approxi-
mately, the name of the compound, and the other
part the category of meaning which it conveys.

The first three classes may be called origines
scripture Sinice, but do not comprehend 2000:
characters ; the next two are unimportant. The-
sixth class is beyond comparison the most numer-
ous, and embraces well on to 40,000 of the 43,000:
characters, or thereabouts, found in the K’ang-hst
dictionary of 1704. The third class is the most
interesting, bringing us mind to mind abreast of
their framers, and showing us their ideas of the:
things represented by the characters. For example,

a wife (called fa, Hak) is denoted by mii, “Fete

female,’ and ch’au, p> ‘a broom:’ she was the:
woman that used the broom. And, again, a male.
child (called nan, By) is denoted by ¢’ien, Hj.

‘a field,’ and J, , ‘strength :’ his birth was

presi as new strength for the work of the
eld. :
The phonetical characters arose from the impossi-
bility of framing a sufficient number of characters
on the other five principles of formation to serve:
the purpose of a written medium. A certain
a of characters, which has varied from 554 to-
214 (employed in the dictionaries of the last and
present dynasties), were set apart as ‘ideograms’
or ‘mothers of meaning,’ and a larger and more:
indefinite number were chosen, which in connection
with them might express the name or sound of
the compounds, and be called ‘mothers of sound.’
Their number altogether is large, but many are:
derivatives of others, and not a few of the ideo-
grams themselves are among them. Dr Chalmers, of:

a

a)

CHINA

195

on dem published in 1878 a ‘Concise Chinese
Dictionary ’ in which the phonetic constituents are
reduced to 884. These, with the 214 ideograms,
having been learned, 1098 characters in all, the
‘student has mastered the elements of all the
Chinese characters. Pronunciation is constantly

Marying, and his reading will often be far from
giving ‘the present truth’ of the names of many
ters ;

ut a weelag 92 of these phonetic con-
stituents does much to lighten the strain upon the
memory in learning Chinese.
_ The monosyllabic utterances, however, available
to name the 43,000 characters are few indeed. In
Pekinese they are only 426. Even if there were as
ay as 1000 different syllables in the language,
equally divided among the characters, more than
ad meanings would belong to each. In the
‘Syllabie Dictionary’ of the late Dr Williams,
containing only 12,527 characters, placed under 552
syllables, there are about 150 characters placed
under the monosyllable ¢ (= ee in see). To the eye
there is no difficulty in distinguishing all these ¢’s ;
but to the ear such discrimination, unassisted other-
wise, is impossible. To assist it, there is a system
of tones, the number of which varies in different
dialects. According-to the tone in which the mono-
_ syllable is pronounced, its meaning is different ;
and this renders what we call a ‘good ear’ desir-
able in learning the speech of China. There are
_ other devices by which the difficulty occasioned by
the slender syllabary of Chinese speech is overcome,
such as the combination of synonyms, and the
multiplication of particles hardly to be found in
_ the dictionaries. As a consequence, while concise-
ness is a characteristic of good Chinese composi-
tion, the spoken aaaenge is verbose—e.g. the
fable of ‘The Fox and the Grapes,’ told in 131
_ English words, is rendered in good Chinese by 85
_ characters, while a version of it in Cantonese
colloquial contains 163 words. Still the colloquial
speech is not difficult of acquisition. The writer
had often occasion to remark that the children
- of English families resident in China, who were
- not restricted from intercourse with the Chinese,
spoke the colloquial more fluently and readily than
e English which was spoken by their parents.
After the Buddhist missionaries came to China,
and scholars got some acquaintance with the use
of the Sanskrit alphabet, they be. to devise a
method of spelling (so to speak) their characters,
dividing each monosyllable into an initial and a
final sound, and then joining two other characters
together, one to give the initial, and the other,
always in the same tone as the character thus
spelled, to give its finalsound. This method, though
eumbrous, might have been of use to the student if
_ the same characters had always been employed for
_ the same initial and the same final sounds, as in
Chalmers’s ‘ Concise Dictionary.’ But every lexico-
_ grapher adopted his own characters at his pleasure

_ ~—e.g. the character pull (i= + 4) is spelled in one
_ dictionary by R (/-iang) and iin (ch +?%); ina
second by na) (Viang) and AEF (érh, anciently called

_ #); and in a third by ft (/-iang) and yy (¢). The
_ K’ang-hsi lexicon, after reciting these three spell-
ings, adds that the sound is the same as FAL, which
is the phonetic element, /i. This spelling only dis-

tracts the student; the Chinese scholars failed to
. haga the nature of the alphabetic signs or
de

From the analysis of the characters which has
n given, their inconjugable and indeclinable
ter, and their versatility such that one of
them may perform the réle of most of our ‘ parts of

speech,’ it is evident that the attempt to apply to
them the categories and rules of grammar on the
model of our Aryan languages must be very much
‘love's labour lost;’ yet composition with them
has its own rules, which are not difficult to learn.
As Dr Marshman expressed it in his grammar of
1814, ‘the whole of Chinese grammar depends on

ition.’ Under the skilful application of this
preps: the Chinese characters weave the web of
thought with the rapidity of engine-driven shuttles ;
and there has grown up an immense Chinese litera-
ture.

Before entering on a brief description of that
literature, a orp Bese may be allowed to what is
called ‘pidgin English,’ a sort of lingua franca,
which grew up between Chinese on the seaboard
and foreigners, for the purpose of intereommunica-
tion, while neither party had the means or the
wish to uire an accurate knowledge of the
language of the other. ‘Pidgin’ is a Chinese
attempt to pronounce our word ‘business ;’ and
the materials of the lingo are nearly all English
words similarly represented or misrepresented, and
called ‘broken English.’ The idiom, on the other
hand, is entirely that of colloquial Chinese.
Foreigners get to master it in a short time, so as
to carry on long conversations by means of it, and
to transact important affairs of business. Dr
Williams (vol. i. p. 832) gives the following ex-
ample of it, taken from the Chinese Repository,
vol. x.: A gentleman meets a Chinese acquaintance,
accompanying a coffin which is being conveyed
along the street, and asks him who is dead (‘ who
hab die?’). ‘No man hab catchee die,’ is the
answer. ‘This one piecy coffin I just now give my
olo fader. He likee too much counta my
numba one ploper; s’pose he someteem catchee
die, can usee he.’—‘So fashion, eh? How muchee
plice (price) can catchee one alla same same ?’—
‘I tinky can get one alla same so fashion one tousan
dolla, so; this hab first chop hansom, lo!’ There
is often a charming raciness about such conversa-
tions, and one occasionally sees in his Chinese
interlocutor the gery of the mind which has
been described in the formation of the third or
composite class of characters. For instance, a
Chinese boy (all servants are called boys) once came
to ask the writer to intercede for him with his
master, who was treating him, he thought, un-
justly. ‘He one sarcee (saucy = bad) man,’ he
said; ‘he no hab topside pidgin ;’ meaning that
his master had no religion, no dealing with the

wers above. This jargon is passing away.

hinese who know English, and English who
know Chinese, are increasing from year to year.
See C. G. Leland’s Pidgin-English Sing-song (1876).

How vast and varied the Chinese literature is may
be seen from a very brief and imperfect analysis of
the contents of the catalogue raisonné of the works
collected by an order of the K’ien-lung reign in
1722, to be printed or reprinted as a great national
library. The catalogue is arranged in four divi-
sions under the name of K’#, ‘ Arsenals,’ or ‘ Maga-
zines :’ the first, in 44 chapters, containing works
on the classics and dictionaries necessary in the
study of them; the second, in 46 chapters, works
of history; the third, in 57 chapters, works on
philosophy and the arts; and the fourth, in 53
chapters, works of poetry and belles-lettres.

The classics are the Confucian books, and a
few others, on which an amount of commentary
has been expended certainly not inferior either
in voluminousness or in patient care to what has
been put forth on our sacred Scriptures; and it
still goes on without abatement. A collection
of books on them by a multitude of scholars of
the present dynasty was published at Canton
in 1 in 1400 chapters. The Aistories are

196 CHINA

CHINCHAY-COCHA

those of China itself, and are divided into four
classes according to the different methods of the
authors.
and ‘ Authoritative,’ or the ‘ Dynastic,’ which now
form a collection of twenty-four different works.
The writer’s own copy of it, bound in English
fashion, amounts to sixty-four thick volumes, im-
perial 8vo size. In general, each dynastic history
contains an account of the several reigns, followed
by treatises on chronology, rites, music,’ juris-
prudence, food and goods or political economy,
state sacrifices, astronomy, the five elements,
geography, and especially topography, and the
literature. After these treatises we have a host
of biographies of the most remarkable individuals
of the dynasty ; and the history concludes with an
account of the foreign peoples with which there has
been any intercourse. These notices of the dynastic
histories only occupy two of the 46 chapters of
the division. Among the subdivisions are three
chapters on ‘Books on the Constitution,’ embracing
such works as Ma Twan-lin’s General Examination
of fecords and Scholars, said by Rémusat to be ‘a
library in itself,’ and the two continuations of it,
each as voluminous as itself; and the Penal Code
of the present dynasty, of which we have the
translation by Sir G. T. Staunton, published in
1810.

The philosophy and arts division deals with the
works of the class of the literati, both orthodox
and heterodox ; of writers on military affairs; on
legislation ; on agriculture, horticulture, and the
mulberry-tree; on medicine; on astronomy and
mathematics ; on divination; on painting, music,
engraving, and other arts; on ink and inkstones ;
on tea and the tea-plant; on articles of diet; on
the works of several of the Roman Catholic
missionaries ; and concludes with works of TAoism
and Buddhism. Five chapters are devoted to
works on mythology and lighter subjects, not
including, however, as we shall presently see,
novels and romances.

The belles-lettres division has the general name
of Tst, ‘Collections’ or ‘Compilations.’ It com-
prehends the various classes of polite literature,
poetry, and analytical or critical works. Chinese
poetry has no epic; but it is rich in ballads, lyrical
and descriptive pieces, rhythmical effusions and
songs, eulogies and elegies, and monumental inscrip-
tions. Its poets have been without number, and
its poetesses not a few. One of the Confucian
classics is ‘The Book of Poetry;’ and poetry is
one of the standing subjects in the competitive
examinations.

Novels and romances, dramas, and books written
in the colloquial style are not admitted into such

rand catalogues as the above; but the literature
is not without them. There is no more pleasant
reading than some of their historical romances,
such as the Expanded Narrative of the Period of
the Three Kingdoms ( 168-245 A.D.), by a raconteur
of extraordinarily graphic power, written in our
13th century. Some of the best novels have been
translated into European languages: The Fortunate
Union, by Sir John Francis Davis; The Rambles
of the Chang-Teh Emperor in Kiang-nan, under the
superintendence of the present writer; Les Dewx
Cousines and Les Deux Jeunes Filles Lettrées, by the
late Stanislas Julien; and others, as well as some
of the dramas.

Great as the Chinese literature is, it would have
been greater, especially in the earlier portions of
it, but for the burning of the Confucian books by
the founder of the Ts’in dynasty, and for the subse-
quent ‘bibliothecal catastrophes’ which overtook
one imperial library after another down to the
middle of our 6th century. Paper was made and
employed for writing in our first century, and

The first place is given to the ‘Correct’.

printing by means of wooden blocks, according to
the fashion still prevailing, was soon practised.
An edition of all the classical books was so pub-
lished in 922 A.D. The invention of movable types
belongs to a blacksmith called Pi Shing less than a
century afterwards, though such types are only
now beginning to supersede the wooden blocks.
Some of the inventions claimed for China have
been called in question, but about this—perha:
the most important of all inventions after the
alphabet—there can be no dispute.

See Prémare’s Wotitia Lingue Sinice (Malacca, 1831);
Rémusat’s Elémens de la Grammaire Chinoise (Paris,
1822); Marshman’s Clavis Sinica; Julien’s Syntaxe
Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise (Paris, 1869-70);
Gabelentz’s Chinesische Grammatik ( Leip. 1881); Edkins’s
Grammar of the Chinese Colloquial Language, commonly
called the Mandarin Dialect (Shanghai. 1864) ; Chalmers’s
Structure of Chinese Characters (Aberdeen, 1882); the
Dictionaries of Morrison, Medhurst, Williams, Chalmers,
and others; Wylie’s Notes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai,
1867); Legge’s Chinese Classics, and volumes iii. xvi.
xxvii. and xxviii. of the Sacred Books of the East ; Biot’s
Le Tcheou It, ou Rites des Tcheow (Paris, 1851); and
Zottoli’s Cursus Litterature Sinice (Shanghai, 1879).

China, or CHINA-WARE. See PoTTEery.

China Bark, a name of Cinchona (q.v.) Bark,
often to be met in books, and in common use on
the Continent. It is derived, not from the empire
of China, but from Kina or Quina, the Peruvian
name of cinchona.

China Clay. See KAo.In.

China Grass, or CHINESE GRASS.
MERIA, GRASS-CLOTH.

China Ink. See INK.

Chinandega, the capital of a department of
Nicaragua, Central America, 30 miles NW. of
Leon by rail, and 13 by rail from the Pacific coast.
It has considerable trade, and about 8000 inhabit-
ants.—OLD CHINANDEGA, 5 miles to the N., has —
a pop. of 4000.

China Root, the dry tuberous rhizome or root-
stock of Smilax China, a climbing shrubby plant,
closely allied to sarsaparilla; a native of China,
Cochin-China, and pis (see SARSAPARILLA and
SMILACEZ). It was formerly held in high medical
repute in Europe, but is now disused; in China,
however, it retains its reputation, especially in
rheumatic or syphilitic cases. Various American
species have been from time to time introduced as
substitutes.

China Sea, the portion of the Pacific Ocean
to the east of China and Siam, extending, in the
widest application of the term, from Corea to
Borneo. This extensive body of water falls into
three divisions : the Yellow Sea (Chinese, Whang-
hai), between Corea and North China, with the
gals of Pechili and Leaotong, and Corea Bay ; the

astern China Sea (Zung-hac), from about 32° N.
lat. to the Tropic of Cancer; and the South China
Sea (Nan-hai), from Formosa to Borneo, with the
Philippines on the east, and forming the great
gulfs of Tonquin and Siam. Many geographers
limit the term to this last division. See ASIA;
and for the twin dangers, typhoons and pirates, that
have combined to render the navigation of these
waters notoriously perilous, see separate articles
under these heads.

Chincha Islands, three bare, rocky islets,
with a joint area of 6} miles, rising 200 feet out of
the sea off the coast of Peru, opposite the Bay of
Pisco. From 1841 till 1874 they yielded millions of
tons of Guano (q.v.); but the beds, originally some
100 feet thick, became exhausted.

Chinchay-cocha, a lake of Peru, in the de-
partment of Junin, 13,330 feet above the sea, is
36 miles long and 7 broad, with an area of about

See Bax-

CHINCHILLA

CHIOS 197

300 sq. m. It is the source of the river Jauga, and
abounds in fish and wild-fowl.
Chinchilla, a town of Spain, 12 miles SE. of
Albacete by rail, situated on aa ahenns rocky hill,
in which are numerous caves that serve as dwelling-
_ places. It has gypsum and marble quarries and
manufactures of earthenware. Pop. 6080.
- @hinechilla (C. /anigera), a South American
rodent, well known by its soft gray fur. Two
related animals (Lagidium peruanum and Lagos-
tomus trichodactylus, the Viscacha) form along
with the true chinchilla the small family Chin-
chillide in the porcupine section of the Rodent
order. All the three are somewhat squirrel-like
animals, but have long hind-legs, bushy tail, very
_ soft fur, and complete collar-bones. The chin-
ehilla and the lagidium occur on the higher Andes

Chinchilla.

of Peru and Chili at a high elevation; the viscacha
is found on the Pampas. The three genera differ dis-
tinctly, but not widely. The chinchilla proper has
a body about a foot long, and the tail measures fully
6 inches. They are extremely active animals, and
climb among the rocks with the greatest agility.
They are killed in thousands for the sake of their fur,
and prolific as they are, seem to be diminishing in
abundance. The fur is used for various articles of
attire, and the Peruvians are said to have formerly
woven the hair into fine fabrics. See VISCACHA.

Chinchon’, a town of Spain, 25 miles SE. of
Madrid. Pop. 4771. After a Countess of Chin-
chon, wife of the governor of Peru in 1638, Peruvian
bark was named Chinchona, now habitually mis-
spelled Cinchona (q.v.).

Chindwa’ra, chief town of a district in the
Central Provinces of India, on a plateau 2200 feet
above the sea, 70 miles N. by W. of Nagpur. It
is the seat of a Free Church mission. Pop. 8220.
.—The district has an area of 3915 sq. m., and a
,pop. of 407,494.

Chinese Hemp, 2 kind of Corchorus (q.v. ).

Chinese White, a permanent white pigment
used in the arts, consists of the white oxide of
zinc, ZnO. Its manufacture was first attempted
in 1780, and in 1796 Atkinson patented its use as a
substitute for white lead, which had previously
been the only available white pigment, and was a
most unsatisfactory one on account of its turning
brown on continued exposure to the atmosphere.
Only, however, in 1844 was a good and cheap method
of preparing the pigment discovered by M. Leclaire.

Chingalpat (Chengalpat), a town of India, 36
miles SW. of Madras by rail, with district court
and hospital, a public bungalow, and an old fort,
now abandoned, but formerly of great strength and
importance as a key of Madras. Clive captured
it in 1752. Pop. 5617.—The district to which

the town gives name has an area of 2842 sq. m.,
and a pop. of 1,136,928, mostly Hindus. It is a
flat country, eut up by canals. The soil is poor.
With 115 miles of coast, it has not a single harbour
or anything like shelter from the surf.

Chingford, an Essex village, 94 miles NE. of
London. There is a golf course close by in Epping
Forest. Pop. of parish, 2737.

Chini’, a Yo 3 of the Punjab, 1 mile from the
Sutlej’s right bank, on the southern slope of a lofty
mountain, 9085 feet above sea-level.
favourite hill residence of Lord Dalhousie.

Chin-Kiang, 2 Chinese port on the Yang-tze-
kiang, in the province of Keang-su, 40 miles
ENE. of menking, Formerly, as the southern
key of the neighbouring Grand Canal, it was
both an important stronghold and a centre of
traffic; but it was bombarded by the British in
1842, and nearly destroyed by the T4Ai-pings in
1853. Opened to foreign trade in 1861, the com-
merce of tlie place has not greatly increased sinee,
unless in the import of opium. Pop. 135,000.

Chinon, an antique town in the French depart-
ment of Indre-et-Loire, beautifully situated on the
Vienne, 31 miles SW. of Tours by rail. Crowning
a lofty rock are the ruins of its vast old castle, the
‘French Windsor’ of the Plantagenets, the death-
place of Henry IIL.; and later the residence of
several French sovereigns, where, in 1429, Joan
of Are revealed her mission to the Dauphin. A
farmhouse across the Vienne is poin out as
Rabelais’ birthplace. Pop. 4397.

Chinooks, a tribe of Indians, now nearly
extinct, on the Columbia River on the west coast of
North America. Their language was very difficult
to learn and to pronounce, and this led to the
formation of the Chinook jargon, a trader’s lin

ranca, consisting of waide fon French, English,
and Hawaiian, as well as Chinook and other Indian
tongues. See the dictionary by Gibbs (1863) and
the monograph by H. Hale (1890).

Chins, See Burma, Vol. II. p. 564.

Chin‘sura, now a part of Hooghly (q.v.), origi-
nally a Dutch town, ead in 1895.

Chintz, a highly glazed ewe: calico, with a
pattern generally in several colours on a white
or light-coloured ground. It was chiefly used for
hearer ce for covering furniture, and other
purposes where there is much exposure to dust,
which does not adhere to its highly calendered
surface. In Great Britain chintz is now mostly
employed for babies’ bassinettes. It has been long
the practice in Persia to have the pattern on some
chintzes partly in gold. Glue or other size is
printed on the cloth, to which the gold dust or leaf
adheres. See CRETONNE.

Chiococea, a genus of Cinchonacex, of which
two species in particular, C. anguifuga and C.
densifolia, the former a trailing herb, the latter
a bushy shrub, enjoy a high reputation in Brazil
as cures for snake-bites and in the treatment of
dropsy. An infusion of the root is one of the most
violent emetic and drastic medicines known, but it
is happily no longer used in Europe.

Chioggia, or CHI0zZA, an important seaport
town of Northern Italy, 15 miles SSW. of Venice,
on an island at the southern end of the Venetian
Lagoon, connected with the mainland by a stone
bridge of 43 arches. It is founded on piles, and
has a cathedral; its harbour, the deepest in the
L n, is guarded by forts and batteries. Pop.,
inclusive of Sottomarina, 25,084, most of them en-

ed in the coasting trade, lace-making, weaving,
shipbuilding, and fishing.

Chios (now called by the natives Chio, Italian-
ised into Scio) is one of the most beautiful and

It was a

198 CHIP HATS

CHIRON

fertile islands in the Aigean Sea, belonging to
Turkey, 7 miles off the coast of Asia Minor, at the
entrance to the Gulf of Smyrna ; about 30 miles long
from north to south, by 8 to 15 miles broad, with a
coast-line of about 110 miles, an area of 320 sq. m.,
and a pop. of about 70,000, almost all Greeks.
The larger northern part is more mountainous
than the southern. The climate is delightful and
salubrious. Earthquakes are, however, not rare,
and one in 1881 caused the death of 3558 persons,
and the destruction of property to the value of
three to four millions sterling. The wine produced
on the north-west coast, the Vinum Arvisium of
ancient times, is still esteemed. Other products
are figs, also noted in classical days; mastic, silk,
lemons, oranges, and olives. Goats’ skins are also
exported. The capital, Chios, about the middle of
the east coast, contains about 13,000 inhabitants,
and has a haven touched by various services of
steamers, and doing a good trade. On the west
coast is a rich monastery, Nea-Moni, founded in the
llth century. In ancient times excellent marble
and potters’ clay were quarried in the mountains,
and. recently pits of antimony and ochre are
worked.

Chios is one of the places which contended for
the honour of giving birth to Homer. It formed
in early times one of the most flourishing of the
Ionian States, and contributed 100 ships to the
Greek force defeated by the Persians in the sea-
fight off Miletus (494 B.c.). After the Persian
victory the town and temples of Chios were burnt
and many of the people enslaved. In more recent
times the island was taken by the Genoese (1346),
and by the Turks (1566), in whose hands it has
since, except for a short interval, remained. It
was conferred as private property on the sultana.
After a long period of prosperity, Chios suffered a
terrible blow during the war of Greek independence.
A number of the Chiotes having in 1821 joined
the revolted Samians, a Turkish fleet and army in
1822 inflicted dreadful vengeance; 25,000 Chiotes
fell by the sword, 47,000 were sold into slavery,
and only some 5000 escaped. A second rising in
1827 was likewise unsuccessful. The island has
since been gradually recovering.

Chip Hats. See BRAZILIAN GRASS.

Chipmunk ( Zamias striatus), a kind of squir-
rel, common in North America. The genus in-
cludes only a few species, often called Ground
Squirrels, and distinguished from the common
Sciurus by the possession of capacious cheek-
pouches, by the longer snout but shorter tail and
ears, by the constant absence of the first upper
molars. They are pretty little animals, of active

Chipmunk ( Zamias striatus ).

disposition, living in underground burrows, where
they indulge to apparent excess their mania for

storing food. The food consists of nuts, seeds, and
grain; and the chipmunks plunder to no incon-
siderable extent the fields of wheat and maize.
They are, like many other rodents, very prolific.
See SQUIRREL. ‘

Chippendale, THoMAs, came to London from
Worcestershire before 1750, and was a successful
cabinet-maker and upholsterer. The style of furni-
ture named from him was less heavy and severe than
that of his successors, and was rather elaborate,
delicate, and baroque, with classical tendencies.
He wrote a Cabinet-maker’s Director (1752). All
18th-century furniture is often miscalled ‘ Chippen-
dale.’ See Clouston’s Chippendale Period (1897).

Chippenham, an ancient municipal borough
(mainly one well-built street) in Wiltshire, on
the Avon, here crossed by a bridge of twenty-two
arches, 13 miles NE. of Bath. It lost, its last
parliamentary member in 1885. Pop. 4618.

ign (wenn Indians (written also Otchipwe
and Ojibbeway), a tribe of American Indians of the
Algonquin stock, now settled in northern Minne-
sota and in Canada.

Chipping Norton, a small municipal borough
in the North of Oxfordshire, 85 miles Nw . of Lon-
don by rail, with woollen, tweed, and glove manu-
factures. Pop. (1881) 4167 ; (1891) 4222.

Chipping Wycombe. See WYCOMBE.

Chiquichiqui Palm (Leopoldinia Piassaba),
the Piassaba of the north of Brazil, and one of the
palms which yield the Piassaba (q.v.) fibre so much
used for making brushes.

Chiquimu la, a small town (pop. 6000) in the
east of Guatemala, which gives name to a pro-
vince, and to the ISTHMUS OF CHIQUIMULA, with a

.breadth from the Gulf of Honduras to the Pacifie

of about 150 miles.

Chiquinquiraé, the largest town in the depart-
ment of Boyacd, Colombia, near the Suarez, 30 miles
W. of Tunja, was an Indian place of pilgrimage
before the conquest; and the Spaniards having
found here a miraculous image of the Virgin, the
church where this is preserved is now visited by
some 60,000 pilgrims annually. Pop. 18,000.

Chiquitos, or NAQUINONEIs (‘men’), an Indian
stem of Bolivia, dwelling between the Paraguay
and the Madeira. Bronze-coloured and well built,
with large, round heads, low foreheads, and small
bright eyes, they are cheerful, hospitable, fond
of music and dancing, but of a low morality,
and live (about 20,000 in all) in villages formerly
founded by the Jesuits. :

Chira'ta, or CHIRETTA (Ophelia Chirata), an
officinal plant belonging to the order Gentianez.
It is a native of the mountains of the north of India.
The whole plant is intensely bitter, and has been
long used in its native country as a tonic and
stomachic, as also by European practitioners in
India as a febrifuge.

Chiriqui, an administrative division of the
department of Panama, Colombia, adjoining Costa
Rica. Area, 6500 sq.m. ; pop. 43,000. It is well
wooded, and has rich pasturage, especially on the
Atlantic coast, where the climate is very moist.
The Cordilleras that occupy the interior reach their
highest point in the voleano of Chiriqui (11,265
feet). Chief town, David.—On the north coast is
a spacious lagoon of the same name, with a depth
of water for the largest ships, which receives an
unimportant Rio Chiriqui.

Chiromancy. See PALMISTRY.

Chi'ron, or CHEIRON, the most famous of the
Centaurs (q.v.), son of Cronos and Philyra, and
husband of Nais or Chariclo. He lived on Mount

Pelion, and was famous for his skill in healing,

:
3
.
:

CHIROPTERA

CHITON 199

thtnting, music, and prophecy, The great Achilles

and other heroes were his pupils. He died by being

accidentally wounded by one of the poisoned arrows
of his friend Hercules.

Chiroptera, See Bat.

Chiru, or PANTHALOPS (Antil hodgsont), a

‘species of antelope, inhabiting the pine-forests
and elevated open plains of Tibet, in regions border-
‘ing on the snow-line. It is much larger than the
chamois, being about five feet in length, and three
feet high at the shoulder. The colour is reddish-
fawn with some black. The chiru lives in great
herds, and seems to exceed almost all the other
gregarious ruminants in watchfulness against the
approach of danger. They often lie concealed in
holes which they make among the stones.
_ Chislehurst, a village in Kent, 11 miles SE. of
London. Sir Nicholas Bacon was a native. Camden
Park estate (now built over) was the residence of
‘William Camden. Napoleon ILI. died at Camden
Place in 1873; his remains, with the Prince
Imperial’s, were removed to Farnborough in ]888.
‘There are an Orphanage, a Governesses’ Benevolent
Institution, and a golf-course (1894) here. See
History by Webb, Miller, and Beckwith (1900).

Chiswick, a suburban parish of Middlesex, on
the north bank of the Thames, 74 miles W. by 8. of
St Paul’s. Here are some charming old river-side
houses (one of them William Morris’s home) ;
here too are extensive market-gardens to supply
London, and the gardens of the Horticultural
Society. In the churchyard are Hogarth’s grave
and Foscolo’s cenotaph; and at the Duke of
Devonshire’s beautiful villa, Chiswick House, died
Fox and Canning. Pop. (1861) 6505; (1881)
15,975; (1891)21,964. See Haters for August 1888.

Chitaldrtiig, the chief town of Chitaldrig
district, Mysore, India, 126 miles NW. of Banga-
Jore, with manufactures of coarse blankets and
cotton cloth. The military cantonments have been
abandoned on account of their unhealthiness. Pop.
4271.—The district is the least populous in the
Mysore State, in which it is distinguished for its
low rainfall (10 to 25 inches) and arid, stony soil.
Area, 3994 sq. m. Pop. (1871) 531,360; (1881)
.376,310—the decrease being due to the famine of
1876-78 ; (1891) 413,984.

Chitin, the substance which forms most of the
shard parts of jointed-footed animals (arthropods),
such as crustaceans, insects, and spiders. It
was discovered by Odier in 1823, but regarded
erroneously as free from nitrogen; rediscovered
by Lassaigne in 1843; and since then recog-
mised in all the four chief classes of arthropods
and in some other types. Huxley has given
an account of its formation in the crayfish.
Chitin has been demonstrated in many arthropods,
also in the pen of cuttle-fishes (Mollusca), and
in the stalk and shell of Lingula anatina, a
brachiopod. Its presence is at least probable in
nny other cases. In arthropods it 1s not con-
fined to forming the firm and often very hard
exoskeleton, but occurs internally in supportin
plates, &c. among the tissues. In the crayfis
it seems even to form the sheath of the strong
‘ventral nerves. In arthropods the greater portion
-of the gut is formed as an intucking of the outer
skin (ectoderm) from in front and behind, and the
‘resulting portions known as fore- and hind-gut are
‘also lined by this chitin, which frequently exhibit
‘special internal thickenings for food-grinding pur-
pores The chitinous coating or cuticle is formed

ym underlying skin cells. In some cases the
‘epidermic cells probably sweat it off after the
‘manner of other secretions ; but Huxley has shown
-in regard to the crayfish that the superficial portion

of the cells undergoes a chitinous modification,
being literally turned into chitin. The outer
coat: of crustacea is hardened by the addition of
calcium carbonate or phosphate, especially the
former; such calcareous hardening is very rare in
insects, but copper has been demonstrated in some
beetle cuticles.

Chitin is an amorphous white substance. It
contains nitrogen, but is free from sulphur. Its
resistance to acids and alkalies is very great; it is
unaffected by digestive ferments, 6 Sagem hot or
cold, by iahos or ether. It may be dissolved by
strong mineral acids (hydrochloric or sulphuric),
and prepared from the cleaned exoskeleton of a
lobster, or better still from the pen of a squid.
Chemically it is regarded as a derivative of carbo-
hydrates, and may be split up into sugar and
plycosamin, According to Ledderhose, its formula
is C,;H.g.N,O,, ; according to Sundwik, Cg gH yyy N.Ogs
+ nli,). See Kruken rg, Vergleichend-physio-
logische Vortréige (1886).

Chiton, a genus of marine molluscs, type of an
important sub-class which may be regarded as
introductory to gasteropods. Unlike the lop-sided
snails, the chitons are bilaterally symmetrical.
The head is at the anterior end, the anus posterior ;
the ‘foot’ occupies the whole of the ventral surface ;
the heart, the gills, the excretory tubes, the genital
ducts, all exhibit the same symmetry. This marked
contrast to the Saad Pg proper is further sup-
ported by the disposition of the two important
nerve cords (pedal and visceral) which run parallel
to one another along the body. In some forms
there are numerous eyes, which occur, however, not
on the head, but on the body. Another ae
feature is the presence of a series of eight shell-
plates along the back. On these and other grounds
the chitons are separated from gasteropods proper,
and established as a separate order, on which the

Chiton elegans.

name Polyplacophora, alluding to the multiple
shell-plates, has been bestowed. Nor is the order
asmali one. Of the genus Chiton alone over 400
species have been recorded, and other smaller genera
are also distinguished. The British species are
small; those from warmer climates sometimes
measure 3 to 4 inches in length. They are un-
doubtedly representatives of a primitive type, and
include numerous fossil forms from the Silurian
onwards. They are not, however, the simplest
gasteropods, for a few other forms, known it is
true with less fullness, exhibit the same essential
features in even simpler expression. These are (@)
the Neomeniz, including the genera Neomenia
and Proneomenia, and (6) the single genus Cheeto-
derma. The systematic import of these last forms
has been emphasised by Professor Hubrecht (Quart.
Jour. Micr. Sci. 1882). Along with the chitons they

200 CHITRAL

CHIVE

are usually gathered together into a special sub-
class or class styled Isopleura or Amphineura,
names referring to the equal-sided symmetry. and
to the double parallel nerve-cords. See GASTE-
ROPODA ; Haddon, Challenger Report, xv. (1886).

Chitral, a small mountain state in the upper
basin of the Kashkar or Kunar, a tributary of the
Kabul River, and bordering on Cashinere and Kafiri-
stan, is 5200 feet above sea-level. Major Biddulph,
the first European to enter it, described it in Tribes
of the Hindoo Koosh (1800). The people are Mos-
lems, but mostly speak a language closely akin
to that of their pagan neighbours in Kafiristan.
Upper Chitral, with its capital Mastuj, is closely
connected with Gilgit. Lower Chitral enjoyed till
lately undisturbed independence. But in 1894 an
English resident and small body of troops were
besieged in Chitral, so in March 1895 an expedition
was sent (the-main body by the Swat valley, the
other from Gilgit), which after sharp fighting ad-
vanced triumphantly through very difficult country,
relieved the besieged, and annihilated all opposition.
See Sir G. 8. Robertson’s Chitral: the Story of a
Minor Siege (1898).

Chittagong, or ISLAMABAD, a port of Bengal,
220 miles E. of Caleutta, on the eastern side of
the Bay of Bengal, and on the Karnaphuli River,
about 12 miles from its mouth. The town is ver
scattered, built entirely on a number of small,
steep hills, and is notorious for the prevalence
of malaria. A great centre of trade under the
Portuguese, it has regained much of the com-
merce it lost with the rise of Calcutta. The
principal imports are salt and European goods;
the chief exports rice, tea, and jute. Pop. (1891)
24,069.—The district is a long narrow strip of
country lying between the Bay of Bengal and
the hill tracts of Chittagong and Arakan, with
an area of 2563 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,290,167,
two-thirds Mobammedans.—Chittagong also gives
name to a division—area, 12,118 sq. m.; pop.
4,190,081—and to the hill district to the east—area,
5519 sq. m. ; pop. 107,286, three-fourths Buddhists
—from whose forests a large proportion of the
government elephants are obtained.

Chittagong Wood, a name somewhat vaguely
used by cabinetmakers, is usually the wood of
Chickrassia, tabularis, a tree of the order Cedre-
lace, a native of the mountainous countries to the
east of Bengal. In some parts of India it is called
Cedar or Bastard Cedar, names, however, which
are also given to other kinds of wood. It is much
valued in India, and is used like mahogany ; it is
often beautifully veined and mottled.

Chittim, or Kirtim, in the Old Testament, is
usually identified with Cyprus. See also HITTITEs.

Chittor’ (‘little town’), a town of India, the
headquarters of North Arcot district, on the Poini,
100 miles W. of Madras. Pop. 5809.

Chiusa, the name of several places in Italy, the
largest being CHIusA SCLAFANI, a town of Sicily,
31 miles SSW. of Palermo, with oil, fruit, and
sumach cultivation. Pop. 6874.

Chiusi, a town of Central Italy, 102 miles
NNW. of Rome by rail, with a population of 1824,
stands on an olive-clad eminence in the Val di
Chiana, not far from: the small Lago di Chiusi. In
ancient times, under the name of Clusium, it was
one of the twelve republics of Etruria, and the resi-
dence of Porsenna (q.v.). _When Italy was over-
run by the barbarians, it fell into decay, the whole
valley was depopulated, and became the pestilential
pool ahaa if Dante. Since the improvement
of the course of the Chiana (q.v.), Chiusi has begun
to flourish again along with the whole district.
But it is in connection with the discovery of

Etruscan antiquities that the place is chiefly heard.
of. Within this century immense quantities of
these remains have been found in the neighbour-
hood in the grottoes that served the ancient Etrus-
cans as tombs. They consist chiefly of sun-dried
black earthenware vases, ornaments, relievos, and
carved stonework, and are preserved in the museums.
at Chiusi and Florence. See Liverani, Le Cata-
combe di Chiusi (1872).

Chivalry ( Fr. chevalerie, from chevalier, ‘a horse-
nan’), a social arrangement of medieval life in

Christian Europe, of which knighthood formed a.

central feature. It included everything relating to
martial accomplishments, and the relation between
vassal and lord, then the chief bond of society.
With regard to the position of the female sex and
domestic life, it developed sentiments and manners.
which had a powerful and salutary effect on modern
society, although it is true that the high ideal
standard of purity of morals which it cultivated
was not always fully exemplified in the lives of
those who were trained under its influence. Though
closely connected with feudalism, its germ has by
some writers been traced to a much earlier age ; and
analogies have been pointed out between the doc-
trines of Boethius’s Consolations of Philosophy and

the ideas contained in the Testament of Love. See:

FEUDALISM, KNIGHT.

In English Law, Chivalry is used to mean the
tenure of lands by Knight’s Service, which might.
be general or special, according as the tenant was.
bound to perform to the king or superior military
service generally, or some particular service.

The CouRT OF CHIVALRY was a military court-
established by Edward III., of which the Earl
Marshal and the Lord High Constable were judges.

It tried military offences, and decided questions of

personal honour, questions as to coat-armour and
the like; and sat for the last time in 1737.

Chivasso, a town of Northern Italy, on the:
Po, 18 miles NE. of Turin by rail, with trade in
cattle and corn. Its fortifications were destroyed
in 1804 by the French. Pop. 4375.

Chive, or CivE (Allium schenoprasum), a plant.
of the same genus with the leek and onion (see
ALLIUM), a perennial, $ to 1 foot in height, with
very small, flat, clustered bulbs, increasing by its-
bulbs so as to form dense tufts. The leaves are-
tubular, cylindrical-tapering, radical, nearly as long’
as the almost leafless flowering-stem, which is.
terminated by a hemispherical, many-flowered, not-
bulbiferous umbel of bluish red, or, more rarely,
flesh-coloured flowers. The stamens are included
within the perianth. This rather pretty little plant.
grows wild on the banks of rivers, in marshy or-
occasionally flooded places, and in rocky pastures in
the middle latitudes of Europe and Asia, as also:
in the far north of North America. It is a rare:
native of Britain, being only recorded with certainty
from some localities in Cornwall and Northumber-
land. In some of the mountainous districts of
Europe a variety is found, larger and stronger in.
all its parts, and with flowering-stems more leafy.
Chives—the name is generally used in the plural—
are commonly cultivated in Liccheneundahe often
as an edging for plots, and are used for flavouring
soups mee dishes, and in salads. Their properties.
are very similar to those of the onion. The part-
used is the young leaves, which bear repeated
cuttings in the season. The bulbs also are by some:
used in preference to onions for pickling, their’
flavour being considered more delicate. For this-
purpose the clumps of bulbs are broken up in
autumn or early winter, and planted in well-manured.
ground, in lines four or five inches apart, but stand--
ing almost close in line. In-this way they become:
larger and more succulent by the following autumn,,

Ee ee

CHIZEROTS AND BURINS

CHLORAL 201

~ when they are lifted for use, the largest only being
taken, and the smaller replanted for a future crop.

@hizerots and Burins form one of those
' races in France that live isolated in the
midst of the rest of the population, and are despised
and hated by their neighbours. They are found in
_ the arrondissement of Bourg-en-Bresse, in the depart-
‘ment of Ain; and the communes of Sermoyer,
_ Arbigny, Boz, and Ozan belong to them. Accord-

ing to tradition, they are descended from the
Saracens, psig, industrious and prosperous,
‘they are held in the utmost contempt and detest-
ation by their peasant neighbours, often themselves
indolent and destitute. They are looked upon as
covetous and malicious, and scarcely would the
daughter of a small farmer or well-to-do day-
labourer become the wife of one of them, so that
_ they mostly marry among themselves. From time
immemorial, they have been field-labourers, cattle-
dealers, oper ern 20 the like. Many of them are
very good-looking, the young women in particu-
lar being handsome and clnar-onenplekiobed: with
large black eyes. See Michel, Histoire des Races
or gaead de la France et de l’ Espagne (2 vols. Paris,

Chiadni, Ernst FLoRENs FriepRICH, founder
of the science of acoustics, was born at Wittenberg,
November 30, 1756. He studied law in his native
place, and also in Leipzig, where, in 1782, he was
made Doctor of Laws. Chladni ultimately aban-
doned juridical studies altogether, devoted his
mind to natural science, and being acquainted with
music, was led to observe that the laws of sound
were by no means so well established as those of
other branches of physics. He therefore began to.
apply his knowledge of mathematics and physics to
acoustics, and travelled for ten years (alter 1802)
through Germany, Holland, France, Italy, Russia,
and Denmark, giving lectures on the subject, which
were very successful. He died in Breslau, April 4,
1827. ladni’s writings include works on the
theory of sound (1787), and on acoustics (1802 and
1817), on m®@teors (1820), and on the improving of
musical instruments. There is a Life by Melde
(1866 ; 2d ed. 1888). See SounD.

Chlamydo’ phorus, a rare and peculiar mam-
mal of the sloth and ant-eater order (Edentata) ;

in its general features resembling the Armadillos,
but unique in the character of its skin armour.

Pichiciago ( Chlam

The head and trunk are covered by about twenty
movable cross bands of Beanrangelae horny (slightly
Bey) plates. These form an overhanging dorsal
shield, attached to the body only along the middle
line of the back. The hind parts are protected by
the abrupt occurrence of a strong upright per
shield attached to the hip-girdle. The short tail,
which is broadened out into a trowel shape, and
tucked in between the legs, is protected by horny
plates, as are also the dorsal portions of the short,
clawed limbs. The rest of the body is covered with

There are 8 teeth on each side
above, and 8-9 below. The eyes and ears are
inconspicuous, C. truncatus (the Pichiciago) is a
burrowing animal, living ‘in the sandy plains of
the western part of the Dreeutine Republic.’ Dur-
ing the day it keeps to its burrow, and is little
known. It is 5 or 6 inches in length, with white
hair and pinkish scales. C. retusa, from Bolivia,
is larger, and the dorsal shield has a wider attach-
ment to the body. See ANT-EATERS, ARMADILLO,
EDENTATA, SLOTH.

Chlamydosaurus, the Frilled Lizard of Aus-
tralia, is a lizard with an extraordinary frilled
membrane attached to the hinder part of the head,
neck, and chest, and covering its shoulders. This
lies in plaits when at rest, but is expanded when
the animal, which may be three feet long, is irri-
tated or frightened. he creature, which is allied
to the Iguanide, can run for forty feet with its
fore-feet and tail in the air, and seems in this
respect to resemble some of the extinct gigantic
lizards. See a long article, with illustrations, in
Nature for February 1896.

Chlamys, @ short light mantle, worn as an
outer garment by ancient Greek youths, and some-
times adopted, even at an early period, by some
Romans, as by Scipio and Sulla.

Chlopicki, Josern, a Polish soldier and patriot,
was born in Galicia in’ 1771. Entering the army
early, he took part in the first insurrection of the
Poles, next entered the French service, and served
with great credit under Napoleon in Italy, at
Eylau and Friedland, in Spain, and next at
Smolensk and Moskwa. After the taking of Paris
by the allies in 1814, he led back to Poland the
remains of the Polish troops who had fought under
Bonaparte, and was well received by the Emperor
Alexander, who made him a general of division.
When the second insurrection of the Poles broke
out in 1830, Chlopicki, who foresaw the hopeless
nature of the attempt, was forced against his will
to be dictator, but after six weeks of contentious
opposition from the hot-headed and rashly extreme

atriotic party, he resigned his office. But with a

eroism all the more heroic that he knew too well
the cause was hopeless, he re-entered the Polish
army as a simple soldier, and fought with reckless
bravery at Wawre and Grochow. Severely wounded
in one engagement, he retired to Cracow, where he
died 30th September 1854. (The name is pro-
nounced Chlopitzki. )

Chloral (¢richloraldehyde) is a limpid, colour-
less, oily liquid, with a peculiar penetrating odour,
and is formed when anhydrous alcohol is acted on
by dry chlorine gas. It dissolves sulphur, phos-
phorus, bromine, and iodine, and is closely allied
to Aldehyde (q.v.). Chloral combined with one
equivalent of water forms chloral hydrate, a white
crystalline substance, with a pungent odour and a
bitter taste, to which the name chloral is commonly
though incorrectly applied. Chloral was discovered
by Liebig in 1831, and investigated by Dumas; the
chloral hydrate was first used as an anesthetic and
hypnotic by Liebreich in 1869. The chief action
of a moderate dose of chloral (15 to 30 grains) is
the production of sleep, closely resembling natural
sleep, and usually sound and refreshing. It has
also a marked effect in quieting excitement, as in
insanity or delirium; and in relaxing spasm, and
checking convulsions and allied conditions. Its
action as an anesthetic is very capricious and
uncertain ; medicinal doses sometimes relieve pain
completely, but much more often fail todo so. It
lessens the force of the heart’s action, and in |
doses tly reduces the temperature of the body ;
and to these effects the fatal results that sometimes
follow its administration are chiefly due. As a

long silky hair.

202 CHLORANTHACEZ

CHLORINE

hypnotic it is most valuable in cases where opium
or morphia is dangerous or undesirable (in children,
in disease of the kidneys), and where sleeplessness
is combined with excitement (delirium of fevers,
delirium tremens, insanity); but it may be em-
ployed in many other cases with advantage. In
tetanus (lockjaw), and other diseases attended by
convulsions, it is often of great value. It acts as
an antidote in poisoning by strychnia and Calabar
bean. It must be employed with the greatest
caution, or not at-all ohare there is any reason to
suspect weakness of the heart, or embarrassment
of the circulation from any other cause; in such
- cases dangerous symptoms are very readily produced
by it. When habitually employed to procure sleep,
it is generally less hurtful than opium; but some-
times ‘profound melancholy and enfeeblement of
the will, muscular lassitude, inability to sleep
without the drug,’ and other untoward symptoms
(called collectively chloralism) result, and only
gipeppest when its use is discontinued. Moreover,
fatal accidents from its indiscriminate use are far
from uncommon. Poisoning by chloral should be
treated by kveping the patient warm, attempting
to rouse him, administering coffee and small doses
of strychnia or atropia.

When chloral hydrate is treated with caustic
potash, pure chloroform is obtained ; but owing to
the expense, this precess has not come into use in
Great Britain. It has been supposed that its
anesthetic property is the result of a similar
formation o ditonitort in the blood, but no
evidence of this is forthcoming.

Chlorantha’cez, a small group, chiefly tropi-
cal, allied to the peppers, aromatic and stimulant.
Chloranthus inconspicuus is the Chu-lan of the
Chinese, who use it for perfuming teas.

Chlioric Acid, HC1O,, is the acid correspond-
ing to the hypothetical oxide of chlorine, repre-
sented by the formula Cl,0,;. It is asyrupy liquid,
with faint chlorine odour and acid reaction. A
piece of paper dipped into it becomes charred and
takes fire, and it is instantly decomposed by con-
tact with organic matter. In itself it is not of
much importance, but it forms a class of salts
called chlorates, one of which at least is well
known. Chlorate of potash, KClO,, is an article
of commercial value, and may be prepared by pass-
ing chlorine into a solution of caustic potash, heat-
ing the liquid, and crystallising out the salt. It
forms peeuy. plates, which, when heated, melt and
give off oxygen in abundance. So also when
thrown on red-hot charcoal, oxygen is given off,
and violent deflagration ensues. On account of
this property it is used in the preparation of
coloured fires, but its use is not unattended with
danger, owing to their tendency to spontaneous
combustion and its explosive properties when
triturated with sulphur. Mixed cautiously with
amorphous phosphorus, previously moistened with
aleohol, it ina a mixture which, when dry, ex-
plodes if tapped with a pencil. This mixture is
employed in the manufacture of some kinds of
matches, which give a slight explosion when struck.
If a crystal of chlorate of potash be placed on a
piece of paper saturated with turpentine, and a
drop of sulphuric acid added, it causes the in-
flaming of the turpentine with explosive rapidity.
The chlorate is also used in malin, and in a
compressed form has become a popular remedy in
eertain forms of sore throat.

Chlorimetry is the progess of estimating the
roportion of ‘available chlorine’ in Bleaching
owder (q.v.), which may vary from 20 to 40 per
cent. The term available applies only to that
portion of the chlorine which is easily liberated,
and which takes part in the bleaching process.

Chlorine, which is present as chloride, as in chlo-
ride of calcium, CaCl , has no bleaching power, and
is not estimated by chlorimetry.

The process is one of volumetric analysis, and
the apparatus used is similar to that deseribed in
the article on Analysis (q.v.). There are several
practical methods of chlorimetry, all based on the

rinciple of measuring the oxidising power of the
pleaching powder. This is arrived at by making
a solution containing a definite amount of pure
sulphate of iron, arsenious acid, or other substance
capable of being oxidised, running in the solution
of bleaching powder very slowly, and then by
suitable tests determining the exact point when
oxidation has taken place. By caleulation the
amount of ‘available chlorine’ is at once obtained.
Where substances other than bleaching powder
are under examination, slight modifications of the
process may be necessary.

Chlorine (sym. Cl; atom. wt. 35°5; Gr. chléros,
‘pale green’) is a non-metallic element discovered
by Scheele in 1774, and named by him dephlogisti-
cated marine air. Afterwards, in 1810, Dave
proved it to be an elementary body, and gave it the
name which it now bears. in nature it is always
found in a state of combination. United with
sodium, Na, it occurs very largely as the chloride
of sodium, NaCl—common salt—in the ocean; in
large beds, as rock-salt; in all natural waters,
including even rain-water; in clays, soils, lime-
stone ; in volcanic incrustations ; and in the vege-
table and animal kingdoms. The preparation of
gaseous chlorine hy its liberation from common
salt, is described under HyDROCHLORIC AciID and
Sopa. See also BLEACHING POWDER, which is
the form in which chlorine is prepared commer-
cially. For experimental purposes the gas may
be received in jars filled with warm water at the

neumatic trough, when the chlorine rises into the
jar, and re peated the water. When thus obtained
it is a yellowish-green gas with a peculiar and
suffocating odour, is not combustible, and is a very
feeble supporter of ordinary combustioy. A lighted
candle placed in it burns with a very smoky flame,
owing to the hydrogen of the oil alone burning, while
the carbon is liberated. Several of the metals,
such as antimony, copper, and arsenic, in a fine
state of division, or in the condition of thin leaves,
at once become red hot, and burn when introduced
into the gas. A piece of thin paper soaked in
turpentine likewise bursts into flame. Chlorine is
a very heavy gas, nearly 24 times heavier than air,
its specific gravity being 2°470 (air = 1°000); it is
soluble in cold water to the extent of two volumes
of chlorine in one of water, and yields a solution
resembling the gas in colour, odour, and other
properties. The principal properties of chlorine
are those of a bleacher of cotton and linen (see
BLEACHING) and a most powerful Disinfectant
(q.v.). The gas can be condensed by pressure and
cold into a transparent dark greenish-yellow limpid
liquid, with a =peoiye gravity of 1°330 (water
= 1-000), which also possesses bleaching properties
and a most powerful odour, On the animal system
chlorine acts, in very minute quantity, by produc-
ing a sensation of warmth in the respiratory

assages, and increasing the expectoration; in
arge quantity, by causing spasm of the glottis,
violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation. The
workmen in chemical manufactories, who get
accustomed to the chlorine in small quantities,
are generally stout—at least, lay on fat—but com-
lain of acidity in the stomach, which they correct
taking chalk, and also suffer from the corrosion
of their teeth, which are eaten away to stumps.
The antidotes to the evil effects of the introduction
of chlorine into the lungs are the inhalation of the
vapour of water, alcohol, ether, or chloroform ; but

—-.

CHLORITE

CHLOROPHYLL 203

the latter two shquid never be resorted to except
under medical supervision,

Chlorine forms with other substances a ve
= number of chemical compounds, Mixed wit
hydrogen in equal volumes, and exposed to sunlight
or flame, union takes pace with explosive energy,

and hydrochloric acid, HCl, is produced. is
acid forms an extensive class of salts called chlorides
(see HyprocnLoric Actp), but many of these
may be produced by the direct combination of
chlorine with the metals, as in the experiments
described above. Chlorine replaces other elements
or groups of atoms in organic compounds, formin
chloro-derivatives. In combination with carbon an
2 hai it forms many substances, among which

loroform (q.v.) is perhaps chief. Chlorine forms
with oxygen a series of oxygen acids—viz. ape
chlorous, HC1O; Chlorous, HC1O,; Chloric, HC1O,;
and Perchloric Acid, HC1O,; the more important
of which are referred to under separate heads.

Chlorite (Gr. chléros, ‘ green’), or RIPIDOLITE,
an abundant mineral, consisting of silica, alumina,
magnesia, and protoxide of iron, in somewhat
variable proportions. It is of a green colour, and
occurs now and again crystallised in minute hexa-
gonal plates, or in aggregates of small leaflets,
either singly or disposed in radial groups, which are
seattered over the joint-surfaces of certain rocks,
or may occur in a thin incrustation upon other
minerals. It is rather soft, and is easily broken
or scratched with a knife. Before the blowpipe it
is with difficulty fused on thin edges. It is readily
distinguished from tale by yielding water in a closed
tube. There are several other minerals included
with ripidolite under the ‘chlorite group’ which
are with difficulty distinguished from ripidolite and
from each other. Chlorite enters largely into the
formation of certain schistose rocks (e.g. Chlorite-
schist, q.v.), and is common as a decomposition-
prodant after such minerals as mica, augite, horn-

lende, and garnet.

Chiorite-schist, a green schistose rock, in
which chlorite is abundant in foliated plates,
usually blended with minute grains of quartz, and
often with felspar, mica, tale, or magnetite.

Chloritic Marl, a thin bed of white or pale-
yellow marl, sometimes indurated, containing dark-
n glauconitic grains, phosphatic nodules, and
iron pyrites. It cng to the Cretaceous system,
coming between the Upper Greensand and Chalk
Marl. It is characterised by the abundance of
Scaphites equalis, a species of ammonites. It is
confined to the southern districts of England
occupied by the Cretaceous rocks.

Chlorodyne is a patent medicine of .con-
siderable popularity, invented by Dr James Collis
Browne (1819-84), but largely imitated by various
chemists. It contains opium, chloroform, prussic
acid, and probably Indian hemp, and is flavoured
with sugar and peppermint. As it is apt to
separate into two liquids on standing, it should
-never be taken unless it has previously been well
shaken ; and as, in toking a dose of chlorodyne, the
patient swallows an unknown quantity of three
or four of the deadliest poisons with which we are
acquainted, it is always advisable to begin with
small doses. It is unquestionably a compound
which sometimes succeeds in ay aig Eee and
inducing sleep when opiates have failed; but
whether a physician is justified in recommending
a remedy with the composition of which he is un-
acquainted is a doubtful question. To meet this
difficulty the Medical Council, in the 1885 edition
of the British Pharmacopoeia, have introduced the
tincture of chloroform and morphia, which practi-
cally represents chlorodyne. Five to fifteen drops
is the average dose.

Chloroform, CHCI,, was discovered as a
chemical curiosity about the same time (1831) by
Guthrie in America, Liebig in Germany, and
Soubeiran in France. Soon, however, its pro-
perties as a stimulant when taken internally
attracted attention, and when in 1847 it was
brought into prominent notice as an anesthetic by
Sir James Simpson, it was at once recognised as
one of the most valuable contributions of chemical
science to suffering humanity. See ANASTHESIA.

Chloroform is composed of 12 parts of carbon,
1 part of hydrogen, and 1064 parts of chlorine. It
may be produced in several ways, but in this
country at least the process by which it is obtained
from bleaching powder is the only one adopted
on the large scale. The materials employed are
bleaching powder, alcohol, and water. The bleach-
ing powder and water are mixed together to form,
a thin cream, the alcohol added, and the whole
placed in a capacious still, connected with suitable
condensing apparatus. On the application of heat
the contents rapidly froth up, and even though
the external application of heat be popped the
chemical action is so violent that the chloroform
distils over rapidly along with water and any
excess of alcohol. Asso obtained it is very impure,
and requires to be carefully treated with sulphurie
acid, and then redistill before it is fit for
anesthetic purposes. Pure chloroform is a limpid,
mobile, colourless, volatile liquid, with a character-
istic odour, and a powerful sweetish taste. When
diluted with alcohol it enters into the composition
of artificial fruit-essences, to which it gives a
flavour akin to that of ripe apples. It is a very
heavy liquid, its specific gravity being about 1-500
(water = 1000), and as it does not readily mix
with or dissolve in water, it falls to the bottom
when poured into a vessel of that liquid, forming
a distinct layer. Chloroform is readily miscible
with alcohol and ether, and it dissolves camphor,
amber, gutta-percha, wax, black and red sealing-
wax, iodine, and bromine, as well as strychnine
and other alkaloids. It dissolves a small propor-
tion of water, being also slightly soluble in that
liquid. Chloroform is not combustible in the
ordinary sense of the term, but when its vapour is
brought in contact with flame it burns, imparting
a green tint to it, and irritating fumes are pro-
duced. Pure chloroform is not met with in
commerce owing to the readiness with which it
decomposes when exposed to light. In order to
prevent this a small proportion of alcohol is added,
the specific gravity being thus reduced from 1°500
to 1497, When evaporated on the hand no
disagreeable odour should be noticeable, and when
shaken with sulphuric acid only a very slight
discoloration of the acid (due to the small pro-
portion of alcohol) should result. Besides its
anesthetic properties, which are elsewhere dis-
cussed (see ANASTHESIA), chloroform is used in
medicine both externally and internally. When
applied to the skin or any of the mucous mem-
branes it acts as a powerful irritant, producing a
burning sensation, and on this account it is of
value as an application in rheumatism, lumbago,
and neuralgia. As an application to a decayed
tooth its action is twofo 3. as a stimulant and
counter-irritant locally, and also to a partial extent
as an anesthetic. Taken internally, diluted with
alcohol, it is a powerful stimulant, and _ readily
cna a species of intoxication. It is by some

abitually taken as a narcotic luxury. As chloric
ether, a product distilled from bleaching agen
and containing chloroform, it enters into the com-
position of cough mixtures, pick-me-ups, &e.

Chlorophyll, as its name implies, is Jeaf-green,

e ordinary colouring matter of vegetation. Micro-
scopic examination of plant tissues shows it some-

204 CHLOROPHYLL

CHLOROSIS

times to tinge the whole protoplasm of the cell
(though never the cell sap). Much more generally,
however, it is collected into definite bodies, the
so-called chlorophyll granules, or less frequently, as
in some of the lower alge, arranged in starlike
masses (Zygnema) or spiral bands (Spirogyra). A
brief immersion of the specimen in alcohol suffices
to dissolve out the chlorophyll, and leave the form
of the chlorophyll bodies unaltered ; and the solu-
tion may then be conveniently studied in a fresh
state, as it gradually fades on keeping. It is of a
deep rich green by transmitted, but of characteristic
deep red colour by reflected light ; in a word, is
highly fluorescent. The absorption-spectrum is
quite characteristic ; yet the complex nature of the
substance is strongly argued for on the ground of
the following experiment. Shake up the alcoholic
.solution with benzol, and when the two fluids have
had time to separate, we find the green to have
disappeared. . The lighter alcohol above is now of a
strongly yellow hue, while the subjacent benzol is
of a distinctly bluish green. To these colouring
matters the names Xanthophyll and Cyanophyll are
commonly given. While their separate spectra are
quite characteristic, their combined spectrum seems
to restore that of chlorophyll. The latter sub-
stance resembles the blue-green colouring matter of
some of the lowest algze (Oscillatoria, &c.), while
the yellow substance recalls that of many buds
and flowers. Others, however, maintain that these
substances are really the result of a destructive
decomposition of true chlorophyll; while Gautier
has even prepared green needle-like erystals which
he regards as chlorophyll in a pure state. The
chemical composition of chlorophyll] is also a matter
of eonddenihte difficulty, both on account of its
own easy decomposability, and its being necessarily
accompanied by other extractive substances ; thus
- the question of the presence or absence of iron has
been much debated, a matter which seems to in-
dicate variability of composition. This is further
borne out by the labours of spectroscopists. Thus
in addition to the familiar well-detined analogous
colouring matters which characterise respectively
the blue-green algee, the brown and the red (see
SEAWEEDS), researches such as those of Sorby and
others seem to indicate a number of varieties too
numerous even for enumeration. This varietal
range, however, may best be approached after
considering the conditions in which chlorophyll is
formed. Of the chemical factors little can be said
save that the presence of iron in the soil seems to
be quite indispensable; the physical conditions
are, however, simpler.

A sufficient temperature is necessary to the for-
mation of chlorophyll; for seedlings from 4° to 8° C,
being a minimum, while the process is said to take
place most rapidly, on the average, at about 35° C.
The most important condition is, however, the pres-
ence of light; with rare exceptions, plants cannot
form any chlorophyll in darkness. The blanching
of celery or leeks is a familiar instance of this, or
conversely, the green coating acquired by a potato-
tuber where it happens to have been denuded of its
covering of earth. Shoots formed in darkness form
colouring matter indeed, but only of a pale-yellow
hue, the so-called etiolin ; after a very brief exposure
to light, especially if direct sunshine, chlorophyll
appears, apparently by direct transformation of the
former. The other colouring matters of plants
are sometimes in protoplasm granules (chromo-
plasts), but more frequently also in solution in the
sap; and these frequently are present in such abund-
ance, especially in the epidermis, &c., as to mask
the chlorophyll altogether, as happens especially in
so many of our hothouse plants with decorative
leaves. The general tendency of research is to
indicate that all the phenomena of plant colour

seem intimately connected with what we may term
the general life-history of chlorophyll. Thus the
yellows and reds of young shoots and leaves in
spring may be interpreted as having some relation
to the development of chlorophyll, if not absolutely
stages of the process; while the same suggestion
arises with regard to the colouring matters of
flowers, which are similarly to be regarded as
imperfectly vegetative shoots, although in this case
through the onset of the reproductive function,
instead of merely by reason of immaturity. Finall
also with regard to the autumnal hues, in whic
the chlorophyll pigment seems to be disintegrating
through colour-stages analogous to those of its
evolution in spring, or of its arrestment in the
flower. In favour of such a view evidence is forth-
coming from either end of the vegetable kingdom.
Thus Cienkowsky has shown that in the case of
certain unicellular algze, which like the common
Protococcus of rain-water, possess red pigment as
well as green when passing into the resting stage,
the quantity of red may be increased in proportion
as autumnal conditions are reproduced by artificially
lowering the temperature, and vice versd. The
same experiment may be made with the common
Sempervivums, Sedums, &c., whose leaves become
more or less red in autumn or winter; those of
Thuja (Arbor Vite) similarly become brownish,
but recover themselves in spring. Among almost
all cultivated plants, variegated varieties tend to
arise, that is to say, we have certain cell-areas of
the leaf-parenchyma destitute of chlorophyll. The
conditions of this are quite obscure (see VARIE-
GATION); but it is noteworthy that this loss of
chlorophyll may also take place in lower plants, so
that there is considerable ground for regarding
at least many rid age fungi as simply algee which
have degenerated in this respect through parasit-
ism. Phanerogamous parasites like Toothwort
(q.v.) or Dodder (q.v.) similarly become almost
completely blanched.

Chlorophyll apparently identical with that of
green parts of plants, can be experimentally de-
monstrated in the tissues of certain animals; and
although this has in many cases been shown to be
due to the presence of symbiotic algze (see SYM-
BIOSIS), there remain cases—e.g. Hydra viridis,
&e., and at the very least Paramecium viride, in
which we have undeniably intrinsic chlorophyll,
and this of truly vegetable function.

The development of our knowledge with respect
to the functions of chlorophyll is still far from com- *
plete, and may in any case be more conveniently
treated under LEAF and VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY
(q.v.); suffice it therefore to state here the elemen-.
tary and essential fact that its presence is in every
case constantly associated with the process of
assimilation, or elaboration of new products by hel
of the energy of sunlight, upon which the continu
nutrition of the green plant depends ; and of which
the formation of stare with decomposition of car-
bonic anhydride and disengagement of oxygen are_
the most obvious chemical results. A fuller account:
of the state of knowledge and opinion upon this
portion of the subject will be found in the articles.
referred to.

Chlorops. See Corn INSECTS.

Chloro’sis (Gr. chléros, ‘ pale green’), a peculiar
orm of anzemia or bloodlessness, common in young
women, and connected with the disorders incident
to the critical period of life. It has been called the
green sickness, from the peculiar dingy greenish-
ellow hue of the complexion ; the Breen colour,
owever, is not always present. The disease is
attended with very great debility, and often with
breathlessness, palpitation, and other distressing
or even alarming symptoms. In a few cases it is

EL ae

* milk with much stirring.

CHOATE

CHOIRS 205

associated with imperfect development of the larger
arteries, and is then incurable; but in the vast
majority of cases it yields readily to treatment
unless complicated with some other disease. The
principal means to be employed are air, exercise,
often salt-water baths, with a nutritious and
rather stimulating diet, and porgatiyes if required ;
together with seh special remedies as are adap

for restoring deficient secretions, and bringing the
entire female system of organs into a natural
condition; but above all, large doses of iron,
continued for some weeks or months. The tend-
ency to chlorosis is often hereditary, and relapses
are rey ent to take place. For Chlorosis in plants,
see (in Vol. VIII. p. 222) DisEASES OF PLANTS.

Choate, Rurus, a scholarly American lawyer,
born in Essex, Massachusetts, Ist October 1799,
graduated at Dartmouth in 1819, and was admitted
to the bar in 1823. He sat in congress from 1830
to 1834, when he settled in Boston. Here his
singular eloquence rapidly advanced him to the
place of leader of the Massachusetts bar; indeed,
it has been claimed for him that he was the most
eminent advocate New England, or even America,
has produced. After a term in the United States
senate, 1841-45, he returned to his profession; in
1859, his health giving way, he sailed for Europe,
but stopped at Hali ax, Nova Scotia, where he
died July 13. His writings, with a memoir, were

ublished at Boston in 1862. See Neilson’s

emories of Rufus Choate ( Boston, 1884).

Chocolate is a preparation of the seeds of
Theobroma Cacao (see COCOA), made by wae
the seeds to a very fine paste. The mill, hea
by gas, is constructed of heavy metal rollers
turning in a circular course upon a flat metal
plate. A curved knife or scoop is attached to the
rollers in such-wise that it shall return the paste
continually to be crushed and recrushed by the
rollers until it becomes almost impalpable. The
object of this is to render the nut, otherwise
difficult of solution, readily diffusible in water or
milk when used as a beverage. The paste when
unmixed is called Cocoa; but when sugar and
flour or other farinaceous material with flavour-
ing matters such as vanilla, cinnamon, ec.
are added, it bears the name of Chocolate.
The two names are much confounded commer-
cially. Chocolate is moulded into cakes or sold
in powder or flakes formed by simply cooling
the paste as it comes from the mill. the seeds
or nuts contain a large proportion (30 to 50 per
cent.) of oily matter (cocoa butter). This may be
capa removed or all retained in the chocolate.

n the latter case much of it is mechanically adher-
ent to the sugar or farinaceous matter. Chocolate
is a favourite beverage in Spain, Italy, and other
southern countries, especially for breakfast; the
cake or powder is heated and diffused in water or
The Italian rarely uses
butter, but cuts his bread into sippets and dips
them in his chocolate, the oily matter of which
performs the same nutritive functions as the butter
we spread on our bread. It is sometimes mixed
with coffee in Italy, and there known as mis-
chiata. It is also made into a paste with cream
and sugar and frozen as chocolate ice. Vanilla is
the favourite flavouring. The name appears to
be Mexican, Chocolatl (choco, ‘cocoa,’ and lati,
‘water’). It was introduced from America to
Europe by the Spaniards. It is highly nutritious,
containing a large proportion of nitrogenous flesh-
forming material. On this account it is used as

rtable food by many mountaineers. An excess-

r ively rich food is obtained by preparing it with

milk and then whisking in a raw egg. The
waiters at certain Italian coffee-houses call this

la gloria, and the ordinary infusion ‘ Aurora.’ In
the solid form, mixed with much sugar, cream, and
various confections, chocolate is largely used as a
sweetmeat, and is introduced in pastry.

Chocolate Root, See Geum.

Choctaws, 4 tribe of American Indians, be-
longing to the Appalachian stock, and formerly
inhabiting the central portions of Mississippi, but
now settled in the south-east of Indian Territory,
where they are regarded as one of the four civilised
nations, and hold 6,668,000 acres of land. They
have benefited greatly by the labours of mission-
aries, and have become good farmers and mechanics.

Chodowiecki, DANIEL NIKOLAUS, German

inter and copperplate engraver, was born in

726 at Danzig, and died director of the Academy

of Sciences at Berlin, 7th February 1801. He pro-
duced some 3000 plates, mostly small.

Choir. See CHurcH and CHANCEL.

Choirs and Choral Singing. Choir pro-

perly denotes the body of singers who perform
the musical part of a church service, but has lately
been applied also to independent choral societies,
such as the Bach Choir in London, The composi-
tion of a choir is so variable that only a few general
principles can be indicated. The commonest and
typical form is that of the four-part choir of mixed
voices—i.e. both male and female; the soprano
part, however, is often taken by boys, and the
next by male alto voices. While it is desirable
that the individual voices should themselves be
good and well trained, there are requisites over
and above those looked for in solo singing. These
are briefly :_(1) An equal» balance of voice-power
in each part; (2) adaptation of the number of
voices to the size of the building where they sing ;
(3) an exact sense of time and rhythm in the
singers, and the power of maintaining each part
independent, while still in agreement with the
others ; (4) facility in singing at sight; and (5)
frequent Bett together. Though many choirs
are guided by the organist alone, or have merely
a leader, a conductor is always of the greatest
advantage, much of the expression and effect de-
pending on him, and the more so in proportion as
the choir and the works sung are larger. It is a ©
much debated point whether the choir should sing
alone, or guide the singing of the congregation.
In not a few American churches the former
principle is developed in a singular form, the
uartet choir consisting merely of four solo
singers, by whom alone the whole music of the
service is sung.
In the Eastern Church the music is unaccom-
anied, and is sung by the priest and choir alone.
he choir of the Imperial Chapel in St Petersburg
consists of about 120 voices, men and boys, who have
no other occupation. In the Church of Rome the
most notable is the Sistine or papal choir in Rome.
Its genealogy is traceable to the singing schools
established by very early popes, but extensively
developed by Gregory the Great. It has for a
long while consisted of thirty-two choral chap-
lains, occasionally supplemented, and has gener-
ally possessed specimens of the rare adult male
soprano voice, the leader in 1888 being one. They
sing unaccompanied, but the organ is generally
used in other Roman Catholic services. The effect
of their singing during the Passion-week has been
well described in Mendelssohn's letters. A body of
some thirty-five of them were brought by the pope
to the coronation of Napoleon in Ndétre Dame,
Paris, and entirely pa a large chorus accom-
panied by eighty harps which was expected to
produce an unprecedented effect. Since 1870 this
choir has been very seldom heard at all. In the
Lutheran churches in Germany, when there is a

,

206 CHOISEUL-AMBOISE

CHOLECYSTOTOMY

choir, as a rule they sing alone, and the congrega-
tion alone. The choir sing (unaccompanied ) poly-
phonic motets, or less familiar hymns, the congre-
gation singing the chorales in unison, with organ
accompaniment. The most celebrated German
choirs are those of the cathedral in Berlin and
of the Thomas Church at Leipzig. The English
cathedral choirs are more or less richly endowed,
Durham standing at the head with £2400 a year.
As a specimen, some details may be given in regard
to Norwich. Here the choir consists of fourteen
choristers (boys) and eight lay clerks (men). For
the purpose of antiphonal singing these are divided
into two sides, denominated (from the seats of the
precentor and dean respectively) the Cantoris and
Decani. The lay slerics are appointed by the
dean ; the choristers are trained by the organist,
and have two rehearsals daily. A full rehearsal
of all the choir is held weekly ; they all attend on
Sundays and festivals and (with the exception
that each lay clerk is entitled to one week’s ab-
sence in six) at the daily services. The precentor
has the whole control of the choir, selection of
music, &c., while the organist is responsible for
the accompaniments, the training of the choristers,
&c. The late Dr Buck of Norwich was perhaps
the most celebrated trainer of cathedral choirs in
the 19th century. Among the noted English choirs
are those of the Temple Church in London and
Magdalen and New College Chapels, Oxford.
There is almost no literature on this subject, but
much information is contained in Curwen’s Studies
in Worship Music (two series, Lond. 1885-88).
See CHoRUS, INTONING, SERVICE (MUSICAL).

Choiseul-Amboise, ErmenNnE FRANCOIS,
Duc DE, minister of Louis XV., was born in 1719.
He served with credit in the Austrian Wars of
Succession, and through the favour of the king’s
mistress, Madame de Conpaiour, became lieuten-
ant-general in 1748, and Due de Choiseul in 1758.
He was sent to Rome and next to Vienna in
1756 to arrange the alliance between France and
Austria against Frederick the Great, and it was
his policy that brought about later the family
league of the Bourbon monarchs in Europe. He
made himself very popular by the fairly favourable
terms he obtained in 1763 at the close of a dis-
astrous war, and further by his opposition to the
Jesuits. He conceived, and almost carried out, a

he for the formal emancipation of the Gallican

hurch from papal influence, improved the arm
and navy, developed the trade and industry both
of the nation and of the colonies, and opened up
anew an intercourse with India, whose native
princes were assisted by French officers in their
endeavours to expel the British from the peninsula.
He had spies in every European court, and so
ruled all diplomatic and political cabals as to
deserve the title the Empress of Russia gave him,
Le Cocher de Europe. His power had survived
the death of his patroness in 1764, but the rise of
Madame Dubarry, who succeeded Madame de Pom-
padonr in the king’s affections, gradually alien-
ated Louis from his able minister, who retired in
1770 to his magnificent estate of Chanteloup, where
he lived in princely splendour. After the accession
of Louis XVI. he received permission to return to
Paris, and was often consulted, but never recovered
his official position. He died May 7, 1785.

Choke-cherry, a name given to certain
nearly allied species of Cherry (q.v.), natives of
North America, having small fruit in racemes,
like the Bird-cherry or Cherry-laurel (q.v.), from
which latter, however, they are easily distinguished
by their deciduous leaves. The fruit is at first rather
agreeable, but afterwards astringent in the mouth.
The species and varieties are not easily definable,

but Prunus (Cerasus) virginiana, serotina, an&
borealis may be especially mentioned. The bark
is used as a febrifuge and tonic, under the name of
Wild Cherry Bark ; and by distilling it with water,
a volatile oil is obtained from it, associated with
hydrocyanic acid, called O71 of Wild Cherry.

Choke-damp, also called after-damp or foul-
damp, is the carbonic acid gas given off by coab
which accumulates in coal-mines, and may suffo-
cate those exposed to it. It is distinguished from
pecan, the marsh-gas. or light carburetted

drogen which causes the explosions. See CoAL,

INING.

Choking, in its slighter forms, is a very
familiar occurrence, and results from a morsel of
food or other solid, or even a drop of liquid, passing
into the Larynx (q.v.) or upper opening of the
windpipe, instead of the gullet, or in popular
parlance ‘going down the wrong way.’ It is
generally caused by a breath being suddenly drawn
in coughing, laughing, &c. while food or fluid is in
the mouth; and a violent fit of coughing follows.
till the offending substance is expelled from the
Mfc! ao Sometimes, however, a larger mass—
e.g. a half-chewed piece of meat—is drawn into
the opening of the windpipe, completely blocking
it, and arresting respiration altogether. This con-
dition is one of extreme danger; the sufferer
becomes purple in the face, and if not at once
relieved will certainly and quickly die of suffoca-
tion. The obstructing substance is usually within
reach, and may often be dislodged if a bystander
promptly pushes his forefinger to the back of the
throat and attempts to draw it forward. A child
may sometimes be saved by holding it up by
the heels and shaking it, or slapping its back.
If these measures fail, a sharp-pointed knife, a

enknife for instance, must be promptly pushed
into the windpipe to admit air to it below, the
obstruction. See (under Trachea) TRACHEOTOMY ;
see also (HSOPHAGUS, PHARYNX.

In cattle, the causes fall under two heads -:
(1) those that depend on the material swallowed ;
and (2) those that depend on the animal swallowing.
Under the first head we find sharp-pointed objects
which become fixed into or entangled in the
membrane lining the throat and gullet; solid
masses too large to pass on to the stomach; dry
farinaceous materials which clog in the passage.
The second class of causes consists in inflammation
of the throat, or irritation of the organs of degluti-
tion; constrictions of the passage; ulceration of
the esophagus, which is apt to follow choking,
and is ihe cause of a relapse; lastly, without any
disease of the deglutitory organs, an animal may
be choked by eating too greedily, and imperfectly
masticating or salivating its food.

The symptoms vary according to the position
of the obstruction. Many of the most alarming
symptoms arise from the paunch becoming dis- ~
tended by gas. See HOOvVE.

Remove the obstruction with the hand when
Cause the animal to swallow the sub-
stance, if possible, by giving it water, oil, or Bella-
donna solution. Carefully push the offending
agent down by a probang, if it is possible to effect
this, and if withdrawal by the mouth is impractie-
able. In some cases the gullet has to be cut into
by a qualified surgeon. After a case of choking,
keep the animal on soft food, and attend to its
general health, in order to avoid a relapse, which
is of frequent occurrence in cattle. attle are
most frequently choked by sliced turnips and
potatoes, and these should consequently be pulped
or mashed,

Cholecystot’omy, the opening of the gall:
bladder. See CALCULUS.

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CHOLERA s

207

Cholera (Fr. choléra asiatique). The Greek
word cholera (connected with cholé, ‘bile,’ as is
also the Engiish ‘choler’) was used by both Hippo-
crates and Celsus to describe sporadic cholera (see
below). The term is now rather loosely employed
to denote various forms of disease (such as chicken
cholera, for which see PoutTry). In this article
it is used as the designation for Asiatic, Oriental,
or Epidemic Cholera, otherwise called Cholera
Morbus or Pestilential Cholera. This disease
has been popularly believed to be a new dis-
ease which made its first appearance in Bundel-
khand in 1817, when 5000 men died in five days;
but there is no doubt that it has a far more
ancient origin, and has visited Europe since 1500
A.D. Cholera is a specific disease characterised
by violent vomiting and purging, with rice-water
evacuations, cramps, and collapse ; tending to run
a rapidly fatal course, and capable of being com-
municated from person to person by means of the
dejecta of patients suffering from it. The mor-
ity of cholera varies in different epidemics; it
is akg greatest at the commencement of a fresh
outbreak ; at the lowest estimate one-half of the
rsons attacked die. Cholera has been endemic
or centuries in certain parts of India, especiall
in the valley of the Ganges, and in the 19t
century it has spread on various occasions almost
all over the civilised world. In 1817-23 cholera
e xig rapidly throughout Bengal and other parts
of India, Ceylon, Burma, and China, slayin
thousands of victims. A second outbreak occurre
from 1826-37, and ‘spread vid Central Asia and
Russia with frightful virulence throughout Europe
and America. From Riga it was imported to
Sunderland (26th October 1831); from Hambur,
to London (13th February 1832); and so it pass
on to Paris, Quebec, Chicago, New Orleans, &c.
In 1846-63 a third epidemic occurred, and Europe
and America were again visited; 53,293 persons
dying in England and Wales in 1848-49, and
097 in 1854. A very extensive outbreak took
lace in 1865-75; and in 1884-85 cholera reached
rance penpecaly Toulon and Marseilles), Italy
(especially Naples), and Spain, but did not spread
farther. The outbursts of cholera are generally
sudden in their advent, hundreds of people being
attacked within a few days of its appearance in
any locality. It is a noteworthy fact that in each
outbreak of cholera, one or other of its various
symptoms is especially well marked. '
Certain factors determine the origin and pro-
mote the diffusion of cholera. Places having a
high altitude are prone to escape its ravages (at
anyrate for a long time), whereas low-lying ground
favours its spread. During the general diffusion
of cholera in India in 1817-19, the hill-forts

remained exempt in a remarkable way, while the

tlisease was prevalent in the plains around. There
is no doubt too that cholera follows the rivers ; and
the more copious the saturation of the ground, and
the greater the amount of organic matter under-
going decomposition it contains, the more exten-
sive will be its spread. The drying of the soil

after it has been soaked is very favourable for the

development of cholera epidemics; and they are
also favoured by certain physical characteristics
of the soil, such as permeability to water and air,
also by rocks that have a capacity for retaining
moisture, and by organic detritus. But these are
not the only factors we have to take into account,
for climatic influences, such as heat and moisture,
also affect its epidemic spread. Heat aids its pro-
duction; a marked fall in the temperature and
heavy rain stay its ravages, but rain after a pro-
longed drought often gives it impetus.

As to the exact nature of the morbid poison
which causes cholera, authorities still differ, yet

in all probability a germ found in 1883 by Koch
in the dejecta of cholera patients in Egypt,
Caleutta, and Toulon, and named by him the
‘Comma’ bacillus, constitutes the morbifie agent.
His observations were to some extent confirmed
by the researches of Klein and Gibbs in Cal-
cutta and Bombay, and numbers of observers,
notably Dr Macleod and Mr Miller at Shanghai
in 1885, have since found the bacillus in the
stools of cholera patients (see BACTERIA, GERM
THEORY). The importance of this discovery can
be estimated by the following fact. An Italian
emigrant steamer arrived at = York in 1887,
having on board a case of diarrhoea, the symptoms
of which were suspicious but not perfectly typical
of Asiatic cholera. Cultivation experiments were
made at the Carnegie Laboratory of material dis-
charged by this patient, and in four days they
manifested the characteristic Aoken Ro gaR due to
the growth of the ‘Comma’ bacillus; and the
diagnosis was subsequently confirmed by the
occurrence of cases amongst the ship’s passengers,
in which the unmistakable symptoms of Asiatic
cholera were present. It must, however, be said
that bacilli similar to these do occur in healthy
persons; they do not, however, give rise to the
same appearance when cultivated by Koch’s
method as do the bacilli found in cholera stools.
Further research is necessary to show in what way
these bacilli cause cholera. The dejecta of cholera
patients when perfectly fresh are innocuous, but
very soom they develop the morbific agent, and
water, food, or clothing contaminated by them
will communicate the disease to healthy persons.
Numerous observations go to prove that the
wind also is capable of conveying the poison
from dried cholera stools, but how far it is im-
possible to say. Troops or pilgrims may carry
the infection and propagate it along their line
of march; if healthy bodies of men meet with
infected troops or enter a tainted district, they
will almost certainly suffer; or if a body of men
encamp on a site recently occupied by cholera
pels they will become affected. cholera
reaks out on board ship in mid-ocean, it will be
coincident with the exposure of some part of the
cargo from an affected place.
auses.—(a) Predisposing.—Fear or shock, ex-
posure to sudden changes of temperature, intem-
perance in labour, pleasure, or drink, and want
of pate clothing, as well as everything which
tends to derange the stomach, or the use of
—e purgatives, predispose a person to an
attack of cholera; and fresh arrival into an in-
fected area renders a person extremely liable to
an attack. (b) Exciting.—This is of course the
entrance into the body of the poison, which may
be introduced into the system either by drinking-
water, or by food contaminated with the discharge
of a cholera patient. It may also be inhaled as
dust, and enter the body through the lungs. There
can be no doubt that polluted drinking-water is
by far the most common source of infection ; and
it has been noticed, as for instance in Calcutta,
that the improvement in the water-supply has
greatly diminished the prevalence of cholera.
Symptoms.—After some premonitory symptoms
characterised by malaise, depression, and slight
diarrhea, cholera commences by purging, to be
soon followed by vomiting and painful cramps in
the stomach and limbs. These symptoms form the
first or evacuation stage. The discharges down-
wards are extremely copious, and they soon become
colourless and turbid, resembling water in which
rice has been boiled; hence the expression, ‘ rice-
water’ evacuations, In the second stage, which is
called the ‘algid’ stage, there is profound collapse.
In this condition the patient lies motionless and

208 CHOLERA

CHOPIN

apathetic, except when tormented by cramps, which
are of frequent occurrence. The surface tempera-
ture of the body falls to 95° F., or even lower.
The pulse becomes almost imperceptible, and the
respirations are shallow and rapid, the air expired
being cold, and the voice a hollow, husky whisper.
The nervous system suffers severely, and muscular
prostration is well marked. The features assume
a leaden or livid hue; they are pinched and
shrunken. The nose becomes sharp and pointed,
the cheeks hollow, and the eyeballs, which are
often bloodshot, sink in their sockets and are
nearly hidden by the half-closed lids. The surface
of the body, especially the extremities, is bluish,
wrinkled and shrivelled, and bathed in cold clammy
sweat. For atime the mind is clear but inactive ;
in fatal cases, however, stupor sets in, followed
by coma; thirst is intense. In this stage assimi-
lation and secretion are in abeyance ; all the vital
rocesses in fact are brought almost to a standstill.

his stage may last from twelve to thirty-six hours,
when the third stage, that of reaction, gradually
commences. Heat returns to the surface of the
body, the breathing becomes regular and calm, the
secretions are re-established, the pulse improves,
and the patient will fall into a oath sleep. This
stage may terminate in speedy convalescence, but
such is not always the case, as a relapse may take
pipes and certain complications and sequel follow.

he most dreaded of these are suppression of
urine, uremia, and fever, often closely resembling
typhoid, and constituting, at least in the temper-
ate zone, one of the chief dangers in the progress
of cholera. Disease of the kidneys, inflammation of
the lungs, ulceration of the cornea, abscesses all
over the body, and hemorrhage from the bowels
may also occur. The mortality varies very much :
it may be from one in four of those attacked to three
in four. In some epidemics in India it is not more
than 15 per cent. of those attacked ; in others as
high as 90 per cent. In 1885 it was announced that
of 233,546 persons attacked in aes during the
recent visitation, 82,619 succumbed. One attack of
cholera does not confer protection against another.

Treatment.—With regard to treatment, medi-
cines are almost powerless, and many of the
vaunted remedies undoubtedly do far more harm
than good. It is, however, necessary to try to
check the premonitory diarrhoea, as by so doing in
many cases the disease may be cut short. The
slightest symptoms of diarrhoea should be attended
to; the patient should be put to bed, a mustard
plaster should be applied to his abdomen, and
opium in some form or other should be admin-
istered. A favourite prescription is four grains of
acetate of lead with one of opium, which may be

iven after each loose stool until three doses have
yeen taken; or else thirty drops of laudanum in
half a glass of brandy in hot water. In the state
of collapse it is useless or even injurious to give
medicine, but soda-water and ice may be admin-
istered to relieve thirst. During collapse the
medicines could not be assimilated, and if given
then, during reaction they would be absorbed and
do harm. § soon as reaction occurs, thin water-
arrowroot should be given in small quantities, and
then iced milk, chicken-tea, and beef-tea, as the
stomach can stand it, and enemata of beef-tea
should be given every four hours.

The true remedy against cholera is undoubtedly
prevention. The greatest care should be taken to
secure pure drinking-water, which should be boiled
before use, and uncontaminated food. Personal
cleanliness, free ventilation, and thorough disinfec-
tion of the drains should be enjoined. With regard
to quarantine, it is worse than useless in checking
the spread of cholera; but all persons coming from
an infected area who have the slightest tendency to

diarrhcea should be isolated and carefully watched.
It should be remembered with what ease cholera
can be conveyed by clothing, and therefore the im-
ortation of all rags and old clothes should be pro-
ribited. Lastly, the destruction of the discharges
from cholera patients, and of the linen soiled by
them, is of the utmost importance. The dead
should be buried immediately, with due precau-
tions. A Spanish physician, Br Ferran, employed
preventive inoculation in 1885; his methods, how-
ever, were discredited. But in 1893-95 Dr Haff-
kine, a Russian scientist, had performed in Bengal
alone 42,445 inoculations against cholera without
mishap and with great preventive efficiency. In the
Gangetic valley—the home of cholera—the comma
bacillus is a constant feature in the malady.

Cholera Sicca is a rare form, in which symptoms
of collapse occur, with great coldness and blueness
of the surface, and death takes place in a few hours,
without any purging.

Cholera Nostras is also called Simple Cholera,
Summer Cholera, British Cholera, Sporadic Cholera,
Choleraic Diarrhoea. This is an acute catarrhal
affection of the mucous membrane of the stomach
and small intestines, which usually occurs in late
summer or early autumn. It is attended by vomit-
ing and purging of bile, cramps and pain in the
bowels, the whole system being implicated on
account of the rapid loss of water from the body.
This disease, although severe, is usually only fatal
to young infants or to old or debilitated persons.
Simple cholera is treated like Diarrhoea (q.v.).

Asiatic Cholera is regarded as distinctly a ‘dirt
disease,’ and the great religious pilgrimages of
the East have a much to do with conveyin
the poison from places where it is endemic, an
distributing it widely. The sanitary measures
adopted at Hardwar on the Ganges have proved
as strikingly effective as those employed in England
to phate! the invasions of 1892 and 1893. But
though some attempts have been made to reduce
the risks attendant on the Mecca pilgrimages
(where the wells are a great source of infection),
effective measures have as yet proved impossible.

See Pettenkofer’s Cholera: How to Prevent and Resist
it (Eng. trans. 1884); Stillé’s Cholera (Phila. 1885) ;
Bellew’s History of the Cholera in India (1884); and
Macnamara’s Asiatic Cholera (1892).

Cholesterin, a fatty substance found in gall-
stones, yolk of egg, blood-corpuscles, milk, &c., as
also in peas, barley, &. See ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

Cholet, a French manufacturing town, aoe of
Maine-et-Loire, on the Maine, 32 miles S of
Angers by rail. Pop. 15,051.

Cholw a, a decayed town of the Mexican state
of Puebla, stands nearly 7000 feet above sea-level,
on the tableland of Anahuac, 55 miles ESE. of the
city of Mexico. Cortes found in it 40,000 houses
and 400 temples, including the great Teocalli (q.v.).
Now the place only contains 9000 inhabitants. It
was a great centre of the Aztec religion.

Chondrin, the substance of cartilage, is akin
to the Proteids (q.v.). See ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

Chondropterygii, one of the technical names
by which Cartilaginous Fishes (q.v.) are known.

Chonos, a bare and sparsely peopled Chilian
archipelago off the west coast of Patagonia.

Chopin (Fr.), an old English liquid measure
equal to half a pint. The Scotch chopin or chappin
was nearly an English quart.

Chopin, FREDERIC, virtuoso and musical com-
poser, was born March 1, 1809, at Zelazova Vola,
a village near Warsaw, in Poland, where his father,
a native of Lorraine, had settled and married.-
Under the tuition of two professors at Warsaw,
notably Elsner, the director of the Conservatoire,

CHOPIN

CHORD 209

‘Chopin made such rapid progress that at the age of
nine he pla ed with prot ts. in public. As a bo
and, in
the strain of Parisian life, he possessed a great fund
of high spirits, and excelled in mimicry and carica-
‘ture. In 1825 he published his first work, and by
‘the time he was eighteen his parents acquiesced in
his choice of music as a career. In the autumn of
1829 he visited Vienna, gave a successful public
concert, and was in much request in the salons of
that city. In the following year he left Warsaw
for good, and cheney * vid Breslau, Dresden, and
e, again visited Vienna, where he sojourned
for several months, and he started for Paris in July
1831. Here, after sundry vicissitudes, he took root,
found fame, and lost his health; here he became
the idol of the salons of the Faubourg Saint Ger-
main, giving lessons to a select clientéle of pupils,
-and employing his leisure in composition. Chopin
rarely performed in public, for, as his biographer
remarks, ‘he could only play con amore when in the
best society and among connoisseurs who knew
how to appreciate all the niceties of his perform-
ance.’ But in his element Chopin, by the admis-
«sion of so competent a judge as Mendelssohn, was
‘a truly perfect virtuoso’ as well as a thorough
musician, with a faculty for improvisation such as
re no other pianist ever possessed. In 1836

e was introduced to George Sand (Madame Du-
devant) by his friend Liszt. The intimacy which
thus began lasted for seven years, when George
Sand, to quote Liszt, ‘ gave her butterfly the congé,
vivisected and stuffed it, and added it to her col-
lection of heroes for novels.’ For George Sand’s
version of this episode, readers may be referred to
the fourth volume of her Histoire de ma Vie, as
well as to the portrait of Prince Carol in her novel
Lucrezia Floriani. Chopin visited England on
two occasions—once in 1837, and again in 1848.
In the latter year he played at two matinées and
at a Polish ball in London ; twice in Manchester,
once in Edinburgh, and once in Glasgow. His
health, vin, Peed by consumption, gave wa:
rapidly on his return to Paris, where on the 17t
of October 1849 he passed away tranquilly, sur-
rounded by a few devoted friends.

Of all virtuosi Chopin has achieved the greatest
fame as a creative artist. Taking Slavonic airs and
rhythms, notably that of the Mazur or Mazurek
(Mazurka), for his groundwork, he raised upon this
basis superstructures of the most fantastic and
original beauty. His style is so ae marked
as to amount to a mannerism, and yet he has only
been successfully imitated by men of genius like
Schumann, who was amongst the first of the Ger-
man critics to recognise in his early compositions
gifts of the rarest order. Chopin had seldom
recourse to the orchestra to express himself, and
on these rare occasions trea it in perfunctory
fashion, and as a mere foil to the solo instrument.
But for the piano alone he wrote a t deal of
music superlatively artistic in form, impregnated
with subtle romance, and full of exuberant fancy—
music which, though it must always primaril
appeal to refined and fastidious natures like his
-own, bears on it the unmistakable stamp of spon-
taneous inspiration. Personally Chopin was of a
reserved but amiable nature, singularly modest as
to his merits, but unsparing in his efforts to realise
the high and clearly defined aims he had set before
him. His compositions, the best edition of which
is that published by Carl Klindworth of Moscow,
extend to 74 works with, and 7 without opus num-
bers; and comprise upwards of 50 mazurkas, 27
-études, 25 préludes, 19 nocturnes, 13 waltzes, 12
polonaises, 4 ballades, 4 impromptus, 3 sonatas, 2
concertos for piano and orchestra, and a funeral
gra Besides rendering his friend the doubtful

18

, until his health broke down beneath.

service mentioned above, Liszt is also responsible
for having given currency in his picturesque
apotheosis of rege an to a good many inaccurate
statements as to his education and temperament.
See Lives by Karasowski (Eng. trans. 1879)
Niecks (a standard work, 2 vols. 1889), an
Willeby (1892); an essay by Finck (1889); and
Hadow’s Studies in Modern Music (1895).

Chopine (Span. chapin), a -bigh patten,’ intro-
duced into England from Venice during the reign
of Elizabeth. Some chopines were half a yard
high. See Shakespeare’s Hamlet, II. ii. 447.

Choragus. See Cuorus; and for the Choragiec
monuments, see ATHENS, Vol. I. p. 539.

Chorale, Though the name is occasionally
applied to the psalm and hymn tunes of similar
phaaaelie used in the Protestant churches of France
and Britain, it most properly belongs to the melodies
sung to the metrical hymns of the German Reformed
Church, and introduced by Luther, by whom and
his friend Walther the first collection of importance
was produced in 1524, and entitled the Enchiridion.
The settings were in four, five, or six parts, the
melody, as with all the old choral hymns and
psalms, being given to the tenor. Numerous other
collections appeared down to the later part of the
17th century, the most prolific composer of chorales
being Johann Criiger. Many of them were har-
monised in the most masterly way by Bach, and
were also used by him as the canto fermo, or
subject, of some of his great contrapuntal works.
Some of them were adapted from the old py sa
tunes of the Roman Church, others were taken from
popular airs of the time, others again were original
compositions; among the latter the most notable is
Luther's ‘Ein’ feste Burg.’ Whatever their source,
they all in common a solemn, dignified,
and devotional character. In Germany they are
now usually sung very slowly and heavily in unison,
with organ accompaniment. A few of them are
well known in this country from their introduction
in various collections of hymn tunes, and also in
the choral works of Bach and Mendelssohn.

Choral Service, the musical Service (q.v.)
celebrated by a full complement of clergymen, lay
clerks, and choristers, and sung or intoned as
ordered in the rubrics. See CHOIRS.

Chorasmians, See KuHiva, PALESTINE.

Chord. The chord of an are is a straight line
joining its two extremities ; or, a chord, in a circle,
ellipse, parabola, &c. is a straight line joining any
two points in the curve. If we draw a series of
P rallel chords in any conic, the line through their
middle points is called a diameter, and a line
parallel to the chords which passes through the
extremity of the diameter is a tangent to the
curve, ence in the circle (1) a diameter is per-
pendicular to the chords which it bisects, and also
(2) to the tangent at its extremity; (3) the three
chords of intersection of any three circles meet in
a point. In any conic the tangents at the ends
of any chord meet in the diameter which bisects
the chord. A ScALE oF CHORDS on Mathemati-
cal Instruments is sometimes used for setting off
angles, but has been mostly superseded by the
Protractor (q.v.).

Chord, in Music, is the simultaneous and har-
monious union of sounds of different pitch. The
common chord is a note with its third and fifth

reckoned upwards, thus : r =. ; or in the tonic

is of all Harmony

Ss Cy,
sol-fa notation, m : this is the

(q.v.). The sitlecs of chords will be found dis-
cussed under MUSIC.

.

210 CHOREA

CHORUS

Chore’a (Gr. choreia, ‘a dancing’ or ‘jumping’),
a disease popularly called St Vitus’s Dance, and con-
sisting af a tendency to involuntary and irregular
muscular contractions of the limbs and face, the
mind and the functions of the brain generally being

uite unaffected. The spasms of chorea differ from
Docs of most other convulsive affections in being
unaccompanied either by pain or by rigidity ;
being, in fact, momentary jerking movements,
indicating rather a want of control of the, will
over the muscles than any real excess of their con-
tractions. In some cases the disease resembles
merely an exaggeration of the restlessness and
‘fidgetiness’ common among children; in others
it goes so far as to be a very serious malady, and
may even threaten life. Fatal cases, however, are
fortunately very rare, and in the large majority of
instances the disease yields readily to treatment
carefully pursued, or disappears spontaneously in a
few weeks or months. Chorea is a disease much
more common among children of six years old and
upwards than at any other period of life; it is
also more common among female children than
among males. Not infrequently it follows a fright
or other mental shock, or the strain of overwork.
In a large proportion of cases it is associated with
acute rheumatism (rheumatic fever), or with heart-
disease (endocarditis). The treatment generally
pursued is the use of metallic tonics, such as zine,
copper, iron, and arsenic (the last, perhaps, the
best), sometimes preceded or accompanied by pur-
gatives. Anti-rheumatic remedies are in some
cases very valuable. Exercise in the open air is
also to be recommended; and gymnastics afford
material aid in the cure. It is to be observed that
the name St Vitus’s Dance was applied originally
in Germany to a different form of disease from that
above referred to—one closely approaching in its
characters the epidemic ‘ dancing mania,’ which, in
Italy, was called Tarantism. See ViTus (ST), and
(under Tarantula) TARANTISM.

Chorion. See PLACENTA.

Chorley, a busy town in North Lancashire, 9
miles SE. of Preston by rail. It has thriving
manufactures of cotton-yarn, jaconets, muslins,
fancy goods, calicoes, and ginghams. Railway
wagons are also built, and in the vicinity are
bleach-fields, print-works, coal-mines, and stone
quarries. Pop. (1881) 19,472 ; (1891) 23,082.

Chorley, HENRY FOTHERGILL, musical critic,
was born at Blackley Hurst, in Lancashire, 15th
December 1808, and was educated in Liverpool.
He became a member of the staff of the Atheneum
in 1833, and soon had entire charge of the musical
department, from which he retired in 1868; he
contributed also very many literary reviews. He

ublished some half-dozen artificial and unsuccess-
ul romances, three acted dramas, and some grace-
ful verse ; but it is by his Music and Manners in
France and Germany (1841) and his charming
Thirty Years’ Musical Recollections (1862) that his
name is best known to the reading public. , He
held very decided opinions in music (hostile to
Berlioz and Wagner), and expressed them uncom-
promisingly ; and his insight was perhaps discrim-
inating rather than profound. He died 16th Feb-
ruary 1872. See the Autobiography, Memoir, and
Letters, edited by H. G. Hewlett (1873).

Choroid. See Eye.

Chorus, among the ancients, meant a band of
singers and dancers employed on festive occasions
of great pomp, and also in the performance of
tragedy and comedy on the stage. The choral
dances in honour of Baechus, which superseded the
earlier ones to Apollo, were by their combination
with the ip st ag recitations of the Rhapsodes,
the origin of the Greek tragedy. In the plays as

known to us the chorus consisted of a gre
persons—boys, girls, or men—who remained in front
of the stage during the whole performance as.
spectators, or rather as witnesses. When a pause:
took place in the acting, the chorus either sang or
spoke verses having reference to the subject repre-
sented, which served to increase the impression or
sensation produced by the performers. At times.
the chorus seemed to take part with or against the.
persons in the drama, by advice, comfort, exhorta-
tion, or dissuasion. }
addressed the audience. In the time of Aischylus.
the chorus was very large, sometimes consistin,
of upwards of fifty persons, but the chorus o
Sophocles numbered only fifteen. Its leader was
termed the Corypheus. The charge of organising’
it was considered a great honour among the citizens.
of Athens. The person appointed for this purpose:
was called the fost The honour was very
expensive, as the choragus had to pay all the:
expenses incurred in training the members of the:
chorus to perform their parts efficiently. They
were, besides, fed and lodged by him during train.
ing-time, and he had also to provide for them
masks and dresses. At times the chorus was.
divided, and spoke or sang antiphonally. These:
divisions moved from side to side of the stage, from
which movement originated the naming of the:
single songs or stanzas, such as Strophe, Anti-
strophe, and Epode. How the musical element of
the ancient chorus was constituted or composed is:
not known with any certainty. It was pre-
eminently founded on rhythm, tha employment of
which was very varied ; and it was doubtless very
simple. It was accompanied by flutes. With the-
Races of the ancient tragedy, the chorus also fell
into disuse; and only lately has there been an
attempt to produce the same on the stage in the-
manner of the ancients, as, for example, in
Schiller’s Bride of Messina. The music which has-
been set in modern times to some of the Greek
tragedies does not give the least idea of the:
original music, which to our ears would probably
sound very bare and rude. Three fragments of a-
Greek hymn of a late Roman period (from a
N rer aN manuscript, and the Florentine work of
Galilei), which are the only extant remains of Greek
music, have been transcribed in modern notation in.
Rowbotham’s History of Music, vol. ii., and also in.
Chappell’s History of Music, vol. i. They are of
interest as being connected with the origin of the-
modern opera. In his later operas Wagner pro-
fesses to assign to the orchestra the functions of
the Greek chorus.

In modern music the word is applied to vocal
pieces in which each part is intended to be sung by
a considerable number of voices; and also to.the:
body of singers who perform choral music. The:
number of parts may vary from unison to as many
as forty or fifty; the normal number is four, but.
five and eight parts are also frequent. When the
voices are divided into two choirs, it is called a
double chorus. A chorus for both male and female
voices is termed a mixed chorus. The forms of
chorus are more varied than those of solo music,
and the most characteristic are imitative, or
contrapuntal, of which the fugue is the most-
regular type. They may also be in simple harmony,
or a combination of the two. Choral recitative is-
sometimes introduced ; a solo voice, or even a solo-
instrument, may be accompanied by chorus, or solo-
and chorus may answer bpd spoon A chorus.
sung without accompaniment is called a capella.
The earliest extant form is the unisonal Plainsong:
(q.v.) of the Roman Church. In oratorio music,
Bach’s great Passion Music may be cited as con-
taining nearly every form of chorus, from those:
constructed with figured parts upon a canto fermo,,

In the comedy the chorus also: —

—

CHOSE IN ACTION

CHOUGH 211

to the dramatic turba, the shouts of the enraged
a. The double choruses in Handel’s Jsrae/
m Egypt are also celebrated for their masterly
construction and grand massive effect; and for
dramatic expression those of Mendelssohn’s Llijah
stand in the highest rank.

In the opera as originally conceived by Peri and
Caccini at the close of the 16th century, the chorus
was intended to imitate that of the Greek play ;
and down to the time of Gluck it was arranged in
two rows, without taking part in the action of the
piece. Since his reforms the members of the chorus
are also dramatis persone, and sometimes, as in
Auber’s Masaniello, play a most important part.
A definite rhythm seems essential as a means of
keeping the parts together in a chorus of any
length; even when agner, who considered
rhythm ‘an intruder in music,’ introduces choruses,
which he does but sparingly, in his operas, they are
at once noticeable for this feature.

Choral singing has within the last forty years
obtained a widely popular development in Britain
and America, greatl
cheap editions of classical music. The chorus
singers of Yorkshire are recognised as excelling ;
but it need scarcely be said that in this depart-
ment of singing a very great deal of the effect
depends on the conductor. A remarkable feature
of the Crystal Palace Handel festivals is the
gigantic body of chorus, amounting in 1888 to
over 3000. See CHOIRS.

Chose in Action -( Fr. chose, ‘a thing’) is one
of the two great classes of what the English law
calls chattels personal, The one class is ‘ choses in

ion,’ such as goods, household furniture,
eattle, &c.; the other class is ‘choses in action,’
such as the right to sue for a debt, a legacy,
damages, &c. The old common-law rule was
that, except in the case of negotiable instru-
ments, contracts could not be assigned so that
the assignee might sue in his own name; but
the assignee must bring his action in the name
of the assignor or cedent, so that the _—
was always exposed to every defence which
might have been stated against the original debtor
under the contract. his resulted from the
primitive view of contract as creating a strictly
a relation between the debtor and creditor.
he Equity Courts, however, permitted the assign-
ment of debts and equitable rights, notice being
given to the debtor to preserve priority; and in
particular cases—e. g. ba wine of insurance under a
statute of 1867, the full right of assignment was
permitted. Now, under the Judicature Act, 1873,
every egal chose in action is absolutely assignable
if express notice in writing be given to the debtor ;
and although the words of the statute do not
extend to assignment by way of posers 5 or to any
assignment of what is called an equitable chose in
action, there is now little practical distinction
between the two.

In the United States that tage g of a chose in
action rendering it unassignable at common law
is fast disappearing. In some states a chose in
action may not only be assigned, but the assignee
may bring a suit for possession in his own name ;
while in others the name of the assignor is used as
peer in the action, to the use of the assignee.

ourts of law generally follow the rules of equity
in this respect.

Chosén. See Corea.

Chosroes is the Byzantine spelling of the Per-
sian KHosrvU or Kutsrv0. Chosroes I. (531-579
A.D.) was the greatest monarch of the Sassanian
dynasty, and was called Andésharvan, ‘the blessed.’

e carried on war with the Roman emperor for
twenty years, and at home promoted agriculture,

owing to the publication of,

commerce, and science. Chosroes IL., his grandson
590-628), during fifteen years inflicted’ on the
yzantine empire disasters such as they had never
experienced; Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and even
Chalcedon being conquered, See PERSIA.

Chota Nagpore (Chutid Ndgpur), a south-
west division or commissionership of Bengal,
embracing four British districts, seven petty
tributary states, and two semi-independent states,
with a surface for the most part wild and hilly.
Area of the British districts, 26,966 sq. m.; pop.
4,628,792. Area of the division, 43, . mm;
pop. 5,512,151, of whom more than 800,000 belong
to various aboriginal tribes.

Chouans, the name applied to the royalist in-
surgents who, during the French Revolution, organ-
HE a reactionary movement in Brittany. The name
may very probably be due to a corruption of chat-
huant (‘screech-owl’), from the nocturnal habits
of the bands or from some special call of recognition
they may have had ; or it may have originated in
a nickname of the instigator of this insurrection,
one Jean Cottereau, a smuggler of noted sagacity
and courage. In the year 1792 they began to wage
a small guerilla warfare with some success, but the
Chouanerie, as the insurrection was called, at first
disgraced itself by drunken license and cruelty.
After Cottereau’s death in 1794 in a scuffle near the
wood of Misdon, the theatre of his first efforts, the
brave adventurer Désoteux, surnamed Cormatin,
took the lead; but after his capture there arose
new leaders who extended the insurrection and
lifted its aims into the region of the heroic.
Georges Cadoudal and Charette soon had under
their command a force of 10,000 fearless men, and
their energy and daring actually imperilled for a
time the security of the republican government in
France. But stubborn and strong as was the old
unquestioning loyalty of Brittany, it could not
withstand the fiery enthusiasm that impelled the
conquering legions of the giant young republic
across almost the whole continent of Europe. The
insurrection was stamped out by La Hoche; its
leaders Vienville and Sérent fell, Scépeaux and
Cadoudal were forced to lay down their arms,
Frotté fled to England and Puisnye to America.
A new attempt in 1799 was soon mercilessly
crushed, and henceforward Chouanerie could only
smoulder on in secrecy. In 1814-15 it again made
its appearance on both banks of the Loire; and
after the July revolution (1830) was once more
excited by the Duchess of Berri on behalf of the
Duke of Bordeaux, but crushed by the energetic
measures taken by Thiers.

Chough (Fregilus), a genus of birds of the
crow family (Corvide). The beak is longer than
the head, strong, arched, and pointed. The tail is
slightly penaded: The common European species,
sometimes called the Cornish Chough, or Red-
legged a graculus), is a widely distributed
but very] bird, inhabiting the Alps and other
mountainous parts of the palearctic region. In
Cornish folklore King Arthur did not die, but was
changed into a Guntigh. and it is interesting to find
this English belief alluded to in Don Quixote
(ii. 5), though here the bird is erroneously made
a raven. Shakespeare in King Lear (IV. vi.) con-
founds the chough with the jackdaw; and in
Midsummer-Night’s Dream (III. ii. ) actually speaks
of ‘russet-pated choughs.’ The chough occurs
on some parts of the British sea-coasts, but
almost exclusively confined to situations where
there are high cliffs. Its long hooked claws enable
it to cling easily to a rough rock, but it seems
unwilling even to set its feet on turf. It lives in
societies like the rook, and feeds on insects, berries,
grubs, and grain. It is easily tamed, becomes very

212 CHOYA

CHRIST

familiar and forward, and exhibits in the highest
degree the curiosity, the pilfering disposition, and
the delight in brilliant or glittering objects which
also characterise others of the crow family. The

Chough.

name is sometimes extended: to allied forms, such
as Pyrrhocorax alpinus (Alpine Chough).

Choya. See Cuay Root.

Chrestomathy (Gv. chréstos, ‘useful ;’ mathein,
‘to know’) is a name for books of selections from
foreign languages, usually provided with glossary
and notes for the use of learners. See ANTHOLOGY.

Chrétien de Troyes, an old French poet of
whose life nothing more is known than that he lived
in the second half of the 12th century and was a
favourite poet at the court of Mary, daughter of
Louis VII. and wife in succession to the Counts of
Champagne and of Flanders. He worked up the
legends of the Round Table into numerous spirited
and yet refined poems in octosyllabie verse, which
had a wide literary influence, and were translated
by the German minnesingers, Wolfram von Eschen-
bach, Gottfried of Strasburg, and others. The
most important of these poems was Perceval. le
Gallois, or Li Contes del Graal (containing 50,000
verses); Li Romans dou Chevalier au Lyon; Li
Contes d’Erec ; and Lancelot du Lac, or Le Chevalier
de la Charrete. A complete collection of his works
was begun by Wend. Forster (vol. i. Halle, 1884).
See Paulin Paris, Les Romans de la Table-Ronde
(5 vols. 1868-77 ).

Chrism (Gr. chrisma, ‘ ointment’) is the name
given to the oil consecrated on Holy Thursday, in
the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches, by the
bishop, and used in baptism, confirmation, ordina-
tion, and extreme unction. There are two kinds
of chrism—the one, a mixture of oil and balsam, is
used in baptism, confirmation, and orders; the other,
which is merely plain oil, is used in extreme unction.

Chrisome, the name of the white linen cloth
laid by the priest on the child in Roman Catholic
baptism, to signify its innocence. By olden usage it
was generally presented by the mother as an offering
to the church, but if the child died before the mother
was ‘churched’ again, it was used as a shroud.
By acommon abuse of words, chrisome came to mean
the child itself, being first applied in the old bills
of mortality to denote such eeldret as died within
the month of birth. Mrs Quickly’s use of the
phrase in her account of Falstaff’s end will be
remembered. The following from Jeremy Taylor
{Holy Dying, i. 2) explains itself: ‘Every morning

creeps out of a dark cloud, leaving behind it an
ignorance and silence deep as midnight, and undis-
cerned as are the phantasms that make a chrisome
child to smile.’

Christ (Gr. Christos) is the word used in the
New Testament and in the Septuagint as the
equivalent of the Hebrew word Messiah (q.v.).
Both words mean ‘anointed.’ When kings and
priests, and sometimes prophets, were set apart for
the discharge of their respective functions, it was
customary to anoint them with oil in the name of
the Lord (1 Sam. x. 1, xii. 3; Exod. xxix: 7, xxx.
23-33 ; 1 Kings xix. 16); hence the term. Oil was
used in the ceremony because it was regarded as
emblematical of the Holy Spirit and of salvation
(1 Sam. xvi. 13, x. 1, 9, 10; Isa. xi. 1, 2, lxi. 1-3;
Acts x. 38).

In a secondary sense the word is bs Lp to per-
sons set apart by God for some special end, though
they were not literally anointed. Thus Cyrus, the
king of Persia, is spoken of as the Lord’s anointed
(Isa. xlv. 1), because he was Jehovah’s chosen

-instrument for setting free the captives in Babylon.

We find it used, in the plural, regarding the
atriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Ps. ev. 15).
t is also applied to the chosen people as a whole

(Hab. iii. 13, revised version).

As applied to Jesus, the word is used in a two-
fold sense—as an appellative, and as a proper
name. At first it was used in the former sense
with the article—‘the Christ ’—but at a_ later

eriod—e.g. in the epistles of Paul, and in 1 Peter,
it is found to have passed over into a proper name.

When used as a title of office it manifestly looks

back to the Old Testament doctrine of the Messiah.

That doctrine may be briefly indicated by a refer-

ence to three passages. We find the Messiah re-

presented as the messenger of good tidings to men
= God’s Prophet—in Isa. lxi. 1; as making expia-
tion for sin = God’s consecrated Priest—in Daniel,

ix. 24-27; and as the King of God’s heritage in

Ps. ii. 2. When Jesus, therefore, claimed to be the

Messiah (cf. John, iv. 26), he undoubtedly meant

it to be understood that the Old Testament ideals

connected with the title were realised in him.

In his person, that is to say, the offices of prophet,
riest, and king were united and consummated.
hat it was thus that his disciples understood his

claims is patent to every reader of the New Testa-

ment. So thoroughly filled were they with the

Messianic idea of his mission that, as we have seen,

the official title, ‘ the Christ,’ came to be largely used

by them, without the article, as his proper name.

When Jesus came thus to be spoken of as Christ,
or Jesus Christ, it was but natural that his fol-
lowers should be called after him, Christians.
This name, Tertullian informs us (Apol. ¢. 3), was
often mispronounced Chrestiani by those who were
not conversant with Jewish ideas. They mani-
festly thought that it was derived from the Greek
Chrestos = good. The Christians, we are told, in-
stead of taking umbrage at this distortion of their
current name, gladly accepted it as implying an
admission on the part of the heathen of the moral
excellency both of their Master and of themselves.
For the Life of Christ, see JESUS.

CHRISTOLOGY is that branch of theology which
treats of the Person of Christ. No attempt was
made in apostolic times to formulate a Christ-
ology; the early church contenting itself with
testifying to the true, yet sinless humanity,
the pre-existence, the divine Sonship, the resur-
rection, the exaltation, and the supreme rept |
of its Founder. It was not till speculative minds
began to broach ideas inconsistent with this
accepted faith that a theological representation of
the church’s views was found necessary. The sym-
bolic form in which the generally accepted doctrine

CHRIST

~~

CHRISTADELPHIANS 213

has been /:anded down to us was the result of pro-
longed, and not unfrequently acrimonious discus-
sions. Prior to the Council of Nice (325 A.D.)
various Christological theories were promulgated
by the Ebionites, to whom belon the Nazarenes,
the Cerinthians, and the Gnostics of the udo-
Clementine type, by the Docetsw, and by the
Gnostics proper. Some of these denied the —-
existence of Christ, and attributed his peculiar
greatness to a supernatural endowment conferred
upon him at his baptism, while others resolved
humanity into a mere phantom, and repre-
sented his person as composed of a spiritual Aton.
These parties were, however, but short-lived.
More formidable were the Sabellians and the
Arians. The former denied the doctrine of the
immanent Trinity. To them, accordingly, the
higher nature of Christ was simply absolute Deity
in self-manifestation. The Arians, on the other
hand, represented Jesus as the first and loftiest of
God’s creatures. In their view he was not, there-
fore, truly God. It was specially with a reference
to these two opposing parties that the Council of
Nice was summoned by Constantine. The results
of the deliberations of this council are embodied in
the well-known Nicene Creed. Both Sabellianism
and Arianism were pronounced heretical, and the
eternal Sonship of Christ was solemnly asserted.
The question, however, remained undecided how
the union between the divine and the human in
his person was to be expressed. Apollinaris,
Bishop of Laodicea, advanced the theory that
Christ's manhood was constituted solely of an
animal soul and body, while the Logos took the
oa of the mind, or spirit, in him. His true
umanity was thus denied. Nestorius, Bishop of
Constantinople, started a rival theory. ile
nting the true divinity and humanity of Christ,
1e denied their union in a single, self-conscious
personality. According to him the union was only
moral or sympathetic. The Nestorian theory thus
involved the breaking up of the personality into a
“duality, Eutyches of Constantinople wrote against
Nestorianism, but his zeal carried him to the other
extreme. His contention was that in the incarna-
tion the human was transmuted into the divine.
He thus obliterated the humanity.

At the Council of Chalcedon (451 A.D.) all these
views were condemned, and the Christological
formula which is still regarded as orthodox was
framed. The orthodox doctrine, briefly stated,
holds that in the unity of the person of Jesus
Christ there are two natures, a divine and a
human, each nature being complete and entire,
and that these are so intimately and indissolubly
united as to constitute not a third nature, but a
person. It warns us against either dividing the
person or confounding the natures.

Notwithstanding the adoption of this creed, con-
troversy was not by any means brought to an end.
For more than three centuries questions of extreme
subtilty continued to agitate the theological world
—questions pertaining to the relation of nature to
personality, and of both to will, The Monophysite,
the Monothelite, and the Adoptianist controversies
_ were concerned with these abstruse points. At the
Council of Constantinople (681 A.D.) it was decided
that in the one person of Christ there are two
natures, two intelligences, two energies, and two
wills. The condemned Monothelites were conse-
quently persecuted, and they betook themselves
to the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon,
where they continued to exist as a distinct sect
under the name of Maronites. During the middle
ages the church as a whole acquiesced in the
decisions of the above-named councils, though
individuals occasionally ventured to give expres-
sion to views more or less at variance with the

creeds. In our day, gr ror ae e or the doctrine
that there are two wills in Christ, is not regarded
as essential to orthodoxy. In fact it is fe
denied among theologians of high repute.

At the time of the Reformation Christology once
more became a subject of keen controversy. The
occasion was a difference of opinion eta
Luther and Zwingli regarding the presence of
Christ in the elements of the ordinance of the
Supper. Eventually the Lutherans accepted the
doctrine of the communicatio idiomatum—i.e. the
communication of the properties of the divine
nature of Christ to his erasing By this doc-
trine they sought to establish the ubiquity of
Christ’s body. The Lutheran dogma was rejected
by the Reformed theologians.

The next important movement in connection
with Christology originated with Lelius Socinus
(1525-62) and his nephew, Faustus Socinus (1539-
1604). They taught that Christ was a mere man,
but distinguished from all others in the following
particulars: He was miraculously conceived, was
sinless, was specially endowed with the Holy
Spirit, was taken up to heaven prior to the com-
mencement of his ministry, in order that he
might see God and receive instructions from him,
he rose from the dead and is now exalted in
heaven far above all creatures, he is invested as
God’s viceroy with all power in heaven and in
earth. In view of his exaltation they taught that
Christ may justly be termed a God, in a sense
different from that in which rulers are termed gods,
and therefore he ought to be worship ni-
tarians, who may be regarded as the modern repre-
sentatives of the Socinians, speak of Christ as the
Ideal Man, but probably none of them would accord
him all the high distinctions above specified.

At the present day there is in vogue a Christo-
logical theory known as the doctrine of kendsis
(kenos, ‘empty’), which is variously set forth by a
considerable number of evangelical theologians. It
derives its name from the Greek verb ekendse which
occurs in Philip. ii. 7. In its modern form the
theory is probably traceable to Zinzendorf. It is
advocated by such writers as Thomasius, Gess,
and Godet. Its aim is to do justice to the genuine
development of the Man Jesus Christ. This it
seeks to accomplish by postulating an emptying of
himself on the part of the Logos in the act of
incarnation. He laid aside, it is said, not onl
his divine attributes, but even his divine sellf-
consciousness. These he ually regained during
the course of his earthly history, and by the time
that he ascended the process was complete. Such
in brief is the theory. What its future may be it
is vain to guess. As yet, however, the great mass
of orthodox theologians look askance at it.

According to Shedd, the following four factors
are necessary in order to a complete conception of
Christ’s Person: (1) True and proper deity; (2)
true and proper humanity ; (3) the union of deity
and humanity in one person ;-(4) the distinction of
deity from humanity in the one person, so that
there be no mixture of natures.

The standard book on the history of Christology is
Dorner’s Doctrine of the Person of Christ. See also
Bull’s Defence of the Nicene Creed, and his Judgment of
the Catholic Church, &c.; Bruce’s Humiliation of Christ ;
Hagenbach’s History of Doctrines; and the separate
articles on the heresies (ARIUS, Nestorius, &c.).

Christ, DiscirLes oF. See CAMPBELL (ALEX.).

Christadelphians, or ‘Brethren of Christ,’
a small religious body es to represent the
true faith and Po” of apostolic times, as revived
by Dr John Thomas, Brooklyn, U.S., who was
born in 1805 and died in 1871, and was the lead-
ing advocate of their views. (After him they are

argely

214 CHRISTCHURCH

CHRISTIANIA

sometimes called Thomasites. ) They deny the exist-
ence of a personal devil, and the immortality of the
soul, believing in ‘ Conditional Immortality’ (q.v.),
to be bestowed upon the faithful of all ages when
Christ returns. They insist on the plenary inspira-
tion of the Bible, the real death of Christ as a sacri-
fice for sin, his resurrection and ascension ; and look
for his return to the earth to reign on the throne of
David over the converted and restored twelve tribes
of Israel and all nations. They believe that death
is a state of entire unconsciousness, terminated by
a corporeal resurrection for those who have become
related to Christ through faith and obedience, or are
‘responsible for his rejection. Those accepted after
the judgment reign for ever with Christ over the
nations, those rejected die the second death. Com-
munities of Christadelphians exist in the. principal
towns of Great Britain, Ireland, the United States,
and the colonies, but no statistics as to numbers
exist. Probably the members amount to a few
thousands. Their leading organ is The Christa-
delphian, published monthly in Birmingham, and
founded by Robert Roberts, whose work, Christen-
dom Astray, along with Elpis Israel and Eureka b
John Thomas, M.D., furnish full details as to creed.

Christchurch, a parliamentary and municipal
beden of Hampshire, at the head of the estuary
formed by the Avon and Stour, 24 miles SW. of
Southampton by road, but 33} by rail. The noble
church of an ae ustinian priory, founded here in
1150, is 303 feet long by 101 across the transept,
and includes every style from Norman to Per-
pendicular. Special features of interest are the
splendid Early English porch, a monument to
Shelley, a pacuitatal rood-screen, and the chapel
built by Henry VIII.’s victim, Margaret, Countess
of Salisbury. Little remains of the domestic build-
ings of the monastery or of the Norman castle.
Christchurch possesses one notable specialty, the
making of watch and clock fusee-chains. The har-
bour has high-water twice every tide. The par-
liamentary borough, 22,350 acres in area, comprises
the favourite watering-place Bournemouth. It
returns one member to parliament. Pop. (1851)
7475; (1881) 28,535; of municipal borough (1881)
3260; (1891) 3994. The latter received a charter
of incorporation in 1886,

Christchurch, capital of the provincial dis-
trict of Canterbury, in New Zealand, situated on
the river Avon, about 8 miles from Port Lyttelton,
with which it is connected by rail, the tunnel
through the Port Hills being the longest in New
Zealand ; it has also railway communication with
Dunedin and with the north. The chief public
buildings are the government offices, museum
(with many specimens of the Moa, q.v.), cathedral
(a reproduction of that of Caen in France), and
hospital. There are numerous banks and insurance
offices ; and among the public schools are Christ’s
College, a high school for boys, and a high school
for girls. The water-supply is derived from arte-
sian wells. Two parks and the Government Domain
afford ample pleasure-grounds. It is the centre of
a great grazing district, and has also flourishing
manufactories. Boot manufacturing is one of the
chief industries ; there are several newspapers pub-
lished here, and the city possesses steam tramways,
theatres, social and athletic clubs, and a corps
of volunteers. The founders of the colony named
each of the streets of its capital after an English
Giocese. An earthquake in 1888 damaged the
cathedral and other buildings. Pop. (1888) 15,265 ;
(1891) 16,223 ; with suburbs, 47,846.

Christening, a term often used as equivalent
to Baptism (q.v.).

Christian II., king of Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden, was born at Nyborg, in the island of

Fiinen, in 1481, and mounted the throne of Nor-
way and Denmark in 1513. His marriage in 1515
toa sister of the Emperor Charles V. did not
extinguish his love for his mistress Dyveke
(q.v.), whose sudden death he avenged with his
native savagery. In 1520 he overthrew at Boge-
sund the brave regent of Sweden, Sten Sture the
younger, and thereafter was crowned king. But
his ferocious passions, and especially his treacherous
massacre in the Stockholm ‘blood bath’ of the
foremost men in Sweden (November 8-10, 1520),
roused such a spirit of opposition in that country
that he was speedily driven out by the young
national leader, Gustavus Vasa, himself the son
of one of his victims. In Denmark also a popular
revolt drove Christian for refuge to the Netherlands,
and placed his uncle Frederick I. upon the throne.
Encouraged, however, by the Catholic Py: in the
Netherlands, and assisted by Charles V., Christian
landed in Norway in 1531, but at the battle of
Aggerhuus next year was totally defeated, and spent
his remaining years in imprisonment at Sonder-
burg and Kallundborg, where he died in 1559,
Christian IV., king of Denmark and Nor-
way, and Duke of Sleswick-Holstein, the son of
Frederick II., born at Frederiksborg, in Zealand,
12th April 1577, and elected successor to the throne
in-1588. He assumed the government of the duchy
in 1593; of the kingdom in 1596. His first war
with Sweden (1611-13) ended in an advantageous
peace ; his second (1643-45) cost him much of the
territory across the Sound. Christian’s share in
the Thirty Years’ War was brief and inglorious.
In 1625 he became chief of the Protestant league,
but his disasters so damped his ardour that he was
fain to retire from the struggle in 1629 under cover
of the peace of Liibeck to make room for the great
Gustavus Adolphus. His indefatigable labours for
the improvement of his country were more suc-
cessful. He strengthened its maritime sean
extended its commerce as far as the East Indies,
where he obtained the first possessions; and by
restrictions upon the Hanse towns, greatly in-
creased the inland trade of the country. His
legislative and financial reforms, together with his
love and patronage of the arts and sciences, gained
for him the affection of his people. Spite of his
ill-success in war he became a hero; the ballad,
King Christian stood by the lofty Mast, commemo-
rates his heroism in the sea-fight with the Swedes
before Kiel in 1644, and his memory is preserved
in the names of the cities of Christiansand and
Christiania. He died 28th February 1648.

Christian Brothers. See ScHoots (Bro-
THERS OF CHRISTIAN).

Christian Connection, an American de-
nomination founded early in the 19th century on
the basis of the Bible as the sole authoritative rule
of faith and practice, with open fellowship to all
pious Christians of whatever creed. It numbers
about 120,000 members, who are now mostly Anti-
trinitarians and Baptists.

Christian Endeavour Societies, for the
promotion of Christian life amongst young people,
and for making their members useful in the service
of God, were first formed by Dr F. E. Clark of the
Congregational church at Portland, Maine, U.S.,
in 1881; and by 1896 there were 45,000 societies
(nearly 4000 in Britain), with 2,500,000 members.
The organisation is supported by almost all the
sections of Protestantism.

Christiania (Kristiania), the modern capital
of Norway (the kings are still crowned at
Trondhjem, (q.v.), is built at the northern end of
Christiania Fiord, in 59° 56’ N. lat. and 10° 50’ E.
long. Its population in 1891 was 151,239, and in

,

}

CHRISTIANTA

CHRISTIANITY 215

1897 (estimated) 170,000. At the beginning of the
~century it was but 10,000. Christiania isnamed after
Christian IV., who commenced building it in 1624
after the destruction by fire of the ancient city of
Oslo, which had n to supersede Trondhjem as
capital from the 14th century. Christiania is the
seat of the national parliament (the Storthing
and Lagthing ). of the High Court of Judicature,
and of the National University, which has 46 pro-
fessors and above 1500 students who are educated
free, with the exception of a small entrance-fee.
‘Connected with this is the students’ garden, a
library of about 250,000 volumes, a very well-
arranged botanical garden, zoological, zootomical,
botanical, and ethnographical museums, and a
-eabinet of coins and medals, chemical and physical
laboratories, and observatory. The Meteorological
Institute, established in 1866, is in systematic
‘telegraphic communication with British and other
European observatories. The king of Sweden and
coinage d has two palaces here, one in the cit

‘near the university, and one, Oscarshall, beauti-
fully situated two miles from the city on an emin-
-ence overlooking the fiord, and containing Tied-
mand’s celebrated pictures of Norwegian peasant-
life. There is a national rea lery, and a
very interesting museum of northern antiquities.
‘The Dom, or Cathedral, and the Trefoldigheds
Kirke (‘Church of the Trinity’), are the principal
ecclesiastical buildings. The Dampkjoken (‘ steam-
kitchen ’) is an interesting institution for providing
-cheap and substantiai dinners to working-people.
The old fortress Akershus Faestning still remains,
-and is used as a promenade, but has little military
value. Among other public buildings are the
Houses of Parliament, the civil and military
hospitals and infirmary, lunatic asylum, _peni-
‘tentiary, two theatres, the Freemasons’ Hall, and
several banks. The staple industry of Christiania
is its shipping trade; it is the central emporium
for the south of Norway. Its chief export is
timber. A considerable industry has reeently

‘become developed in the brewing and export of

Christiania ol, a sort of lager beer, with resinous
flavour, largely consumed throughout Norway, and
exported to England and other parts of the world.
The minor manufactures are cotton, canvas; engine-
works, nail-works, and paper-mills, the latter
rapidly growing by the use of wood-fibre from
sawmill waste. here are many good hotels of
recent establishment, and a considerable business
is done.in connection with the visits of British
‘tourists. Cariole-making is one of the industries
thus developed. There are good shops, in all of
which ae oe is well spoken; and the city has
considerable printing and publishing establish-
‘ments.

setiatinnlty is the religion of which Jesus
Christ is not on y the founder but also the object,
since it is by him and in him that man recovers
his union with God by an effective reconciliation.
We have thus determined in a general manner
its true character, and marked the difference that
exists, as we shall prove, between it and all the
religions which preceded it. But first we must
justify our definition. The oy way to get a sure
grasp of the leading thought of a-doctrine and a
religion is to trace it to its origin, and to seize it
at its source, before the stream has had its
current troubled with the foreign elements that
mingle with it. Now about primitive Christi-
anity we possess a number of documents which
are at least authentic, whatever the authority we
attribute to them from a doctrinal point of view.
‘Confining ourselves to those documents alone,
whose authenticity is not disallowed by the most
negative criticism, we have in the epistles of Paul
to the Corinthians, the Galatians, the Romans,

and the Thessalonians, a testimony to primitive
Christianity which falls between the year 55 and
the year 64 after Jesus Christ. It emanates from
an apostle who had been in direct contact with
the earliest associates of Christ, with those who
had both seen and heard him. The first three
gospels, in which an historical basis is generally
recognised in what concerns the actions as well as
the discourses of Jesus, point back to the same
date. We are thus led back to the very origins
of Christianity. Moreover we recognise in the
church of the earliest period made known to us,
whether in the Acts of the Apostles or in writings
as authentic as the letters of James and those of
Peter, the living impress upon simple and honest
hearts of the direct remembrance of Christ, like
the track marking his passage across the earth.
Here our concern is not more to determine the true
character, the essence of Christianity, than to find
out in those documents the real meaning of the
religion of the gospel as it presents itself to us.
It is undeniable that if it claims to carry to the
world a revealed doctrine, revealing completely
the true nature of God as well as that of man, and
the normal relations of union between them, it
attaches that doctrine to a personality considered
not only as the organ of the revelation, but as
its object. We have thus the right to assert that
Christianity is Jesus Christ, without fearing to
detract anything from the attributes of God, for
Jesus Christ is his ambassador, his son, the sole
mediator between God and man—in one word, the
Redeemer, the Saviour, as his name implies. He
has never ceased to require faith in himself as the
means of again finding God by him. a
quotations on this point are vain. The whole
xere demands this faith in his person, and St
aul sums it up in the words addressed to the
aoler at Philippi: ‘Believe on the Lord Jesus

hrist, and thou shalt be saved ’ ( Acts, xvi. 31).

Christianity is herein distinguished from all
other religions. The revelation which it brings
to the world is something other than a super-
natural communication of a transcendent doctrine
about God, and about our origin and purpose in
the world. It consists essentially in a t work
accomplished by a single person—a work which is
the supreme manifestation of the holy love of God.
The mere exhibition of this divine work casts a
bright light upon God as well as upon man, and
results in a doctrine which implies a complete
metaphysic, a complete anthropology, and an entire
rer of ethics, as well as far-reaching views on
the history of the human race in its terrestrial
development and in its future destiny. For had it
been otherwise, Christianity must have contented
itself with communicating to us the outward fact
without explaining it—without making us grasp
it by its inward side in its profound significance ;
which would have been to alter its nature com-
saa’ It none the less remains true that for

hristianity doctrine is only a secondary and com-
plementary element—the interpretation of the fact
of the great work, which is its first object. This
is why it addresses itself before everything to the
heart and to the conscience, although at the same
time it opens up to the intellect the vastest pos-
sible horizons. As soon as we deviate from this
divine realism, we make Christianity fall into
an intellectualism which chills it while perverting
it; and we substitute for it the parching formulas
of a scholasticism which at all times and in all
churches has caused it to leave its banks and
diverge into new and widely different channels.

Let us further consider that divine work accom-
plished by Christ for the salvation of the world,
which constitutes the essence of Christianity,
without lingering to discuss its proofs, which

216 CHRISTIANITY

belong to the province of apologetics. This word
salvation, if we take it in all its fullness, comes
before us as its principal and even sole subject.
‘The son of man,’ says Jesus, ‘is come to seek and
to save that which was lost’ (Luke, xix. 10).
This one word contains within itself the whole
gospel, and alone explains to us why it has been
specially called good news. This is its true sig-
nificance, if we leave aside entirely its theological
development. Humanity is not in its normal tvon-
dition ; it is lost by its ovvn fault—through having
broken by voluntary revolt the bond which at the
beginning united it to God as made in his own
image, and which was intended ever to become closer
through the voluntary obedience it was invited to
offer in the mysterious probation of its free-will.
Incapable of rising again of itself, it must needs be
sought out by compassionate love like a wandering
and lost sheep, for the sake of being lifted up
and brought back to God. This is what the Son
of Man has done in agreement with the offended
Father, who has had compassion upon him. A\l-
though by a saving act of his own good pleasure
God has pardoned the sinner, he has not abrogated
the laws of moral order. These laws demand no
vengeance unworthy of God, but merely a repara-
tion—a retractation of sin involved in an essen-
tially moral expiation. Such an expiation can
consist only in a perfect obedience, complete
even to the length of accepting in a voluntary
sacrifice the consequences of the original revolt.
This is what the Son of Man, who was also the Son
of God, has willed and has accomplished. He has
died for the sins of the world, and risen again for
its justification; and the cross on which he has
accomplished this reparative work rises before us
for ever as the symbol of a reconciliation, which
each man in his turn must appropriate to himself
by an act of faith uniting him to the sacred
sufferer.

Christianity is thus pre-eminently the religion
of redemption and of the redeemer. It has intro-
duced into the world the grand reparative influence
of a victorious love, inaugurating in Jesus him-
self an unceasing struggle; for that reparative
influence must struggle constantly against the

owers of evil, which are not magically suppressed.

ut this reparative work cannot consist alone
in the salvation of individual souls ; to be worthy
of God it’ must strive to restore all that the
original fall has blighted or destroyed—to make
the fallen creature realise all his lofty destiny
—that is to say, to reconstitute in man all the
greatness kept in store for him, and to give
him up without reserve to God, making the re-
gonerating, spirit penetrate into every sphere of

is activity as into all his faculties. Hence the
wide mission of Christianity to purify and raise
everything that is human in the most diverse
spheres of society, from the institutions which
regulate the relations of men to each other
to the highest culture of the intellect. This
restoration of man after the divine type is the
continuation and application of the redemptive
work of Christ, which, after having had for its
first intent to form in the Church a society of
believing souls, pardoned and saved, called to
work directly for the salvation of all that is
lost, ‘next radiates outwards into all the depart-
ments of human activity. It is in this enlarged
sense that we must understand the kingdom of
God which the Saviour came to found upon our
sinful world, and of which the progress goes on
only at the price of an incessant struggle, which
will continue to the end of time. But this general
advance of the kingdom of God in its widely
human extension is always proportionate to its in-
ternal development within his Church, which keeps

and cherishes the central hearth of the divine life,
whence emanate all light and heat.
We know in a general manner what the vast.

influence of Christianity has been in the world for

eighteen centuries. We may say that the cross of

Calvary has divided history ; we find its luminous:

track marked everywhere. It has renewed society
in the very depths of universal decline without ever
neglecting its first task, which is to lead the souls
of sinners to Christ. Spiritual conquests count
upon no more than this. But these victorious.
struggles have not been pursued without man
dangers, no little resistance and as much dar
uncertainty, which have sometimes had the effect
of altering Christianity for a time, at least in its.
historical realisations, for its high ideal has never:
ceased to soar with serene radiance in the eternal
gospel. It may be put under a bushel, but it has
never been possible to extinguish it or to change:
its form. It is this inherent recuperative power
that admits of the renewal and elevation again
of Christianity, however much it may have been
debased. To illustrate the difficulties and the:
opposition which Christianity encountered upon its.
way, we must first carry ourselves back to the con-
dition of the world at the time of its first appear-
ance, and understand the spiritual influence of the:
ea religions it found at that time before it.
here is no better means of establishing its origin-
ality and recognising all the gains it has brought.
to humanity, than to bring into the light its true-
relation to the religions of the past. These reli-
gions fall into two types of very different nature
and very unequal value: Judaism, and its antag-
onist, ee, comprising a considerable number’
of particular religions presenting one common char-
acter in spite of well-marked differences.
The assertion is often made in our day that-
Christianity was at first a mere development of
Judaism, and that it was by combining with
elements borrowed from the religions and the
philosophies of the ancient pagan world that it.
assumed its final form. But this explanation will
not stand an impartial examination of the actual
facts. Undoubtedly there exists a real relation
between the new religion and those which preceded
it. For how could it be otherwise, since on its.
own showing it came to accomplish that which

had been asked for, expected, and longed for by the:

human soul under ey! sky, as well as positively
ecm on the soil of Judzea by direct revelations.
f Christianity were only a religious doctrine, its.
voies ogyarte might be disputed by adducing the:
basis of belief which it has in common with the
anterior religions, although here too it manifests.
a splendid superiority.
it is more than a body of doctrine—it is an
immense work of reparation effected by its founder.
In that respect it cannot be compare
with what has preceded it, and there will always.
be between it and the noblest intuitions of the
hilosophy of a Socrates or a Plato, or the sub-
eect oracles of an Isaiah or a Jeremiah, that.
insuperable distance which divides a hope and a.
desire from its effective realisation. If we con-
sider somewhat more closely its relations to the.
religions which preceded it, stripping it in this.
manner of that which constitutes its essential
originality, we find at once that that relation
assumes a quite peculiar character when the
religion of the Old Testament is concerned. Here:
there is direct preparation under the form of a
series of positive revelations. It was necessary in
the first place that the cradle of the Messiah should.
be deposited upon consecrated soil—consecrated
indeed, although darkened under the veil of idolatry ;.
next, that there should be found there a chosen
people to represent man in the expectation of,

ut as has been shown,

in anything’

CHRISTIANITY

217

and the desire for, a true Messiah. For in order
that the Saviour might accomplish his work of
reparation in the name of the human race, it was
necessary that he should be waited for by a
chosen people, such as could be formed yf
in a nation separated from the pagan world,
and subjected to a particular moral and spiritual
education under special divinely sanctioned institu-
tions. Greatest of these was the law of Sinai
intended to awaken in the heart sorrow and
hatred for sin. Prophecy completed the work
of on gegen by announcing to hearts pierced
through by the sword of the law the coming of
him who was to restore all ae again, whose
work was prefigured by the priesthood of the sons
of Aaron and the sacrifices offered to God most
holy. These special institutions were proper only
to the period of preparation which was called the
Old Covenant. Everything they contained that
was exclusive and uliar must disappear when
the pa of accomplishment had aneceitel it.

The Old Covenant itself was aware of its transi-
tory character, for above all its institutions there
soared a promise of Sagye erage which God gave
to the father of the chosen race on the day
when he bade him leave his country and his
kindred : ‘In thee shall all the families of the earth
be blessed’ (Gen. xii. 3); and prophecy was but
one long and splendid enrichment of the promise :
‘I will also give thee,’ he says, a Messiah ‘for a
ight to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be my

vation unto the end of the earth’ (Isa. xlix.
6). As soon as the reconciliation has been con-
summated between man and God by the sacrifice
of Calvary, the wall of separation between Israel
and other nations is broken down; the barriers
between a powerless priesthood and the simple
faithful who participate in the priesthood of Christ
fall down ; and sacrifices which make no expiation
nm 3 Na before the only sufficient offering. You
are kings and priests, says the apostle Peter to the
early Christians (1 Peter, ii. 9). The religion of
humanity, which is the religion of the soul, super-
sedes the exclusive religion of the circumcised
is Pap religion of the letter which killeth;
and this splendid enfranchisement is but the
consequence of the redemptive work of Christ
which faith assimilates. All this glorious liberty
is ineluded in the words: ‘The just shall live by
faith’ (Rom. i. 17).

It was the mission of Paul, the former Pharisee,
the d freedman of Christ, to set free the new
a ay from the bonds of Jewish legalism ; called
as he was by a divine revelation to draw all the
consequences from the teaching of the Master.
He formulated the charter of this freedom in two
sentences, stamped with a kind of divine genius :
the first, ‘ The law was our schoolmaster to bring us
unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith’
(Gal. iii, 24). Both its lofty mission and its power-
lessness are here ised together. The second is:
‘ Before Christ there is neither Greek nor Jew . . .
but Christ is all, and in all’ (Col. iii. 11). Thus
the religion of humanity rises on the ruins of the
national religion. We see the New Covenant
striking its roots deep into the soil of that Judea
whence cometh salvation (John, iv. 22), but grow-
ing like a great tree capable of lodging in its
branches all the birds of heaven ; and all its liberal
and blessed expansion but brings us back to the
work of the Redeemer, as St Paul asserts in the
words : ‘Stand fast therefore in the liberty where-
with Christ hath made us free’ (Gal. v. 1).

If we pass from Judaism to the religions of the
ancient pagan world, at least to those developed
in countries where they came into direct contact
with Christianity, we find that they also had their
preparation. In the first place, there is not one

human soul which has not had engraved upon it
the divine law, as St Paul recognises: the Gentiles,
says.he, ‘show the work of the law written in their
hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and
their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else
excusing one another’ (Rom. ii. 15). In the next
place, God has not ceased to speak to them by the
d spectacle of the world itself, and of the
eavens in which his invisible perfections may be
seen as with the bodily eye (Rom.i. 20). Finally,
if he has not paweree 4 them direct revelations, his
spirit has constantly breathed upon them as it
breathed upon the confused waters of chaos from
which was to emerge a world. After all they
belonged, as St Paul says again, to the offspring
of God (Acts, xvii. 29), and there was not a single
man among them who had notin him a ray of that
light of the word ‘which lighteth every man that
cometh into the world’ (John, i. 9). Theneed of a
renewing work meets us — everywhere in the
very heart of Paganism. There is no nation which
has been without its priests and its sacrifices, and
which has not sought that atonement for which
the human conscience has always longed. But
that did not hinder the pagan world from con-
tinuing to be sunk in idolatry, for it fell under
the dominion of a Nature which it deified. Hence
its dreadful errors equalled only by its dreadful
corruption. Yet it never ceased to seek for God,
groping blindly in the dark (Acts, xvii. 27). The
moral conscience which had never been stifled
reacted incessantly against the deadening influence
of the nature-religions ; it called for a God ter
than those which Paganism had fashioned for it;
it had its sublime aspirations which never ceased
to re-echo through the pagan night one long peni-
tential psalm, which, sung in the plains of Chaldza,
sometimes became a true supplication to the future
Saviour. ‘I turn from every side,’ says the son
of Vedic India to his god, ‘desiring to know
my sin. Absolve us from the sins of our fathers,
and from those which we have committed in our
own bodies’ (Rig Veda, vii. 86).

The preparation of the pagan nations consisted
in their being made to experience their a,
to find salvation in their idolatrous religions. e
may consider that preparation as finished, when
out of the ruins of their old idols they raised that
altar to the unknown God which St Paul recog-
nised as the symbol of aspirations all the more
ardent the more they had been deceived, and the
more general the decline in the world around.
The converted pagans found that peace for which
they longed at the feet of Christ. They gave
up without difficulty their own uliar rites—
that priesthood and those sacrifices which had
availed but to express and stimulate their desire
for salvation without satisfying it. For them,
too, the exclusive and national character which
clothed religion before the revelation of God's
universal fatherhood needed to be expanded.
For the religion of humanity to supersede the
various religions of the soil, it was necessary
not only for the Jew to renounce his exclusive
theocracy, but also for the son of Paganism to
recognise that the kingdom of Christ, not being of
this world (John, xviii. 36), ought not to be incor-
porated with the state as a thing that belonged
to a particular people. We see that Paganism,
some admirable ideas alone excepted, brought
nothing to Christianity but aspirations frustrated
and yearnings unsatisfied. rom the doctrinal

int of view, even its noblest philosophies had
oan falsified by the influence of the nature.
religions. Platonism itself with all its idealism
ended in oriental dualism, for unable to triumph
over evil, it identified it finally with matter under
a fatalism whence man could escape only by an

218 CHRISTIANITY

asceticism of which the Buddhist annihilation is
the logical consequence. It is this which for ever
distinguishes the Christian metaphysic from all the
Greco-oriental speculations comprised in the system
of the Alexandrian Philo. To prevent any con-
fusion between Christianity and Hellenism it is
sufficient to read these words in the prologue to the
fourth gospel: ‘The Word became flesh.’ Pre-
sented thus according to its primitive type, the
religion of Christ appears before us in its true
character and its incontestable originality; and
herein rests its power. Were we to see in it only a
synthesis of all the anterior religions, we should
-have in Christ only a kind of composite idol
enshrined in the last of the pagodas ; and we could
not connect it with that primitive Christianity
which alone is true, and which remains for all time
in the faithful image it has left us of itself in the
sacred volume which makes it live anew in its first
and authentic manifestation. Thanks to that book
we can always trace it back to its source, and
mark the point of departure between what it is in
itself, and the superfluous accretions which have
changed it.

For it was impossible that Christianity should
make no deviations once it had begun to float upon
the stream of history. These were rendered im-
perative by its being imposed by authority upon
successive generations like a dead letter—the most
serious of all changes to which it could possibly
have been subjected, for it is before everything
the religion of the spirit and of liberty. The
purpose of history after its own modification
through the influence of Christianity was _pre-
cisely to make it penetrate to modern humanity
in a free assimilation, but that assimilation involved
the possibility of all its stumblings, its failures, and
its obscurities ; without, however, the true Christian
spirit ever ceasing to struggle against error to
bring back the Church to its original type. Let us
not forget that the effects of Christianity radiate
outwards far beyond the immediately religious
sphere ; through an influence direct and indirect
by turns it strives to re-establish human societ,
upon the type of justice and love—a result whic
certainly forms it into a part of the kingdom of
God. Mere social progress not infrequently ad-
vances religious progress, as it binds fewer burdens
on the individual conscience, and appears for that
reason the more easy. We cannot give more than
a rapid sketch of the deviations as well as the
victorious struggles of Christianity from its begin-
ning to our own day. To explain its deviations it
is sufficient for us to recall its leading thought,
which is also its great power—emancipation, for
these invariably tend to the alienation of the free-
dom in which the gospel has made us free. Christ
has freed man from all the burdens under which
he was bowed down, and first of all from that of
sin, by his redeeming work alone. Whenever
man turns aside from this, whenever he ceases to
believe in a salvation which is the free gift of
God, apprehended by faith, he girds on again his
ancient chains, he seeks for mediators in a new
priesthood, returns from the New Covenant to the
Old, and restores anew the theocracy ; in one word,
he becomes again a Jew. This is the whole history
of the formation of Catholicism, the real cause of
all the slavery which it has caused anew to weigh
upon the freedmen of Christ.

On the other hand, the return to Paganism takes
effect whenever for the gospel of the redemption we
substitute a purely philosophical speculation. The
digression to the left is no better than that to the
right ; it is even worse, for it ends in a parching
rationalism which cannot long rest on the slope
downward to pantheistic naturalism. We shall
\imit ourselves to characterising the principal

periods of the history of Christianity, in each of
which we find the battle arrayed between its most
faithful representatives and the promoters of tend-
encies whether towards Judaism or Paganism.

Already in the apostolic age the struggle had
begun, for we know that it needed the apostolate
of Paul to bring down the Church from its high
chamber, to cast aside the swaddling clothes of its
cradle, and come gradually to the point of renoune-
ing Judaic exclusiveness. What a combat the
great apostle of the Gentiles had to wage against
the survivors of the synagogue who wished at any
cost to hinder the grand liberation of souls, and at
the close of his life against the first representatives
of page speculation, the Gnostic heretics of Colosse
an hesus! Beyond doubt he was victorious,
and when his noble head fell under the axe of
Nero’s executioner, it might have been said of him
that though dead he would speak until the end of
time, ever uttering anew his great ery for liberty,
for the freedom of the Church from all its bon
through justifying faith.

The first period of the history of Christianity
after the death of the last apostles extends from
the 2d century to Constantine. It is an heroic age.
The mission of Christ extends over all the empire,
and fashions a whole people with their own con-
sent. Persecution rages without intermission, but
the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the gospel.
The struggle goes on also in the world of thought.
The Gnostic A areiies mark the reaction of the
pagan spirit; they are refuted by a powerful
polemic. The apologetic writings of Justin Martyr,
of Irenzeus, of Clement of Alexandria, and of
Origen, breathe the most living and the largest
faith. The most important social reforms, as the
elevation of woman, the respect due to the man in
the slave, are realised at the family hearth. But
the gravity of the struggles against heresy, and the
questions of discipline arising out of persecution
itself for the restoration of such Christians as had
wavered, tended to strengthen ecclesiastical autho-
rity in an sia: erated degree to the detriment of
the primitive liberty. That tendency was aided by
a certain weakening of the dogma of justification by
faith, despite the struggles of Origen and Tertullian
against the innovators. ,

The second period extends from Constantine to
the establishment of the papacy. Christianity
became the religion of the state when the Cesar of
Byzantium granted it his burdensome protection,
but it still retained within it its generous sap. In
spite of the authority of St Augustine faith in the
free grace of God became more and more obscured.
The discussions raised by Arianism more and
more gave the foremost place to a Christian
theodicy which resulted in a subtle divine meta-
physic elaborated by the great councils of Nice,

of Constantinople, and Chalcedon. These councils

constituted a completed novel central authority
within the Chureh, At the same time the old
hierarchy was re-established to govern flocks cast
by their birth itself into the fold of the Church,
and the crook of the shepherd became the symbol
of a despotic authority. The Bishop of Rome
acquired a primacy that ever grew greater, until
when the floods of barbarian invasion had sub-
merged the old Roman government, the papacy
became incontestably the chief centralising power.
It had a high regard for social progress, and the

Christian mission continued its conquests; but

unhappily after its union with the empire the
Chureh began to employ forcible constraint against
its enemies both without and within. Spite of
many a noble protest Catholicism took the place of
the primitive Christianity, and suppressed all its
liberties. It was as if the dethroned Jewish
theocracy had thus revenged itself for its down-

—

CHRISTIANITY

219

fall; yet the enslaved Church continued to pre-

serve the treasures of piety. Monasticism became
the right arm of the papacy, and rendered it the
most precious service in the education of races
still rude and indeed hardly escaped from barbarism.
With Gregory VII. the great transformation was
completed, and the new theocratic organisation
ap in all its glory. No one can deny that
under the given conditions it rendered precious
services. It was still Christianity, however dis-
fi , to which Europe owed its alleviation from

e barbarism that weighed upon it. To it alone
the weak and the oppressed owed it that they were
not crushed.

It is impossible to do more than characterise
asec some of the most prominent features of the
middle ages and the Reformation. In the middle

we mark the immoderate expansion of the
igious and social omnipotence of Christianity,
manifesting itself in the Crusades and the momen-
tary subordination of the state to the Church after
memorable struggles; and in consequence of that
very a primacy of the Church we see it diverge
more and more from its primitive type. It has quite
decidedly become a new theocracy, and as has ever
been the case the per essive diminution of its liber-
ties coincides with the complete subversion of the
nd doctrine of justification by faith. Salvation

y works replaces salvation by e, the supposed
merits of glorified saints are purchased for the benefit
of sinners, and finally indulgences from the conse-

uences of sin are sold for a price in money. Yet

hristianity even thus disfigured and diminished
still shows itself beneficent ¥ the consolation of
human misery. It produces a magnificent art.
The Gothic cathedral is the symbol of its tness
and also of its formidable power. Scholasticism
produces its famous theological Summas which are
as it were the cathedrals of thought. The monastic
orders founded in t numbers contribute at once
to the relief of the wretched and to the enslavement
of the faithful. Yet it was in some of these con-
vents that there was developed that profound and
touching mysticism which sought to find God
beyond the sacerdotal hierarchy. From the 14th
century onwards an ardent aspiration towards
reform yee the Church. 7 was the —

reparing the great approaching renovation that
stg shine forth Ht the oo schism, which
weakened the papacy by breaking it into factions.
This need of reform was expressed officially in the
councils of Pisa and Basel. The Reformation had
already its forerunners in John Huss and Wyclif,
while it was, as it were, realised beforehand in the
valleys of Piedmont.

With Luther it burst forth with irresistible power.
If its banner was victorious over great part of
Europe it was because it bore the d_ device
of all Christian liberty: ‘The just shall live
by faith.’ The liberty of the people of God was
actually reconquered in principle ; it founded itself
as at the first deys of Christianity on the certainty
of salvation granted by grace and seized by faith.
This doctrine of liberation dismisses all human
mediators to find again the universal priesthood in
the sacrificial priesthood of the Redeemer. To all
tradition it o es the sovereign authority of
Christ, whom Luther calls the king of the Bible,
which alone permits us to know him. Next en-
sued a gigantic struggle, on the one hand, between
the Reformation and the ancient Catholic Church,
whose usurpations linked with a mercenary concep-
tion of salvation were consecrated by the Council
of Trent; and on the other hand, between Christi-
anity and a pagan culture eager to resuscitate the
naturism of the ancient world without its religious
pes sca This double struggle has reached in
our day its culminating height. It is complicated

whether in Catholicism or in the churches of the
Reformation by an intestine struggle which brings
to an issue upon narrowed ground the two opposing
elements, us Catholicism even after the Counci
of Trent saw arise within itself a movement for
reform, which, rendered illustrious by the Abbé de
St Cyran and Pascal, tried to elevate the doctrine of
grace and to limit the papal power. That noble
effort was compelled to succumb before persecution,
after having done honour to the church of France.
Gallicanism contrived to lay some restriction upon
the papal powers, but was speedily defeated like
Jansenism, from which it had separated in the 17th
century while retaining the stamp of its influence.
In the bosom of Protestantism there broke out
early a struggle between a conservatism which
would retain as much as possible of Catholicism
and a Christian liberalism whose aim it was to
bring back the Church to the apostolic 1
That struggle has led to the creation of differ-
ent churches practising in both hemispheres with
more or less fidelity the constituent principles
of the Reformation, or, more correctly, continuing
them and disengaging them from things incon-
sistent therewith. In the domain of thought the
battle has been fought between the partisans of a
strict dogmatism and those who would admit of
theological progress without breaking in anything
with the eternal gospel. We must also recognise
that within the heart of historical Protestantism we
have seen produced, rather more than a century
since, on some questions, philosophical tendencies
which are Christian only in name, and which
in their extreme manifestations would introduce
into the fortress the enemy that besets the walls
—we mean a culture decidedly anti-Christian. The
siege is being carried on to-day more vigorously
than it ever was before. The struggle between
Christianity and tendencies contrary to it has never
been more serious. Anti-Christianity under all its
forms has taken a considerable development, and
seems to resuscitate in our modern so-called Chris-
tian world the old Paganism, while eliminating
from it the better elements, its aspirations and fore-
shadowings of the religion of the redemption; for
this neo-Paganism in its most logical manifesta-
tions ends in an absolute naturalism which will onl
admit of matter and force in the evolution of all
life. On the other hand, what we call the Judaising
tendency so ready to appear in the Church on the
morrow of the apostolic age, has reached in these
last days the final stage of its course. The ecclesi-
astical policy which has brought about in succession
the syllabus of Pius IX., the Encyclical Quanta
Cura (1864), the proclamation of the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin (1854), and that of the
9 fallibility at the Vatican council of 1870,
ave assured the triumph of the theocratic system,
while condemning everything in the bosom of con-
ig era Catholicism like liberty in the Church or
in the heart. Nothing is further from our thought
than to place Catholicism per se outside the pale
of Christianity. We recognise in it the treasures
of piety. Its charity has never expended itself
over social misery more bounteously than now.
Christ is loved and adored within its fold by a
multitude of pious souls who find him in spite
of defective forms of worship and the long
chain of the sacerdotal hierarchy. We refer
only to the peculiarly ecclesiastical and specific
rancid gt of Catholicism when we speak of its
eplorable return to Jewish theocracy. This return
is the more inexplicable as the institutions proper
to the Old Covenant have no longer any reason
for their existence since they have found their
accomplishment in the gospel, It is impossible not
to observe that there exists a real co-relation
between the development of the anti-Christianity

220

CHRISTIANITY

of this renewed theocracy which breaks with all
modern progress from a social point of view by its
attempt to enchain thought and the conscience
to a sacerdotal power. Wherever Catholicism
is the dominant religion it is taken as the true
representative of Christianity itself. Hence is pro-
pagated the erroneous idea that there is an opposi-
tion between the religion of Christ and social
progress, seeing that all the grand principles of
justice, of law, and of brotherhood, come in reality
from him who has raised man in every sense by
reconciling him with God. Human _ brotherhood
with all that it implies can come only from the
divine fatherhood.

We are thus right in affirming that the victory
of the Catholic theocracy has been the surest means
of actually turning away recent generations from a
Christianity ill understood and misrepresented, and
that it has in this way facilitated the progress of
anti-Christianity. Happily Christianity has had
other representatives uae have shown it in its
true character. We must recognise that even in
the bosom of Catholicism are to be found grand
and lofty Christian men like Lacordaire, P. Grétry,
Montalembert, and Déllinger, who have not ad-
mitted the divorce of the religion of Christ from
peaincng and social progress, of the gospel from

_liberty. They have opposed with energy the party
of religious absolutism; their eloquent testimony
endures in their books, and their thought remains
like leaven within the Church which they have
adorned, though they failed to persuade her. We
may hope that this movement for true liberty will
revive sooner or later in her, all the more that
the fall of the temporal power will finally bring
about important moral consequences.

Whatever there may be in such forecasts of the
future, really evangelical Christianity has shown
itself wherever the Reformation has been planted,
as the initiator and propagator of true liberalism.
It is easy to prove that it was to its influence, dis-
torted indeed and indirect, that the French Revol-
ution of 1789 owed everything that it contained
of what was true and fertile for the future. Its
first adherents had breathed the air of freedom in
Anglo-Saxon countries. Besides, the French Pro-
testants, by their resistance to the intolerable
persecutions of which they had been the object, had
preserved in their own persons the most important of
all liberties—that of the conscience. It is more
important to-day than ever, in face of the rising
flood of democracy, that Christians, in order to

' dissipate the misunderstanding which in its opposi-
tion to the gospel and to liberty favours contem-
porary anti-Christianity, should delight to place
themselves in the van of political and social pro-
gress, and should especially take to heart the
elevation of the labouring classes. This is what
true Christians are now doing more and more in
every country. We gladly recognise that Catholics
and Protestants are vieing with one another in
their zeal for this great social task, which is the
foremost duty of our age. We may perhaps add
that the gradual disappearance of state religions,
with their authoritative constitutions defining the
identities between the spiritual and the temporal,
need not at all tend to the disadvantage of Chris-
tianity, since it will render for ever afterwards
impossible all recourse to foree for maintain-
ing the authority of doctrine, thus putting final
end to an intolerance which was the most flagrant
contradiction of its most essential principle. We
must not forget to make allowance for the
modern cessation of compulsion in religion in our
estimation of the actual manifestations of anti-

Christianity, which in former times was compelled

to save itself by concealment or in hypocrisy,
although it was possible for it to exist in large

roportions within a state, though all unseen.
Bat now the time has come for that which was
whispered low to be proclaimed upon the house-
tops. Yet positively the truth has everything to
ain in that freedom, which, however irreverent
it sometimes may be, is still due to a state of
things through which the great opprobrium of a
persecuting religion has been made to disappear—
a result for which we can hardly congratulate our-
selves too highly. :

The secularisation of the state entails upon us —
great responsibilities, especially in what concerns.
the young, who are the more judiciously intrusted
to the care of the Church, because everywhere they
are called to form their faith without any help from
the state. The vast and glorious development of
the natural sciences has largely contributed to
develop unbelief in the domain of speculation,
under the influence of that pantheistic or mate-
rialistic philosophy which had preceded it. In
the intoxication of all their scientific discoveries,
men imagined that they could put God and the
spirit out of the world, and recognise therein
only the play of mechanical forces, the evo-
lution of motion producing a series of exist-

‘ences comprising thought, conscience, and soul,

The adversaries of Christianity have divided them-
selves more and more into two great schools :
Agnostics, denying the possibility of obtaining the
least knowledge of what is beyond our own con-
sciousness, and dogmatic Materialists from what-
ever cause produced. We have a right to affirm
that Christianity has striven victoriously against:
both the one and the other. First of all, it numbers.
in the domain of science more than one illustrious.
representative who has actually shown that we
may enrich science while believing firmly in Ged.
Next—-and this is still more important—it has
brought about the most salutary enlargement in
intellects within the bosom of the most earnest.
Christianity. The most eminent among Christian
thinkers have proclaimed the reciprocal independ-
ence of science and religion. They have recognised
that the first is sovereign in its own sphere, that
God has not revealed what man can discover, and
that in consequence religion has not to link itself
with such or such a conception of the past, as if it
had therein a revealed system of science. By the
ne ae coincidence, illustrious savants with abso-
lutely no connection with the churches, as Du Bois-
Reymond and Virchow, have refused the natural
sciences the right to make excursions out of their
own domain, and to settle questions like those of
the origin of life or of man. They have thus
declared a perfectly rational scientific agnosticism
about what concerns that problem of origins, which
is specially the problem of religion. It follows from
this that there may exist other processes of dis-
covery and of experiment than those of the natural
sciences in that which transcends their province.
It is for Christians so to employ these as to establish
the reality of a spiritual and divine world, and
such of its successive manifestations in religious.
history as come to centre themselves in Christ.

We may say that in this way a work of great.
importance to apologetics has been accomplished :
it has happily reflected Rens upon the very con-
ception of a doctrine which is ever the more
widened the less it is allowed to be shut in within
any formulas of the orthodoxies of the past, in order
to grasp ever the more closely the living object of
belief, which is Christ, and understand the better
that eternal gospel, which as we have established,
is essentially a fact and a person. That enlarge-
ment which we can verify in all churches freed
from the yoke of outward authority, is not only
favourable to the true progress of the Christian
conception, but also to its preservation. One of

CHRISTIANITY

CHRISTIANSTAD 221

the most significant characteristics of this pro

in our age is that it makes more than ever of the
human element in the gospel, without detractin

in pagshing from its divinity. To the metaphysi-
cal tractions which effaced the original char-
acter of this great past has succeeded a really
historical comprehension which makes it live again
before our a. Thus in our conception of the
vey personality of Christ, he has come nearer us
without ceasing to be the Son of God who saves
us and lifts us up again. The heart as well as the
intellect finds its advantage in this evolution of
Christian thought, which is a return to its original ;
and now, indeed, it is more necessary than ever
that the fire of a holy enthusiasm and a fervent
love for Christ should kindle up again in Christian
souls, amid all the distractions of modern life,
which has become so complex througi the develop-
ment of human activity in every sphere, artistic,
industrial, commercial, or scientific.

It must not be forgotten that after all the chief
struggle of Christianity is not against such or such
a system, but against the power of evil, against
sin which destroys us; and that it is above all a
work of redemption, of restitution, and of salva-
tion. It is this which distinguishes it from the two
Cond religions which dispute with it the world.

uddhism is the religion of absolute nothingness,
of Nirvana, placing salvation in death and in
annihilation, and only retaining its millions of
adherents by concessions ever more and more
frequent to idolatrous fetichism. Mohammedanism
is merely a materialisation of Judaism, making of
its Allah a God at once terrible and indulgent, for
he has only murderous rage for those who do not
hasten on in the footsteps of his pretended prophet
to the brutal couse of the world, while at the
same time he is full of indulgence to a life of sen-
suality, which after being largely satisfied on earth
expects its final gratification in a sensual paradise.
To reconquer the millions of men held within the
grasp of these two great religions, and those who

long to fetichistic idolatry, which is a survival
of prehistoric humanity, Christianity has spared
no effort, and has never refused to pour out the
blood of its martyrs. Therefore, everything brings
us back to the necessity for a struggle without
cessation, both near and far off, against the powers
of evil which everywhere wage war against it.

If the dust of the battle sometimes casts a
shadow over the true character of Christianity, it
none the less remains vigorous and living as it was
eigliteen centuries ago. We recognise it, even under
forms the least favourable, by the intensity of its
religious life, by its love of God and of Christ
inseparable from its love for man, who would perish
without it. Its career of conquest, far from being
diminished, has increased largely during the last
century through the magnificent development of
its missions abroad and at home. Its charity never
ceases to multiply works of benevolence and of

. relief. The eye of faith discerns across the great
and tremendous struggle which sums up the whole
of human history, a combatant greater than the

reatest and holiest of Christian soldiers—that

ivine hero of whom Luther says in his immortal

hymn, that he fights for us and with us. It is for

t this reason that we say at the conclusion, as at the
commencement : Christianity is Jesus Christ.

For orks on Christianity, Christian Dogma,
and Church History, see the article CHURCH HISTORY
and the bibliography appended.

Christian Knowledge, Society ror Pro-
MOTING (often referred to as the S.P.C.K.), one
of the great religious associations connected with
the Church of England, and the oldest of them
all. It was founded in 1698, although it did not
receive its present name till 1701; and had for

TOSS Fh SE eer

>.

its objects: ‘(1) To promote and encourage the
erection of charity schools in all parts of England
and Wales; (2) to disperse, both at home and
abroad, Bibles and tracts of religion; and, in
general, to advance the honour of God, and the
pee of mankind, by promoting Christian know-
edge both at home and in other parts of the
world by the best methods that should offer.’
These objects it has never ceased to pursue, chiefly
directing its efforts to the British dominions ; par-
taking at once of the nature of an educational
association, a missionary society, a Bible society,
a religious tract society, and an emigrants’
spiritual aid society; and notwithstanding the
operations of other great societies in these several
departments of Christian benevolence, its revenue
amounts to above £50,000 a year. The bookselling
business shows in some years total sales of £80,000 ;
the works published being in very various depart-
ments of literature, and including several admirable
series on Early Britain, Diocesan Histories, Ancient
History from the Monuments, Early Chroniclers,
&c. The Protestant missionaries who laboured in
the south of India in the 18th century were —
ported chiefly by this society, and it is now fully
engaged in ag ying to the mission-field through-
out the world needful religious literature in the
vernacular. Besides translations of the Bible and
Prayer-book, it provides for pioneer missionaries,
grammars, dictionaries, reading-books, &c., to in-
struct them in the languages which they will have
to use. See a History of the Society (1898).—
A Scottish Society for Propagating Christian
Knowledge, incorporated in 1709, has an annual
expenditure of £5000, mainly devoted to the main-
tenance of schools in the Highlands and Islands.
Christian Names. See article NAMEs.
Christiansand, sixth city of Norway in re-
spect of population ( ce great part of it was
burned in 1892), is situated near its southernmost
extremity, on a sandy plain. Pop. 12,813. It is a
garrisoned town, was built by Christian IV. in
1641, and has been the capital of its province or
stift since 1684. It has several dockyards, and a
good harbour much used for refuge. The steam-
ackets from London, Hull, Hamburg, &c. to
Christiania and the north usually call here. At
the mouth of the harbour is the beautiful island of
Odderé, laid out with public gardens and _pro-
menades. Christiansand oe a considerable trade
in timber, pitch, stockfish (salted cod), fish-oil for
ecwrriers, salmon, mackerel, and lobsters, the latter
chiefly for the London market. About thirty lobster
smacks are regularly employed between Christian-
sand and Billingsgate during the season. Many
thousands of white ptarmigans caught in the
neighbouring districts of Lister and Mandals are
shipped annually from Christiansand to England.
Shipbuilding is a considerable industry. Chris-
tiansand has a cathedral and grammar-school, and
is the residence of a bishop and high-bailiff and of a
British vice-consul. The streets are wide, straight,
and regular; the houses are built of wood and
detached, presenting altogether a remarkably colo-
nial appearance. The inhabitants are noted for
their stature, said to average six feet.
Christiansfeld, a settlement of Moravian
brothers in Northern Sleswick, was founded in
1772, and has 700 inhabitants.
Christians of St John. See Zasis.
Christians of St Thomas. See THOMAs,
Christianstad, the capital of a Swedish pro-
vince of the same name, on the Helge, 14 miles from
the Baltic, and 351 SSW. of Stockholm by rail.
Formerly it was strongly fortified. It an
arsenal, a school, a magnificent church, and a senate-
house. Pop. (1881) 9328 ; (1891) 10,670.

222 CHRISTIANSTADT

CHRISTMAS

Christianstadt, the chief town of the Danish
island of St Croix (q.v.), in the West Indies, on
the north shore. Pop. 5500.

Christiansund (63° 10’ N. lat., 7° 50’ E.
ong.), sometimes confounded with Christiansand
though 350 miles farther north, is a Norwegian
coast-town (pop. 10,500), built on three wooded
islands, Kirkelandsé, Inlandsé, and Nordlandsé.
The main thoroughfare being the sea-channels be-
tween these islade gives it a curiously picturesque
character, which is heightened by the irregularity
of ground.on which the wooden houses are built,
scarcely any two being on the same level. It has
a considerable trade with Spain and Italy in salt-
fish, and is a calling-place for the omnibus passenger
steamers which now ply so numerously on the
Norwegian coast. The chief public buildings are
the grammar-school and custom-house.

Christina, queen of Spain.
CHRISTINA.

Christina, queen of Sweden, only child of the

eat Gustavus Adolphus, was born 17th Decem-
er 1626, and succeeded her father in 1632, when
only six years old. Distinguished equally by
beauty and the possession of a lively imagination,
a good memory, and uncommon intelligence, she
received a man’s rather than a woman’s education,
and to this may partly be attributed the many
eccentricities of her life. During her minority
the kingdom was governed by the five highest
officers of state, the principal being Chancellor
Oxenstiern. In 1644 she assumed the reins of
ower, and in 1650 was crowned with the title of
ing. She had previously declared her cousin,
Charles Gustavus, her successor. For four years
thereafter she ruled the kingdom with vigour, and
was remarkable for her patronage of learned men,
such as Grotius, Salmasius, and Descartes. In
1654, however, at the age of twenty-eight, weary
of the personal restraint which eels imposed on
her, she abdicated in favour of her cousin, reserv-
ing to herself sufficient revenues, entire independ-
ence, and supreme authority over her suite and
household. Teavine Sweden, she proceeded to
Brussels, where she embraced the Roman Catholic
religion. She next went to Rome, which she
entered on horseback, in the costume of an
Amazon, with great pomp. Confirmed by Pope
Alexander VII., she adopted the surname of Ales-
sandra. She next visited Paris; and there in 1657
she caused her grand equerry, Monaldeschi, who
had enjoyed her entire confidence, to be executed
in her own household for treason. The death of
the king in 1660 caused her to hasten from Rome
to Sweden ; but, failing in her attempt to be re-
instated on the throne, she again left the country.
In 1666 she aspired to the crown of Poland. The
remainder of her life was spent at Rome in artistic
and scientific pursuits. ere she died April 19,
1689. See a monograph by F. W. Bain (1889).

Christison, Sir Rosert, D.C.L., physician
and toxicologist, son of the professor of Humanity
in the university of Edinburgh (1806-20), was born
at Edinburgh, July 18, 1797. After graduating in
1819, he proceeded to London se Paris, and
in the French capital studied toxicology under
the celebrated Orfila. He was in 1822 appointed
professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the uni-
versity of Edinburgh; and in 1832 was pro-
moted to the chair of Materia Medica, which
he occupied till 1877, when he retired. He
became famous as a medical writer, and risked
his life more than once in his experiments with
poisons on his own system. He was appointed
physician-in-ordinary to the Queen in 1848; pre-
sident of the Edinburgh Royal Society (1868-73) ;
and created a baronet in 1871; and was honoured

See MARIA

with a banquet and the degree of LL.D. in 1872 on
the completion of his fiftieth year as a professor.
During a vigorous old age he could walk, run, or
climb mountains better than any of his econtem-
poraries. He died 23d January 1882. Besides con-
tributing ene on various subjects to medical
journals, Christison wrote a Treatise on Poisons
(1829), recognised as a standard work on the sub-
ject; Biographical Sketch of Edward Turner, M.D.
(1837); a treatise On Granular Degeneration of the
Kidneys (1839); and The Dispensatory, a Commen-
tary on the Pharmacopeias of Great Britain (1842).
See his Life, edited by his sons (1885-86).

Christmas, the day on which the nativity of —

the Saviour is observed. The institution of this
festival is attributed by the spurious Decretals to
Telesphorus, who flourished in the reign of Anton-
inus Pius (138-161 A.D.), but the first certain
traces of it are found about the time of the Emperor
Commodus (180-192 A.D.). In the reign of Pio-
cletian (284-305 A.D.), while that ruler was keep-
ing court at Nicomedia, he learned that a multitude
of Christians were assembled in the city to cele-
brate the birthday of Jesus, and having ordered
the church doors to be closed, he set fire to the
building, and all the worshippers perished in the
flames. It does not appear, however, that there
was any uniformity in the period of observing the
nativity among the early churches ; some held the
festival in the month of May or April, others in
January, conjointly with the feast of the Epiphany.
It is nevertheless almost certain that the 25th of
December cannot be the nativity of the Saviour,
for it is then the height of the rainy season in
Judea, and shepherds could hardly be watching
their flocks by night in the plains.

Christmas not only became the parent of many
later festivals, such as those of the Virgin, but.
especially from the 5th to the 8th century, gathered
round it, as it were, several other festivals, partly
old and partly new, so that what may be termed a
Christmas Cycle sprang up, which surpassed all
other groups of Christian holidays in the manifold
richness of its festal usages, and furthered, more
than any other, the completion of the orderly and
systematic distribution of church festivals over the
whole year. Not casually or arbitrarily was the
festival of the Nativity celebrated on the 25th of
December. One of the principal causes that co-
operated in fixing this period was that almost all
the heathen nations regarded the winter solstice as
the turning-point of the year—the beginning of the
renewed life and activity of the powers of nature,
and of the gods, who were originally merely the
symbolical personifications of these. In more
northerly countries this fact must have made itself

eck alpable—hence the Celts and Germans,
rom the oldest times, celebrated the season with
the greatest festivities. At the winter solstice the
Norsemen held their great Yule-feast (see YULE) in
commemoration of the fiery sun-wheel; and be-
lieved that during the twelve nights from the 25th
December to the 6th January they could trace the
personal movements and interferences on earth of
their great deities, Odin, Berchta, &c. Many of
the beliefs and usages of the old Germans, and
also of the Romans, relating to this period, passed
over from heathenism to Christianity, and have
partly survived to the present day. But the churelhy
also sought to combat and banish—and it was to a.
large extent successful—the deep-rooted heathen
feeling by adding, for the
heathen customs and feasts which it retained, its
grandly devised liturgy, besides dramatic represen-
tations of the birth of Christ, and the first events
of his life. Hence sprang the so-called ‘Manger-
songs,’ and a multitude of Christmas carols (see
CAROL), as well as Christmas dramas, which at

urification of the.

tw
ON ee eee

Cy

OE

=

——

CHRISTMAS BOX

CHRIST’S HOSPITAL 223

-

certain times and places degenerated into farces
or Fools’ Feasts (q.v.), and the custom of mre
resents, and of special Christmas meats = os
c. 1e

Lakes as Christmas cakes, euneiioge,
he custom of

favourite dish was a boar’s head.
decorating churches at Christmas, my pr with
holly and ivy, is a very ancient one. Of late it has
become usual for friends to forward to one another,
by post, gaily illuminated Christmas cards (q.v.),
bearing Christmas greetings. The Christmas tree
would seem to be traceable to the Roman saturnalia,
and was not improbably first imported into Germany
with the conquering legions of Drusus. It is note-
worthy that ‘the Christmas tree’ with its pendent
— and mannikins is distinctly portrayed by
Virgil (Geor. ii. 389): ‘Oscilla ex alta suspendunt
ia pinu.’ The Christmas numbers of magazines
are often at great cost rendered apocialy attrac-
tive; they are. now issued as early as October.
The Pantomime (q.v.) has a special connection
with Christmas-tide. The visits of ‘Santa Claus,’
bearing gifts, in England and America referred
to Christmas, belong properly to December 6, the
day of St Nicolas (q.v.). The French Noél is
derived from the Latin natalis (dies), ‘birthday.’
Washington Irving’s Sketch Book gives a charming
picture of an old English Christmas.
In the Roman Catholic Church three masses are
rformed at Christmas—one at midnight, one at
ybreak, and one in the fering: he day is
also celebrated by the Anglo-Catholic Church—
special ms are sung, a special preface is made
in the Communion Service, and the Athanasian
Creed is said or sung. The Greek Church, the
Lutheran Church, and most communions save the
Presbyterian, likewise observe Christmas; while
throughout England and many parts of the United
States it is kept as a social holiday, on which there
is a complete cessation from all business. But
within the last hundred years the Christmas fes-
tivities, which at one time lasted with more or less
brilliancy till Candlemas, and with great spirit till
Twelfth-day, have fallen off. See Chambers’s Book
of Days.

Christmas Box, a small money-gift to persons
in an inferior condition on the day after Christmas,
which is hence popularly called Bowing-day. The
term, and also the custom, are essentially English,
though the making of presents at this season and
at the New Year is of great antiquity. A number
of cape pe particulars concerning the Christmas
box will be found in Brand’s Popular Antiquities
and in Notes and Queries. Within the memory of
middle-aged persons, the practice of giving Christ-
mas boxes had become eds a serious social nuisance
that tradesmen stuck up notices in their windows
that no Christmas boxes would be given; and at
the same time the public authorities issued remon-
strances to the same effect. At Christmas 1836
the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs issued a
circular to the different embassies, requesting a dis-
continuance of the customary gifts to the messengers
of the Foreign Department and other government
servants. Since this period the practice has tl
decreased, doubtless to the improvement of the self-
respect of the parties interested.

Christmas Cards, as now sold and distributed
in millions during the festive season, in their various
forms, are familiar to every one. The invention has
been ascribed by some to the late Sir Henry Cole;
by others, the credit of designing the first Christ-
mas card in 1846 is given to J. C. Horsley, R.A.
Immense pro has been made in beauty and
artistic effect since the time when the popular
emblems were more or less confined to Old Father
Christmas, lags. > of flowers, the robin-redbreast,
or the dove. The prize competitions for designs

have also done not a little in stimulating the art.
Their production is begun often more than a year
in advance; and the system of sending Christmas
cards, as also New-year’s, Easter, and birthday
cards, has created a new trade, and a new field for
artists, engravers, lithographers, and printers. The
quantity of Christmas cards passing through the
post-office leads to congestion for a few days in
ordinary deliveries.

Christmas Carols, See CAROL.

Christmas Island, in the Pacific, is in 1° 57’
N. lat., and 157° 27’ W. long., with some guano
deposits, and is a British possession. Another
Christmas Island, annexed to Britain in 1888, lies
about 250 miles SW. of Java (11° 8., 105° 30’ E.), is
6 miles long by 4 broad, partly volcanic, partly
coralline in structure, with rich phosphate deposits
(worked since 1897). There is a third Christmas
Island off Cape Breton.

Christmas Rose, See HELLEBORE.

Christology. See CHRIST.

Christophe, Henri, king of Hayti, was born
aslave on the island of Grenada, October 6, 1767.
Coming to Hayti, he joined the black insurgents
against the French in 1790, and, from his gigantic
stature, energy, and courage, soon became a leader
among them. By Toussaint Louverture he was
appointed brigadier-general. In 1802 he gallantly
detended Cape Hayti against the French. He and
Pétion secured the overthrow of the short-lived
government of Dessalines in 1806; and in 1807 he
was appointed president of Hayti. Civil war com-
nen between him and Pétion; but in 1811
Christophe was ar king of Hayti, by the
name of Henri I., and ruled with vigour and not
without success. But his avarice and cruelty led to
an insurrection ; and deserted by his bodyguard and
all his nobles, he shot himself, October 8, 1820.
He left a code of laws which he called the ‘ Code
an in imitation of the Code Napoléon. See

AYTI.

Christopher, Hers. See BANEBERRY.

Christopher (from Gr. Christophéros, ‘ Christ-
arer’), a saint of the Roman Catholic and
Greek Churches. According to the oldest form of
the legend, he is said to have lived in Syria, and
suffered martyrdom under the Emperor Decius
(249-251 ). e is said to have been 12 feet high,
and of prodigious strength. In the. pride of his
strength he would serve only the mightiest upon
earth. After being some time in the service of a
king, and seeing his master’s dread of the devil,
he gave himself to be the devil’s servant. One
day, however, he saw the devil trembling before an
image of Christ, and he resolved thenceforth to
serve Christ only. For his penance he undertook
to carry pilgrims across a broad unbridged stream.
One day Christ came to him in the form of a child
to be carried over, but the burden grew ever
heavier and heavier, until it was almost too much
for him to reach the farther shore. ‘ Marvel not,
Christopher,’ said the child, ‘for with me thou
hast borne the sins of all the world.’ In pa
and sculpture the saint is usually represented wit
the infant Christ upon his shoulders, leaning on a
great staff, and straining every nerve to support his
weight (see the Monograph by Sinemus, Hanover,
1868). The various legends of St Christopher are
found in a connected form in the Legenda Aurea
(Ist ed. Niirnberg, 1478; new ed. by Greesse, Leip.
1850) of Jacobus de Voragine, who died in 1292.
The Greek Church celebrates his festival on the
a of May, the Roman Catholic on the 25th of
uly.
Christ’s Hospital, Newgate Street, London,
was founded on the site of the Greyfriars’ Monas-

224 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL

CHROMIUM

tery, by Edward VI., June 26, 1553, as a hospital
for orphans. It is usually called the ‘ Blue Coat
School,’ on account of the dress worn by the boys.
This consisted of a blue woollen gown or coat with
a narrow red-leather girdle round the waist, knee-
breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, a clergy-
man’s bands at the neck, and a small blue worsted
cap. The cap, however, was discontinued about
thirty years ago, and the petticoat in 1865, but
otherwise the dress remains unaltered. Such, with
slight variations, has been the costume of the boys
since the foundation of the school in the reign of
Edward VL; the persistency in it through succes-
sive generations affording a curious instance of the
unchangeableness in some of the English usages.
Children are admitted between eight and ten years
of age, and discharged between fifteen and sixteen,
according to their school position, excepting the
*Grecians’ (i.e. the highest class of scholars in the
hospital), of whom five are sent annually on various
scholarships to the universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. Altogether, about 1100 boys and 90 girls
are now upon the foundation. The right of pre-
sentation is vested in the governors. These are the
lord mayor of London, the aldermen, and twelve
common councilmen, who are ez-officio governors.
Besides these, all noblemen and gentlemen who
benefit the hospital to the extent of £500 are
governors, or ‘donation’ governors. Of these there
are at present 264. The governors are the patrons
of several churches, chiefly in Surrey and Essex.
In 1887 the net available income for the purposes
of the hospital, and for exhibitions and apprentice
fees, was about £58,000, wholly from legacies and
benefactions subsequent to the foundation. In
addition the governors administer large pension
charities, including the Rev. W. Hetherington’s
Charity to the Aged Blind, which is distributed in
pensions of £10 a year to upwards of 700 blind
ersons over sixty-one years of age, resident and
orn in England. King Charles II. enriched it by
£7000, with an additional annuity of £370, 10s. for
the purpose of educating yearly ten boys for the
sea-service. Most of the building perished in the
Great Fire of 1666; but, through the generosity
of the corporation of London and of wealthy
Englishmen, it was soon rebuilt, under the super-
intendence of Sir Christopher Wren. In the course
of time the new hospital fell into decay, and in
1825 a third structure was erected by Mr Shaw.
The great hall of the hospital is a magnificent room,
second only to that of Westminster. Christ’s
hospital is essentially a classical institution, Latin
and Greek being the basis of education ; but, to
satisfy the wants arising from the changed condi-
tion of society, the modern languages, drawing,
science, &c. are also taught. In 1683 the governors
built a preparatory school at Hertford, where the
children are trained till they are advanced enough
to be transferred to the London school. The gir/s,
however, remain here until their discharge. It can
receive about 450 of both sexes. Many eminent
persons have been educated at Christ’s Hospital,
such as Camden, Stillingfleet, Richardson, Cole-
ridge, Lamb, Leigh Hunt, Pugin, Sir Louis Cavag-
nari, Sir Henry 8. Maine, Dr Gordon Hake, and
others. In 1885 a scheme of reform received the
sanction of the Education Department, according
to which the hospital is to be transferred to the
country (a site at Horsham was acquired in 1892,
the foundation of the new buildings laid by the
Prince of Wales in 1897), and a larger number of
irls admitted. ‘The boys’ boarding-school will
ave 700 pupils, the day-school 600; while a girls’
boarding-school will accommodate 350, and their
day-school 400. See Annals of Christ’s Hospital,
by a ‘ Blue’ (new ed. 1877).
~ Christ’s Thorn. See JusuBE, PALIURUS.

Chromatic, in Music (from the name of one
of the Greek tetrachords or scales), is applied to
notes in a melodie progression which are raised or
lowered by accidentals, without changing the ke
of the passage, and also to chords in wha fo |
notes occur. The chromatic scale is one proceeding
by semitones alone. Much irregularity prevails in
the method of writing such progressions. The
most strictly correct practice is to write only such
chromatic notes as could occur in chords belonging
to the key in which the passage is written.

Chromatic, in Optics, is that part of the
science which deals with the colours of light and
of bodies. See ACHROMATISM, COLOUR.

Chromatophores are pigment cells (see PiG-
MENTS) containing pigment granules of various
colours, which enable animals such as chameleons
and cuttle-fishes to change colour rapidly.

Chromatype is a photeurapi picture in
which the paper employed has been sensitized by
some of the salts of chromium.

Chromium (sym. Cr, atom. weight, 52°5) is a
metal, so called (chréma, ‘ colour’) from the many-
coloured compounds it produces. It was discovered
by Vauquelin in 1797, in the chromate of lead,
PbCrO,, one of its rarer ores. As chrome iron
ore, FeOCr,O,, it is extensively distributed in
America, Sweden, Hungary, &c.

The metal has been obtained in several modifi-
cations, one of which is so refractory as to be
infusible at a temperature sufficient to volatilise
platinum, while it may be heated to redness with-
out oxidation, and resists the action of most acids.
Another variety is a powder which burns brilliantly
when heated in air, and is readily dissolved by
acids. The metal itself has not been employed in
the arts, but many of the chromates are much used
in painting and colouring. It has of late years
been found useful for combining with the iron of
projectiles. Chromium forms four compounds with
oxygen, of which the chief are chromic oxide,

’ CreOs, and chromic acid, CrOs.

Chromic oxide (chrome green) possesses a bright-
green colour, and is the colouring ingredient in the
emerald. Owing to its indestructibility by heat,
it is used in porcelain-painting ; while, being non-
poisonous, it is now substituted for arsenical green
Pigments in wall-papers.

hromic acid or anhydride, CrO,, forms dark-
red crystals, containing no water. When strongly
heated it becomes incandescent, and is converted
into chromic oxide. It forms several classes of
salts: the Chromates, such as chromate of lead,
PbCrO,; the Bichromates, of which bichromate of
potash, K,Cr,0,;, or K,02Cr0,, is an example; and
the trichromates and tetrachromates, which are
unimportant.

Chromate of Lead, PbCrO,, is well known to
artists as ‘chrome yellow.’ It is readily prepared
by mixing a solution of acetate of lead with one
of chromate of potash. When boiled with lime,
its bright-yellow colour disappears, and a scarlet
basic chromate is obtained, which is used in the
dyeing of calico.

Bichromate of Potash, K,Cr.0;, is prepared from
chrome ironstone, by calcination with chalk and
carbonate of potash, and subsequent treatment
with nitric acid. It forms large red crystals, and
has many uses in the arts. When added to a solu-
tion of gelatine and allowed to dry, it is found that
on exposure to light the gelatin becomes insoluble,
and a process based on this Beoper ey has been used
to some extent in photography: s an oxidising
agent in galvanic batteries it is very effective,
while mixed with sulphuric acid it is used in the
bleaching of oils.

Chromic acid and its salts are all more or less

=)

__ =

Se

eS

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPH

CHRONOLOGY 225

isonous, owing to their corrosive and oxidising

tion on organic tissues. Chrome Steel containing
small percentage of chromium is valued for its
toughness and strength; and chromium is now
generally used with iron for projectiles.

Chromo-lithograph. See Lirnocrapny.

Chromosphere. See SuN.

Chronicle (Gr. chronos, ‘time’) denotes a
history in which events are treated in the order of
time. A chronicle is understood to differ from
annals in being more connected and full, the latter
merely recording individual occurrences under the
successive years or other dates. Most of our older

histories were called chronicles, such as the Saxon,

Chronicle, Holinshed’s Chronicle, Baker’s Chronicle.
The name is also given to two historical books of
the Old Testament, and is not infrequently in
modern days adopted by a newspaper, as the Morn-
ing Chronicle.

Chronicles, THe First AND SEconD Books
-OF THE, an historical work standing in the third
ah of the Hebrew canon, and recapitulating the

istory of 2d Samuel and the Books of Kings, with
many omissions, and many additions, genealogical
-and other. The Hebrew name means ‘events of
the days ;’ the Septuagint entitles it Paraleipomena
4 ‘things over’); Eusebius called it a ‘ Chroni-
.con of the whole divine history ’"—whence its present
name. First and Second Chronicles are one book,
-of which Ezra and Nehemiah are continuations.
‘The last three verses of 2d Chronicles are the first
three of Ezra, only the last verse of Chronicles
-ends in the middle of a sentence, which is com-
ieee in Ezra, i. 3.. In contrast to the older

istories, which were written from the alee
standpoint, Chronicles shows a cages a evitical
tendency. Most modern scholars hold its date to
be about 330 B.c. or later, at the beginning of
the Greek supremacy in Asia. The most useful
commentaries are by Bertheau (2d ed. 1873) and
Keil (1870). See BIBLE.

Chronogram, or CHRONOGRAPH (Gr. chronos,
‘time,’ gramma, ‘a letter,’ or fropke. ‘I write’), a
whimsical device of the later Romans, resuscitated
‘during the Renaissance period, by which a date is
given by selecting certain letters amongst those
which form an inscription, and printing them
Jarger than the others. The principle will be
‘understood from the following example, made from
the name of George Villiers, first Duke of Bucking-

cham :
GEORGIVs DVX BVCKINGAMI&.

‘The date MDCXVVVIII (1628) is that of the year
‘in which the Duke was murdered by Felton at
Portsmouth. Another well-known example con-
-veys the date in the inscription upon a medal struck
‘by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 :

CurIstVs DVX; ERGO TRIVMPHVS.
‘See collections by Hilton (1882, 1885, and 1896).

Chronograph (‘time-marker’ or ‘ recorder’),
an instrument to note, within a certain fraction of a
-second, the instant when a particular event occurs.
The most recent are electrical, now indispensable
to astronomers, since the transit of a star can, by
touching a stud, be noted to within yjsth of a
‘second of time. The typical form of the chrono-
_graph is a cylinder which revolves once a minute,
and carries on its surface a sheet of paper divided
all round into equal parts, indicating fractions of a
second. If, for example, the cylinder is 30 inches
round, it is evident that very minute subdivisions
of time are attainable.

A valuable application of the chronograph is for
determining the longitude—e.g. in trigonometrical
‘surveys. Thus two observers note simultaneously
the i of a star, say at Vienna and Paris (and

that without any reference to right ascension or
declination), and having telegraph as well as
chronograph, determine very easily the difference
of time with an accuracy never dreamt of formerly.

Benson’s chronograph, by a lever movement,
measures intervals of time down to tenths of a
second for use at horse-races, &c. By a special con-
trivance the seconds hand on a horizontal dial carries
ink, and marks the plate beneath at the instant
when a string is pulled. Another mode of recording
the exact instant of start or finish is by having a
paper travel under a pencil, so that when the latter
is pressed a mark is made on or near one of the
cross lines showing tenths or twelfths of a second.

Other forms of the chronograph are used for
determining the velocity of projectiles. The most
general arrangement consists in causing the bullet
to pass through a series of screens ; the rupture of
pet screen breaks for a moment the continuity of an
electric current, sets in action an electro-magnetic
apparatus, and makes a permanent mark or record.

Chronology (Gr., ‘time-reckoning’), the science
of time, especially in regard to (1) the occurrence,
recurrence, and succession of events, or (2) the
duration of periods and cycles. The immense array
of facts with which yates, is occupied may be
distributed under two t heads—Mathematical
or Astronomical Chronology, and Technical or Polit-
ical ae tinea Fi The former deals with celestial
phenomena, their order and the laws of their occur-
rence and duration, events outside of man’s sphere
or influence. The latter branch deals with the
whole history of our race upon this planet ; and by
the selection of certain fixed points in time called
pe age refers to each of them the succession
of social and political events occurring in the

riod immediately following it, and reckoned

om it, which we term its Hra. As soon as the
elements of mathematical chronology were under-
stood, political chronology had solid ground to
build upon, and assume a systematic form: then
a science of history became possible. A ‘ year,’
for example, seems now an easy and natural unit
of time-measurement ; but for long ages the only
idea pr peat by the word was that of a vague,
intangible period. So late even as 450 B.C. we find
Herodotus expressing duration of time by the
phrase ‘three generations’ (=a century) or ‘five
generations ;’ and in all languages we find ‘six
summers’ or ‘sixty winters’ instead of so many
years.

In the rudimentary stage of chronology, a nation
referred its history to the lifetime of some central
figure, such as the king, the tribal chieftain, &c.;
of which custom we actually find a survival in our
system of dating acts of parliament. The priestess
of Juno at Argos was another instance ; and in the
Roman and Athenian republics, where the chief-
magistrates were chosen annually, an event was
conveniently said to have occurred ‘when Plancus
was consul,’ or ‘in the archonship of Kallixenos.’
Similar to the Roman consui and the Athenian
archon was the Assyrian limu or ‘eponym,’ from
whose name Babylonian and Assyrian documents
were dated far more frequently than from that of
the reigning king. Such a chronology, however,
could ri of use within narrow limite both
of time and place; and at all the great centres
of civilisation we find that as men’s historical
views widened with the national growth, they
began to invent eras, some from national or
political motives, others ecclesiastical, and a few
scientific. Progress in astronomy, such as we
find in China and Babylonia at the dawn of
history, was of notable service at this stage. To
the Accadians of the latter country indeed both
astronomical and political chronology owe a lasting
debt of gratitude. The Chinese, no doubt, show a

226

CHRONOLOGY

time computation which is apparently prehistoric,
and their recorded eclipse ibsarvatins rove a
chronology of at least four thousand seven hundred
years’ duration; but if they did adopt a year
measurement equivalent to our Julian system
some 2000 B.C., it is certain they have exerted no
influence on European civilisation compared with
that of the ‘Ackohane of Babylonia, or ancient
Chaldeans as they used to be named. Fairly
accurate chronology in ancient Babylon begins
with Sargon I., king of Agade, 3800 B.c. The
earliest authentic date is that inscribed on the
foundation stone of the temple to the sun-god at
Sippara by Naram-Sin, son of Sargon. This was
dug up by Nabonidus, who began to reign over
Babylon about 554 B.c., and who says that Naram-
Sin reigned 3200 years before his time, thus giving
a total of 3754 years B.C. as the date of his build-
ing of the temple. Thus by the year 4000 B.c.
the nation had attained to considerable advance
in literature, science, and art. Much of the
greatness of Babylonia, foremost in culture for
centuries, was afterwards reflected in Assyria, who
inherited her civilisation and learning, as in a
lesser degree also did Israel. Berosus gives a
list of dynasties of 120 saroi, or 432,000 years
before the Deluge, and of eight dynasties after it,
and Ptolemy’s canon in the. Almagest gives the
seventh dynasty in full from Nabonassar (747 B.C.)
to Sinéladanos (Assur-bani-pal, 668-626). From
about 2330 B.c. they used a regular calendar, with
a week of seven days, and a year of twelve
months, named after the zodiacal signs. Their
year was of three hundred and sixty a 8, Which
probably suggested that division of all circles
into degrees which we have derived from them.
In astronomical chronology they had cycles of
sixty years, six hundred years, and the sar
(= 3600 years)—the factor sixty running through
all their arithmetic. The great Babylonian work
on astronomy and astrology was the ‘ Observations
of Bel,’ compiled at tig for Sargon, and trans-
lated into Greek by Berosus. It was mostly a
record of eclipses of the sun and moon, conjunc-
tions and phases of Venus and Mars, the time of
the new year, the names of the zodiacal signs and
the divisions of the year. The famous Assyrian
eponym canon, discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson
in 1862, fixes definitely for us the chronology of
Assyria from 1330 B.c. to about 620 B.c.; but a
fairly accurate list of kings can be made out up
to perhaps 1700 B.c. Thus continuing that early
re-Semitic civilisation, the more warlike Assyrians
urnish many dates of importance—e.g. 720 B.C.,
Sargon conquered Arabia and Syria, levying con-
tributions from Cyprus ; 705 B.c., Sennacherib con-
quered Pheenicia and Egypt, carrying away two
hundred thousand Jews; 681 B.C., building of the
great palace at Nineveh, where afterwards, during
the golden age of the Assyrian empire, ruled great
Assur-bani-pal (long called Sardanapalus), the
brilliant patron of art and letters. The discovery,
in our time, of his national library almost com-
pensates the literary world for the loss of that of
Alexandria. See BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA.

To the Chaldean astronomy we owe the Saros, a
cycle of two hundred and twenty-three lunations,
which is still of signal importance in calculating
eclipses. To it also is due the era of Nabonassar,
one of the most famous in the annals of chronology,
the basis of all the computations of Ptolemy, and
frequently referred to both by historical and
astronomical writers—e.g. in connection both with
Alexander the Great and Aristotle. From its
epoch, 26th February 747 B.C., it maintained its
ground till after the commencement of the vulgar
era. In the same century, singularly enough,
occur the epochs of two other eras which, though

of less note in astronomical chronology, are much
more familiar to historical readers—viz. the Greek
era of the Olympiads, reckoned from Ist July 776
B.Cc., and the Roman era of the Founding of the City
(A.U.C.) from 22d April 753 B.c. The public
games at Olympia formed an essential part of
the national life to a Greek; and thus we find
Xenophon refer an event to the year when
Eubotas of Cyrene won the foot-race, just as

in some parts of England a man will be heard
saying ‘Ah! that was the year Friar Tuck won
the Derby!’ The Olympic Games were of

unknown antiquity, but the era or first Olympiad
dates from the year when Corcebus was victor.
Extending over a period of four years, the
Olympiad (q.v.) was really a small cycle; thus the
year 729 B.C. is expressed in Greek chronology as
the third year of the twelfth Olympiad. The
Latin epoch, the Founding of Rome, is not so aceur-
ately known as that of the Greeks; but the date
assigned by Varro (753 B.C.) was accepted by
Cicero and Pliny, and has been generally adopted
by modern historians. Cato’s date (751 B.c.) de-
serves note, from its use both by Li and
Dionysius of Halicarnassus: 750 was that of
Polybius. Nor must we forget that all Latin
writers, and many Greeks also, dated an event by
naming the Roman consuls of the year. Under
the empire, in 312 A.D., Constantine introduced the
cycle of fifteen years, called Jndiction (q.v.), of
which, as an official mode of computation, there
still remained some survival in France at the end
of the 15th century. The old Roman era, however,
as well as the Grecian, maintained some footing
till after the birth of Christ; and the latter has
even been traced to 440 A.D. = 304th Olympiad. _
The Greeks had the honour of inventing the
Metonic cycle (commencing 15th July 432 B.c.) of
235 lunations = 19 years, and also the Calippie of

76 a Like the Chaldean saros, both of these
eye es were used to predict new moons, eclipses,
c

Of the Hindu or Egyptian eras there is little that
affects the science of chronology. The antiquity of
the Indian epics is a question purely literary ; and
the only epochs to record here are the descent of
the Aryans on the Punjab about 2000 B.c.; the
Council of 543 B.c., which inaugurated the Buddhist
era, and that of 309 B.c., when Buddhism (q.v.)
became the state religion. The Indian chronology
has some affinity to the Chinese; and a singular
refinement in their mode of computing time was
their use of the sidereal year—i.e. reckoning by the
return of a meridian to the same star (see YEAR).
The Egyptians, on the contrary, though their year
began with the rising of the star Sirius, called a
year 365 days exactly, and were, therefore, compelled
to use a cycle of 1461 years (= 4 x 365+ 1), a most
cumbrous adjustment, though simple. The week
of seven days was from earliest time adopted by the
Brahmins in India, and the ancient Egyptians, as
well as by the Accad settlers of Babylonia already
referred to.

The Jewish chronology is unimportant except
from its relation to religious matters, and scarcely
affords examples of any era, since sacred chron-
ology, as it is called, is only partially based upon
the Pentateuch. What knowledge of astronomi-
cal chronology the Jews had was derived from
the ancient Chaldeans through the Heig, Seo and
their calendar was mainly Egyptian. - Their year,
like that of the ancient Greeks and modern Turks,
consisted of twelve months of alternately thirty and
twenty-nine days (or twenty-nine and a half on an
average—i.e, a lunation), with an intercalary month
once in three years, and sometimes once in two.
One peculiarity of the Jewish calendar was that
they Nivided their year into siz seasons—seed-time,

CHRONOLOGY

227

winter, cold season, harvest, summer, and hot
season—an arrangement due probably to their
climatic surroundin Leaving Egypt circa 1320
B.C. (so Bunsen, following Eratosthenes ; others
give 1330), the Jews showed some signs of national
vigour in the 12th century B.C. on the decay of
the Egyptian empire, and their history reached a
short Si Enination in the seign of Solomon. When
split into two small kingdoms they soon found
at, although assisted by Syria and their more
civilised neighbours the confederation of the Phe-
nician cities, they were of but little avail against
the might of Assyria. By the siege of Samaria in
721 B.c., and that of Jerusalem in 587 B.c., the
little kingdoms of Israel and Judah were succes-
sively overthrown, and the Jewish nation finally
shattered. Having no national chronology, the
Jews who returned to Palestine are found using
the Macedonian era, which dates from 311 B.c.,
the reign of Seleucus, one of the successors of
Alpxandet the Great. This they did in common
with the Syrians and Greeks all round the Levant,
and reckoned by it till the 15th century, as some
Arabians are said still todo. At present the Jews,
as also the Freemasons, profess to date their
calendar from the ‘ Creation,’ 3760 years B.C.
Sacred chronology, or that of Scripture, is an
attempt to harmonise the succession of events
recorded in the Old Testament, especially with
reference to the semi-traditional or prehistoric
period preceding the Exodus.
accounts—the Jewish, the Samaritan, and the
Greek Sagi agit their discrepancies, though
referring to the same periods and succession of
events, are hopelessly irreconcilable. Sacred
chronology divides all time before the birth of
Jesus Christ into three great periods (as in the
following table); and as to the first all the texts
are at variance, while in the middle period the

Septuagint agrees with the Samaritan, but both
differ from the Jewish reckoning by 650 years :
Period. Jewish. | Samarit. | Septuag't.

-| Adam to Noah ........... 1656 1307 2242
Noah to Abraham......... 292 942 942
Abraham to Jesus Christ.. 2044 2044 2044
_ Creation to Incarnation. | 3992 4293 5228

The three authorities, therefore, entirely di

as to the total period. To apy oe the confusion,
all those results are given differently by different
interpreters ; and no less than over two hundred
varying computations have been made as to the
date of the creation, ranging from 3483 years to
6984. The familiar date in English books was
4004, following Archbishop Usher's reckoning.
At last it. became clear through science that
man’s duty is to strive to interpret nature, and to
shrink from assigning any limit to her works
as to either beginning or ending. The Newtonian
chronology was an attempt (published posthu-
mously be it remembered) to rectify some of the
discrepancies in sacred and profane history, b

combining a critical examination of authors wit

astronomical calculations. For example, the
famous date of the Argonautic expedition was, by
an ingenious application of the precession of the
equinoxes, assigned by Newton to forty-three years
after the death of Solomon, or 937 B.c. (Hales),
a date utterly inadmissible. For the expedition,
if indeed it ever took place, must have preceded
the siege of Troy, which is ascribed to 1184 B.c.

_ The Hegira (Hedjrah) or epoch of the Moslem era
is dated Friday, 15th July 622, the New-year’s Day
of the Arabian year, or, as others say, from the 16th.
The Mohammedan year being strictly lunar—from

There are three

the primitive reckoning by months instead of years
—the calendar requires several adjustments from
time to time 6 means of tables arranged according
to cycles of thirty years, of which nineteen have
354 days and the others 355. The principal festivals
of the Moslems are the New-year, the birth of the
Prophet, the taking of Constantinople, and the
Grand Bairam (q.v.).

From these minor systems of chronology we at
once pass to that of our present era, which, though
begun as it were accidentally, unenforced by the
authority and command of emperors, kings, or
councils, seems destined soon to assert universal
predominance. The Christian era (or ‘vulgar era’
as older writers termed it) has its epoch or point
of depar*ure determined by the Gregorian rule—
viz.: ‘The years are denominated as years current
from the midnight between the 31st mber and
the Ist of January immediately subsequent to the
birth of Christ, according to the chronological
determination of the event by Dionysius Exiguus.’
Now as Dionysius, the obscure author of this
chronological scheme, lived in the beginning of
the 6th century, there was no exact determina-
tion of the epoch; and it cannot therefore be
so precisely formulated as other eras of less
importance. It is generally that the
bogmaning of the era should have been fixed from
two to four years earlier. Another point not
generally noted is that the correction of our
calendar by Pope Gregory itself wanted correction ;
because ins of ten days the papal bull should
have enjoined an omission of twelve. His Holiness
or some adviser proposed the Council of Nice as
their starting-point in ei aang | the error already
made, and reckoned therefore from Ist January
325 A.D. instead of Ist January 1 A.D. The only
wonder is that his astronomers assented. It may
further be pointed out that the papal reformation
itself is by no means the best that could have been
devised ; and that long before that date, in 1079 A.D.,
Omar, a Persian astronomer, actually proposed a
scheme which would adjust the years and days not
only more exactly, but much more simply. Omar’s
rule, shortly, was: (1) Intercalate a day every
fourth year, but (2) intercalate during the thirty-
third year instead of the thirty-second. By this
scheme five thousand years must elapse before a
further correction is made—viz. of one day, whereas
by Gregory’s rule a correction of three days is
necessary within four thousand years. In this
connection may be noted the extremely ingenious
mode by which the new style was adopted in
Sweden—viz. by deciding to have no leap-years
between 1696 and 1744.

‘From the mode of fixing the epoch of the existing
era as indicated above, it is manifest that,
since there is no 0 A.D. and no: 0 B.c., we must
diminish the sum of the nominal years B.c. and
A.D. by unity to find the interval. Thus the years
between Ist January 753 B.c. and Ist January 1888
A.D. are not 2641 but 2640. The epoch Ist January
1 A.D. was first, as we have seen, established by
measuring backwards according to the estimate of
Dionysius Exiguus in 527 A.D.; and when measured
forwards from other epochs we find that our era
dates from Ist January of the fourth year of the
hetriael Olympiad = 753 A.v.c. = 4714 of the Julian

ri

That brings our subject to an era, which, theo-
retically at least, is the most important in the
science of chronology. The epoch of our existing
era is not well suited for technical purposes,
as all astronomers and chronologists allow, because
the birth of Christ is too recent an event; thus
enhancing the difficulty of gon | the relation
between the different systems, and of expressin
a date or period of one era exactly in terms 0

228

CHRONOLOGY

another. Therefore, just as Fahrenheit chose
for his zero a mark thirty-two degrees below
freezing-point, in order to avoid negative measure-
ments, so the Julian period had its epoch fixed
to Ist January 4713 B.c., a point of time

because the year 4713 B.C. is the most recent date
when those important periods began exactly all
together. With the further development of techni-
cal chronology, and a more scientific treatment of
history and ethnology, we may look for a much

wider use and appreciation of the Julian period as
a cycle comprehending all really historic time, and
fulfilling certain astronomical conditions of the first
referred. Its length is 7980 Julian or Metonic | importance. When the year of the Julian period
years, the product of 28 (Solar period), 19 (Lunar | is known, the corresponding date for any of the
period), and 15 (Indiction), and thus constitutes | subordinate cycles is easily found, and conversely.

eat cycle embracing and unifying three sub- | We subjoin a table for the comparison of some
inate cycles which are constantly referred to; | selected dates :

antecedent to all other epochs, in order that its
era should be a convenient standard to which all
other chronological systems can be differentially

a
or

EPOCHS AND LEADING EVENTS IN CHRONOLOGY REFERRED TO THE JULIAN PERIOD.

Julian Period. Common Date.

Month. Year. B.C.

Babylonia already civilised under the Accadians. .............cceeeeeeneeeeees Jan. 1 1 4713
Vernal equinox coincident with solar perigee... ..........cccecccececnseceeees March 21 625 4089
Eclipse observations recorded by Chinese astronomers.......... Te hs as Vea 1864 2850
ATTADS Sehts ID TUE ONIED, oils co's 4s ceees.d stas.cecee ne egeeciclmen panmneeewh Med 2714 c. 2000
PRIBGO OU INN OVEND oho a5 bie. «278 6a o.5's 0 Senios 0 016 mw aue.e wees Beha ea b(agaterare eiatee meats Frye 3364 1350
Exodus of Hebrews from Egypt according to recent Egyptologists............ ans 3394 1320
(DEMIS CECICATRE AY PF CLUSALUND co 5 50.6 a0 's's cs 0 vs oi cieb 6-0 thie) aieche la wiolerelsvaints NaMcetes ars May 1 8698 1015
CAEBAK BER OL TG RITVIU DIAG Mics oo cleo ate s-v c.d sup cle'nsiae eaitmbbeainetenine July 1 8938 776
Latin era of the Founding of Rome (Varronian epoch), A.U.C. .... April 2' 3961 753
Era of Nabonassar, prince of Babylon, the epoch used by Ptolemy. Feb. 26 3967 747
Assur-bani-pal king—golden age of Assyria...............eseeeeeees ew ee 4046 668
Eclipse of Thales (Herodotus ), identified by modern astronomers. ............ May 28 4129 585
PROS s ss Nea tre a ie RIE sw fide b)oe coin 010 0.5 5 os.n0's.0.0 0 selene mie pee area ee w Eales Bait's 4171 543
BADYLONWIA COUQUGTOR "BY CYTUB) oi... isis oscse ao css slew en ell seubee Ima mmee bua eD ss July 4176 538
Pericles supreme at Athens—golden age of GreeCe......... ccc cece cece ce eeces ape 4270 444
Metonic Cycle (astronomical epoch). .......... ccc nsec reccceeseseecvcvsces July 15 4282 432
Reformation of the calendar by Julius Cresar............c csc cece recs ecceseee Jan, 1 4669 45
A.D.

Dionysian or Christian era—epoch not proposed till 527 A.D............e00eee Jan. 1 4714 1
Hegira, the flight of Mohammed —epoch of the Moslem era. . is July 15 5335 622
Summer solstice coincident with solar perigee.............. June 21 5959 1246
Pal OP CORBEANGHIODIC A ah ified ot es ss on eccdeteced eden May 29 6166 1453
America distoyered ‘bY Golam bus.) . 5 6s.c0 sence avies aniduiemne Mae didisioala sie Oct. 11 6205 1492
PRICY ERMAN Ms Vas aig asa Fees \c'0 o's's 9 0 4 9's. 5's ables ashe ieee Sel aca eimai bee ae July 14 6502 1789
Completion of first Julian period ................... - fa eleene sen eater ee Dec. 31 7980 8267
Autumnal equinox coincident with solar perigee. ............00 cece eee cece Sept. 21 11196 6483

The Julian pened or cycle in its modern form
was proposed by Joseph Scaliger, but the Greeks
of Constantinople appear to be the authors of it.
Its exact epoch is noon of lst January 4713 B.C.
for the meridian of Alexandria, which was chosen
as being that to which Ptolemy had referred the
era of Nabonassar already discussed. Scaliger has
the best right to the title of father of chronology,
often given to Eratosthenes.

The astronomer Laplace in recent times proposed
another universal era not so practical in its bearing
on political chronology. He calculated that about
4000 years B.C. the major axis of the earth’s orbit
coincided with the line of the equinoxes, and that
in 1250 A.D. they were at right angles. In the
latter year, therefore, he proposed to fix the univer-
sal epoch whence the whole world should reckon,
the vernal equinox. to be the ‘first day of the first
year, when the solar perigee coincided with the
summer solstice. With Laplace’s estimate may be
compared the dates of coincidence with the solar
perigee which are tabulated above.

There are many other instances of astronomical
chronology overlapping and influencing political
chronology. Thus, by reckoning back we are able
to identify the time and place of some remarkable
eclipses, such as that of Thales (see in table
above), which caused the suspension of a battle
between the Medes and Persians. Another striking
verification was by that of Larissa, the Nimroud of
Mr Layard. Scottish history furnishes another
recent instance. We read that when King Haco
sailed from Bergen with his Norse fleet to punish
the king of Scotland, he put in at Ronaldsvoe in
Orkney, which was then subject to him, and that
there the sun appeared as a thin bright ring. Sir
David Brewster found by computation that there

was an annular eclipse of the sun passing over
Orkney on 5th August 1263, about one o’clock.
Two months afterwards Haco was defeated at
Largs, and Alexander annexed the Hebrides to
Scotland. ‘The ring at Ronaldsvoe was an evil
portent.’ Such verifications in chronology are de-
endent on the testimony of contemporary writers.
ther valuable information has been derived from
coins, medals, monuments, and inscriptions.

To treat adequately many of the important rami-
fications of our subject is here impossible, and we
have therefore only passed under review the main
features of the science as a whole. One depart-
ment, however, of political or technical chron-
ology deserves special attention from its interest to
antiquaries and lawyers as well as to historians—
viz. the method of assigning events to their phe -
tive years, or fixing their dates as it is called,
either by verifying in cases of doubt, or reconciling
and correcting in cases of discrepancy, inconsist-
ency, and contradiction. How, for example, can
the following dates be accounted for—all printed in
the same month of the same year, 1705? In the
London Gazette of 13th February is given a trans-
lation of which there is an abridgment in the
Edinburgh Courant of the 19th, yet the original

assage is in the Amsterdam Gazette, dated 22d
ebruary.

The first cause of such discrepancies is the differ-
ence of styles (see CALENDAR), which occasions
seeming blunders of ten, eleven, or twelve days,
according to the century. As 170 years elapsed
before England adopted the new style, the chief
Roman Catholic countries being followed by Poland
(1586), Hungary (1587), Strasburg (1682), German
Protestant States (1700), and Tuscany (1749 or
1751), all in different years, there was ample

t

is
if

f

| |
1

_Edward IV. are misdated by a whole year.
early sovereigns dated their reign from the corona-

CHRONOLOGY

CHRYSALIS 229

room left for innumerable discrepancies as to

ates.

Besides differing in the style—i.e. Julian or
Gregorian—two nations frequently began the year
at different times. A Scottish writer assigned the
execution of Charles I. to 1649, and his English
contemporary to 1648, though both agreeing as to
the month and day; because in Scotland the year
— with the Ist of January, as it had done since
1 and in England the 25th March was still New-
year’s Day. Throughout Europe there was much
variation in this respect, not only between one
country and another, but even in the same country
as between one time and another, as well as between
its different provinces at the same time. The most
common New-year’s Days were these four—( a) 25th
December; (b) 25th March; (c) Easter; (d) Ist
January. Thus England used both the first and
second from the 6th century to 1066; the fourth
till 1155; then the second till the day after 3lst
December 1751, which was called Ist January
1752. Scotland used the second till 1599, when

the day after 3lst December 1599 was called Ist |

January 1600. France under Charlemagne used
the first, and afterwards also the third and second
till 1563. The 25th March was originally chosen
by Dionysius Exiguus, the author of our present
era, as being the Annunciation—exactly nine
months before Christmas. A survival of its use in
Begins appears in the annual Treasury accounts,
and in preserving Lady-day as a Sabie oath

In many English documents before 2d September
1752, owing to the delay in accepting the Gregorian
reformation, we find a date thus, 12th February 170
or 1706-7, meaning 1706 if the year begin on 25th
March, or 1707 if it begin on the Ist of January.
This ambiguity of course onl mi to days
falling between Ist January ant 24th March.

A third cause of error or uncertainty arose from
dating ancient eotings not only by saints’ days
and church festivals, but by some Latin psalm or
other portion of the service which the clergy (who
of course were generally the clerks) associated with
the day in question. Thus we find as a date (15th
century) ‘the Wednesday next after Deus qui
errantibus,’ and (in 1610) ‘the Sunday on which
the church sings Reddite que sunt Cesaris Cesari.’
A Scottish parliament of 1318 met at Scone ‘on
the Sunday next after the feast of St Andrew the
Apostle ;’ and an English one of 1399 is only dated
in a contemporary account by the phrase ‘on
Monday the feast of St Faith the Virgin.’

A special complication arose from dating docu-
ments, and especially all state papers, by the year
of the king’s reign, as already referred to. Even in
Rymer’s Federa, a work of the highest importance
in English chronology, we find that from this cause
many of the public papers from Richard —

ur

tion, and the writers of history frequently assumed
that every king’s succession was officially dated
from the day of his predecessor’s death. In the
ease of of Rome, moreover, scarcely any
two of them in immediate succession, until recent
times, dated or computed on the same principle ;
and some of them vary their methods even within
their own reigns. In this connection may be noted
a clerical error in the Scottish records of David IL,
where after his return from sec dorblaes Supe. date of
his reign is given one year short. Frequently too
in public documents, both English and Scottish, we
read ‘King Henry,’ ‘King Edward,’ ‘King Robert,’
or ‘ King James,’ without further qualification ; so
that for purposes of chronology we must study the
penmanship, the style and wording, the seal, and
above all the names of the persons enumerated.
Even then the antiquary or historian is sometimes

unable to reduce the date of an instrument or
letter within a narrower range than fifty or even
a hundred years. :

A reference to contemporary history will some-
times fix the date. For example, there are two
acts in the Scottish statute-book which are thus
dated—one, ‘at Aberdeen in Lent next after the
coming in Scotland of Vivian the Legate of the
Apostolic See;’ the other, at Stirling, ‘on the

onday next before the feast of St Margaret the
Maiden next after the first coronation of Philip
king of the French.’ From these data we can
assign their dates as 1177 and 1130 respectively.

see i seca bale De Emendatione Temporum
(1583); Usher’s Annales V. and N. Testamenti (1650);
Sir I. Newton’s Chronology Amended (1728); L’Art de
Vérifier les Dates (1818-31); Herschel’s Astronomy ;
Ideler’s Lehrbuch (1831); Clinton’s Fasti, dc. ; Chron-
ology of History, by Sir Harris Nicolas (1838); Brinck-
mann’s Handbuch (1882); Woodward and Cates’s Ency-
clopedia of eet! (1872); Whitworth’s Church-
man’s Almanac from 1201 to 2000 (1883); Brockmann’s
System der Chronologie (1883); James C. Macdonald’s
Chronologies and Calendars (1897).

Chronometer, a time-keeper for determinin
the longitude at sea, is essentially a large wien
with compensated balance-wheel. See HOROLOGY.

Chrononhotonthologos was a burlesque by
Henry Carey (q.v.), in which Aldeborontephosco-
phornio and Rigdumfunnidos were characters.

Chronoscope, an instrument contrived by
Sir Charles Wheatstone to measure the duration of
certain short-lived luminous phenorhena, such as
the velocity of light, or the electric spark, of which
the eye itself can be no judge, owing to the per-
sistence of impressions on the eye after the cause
of sensation has ceased. The phenomenon is ob-
served by reflection in a mirror in such rapid
motion that the image of the luminous object
would appear to describe a circular are the length
of which must be a measure of the duration of the
light. The electric spark is found by this test to
have no duration, because its image in the mirror
is a mere point. The chronoscope has also been
used for measuring the time of flight of projectiles.
By means of it Foucault even determined the differ-
ence of the velocity of light when passing through
air and water, and thus deduced the corresponding
indices of refraction.

Chrudim, a town of Bohemia, 74 miles ESE.
of Prague by rail. It manufactures sugar, beer,
alcohol, and artificial manure, and has important
horse-markets. Pop. 12,128, mostly Czechs.

Chrysalis, or CurysALip, a term originally
rete to the golden-coloured resting stages in the
life-history of many butterflies, but sometimes ex-
tended to all forms of pups or nymphs—that is, to
the second stages in the history of insects which
undergo complete metamorphosis. It is thes
which results from the fasting quiescence of the
generally active and voracious larva or caterpillar,
and also, of course, the stage which after one or
rarely two moults awakens into the winged insect
or imago. During the whole or part of its often
prolonged existence, the pupa or chrysalid is ex-
ternally quiescent; but internally most profound
structural changes are going on, which amount in
many cases to a thorough reconstruction, and
always result in the development of wings and
sexual organs. Chrysalids vary greatly in degree
and duration of quiescence, in habit, in the con-
dition of their appendages, and in the develop-
ment of external covering. The colours also vary
greatly, and in some cases the golden or otherwise
coloured appearance is doubtless protective. The
are generally found hidden away in protec
corners, or underground, or suspended from the
leaves of plants. The completion of the internal

230 CHRYSANTHEMUM

CHRYSELEPHANTINE

reconstruction is soon followed by a writhing
restlessness, in the course of which the chrysalis
frees itself from encumbrances, and emerges

Various forms of Chrysalis :
a, orange-tip butterfly ; b, black-veined white butterfly; c, swallow-
tailed butterfly ; d, purple emperor ; e, silver-washed fritillary ;
Ff, Duke of Burgundy fritillary.

into freedom and flight. Mr Poulton has made
some exceedingly beautiful experiments on the
effect of extefnal surroundings on pups, and has
shown how gilded surroundings are associated

with the appearance of gilded chrysalids. See
BUTTERFLY, CATERPILLAR, INSECTS, META-
MORPHOSIS. .

Chrysanthemum (Gr., ‘gold-flower’ ), a genus
of plants of the natural order Composite, sub-order
Corymbiferee ; having a hemispherical or nearly flat
involucre, with imbricated scales, which are mem-
braneous at the margin, a naked receptacle, the
florets of the dise tubular and hermaphrodite, those
of the ray strap-shaped and female, the fruit desti-
tute of pappus. e species of this genus are
annuals, perennials, or shrubby; and all have
leafy stems. They are natives chiefly of the
temperate parts of the Old World. C. leucan-
themum, the Ox-eye, or Ox-eye Daisy, is abundant
in fields, meadows, and grassy places of woods
in Europe and North America. It has large
flowers, with. white ray and yellow disc. It is
often a troublesome weed among hay and in pas-
tures; being perennial, and having a creeping
brittle root-stock, it is not easily extirpated. It
is common in Britain, which has several other
native species, C. segetum (Corn Marigold), a
frequent weed in cornfields, which is an annual,
with large deep yellow flowers; C. inodorum
(Scentless Chrysanthemum), an annual with erect
branching habit, leaves like the camomile, and
white flowers; and C. parthenium—Pyrethrum
parthenium of some botanists—Common Feverfew,
a perennial, probably originally spread from culti-
vation, but now at lease apparently indigenous to
a great part of Britain. Of the latter, the Golden
Feather, so commonly used in designs in the flower-
garden, and a compact free-flowering form with

ouble flowers, are two useful and well-marked
varieties. From C. inodoruwm has also recently
evolved a variety with pure white double flowers,
of great value to those who cater for cut flowers,
the colour and form being desirable and the cro
enormous. The Paris Daisy or Marguerites, whieh
have recently become so popular as greenhouse
and bedding plants, are forms of C. frutescens and
C. pinnatifidum, the latter a native of Madeira,
the former of the Canaries. The old-fashioned

yellow and white chrysanthemum of our cottage-
ardens is C. corduarium, a native of Sicily and
North Africa. C. carinatum, a pretty annual
species from Barbary, is sometimes seen in gardens
in this country treated as a tender annual. The
most favoured species, however, with gardeners of
this and other countries is C. sinense, sometimes
also named C. indicum. It was introduced in
1764, and has increased in varieties immensely
since then. In 1832 there were only about forty
known; now they are to be reckoned by hun-
dreds, and the num-
bers are yearly being
added to. Long before
it was knownin Europe
the gardeners of China
and Japan were enthu-
siastic cultivators of
the flower; and it gives
its name in the latter
country to the highest
order of honour-—‘ The
Order of the Golden
Flower.’ The colours
areexceedingly various
and beautiful, and the
form of the flower-
heads in some varieties
is marked by the most
perfect symmetry,
while in others it
assumes a medusa-like
character, with numer-
ous twisted thread-like
florets of several inches
in length. The cir-
cumstance that it may
be had in flower dur-
ing the late autumn
months and far into
winter, coupled with
its profuse flowering
quality and its simple cultural requirements,
renders it a universal favourite. Cuttings are
struck in November, December, and January.
They require no heat, but merely protection from
frost, and till they strike root they must be kept
in a close case away from draught. The soil they
delight in most is a rich loam, with decomposed
manure, a third of the latter to two-thirds of the
former. They should be placed out of doors from
May till the time of killing autumnal frost, when
they ought to be housed to protect them from
freezing. See Burbidge, The Cncueanthenaie : its
History and Culture (1884).

Chryselephantine (Gr., from chrysos, ‘ gold,’
and elephas, ‘ivory’), the art of making statues
jointly of gold and ivory, was extensively practised
amongst the Greeks. It developed out of the art
of wood-carving, the draperies of the wooden
figures being gilded for ornament, while the faces,
hands, &c. were painted white. Then the un-
covered parts of the body came to be made of
marble, producing Acroliths (q.v.); and ultimately
ivory was used, with gilding or gold-plating.
The bulk of the figure continued to be made of
wood, or wood and clay; thin gold plates were
fastened over the parts intended to represent cloth-
ing, while on the fleshy parts small plates of ivory
were skilfully laid. The colossal works executed
by Phidias in the time of Pericles are the most
famous of this class, the greatest being the Athene
on the Acropolis, which represented the goddess
in armour, covered with a long robe, and the
famous Olympian Zeus, executed in the same
materials (see CoLossus). The combination of
gold and ivory was chiefly used in statues of the
gods ; hence it was regarded as blameworthy arro-

Yellow Chrysanthemum.

CHRYSIPPUS

CHRYSOSTOM 231

gance when the Macedonian kings had their family
statues made of chryselephantine work. 5
SCULPTURE.

Chrysippus, an eminent Stoic philosopher,
was thy te 280 B.c., at Soli in Giticia. He
came to Athens when still a youth, and devoted
himself with ardour to philosophy. His principal
master was Cleanthes, but he is said to have
studied also under the academic teachers, Arcesi-
laus and Lacydes. He had the reputation of being
the keenest disputant and best logician of his age,
so much so that people used to say: ‘If the gods
make use of dialectic, it can only that of Chry-
«tg Although he did not create a new system,
and explained the physical universe like the rest
of his school, in morals he modified the more ex-
treme views of the earlier Stoics. Chrysippus
seldom wrote less than 500 lines a day, and is said
to have composed more than 700 works. Of these
but a few fragments remain, which were edited by
Petersen in 1827. See Zeller’s great work on the
history of Greek philosophy.

Chrysis (‘ golden-wasp’), a genus of hymenop-
terous insects, type of a family Chryside, with
about 400 species. Their systematic position is not
far from that of the true wasps. The French call
them Guépes dorées (‘gilded wasps’), and they
sometimes receive the English names of Golden-
tailed and Ruby-tailed Flies. They delight in
sunshine, and may be seen poised in the air—the
motion of their wings being so rapid as to render
the body alone of the insect visible.

Chrysobalanez, a sub-order of Rosacexw
* (q.v.), presenting close affinities through Ces-
alpine to Leguminose. The 180 species are
trees or shrubs, natives of tropical and sub-
tropical America and Africa. The fruit of many
is eatable, as the Cocoa Plum (q.v.) of the West
Indies (Chrysobalanus). The pts of some
resemble sweet-almonds, notably those of <Acia
dulcis, and other species of Guiana. A useful oil
is expressed from the seeds of Prinsepia utilis, a
spiny Himalayan plant.

Chrysoberyl (Gr., ‘golden beryl’), a gem
almost as hard as sapphire, and the finer specimens
of which are very beautiful, particularly those
which exhibit an opalescent play of light. Lapi-
daries sometimes call it oriental or opalescent
chrysolite. It is of a green colour, inclining to
yellow, semi-transparent, or almost transparent,
and has double refraction. It occurs crystallised
in six-sided prisms; often in macles, or twin
crystals. It is found occasionally in granite, but
more frequently in gneiss and mica-schist ; some-
times it occurs in sandstone or in alluvial soil
derived from the disintegration of schistose rocks.
Localities for its occurrence are the Ural Moun-
tains, Ceylon, Pegu, Brazil, and Connecticut. It
is composed of alumina, ylucina, and small pro-
portions of ferric oxide, titanic acid, and sesqui-
_ oxide of chromium—the alumina being about 80
per cent. of the whole. The chrysoberyl of the
ancients was a different mineral, probably the
Chrysoprase (q.v.) of the moderns.

Chr) socolla, an ore of Copper (q.v.).

Chrys’olite (Gr., ‘golden-stone’), a mineral
composed of silica, magnesia, and protoxide of
iron; of a fine yellowish-green colour, with vitre-
ous lustre; transparent, and having double refrae-
tion; in hardness, about equal to quartz; and
with conchoidal fracture. It often erystallises in
four-sided or six-sided prisms, variously modified.
Very fine specimens are brought from Egypt and
from some parts of the East, also from Brazil.
Chrysolite is used by jewellers as an ornamental
stone, but is not highly valued. Olivine, or com-

mon chrysolite, is an important rock-forming
mineral. It is dark yellowish-green in colour,
and occurs generally in somewhat rounded grains
or corroded crystals in some igneous rocks, such
as the basalts. Occasionally large granular masses,
which may have a rectangular outline, are met
— in lavas—some of them weighing as much as

Chrysolo’ras, MANUEL, the first to transplant
Greek literature into Italy, was born at Constan-
tinople in the middle of the 14th century A.p.
About the year 1391 he was sent by the Byzantine
emperor, John Palzologus, to England and Italy
to entreat assistance against the Turks, and in
1397 he left his native land and went to Florence,
where, as teacher of Greek literature, he was
highly esteemed and admired. Leonardo Bruno,
Poggius, Philelphus, Guarinus of Verona, and
other eminent scholars were among his pupils. He
was afterwards employed by Pope Gregory XII. in ~
an attempt to promote a union of the Greek with
the Roman Church, and in 1413 went with John
XXIII. to the Council of Constance, where he died
1415. His chief work was LHrotemata, a Greek
grammar (Venice, 1484).— Manuel Chrysoloras
must be distinguished from his nephew, JOHN
CHRYSOLORAS, who also taught Greek in Italy.

Chrysomela. See CoLORADO BEETLE.

Chrysophane, a medicament valued in the
treatment of Psoriasis (q.v.), is derived from
rhubarb and andira, with other herbs.

Chrysophyllum. See STAR APPLE, SAPO-
TACES.

Chrysoprase is a valuable variety of chalce-
dony, prized more highly as a precious stone on the
Continent than in this country. It is of a fine
leek or apple-green colour in choice specimens, but
inferior ones exhibit other shades of green, and it is
sometimes spotted with yellowish-brown. It is often
set in a circlet of diamonds or pearls. Unfortu-
nately, it is apt to lose its colour through time,
particularly if kept in a warm place.

Chrysops. See CLEG,

Chrys’ostom, St JoHN (Gr. Chrysostémos,
‘ golden-mouthed ;’ so named from the splendour of
his eloquence), was born at Antioch about 347 A.D.
His mother, Anthusa, was a pious woman, wholly
devoted to her son, who grew up under her loving
instructions into an earnest, gentle, and serious
youth, passing through, as Neander significantl
observes, none of those wild, dark struggles wit
sinful passions which left an ineffaceable impress
on the soul of Augustine, and gave a sombre colour-
ing to his whole theology. He studied oratory
under the famous heathen rhetorician, Libanius,
and began the career of an advocate; but, soon
dissatished with this, he placed himself for three
years under the instruction of Bishop Meletius, by
whom in his twenty-third year he was baptised
and ordained an anagnéstés or ‘Reader.’ After
six years spent as a monk in the mountains near
Antioch, an illness forced him to return in 380 to
that city, where he was ordained deacon by Bishop
Meletius in 381, and presbyter by Bishop Flavianus
in 386. The eloquence, earnestness, and practical
tone of his preaching excited the attention of Jews,
heathens, and heretics, and secured for him the
reputation of the greatest orator of the ancient
church. In 398 the Emperor Arcadius elevated
him to the archiepiscopate of Constantinople.
Chrysostom immediately began to restrict the
expenditure in which his predecessors had indulged,
and bestowed so large a portion of his revenues on
hospitals and other charities that he gained the
surname of ‘John the Almoner.’ He also en-
deavoured to reform the lives of the clergy, and

232 CHRYSOSTOM

CHUBB

sent monks as missionaries into Scythia, Persia,
Palestine, and other lands. His faithful discharge
of his duties, especially in reproof of vices, excited
the enmity of the patriarch Theophilus and of
the Empress Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing
and banishing him from the capital in 403. He
was soon recalled, to be banished again in 404.
After a short stay at Nicza, he was removed to
the little town of Cucusus, in the desert parts of
the Taurus Mountains. Even here his zeal was
not abated. He laboured for the conversion of the
Persians and Goths in the neighbourhood, and
wrote the seventeen letters or rather moral essays
to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise
on the proposition—‘ None can hurt the man who
will not hurt himself.’ The intercession of Inno-
cent I. of Rome and the Emperor Honorius only
moved Arcadius to order that he should be more
remotely banished to Pityus on the Euxine, at the
very verge of the Eastern Roman empire. Accord-
ingly, the old man was made to travel on foot, and
with his bare head exposed toa burning sun. This
cruelty proved fatal. Chrysostom died on the way
at Comana, in Pontus, September 14, 407 A.D.,
blessing God with his dying lips. A sect spran
up after his death called Johannists, who ad
to acknowledge his successors ; nor did they return
to the general communion till 438, when the Arch-
bishop Proclus prevailed on the Emperor Theo-
dosius II. to bring back the body of the saint to
Constantinople, where it was .solemnly interred,
the emperor himself publicly imploring the pardon
of Heaven for the crime of his parents, Arcadius
and Eudoxia. The Greek Church celebrates the
festival of Chrysostom on the 13th of November ;
the Roman, on the 27th of January. St Chry-
sostom’s works are very numerous, and consist of
Homilies on parts of Scripture and points of doctrine;
Commentaries on the whole Bible, part of which
have perished; Epistles addressed to various
eople; Treatises on different eben, such as
Peo ianae: the Priesthood, and the like; and
Liturgies. Of these the most valuable, as well as
the most studied, are the Homélies, which are
rightly held to be superior to everything of the
kind in ancient Christian literature. Thomas
Aquinas said he would not give in exchange those
on St Matthew for the whole city of Paris. Here
his exegesis is sound, practical, and very ‘ English,’
in Cardinal Newman’s phrase. In general he
rejects the allegorical system of interpretation, and
adheres to the grammatical, basing his doctrines
and sentiments on a rational apprehension of the
letter of Scripture. He is, however, far from being
a bibliolater. He recognised the presence of a
human element in the Bible as well as a divine;
and, instead of attempting by forced and artificial
hypotheses to reconcile what he thought irreconcil-
able in Scripture statements, he frankly admitted
the existence of contradictions, and shaped his
theory of inspiration accordingly. But his greatest
excellence lay in that power, springing from the
fervour and holiness of his heart, which the
consciences of the proud, the worldly, and the
rofligate were awakened, and all were made to
eel the reality of the gospel message. The histo-
rian Sozomen says of him, that he was ‘mighty
to speak and to convince, surpassing all the orators
of his time.’ The surname Chrysostom was first
applied some time after his death, and is first found
in Isidore of Seville, who died in 636.

The best edition of St Chrysostom’s works is that
of Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. folio ( Paris,
1718-38; Oe eae by the Abbé Migne, Paris, 1863),
which was largely based on the splendid edition of
Sir Henry Savile, printed at a cost of £8000 ( Eton,
8 vols. 1613), ‘the first work of learning on a great
scale,’ says Hallam, ‘ published in England.’ Some

of the Homilies are translated in the Oxford
Library of the Fathers. :

See the older church historians; and cf. the moderns,
especially Neander, both in his History and in his special
book on St Chrysostom, translated by J. C. Stapleton
(1838). See also Thierry, Chrysostom et l Impératrice
Eudoxie (2d ed. Paris, 1874); Newman’s Historical
Sketches (1873); W. R. W. Stephens, St Chrysostom : His
Life and Times (1872); R. W. Busk, Life and Times of
Chrysostom (1885); and F. H. Chase, Chrysostom (1887 ).

Chrysotype, a photographic process, the result
being produced mainly by a solution of chloride of
gold. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

Chub (Leuciscus cephalus), a fish of the carp
family Cyprinid, of the same genus with the
roach, dace, bleak, minnow, &c. The colour is-
bluish-black on the upper parts, passing into white
on the belly ; the cheeks and gill-covers rich golden
yellow. The weight rarely exceeds 5 lb. It is.
plentiful in the rivers of England, and occurs in
some of those of the south-west of Scotland, in»
Europe, and in Asia Minor. It spawns in Aprih

Chub.

and May, and comes into condition again by the:
end of June or early in July. It prefers rapid
water and a clear bottom, and often hides in holes.
Its diet is very mixed. It is not much esteemed
for the table. The scales have been used for
making false pearls. See PEARL. The common
American chub is the Lewcosomus rhotheus.

Chubb, CHARLEs, locksmith, was patentee of
several important improvements in ‘detector’ locks,
aie sion patented by his brother, Jeremiah Chubb.
of Portsea, in 1818. He was in the hardware busi-
ness at Winchester and Portsea previous to his.
settlement in London, where he died, 16th Ma
1845. Under his son and successor, John Chubb:
(1816-72), further patents were taken out and
improvements made in locks and safes, and the
business was greatly developed. See Lock.

Chubb, THomas, an English deist, who wrote
on religious questions during the first half of the
18th century, was born at East-Harnham near Salis-
bury in 1679. His father, who had been a maltster,
died early, consequently his children were poorly
educated and early set to work. Thomas was first-
apprenticed to a glover in Salisbury, but his eye-
sight becoming weak, he became an assistant to a.
tallow-chandler, in which employment he died in.
1747. He had already contrived to pick up con-
siderable learning, when a perusal of the ‘his-
torical preface’ to Whiston’s Primitive Christianity
Revived impelled him to write his own tract, The
Supremacy of the Father Asserted, which Whiston
helped him to publish in 1715. Encouraged by the:
patronage of Sir Joseph Jekyll and others, he con-
tinued to write, and a quarto volume of his tracts,
poste in 1730, made his name known to every-

ody. His opinions drifted nearer and nearer to-
deism, yet he went regularly to his parish church
and regarded the mission, if not the person, of
Christ as divine. Unfortunately his learning was.
far inferior to his natural ability, and his teaching”
lacks distinctness and consistency. His principa
works are—A Discourse concerning Reason... @
sufficient Guide in matters of Religion (1731); The
True Gospel of Jesus Christ Asserted (1738), fol-
lowed by a defence against the critics; An Enquiry
into the Ground and Foundation of Religion, where-

CHUBUT

CHURCH 233

in it is shown that Religion is founded on Nature
(1738); and a Discourse on Miracles (1741). The
best statement of his views is contained in his
Posthumous Works (2 vols. 1748).

Chubut, or Cuupat, a colony in Patagonia,
so named from a river which drains a large part
of its area. The entrance to the river, about 600
miles 8S. of the river Plate, is bad, but the bar
can be crossed by vessels of from 7 to 12 feet
draught. Its principal interest lies in its Welsh
settlement, which has remained almost wholly
ala The first settlers, 151, arrived
in July 1865. Epochs in its history have been the
abandonment of the colony in 1867; the subse-
quent return from New Bay; a twenty months’
nearly complete isolation from the outer world, ter-
minated in 1871. The population, after dwindling
to 120, rose to 690 in 1876, and 1286 in 1883. The
ee town, Trerawson, or Rawsonville, about

miles from the sea, is named after Dr Rawson, an
Argentine statesman. Frosts seldom last through
the day, fogs are infrequent, English grain and
roots are babs and salt of good quality is
found. ere are a president and council.
railway, 43 miles, was made in 1885-88 from Trelew
to Port Madryn on Nuevo Bay.

Chuck-Will's-widow.

ILL.

Chudleigh CAPE, is on the north coast of
Labrador, at the entrance of Hudson Strait, 60°
12’ N. lat., 65° 25’ W. long.

Chumbul’, a river of Central India, rising in
the Vindhyan Mountains, at a height of 2019 feet
above the sea, and entering the Jumna, after a
generally north-east course of 650 miles.

Chunam, the Indian name for a very fine kind
of quicklime made from calcined shells or from very
pure limestone, and used for chewing with Betel
(a. y.), and for plaster. When chunain is to be used
or plaster, it is mixed with fine river-sand, and
thoroughly beaten up with water. A little jaggery
(coarse sugar) is also added.

Chunar’, a town of India, on the right bank of
the Ganges, 26 miles SW. of Benares. The fortress
contains Warren Hastings’s house. Pop. 9148.

Chunder Sen. See BRAHMO SomAg.

Chung-king, a Chinese port in Sze-chuen, on
the Yang-tsze, opened in 1890. Pop. 109,000.

Chupra (Chapra’), a town of Bengal, on the
Gogra, a mile from the Ganges. _ Pop. (1891) 57,352.

Chuquisa’ca, or Sucre, capital of Bolivia, is
situated on a mountain-closed tableland, 8825 feet
above the sea, on a small tributary of the Pilco-
mayo. It is the seat of an archbishop, and though
its houses are mostly of one story, is well built,
and has a magnificent cathedral, a small university,
a Latin school, and a hospital. Owing to its mild
climate, many of the richer miners of Potosi winter
here. The 27,000 inhabitants are mostly a mixture
of Spaniards and Quichua Indians. Chuquisaca was
founded in 1539 on the site of an ancient Peruvian
town of the same name, and was for a time called
Ciudad de la Plata, from the rich silver-mines in
the neighbouring mountains; but the Peruvian
name signifying ‘bridge of gold’ was soon re-
stored. The second name, Sucre, is derived from
the general who in December 1824 fought and
won the last great battle for colonial independence
at Ayacucho,—The southern territory of the same
name embraces a large portion of the Gran Chaco,
which extends to the Brazilian frontier. The
eastern portion of it is occupied by wild Indian
tribes, and is low-lying oe 9 sawhalaanahn’ the
climate of the west, among the offshoots of the
Eastern rdilleras, is healthy and pleasant.
Area, 40,000 sq. m.; population (1900) 290,000,

See WHIP-POOR-

not inclusive of some 50,000 Indians in the eastern
plains.

Chuquito, a town of Peru, once capital of a
rovince, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca.
op. 5000.

Chur. See Corre.

Church, the whole body of Christians; the
Christian place of worship ; the clergy ; or a sect or
denomination of Christians. It is derived from the
Greek kyriakon, ‘ belonging to the Lord,’ and that
from kyrios, ‘lord ;’ the Anglo-Saxon form is circe,
the Scottish kirk, the German kirche. The kyriakon,
the original name of the place of assembly, meant
accordingly ‘the Lord’s house.’ The Christian
Church, hke every other society, must have a
certain constitution and rules according to which its
affairs are administered. It is disputed, however,
among Christians, how far this constitution has
been defined, or these rules prescribed by divine
authority, and how far they have been left to the
discretion of men. The form of church government
depends primarily on the idea entertained of the
constitution of the church. Episcopalians and
Presbyterians agree that many congregations are
to be united under a common government; but
this, according to Episcopalians, should be more or
less absolutely in the hands of bishops, who are
superior to the mere pastors of congregations ;
while according to Presbyterians it should be
carried on by ministers and elders of these congre-
gations meeting for this purpose on a footing of
equality. Congregationalists, or Independents,
place all church government in the hands of the
members of each congregation and the office-
bearers whom it has elected. This theory of
church government is maintained by many Baptists
and others who, for various reasons, assume differ-
ent denominations. See BIsHorp, PRESBYTERIAN-
ISM, INDEPENDENTS, METHODISTS.

The present article is mainly devoted to church
architecture. A general sketch of the history of
the Christian Church will be found in this work
under the head of CHURCH History, while the
various sections forming the great Christian com-
munions are treated in separate articles—the Church
of England at ENGLAND, as is that of Scotland at
SCOTLAND; again the Church of Rome will be
found at RoMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, and the
Eastern Church at GREEK CHURCH. Here we may
merely note the self-explanatory names of the
following active organisations within the bosom
of the Anglican Church: the Church Associa-
tion (founded 1865 for the maintenance of Reforma-
tion principles); Church Con es (annual since
1860); Chureh Building Society (1818); Church
Defence Institution (1886, to counteract the agita-
tion for disestablishment); Church Missionary
Society (founded 1799; see MISSIONS) ; Church
Pastoral Aid Society (1836, to maintain curates and
lay aaa in densely populated districts); the
English Church Union (1859, to uphold Anglo-
Catholic principles).

Under BASILICA some account is given of the
mode in which the primitive form of the Chris-
tian church or place of assembly originated, and
whence it derived its characteristic features. In
course of time the numbers of the clergy increased
and a complete hierarchy, with a fixed liturgical
service, became established. The simple apse was
now no longer sufficient, and the presbytery or
place for the clergy was enlarged. This was effected
in various ways, sometimes by the erection of a
low inclosure or choir extending from the pres-
bytery or raised part in front of the apse, into the
nave. This ‘bema’ or choir served for the accom-
modation of the clergy and singers, and to it were
attached on either side two pulpits or ambones,

234

CHURCH

Church :
C, Choir; N, Nave;
N T, North Transept ;
8 T, South Transept.

from which the Gospels and Epistles were read to
the worshippers assembled round the three open
sides. Such an arrangement may still be seen in
the ancient basilica of San Clemente in Rome.

In other instances the apse is lengthened east-
wards, so as to provide additional space. An ex-

ample of this plan occurs at

S. Apollinare in Classe, near

Cc Ravenna. In the Basilican

churches the nave remained as

| at first, a long simple hall,

' §$T | with side aisles—in which the

congregation assembled, the

men on one side, and the

women on the other. Mean-

while in the East the use of

the dome had caused the in-

N troduction of a variety of

lans, and in particular the

orm of the Greek cross, which

was conveniently roofed by a

large central dome and four

subsidiary domes over the four

arms of the cross. This plan

suggested the transept or

portion with high roof at right angles to the nave;

and it is easy to see how the wide space in the

Basilican churches between the nave and apse,

in which stood the altar, might also be enlarged

so as to form a transept. he above is what

actually happened in the south of France. The

Venetian merchants introduced the above Greek

domed design at Périgueux, where they had repro-

duced in the 11th century a copy of St Mark’s

of Venice; and we find in the churches of that

district a transept introduced from an early eriod,

having several apses to the east, and side aisles like
the nave.

It was especially necessary in the churches of the
monasteries that there should be ample accommoda-
tion for the monks in the portion of the church set
apart for them. This probably led to the lengthen-
ing of the choir, but in the earlier Cistercian
churches, although the transept is introduced, there
is no projection to the east except the central and
side apses. But when the plan of the ‘cross’
church, however it may have been invented, had
been developed, the idea speedily claimed attention,
and its symbolical significance recommended its
adoption. It is remarkable, however, that during
the growth and development of the early Gothic
style in the reign of Philip Augustus, when most of
the cathedrals and churches of northern France
were rebuilt, they were almost all constructed
without transepts, the object apparently being to
concentrate the attention on the one important
point, the high altar. It was in the monastic churches
that the transept was chiefly developed.

Along with this, another feature, which had first
been introduced in the south, was worked out and

erfected by the northern architects—viz. the carry-
ing of the aisle round the apse, so as to convert the
latter from being a simple half-cylinder, roofed with
a semi-dome, into a circular or octagonal east end,
supported on a screen of pillars, behind which was
the surrounding aisle, with its radiating chapels,
while the upper part of the apse was carried up the
full height of the choir, which it terminated with
a brilliant east end. Mr Fergusson supposes that
this ‘chevet,’ or splendid eastern termination of
French Gothie churches, was the result of the
absorption of a circular edifice into the church.
There is no doubt that the church owes several of
its features to this system of absorption. Origin-
ally the group of ecclesiastical buildings consisted
of the shave or basilica, at the west end of which
was an atrium or open court, having a circular or
octagonal baptistery opening from it opposite the

door to the church. In Germany the atrium was
roofed in and became part of the church, while the
western baptistery was also absorbed into the one
chief edifice, and became the western apse so com-
mon in that country. But it had also been cus-
tomary to build occasional churches of a circular
form in imitation of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem. In Germany and else-
where a choir was added to these for the use of the
clergy, but in France the cireular church was re-
tained by the clergy as the choir, and a nave was con-
structed in connection with it for the people. The
fine effect of the circular termination was thus seen,
and had only to be seen to be immediately adopted.
Besides the chapels radiating from the ‘chevet,’
numerous others were gradually introduced, extend-
ing beyond the aisles ; the height of the main strue-
ture was increased, and great windows were in-
serted in the clerestory, till the interior presented a
glowing vision of rich colour and endless variety of
perspective.

Such was the growth of the Christian church
during the middle ages, and such is the general
form it still retains in Roman Catholic countries,
notwithstanding the great changes of style through
which it has passed from the 13th to the 19th
century. Since the Reformation a new form
of church has been introduced. The ancient tradi-
tions were no longer held sacred by Protestants,
and a style of building adapted to the new
mode of service was called for. Hence arose the
arrangements of the numerous churches designed by
Sir C. Wren, Gibbs, and others during the 17th and
18th centuries. These consist of a great hall with a
gallery running along the two sides and west end,
with a large window or apse at the east end. Dur-
ing the present century the plan of the medieval
church has frequently been again resorted to, both
in England and the United States; but among
Presbyterians, Independents, and many others, the
modern plan of a hall designed with galleries so as
to contain a numerous congregation, having the
pulpit placed in the most prominent position, is
till the most generally used.

The following table shows the comparative size
of some of the great churches of the world, givin
in feet their total length, breadth at transept, an
height of spire or tower or dome :

Length, Transept. Spire.
St Peter's, Rome. ...........00c008 700 500 485
Cathedral of Florence............. 530 323 380
Milan Cathedral...... apts DOR 284 400
Cologne Cathedral cae” £45 282 515
Strasburg Cathedral............... 354 Ds 474
Antwerp Cathedral..............- 500 180 460
Amiens Cathedral ..........0--000 442 194 223
Notre Dame, Paris.............+¢8 400 150 204
Strauls, LONdON'. i. cee sss aves 510 282 404
St Sophia’s, Constantinople....... 246 183
Canterbury Cathedral ............ 530 124 235
OV MOMBCED | Ws aud Dac cidabhugeme 524 222 213
Westminster Abbey .............. 500 189 199
Salisbury Cathedral. .............. 474 229 404
Glasgow Cathedral........0....: 4. 819 * 225
St Patrick’s Cathedral, New York. 332 174 328

Churches vary of course in accordance with their
importance and size. The largest are the metro-
politan and cathedral churches, then the con-
ventual, the collegiate, and the parish churches ;
but although they vary in magnitude and richness,
they are all constructed on the same principles, and
follow one idea.

The annexed ground-plan of Durham Cathedral
shows the various parts of one of the most perfect
medieval structures in England, with the names
attached to the different portions, which will be
described under their respective headings. See
AISLE, APSE, BASILICA, CLERESTORY, TRIFORIUM,
&c. Plans, sections, or other illustrations of other
important churches will be found at BYZANTINE
ARCHITECTURE, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, Lom-

CHURCH

CHURCH DISCIPLINE 235

ARCHITECTURE, &c., where much additional infor-
mation on the developments of church building falls

Vevey
vane

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Sal -N <f
m mw, 3 \
° ms N < fh
S Ay!
N
eS cy
= = Ny o
° i ° SSG
ca > bad N
WM” a dh

NORTH
A) TRANSEPT

CENTRAL
TOWER

a1siv 32ais

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LLL UO

BARD ARCHITECTURE, RENAISSANCE, RHENISH oe Andrewes, and on the Oxford movement

1891

are also very valuable. His n, Spenser,
t Anselm,

Dante, and some of his essays were re-

to be given. For the historical succession of the ' printed in 1888 (5 vols.). His Village Sermons were

ublished in 1892. He died 9th
ecember 1890. See Life and Let-
ters, edited by his daughter (1894).
—He was a nephew of Sir
RIcHARD CHURCH (1785-1873),
born at Cork of Quaker parentage,
who had become C.B. (1815) and
K.C.H. (1815), and had been in
the Neapolitan service, when in
1827 he became generalissimo to
the insurgent Greeks. He died at
Athens. See Lives by Lane-Poole
(1890) and E. M. Church (1895).
Church, STATES OF THE, or
PAPAL STATES, stretched from
the Po to near Naples, and in 1859
had an area of 15,774 sq. m. and a
pop. of 3,000,000. It was divided
or administrative p into
twenty districts, including the
Comarca of Rome ; six legations,
among them those of Bologna
and Ravenna; and thirteen dele-
ations, including Ancona and
Dérwates More general divisions
were the # na, Umbria, and
the March of Ancona. The war
of 1859 and the popular vote of
1860 left the pope only the Co-
marea of Rome, the legation of
Velletri, and the delegations of
Civita Vecchia, Frosinone, and
Viterbo, 4493 oP m. in extent,
with a pop. of about 700,000, the
rest being united with Italy. The
temporal power of the popes origi-
nated in a gift of the exarchate of
Ravenna by Pepin to Pope Stephen
IL, and it reached its greatest
extent under Innocent IIT. (1198-
1216). The withdrawal of the

\ aa
Un

200 EF
a)

Ground-plan of Durham Cathedral.

styles, see ARCHITECTURE ; see also the articles
and illustrations at AMIENS, ANTWERP, BosToN,
BurRGos, CANTERBURY, COLOGNE, DuRHAM, EXE-
TER, LINCOLN, Moscow, PETERBOROUGH, SALIS-
BURY, ULM, WESTMINSTER, YORK, &c.

Church, RicHarp WILuiAM, Dean of St Paul’s
from 1871, was born at Lisbon, 25th April 1815. He
took a first-class at Oxford in 1836, and soon after
was elected to a fellowship at Oriel. From 1853 he
held the — of Whatley, near Frome. In 1854
he published his mcholaaty Essays and Reviews.
His university sermons (1876-78) in a volume
entitled Human Life and its Conditions (1878), the
series of St Paul’s and Oxford sermons in The
Gifts of Civilisation (1880), and the five St Paul’s
sermons forming The Discipline of the Christian
Character (1885), are profound contributions to
religious thought. Other works are his Life of St
Anselm (1871), an amplification of two essays in
his first volume ; The Beginnings of the Middle Ages

1877), an introduction to the series of ‘ Epochs of
odern History ;’ Dante: an Essay, with a transla-
tion of the De Monarchia by his only son, F. J.
Church, a young man of rare promise, who died in
1888 ; S; 879), and Bacon (1884), two of the
best books in the series of ‘ English Men of Letters.’
His occasional essays or lectures on such subjects
as Montaigne, Brittany, Cassiodorus, the sacred
poetry of early religions, the Pensées of Pascal and

French garrison of Rome in 1870
led to the final downfall of the

pe’s temporal power. See POPE,
TALY

Church-ale, a kind of church festival in old
England at which ale was drunk liberally. The
name is agi compounded like bridal = bride-
ale, scot-ale, clerk-ale, bid-ale, &c. The church-ales
were usually held upon Whitsuntide, and two per-
sons were chosen beforehand to preside over the
feast, and divide out the victuals and drink volun-
tarily contributed by the parishioners. Sometimes
the drink which ris been brewed from malt given
by the parishioners was sold about Whitsunday at
the church for the support of orphans and poor, the
repair of the church, and similar objects. The
practice of holding church-ales with the correspond-
ing games was denounced by the Puritans, and is
not overlooked in Stubbs’ Anatomie of Abuses.

Church fg ‘aa ( Diseiplina ecclesiastica),
the practice of the Christian Church in dealing with
such of its office-bearers and members as have by
public scandal caused hindrance to its common
spiritual life. Its Scripture authority, resting on
such passages as Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 15 (et seg.),
is further enforced in Paul’s epistles and in the
gospel and epistles of John. Under the Decian
persecution there was so much apostacy that special
rules became fixed for the restoration of the Lapsed
(q.v.), which remained in force till the 5th century.
But the great strictness with which Penance (q.v.)
was enforced led to the opposite extreme; it

e customary for penitents to be restored

236 CHURCH DISCIPLINE

CHURCH HISTORY

simply on their producing letters of recommenda-
tion (lbelli pacts) from persons who had confessed
Christ. e Montanists, however, maintained
that those who had been once excommunicated
should pass their whole life in the status pwnitentic,
and the Novatians denied that the Church possessed
the right to assure the Lapsi of the forgiveness of
sins, which only God could grant. The Donatists
we could not arrest the gradual secularisation
of discipline. By the 6th century penances began
to be commuted for certain fixed taxes. In the
Western Church, after public penances had become
rare, other punishments took their place, partly
derived from the exercises of earlier asceticism,
partly from the usages of Frankish law. The
episcopal Missi of Charles the Great combined the
functions of a civil and ecclesiastical court, and
allowed church punishments to be compounded for
money. From the time of Gregory the Great the
doctrine of Purgatory (q.v.) had been a dogma of
the Church; and Peter Lombard and _ other
scholastics built on it the theory of Indulgences
(q.v.), which was confirmed by Clement VI. in
1343. The extreme punishments in the middle
ages were the Greater Excommunication (q.v.) for
the individual, and Interdict (q.v.) for the com-
munity. The churches of the Reformation held
that ‘the power of the keys’ belonged to the whole
Church, by whieh it was to be intrusted to the
regularly called servants of the Word. They
rejected Auricular Confession (q.v.) and the whole
system of Satisfactions and Indulgences ; restrict-
ing the sphere of their church discipline to matters
of social morality, and its enforcement simply to
spiritual admonition and partial or complete
exclusion from the sacraments and offices of the
Church. The Lutheran Church rejected the Greater
Excommunication as a merely secular punishment
with which the servants of the Church had nothing
to do; but retained the Lesser, simply as a means
of moral training. Though Luther and Melanchthon
adhered firmly to the participation of the whole
congregation in the imposition of excommunica-
tion, yet, in consequence of the development of the
consistorial system, it passed into the hands of the
consistories in the different states. In the 17th
and 18th centuries it fell gradually into disuse.
The Reformed Church laid greater stress on con-
gregational discipline. Zwingli assigned it to the
civil magistrate of the Christian state; Calvin, on
the other hand, referred it to the Presbytery (q.v.).
In Presbyterian churches it is exercised by the
kirk-session—an appeal lying to the presbytery,
and from that to the synod and patietal assembly.
The church discipline provided for by the Canons of
the Church of England has almost entirely fallen
into disuse.

Church History. The history of the Chris-
tian Church includes its external history, which
treats of the extension of the Church, and its
relation to the state; and internal history, which
is concerned with the Church’s inner life, doctrine,
worship, and constitution. With respect to time,
the Church’s history is usually divided into three
periods—A ncient, edieval, and Modern. Its

edieval History may be dated from its establish-
ment in union with the new empire founded by
Charles the Great in 800. Modern Church History
begins with the Reformation (in the view of Roman
Catholic historians, with the Humanistic move-
ment, or the discovery of America). Each of
these pened may be divided into two: Ancient
Church History, at the complete victory of Chris-
tianity over Greek heathenism under Constantine
the Great; Medieval, at the culmination of the
papal power under Innocent III. ; and Modern, at
the close of the Thirty Years’ War by the Treaty
of Westphalia.

The first of these periods extends from Christ
to Constantine. The beginning of the Christian
Church dates from the departure of Jesus Christ.
from the earth and the Pentecostal effusion of the
Holy Spirit (about 33 A.D.), the time when the
first confessors of Christ exceeded the limits of a
private society, and began to form a public com-
munity. Its nucleus was the first Jewish Christian
community at Jerusalem under the ‘ pillar-apostles’”
James, Cephas, and John. The spiritual concep-
tion of the Messiah which the disci ies had received
from the personal influence of Jesus was sealed
on their minds by their faith in his resurrection ;
and their comprehension of his gospel is seen in
the wide aims of their first missions, in their pro-
gressive deliverance from legalism, and in the
belief that faith is the essential element of salva-
tion. As members were quickly added to the
Church, especially from the Jens of the Dispersion
(called Hellenists, because they spoke Greek), a
beginning of its organisation was made in the
Spe of seven deacons, including the

ellenist Stephen, the protomartyr of the Church.
The elements of the primitive faith were unified
and systematised by the Apostle Paul, the aim
of whose life was the conversion of the whole
world to Christ. He succeeded in emancipatin
the Gentile Christian world from the ceremonia
law, and in his three great missionary journeys
(about 40-58 A.D.) began the evangelisation of
Europe. The destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.)
completed the deliverance of Christianity from
Judaism, and gave the Church the consciousness of
a world-wide mission. The Judaising Christians
were thenceforth an insignificant sect.

The Roman empire maintained the pre-Christian
view that there could be no worship of God apart
from the corporate life of the state, and, when the
early Christian Church refused to take part in the
state worship, it became a religio illicita, and
was proscribed and persecuted as dangerous to
society. To the distinguished and learned Chris-
tianity was a gloomy infatuation, to the populace
the Christians’ contempt for the gods seemed the
cause of every public calamity. The tyrannical
eaprice of Nero charged them with the burning of
Rome (64 A.D..), and persecuted them with pees:
cruelty. Under Domitian Christianity was punishe
as a form of high-treason. The first regular decree
for legal procedure against the Christians was issued
by Trajan. Under the more tolerant rule of the
emperors from Hadrian to Mareus Aurelius (117-
161), the Christian congregations were organised as
Collegia tenuiorum (‘poor men’s guilds’), or Collegia
Suneraticia (‘funeral societies’), and as such en-
joyed a sort of legalised existence. The vast cities
of their dead.in the catacombs of this period no-
where preserve memorials of martyrdom or perse-
eution. The Christians had to suffer many a local
persecution, but, apart from the temporary and
thoughtless cruelties of Nero and Domitian—who,
according to Tertullian, was ‘a piece of Nero for
cruelty "—they had the toleration, and sometimes
the protection, of the emperors. Ranke ascribes
such action especially to Antoninus Pius—‘the best-
intentioned and most peaceable among them, and
perhaps not without sympathy for Christianity ’"—
whose reign he regards as the culmination of the
Roman empire. A consequence of this tolerant
bearing of the imperial power was the peaceful
behaviour of the Christians, who in general rejected
the principles of Montanus, which aimed at the sub-
version of the state. This condition of affairs came
to an end under Marcus Aurelius, who, no longer
able to resist the popular outcry, suffered a perse-
cution to take place in several provinces.

About the middle of the 2d century the Christian
congregations in the Roman empire were consoli-

CHURCH

HISTORY 237

dating themselves into a confederacy, which called
itself the ‘Great’ or ‘Catholic’ (i.e. universal)
Church. By the middle of the 3d century the
confederation was accomplished. The Church was
now organised with a hierarchical constitution
and an elaborately regulated worship, while the
New Testament canon was regarded as equally
authoritative with the Old. From 250 the emperors
whose political aims were most akin to the tradi-
tional policy of Rome struggled for life and death
with the growing power. Of the times before
Decius Origen testifies (Contra Celsum, iii. 8) ‘few
and very easy to count are those who have died on
account of the Christian religion ;’ and Lactantius
says (De Morte Persecutorum, iii. 4), ‘after the
acts of the tyrant (Domitian) had been rescinded,
the Church was not only restored to her pristine
state, but shone forth much more _ brightly;
and, times following when many good emperors
held the helm of government, she suffered no
attacks from enemies. ... But thereafter the
long peace was broken. For after many years
the accursed beast (execrabile animal) Decius arose
to vex the Church.’ Under Decius began the first
universal and systematic persecution of Christi-
mig d as a part of the military and religious policy
of the state. The sufferings of the Christians con-
tinued under Gallus and Valerian till 260, when
Gallienus declared Christianity a religio licita. For
forty years the Church had peace, and grew mightily
on every side. Diocletian by four edicts of pro-
gressive severity, from February 303 to March 304,
when he decreed torture for all Christians, put forth
a desperate effort to annihilate Christianity in the
whole empire. At his abdication (May ) the
horrors of the persecution ended, except in the
East, where they were continued without mercy by
Maximin Daza. The victory of Constantine in 313
delivered Christendom from this its Jast and most
relentless persecutor.

Constantine saw in the unity of the Church a new
foundation for the unity of the empire, and placed
Christianity on an equality with Paganism : under
his sons it e predominant. The reaction
under Julian ended with his death. It was the
struggle with Gnosticism that had first led the
Church to the remarkable development of its dog-
matic system, which gives its characteristic stamp
to the history of the second period of the ancient
church. The simple baptismal confession had be-
come transformed into a rule of faith giving fixity
to the ecclesiastical tradition. Justin, Irenzus,
Tertullian, and Hippolytus had been among its first
exponents. While in the scriptures of the New
Testament canon the Church possessed an abiding
witness to the ‘simplicity that is in Christ,’ the rule
of faith in the course of the 3d century had been
built up in the forms of the Greek philosophy of
Clement and Origen. The first church synods had
been held in Asia Minor in connection with the
Montanist controversy about 170; and by the 3d
century such assemblies were common in various
provinces of the empire. The institution of ccu-
menical councils, in which only bishops were en-
titled to vote, originated with Constantine. The
controversy with respect to the Easter festival had
disturbed the Church for a century and a half.
The universal practice in Asia was to observe the
exact day of the month (the 14th Nisan), while
the usage of Alexandria and Palestine and the
West was to celebrate the Passion always on a
Friday, and the Resurrection on a Sunday. This
controversy was finally laid at rest by the Ceu-
menical Council of Nica in 325. Trinitarianism
gained its first victory over Arianism at Nicwa by
the combined influence of Athanasius and Con-
stantine, and completed its triumph at the second
(Ecumenical Council (at Constantinople) in 381.

After this the Church was distracted with con-
troversies about the views of Origen (394-438),
the ney hr caasage controversy (362-381), the dis-
putes between the schools of Antioch and Alex-
andria (381-428), the Nestorian controversy (428~-
444), the Monophysite controversy (444-553), the
Monothelete controversy (633-680), and the Icono-
clastic controversy (726-842). These discussions
originated in the Eastern Church, while in the
West the theological interest centred on the great
conflict between Augustinianism and Pelagianism
(412-529). The tyrannical interference of the
Eastern emperors in the controversies of the Church,
their supremacy in the ecclesiastical councils, and
their penal enforcement of doctrinal decrees, led
to infinite confusion in the relations between church
and state, and prepared the way for the ambitious
policy of the popes, and for the final breach between
the churches of the East and West.

While these age-long controversies kept the rela-
tions of church and state continually strained,
Paganism was steadily suppressed. Orthodox Chris-
tianity in union with the state soothed the declining
years of the ancient empire ; but could not prevent
the conquest of Rome by Alaric the Goth. Its ad-
vance in Persia was checked by political persecution
before the advent of Islam, which subsequently over-
whelmed the Christianity of the eat-in the West,
however, Christianity rose with renewed vigour from
the ruins of the old empire, by the conversion of
the Teutonic and Slavonic nations. The Teutonic
conquerors of Gaul and Italy were Christians before
their invasion of those countries. The Anglo-Saxon
conquerors of England were heathens. century
and a half after their settlement Christian mission-
aries gained a footing in the south and north, and
within a century from the landing of Augustine the
English kingdoms had embraced Christianity. In
the general declension of political faith under the
decaying Roman empire, the social power once
held by the officials of Rome had gradually passed
into the hands of the Christian bishops. In the
lawlessness and disorder of the barbarian invasions,
these representatives of the claims of moral order
and human brotherhood were the trusted mediators
between the conquerors and the conquered, and
exercised a constant influence during peace and
war. But this great authority over the new nations
brought ang with it much injury to religion.
Discipline declined as the power cad esith of the
clergy increased.

The third period of the Church's history extends
from Charles the Great to Innocent III. ‘At the
commencement of the 8th century,’ says Ranke, ‘ on
the one side Mohammedanism threatened to over-
spread Italy and Gaul, and on the other the ancient
idolatry of Saxony and Friesland once more forced
its way across the Rhine. In this pm of Christian
institutions, a youthful prince of Teutonic race,
Charles Martel, arose as their champion.’ By his
great victory of Tours (732) a final check was given
to the advance of the Saracens in the West, and
Christendom and ciyilisation were rescued from the

p of Islam. The subjugation of the Saxons by
harles the Great was the toilsome work of thirty-
two years (772-804), and their Christianisation was
secured by the castles, towns, mission-stations, and
monasteries which the conqueror planted in their
country. Under the Carlovingian kings of the
Franks from the middle of the 8th century, the
temporal dominion of the Papacy was founded.
The legend of the ‘ Donation of Constantine,’ bestow-
ing imperial power and dignities upon the pope,
together with the sovereignty over Rome and all
Italy, and the countries of the West, was invented
at Rome about 730, and embodied in the Pseudo-
Isidorian decretals (about 850). It was con-
tested by few in the middle ages, till Laurentius

238 CHURCH

HISTORY

Valla demonstrated its untenability. For centuries
this clumsy forgery formed one of the supports of
the Papacy in its struggle for universal supremacy.
The connection between the churches of the East
and West had been already loosened by the schism
of 484-519 during the Monophysite controversy,
and by the iconoclastic policy of the emperors
from Leo to Theophilos (717-842). At length the
progressive centralisation of the Western Church
under the Roman see, to whose aagposee p the
‘cecumenical bishops’ of Constantinople could not
submit, and in the 11th century the transfer by the

Bulgarians of their allegiance from Constantinople |

to Rome, led to a final rupture. The phew A
Photius already in 867 laid down the dogmatic
basis of the Schism as consisting in the western
deviations from the dogmas, customs, and constitu-
tional forms of the ancient church, especially the
addition of the ‘filioque’ clause to the creed of
Niczea and Constantinople, teaching that the Holy
Spirit proceeds not only from the Father, but also
from the Son. The severance was completed on
the 16th July 1054, when the papal legates laid
the anathema on the altar of St Sophia in Con-
stantinople.

The growth of Monasticism, from the beginning
a lay movement in pursuit of the old ideal of
Christian perfection, which men felt that a
worldly priesthood no longer represented, entered
at first into competition with the clergy, but
gradually became subservient to Catholic aims. In
the East, where the contemplative life prevailed,
the best function of the monasteries was as nurseries
of the priesthood, while the monks of the West
christianised Germany and Britain, cultivated
wildernesses, preserved the classic treasures of
antiquity, and were the diligent teachers of the
common people. Above all the monastic orders,
the Benedictines can claim the glory of conspicuous
services to Christian missions and _ intellectual
culture. ‘In the 9th and 10th centuries,’ says
Gibbon, ‘the reign of the gospel and of the Church
was extended over Bulgaria, Hungary, Bohemia,
Saxony, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, and
Russia. . . . The admission of the barbarians into
the pale of civil and ecclesiastical society delivered
Europe from the depredations by sea and land of
the Normans, Hungarians, and Russians. The
establishment of law and order was promoted by
the influence of the clergy; and the rudiments of
art and science were introduced into the savage
countries of the globe.’ In the West, men held
that the Holy Roman Empire, consolidated by
Charles and Otto the Great, was the embodiment
of the ideal state, and that God had two vicars on
earth, the emperor in temporal things, and the
pope in spiritual things. ‘The analogy of the
two,’ says Bryce, ‘made them appear parts of one
great world-movement towards unity ; the coincid-
ence of their boundaries, which had begun before
Constantine, lasted long enough after him to
associate them indissolubly together, and make
the names of Roman and. Christian convert-
ible. . . . The Holy Roman Church and the Holy
Roman Empire are one and the same thing in two
aspects; and Catholicism, the principle of the
universal Christian society, is also Romanism ; that
is, rests upon Rome as the origin and type of its
universality, manifesting itself in a mystic dual-
ism which corresponds to the two natures of its
Founder. As divine and eternal, its head is the
pope, to whom souls have been intrusted; as
1uman and temporal, the emperor, commissioned to
rule men’s bodies and acts.’ In the first half of the
middle ages the Church believed herself to be co-
extensive with the Kingdom of God, the realisation
of the noblest ethical ideal, and her servants con-
ceived it their highest duty to labour to make the

whole field of human life subject to her supremacy.
Not even the moral declension of the Papacy in
the centuries succeeding Charles the Great, espe-
cially during the sixty years’ so-called Pornocrac
(904-963), could quench the ardour of the Church’s
faith in that ideal; and the cloister, purged and
strengthened by successive reforms, caval the autho-
rity of the Church by uniting in Gregory VII. the
monastic ideal of self-renunciation with the ecclesi-
astical ideal of the conquest of the world.

At the great Lateran Council under Pope
Innocent III. in 1215, the Catholic Church was at
the zenith of its power. Innocent was the sun,
and from him the princes of Christendom held their
light in fee. The Crusaders, though unable to
hold Jerusalem, had enhanced the prestige of the
Papacy; and Scholasticism placed its skill and
learning at the service of the Church. The Wald-
enses and Albigenses were to be crushed relent-
lessly, and the Inquisition was now established for
their permanent repression. No persecutions which
the Chusoh had ever suffered are to be compared for
determined cruelty with those which in this period
she inflicted on the heretics of southern France
and of the Netherlands. Emperors and kings
might contend with Rome for temporal authority ;
they were ready to decree the burning of heretics
as much as she desired. But this unrestricted sway
brought its own downfall. After the Papacy in the

of French policy, and after all the contrivances of

pious fraud had been resorted to, during the Schism

of 1378 to 1409, to fill the coffers of rival popes
at Avignon and at Rome, the people began to lose
faith in the holiness of the hierarchy, and the ever
louder cry for ‘reformation of the Church in its head
and members’ became irresistible. The Schism of
thirty years, during which two popes claimed the
same divine prerogative, was the most direct con-
tradiction of the doctrine that had obtained in the
Catholic Church since the time of Hildebrand, that
the Papacy was the unifying centre of Christendom.
The conviction gained ground that even its autho-
rity was subject to that of an cecumenical council.
In the development of this idea a twofold tendency

resented itself. One party, that of Gerson and

*Ailly, which prevailed at the councils of Pisa and
Constance, regarded the council as representative
only of the hierarchy, and, while recognising the
Papacy as a divine institution, aimed at restricting
the absolutism of the papal see by the co-rule of a
spiritual aristocracy, consisting of the bishops and
the doctors of the universities. The other, mainly
composed of German theologians, made the first
attempt within the medieval Church to undermine
the Roman Catholic conception of the Church by a
distinction between the ecclesia wuniversalis—the
spiritual community of all believers—and the
ecclesia Romana, of which the pope was_ head.
The second party regarded this wna catholica ecclesia
alone as infallible, and held that the council repre-
sented not only all classes of the hierarchy, but all
classes of Christendom; and that church reform
was a duty that fell to the secular power, not only
the princes, but also the entire body of the laity.
But all the resolutions of the three great re-
forming councils were made void by the pitiful
issue oF the Council of Basel in the Concordat of
Vienna in 1448, when the fathers of the council
recognised Nicholas V., and received the holy
father’s forgiveness. Thus ended the last attempt
towards the reformation of the Church on its old
foundations.

At length the teaching of the Lollards and
Hussites, the failure of the councils, and the
shameless traffic in indulgences; the impotent
conclusion of Scholasticism that philosophy and
religion might both be true, though contradic-

ro be sojourn (1305-77) had become the tool.

1
|

tory; the new art and learning of the Renais-

of its ruler, and the members of the Lutheran Church

CHURCH

HISTORY 239

sance; the awakening of the spirit of nationality ;
the widespread onging of the poor for re-
from the exactions of priests and nobles—
pared men’s minds for that great move-
ment in the 16th century, which issued in the
Protestant churches and in the division of the
whole of western Christendom into two hostile
camps down to the present day. Luther, Zwingli,
Melanchthon, and Calvin were its greatest leaders.
The Reformation called forth a thousand changes
in human existence. As it passed from country to
comet ber all northern Europe, it broke the cloister-
vow, abolished celibacy, confiscated the property of
the Church, founded secular schools for the people,
stripped the clergy of their pene 2 and the
philanthropic duties and the tasks of civilisation,
which for centuries had been incumbent on the
servants of the Church, it gradually transferred to
the state and the community. Where it triumphed,
and even where it was successfully resisted, there
was no sphere of life in which its influence was not |
felt. The communistic movement of the Anabap-
tists, which had been developed in the midst of the |
religious 2g yma of Germany, was crushed in
the ruins of Miinster in 1535, and with the death of
‘this prodigal child of the Reformation’ passed away
the premature political socialism of the Reformation
period. The aims of the ieee , all centred on its
litical interests, were wholly irreconcilable with
he Reformers’ doctrine of the priesthood of all
believers and the sole authority of Scripture in
matters of faith.: The political and humanistic
period of the Papacy was succeeded by a régime
of passionate zeal, under which every nerve was
strained to win back the territories which had
shaken off the Roman yoke. The resolutions of
the Council of Trent (1545-63), subscribed by 255
SerarA separated for ever the Protestant and
tholic churches, and obtained in the latter the
authority of a «Sr att book.

The Counter- Reformation, led everywhere by the
Jesuits, and favoured in Germany by the Peace of
Au burg ( 1555), went on with great success till the

iddle of the 17th century. It began in Bavaria
in 1563, and quickly spread over southern Germany.
But it was in France that the revived Roman Catho-
licism of the 16th century won its first great victory.
The number of the ‘ Religionnaires’ or ‘ Huguenots’
in France had, in 1558, amounted to 400,000. From
the massacre at Vassy by Francois of Guise in 1562
to the Massacre of St Bartholomew ( August 23-24,
1572), four religious wars had lacerated France,
and during the reign of Henry III. there were yet
five of these desolating civil wars. The crafty see-
saw policy of Popes Sixtus V., Gregory XIV., and
Clement VIIL. secured every advantage afforded b
the vicissitudes of the conflict, and it was not till
after Henry IV. had gone over to Roman Catholicism
that the pope in 1595 recognised him as the king of
France. Liberty of conscience was extended to the
French Protestants by the Edict of Nantes in 1598.
From 1555 the ecclesiastical position of each German
territory was dependent on the religious convictions

had political ec pews with ‘the old religion ;’ but
the exclusion of the Reformed from that provision
led to the isolation of Lutheranism from the great
struggles of Protestantism in France, the Nether-
lands, and et oi The principle cujus regio, ejus
religio, by which subjects should follow the con-
fession of their rulers, unavoidably led, in the

litical condition of Germany in the 16th and
7th centuries, to the breaking up of the Lutheran
Church into a number of small national churches,
and confused the development of Lutheran the-
ology with the dynastic and family interests of

| principles of monarchical power.

the several courts. Stability was only attained

after the fearful struggle of the Thirty Years’ War,
when, at the Peace of Westphalia, Catholics and
Protestants agreed to recognise each other's right
to existence. The excellences of the Lutheran
Church were the depth and power of its ascetic
elements and its religious literature, especially ite
hymns, the noble expression of German mysticism.
But the continuation and political maintenance
of the Reformation has been mainly the work
of the Reformed or Calvinistic churches. ‘In a
time,’ says Hiiusser, ‘when, of all the creations
to the Reformation, Europe presented nowhere
else any solid or lasting bulwark, the little
Genevan state of Calvin sent out year after year
its apostles into the world, and was the most
dreaded foe of Rome, when nowhere else was
there any resistance to her might.’ In the
Lutheran Church many of the Romish ceremonies
were retained, and congregational organisation
was neglected ; whereas in the Reformed churches
the congregations were organised on a democratic
basis, that had nothing akin to the traditional
‘With the pas-
sive resistance of Luther men could not counter-
act the Caraffas, the Philips, and the Stuarts;
that needed a school prepared for war to the
knife; the only such school was Calvin’s, and it
everywhere took up the glove—in France, in the
Netherlands, in Scotland, and in England.’
Lutheranism has been established in Scandinavia
and the countries along the Baltic, while the
Reformed Church, which has throughout evinced
a more radical character than the Lutheran, has
especially prevailed in South Germany, Switzerland,
France, the Netherlands, and Scotland.

In England, Edward VI., the successor of Henry
VIII.—who had been recognised by the parliament
in 1534 as ‘the only supreme head! in erthe of the
Churehe of England ’—with the help of Cranmer,
Latimer, and Ridley, completed the Reformation.

| The Common Prayer-book was introduced, and a

confession of faith in 42 articles drawn up as the
standard of the church’s doctrine. After a period
of persecution under Mary, the Anglican Church
was established under Elizabeth in the closest
union with the state. By Elizabeth all ecclesi-
astical disobedience was regarded as treasonable,
and the legislation of her later years was directed
against those who took offence at the ritual and
the hierarchy, and were known as Nonconform-
ists. English Puritanism (which may be dated
from 1567, when its adherents began to separate
from the Established Church) was at first only an
opposition to the ceremonial elements which the
urch of England still retained after its separa-
tionfrom Rome. The principle of Puritanism was
reformation through the members of the church
itself, as opposed to reformation originating with
the crown. It aimed at the overthrow of the
episcopal system, and the establishment of a strict
system of discipline in the spirit of Calvin. Under
harles I. the Puritans were severely persecuted,
and many of them emigrated to America, and were
the early settlers of New England. English
Puritanism in alliance with Scottish Presbyterian-
ism gained in the Great Rebellion a complete
victory over the monarchy, but in England the
fruits of the victory fell to the Independents, who
were the most consistent section of the party. The
Synod of Dort in Holland (1618-19), which was
regarded as an ecumenical council of the churches
of the Calvinistic Reformation, had decided the
controversy between the Arminians and Calvinists

entirely in favour of the latter. The Westminster
Assembly (1643-49), called by the Long Parlia-
uritans,

ment, drew up the confession of the
which is sosaly akin to the resolutions of Dort,
and is still the standard in the churches oi Scov

240 CHURCH

HISTORY

land. Later phases of Puritanism developed a
great variety of sects, the Baptists and the Society
of Friends, or ‘ Quakers,’ being the most notable.

The Reformation in Scotland had received from
John Knox a strictly Calvinistic stamp. The
Protestant nobles (called the ‘Lords of the Con-
gregation’) entered in 1557 for the first time into
a ‘Covenant,’ and the Scotch Confession of Faith
was ratified by the Scottish parliament in 1560.
All the efforts of Mary, Queen of Scots, to win
Scotland back to Roman Catholicism were fruit-
less. The first National Covenant ‘against all
kind of Papistry’ was signed by king and people
-in 1581, and frequently renewed. In 1592 the
Presbyterian constitution was established. Yet
under James I. and his successors determined
efforts were put forth to make the Church of
Scotland a province of the Anglican Church. The
obtrusion of the Liturgy in 1637 was met by the
Solemn League and Covenant in 1638.

During the Civil War and the Protectorate of
Cromwell, Independency increased in numbers and
in influence. Two fanatical sections of the party,
the ‘ Fifth-Monarchy Men,’ and the ‘ Levellers’—
who aimed at complete separation of the church
from the state, which they maintained should pre-
serve an attitude of religious indifference—were
repressed by the iron hand of Cromwell on their at-
tempt to establish their principles by force of arms.
The declaration of faith and order issued by the
Synod of the Independents in 1658 is not different
in its doctrine from the Westminster Confession.
After the accession of Charles II. Episcopacy was
re-established both in England and Scotland. On
the 24th August 1662 two thousand ministers were
ejected from their livings in the Church of Eng-
land, because they refused to subscribe the second
Act of Uniformity, which enjoined all ministers in
England to declare their unfeigned assent and con-
sent to the entire Book of Common Prayer. In the
same reign, the successive Conventicle, Five Mile,
Corporation, and Test Acts increased the civil dis-
abilities of both Nonconformists and Catholics.
The persecutions did not cease till the Revolution,
when the Act of Toleration in 1689 extended religi-
ous liberty to dissenters, only requiring from them
the payment of tithes to the Established Church.

In the 17th century a middle party within the
Church of England, known as the ‘ Latitudi-
narians,’ had endeavoured to exercise a mitigating
influence on the violence of the disputes between
the extreme Episcopalians and the rigid Puritans.
Hales and Chillingworth were in the first half of
the century the leading exponents of the party,
which later included the ‘Cambridge Platonists,’
Whichcote, John Smith, Cudworth, More, and
even Simon Patrick and Tillotson. About the
middle of the 17th century another movement
began in England as a reaction against the
religious extremes of the Great Rebellion. The
principles of the English ‘ Deists’ originated un-
doubtedly in the reaction from the religious excesses
of the Cromwell period, but were more largely due
to the progress of philosophy and the historical and
natural sciences. They passed over to France,
where they found a congenial soil under Louis
XIV. and Louis XV., and, in presence of the
Dragonnades and the persecutions of the Protes-
tants after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in
1685, developed into the Atheism and Materialism
of the Encyclopédistes. These afterwards bore
bitter fruit in the French Revolution—‘ the religi-
ous issue of which proved,’ says Hase, ‘not only
the necessity of religion for a civilised people, but
also the national indispensability of a church.’

In Germany the reaction from the fanatical
violence of the Thirty Years’ War and the life-
less orthodoxy of the 17th century took the form

of Pietism. It began with the collegia pietatis
founded by Spener about 1670, and the similar
collegia philobiblica of Francke, professor at
the university of Halle from its foundation in
1694. Halle became the centre whence Pietism
spread on every side, and its influence, like
that of Geneva under Calvin, extended to all
the Protestant countries of Europe. The church
of the Moravians, in the form in which it was
renewed by Zinzendorf, is a daughter of Pietism,
and the founder of Methodism testified that
Moravianism was the first medium of his own
inspiration. Pietism, with Moravianism, which
inwardly rests on the same foundation, is, says
Weingarten, ‘the last fruit of that heart-religion,
springing originally from Franciscanism, which
consists in the closest vital fellowship of the indi-
vidual Christian with Christ.’ It laid great weight
on strictness of conduct, and dwelt rather on re-
generation and sanctification than on the Reforma-
tion doctrine of ara t by faith. During the
reign of Rationalism it appeared quiescent, but it
revived in the present century, and in alliance
with the orthodoxy which it formerly combated

forms the predominant party in the Evangelical.

Church of Germany.

The founders of English Methodism did not aim
at any new doctrine or order, but only sought, like
the German Pietists, to deepen spiritual life, and
make it more practical ra fruitful. Methodist
societies began to be organised in 1739, after

Wesley and Whitefield had been excluded from the.

ph its of the Established Church. These two
eaders separated in 1748 on the question of pre-
destination, Wesley holding the Arminian, and
Whitefield the Calvinistic view. Ten years after
Wesley’s death his followers numbered 40,000,
and in twenty years more increased to upwards of
100,000. Wesleyan Methodism and its numerous
offshoots have been distinguished both in this

‘country and in America for their evangelistic zeal

and their influence over the common people; and
their earnestness and success have been the means
of imparting a healthful stimulus to the Church
of England. About the end of the 18th century
the fatuenss of the Methodist movement extended
into the Established Church, and issued in the
formation of the ‘Evangelical party,’ which,
centring in Cambridge, soon became the most
energetic baxty in the Church of England. At
Oxford, which from Laud’s time h been the
centre of the old ‘High Church’ party, began
about 1833 the Tractarian movement, of which the
first impulse came from the Evangelical revival ;
while in one of its sides, at least, it was a kind
of zsthetic outcome of the Romantic revival in
literature and art. No fewer than 150 of the
clergy and leading laymen connected with the
movement followed Ward and Newman (in 1845
and 1846) into the Roman Catholic Church, but
the party, held together for nearly fifty years under
the ers ership of Pusey, has now fully identified
itself with the Anglican Church as the ‘Catholic
Church planted in England.’ Though ‘ Anglo-
Catholicism’ has driven large numbers into the
Roman communion, it has sueceeded in doing what
Methodism a hundred years before attempted, and
has brought new life into the Church of England.
It bears a close affinity to Roman Catholicism in
ritual and doctrine, but refuses to acknowledge
the universal supremacy of the Bishop of Rome.
The ‘ Broad Church’ party, the third in the modern
Church of England, traces its beginning to Cole-
ridge, but in spirit and to a large extent also in
teaching, is substantially identical with the old
Latitudinarians and the Cambridge Platonists,
who, with great spiritual earnestness and honesty,
maintained for over a hundred years a large and

"
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-disestab

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CHURCH

HISTORY 241

tolerant theology. The modern Broad Church
y agrees with the Evangelical or ‘Low Church’

party in minimising the importance of apostolical

succession and sacramental grace, and in attaching

no intrinsic value to particular forms of ritual or
clerical vestments; but unlike it demands a more
liberal interpretation of dogmatic definitions, and
a greater freedom in the subscription to creeds.
In its preaching it aims at guidance rather than
conversion, frankly contradicting the prevailing
Evangelical teaching that attributes everything
to sovereign and emphasises the complete
gy ae of unregenerate human nature. It
has throughout advocated a bolder view of the
seemonlity to Scripture of methods of criticism
-and exegesis that have found favour in Germany.
One of its earliest leaders was the famous Dr
Arnold, who advocated the great Hooker’s theory
of the identity of church and state—a kind of
-Spiritualised tianism—as the only means of
fully carrying out the realisation of Christianity
-on earth. It has added many illustrious names
‘to the roll of English churchmen, among them
ely. Maurice, Frederick Robertson, Julius
Hare, Kingsley, Thirlwall, and Stanley.
The standard of nap ge doctrine is fixed by
e Thirty-nine Articles of
1571, and in the Book of Common Prayer (1552,
revised in 1559 and 1661). Not till the present
century has the church’s close connection with the
n loosened by a series of laws removing
the civil and political disabilities of dissenters. The
Church of England includes at most two-thirds
‘(some say only one-half) of the population, and
the whole of the ecclesiastical endowments
of the country. Its comprehensiveness is alto-
gether unexampled; within no historic church in
the world is to be found such divergency of honest
opinion. Its enormous revival of activity during
the last fifty years has struck its roots deeper into
the ra heart of England, and though its
ishment has often been proposed, the
Church of England is so closely interwoven with
‘the other institutions of the nation, and is so-dear
to the majority of the English people, that such a
Sse aga must seem remote. In any event, the
*solidity and dignity of the Episcopal Church would
retain for it the chief place among the ecclesiastical
‘societies of England. Such hindrances to its eftici-
-ency as pluralities and non-residence have long been
removed, the episcopate within England has been
largely extended, and missionary bishops appointed
to organise and extend foreign missions, while no
less than thirty millions have been spent within
thirty years upon the building and restoration of
churches at home. Such agencies for relievin
poverty and distress as sisterhoods and specia
missions have lea into life, and in the Chureh
Congresses (first, 1861) and Diocesan Conferences
(first, at Ely, 1864) the door has been opened to
the co-operation of laymen in church work. The
owing demand for ter freedom of action on

‘the part of the church, resulted (1852, and 1856)

in an attempt to revive the powers of Convocation,
in abeyance since 1717. In 1867 was inaugurated
the first Lambeth Conference of prelates of the
Anglican rite from all quarters of the world. :
ames I. gave the whole ecclesiastical endow-
ment in Ireland into the hands of the Anglican
rolerey The Irish branch of the Anglican Church,
which only embraced one-eighth part of the popu-
lation, was disestablished and disendowed in 1871
by the Irish Church Act of 1869. In the census of
1891 the Catholics of Ireland numbered 3,547,307 ;
PRECORSE ADE, 600,103; Presbyterians, 444,974;
other rail tae Protestants, 80,660.
» Patronage had been abolished in Scotland in
1690, mae was restored under Queen Anne in 1712.

The repeated protests of the General Assembly
were disregarded, but with the gradual ascendency
of the ‘ moderate’ party in the church itself, were
discontinued, and the dissatisfied seceded from the
Establishment, forming the ‘Secession’ and ‘ Re-
lief’ churches. In 1834 the Assembly passed the
Veto Act, declaring that no pastor should be ‘ in-
truded on any congregation contrary to the will of
the people,’ and giving the congregation the right
to veto the appointment of a presentee of whom
they disapproved. After a ten years’ conflict be-
tween the ‘ non-intrusionist’ and ‘ moderate’ parties,
the former seceded from the Established Church,
and formed the Free Church of Scotland in 1843.
The United Presbyterian Church arose from the
union of the Secession and Relief churches in 1847,
and is now the third in importance in Scotland.

In the United States it is a part of the con-
stitution that ‘no religious test shall ever be
required as a qualification to any office or public
trust,’ and that ‘congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or pro-
hibiting the free exercise thereof.’ ‘This separa-
tion between church and state,’ says Schaff, ‘is not
a separation of the nation from Christianity. .. .
The American nation is as religious and Christian
as any other in the world, and shows this plainly
by its voluntary support of so many churches and
sects ; by its beneficent societies of every kind; by
its church-going, and respect for the clergy, who
are inferior to no class in respect and influence; by
its strict sabbath-keeping, which has its equal only
in Scotland; by its zeal for home and foreign
missions ; by its reverence for the Bible; by a veri-
table flood of religious books, tracts, and period-
icals ; and by the whole tone of its public morality.’
Of Protestants, the Methodists and Baptists are
the most numerous, especially among the lower
classes and in the southern states; while the
Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Episcopa-
lians have the greatest influence among the middle
and higher classes. In 1891 the Roman Catholics
had 6,257,871 members ; Methodists ( Episcopal and
non-Episecopal), 4,589,284; Baptists of various
communions, 3,712,468; Presbyterians, 1,278,332 ;
Lutherans, 1,231,072 ; Congregationalists, 512,771 ;
and Episcopalians, 540,509

A great development of missionary zeal took
place in the Protestant churches of Europe and
America during the 19th century, leading to a vast
expenditure of life and money. Among civilised
races like the Jews, Chinese, and Hindus, the suc-
cess attained has been small compared with that
among races to which the Christian missionaries
have brought, along with the preaching of the gospel,
a vastly superior civilisation, such as the natives
of Ra tantienr and Polynesia. There are now a
hundred missionary societies in Protestant Christen-
dom, with about 5000 European and American mis-
sionaries, and about 30,000 native assistants, and
raising every year more than 2} millions sterling
for the evangelisation of the heathen world. The
Roman Catholic Church has by its colonies and
conquests in the New World endeavoured to redress
the balance of the Old. In South and Central
America, Hayti, and the Spanish and French West
Indies, the population is almost exclusively Roman
Catholic ; white in British North America the pro-
portion of Roman Catholics is 42 per cent., and _in
Australia and Polynesia about 15 per cent. The
largest and most important missionary institute of
the Roman Catholic Church is the Propaganda,
founded by Gregory XV. in 1622. The missions
of the Benedictines, Cistercians, Premonstraten-
sians, and especially of the mendicant orders, who
penetrated Africa and North and South America,
were from the 16th and 17th centuries almost
eclipsed by those of the Jesuits. In the East and

242 CHURCH

HISTORY

West Indies, Japan, China, and Abyssinia, they
have won over thousands to their society and
church. While Protestant missions have aimed at
saving individual souls, they have used every pos-
sible means to effect conversions, and have counted
their converts in crowds. Their constant policy has
been to ingraft Catholic ideas and usages on tra-
ditional prejudices and customs. In India they
commended themselves to the great as Christian
Brahmins and to the poor as apostles of freedom ;
in Japan they sided with the native nobility
against the luxurious priestly class ; in China they
made their way to favour through geometry and
astrology ; in Spanish South America they took
the oppressed natives under their protection, con-
tended against slavery, and founded in Paraguay a
socialistic theocracy of their own.

Ever since the Reformation the Roman Catholic
Church has been growing more and more ultramon-
tane, and this tendency has become most marked
in the second half of the 19th century, largely
through the increasing influence of the Jesuits.
That order, suppressed in Portugal (1759), in
France (1764), in Spain and Naples (1767), in
Parma (1768), and by the bull ‘Dominus ac Re-
demptor Noster’ of Clement XIV. in 1773, was
restored by Pius VII. in 1814. The golden days of
the Jesuits were under Pius IX. (1846-78), who

radually passed entirely under their influence.

he Jesuit generals, Father Roothaan (1829-53)
and Father Beckx (1853-84), called the ‘black
popes,’ reigned in Rome side by side with the
‘white pope,’ Pius IX. The dogma of the Imma-
culate Danes tion, which the Jesuits maintained
against the Dominicans, was promulgated by the
pope in 1854, and ten years later the Encyclica and
Syllabus proclaimed to the world that the politi-
cal and ecclesiastical theories of Jesuitism were
accepted by the holy see. The Jesuits acquired
considerable influence in France under Napoleon
IlI., but were expelled in 1880. In Italy, since
the downfall of the pope’s temporal power (1871),
they are restricted to Rome, and they were excluded
from Spain and Mexico (1868), from Germany (1872).

The famous canon expressed by Vincent of Leri-
num in 434: ‘Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab
omnibus creditum est,’ has been the formal principle
of Catholicism throughout its history. At first it
fell to the bishops in the synods to decide whether
any particular doctrine bore these three marks of
Catholicity. Sometimes one synod set aside the
resolutions of another, and even at the ecumenical
councils the whole Church was never represented in
the same proportions. The supreme authority of the
pope was the only means to secure absolute unity,
and neither the defenders of the ‘episcopal sys-
tem’ at the medieval councils nor the Gallicanism
of the French clergy (set forth in their declaration
of 1682) were able to interpose an effective resist-
ance. To secure the Papacy from all such opposi-
tion in future, the Jesuits persuaded Pope Pius IX.
to have it decreed by the Vatican council that only
the ay e is the infallible head of the Church.
Leo XIII. has set his seal upon the work of Pius IX.
by restoring, in 1886, to the order of the Jesuits all
the privileges it enjoyed before its dissolution.
The ancient conflict between emperor and pope,
recently revived in the ‘ Kulturkampf,’ ended
(1883-86) in a victory for the Papacy, by the with-
drawal of the ‘May Laws’ and the reversal of the
German ecclesiastical policy pursued since 1872.

To-day Roman Catholics are reckoned at from
150 to 200 millions ; Greek Catholics at from 75 to
85 millions; Protestants at from 100 to 120 millions;
while non-Christians number about 1450 millions.

The primary sources of Church History are: (1)
Original documents, such as the records and decrees
of church councils; the official publications of

bishops and popes (pastoral epistles, bulls, briefs,
decretals, and constitutions); laws relating to
ecclesiastical affairs, issued by sovereigns, ohne
cellors, or parliaments ; liturgies and service-books,
rules of religious orders, symbolical books and
confessions of faith, sermons and treatises of
theologians and ecclesiastical leaders, journals.
and reports of eye-witnesses, and letters of con-
temporaries eminent in church or state. (2)
Monuments, such as ecclesiastical buildings, pic-
tures, sculptures, inscriptions, vessels, &e. Among
the secondary sources are calendaries, martyrologies,
and necrologies ; traditions, annals, and chronicles
—all requiring to be sifted by criticism, the farther
their date from the period to which they refer.

The earliest church historian whose writing is.
extant is Eusebius of Ceesarea, who made use of
the earlier works of Hegesippus (about 150 A.D.)
and Julius Africanus (3d century). The history
of Eusebius, extending to 324 A.D., was continued
by Socrates to 439, Sozomen to 423, Theodoret-
to 428, Philostorgius to 425, Theodore to 527,
and Evagrius to 594. The chronicle of Eutychius.
of Alexandria, written in Arabic, comes down to
937. Nicephorus Callisti (1330) closes the series of
the Greek church historians. The Byzantine civil
historians from 500 to 1500 contain valuable
materials for church history. The earliest Latin
historians of the Church were Rufinus, who wrote
a translation of Eusebius, and brought it down
to 395; Sulpicius Severus, ‘the Christian Sallust,’
extending to 400; Orosius to 416; Cassiodorus,
who combined Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret.
into a text-book, the famous Historia Ecclesiastica.
tripartita, which was the standard down to the
Reformation; and Jerome, whose translation of
Eusebius, and continuation to 378, was followed
by the chroniclers Prosper of Aquitaine, Idacius,
and Marcellinus. Of medieval writers of special
histories the most notable are Jornandes (550);
Gregory of Tours (540-595), who wrote the
chronicles of the French Church in the 5th and
6th centuries; Bede, the father of English church
history, which he narrated to the year 731; Paul
the deacon (760), author of a history of the Lom-
bards; and Adam of Bremen, the chief authority
on the northern churches from 788 to 1072. The
Dialogus Miraculorum of Ceesarius of Heisterbach
throws great light on his own age (first half of
13th century). Besides the Liber Pontificalis, a.
history of the popes to 885, which was probably
the work of various authors, general eiisth history
was written by Anastasius of Rome and Haymo
of Halberstadt in the 9th century, by the Norman
monk Ordericus Vitalis, and the cardinals Petrus.
Pisanus, Pandulf, and Boso in the 12th century ;.
in the 13th, by Martinus Polonus, whose Chronica.
summorum Pontificum ie es was the
most popular history-book of the middle ages; in
the 14th, by Ptolemy of Lucca; and in the 15th,
by Antoninus of Florence, whose work comes down.
to 1459. Laurentius Valla’s attack on the legend
of the ‘ Donation of Constantine’ appeared in 1440,

The Reformation, at first more productive in
exegesis than in history, awoke to the necessity of
justifying itself by the Church’s development in
the past, as well as by the statements of Scrip-
ture. After the Peace of Augsburg, a society of
Lutheran theologians at Magdeburg, headed by
Matthius Flacius (Ilyricus), compiled a comprehen-
sive history, arranged in 13 folio vols., each em-
bracing a century. The Magdeburg Centuries was.
answered by the Annals of Cesar Baronius, in
12 folio vols., which was followed by the histories:
of Hottinger, Spanheim, and Samuel and Jaques.
Basnage in the Reformed Church, and of Pagi, a.

Franciscan monk, who also eriticised Baronius. —

The history of the Council of Trent was written

f

)
|

7
Aa

ae

. CHURCH HISTORY

CHURCHILL 243

by Sarpi and Pallavicino, Church a was
ards cultivated in the Roman Catholic Church

chiefly by the Benedictines of St Maur and the
Oratorians in France. Alexander Natalis, Fleury,
Bossuet, and the Jansenist Tillemont, were the
most celebrated writers. Protestant historians had
been for opts a century employed in polemical
writing, and the compilation of dry summaries of
events and dates, when Georg Calixtus gave a new
impulse to the study by a series of dissertations
the value of unprejudiced investigation.
The mystic Gottfried Arnold maintained the right
of heretics against the Church in his ‘ Jmpartial’
History (1699), and was answered by Weismann,
George and Franz Walch, and S. J. Baumgarten.
From the 16th century down to the 18th the Church
of England was ably vindicated in the light’ of
history by Jewel, Hooker, Pearson, Beveridge,
Cave, and Bingham. Strype’s Annals and Ecelesi-
astical Memorials, and Neal’s History of the
Puritans, are the authorities for the Reforma-
tion and the Puritan movement in England.
Of the other English writers of church history
down to the present century, the chief names are
those of the martyrologist Foxe and Archbishop
Parker in the 16th century; Usher, Fuller, Dugdale,
and Burnet in the 17th; and Jeremy Collier,
Echard, Calamy, Bower, Lardner, and Milner in
the 18th. Knox’s History (1586) is the authorit
for the Reformation in Scotland. Scottish chure
history was written in the 17th century by Row,
Spottiswood, and Calderwood ; and in the 18th by
efoe and Wodrow. Mosheim was the first to
establish the study of ecclesiastical history on a
scientific basis, and the sceptical Semler, t ough,
according to Hase, ‘without all style and feelin
for the peculiar conditions of antiquity,’ found
the criticism of the sources. The huge work of
Schrickh, in 35 vols., begins the so-called ‘ prag-
matical’ school of church historians, which laboured
to collect external facts and relate them to their
causes, and was also represented by Spittler, the
elder Henke, Stiiudlin, and Planck. In the early
of the 19th century, Ernst Christian Schmidt,
in 6 vols., pemecn ton an impartial statement of
facts. Gieseler produced a masterpiece of scientific
investigation, with the most valuable extracts from
the sources accompanying the text, a method which
had been previously employed by Danz, and was
also cultivated by Wieduee In modern Protes-
tant church history the greatest work is that of
Neander, which, in contrast with the ti atical
histories, dwells mainly on the inner Sei ment
of the Church in doctrine, worship, and religious
life. He has been followed by Jacobi and Hagen-
bach. Among academic treatises on aired hia
tory the most notable are those of Guericke, H.
Schmid, Lindner, and Kurtz, all from the Lutheran
int of view ; those of Herzog and Ebrard in the
formed Church ; and the very able and interest-
ing lectures of Hase, Hasse, and Rothe. Recent
church history dates from F. C. Baur, who in
separate treatises covered the whole field. The
effect of his work on the first three centuries has
been to turn the attention of many writers for
more than a generation to the study of the early
church. The contention of Baur, and his disciples
Schwegler and Zeller, which represented the original
eposiles of Christ as persistently struggling for
the perpetuity of ‘Petrinism’ against Paulinism,
and interpreted the New Testament to prove this
theory, has been considerably discredited by the
investigations of Ritschl, eisziicker, Lechler,
Harnack, Weiss, and De Pressensé.

In the Roman Catholic Church the study of
church history has been pursued with great energy.
The Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, begun in
the 17th century, have reached their 63d volume.

Of the councils, the chief collection is that of
Mansi, in 31 vols., and history that of Hefele in 7
vols. In the earlier part of the 19th century the chief
writers in Germany were Count Stolberg (whose
work in 15 vols., extending to 430 A.D., has been
brought down to 1300 in other 17 vols. by Kerz),
Katercamp, and Méhler, who was the first of a new
school of thoroughly scientific historians, to which
Ritter, Locherer, Déllinger, Alzog, and Kraus
belong, while the works of Cardinal Hergenréther
and of Briick have a strong ultramontane bias.

English writers on general church history are
still largely dependent on the labours of German
scholars. There is no English church history
worthy of a place beside the works of Neander,
Gieseler, and Hapenbuch.

Of other 19th-century writers may be mentioned
Hinds, Burton, Kaye, T. Price, Marsden, Lathbury,
Hardwick, Maurice, Blunt, Milman, Hook, Newman,
Stanley, Creighton, Robertson, Wordsworth, Abbey
and Overton, Haddan and Stubbs, Perry, and
Stoughton in England ; Cook, M‘Crie, Hetherington,
Welsh, Lee, Grub, Tulloch, Skene, and Cunningham
in Scotland ; Reeves and Killen in Ireland ; Schaff,
Allen, and Fisher in America; Gfrérer, Ranke,
Heppe, Henke, Overbeck, Hausrath, Keim, Hiiusser,
Kahnis, Schiirer, Lipsius, Hilgenfeld, and Langen
in Germany; and Matter, ungener, Capefigue,
De Montalembert, Aubé, D’Aubigné, Renan, De
Broglie, Michaud, and Chastel in France.

For the remarkable development of the literature
on the life of Christ during the last fifty years, see
the article on JESUS.

See the extensive bibliography in Hagenbach’s Encyclo-
pidie (11th ed. by Kautsch, 1884) ; also see Weingarten,
Zeittafeln und Ueberblicke der Kirchengeschichte (3d ed.
1888); F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der Kirchlichen Ge-
schichtsschreibung (Tiib. 1852); Ter Haar, De Historio-
graphie der Kerkgeschiedenis (Part I., from Eusebius to
Laurentius Valla; Part II., from Flacius to Semler;
Utrecht. 1870-71); Wattenbach, Deutschlands Ge-
schichtsquellen im Mittelalter bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahr-
hunderts (4th ed. 2 vols. 1877); and Lorenz, Deutsch-
lands Geschichtsquellen seit der Mitte des 13. Jahr-
hunderts (2d ed. 2 vols. 1876-77). ‘The reader is also
referred to the various articles in this work on the sub-
jects mentioned in the preceding pages, and especially
to the following:

Albigenses Confessions. Independents. | Reformation.
Aquinas, Councils Jesuits. Religion.

us, Creeds. Jesus Christ. Roman Cath.
Arminius. Crusades. Knox. Church.
Athanasius England, Lord’s Supper. | Russian Chur.
Augustine Church of. Luther. Sacraments.
Baptism Friends, Lutheran Saints.
Bishop. Society of Church Scholasticism.
Calvin. Gallican Ch. Missions. Scotland,
Canonisation. | Gnosticism. Monachism. Church of,
Celibacy. Greek Church. | Pope. Unitarians.
Christ. Huguenots. Presbyterians. | Waldenses,
Christianity. | Huss. Protestantism. | Wyclif.

Churchill, CHARLEs, satirist, was born in

Westminster in 1731.
School, where he was contem
Robert Lioyd, Cowper, and

After leaving Westminster
rary with Colman,
arren Hastings, he

did not enter Oxford or Cambridge, being appar-
ently disqualified by an imprudent Fleet marriage

at seventeen.

In 1756

he was ordained priest,

‘through need, not choice,’ and at his father’s death
in 1758 he was appointed to the curacy and lecture-

ship of St John’s, Westminster, the

r emolu-

ments of which office he strove to eke out with
teaching. But he was hopelessly improvident and
already dissipated ; accordingly, after a bankrupte
of but five ee in the pound—and that pai

only by the aid of

obert Lloyd’s father—a formal

separation from his wife, and a course of unclerical
Saleadeian and. dissipation that called forth the
remonstrances of his dean and the protests of his
parishioners, he slipped his neck from the orders
which he wore so awkwardly, and cast himself

244 CHURCHILL

CHURCHING OF WOMEN

entirely upon the town (January 1763). His
Rosciad, published in 1761, had already made him
famous and a terror to all the actors of the time.
The poem was modelled on Dryden, and had real
talent and vigour, as well as scurrilous and unspar-
ing personality to commend it. Later in the same
year, in The Apology, he made a savage onslaught
on his critics, and particularly Smollett. Night
(1762), a long poetical epistle addressed to Llayd,
and suggested by Day, Armstrong’s somewhat un-
welcome poetical epistle to ‘gay Wilkes,’ contained
some nervous lines, but was on the whole a poor
pretnosen marred by an impudent bravado of
1onesty, as if it were some justification of mis-
conduct to make a candid avowal of it. The Ghost
(1762) is an incoherent and tiresome poem of over
four thousand lines in octosyllabic metre, only
remembered now for the attempt to satirise Dr
Johnson as ‘Don Pomposo’ on occasion of the
Cock Lane ghost-story, and the much more war-
rantable ridicule cast upon Whitehead the laureate.
Churchill next helped Wilkes in the North Briton,
and heaped timeous ridicule upon the Scotch in
The Prophecy of Famine (1763), an admirable
satire, bright with wit sharpened into stingin
verse—undoubtedly his best work. ‘It is indee
falsely applied to Scotland, but on that account
may * silowod a greater share of invention,’ says
Boswell, with characteristically wrong-foot-fore-
most but whimsically ingenious reasoning. Later
in the same year appeared Churchill’s Epistle to
Hogarth, for which the great caricaturist paid
the poet by gibbeting him to all future time as a
bear in torn clerical bands and ruffles, with a pot
of porter, and a club inscribed ‘ Lies and North
Britons.’ Other works of Churchill’s were The
Duellist, an onslaught on Wilkes’ assailants in the
House of Lords; The Author, which pleased the
critics and even Horace Walpole; Zhe Conference,
interesting especially for one redeeming feature
—a singularly touching and true confession of
remorse for the seduction (but not desertion) of
a Westminster tradesman’s daughter; Gotham, a
long and ambitious exposition of his political
ideas ; The Candidate, a splendid attack on Sand-
wich; The Farewell, The Times, and Independ-
ence, the last containing an interestingly unflat-
tering parireit of the poet by his own pen, in
which he laughs at his burly frame and rolling
gait—‘much like a porpoise just before a storm.’
Meantime the satirist had prospered and gained
enough not only to pay off all his old debts, but
to help others, for no man was ever more faith-
ful and unreserved in love towards his friends
than this sinning and repenting prodigal. In the
October of 1764 he crossed to Boulogne to see
Wilkes, was seized suddenly with a fever, and
died on 4th November. Just before the end he
sat up in bed to bequeath annuities of £60 to
his wife and £50 to his mistress, for which, how-
ever, there proved to be no funds. His body was
buried at Dover, and on a slab above his grave was
inscribed with less than dubious truth the line
from his poem 7he Candidate: ‘Life to the last
enjoyed, here Churchill lies.’ Fifty-four years later
Byron, leaving England for the last time, stood
beside his tomb, his mind filled with reflections on
‘the Glory and the Nothing of a Name,’ which he
ones into a poem scarce worthy of its theme.
Churchill left two unfinished satires—The Jour-
ney, broken off at a line of sadiy ominous signifi-
cance: ‘I on my journey all alone proceed ;’ and
the severe and masterly Dedication to the arrogant
Warburton. His satires are for the most part long
since forgotten. Though neither ‘a blockhead’
according to Johnson, nor ‘the great Churchill’ as
described by Cowper with all an old schoolfellow’s
extravagance of admiration, he was yet a satirist of

high capacity, with a happy knack of turning strong
and honest thought into nervous and memorable
verse. At the same time he lacked the chief essen-
tials of true satire, a real insight into the heart of
man and that rarest power of happy exaggeration,
of preserving likeness in unlikeness and verisimili-
tude in distortion. A fatal volubility in rhyming,
a kind of boisterous but unequal energy, and an
instinctive hatred of wrong, manly and honest,
although often scarce to be distinguished from the
mere reflex reaction of natural spleen and obstinacy,
combined to make him the hero of the hour and
its ephemeral interests, but was not equipment
enough for a Dryden, a Juvenal, or even a Butler.
See Forster’s Historical and Biographical Essays
(vol. ii. 1858), and Southey’s Life of Cowper.

Churchill, Lorp RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER,
third son of the seventh Duke of Marlborough, was
born on February 13, 1849, and educated at Eton
and Merton College, Oxford. Lord Randolph was
first returned for Woodstock in 1874; but it was
not until after the general election of 1880 that he
became prominent in politics, when he appeared
as the leader of a guerilla band of Conservatives
known as the ‘Fourth Party.’ He was frequently
in collision with his leaders on questions of party
organisation and the conduct of the Opposition ;
but his vigorous attacks on Mr Gladstone’s policy,
both foreign and domestic, were of unquestionable
value to the Conservative cause. Towards the end
of Mr Gladstone’s ministry Lord Randolph began
to have a considerable following among the younger
Conservatives, who regarded him as the future
leader of the Tory Democracy. After a plucky
attempt to defeat Mr Bright at Birmingham in
1885, Lord Randolph was returned for South
Paddington. He was Secretary for India in Lord
Salisbury’s first ministry (June 1885—-January 1886),
his period of office being marked by the annexa-
tion of Burma. From July to December 1886 he
was Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of
the House of Commons, when he resigned, bein,
resolved, as he wrote to Lord Salisbury, to sacri-
fice himself on the altar of thrift and economy.
Still on most points he spoke and voted on the
Conservative side. In 1892, after a tour in South
Africa, he was re-elected, and in spite of enfeebled
health was recognised as one of the leaders of the
Conservative party. He died 24th January 1895.
In 1874 he had married Miss Jerome, a New York
lady. See his Life by Escott (1885).

Churchill River, of Canada, rises between
the north branch of the Saskatchewan and the
Athabasca, under 55° N. lat., and flows generally
NE. through a series of lakes, first as the Beaver,
then as the Missinnippi, and finally as the Churchill
or English River, to Hudson Bay, which it enters
near Fort Churchill, after a course of nearly 1000
miles. There is plenty of traffic during summer
by canoes, which are conveyed by land portage
past the largest of the stream’s many rapids. The
natural advantages of Churchill harbour have
caused it to be regarded as a possible terminus for
the railway from Winnipeg, and the starting-point
of the direct sea route to England by Hudson Bay
and Hudson Strait.

Churching of Women, a religious usage
prevailing in the Christian church from an ear.
eriod, of women, on their recovery after child-
earing, going to church to give thanks. It appears
to have been borrowed from the Jewish law (Lev.
xii. 6); and the earliest express mention of it is
in the pseudo-Nicene Arabic canons. No ancient
forms for the purpose are extant, and those in
actual use are of medieval date. The Greek rite
is only partially concerned with the woman, being
also the presentation of the new-born child in the

———_--:-s.-- —r-

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ae ee

SS ay TF

4

<~ wa

CHURCH MUSIC

CHURCHWARDENS 245

church on the fortieth day after birth (a usage
based upon Luke, ii. 22); the Latin rite, contrari-
wise, is exclusively a benediction of the woman,
and is restricted to such as have borne children in
wedlock. It is not obligatory, nor included among
strictly parochial rights, but only recommended as
a pious and laudable custom. In the Church of
aan, also, a service for the churching of women,
differing little from the medieval rite, finds a place
in the Prayer-book. By the Presbyterian and
Independent churches of Britain and America it is
rejected as having no Scripture warrant.

Church Music. See ANTHEM, ANTIPHONY,
CHANT, CHOIRS AND CHORAL SINGING, GREGO-
RIAN Tones, HymMN, MASS, PLAINSONG, SERVICE.

Church-rates, in England, a tax or assess-
ment laid on the parishioners and occupiers of land
within a parish, ! a majority of their own body
in vestry assembled, for the purpose of upholding
and repairing the fabric of the church and the
belfry, the bells, seats, and ornaments, the church-
yard fence, and the expenses (other than those of
maintaining the minister) incident to the cele-
bration of divine service. The parishioners are
convened for this el tig by the Churchwardens
(q.v.). The Chancel (q.v.) being regarded as belong-
ing peculiarly to the clergy, the expense of main-
taining it is laid on the rector in receipt of the great
tithes, though custom frequently lays this burden
also on the parishioners, as in London and elsewhere.

The church-rate’ was anciently a charge on

rishioners in respect of their lands, according to
heir area and the stock thereon, but it was a per-
sonal, not a real charge; and every bishop was
bound to contribute to the repair of the public
. pms churches’ of his diocese (i.e. churches
with public re annexed to them). The
responsibility of the parishioners for the repair of
their parish church is recognised as early as 1018 b
a law of King Canute, enacting that ‘all folk shall
of pent help the chureh-bot,’ which was the sum
levied for repairs of churches. The care of the
fabric of the church, and the due administration
of its offices, are laid upon the minister and
the churchwardens conjointly, and the latter may
be proceeded against by citation in the eccle-
siastical courts, should Enay neglect these duties.
But there is no legal mode of compelling the
parishioners as a body to provide the rate; and
this circumstance has occasioned much difficult,
in mnporng the tax in parishes in which dissent is
prevalent, and has led to many churches falling into
a partially ruinous condition. The proper criterion
for the amount of church-rates is a valuation of
the property within the parish, grounded on the
rent that a tenant would be willing to pay for it.
Glebe land, the possessions of the crown in the
actual occupation of the sovereign, and places of
veep worship, are not liable for church-rates ;

ut there is no other exception as regards immov-
able property, and in some parishes custom even
extends it to stock-in-trade. It has been often
decided in the courts that a retrospective church-
rate—i.e. a rate for expenses previously incurred—
cannot be validly imposed. Much difficulty has
been experienced in recovering the rates imposed
by the parish on individuals refusing to pay.
Previous to 58 Geo. III. chap. 127, the only mode
was by suit in the ecclesiastical court. That
statute, however, in all cases under £10, em-
powered the justices of the peace of the county
where the church was situated, on complaint of
the churchwardens, to inquire into the merits of
the case, and order payment. Against the deci-
sion of the justices an appeal lies to the quarter-
sessions. In 1868 an end was put to all parochial
contentions by enacting that no suit or proceeding

should thereafter be allowed in any court to enforce
or compel payment of a chureh-rate, except where
a local act authorised this rate. But except so
far as related to the compulsory payment of these
rates, the churchwardens might, as before, make,
assess, receive, and deal with such rates. In each
district parish the inhabitants may treat their
own church as if it were their parish church, and
make and receive rates for the repair of the same.
A body of trustees may now be appointed in each
parish to receive contributions for ecclesiastical
porpiece in the parish. The result of this act of

1 and 32 Vict. chap. 109, is thus not to abolish
church-rates, but rather to convert them into vol-
untary payments ; allowing, as it does, all faithful
adherents of the church to contribute, as before,
to the repairs of their own churches. But it has
been found practically inapplicable, and its enabling
clauses are rarely acted on, so that voluntary con-
tributions have in nearly all cases been substituted
for rates.

In Scotland the burden of upholding extra-burghal
parish churches is imposed on the parish heritors ;
and where the parish is partly within burgh and
partly in the country, the expense must be borne

y heritors and proprietors of houses, in proportion
to their real rent. See SCOTLAND (CHURCH OF) ;
also DISSENTERS, PARISH, HERITOR, FEU, FIARS.
In Ireland church-rates were abolished in 1823.

Churchwardens are the modern represent-
atives of the ancient Seniores Ecclesiastici, laymen
who were custodians of church goods and ornaments,
and agents for ecclesiastical affairs on their tem-
poral side, but had no share in church government,
nor any right of session in synods. In England
they are lay ecclesiastical officers, elected yearly at
Easter, sometimes by the parishioners and minister
jointly, sometimes by the minister alone, sometimes

gt pr orcs alone, by the select vestry, by

the lord of the manor, or by the outgoing wardens,
but most commonly (and always in the case of lew
parishes) the incumbent chooses one and the
parishioners the other. They are appointed for the
purpose of protecting the alice an of the
church, keeping order in the church during public
worship, seating the parishioners, and executing
other parochial functions. They are admitted to
their office by the Ordinary, usually the bishop of
the diocese, and are his officers, as well as re-
presentatives of the lay parishioners. But their
office in this respect is only one of observation and
report, and they cannot interfere directly with the
incumbent, if in their mind violating the laws
ecclesiastical, but must simply delate the matter
to the bishop by presentment at his visitation.
They are also usually appointed as trustees of
sequestrated benefices. Certain classes are ineligible
for election as churchwardens, such as Jews, minors,
aliens, and persons convicted of felony, fraud, or

rjury ; and there are many exempted from serv-
ing, though eligible if elected, such as peers, mem-
bers of parliament, justices, clergymen, Roman
Catholic ecclesiastics, dissenting ministers, officers
of the army and navy, barristers, solicitors, Xe.
They are generally two in number, but the office
of churchwarden is a single one, of which each
warden holds an undivided moiety, so that they
cannot legally act independently of each other.
There is no officer in the Roman Catholic Church
precisely corresponding to the English chureh-
warden. The closest analogy is found in the
trustees of the church fabric fund of the ish.
These are named Marguillier (Lat. matricularius)
in France, and are three in number, elected by the
other members of the parish council, one of them
going out of office yearly. They have the charge
of the ordinary expenditure of the church, the
superintendence of its minor officials, such as the

246 CHURCHYARD

CHUSAN

beadle, &c., and the general conduct of the civil
onl of parish business. See CHURCH-RATES,

ARISH, VESTRY; and Prideaux’s Practical Guide
to the Duties of Churchwardens (15th ed. 1986).

Churchyard. The churchyard in the earliest
days of Christianity was often prior in time to the
church itself. The Roman law so strictly protected
the area within which stood monuments of the
dead from violation, and even from the incidence
of those acts of ownership to which other lands
were subject, that the Christians found it usually
feasible to obtain security for their burial-places,
which would have been by no means ea ly ex-
‘tended to their places of religious assembly. For
this reason, and also from personal feeling, they
were in the habit of assembling for worship at the
tombs of martyrs, and it became usual to erect
churches close to these. But where the church
was prior in point of time, it was not at first usual
to bury within the curtilage or precinct of the
building, and the cemeteries were entirely apart.
A few instances of interment within the church-
ak proper appear as early as the 4th century,

ut it is not till after the 6th that it became a
ay custom. The first direct evidence of the
ormal consecration of a burial-ground is in this
same era (Greg. Turon., De Gloria Confessorum,
chap. 6), but the usage most probably dates
much earlier, because such dedication was custom-
ary in respect of all things and persons set apart
for religious purposes. The belief in the efficacy
of prayers for the dead had much influence in
promoting burial within the precincts of churches,
as those attending for worship might be expected
to pray for those interred close by; and this
reason, adduced by Gregory the Great, was em-
bodied in the Canon Law.

The introduction into England of the custom
of burying in churehyards is ascribed to Cuthbert,
Archbishop of Canterbury (741-758), and by com-
mon law the freehold of the churchyard belongs
to the rector of the parish, qualified fe the rights
of the parishioners, who, in their turn, are bound
to repair the fence at their own cost, unless there
be a local custom for the owners of adjoining lands
to repair so much of the fence as marches with
their ground. The trees and grass growing in the
churchyard also belong to the rector, but though
he may depasture his sheep or cattle there, he
is not at liberty to cut down the trees uniess
to provide timber for repairing the church. Until
the enactment of the statute 43 and 44 Vict.
chap. 41, no form of burial service except that
of the Church of England could legally be used
in any churchyard; but under that act notice
may be given to the incumbent or ——
minister, by the representatives of any decease
person, that they intend the burial to be either
without any religious service at all, or with some
‘Christian and orderly religious service’ other than
that of the Church of England. The widest in-
terpretation is to be put on this definition, so as
to include all services used by any society profess-
ing to be Christian, but non-Christian rites are
specifically excluded from the operation of the
statute. Churchyards, even if closed for purposes
of burial, cannot under the existing law be con-
verted to secular uses, and the freehold continues
to vest in the incumbents of the parishes where
they are situated. Any person guilty of violent or
indecent behaviour in a churchyard, or disturbing
any pee conducting a burial therein, is liable
br 22 and 23 Vict. chap. 32, sect. 2; to a penalty of
£5 or two months’ imprisonment, and for damage
to any monument or fence, under 24 and 25 Vict.
chap. 97, sect. 39, to imprisonment not exceeding
six months with or without hard labour. See
BURIAL, CEMETERY.

Churehyard Beetle. See BLAps.
Churl. See CEORL.

Churns are machines used for the production
of butter from cream or from whole milk. By
agitation the butter globules are thrown a, ainst
each other until after a period which varies in
length with the quality of the butter-fat, the tem-
perature, and the condition of ‘ripeness,’ or incipient
acidity of the cream. Churns are of great variety
in form and dimensions, from the ladies’ glass hand
churn producing a few ounces of butter at a time,
to one driven by water, steam, or horse-power, and
churning the whole milk of a dairy at one opera-
tion. The plunge churn or thwmp churn is one of
the oldest and most simple varieties. The common
upright hand churn seen in country places is per-
haps the best known form of it, but the principle
is equally applicable to larger churns. The Ox
churn, either oblong or cubical, is stationary like
the latter, the action being brought about by
‘dashers’ or ‘works’ made to revolve on a hori-
zontal spindle passing through its centre.

Revolving churns, taking the shape of a box or
barrel, are supported from two points on a rigid
framework, so that the whole body of the churn is
turned round at the rate of forty to fifty revolutions
per minute by a crank handle after the fashion of
an ordinary grindstone. Sometimes the motion is
a simple rotatory one, as when the barrel is sup-
ported from the centre of both ends, givin it the
position of a barrel rolling on the ground. It may
also be hung from two corresponding points, one on
each side, and occupy an upright position while at
rest. The action is then called ‘end over end.’
An eccentric motion is given by reitey | the body
unevenly. These churns also contain ‘dashers’ or
‘diaphragms’ which increase the agitation of the
cream. heir great advantage is the ease with
which they can be worked—a matter of first import-
ance where hand labour is employed. Swinging or
‘eradle’ churns are increasing in favour, because
they are so extremely easily worked, inexpensive,
and simple, and because they contain no movable
‘dashers,’ which demand much care and labour in
keeping them sweet and clean. The body, con-
sisting of an elongated box, may be suspended
by four chains or thin iron rods, or it ma be
carried on four flat, flexible iron supports. It is
pushed so that it swings backwards and forwards,

iving the cream within a course which assumes
the form of the figure 8. The Holstein churn is
upright and rigid. Its dashers, which are attached
to a perpendicular shaft, are worked at high speed.
With these churns the temperature of a cream may
be kept nearly 10° F. lower than in ordinary ones,
and churning at 50° F. (even in summer) produces
firmer and better butter. See BUTTER, DAIRY.

Churrus, the resinous exudation found in leaves
and stems of Indian hemp, the important element
in the preparation of Hashish (q.v.) or bhang. See
HEMP.

Chusan’, the principal of the group of islands
known as the Chusan Archipelago, lies about a
mile off the east coast of China, opposite Ningpo.
It has an area of over 230 sq. m., and a pop. of
200,000 to 250,000; and although mountainous in
the centre, it is generally fertile, and every where
carefully cultivated. ing-hai, the capital, a
walled town about 3 miles in circumference, is,
from its position on the route between Canton
and Peking, close to the great ports of Shanghai
and Ningpo, a place of both strategic and com-
mercial importance, and its land-locked harbour is
a busy shipping centre. There are few manufac-
tures, but its carved work and silver wares are in
and cordage, matting, and fans are ex-

repute, and Te
It was taken by the British in 1840, and

ported.

;

CHUTNEY

CIBBER 247

held till 1841, the close of the war; and in 1860 it

was again occupied by an English force. Pop.
30,000 to 40,000.—The most vedasbathe of the
surrounding group is the sacred island of Pu-tu, a
mile E. of Chusan, covered with Buddhist temples,
pagodas, and monasteries, and inhabited by up-
wards of a thousand monks. The chief monastery
is one of the richest in China.

Chutney, an East Indian condiment, very
y used in India, and to a considerable extent
in Britain. Indian chutney is a compound of man-
goes, chillies or Capsicum (q.v.), and lime-juice,
with some portion of other native fruits, such as
tamarinds, Xc., the flavour being heightened by
tlic. It is sometimes manufactured for sale in
gland. Families occasionally make it for their
own use, and employ the following ingredients :
Chillies, 1 to 14 lb. ; apples, 1 lb. ; red tamarinds,
2 lb. ; sugar-candy, 1 lb. ; fresh ginger root, 14 Ib. ;
rlic, ; to i Ib. ; sultana raisins, 14 Ib. ; fine salt,
Ib. ; distilled vinegar, 5 bottles.

Chyle, Cuyme. Food, having been partially
digested and absorbed in the stomach, is then passed
on into the small intestine. It is of a pulpy con-
rege AO and is termed chyme. Both digestion
and absorption continue in the small intestine
{see DIGESTION). Of the digested chyme a portion
finds its way directly into the blood-vessels of
the intestine. Nearly all the fat, however, passes
into a special system of Lymphatics (q.v.) termed
lacteals. These lacteal vessels lie in the walls
of the intestine, and, during the fasting condi-
tion, are filled with a watery-looking fluid called
lymph, which exudes from the neighbouring blood-
vessels. During absorption, however, the lacteals,
in addition, become filled with the absorbed fat
which is in a state of minute subdivision. This
gives the chyle, as it is now termed, a milky
appearance. The lacteals convey the chyle into a
large vessel, the thoracic duct, which finally con-
ducts it into the large veins at the root of the
neck, where it mixes with the blood. One may
observe the lacteals on opening the abdomen of
an animal killed some me urs after a full
meal containing fat. When filled with chyle they
resemble white threads branching in the substance
of the seeenary—* membrane stretching between
the intestine and the back of the abdomen. Micro-
scopically chyle consists of a fluid containing
minute fat-globules and a few corpuscles, similar
to white blood-corpuscles. Chyle is alkaline in
reaction, and ec ates when withdrawn from the
body. It may-.be looked upon as lymph plus the
fat which has been aiacthes: It contains (1) Pro-
teids, such as serum-albumen, serum-globulin, and
fibrinogen. Fibrin is formed during the process of
coagulation. (2) Fats—palmitin, stearin, olein,
and also cholesterin and lecithin. (3) Extractives,
notably urea and grape-sugar. (4) Salts, especi-
ally sodium-chloride. See LymMpH, NUTRITION,
DIGESTION,

Cialdini, Enrico, was born at Castelvetro,
Modena, August 10, 1811. Designed for the
medical profession, he studied at Parma, but by
his share in the abortive insurrection of 1831 was
forced to escape to France. He joined the foreign
legion raised by Dom Pedro against the Miguelists,
but, in 1835 passing over to the Spanish service,
he fought against the Carlists, and was made
colonel. When Charles Albert headed the Italian
rising in 1848, he hurried to Italy ; in the struggle
which ensued he received a dangerous wound, and
fell into the hands of the Austrians. On his
release, he was employed by the Sardinian govern-
ment to reduce the volunteers to discipline, and
Pap at the head of his new regiment in the
brief campaign of 1849. In the Crimea he com-

manded a division of the Sardinian contingent;
and on his return was appointed aide-de-cam
to the king. He was intrusted by Cavour with
the formation of the famous Cacciatori delle
Alpi. Im the war of 1859 the victory at Palestro
was his chief exploit. In 1860 he defeated the
Papal army at Castelfidardo; in 1861 Gaeta and
Messina yielded to him, Created Duke of Gaeta,
and for a few months governor of Naples, he had
to act against Garibaldi in the second Sicilian
a. gg (1862). In 1864 he became a senator;
and in the war of 1866 he occupied Venice almost
without a blow. In 1876 he was sent as ambas-
sador to Paris, but he retired in 1881, and became
a general of the army. Died in 1892.

Cibber, CoLLey, actor, manager, and dramatist,
was born in Southampton Street, Bloomsbury,
London, on 6th November 1671. He was the son
of Caius Gabriel Cibber, a seulptor of some note,
born in Holstein in 1630, whose best-known work
is the basso-rilievo on the pedestal of the London
Monument. He was educated at the free school
of Grantham, in Lincolnshire; and in 1690 em-
braced the profession of an actor, joining the
famous company of the Theatre Royal in Dru
Lane. At this theatre, on the fortunes of whic
he exercised so important an influence, he re-
mained, with one or two short intervals, during
the whole of his theatrical career of forty-three

ears. At first he made very slow progress, and
it was not till the secession from Drury Lane in
1695 of all the chief actors, that Cibber had an
opportunity of showing how good a comedian he
was. In January 1696 Cibber’s first comedy, Love’e
Last Shift, was acted at Drury Lane, the author
playing Sir Novelty Fashion. By this produc-
tion his fame, both as dramatist and actor, was
securely fixed; and he went on increasing in
reputation till, after the secession in 1709, he was
chosen one of the managing actors of the Hay-
market Theatre. In 1710 Cibber and his partners
were transferred to Drury Lane, in the direction of
which Steele was in 1714 associated with Cibber,
Wilks, Booth, and Doggett. Various changes
occurred in the personnel of the management,
which was finally broken up at the retirement of
Cibber in 1733. During their management the
associated actors wrought a vast improvement in
the condition of the s Plays me more
decent ; the dissipated loungers that were accus-
tomed to haunt the side scenes were denied
admittance, at the risk, as Cibber relates, of the
managers’ lives; the pecuniary affairs of the
theatre were managed with regularity ; and the
whole atmosphere of the theatre gained in respecta-
bility. As an author Cibber contributed largely to
the improvement in decency which followed Jeremy
Collier's famous philippic in 1698; and it must
always be remem saat to his credit, that in his
comedies he does not rely for his ludicrous effects
on the outraged husband who had almost invari-
ably been the butt of previous dramatists. His
greatest work, however, is his Apology Ps the Life
of Mr Colley Cibber, Comedian (published in 1740 ;
new ed. by R. W. Lowe, 1888), one of the most
interesting autobiographies in our language. On
the death of Eusden in 1730, Cibber, who was a
devoted partisan of the Protestant succession, was
appoin poet-laureate, in which office he wrote

es which were justly the object of universal
ridicule. On this account, among others, he was
ferociously attacked by Pope, who, in revenge for
a damaging retaliatory pamphlet, elevated Cibber
to the throne of Duliness in the 1743 edition of
The Dunciad. The crime of dullness was, however,
the last that could be charged to Cibber, who was
vain, pert, a loose liver and a loose talker, but not
adullard. Cibber died suddenly on 11th December

248 CIBOL

CICERO

1757. His wife was.a Miss Shore, sister of the
‘Sergeant-trumpet’ of England. After their mar-
riage, about 1693, she went on the stage, but did
not attain to any great eminence.

Cibol. See ONION.

Ciborium. See Pyx.

Cibrario, Luici, an Italian historian and
olitician, was born at Turin, 23d February 1802.
Fie studied law, entered the service of the state,
and soon distinguished himself by his historical
investigations. In 1848, when Italy rose against
the Austrians, Charles Albert appointed him com-
missioner at Venice and a senator of Sardinia.
In 1839 he published his Della Economia Politica
del Medio Evo ; in 1840, his Storia della Monarchia
di Savoia; and in 1847, his Storia di Torino. In
1852 he was made Minister of Public Instruction,
and ultimately, in 1855, Minister of Foreign
Affairs. He published numerous other works on
history, numismatics, and miscellaneous subjects.
He died 1st October 1870. See the Life by Odovici
(1873).

Cicada, a large genus of hemipterous insects,
typical of the sub-order Homoptera, with uniform
wings. They are well known for the noise made
by the males, and for the
Neca (q.v.) or sap which
their incisions cause to exude
from trees. Specially abund-
ant in warm countries, some
eighteen ‘species of cicada
occur in the _ vine-bearing
regions of Europe. When
they do occur, their presence
is not kept secret, for in the
warm sunshine the males keep
up a continuous and very
loud, doubtless amatory, chirp-
ing. Their shrill ‘song’ has
been echoed by poets from
Anacreon to Byron, but seems

Cicada. to have sounded more sweetly ,
in the ears of the ancients.
Yet some people are so fond of the chirping that

they keep the cicadas in little cages. Some large
South American species are said to chirp ‘loud
enough to be heard at the distance of a mile.’ The
noise is caused by the vibrations of membranes at
the openings of two respiratory tubes (tracheze) on
the last joint of the thorax, and the volume of
sound is increased by two complex resonating
cavities a little farther back. The apparatus is
rudimentary in the females; which in this case at
least cannot be blamed for noise. The commonest
South European species is Cicada orni, feeding
especially on ash-trees. C. plebeya is a somewhat
larger form. C. mannifera causes abundant
‘manna’ in Brazil. C. septemdecim is the North
American ‘seventeen years’ locust,’ or harvest-fly,
said to occur in spear abundance every seventeen
years ; though they probably appear in some part
of the country every year. The males of the species
perform the act of reproduction and soon die, prob-
ably taking no nourishment in the perfect state.
The females deposit about 500 eggs in the twigs of
trees, and die immediately after. The larve drop
and bore their way into the ground, where they are
supposed to remain for seventeen years, sucking
the juices of the roots of trees and plants. There
is also a thirteen years’ variety or brood. When
the pupze emerge, the ground sometimes seems
honeycombed by their numbers. The larve are
devoured in great quantities by birds, frogs, and
swine. The damage done by the larve in their
long underground career is nothing as compared
with that inflicted on the foliage by the perfect
insect (female) during its short life. See Bulletin

No. 8 (1885) of the United States Department of
Agriculture. C. hematodes, a small species, is re-
corded from the New Forest in Hampshire. The:
family to which the cicadas belong is often known
as that of the stridulant insects, and includes.
about five hundred species. An even larger closely
allied family is that of the Cicadellide, including
the common Froth-fly (q.v.). The name Cicada.
has sometimes been applied to another hemipterous
insect, a common bug named Halticus pallicornis:
or C. aptera of Linnzus. It need hardly be said
that the cicadas are not crickets, or locusts, or
grasshoppers. See Locust. -

Cicatrisation (Lat. cicatriz, ‘a scar’), the:
aie as, of healing or skinning over of an ulcer or

roken surface in the skin or in a mucous mem-
brane, by which a fibrous material of a dense resist-
ing character, covered by a_ protecting layer of
epithelium, is substituted for the lost texture. The
new tissue in such a case is called the cicatrix,
and usually resembles to a considerable extent the:
structure which it replaces; it is, however, less.
elastic, and from its shrinking in volume may pro-
duce an appearance of puckering. This shrinking
sometimes leads to serious results, especially after
extensive Burns (q.¥. ). The glands and other
special structures of the original tissue are wanting”
in the cicatrix, which, however, performs perfectly
well, in most instances, the office of protection to-
the parts below the surface. See INFLAMMATION
and (under Ulcers) ULCERATION.

Cicely (Myrrhis). See under CHERVIL.

Cicer. See CHICK PEA.

Cicero, Marcus TUuLLius, 106-43 B.c., the
foremost orator of ancient Rome, one of her leadin
statesmen, and the most brilliant and accomplish
of her men of letters, lived in those stirring later
days of the Roman republic, that age of revolution
and civil wars, in which an old and decaying order
of things was passing away. It was the age of
om and daring spirits, of Catiline, Cesar,

ompey, Antony, with whose history Cicero’s.
life is closely intertwined. Born 106 B.c. at an
old Italian town, Arpinum in Latium, of a good
family, and inheriting from his father, who was a
man of considerable culture, a moderate estate, he:
went as a boy to Rome, and there, under the best.
teachers and professors, he learned law and oratory,
Greek philosophy, and Greek literature, acquiring
in fact the universal knowledge which he himself
says in his essay ‘on the orator’ (De Oratore) an
orator ought to possess. An orator in the ancient.
world, we should bear in mind, was first and chiefly
a pleader of causes, causes both legal and political—
a speaker alike, as we should say, at the bar and
in parliament. Hence the necessity for knowledge —
and information of every kind. Cicero’s first:
important speech, in his twenty-sixth year, was:
the successful defence in a criminal trial of a client.
against one of the favourites of the all-powerful
Sulla, then dictator. After a visit to Athens, and
a tour in Asia Minor, where he profited by the
society of eminent professors of rhetoric and men of
letters, he returned to Rome, and at thirty years.
of age he was in the highest repute at the Roman
bar.

In 76 B.C., having been elected queestor (a finan-
cial-secretary, as we may say ) by a unanimous popu-
lar vote, he held an appointment in Sicily, where
he won the good opinion of two highly important.
interests, apt at times to conflict, the traders and
the revenue collectors. To this he owed the glory
of his successful impeachment of the infamous.
Verres in 70 B.C., which he undertook at the
request of the Sicilian provincials. The bad man
who had so hideously misgoverned them felt himself
crushed by Cicero’s onening speech, and went into.

*

CICERO

CICHORIUM 249

voluntary exile. Cicero was now a power in the
state, and his rise up the official ladder was sure
and rapid ;: in 66 B.c. he was preetor, and be ne
in a great political speech (Pro Lege Manilia) the
eee of Pompey to the conduct of the war
h Mithridates, which in fact carried with it the
supreme control of Asia and of the East. In 63 B.c.,
at the age of forty-four, he was consul, the highest
dignity attainable to a Roman ; in that memorable
year he foiled, by a bold promptitude, the revolu-
tionary plot of Catiline, in which many distinguished
Romans—Cesar, it was even said, among them—
were implicated. He was now at the height of his
fame; ‘father of his country’ he was actually
called ; for a brief space he was with all classes the
great man of the day. But the tide soon turned ;
ticero might have saved the country, but in saving
it, it was said, he had violated the constitution,
according to which a Roman citizen could not be
eapitally punished but by the sentence of the
people in regular assembly. As it was, Roman
citizens guilty of complicity with Catiline had, at
Cicero's instigation, been put to death simply by
an order of the senate; this, it was said, was a
dangerous precedent, and Cicero must be held
responsible for it. His bitter enemy, Clodius,
now tribune, pressed the charge against him in
inflammatory speeches specially addressed to the
lowest class of citizens, and Cicero in despair left
Rome in 58 B.c., and took refuge at Thessalonica.
That same year saw ‘the father of his country’ con-
demned to exile by a vote of the Roman people,
and his house at Rome and his country houses at
Formiz and Tusculum plundered and ruined.

But in those “steep ec 4 days the events of
one year were reversed by those of the next; in
57 B.C., with new consuls and new tribunes, the
people almost unanimously voted the recall of the
exile, and Cicero was welcomed back to Rome
amid an outburst of popular enthusiasm. But he
was no longer a igh in the world of polities ;
he could not see his ba # clearly ; and he was so
nervously sensitive to the fluctuations of public
opinion that he could not decide between Pompey
and the aristocracy on one hand, and Cesar and
the new democracy on the other. His leanings
had hitherto been towards Pompey and the senate
and the old republic; but as time went on he felt
that Pompey was a half-hearted man, who could
not be trusted, and that he would have ultimately
to suecumb to his far abler and more far-sighted
rival, Cesar. The result was that he lost the
esteem of both parties, and came to be regarded as
a mere trimmer and time-server. There was all
that political indecision about him which may be
often observed in eminent lawyers and men of
letters. The age wanted strong men such as
Cesar; this Cicero certainly was not. He was
gentle, amiable, very clever, and highly cultivated,
_ but the last man in the world to succeed in polities.

The later years of his life were spent chiefly
in pleading at the bar and in writing essays. In
52 B.C. he composed one of his finest speeches in
, defence of Milo, who had killed Clodius in a riot,
and was then standing for the consulship; in this
he was acting quite against the wishes of Pompey.
In the following year (51-50 B.c.) he was in Asia,
as governor of the province of Cilicia, and here the
best side of his character showed itself in his just
and sympathetic treatment of the provincials. In
49-48 B.C, he was with Pompey’s army in Greece
to fight for the old cause, of which, however, he
ee despaired, and after the decisive battle of
Pharsalia, at which he was not present, he threw
himself on the conqueror’s merey. Czesar, who had
certainly nothing to fear from him, received him
kindly, and was a great friend to him from that
day; but Cicero was not a happy man now that

he could no longer make speeches in the senate or
in the courts; to all this Cwsar’s victory had for
the time at least put an end. In the years 46, 45,
and 44 B.c. he wrote most of his chief works on
rhetoric and philosophy, living in retirement and
brooding mournfully over his griefs and disappoint-
ments. In 43 B.c., the year after Cwsar’s death, he
had once aot the delight of having his eloquence
applauded by the senate. In that year his famous
speeches against Antony—Philippics, as he called
them after the title of Demosthenes’ orations
against Philip of Macedon—were delivered. These
cost him his life. As soon as Antony, Octavius
afterwards the emperor Augustus), and Lepidus
ad leagued themselves together in the so-called
triumvirate for the settlement of the state, they
followed the precedent of former revolutions and
published a proscription-list of their political
enemies. All such were outlawed and given up to
destruction. Cicero’s name was in the fatal Nit,
Old and feeble, he fled to his villa at Formiz,
pursued by the soldiers of Antony, and was over-
taken by them as he was being carried in a litter
down to the shore, where it had been his intention
to embark. With a calm courage, which (to quote
Macaulay’s words) ‘has half redeemed his fame,’ he
put his head out of the litter and bade the murderers
strike. He died in the December of 43 B.c., in the
sixty-third year of his i

As an orator and a pleader Cicero undoubtedly
stands in the first rank. Many of his speeches
have come down to us. Of these the most famous
and perhaps the finest are his speeches against Verres
and against Catiline. Eloquence in those days of
furious faction and revolution was a greater force
than it is with us. As a politician he failed
because he did not distinctly realise to himself that
the old republic, the government of the senate and
of the nobles, had been tried and had been found
wanting. He had not the courage to face the great
changes which he felt were impending. Pompey,
the champion of the old order, was not a leader to
whom he could look up with confidence. And so
he wavered, and half eas in Cvesar’s triumph,
even though he suspected that with that triumph the
Rome which he had known and loved would pass
away. Tous it is as an essayist and as the writer
of a multitude of letters to friends, full of miscel-
laneous information, that Cicero is particularly
attractive; there is a gracefulness and refinement
and elevation of tone about his writings which
cannot fail to incline the reader to say with
Erasmus, ‘I feel a better man for reading Cicero.”
His essays on ‘old age,’ and ‘on friendship,’ his
De Officiis or ‘whole duty of man,’ are good and
pleasant reading such as we can all enjoy ; and his
more abstruse writings on philosophy, his Tusculan
disputations, his treatises on the ‘nature of the
gods and on the ‘true ends of human life’ (De

inibus), if they do not show any very original
thought, at least give us an insight into the teach-
ings of the ancient philosophical schools.

The best edition of Cicero’s works is by Baiter and
pee (1869), of his Epistles by Tyrrell (6 vols. 1879-99) ;
and the best Cicero lexicon Merguet’s (Jena, 1877-84).
See also works by Middleton (1741), Forsyth (1864),
Jeens (1880), Trollope (1880), Lucas Collins (1871),
Teuffel (1889), Weissenfels (1892), Strachan-Davidson
(1894), and Gaston Boissier (trans. 1897 ).

Cicero’né (from Cicero, ‘the orator’ or
‘speaker’), a name given by the Italians to the
guides who show travellers the antiquities of the
country. Cicerones are to be found of all degrees
of knowledge or respectability, from distinguished
local archeologists to the humble daquais de place,
who, though quite indispensable on a first arrival,
is too often both incompetent and dishonest.

Cicho’rium. See Cuicory and ENDIVE.

250 CICINDELLA

CID CAMPEADOR

Cicindella, a genus of beetles in the section

entamera, and type of a family with some 300
species. They are very active, and occur abund-
antly on sandy places. C. campestris is a common
British species of a green colour.

Cicisbe’o, a professed gallant who waits with
fantastic devotion upon a married lady. In the
higher ranks of Italian society it was at one time
considered unfashionable for the husband to asso-
ciate with his wife anywhere except in his own
house ; and in society, or at public places of amuse-
ment, the wife was accompanied by her cicisbeo.
Cicisbeo is synonymous with cavaliere servente.

Cicu’'ta. See HEMLOCK.

Cidaris, a genus of Sea-urchins (q.v.), and
type of a family (Cidaridz) with very long spines.
The most of the members of the family are fossil
forms, but over a score of living species are known.
Dorocidaris papillata is occasionally dredged to the
north of Scotland, and its beautifully marked
spines in some instances measure over six inches
in length, being often twice as long as the cross
diameter of the shell. It is sometimes popularly
called the Piper from a fanciful ceiblenes to
bagpipes.

Cid Campeador, the name, or rather names,
by which the most renowned Spanish warrior of
the 11th century is best known. By his Moorish
vassals he was called ‘Sid-i’ (‘my lord’), which the
Spaniards translated by Mio Cid, and a victory in his
youth over a Navarrese champion in single combat
gave him the title of Campeador. His real name
was Rodrigo, or Ruy, Diaz (i.e. ‘son of Diego’). He
was a Castilian noble by birth, seventh in descent
from Nufio Rasura, who was also ancestor of the
royal line of Castile. He was born either at Burgos
or at Bivar near it, about the year 1040. From 1065
to 1072 he was nominally alferez, or ‘ancient,’ but
virtually commander of the forces to Sancho II. of
Castile in the wars in which that king wrested the
kingdoms of Leon and Galicia from his brothers.
In 1072 Sancho was treacherously slain at the siege
of Zamora, and as he left no heir the Castilians
had to acknowledge Alfonso, the banished king of
Leon. Asa conciliatory measure Alfonso gave his
cousin Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo,
to the Cid in marriage, but afterwards, in 1081,
when he found himself firmly seated on the throne,

ielding to his own feelings of resentment, and
incited by the Leonese nobles, he banished him
from the kingdom. According to ‘tradition he
never forgave the Cid for having, as leader of the
Castilians, compelled him. to swear that he had no
hand in the murder of his brother Sancho, but there
is no need to look for any cause beyond the heredi-
tary animosity between the Castilians and the
Leonese, now intensified in the latter by recent
defeat and humiliation, for which they held the Cid
responsible. At the head of a large body of
followers the Cid betook himself to Moctadir of the
Beni Hud, the so-called king of Saragossa, to whom,
and to his son and grandson, he rendered important
services against their enemies the king of Aragon
and the count of Barcelona. In conjunction with
Mostain, grandson of Moctadir, he invaded Valencia
in 1088, but afterwards carried on operations on his
own account, and finally, after a long siege, made
himself master of the city in June 1094. The
Almoravides, then in possession of south and
central Spain, twice sent large armies against him,
but were each time routed with great loss. For
five years he reigned like an independent sovereign
over the fairest and richest territory in the Penin-
sula, but in July 1099 he died suddenly, of grief, the
Arabic annals say, at.the news that some of his
men had been defeated. His widow held out for
two years longer, and then retired, carrying with

her the embalmed body of the Cid, which for ten

ears sat enthroned beside the high altar at San
Pedro de Cardefia, near Burgos.

The Cid’s career cannot be better summed up
than in the words of a contemporary and an
enemy, Ibn Bassam of Seville, who wrote only
ten years after his death, and could cite the
testimony of one who knew him and was an eye-
witness of his deeds in Valencia. Of the Cid—
whom he calls ‘a Galician dog, one Roderic, sur-
named the Canbitur, the scourge of the country’
—he says : ‘It was the Beni Hud who raised him out
of obscurity, and they delivered over to him divers
provinces of the Peninsula, so that he overran the
plains like a conqueror, and planted his banner in
the fairest cities. His power grew very great, nor
was there any district that pe did not ravage.
Nevertheless this man, the scourge of his time,
was, in his love of glory, strength of character, and
heroic courage, one of the marvels of the Lord.

Victory always followed his banner—God’s curse _

be on him.’ The character of the Cid was, how-
ever, a somewhat complex one. There can be no
doubt of his cruelty, rapacity, and duplicity, for
the statements of the Moorish authorities are sub-
stantially confirmed by the Spanish, the Cronicas,
the Gesta Roderici Campidocti, and even the
Poema itself. But it may te said for him that to
strike terror was one of the necessities of his
position, outnumbered as he was by a hundred to
one; and had he not made plunder bis prime

object the army he led would soon have melted —

away. Unscrupulous condottiere as he was, fight-
ing for paymaster or plunder, he was nevertheless a
staunch patriot at heart. Ibn Bassam had it from
one who heard him that he said : ‘ This peninsula was
conquered under one Roderic, but another Roderic
shall deliver it.’ He was an imperfect hero; but he
was a born leader of men, and it was only natural
that a career like his should take a strong hold of
the popular imagination, and in an age when
minstrelsy flourished become a favourite theme
with the jongleurs and trovadores. These, when
facts began to run short, met the demand by draw-
ing upon their invention, and treated the Cid pre-
cisely as they treated Charlemagne. As they
invented the journey to Jerusalem, the expedition
to Galicia, the Bridge of Mantible, and the Emir
Balan for Charlemagne, so they devised an invasion
of France for the Cid, made him defy the emperor
Henry, beard the pope, cut off the head of the
count of Gormaz and marry his daughter; and to
allow time for all, they put back his birth twenty

ears, and even extended the life of his charger

avieca to sixty. They also married his daughters
to the Infantes of Carrion, princes of the blood-
royal of Leon. Historically, the Cid’s daughters
were married, one to a count of Barcelona, the
other to a prince of Navarre, a union by which his
blood passed into the royal line of Castile, and
thence into the Bourbon, Hapsburg, and our own
royal families. Alfonso X. adopted all the ampli-
fications of the minstrels in the Cronica General,
from which they found their way almost un-
questioned into the history of Spain; and their
inconsistencies and absurdities have in some in-
stances led uncritical and somewhat indolent
historians like Masdeu and Dr Dunham to treat
the whole story of the Cid as a fable, and himself
as no better than a creature of popular fancy.

Of the Cid literature it is impossible to give more
than a summary here. By far the most important
in every way of the works belonging to it is the
Poem, written undoubtedly in the last half of the
12th century, and probably the oldest document in
the Spanish language. It is more properly an epic
than a chanson de geste, and unquestionably the
most Homeric piece of medieval poetry in existence.

§
7

CIDER

CILIA 251

Editions of it have been given by Janer and Pidal
in the Biblioteca de Autores Espaiioles (vol. lvii.),
by Vollmdéller, with introduction and notes, and by
mas Hinard, with a French prose translation.
It has been translated into German by O. L. B
Wolff, and there is an English translation with
introduction and notes by John Ormsby. The
translated fragments by J. H. Frere do little justice
to the dignity, sense, and spirit of the old Spanish
m. The Cronica Rimada, a very inferior work
of a much later date, deals mainly with the pay?
hal invasion of France. The prose Cronica del Cid
P Burgos, 1512) is merely that part of the Cronica
General which refers to the Cid, with some additions
and corrections. Southey’s admirable Chronicle of
the Cid is a composite work made up of portions of
the Cronica and of the Poem, skilfully interwoven
so as to give the story of the Cid as the old story-
tellers told it. Risco’s Castilla (1792) contains,
besides a life of the Cid, the original Latin text of
his marriage-settlement, dated 1074, the Santiago
Genealogy, and the Gesta Roderici Campidocti ;
both written before 1238. Of more modern works
the most notable are Malo de Molina’s Rodrigo
el Campeador (1857), Professor Dozy’s Le Cid
dapres de nouveaux Documents (1860), and H.
Butler Clarke’s The Cid Campeador (1897). The
Cid ballads, so numerous in the old cancioneros
and romanceros, were collected and printed in a
romancero by themselves by Escobar in 1612. The
fullest and best Romancero del Cid is that of Caro-
lina Michaelis (1872), which contains no less than
205 ballads. Only a few, however, of the Cid
ballads are of high excellence, or to be regarded as
— of genuine traditional popular poetry.
he greater number are comparatively modern,
many are merely portions of the Chronicles put into
verse, and not a few are artificial ballad imitations
of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Cider, or CyYDER, is the fermented juice of
apples, and is extensively prepared in Devonshire,
erefordshire, Gloucestershire, and other parts of

. England, in the United States, and in the north-

ern districts of France and Germany. The apples
commonly used for making cider are by no means
tempting to the palate, are in fact unfit either for
eating raw or ordinary cooking. Three kinds may
be used—viz. the bitter, the sweet, and the sour;
but the first are generally preferred, and are
specially cultivated in the cider orchards. These
bitter apples contain a considerable amount of
sugar, but it is masked to the palate by the ex-
tractive matter also present. Late apples afford
much better cider than early ones. The apples
after gathering are left for some days to mellow or
mature. This has the further advantage of show-
ing the unsound apples, which are rejected, as
iving the whole an incurably musty flavour. In

the United States it is considered that a certain
Log oh of decaying fruit improves the flavour ;
robably they act by hastening or modifying the

ermentation. The apples are crushed by passing
them between fluted rollers, or in mills of various
kinds. Some improved cider-mills grind the fruit
to a perfectly homogeneous pulp. These mills Eive
an increase in quantity, with a falling-off in quality
of the product. The pulp thus obtained is placed
in tubs or vats with or without a little water,
and left for about a day. During this time fer-
mentation commences and assists in breaking up
the cells of the pulp. Or the pulp is more com-
pletely broken up at once. The pulp is next placed
in coarse canvas or haircloth bags, or on a wicker-
work or perforated frame for the juice to drain into
a tub or vat. This juice is reserved for the best
uality of cider. The remaining juice is removed

a pmo the bags and their contents in a press.
e old process of laying up the pulp or pomace in

straw for pressure gives a good quality of juice.
The greater the poms the coarser the flavour,
due to that of the pips and skins, but of course
the quantity is increased by additional pressure.

The next Piece is the full fermentation. This
is usually effected in casks with large bung-holes.
The casks being filled with juice, much of it froths
over during fermentation, and therefore the casks
are placed over open tubs which catch it. Care is
necessary to keep the casks full, so that the excess
of yeast may thus be continually removed, such
excess promoting acetic fermentation. This is con-
tinued from three to eight or ten days according to
the alcoholic strength required. It is then racked
off from the sediment into clean casks and stored in
a cellar or other place with cool and equable tem.

rature. In the following spring this racked cider
is re-racked, and is then ready for use or sale.

A weaker cider, used as a common beverage for
farm labourers, is made by adding about half its
weight of water to the mare or pressed pulp and
fermenting this as above. The refuse pulp or
y apple cheese’ is used as food for pigs and cattle.

ider contains from 4 to 10 per cent. of absolute
alcohol—i.e. 8 to 20 per cent. of proof spirit, accord-
ing to quality. : This depends upon the quantity of
sugar originally in the juice, and upon the care in
fermentation, especially in respect to temperature,
which should be about 50° F. This is too com-
monly neglected, and the fermentation left to
the accidents of weather. Much acetic acid is
thus formed when the autumn is warm, rendering
the cider rough. Sweet cider is that in which only
a small proportion of the sugar has been converted
by fermentation into alcohol or acetic acid. The
best cider is mellow and vinous, neither sweet nor
acid. The bottling of cider demands much care.
Only clear samples are fit for bottling, and they
should be at least twelve months old and free from
hardness or acidity. Good mellow or slightly
sweet cider carefully bottled before fermentation is
fully completed constitutes champagne cider, and
is used as a basis of factitious champagne.

Cienfuegos, a seaport city of Cuba, on the -
nificent Bahia de J agus ( ere, A coast), 189 sitlas
rail SE. of Havana ; it is also connected by rail with
other parts of theisland. The harbour is of the first
class, and is commercially the most important port
and the centre of the sugar-trade in the south part
of the island; it exports also tobacco, molasses,
honey and wax, &ec. Pop. (1899) 30,038.

Cieza, a town of Spain, 26 miles NW. of
Murcia. Pop. (1877) 10,910.

Cigars and Cigarettes. See ToBacco.

Ci‘goli (properly Lupovico Carptr), a painter
of the later Florentine school, was born at Vigoli,
near Florence, in 1559. His models were Andrea
del Sarto and Correggio ; but he has his own style,
marked by expression and fine colour. He was
invited by Clement VII. to Rome, where he died
in 1613. Cigoli was also held in high estimation
as an architect.

Cilia (Lat., ‘eyelashes’), hair-like lashes borne
by cells. They are mobile modifications of the liv-
ing matter of the cell, and exhibit alternate bending
and straightening. Their occurrence is very wide
—e.g. on the active stages of many unicellular
plants; in great perfection on the ciliated Infus-
orians; on the free-swimming embryos of sponges,
Ceelenterates, worms, echinoderms, and molluscs ;
on the outer surface of many lower animals such as
simple worms; on the par of the alimentary
cavity, and in most of the tubular o s of Inverte-
brates; and more restrictedly, though not less
markedly, in some regions (such as trachea) of
higher forms. They are absent throughout the
Arthropods (with one possible exception), a fact

252 CILICIA

CIMON

robably to be associated with the predominance of

+hitin (q.v.). In many cases, normal, pathological,
and artificial cilia may sink down into less motile
ameeboid processes. A single lash with an un-
dulating movement is distinguished as a flagellum ;
and Ray Lankester emphasises the useful distine-
tion between a flagellum such as that of a bac-
terium, or the tail of a spermatozoon, which acts
‘like a tadpole’s tail’ and drives the cell before it,
and the motive process of a flagellate Infusorian
which carries the cell behind it. See CELL.

Cilicia, an ancient division of Asia Minor, now
included in the Turkish province of Adana, which
lay between the Taurus range and the Cilician Sea,
while the Amanus range separated it from Syria.
The eastern portion of Cilicia was fertile in grain,
wine, &c. ; the western and more mountainous por-
tion furnished inexhaustible supplies of timber to
the ancients. The pass called by the Turks Gélek
Boghaz (anciently Pyle Cilicie) is that by which
Alexander the Great entered Cilicia. In early ages
Cilicia was ruled by its own kings, the people, who
were probably akin to Syrians and Pheenicians,
being notorious pirates. The country fell succes-
sively under Persian, Macedonian, and Syrian rule,
and was made a Roman province by Pompey in
67 B.c. See AsiA MINOR.

Cimabuw’é, GIOVANNI, the first of the restorers
of the art of painting in Italy, which had fallen
into neglect during the barbarism of the dark ages,
was born at Florence in 1240. At this time the
fine arts were practised in Italy chiefly by Byzan-
tines, though there were such native artists as
Guido of Siena and Giunto of Pisa; and painting
had degenerated into a worn-out mechanical conven-
tionalism. Cimabue at first adopted traditional
forms, but he soon turned to nature, painting a St
Francis from the living model, ‘a new thing in
these times,’ as Vasari tells us, infusing life and
individuality into the worn-out types of his pre-
decessors, and leading the way to the naturalism
of the works of his great pupil Giotto (q.v.). In
the stiff forms of his draperies he made little pro-
gress upon former practice, but he softened his
outlines, improved his flesh-tints, and gave pro-
jection and a sense of rotundity to his forms. ‘Two
remarkable pictures of the Madonna by Cimabue
are still preserved in Florence—one in the Academy ;
the other, displaying a more purely original genius,
in the church of Santa Maria Novella. It is said
that this latte: work in the time of Cimabue was
admired as a miracle of art, and was carried to the
church in a sort of triumphal procession. It is the
first great production of the Florentine school which
culmina in Michael Angelo, Raphael, and
Leonardo. Cimabue executed several important
frescoes in the south transept of the lower church
of San Francesco at Assisi, and in the north tran-
sept of the upper church there; and during his
later years he was appointed capo maestro of the
mosaics of the Duomo of Pisa, his works in this
method ranking as the finest of the period. His
mosaic of Christ in glory in the apse was probably
his last work ; and his easel-picture of a Madonna
and Child in the Louvre was executed for San Fran-
cesco at Pisa. He died about 1302.

Cimarosa, DoMENIco, an Italian composer of
operas, was born either at Aversa, 17th December
1749, or more probably at Naples in 1755. He
was certainly educated at Naples, in music under
Sacchini, and in the conservatory of Loretto.. His
first pieces were the Sacrificio di Abramo and the
Olympiade. When barely twenty-two he had
achieved a reputation in all the leading Italian
theatres. He was then called to St Petersburg as
rile rag to the Empress Catharine II., where he
resided four years. terwards he lived at various

German courts; thence he proceeded to Vienna,
where he became imperial kapel/meister ; and finally
he returned to Italy. At Naples, his comic opera,
Ii Matrimonio Segreto, composed at Vienna, 1791,
was repeated seventy times in succession. Cima-
rosa died at Venice, 11th J anuary 1801. His comic
operas are remarkable for their novelty, spirit,
whimsicality, and liveliness of idea, as well as for
their great knowledge of stage-effect.

Cimbri, or Kimsri, a people who issued from
the north of Germany in conjunction with the
Teutones, and first came into hostile contact with
the Romans in the province of Noricum (Carinthia.
and Carniola) in 113 B.c. They were victorious in
several great engagements, and were only prevented
from devastating Italy by a terrible de eat they
suffered from Marius on the Raudii Campi, near
Verona, or, according to others, near Vercelli, in
August 101 B.c. hey fought with desperate
courage, and when the battle was lost, their women
killed themselves and their children. It is not
till long afterwards, when the Romans themselves.
penetrated into Germany, that the name of the
Cimbri again appears. Czesar represents the Adu-
atici of Belgium as the descendants of the Cimbri
and Teutones. Tacitus speaks of a people bearing
the name of Cimbri, few in number, but of great:
reputation, that sent ambassadors to Augustus.
This people lived in the extreme north of Germany,
on the borders of the ocean; according to Pliny and

Ptolemy, at the extremity of the peninsula called |

from them the Cimbric Chersonese, now Jiitland.
The ethnology of the Cimbri is doubtful. Greek
writers associated them groundlessly with the
Cimmerians; Sallust calls them Gauls; Cesar,
Tacitus, Plutarch, and most moderns look upon
them as Germans. Some, however, have main-
tained that they were Celtic, and have tried to
fortify their argument by a desperate analogy with
the name Cymry.

Cimex. See Bua.

Cimmerians, or CimMMERI, in Homer, a

legendary people dwelling ‘beyond the ocean- °

stream, where the sun never shines, and perpetual
darkness reigns.’ The name was also applied to a
fabulous people who dwelt in caves between
Baie and Cumz. Hence the common phrase,
‘Cimmerian darkness.’ The historic Cimmerii
were a people whose country lay between the
Borysthenes (Dnieper) and the Tanais (Don), in-
cluding also the Tauric Chersonesus (Crimea).
The Nisenk-ian Bosporus (Strait of Yenikale)
derived its name from them. Being driven out by
the Seythians, they migrated to Asia Minor, dwelt.
there for some time, plundered Sardis, failed in an
attempt upon Miletus, and were finally routed and
expelled by the Lydian king Alyattes, some time
after 617 B.C.

Cimolite. See FULLERS’ EARTH.

Cimon, an Athenian commander, was the son
of the great Miltiades, the conqueror at Marathon.
Being unable to pay the fine of 50 talents from
which his father escaped by dying, he was kept:
in prison until the fine was paid by the wealthy
Callias who had married his sister. Young Cimon
enjoyed the patronage of Aristides, and soon dis-
tinguished himself in the patriotic struggle against:
the Persians. In conjunction with Aristides he
was placed over the Athenian contingent to the
allied fleet, which, under the supreme command of
the Spartan Pausanias, continued the war against
the Persians (477 B.c.). He effected the important
conquest of Eion, a town on the river Strymon,
then garrisoned by the Persians. His greatest
exploit was his encounter with a Persian fleet of
350 ships at the river Eurymedon (466), when he
destroyed or captured 300, and defeated the land-

ea ee

i

i itl as wi i |

CIMON

Ld
CINCHONA 253

forces on the same day. He succeeded likewise in
driving the Persians from Thrace, Caria, and Lycia ;
and expended much of the money which he had
obtained by the recovery of his patrimony in
Thrace upon the improvement of the city of
Athens. The lavish bounty with which he opened
his gardens and the honours of his table, together
with his cheerful temper and patience, endeared
him to his fellow-citizens, t this period he
appears to have been the most influential of the
Athenians. The hereditary enemy of Persia, it
was his policy to advocate a close alliance with
Sparta; and when the Helots revolted, he twice
led an army to the support of the Spartan troops ;
but on the latter occasion, having lost the confi-
dence of his allies, he was ignominiously dismissed.
After his return to Athens his policy was opposed
by the democracy, headed by Pericles, who pro-
eured his banishment by ostracism. He was re-
called in the fifth year of his exile, and was
instrumental in obtaining a five years’ armistice
between the Spartans and the Athenians. He
died in the year 449 B.C., at the siege of a Cyprian
town.

Cincho’na (properly CHINCHONA), a most im-

rtant genus of trees of the order Rubiacez
er ordae Cinchonacez), yielding the bark so much
valued in medicine, which has been variously known
as Peruvian Bark, Jesuits’ Bark, China Bark, Quina,
ppeteanine, Cinchona Bark, &c., and from which
the important alkaloids quinine and its congeners
are obtained. ‘The species of this genus are some-
times trees of great magnitude ; but an aftergrowth
springing from their roots when they have been
felled, they often appear only as large shrubs ; and
some of them in the highest mountain-regions in
which they are found are low trees with stems onl
8 or 10 feet in height. They are natives of South
America between 20° S. lat. and 10° N. lat., and
chiefly on the eastern slope of the Cordilleras. The
best cinchona formerly came from the province of
Loxa in Ecuador. The range of altitude of course
diminishes as we recede from the equator, but may
be averaged at from 8000 to 5000 feet for the best
varieties. The climate of these regions is extremely
variable, and this seems to have more effect upon
the trees and their product than differences in soil.
All the cinchonas are evergreen trees, with laurel-
like, entire, opposite leaves; stipules which soon
fall off; and panicles of flowers, which, in general
= ge are not unlike those of lilac or privet.

e flowers are white, rose-coloured, or purplish,
and very fragrant.

Such difficulty has been found in determining the
species of cinchona and the different varieties of
bark known in commerce that a voluminous special
literature of ‘quinology’ has been called into
existence. This difficulty is due | aorta. to the large
number and t variability of the species, and
even of individual specimens of bark, as also to
the difficulty of obtaining specimens of flowers and
leaves along with particular kinds of bark. The
most important species are C. officinalis of Ecuador
and Peru, C. Calisaya of Bolivia and south-east
Peru, and C. succirubra of the western slope of
Chimborazo ; but others (Carthagena Bark, Colum-
bian Bark, &c.) are also of importance, while the
varieties are too numerous to mention. The barks
of allied species which, although more or less bitter
and even febrifugal, contain no quinine are apt to
be used as substitutes or adulterations.

The acpi. and peeling of cinchona-trees is a
laborious and difficult operation carried on by
Indians during the dry season. They build a
hut, which serves both for their abode and for
drying the bark. The trees are felled as near the
root as ible, that none of the bark may be
lost ; and the bark being stripped off, is carefully

dried and packed ; the quilled form of the thinner
bark is acquired in ier

This wasteful and costly mode of collection from
almost impassable forests, in which, moreover, the

Cinchona lancifolia.

tree was becoming exterminated, and this in face
of an increasing demand, gradually roused the
attention of European botanists to the desirability
of inaugurating a regular culture in similar regions
and climates of the Old World; but the successful
introduction of cinchona-seeds into Europe was
only effected by Weddell in 1848, and his seedlings
were sent from the Jardin des Plantes to Algiers
in 1850, and to Java in 1852. The Dutch govern-
ment also imported .a few living plants from Peru
in 1854. The credit of really solving the difficult
roblem of acclimatisation is, however, due to Mr
Ylements R. Markham. Himself going to Peru
and Bolivia for C. Calisaya, he secured the services
of Spruce, a well-known collector then resident in
Ecuador (who was similarly successful in obtaining
C. succirubra), as well as those of three other effec-
tive coadjutors. The expedition was attended by
much difficulty and danger, and its narrative has a
rominent place in the ‘history of botanical travel.
lantations were formed in the Neilgherry Hills,
and thence spread to Sikkim at the foot of the
Himalayas, to British Burma, Ceylon, &e. Cinchona
is also being grown in the West Indies, and its
acclimatisation in all suitable localities continues
to make progress and to become an important
ur ey
The Indians of Peru call the cinchona-trees Kina,
from whence are derived the names Quina, China,
&ec. But there is no evidence that they knew the
use of the bark before the arrival of the Spaniards,
nor will they even yet employ it in their native
medicine. It was first imported into Europe in
1639, by the Countess of Chinchon, the wife of
the viceroy of Peru, who had been cured of an
obstinate intermittent fever by means of it, and
who thereafter habitually distributed it to those
suffering from fever. Upon this account it was
named C. Bark and Countess’s Powder (Pulvis
comitisse). The Jesuit missionaries afterwards
carried it to Rome, and distributed it through their
several stations, and thus it acquired the name of
Jesuits’ Bark and Pulvis patrum. Cardinal Juan
de Lugo having been particularly active in recom-
mending and distributing it, it was also known as
Cardinal de Lugo’s Powder. It attained great

celebrity in Spain and Italy, being at first distrib-
uted to the poor, but later sold at high prices by

254 CINCHONA

CINCINNATI

the Jesuits, by whom it was lauded as an infallible
remedy, while by most of the orthodox physicians
it was coldly received, and by the Protestants
altogether repudiated. Falling thus into practical
disuse in Europe, it was again brought into notice
by Robert Talbor or Talbot, an English apothecary,
who acquired great celebrity through the cure of
intermittents by its use. In 1678 he was oof Sea
physician in ordinary and knighted by Charles II.,
whom he next year cured of a tertian fever. In
1679 he similarly cured the Dauphin and other
eminent personages on the Continent, and thus
induced Louis XIV. to purchase his secret. The
adoption of the drug was henceforth assured, de-
spite the exceeding jealousy of the profession in

ngland and France of both the success and fortune
of the irregular practitioner, who did not, however,
live much longer to enjoy hisreward. The Parisian
faculty of medicine held out bravely, a corrobora-
tion, if any were needed, of Moliére’s account of
them, but the example and authority of Morton
and Sydenham at length gained respectability to
the side of science. As it came into general use, it
became a most important article of export from
Peru ; and in order to the maintenance of a com-
mercial monopoly, although no attention was ever
paid to its culture, extraordinary methods were
employed to prevent it from becoming known at
a comparatively recent period of Spanish rule in
America, The discovery of the alkaloids on which
its properties chiefly depend constitutes a new era
in the history of this medicine, and did not take
place till the beginning of the present century.

The account of these alkaloids and their physio-
. logical and therapeutical action will be found
under Quinine (q.v.). An excellent outline of the
whole subject, with introduction to the literature of
quinology, is to be found in Fliickiger and Han-
bury’s well-known Pharmacographia, and in most
manuals of pharmacology. a Markham’s Peru-
vian Bark (1880) will be found almost all matters
of general interest; and there is a Handbook of
Cinchona Culture, by Van Gorkhom (trans. by
Jackson, 1882). tte

Cincinnati, the metropolis of Ohio and seat
of justice of Hamilton county, is situated on the
Ohio River, by rail 263 miles
SW. of Cleveland, 270 miles SE.
of Chicago, 553 miles W. of
Washington, D.C., and 757 W. by S. of New York.
Steam-ferries and lofty bridges connect the city with
the Kentucky shore. Cincinnati occupies an exceed-
ingly broken and irregular site, the more densely

Copyright 1889, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J.B.
Lippincott Company,

built parts being inclosed between the river and
ese ills. This lower portion includes the princi-
pal business streets, for the most part wide and

well finished ; but the lowest level is devoted largely
to warehouses and manufacturing establishments,
and at high stages of water is sometimes liable to
be flooded. A second terrace is 50 or 60 feet
higher, and is densely occupied. A district be-
tween the hills and the Miami Canal is known as
‘over the Rhine,’ and is appropriated to the large
German colony. But the most interesting portions
of the city are the suburbs, which are singularly
beautiful. They are built on a succession of irregular
hills, by whose steepness the beautiful suburban
district has been broken into a succession of com-
paratively isolated villages, interspersed with parks
(of which Eden Park, of 206 acres, is the largest),
and approached at various points by noble winding
avenues. The principal way of access, however,
is by inclined steam-railways and horse-cars, or
in one instance, by wagon and passenger ele-
vators. This suburban region, and in fact a con-
siderable part of the south-western angle of the
state, is of that geological epoch in which the
highly characteristic rocks of the so-called ‘Cincin-

nati group’ were deposited. They are richly fossil-
iferous, and are the highest beds of what are known
as the Lower Silurian rocks, corresponding nearly
with the Upper Caradoc beds of British geologists.
There are more than twenty-five such suburbs,
most of them within the city limits; Clifton and
Walnut Hills, the latter looking out over Kentucky,
are especially striking, and Spring Grove has a fine
cemetery of some 600 acres.

The city has an area of 24 sq. m., is well built and
well drained, and the water-supply from the Ohio
isample. Among the principal public buildings are
the post-office, an imposing structure; a massive
and very admirable new Chamber of Commerce ;
a large art museum (unfinished); an art school, and
a college of music (1878), of deservedly high repute ;
a large music-hall, with a noted grand organ; a
commodious city building; and a court-house.
There are more than 200 churches, several of them
large and architecturally noteworthy, inecludin,
a Roman Catholic cathedral; besides many hand-
some theatres, hotels, and public halls. The city
has several ample hospitals and infirmaries (publie
and private), a large asylum for the insane, and
many other institutions for charity and correction.
There are public and private schools of every grade,
among them three high schools, a normal school,
a school of design, and a technical school. The
fourteen professional schools include six medical
schools, one school of law, and two of divinity, one
of which (Lane Theological Seminary, Presby-
terian) has a wide reputation. Cincinnati Univer-—
sity is free to resident youths, and to it the Cincin-
nati Observatory and Astronomical School are
affiliated. The city has several important libraries,
one of which (the Free Public Library) contains
some 150,000 bound volumes and 18,000 pamphlets.
There is a Zoological Garden, and the Cevie Club
and the Historical and Philosophical Society possess
considerable collections. Finally, Cincinnati is well
known as a centre of musical and art culture, and
its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a
national reputation.

Besides its large river traffic, the city transacts a
great amount of baialsioaid by rail. A large number
of railways converge to this place, and it is a re-
ceiving and distributing centre of great importance.
The Miami and Erie Canal (1827), extending
northward from Cincinnati (246 miles) to Toledo, is
also the channel of a considerable trade. A very
large proportion of Cincinnati’s staples of trade are
manuiactured in the city, or its near vicinity. In
1872, 43,739 persons were employed in the manu-
factures, and the value of the goods produced was
a little over $100,000,000; in 1890 the labourers
numbered 92,000, and the products were valued
at $181,500,000. Many steamboats and barges
are built here. The city has sixteen banks,
a clearing-house, a board of trade, a chamber of
commerce and merchant’s exchange, and other
similar organisations. The condition of the labour-
ing classes is in general very good. There are numer-
ous building associations, which greatly facilitate
the ownership of houses by working-men. The
book-trade is represented by séveral first-class
and a number of minor publishing-houses. The
slaughter-houses, stock-yards, and grain-elevators .
are very extensive. ;

Cincinnati was first settled by white men in 1780,
and was permanently occupied in 1788. Its name
was given in honour of the Society of the Cin-
cinnati. It is believed that a portion of its site was
occupied before the historic period by a considerable
aboriginal population. Mounds containing various
relics appear to confirm this opinion. It was
incorporated as a city in 1819, and from its pros-
perity and attractiveness, it early attained the
name of ‘the queen city of the west.’ The sobri-

EE — <r =

td 5

‘Catholic bisho

CINCINNATI

CINNABAR 255

quet of ‘ Porkopolis’ commemorates its immense
trade in pork and other hog products, which has
now been largely diverted to other cities. The first
steamboat reached Cincinnati in 1811, descending
the river from Pittsburg; and the first railway
from the city was opened in 1845. _ Its first Roman
was consecrated in 1822, and the
see became archiepiscopal and metropolitan in 1850.
In the same year the lower part of the city suffered
much from a great flood. Cincinnati very early
became prominent for its social culture, and for a
long time it was almost the literary capital or head-
narters of the whole region west of the Alleghanies.
The unusual local development of a taste for the fine
arts and for music was likewise noticeable at an
early date, and is still a characteristic of the town.
Great riots occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty
suppressed by the military, Pop. in 1800, 750; in
1850, 115,436; in 1870, 216,239; in 1880, 255,139
(of whom 8128 were coloured ) ; by the census re-
turns of 1890, 296,908 ; and of 1900, 325,902.
Cincinnati (the Cincinnatuses), a society or
order in the United States of North America,
established by the officers of the revolutionary army
in 1783, ‘to perpetuate their friendship, and to
raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans
of those who had fallen during the war.’ It was
so named because it included patriots, headed by
Washington, who in many instances had left rural
affairs to serve their country (see CINCINNATUS).
The ane of the society is a bald eagle suspended
by a dark-blue ribbon with white borders, symbol-
ising the union of France and America. On the
breast of the eagle there is a figure of Cincinnatus
receiving the military ensigns from the senators,
round the whole are the words, Omnia reliquit
servare rempublicam. As this distinction was made
hereditary, it was attacked as opposed to repub-
lican equality. Franklin saw in it the germ of a
future aristocracy ; and at a meeting held in Phila-
delphia in 1784 several changes were made in the
constitution of the society, the right of succession
being made conditional on 2g eae in each case by
the society. After 1804 the branches in several of
the states were abolished. There are still, however,
several state societies, which hold a general meeting
by delegates triennially. See the Memoirs of the
ennsylvania Historical Society, vol. vi.
Cincinnati Epoch, the name given in North
America to a subdivision of Silurian time.
Cincinna'tus, Lucius QuincTIUvs, a favourite
hero of the old Roman republic, regarded by the
later Romans as a pattern of antique virtue and
simple manners. In 460 B.C, he was chosen consul,
and two years later was made dictator. When the
messengers from Rome came to tell Cincinnatus
of his new dignity they found him ploughing on
his small farm. He soon rescued the consul Lucius
Minucius, who had been defeated and surrounded
by the Auqui. but Livy’s account of the mode in
which the deliverance was effected contains incon-
sistencies which did not escape the critieal eye
of Niebuhr. Sixteen days after, he laid down his
dictatorship and returned to his small farm on the
Tiber. At the age of eighty he was once more
made dictator to deal with the alleged treasonable
conspiracy of the great plebeian, Sp. Meelius.
Cinder-bed, a name given by the quarrymen
to a stratum of the Middle Purbeck series of the
Jurassic system, almost entirely composed of the
aggregated shells of a small oyster (Ostrea distorta),
Cineas, a Thessalian, the minister of Pyrrhus
(q-v.), was the most eloquent man of his time, and
died about 270 B.c. Pyrrhus said his words had
won him more cities than his own arms.
Cinematograph, a modification of the kineto-
scope. See EDISON, ZOETROPE.

Cinera’ria, a large and widely distributed genus
of annual or perennial herbaceous composites, very
closely allied
to Senecio
(Groundsel,
Ragwort, &e.),
of which it is
indeed often
reckoned a sub-
genus. Two
small species
are natives of
the southern

of Britain.

he flowers of
some are ver
pretty.
maritima, from
the Mediter-
ranean shores,
is a handsome
garden peren-
nial, and many
Cinerarias are
also grown in
green-houses
in Britain;
these, however, are mostly florists’ flowers pro-
duced by cultivation and hybridising. The most
important parent plant of these is C. cruenta, a
native of Teneriffe.

Cinerary Urns. See URN.

Cingalese. See CEYLON.

Cinna, Lucius CoRNELIuS, a Roman patrician,
one of the principal supporters of the faction of
Marius. r Sulla had driven Marius from the
city, and before setting out on his expedition

ainst Mithridates, he allowed Cinna to be
elected to the consulship on condition of his swear-
ing not to disturb the constitution as then existing.
No sooner, however, had he entered upon that
office (87 B.C.) than he impeached Sulla, en-
deavoured to form an interest among the citizens
who had been added to Rome after the Social War,
and agitated for the recall of Marius (q.v.). Cinna
and Marius next declared themselves consuls after
a cruel massacre of the Roman citizens, in which
some of the most eminent citizens were slain. On
the death of Marius, which occurred within a few
days of his usurpation, Cinna made L. Valerius
Flaccus his colleague for that year, and C. Papirius
Carbo for the two succeeding years. In 84 B.c. he

repared to meet Sulla, who was then on his way

m the East to take vengeance upon his enemies,
but was slain by his disaffected wai at Brun-
dusium. During his fourth consulate his daughter
Cornelia had been married to Julius Cesar.

Cinnabar, an ore of mercury, from which
almost all the mercury of commerce is obtained.
Chemically it is a sulphide of mercury containing
86°2 parts of mercury and 13°8 of sulphur. It
oceurs both crystallised and massive, not unfre-
quently disseminated. Its crystals are six-sided
prisms. It varies from perfectly opaque to almost
transparent ; has an adamantine, almost metallic
lustre, and a carmine colour, with a bright scarlet
streak. Its specific gravity is 8 to 82. Hepatic
Cinnabar, so called from its liver-brown colour, is a
variety containing a little carbon. Cinnabar some-
times occurs in primitive rocks, but more frequently
in those of the coal formation. The cinnabar mines
of Almaden, in Spain, have been worked for about
2300 years, and have been surpassed in productive-
ness by those of New Almaden in California.
Cinnabar mines exist also in Idria, Germany,
Hungary, Peru, China, and Japan. Cinnabar is
used as a pigment under the name of Vermilion.

Cineraria cruenta.

256 CINNAMIC ACID

CINNAMON-STONE

Cinnamic Acid, C,H,CH = CHCOOH, exists
in the free state in the balsams of Tolu and Peru,
in liquid storax, and in gum benzoin. When oil
of cinnamon (see below) is exposed to the air, it
absorbs oxygen and deposits crystals of cinnamic
acid. Cinnamic acid forms colourless crystals
readily soluble in alcohol, ether, and_ boiling
water, but sparingly soluble in cold water. It is
not of any importance in the arts, and is chiefly
interesting as being the acid corresponding to
oil of cinnamon. This oil is the aldehyde of
cinnamic acid, and is represented by the formula
C,H;CH = CHCOH. A though isomeric with oil
of cassia, it has a slightly different flavour, and
is much more expensive. Both of these oils are
employed in medicine as aromatic stimulants, but
chiefly as pleasant adjuncts to disguise the taste of
nauseous drugs. From a chemical point of view,
the cinnamic acid and oil of cinnamon are related
to Benzoie Acid (q.v.) and Oil of Bitter Almonds
See ALMONDS (OIL OF). Benzoic acid is regarded
as C,H,COOH, while the oil of bitter almonds is
the corresponding aldehyde C,H;COH. On oxida-
tion cinnamic acid is changed into benzoic acid.

Cinnamon is the aromatic bark of certain
species of the genus Cinnamomum. This genus
belongs to the natural order Lauracez, which in-
cludes a considerable number of species, natives of
tropical and
of subtropical

arts of the

ast. Cinna-
mon has been
in use from the
remotest anti-
quity. It is
mentioned in
the Old Testa-
ment, and by
a name almost
the same as
that which it
still bears in
most lan-
guages. The
inest kind is
produced by
Cinnamomum
Zeylanicum, or
the Ceylon cin-
namon-tree. It
is still mainly
derived from
its native
island, but was
introduced into the West Indies in 1782, along
with various other plants of the East, and is now
cultivated there to some extent. The tree natur-
ally attains the height of 20-30 feet, and is some-
times 14 foot in thickness, but the cultivated trees
are not allowed to grow higher than 10 feet. Its
bark is of a grayish-brown colour, internally of a
yellowish red. The leaves are oval, 4-6 inches
ong, with a blunt point, and marked with three
vrincipal nerves. They have the taste of cloves.
The flowers are of a silky gray on the outside, and
a pale-yellowish colour internally. The fruit is
somewhat like an acorn in shape; it is a small
drupe, brown when ripe. There are two seasons of
cinramon-harvest in Ceylon, the first commencing
in April, and the last in November—the former
being that in which the chief crop is obtained.
The branches of 3-5 years’ growth being cut down,
the epidermis is scraped away; the bark is then
ripped up longitudinally with a knife, and gradually
loosened, till it can be taken off. The slices are
then exposed to the sun, when, as it dries, it curls
up into gulls, the smaller of which are inserted

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum),

into the larger, and the whole tied up in bundles of
about 88 Ib. each. The wood when deprived of its
bark has no aroma, and is used as fuel. When the
bark is first taken off it is said to consist of an
outer portion, which tastes like common bark, and
an inner and highly aromatic portion. In the
course of drying, the oil upon which the aroma and
flavour depends, is diffused throughout, and the
quality of the whole is supposed to depend upon the
relative quantities of these portions. Cinnamon is
eeamnined and arranged according to its quality by
persons who are obliged for this purpose to taste
and chew it, although in a short time it produces
painful effects on their mouths and tongues. The
finest cinnamon is yielded by the young branches
of the tree, ecneuaiie by the numerous shoots which
spring up from the stump after a tree has been cut
down, and which are cut when about 10 feet long,
and of the thickness of an ordinary walking-stick.
The smell, particularly of the thinnest pieces, is
delightfully fragrant, and the taste pungent and
aromatic, with a mixture of sweetness and astrin-
gency. It is used like other spices by cooks and
confectioners, and also in medicine as a tonic,
stomachic, and carminative. The average quantity
annually imported into London is about 500,000
Ib. Its virtues depend chiefly upon the essential
oil which it contains (oi of cinnamon). Oil of
cassia is very often substituted for this oil, as cassia
is for cinnamon. The root of the cinnamon-tree
contains camphor. The fruit yields a concrete oil,
called cinnamon suet, which is highly fragrant, and
in Ceylon was formerly made into candles for the ex-
clusive use of the king. Cassia (q.v.) is the produce
of another species of Cinnamomum.—C. Loureirii,
a native of Cochin-China and Japan, yields a bark
which is preferred by the Chinese to that of C.
Zeylanicum. <A species of cinnamon is found at
the elevation of 8500 feet in the Sikkim Himalaya.

The constituents of cinnamon are a volatile oil
(oil of cinnamon), tannin, starch, mucilage, woody-
fibre, resin, colouring matter, and an acid. The
oil of cinnamon is generally prepared in Ceylon by

inding the waste pieces of cinnamon broken off
in packing, soaking them in sea-water for two or
three days, and then distilling. Two oils pass over,
one lighter, the other heavier than water. Oil of
cinnamon varies in colour from yellow to cherry-
red, the yellow variety being considered the best,
and is most highly esteemed. Ozl of cinnamon
leaf is prepared from the leaves in Ceylon by a
similar process, and is met with in commerce under
the name of clove oi/, which it much resembles in
odour. Cinnamon water is obtained by adding
water to cinnamon, and distilling a large quantity,

or by diffusing the oil of cinnamon through water

by the aid of sugar or carbonate of magnesia.
Spirit of cinnamon is procured by acting upon
cinnamon with spirit of wine and water, and dis-
tilling; and tincture of cinnamon, by soaking
cinnamon in spirit of wine, and straining. The
medicinal properties of cinnamon, and its prepara-
tion, are aromatic and carminative, and it is service-
able in cases of nausea and vomiting, and in cases
of flatulence and spasmodic states of the stomach
and alimentary canal.

The genuine Ceylon species of cinnamon is now
cultivated in Guiana, St Vincent, the Cape Verd
Islands, Brazil, Mauritius, Pondicherry, Guade-
loupe, and Java. It yields the best bark when

own on a sandy soil. The name cinnamon is
rom the Hebrew ginnadmén, akin to gdneh, ‘a reed
or cane.’

Cinnamon-stone, a precious stone, of which
the finer specimens are highly esteemed; it is
regarded as a variety of Garnet (q.v.). Its colour
varies from hyacinth red to orange yellow; and
when pure it is transparent. It is composed

*. x
>

CINNYRIS

CINTRA 257

essentially of silica, alumina, and lime. It is
found chiefly in Ceylon.

Cinnyris. See SUN-BIRDs.

Cing-Mars, Henri Corrrimer pe Ruze,
MARQUIS DE, an ill-fated favourite of Louis XIIL.,

--was the second son of the Marquis d’Effiat,

Marshal of France, and was born in 1620. While
_ a boy he was placed at court by Cardinal

chelieu, and here his handsome figure and
fascinating manners soon secured him the warm
affection of the royal household. At nineteen he
was chief-equerry to the king, but his ambition
could not brook the delay of waiting for the
further stages of the most rapid promotion, but
already in his dreams he was a duke and peer of
France, and husband of the Princess Maria of
Gonzaga. Finding his ambitious projects merel
derid w Richelieu, he joined with the king’s
brother, Duke Gaston of Orleans, in a plot to
murder the great cardinal. With this was com-
bined a wider plot with Spain for the destruction
of the cardinal’s power by arms. The conspiracy
was discovered, and Cinq-Mars, with his friend De
Thou, was executed at Lyons, 12th September 1642.
His story was woven by De Vigny into the well-
known romance Cing-Mars (1826).

Cinqué Cento ( Ital., ‘five hundred ;’ but really
a contraction for ‘one thousand five hundred’) is
a current term for the — alike in art and in
literature which arose in Italy about or after the
year 1500, and which therefore belongs mainly to
the 16th century. It is characterised by the
revival of classical taste in all departments of
culture, and is frequenuy used in the same sense as
the word renaissancc, especially as applied to
decoration. Among the one cinguecentisti in
art are Michelangelo, Raphael, Correggio, Titian,
Leonardo da Vinci, and Benvenuto Cellini; in
poetry the notabler names are those of Berni,
Ariosto, and Tasso. See ITALy, ITALIAN ARCHI-
TECTURE, RENAISSANCE.

Cinquefoil, a common bearing in Meenhtey,
representing a flower with five petals borne full-
faced and without a stalk. If piereed—i.e. per-
forated in the centre, it should be so blazoned.

Cinquefoil :
in Heraldry.

Cinquefoil :
in Architecture.

Gules, a cinquefoil pierced ermine, was the coat of
the old earls of Leicester ; and gules, three cinque-
foils argent (sometimes ermine), that of the house
of Hamilton in Scotland.—Cinquefoil, in Archi-
tecture, is an ornamental foliation in five com
ments, used in the tracery of windows, panellings,
and the like. The cinquefoil is often represented
in a circular form, the spaces between points or
cusps representing the five leaves, as in the accom-
panying illustration.

Cinquefoil, in Botany. See POTENTILLA.

anges Ports. The five great ports on the
coast ot Kent and Sussex lying opposite to France
—Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Hastin
—were of considerable importance during the
Anglo-Saxon period ; and in a charter of Edward I.
we find reference to a previous document granted
them by Edward the Confessor. But it was sub-
sequent to the battle of Hastings that the Con-
aaa | be order that he might wield the resources

of the seaports with greater vigour, constituted
this whole line of coast into a jurisdiction entirely
separate from the counties of Kent and Sussex, and
erected it into a sort of county palatine, under a
warden or guardian, the seat of whose administra-
tion was in Dover Castle. The warden, whose
office corresponded to that of the ancient Count of
the Saxon coast (Comes littoris Saxonici), exercised
sa pg civil, military, and naval, uniting in

is single person the functions of sheriff, custos
rotulorum, lord-lieutenant, and admiral. Privileges
equal to those originally bestowed on the Cinque
Ports were gE extended to the so-called
ancient towns of Winchelsea and Rye; and all the
seven municipal towns except Winchelsea had
subordinate ports and towns attached to them,
which were called limbs or members. In place of
the Saxon terms of aldermen and freemen, those of
jurats and barons were introduced, and the latter
term has always been applied to the representatives
of the Cinque Ports in parliament. Their chief
function in early times was to furnish such ship-
ping as was required for the purposes of the state,
the crown having possessed no A yap rege navy
revious to the reign of Henry VII. In the time of
Rinerd I. they were bound to provide no less than
fifty-seven ships, fully iL he and manned at
their own cost; though the weight of this heavy
burden was somewhat lessened by the provision that
the period of gratuitous service should be limited to
fifteen days. The ports, moreover, enjoyed in return
for their services many privileges, such as exemp-
tion from tax and tallage, the right to make their
own bylaws, &c. In consequence of the warlike
navy which they were thus compelled to maintain,
the Cinque Ports became so confident and audacious
as not only to undertake piratical expeditions, but
even to make war and form confederacies as in-
dependent states. Previous to the Revolution of
1688, the lord-wardens nominated one and some-
times both of the parliamentary representatives for
each of the Cinque Ports; but in 1689 an act was
passed to ‘declare the right and freedom of election
of members to serve in parliament for the Cinque
Ports.’ The Acts of 1832 and 1885 reduced the num-
ber of members sent to eggraar by the Cinque
Ports from sixteen to three, and the Municipal
Reform Act has broken up the ancient organisation
of the ports, and assimilated their internal arrange-
ments to those of other English municipalities.
The ancient courts of Shepway, Brotherhood, and
Guestling are still Gevasionall held, but their
“pie scarcely extend beyond matters of form.

he lord-warden’s jurisdiction, in relation to civil
suits and proceedings, was abolished in 1835; but
he still presides in the court of Shepway, and
appoints the justices of peace within the juris-
diction of the Cinque Ports. His official residence
is Walmer Castle, near Deal, a structure of Henry
VIIL.’s time; and here, as warden, the Duke of
Wellington lived every autumn from 1829 till his
death at it in 1852. See Montagu Burrows,
Cinque Ports (1888).

Cintra, a small but picturesquely situated
town in Portugal, in the province of Estremadura,
17 miles WNW. of Lisbon, with a population of
5500. It stands on the declivity of the Serra de
Cintra, and is surrounded by country residences.
There is a palace at Cintra, a strange mixture of
Moorish and Christian architecture, anciently
occupied by the Moorish kings, and subsequently a
favourite summer-resort of the Christian monare
On another hill-top stands La Penna, once a con-
vent, now also a residence of the kings of Portugal.
In the neighbourhood is the Cork Convent, which
derives its name from the cells—which are cut out
of the rock—being lined with cork to prevent
damp. Cintra is historically remarkable for the

258 CIOTAT

CIRCLE

Convention signed here, August 22, 1808, between
the English and French, by which the latter agreed
to evacuate Portugal, on condition of not being
treated as prisoners of war, but landed on the
coast of France, retaining their arms and effects.
This convention excited the greatest public indig-
nation both in the Peninsula and in England ;
and the British ministry were obliged to have the
generals who signed the convention tried by a
court-martial, which, however, resulted in their
acquittal.

Ciotat, La, a town in the French department
of Bouches-du-Rhéne, on a bay in the Mediter-
ranean, 23 miles SE. of Marseilles by rail. It has
a good and commodious harbour, the extensive
workshops of the Messageries Maritimes Company,
and a great coral fishery. Pop. (1891) 10,342.

Cipher. See CryproGRAPHY and MoNoGRAM.

Cipriani, GIAMBATTISTA, history-painter and
designer, was born at Florence in 1727, of an
old Pistoja family. He received some instruction
from Hugford, a Florentine painter of English
arentage, and he studied for three years in

ome. In 1755 he was induced by Sir William
Chambers and Wilton the sculptor to settle in
London, where his graceful drawings, which were
reproduced by the | een of Bartolozzi, gained
great popularity, and exercised a favourable influ-
ence upon the English school of figure-painters.
He was a member of the St Martin’s Lane
Academy, and in 1768 was elected a foundation
member of the Royal Academy, to whose exhibi-
tions he contributed till 1779, and whose diploma
he designed in 1768. His pictures, of which some
are preserved at Houghton, are less successful than
his designs, being feeble, poor in colour, and with
little expression. As an etcher he is known by a
few plates in Hollis’s Memoirs. He married in
1761 an English lady of fortune, and died at
Hammersmith, 14th December 1785.

Cireza, a small and unimportant but widely
distributed genus of rather pretty little Onagra-
ceous herbs. C. Jdutetiana, frequent in shady
situations, bears the name of Enchanter’s Night-
shade, and in Germany Hexenkraut ( Witches’
Herb). The origin of these names is not easily
explained, as the plant possesses no remarkable
properties, being merely a little astringent.

Circars, THE NorTHERN (Sarkar, ‘a govern-
ment’), is the historical name for an Indian terri-
tory lying along the coast of the Bay of Bengal,
from 18 to 100 miles wide, with an area of 17,000
miles. It nearly corresponds with the present
Madras districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Goda-
vari, Kistna, and parts of Nellore and Karnil.
In 1757 the Circars were ceded to the French by
the subahdar of the Deccan; but after a struggle,
in which Lord Clive had the chief part, the Delhi
court in 1766 granted the Cirears to the East India
Company ; but not till 1823 did they become really
a British possession.

Circassia, a territory on both sides of the
western Caucasus. See CAUCASUS.

Circassians, in the wide sense of the term, is
the name given to all the formerly independent
tribes of the Caucasus; in a narrower sense, it
denotes the tribes (called by themselves Adighé,
by the Turks and Russians, Tcherkesses) who in-
habited the north-western wing of the Caucasus,
with a government half patriarchal and feudal, and
half constitutional. In 1858-65, rather than sub-
mit to Russian government, nearly the whole nation
of fifteen tribes, to the number of nearly half a
million persons, left their country for the Turkish
possessions in Asia Minor, or the mountainous
parts of Bulgaria, carrying with them their in-

subordinate spirit and marauding habits, whick
added to the Earrer of the Bulgarian massacres of
1876 and 1877.

The Circassian nobles are principally Moham-
medans, whilst the great mass of the people pro-
fess a corrupt Christianity, which shows strange
survivals of earlier heathenism in its sacrifices and
sacred trees, joined to the celebration of Easter,
the sign of the cross, and processions with lights.
The Circassians are proverbially handsome—for
generations their daughters have adorned the
harems of the wealthy Turks ; they are also strong,
active, brave, and temperate. As a nation they
made their first historical appearance during the
middle ages. They are, however, chiefly known
through their long struggles to maintain their
independence against the aggression of Russia.
See article CAUCASUS, and Ernest Chantre’s mag-
nificent work, Recherches anthropologiques dans le
Caucase (5 vols. folio, Paris-Lyons, 1885-87). The
first volume contains an exhaustive bibliography ;
the fifth is devoted to a detailed account of the
peoples of the Caucasus as they now exist.

Circe, a sorceress of ancient Greek story,
described in the Odyssey as ‘fair-haired, a clever
goddess, possessing human speech,’ sister of ‘all-
wise Atzetes,’ daughter of ‘the Sun, who gives
light to mortals, and of Perse, whom Ocean begot
as his daughter.’ Round her palace in Atza were
numbers of human beings, whom she had changed
into the shapes of wolves and lions by her drugs
and incantations. She changed two-and-twenty of
the companions of Ulysses into swine; but that.
hero, having obtained from Mercury the herb
Moly, went boldly to the palace of the sorceress,
remained uninjured by her drugs, and induced her
to disenchant his comrades. e remained with
her for a year; and when he departed, she in-
structed him how to avoid the dangers which he

would encounter on his homeward voyage. Ovid
relates how, when she was jealous of Scylla, whose
love was sought by Glaucus, she poured the juice

of poisonous herbs into that part of the sea where
her rival was accustomed to bathe, and so changed
her into a hideous monster.

Circle, a plane figure bounded by a curved
line called its circumference, which is everywhere
equally distant from a point within it called the
centre. The circumference is sometimes itself
called the circle, but in geometry that term is

roperly applied only to the surface or area
touatiel by the curve. Any line drawn through
the centre, and terminated by the circumference
is a diameter, which is therefore bisected in the
centre (see ARC, CHORD). In Co-ordinate Geo-
metry, the circle ranks as a curve of the second
order, and belongs to the class of the conic sections.
It is got from the right cone by cutting the cone
by a plane perpendicular to its axis. The circle
may described mechanically with a pair of
compasses, fixing one foot in the centre, and trac-
ing out the curve with the other held at a fixed
distance. The following are some of its leading
properties :

1. Of all plane figures having the same peri-
meter, the circle contains the greatest area.

2. Of all plane curves, the circle alone has the
same curvature at every point.

3. The circumference of a circle bears a certain
constant ratio to its diameter. This constant
ratio, which mathematicians usually denote by
the Greek letter 7 (perimeter), has been deter-
mined to be 3-14159, nearly, so that, if the dia-
meter of a circle is 1 foot, its circumference is
3°14159 feet; if the diameter is 5 feet, the cir-
cumference is 5x 3°14159; and, in general, if the
diameter is expressed by 2r (twice the radius),

CIRCLE

259

then ¢ (circumference) = 2r xr. Archimedes, in
his book De Dimensione Circuli, showed that the
ratio is nearly that of 7 to 22. Various closer

approximations in large numbers were afterwards

made, as, for instance, the ratio of 1815 to 5702,
1010 to 3173; or the excellent one of Adrian Metius
—viz, 113 to 355. Vieta in 1579 showed that if the
diameter of a circle be 1000, then the circumference
will be greater than 3141°5926535, and less than
$141°5926537. This approximation he made by
ascertaining the perimeters of the inscribed and
circumscribed polygons of 393,216 sides. By in-
creasing the number of the sides of the polygons,
their perimeters are brought more and more
nearly into coincidence with the circumference of
the circle; but this operose method was long
ago superseded by easier modes derived from the
higher mathematics. Suffice it to say that vari-
ous series were formed awe its value; by
taking more and more of the terms of which into
account, a closer and closer approach to the value
can be obtained by ordinary arithmetic. We sub-
join some examples :

eee hee ee ee. ER
Q)9=4(1-5+5-7+9-ntis Bt”)
1 2 1

1 1
(2)"=8(r5+55-557 +379" 7.91 * &e. )

3 5 7 3
(3) x = 16(n- + et) 4(m- a)

: 1
where n = = and m = 530°

eos Tho
(4) P =6 (et gt gtgt)

1D eek
=8 (ir+ att at)

Series (3), or one of its modifications, is the
most expeditious mode yet known of extending
the approximation to the ratio 7. It has now
been calculated to 707 places of decimals, and
verified to over 600. The number 7, though fixed
in value, cannot be exactly expressed in figures,
being Incommensurable (q.v.). Finally, the multi-
plier (3 — -008 - 000,007) (1 +25) gives a close
approximation, useful to the practical arithmeti-
clan.

4. The area of a circle is equal to 7 multiplied
by the square of the radius (= 7wr*); or to the

square of the diameter multiplied by i: i.e. by

7854. Archimedes proved this by showing that
the area is equal to that of a be whose base
is the circumference, and perpendicular height the
radius of the circle.

5. It follows that different circles are to one
another as the squares of their radii or diameters,
and that their circumferences are as the radii or
diameters.

The circle is almost always employed in measur-
ing or com ring angles, from the fact demon-
strated in Euclid (Book vi. Prop. 33), that angles
at the centre of a circle are proportional to the
ares on which they stand. It follows from this,
that if circles of the same radii be described from
the vertices of angles as centres, the ares inter-
cepted between the sides of the angles are always
proportional to the angles. The easiest subdivi-
sion of a circumference is into six equal N
because then the chord of the ares is equal to the
radius. Divide one of these ares into sixty equal
parts, and we thus obtain the unit of the sexa-
ome scale, called a degree. Each degree is

ivided into 60 seconds, and each second into 60
thirds, and so on. According to this seale, 90°
représents a right angle; 180°, two right angles,

or a semicircle ; and 360°, four right angles, or the
whole cireumference—the unit in the scale being
the pyth of aright angle. As the divisions of the
angles at the centre, effected by drawing lines
from the centre to the different points of gradua-
tion of the circumference, are obviously inde-

ndent of the magnitude of the radius, and there-
ore of the circumference, these divisions of the
circumference of the circle may be spoken of as
being actually divisions of angles. By laying a
graduated circle over an angle, and noticing the
number of degrees, &c. lying on the circumference
between the lines including the angle, we at once
know the magnitude of the angle. Suppose the
lines to include between them 3 degrees, 45 minutes,
17 seconds, the angle in this scale would be written
3° 45’ 17”.

The sexagesimal measurement of circumferences
and angles is the most ancient, and still recom-
mends itself universally to practical mathema-
ticians. A second mode was proposed at the
French Revolution, but though adopted by La-
place in the Mécanique Céleste, has long been
abandoned even in France. By this scale, called
the centesimal, the right angle is divided into 100
degrees, while each degree is divided into one
hundred parts, and so on. Such a quantity as
3° 45’ 17” is expressed in this notation by 3°4517,
the only mark required being the decimal point to
separate the degrees from the parts. Of course,
in this illustration, 3° means 3 centesimal divisions
of the right angle, and 45’ means 45 centesimal
minutes, and so on. If we want to translate ordi-
nary degrees into the centesimal notation, we must
multiply by 100, and divide by 90. To translate
minutes in the same way, multiply by 100, and
divide by 54; and for seconds, multiply by 250,
and divide by 81.

There is also a theoretical method of measurin
angles, which, though indispensable in advan
trigonometry and other branches of analysis, is
scarcely required in elementary mathematics. For
the cireular measure, as it is called, the unit angle
is thus found: Let POA be an angle at the centre
O of a circle, the radius of which is 7; APB a
semicircle whose are accordingly = zr; and let the
length of the are AP =a. Then, by Euclid,

anglePOA a. _2right <s a
Fright angles sr? 80d < POA = 7718 Ba +
Now, supposing « and r to be given, although the
angle POA wil be deter- : .
mined, yet its numerical
value will not be settled
unless we make some con-
vention as to what angle B A
we shall call unity. e fe)
therefore choose such a
one as will render the
preceding equation the
most simple. It is made |
most simple if we take a right angles =1. We
shall then have (denoting the numerical value of

the angle POA by @) @= ‘ The result of our con-

vention is, that the numerical value of two right
angles is 7, instead of 180°, as in the method of
angular measurement first alluded to; and the
unit of angle, instead of being the ninetieth part
of a right angle, is 3 right angles, or 57° 17' 44” 48""
nearly. Making @ = 1 in the equation @ = “, we

have a (or AP) = r (or AO), which shows that in
the circular measure the unit of a is that angle
which is subtended by an are of length equal to

—

266 CIRCLE

CIRCULATION

radius. Thus the circular measure of 180° is 7,
or 3°14159, &c., 90° = 4 , 60° = 2 7, 45° =} r, and
so on; and since 7 is a fixed number, any angle is
thus represented absolutely, and not as a part or
multiple of another angle—i.e. an abstract number
will as exactly denote an angle as it does the length
of a line. It we say @ = 3, then in degrees 6 = 3
x (57° 17’ 45”); if @ = 4, then ¢ =2 x (57° 17’ 45”)
sexagesimally. For the squaring or quadrature of
the circle, see QUADRATURE; for the circles of the
sphere, see ARMILLARY SPHERE; see also MURAL
CIRCLE.

Circle, MaGic, a space in which sorcerers were
wont to protect themselves from the fury of the
evil spirits they had raised. This circle was
usually formed on a piece of ground about nine
feet square (in the fast seven feet appears to
have been considered sufficient), in the midst of
some dark forest, churchyard, vault, or other lonely
and dismal spot. It was described at midnight in
certain conditions of the moon and weather. In-
side the outer circle was another somewhat less, in
the centre of which the sorcerer had his seat. The
spaces between the circles, as well as between the

arallel lines which inclosed the larger one, were
filled ‘with all the holy names of God,’ and a
variety of other characters supposed to be potent
against the powers of evil. ithout the protection
rs this circle, the magician, it was believed, would
have been carried off by the spirits, as he would
have been had he by chance got out of the
charmed space. Another figure which, described
upon the ground, could bar the passage of a demon,
was the pentagram. Readers of Faust will remem-
ber its effect upon Mephistopheles.

Circles, STONE. . See STONE CrrcLES, STAND-
ING STONES, STONEHENGE, CALLERNISH.

Circuits. See Assizz.

Circular Notes are bank-notes specially
adapted for the use of travellers in foreign countries ;
and being, in fact, bills personal to the bearer, they
are believed to be more safe as travelling money than
ordinary notes or coin. Circular notes of the value
of £10 and upwards are furnished by or through the
chief banking-houses. Along with these notes is
ie a ‘letter of indication.’ This letter (a

ithographed form in French) is addressed to foreign

bankers, requesting them to pay the notes pre-
sented by the bearer, whom they name, and to aid
him in any way in their power, On the back of
the letter there is a long list of foreign bankers,
extending all over Europe, any of whom will cash
one of the circular notes on being presented and
indorsed by the bearer. In paying these notes the
money of the country is given according to the rate
of exchange, and free of any charge for commission.
For security, the letter and the notes should not be
carried together, in case of their being stolen or lost.
A corresponding certificate issued by the bankers in
the United States for the use of travellers, is called
Letter of Credit. See CrepIT (LETTER OF).

Circular Numbers are numbers whose powers
end on the same figure as they do themselves :
such are numbers ending in 0, 1, 5, 6.
Circulating Library. See Liprary.

Circulation, in Anatomy and Physiology, is
the term used to designate the course of the blood
from the heart to the most minute blood-vessels
(the Capillaries, qv.) and from these back to the
heart. To simplify the consideration of the subject,
we shall consider—(I.) the General Anatomy, (II.)
the Comparative Anatomy, (III. ) the Physiology,
and (IV.) the History.

I. The organs of circulation consist of the heart,
arteries, veins, and capillaries. The course of the
blood through these organs will be best ‘elucidated

by the aid of a diagram, which is equally applicable
for all other mammals as well as for man, and for
birds. The dark parts
of fig. 1 represent the
course of the impure or
venous blood, while the
lighter portions repre-
sent the course of the
ure or arterial blood.
wo of the four cham-
bers of the heart (A and
C) receive the inflowin
blood, and are terme
the auricles; while the
other two chambers
(B and D) drive the
blood to the lungs and
to the general system
respectively, and are
termed the ventricles.
The vessels that bring
blood to the auricles are
termed veins, and the
vessels through which the
blood is driven from the
ventricles are known as
Arteries (q.v.). We will
now trace the course of
the blood, as indicated
by the arrows of the
diagram, commencing
with the right auricle,
A. The right auricle
contracting upon the
venous or impure blood
with which we suppose
it to be filled, drives this
into the right ventricle,
B, Sere an opening
guarded by a triple (or
tricuspid ) valve, which almost entirely prevents the
regurgitation of the blood from the ventricle into
the auricle. The ventricle, B, being now filled,
contracts, and as the blood cannot return into the
auricle, it is driven along the dark vessel, ¢,
which is the pulmonary artery, conveying the blood
to the lungs. At its commencement it is guarded
by crescent-shaped (semilunar) valves, which en-
tirely prevent the blood which has once been pro-
pelled into the pulmonary artery from re-entering
the ventricle. The pulmonary artery gradual]
divides into smaller and smaller branches, whic
ultimately emerge into capillaries freely distributed
over the interior of the air-cells of the lungs. There
the blood gives off carbonic acid gas, and absorbs
oxygen, becoming thereby ‘pure.’ The capillaries,
in which the blood is purified, gradually unite to
form larger vessels, and finally the blood is collected
into the pulmonary veins, which pour\their con-
tents into the left_auricle, C. Thence it is pro-
pelled into the left ventricle, D, through an open-
ing guarded by a double (mitral or bicuspid) valve,
which entirely prevents the reflux of the blood.
The left ventricle contracts and drives its contents
into the large artery, e, or Aorta (q.v.), which
by means of its various branches supplies the whole
body with pure blood. From the aorta and its
various subdividing branches the blood passes into
the capillaries, J, , which occur in every part of
the system. In these capillaries it parts with its
oxygen to the tissues, and becomes charged with
the waste carbonic acid gas. The capillaries unite
into larger veins, and these gradually unite to form
two large trunks, a, 6, the superior and inferior
vene cave, which pour their contents into the
right auricle—the point from which we started.
The diagram also shows how the venous blood from
the viscera, G, instead of passing directly into the

Fig. 1.—Diagram of Cir-
culating System (from
Leunis).

CIRCULATION 261

vena cava, goes through the liver, F, in what is
known as the hepatic-portal system.

Before passing to the comparative study of the
- ¢ireulation, we must notice a few of the above
facts in greater detail.
The Heart (q.v.) is
described in a separate
article. Since all the
arterial blood leaves
the heart through the
aorta, to trace the
circulation of the pure
blood involves follow-
ing the branches of
that great vessel. For
this see AoRTA. It
is sufficient, without
further anatomical de-
tails, to say that the
ramifications of the
arteries distribute the

2.—Theoretical Section arterial blood to the
of the Human Heart: Capillaries (q.v.)
J, b, the two vena: cave, opening Which pervade eve
into d, the right auricle; c, the part of the body. %
tricuspid valve; a, the right }, already evident
ventricle, from which proceeds

the pulmonary artery, dividing that ; the pulmonary

into branches ¢ and i, going to arteries from the right

the right and left lung respec- ventricle carry impure

tively ; ¢, e’, the pulmonary veins sod’. ty ‘the I

(two from either lung), enter- 940 e iungs,

ing into the left auricle, k; 1, and that pure blood

the mitral valve; ‘m, the left returns from the lungs

ventricle, from which proceeds .
the aorta, whose poe Bah indi. tO the left auricle by

cated by h, and the descend- the ulmonary veins.
ing peation, by m Bons. of it The veins, like the
nches being indicated in this * :
figure ; 0, the ition, or sep- eo xe found =
tum, between the right and left Dearly every tissue ;
hearts. they commence in

minute networks
which communicate with the capillaries. Branches
from these networks uniting together, form veins,
which, by joining, increase in size as they pass
onward towards the heart. If we except certain
venous structures (called sinuses) occurring in the
interior of the skull, we may divide the veins into
two sets—the superficial or cutaneous, and the deep
veins. The deep veins accompany the arteries, and
are usually inclosed in the same sheath of tissue.
In the case of the smaller arteries they generally
exist in pairs, one on each side of the artery,
while the larger arteries have usually only one
eeoompeny ng vein. The superficial veins occur
immediately beneath the integument; they not
only return the blood from the skin and adjacent
structures, but communicate with the deep veins.
All the veins finally lead by two large trunks, the
superior and inferior vena cava, into the right
auricle of the heart. The superior vena cava is
formed by the union of the veins from the head
and neck (the jugulars) with those from the arms
(the subclavians), while the inferior vena cava
brings back the blood from the lower extremities,
the trunk, and the viscera.

We must refer to the article VEIN for the struc-
ture of the walls of this part of the circulatory
system. There is only one point that imperatively
requires notice here—viz. that while the arterial
system presents no valves except at the points
where the two great trunks leave the heart, the
veins contain a great number of valves, which are
formed by a doubling of their lining membrane,
and onges a con ike folds or pouches, which
b. allow the blood free passage toward the heart, but

es

revent its reflux. e veins are much less elastic
han the arteries, and their total capacity is much
J greater. / ‘
c There is one part of the venous circulation which,
7 from its great importance, requires special notice

—viz. that of the spleen, pancreas, stomach, and
intestinal canal. he blood supplied to these
organs by the celiac and the two mesenteric
arteries is not returned directly to the inferior
vena cava, but passes by several veins into one
large vessel—the portal vein, which enters the
liver, and breaks up into a capillary network.
There the blood undergoes important changes
associated with the bile-secreting and glycogen-
forming functions of the liver. The blood, enter-
ing the liver from two sources, from the portal
vein and from the hepatic artery, leaves it by the
hepatic veins, which join the inferior vena cava.
It is also important to notice the entirely distinct
set of vessels known as lymphatics, which conduct
the products of digestion into the veins (see
LYMPH).

The above-described double circulation (through
the lungs and through the body) is exhibited x
the blood from the time of birth sere, 9 the whole
period of life. The circulation of the blood, how-
ever, begins before birth—indeed, at a very early
period of intra-uterine or foetal existence; and
the circumstance that before birth the lungs do
not act as organs of respiration induces a very
important daddifiention in the course of the blood
in foetal life which will be described under Fa@tvus.

Il. Comparative.—The circulatory system in man,
as above described, may serve as type of the highest
development, differing but slightly from that of
other mammals, or that of birds. It is convenient
now to begin at the other end, and to note briefly
the salient steps of progress in the gradual evolu-
tion of the system throughout the animal series.
In the unicellular animals the movement of the
pone and the special activity of ‘contractile
vacuoles,’ represent, to some extent at least, a
circulatory function before the appearance of any
system. The canals which so completely irrigate
a sponge, likewise illustrate in low expression a cir-
culatory system not yet separated off from the others.
In Celenterates, too, the system is still unseparated :
‘ gastro-vascular’ prolongations of the alimenta
cavity penetrate the body, as ney be very well
seen in the dise of a common jelly-fish. te the
lower worm-types also, where no distinct body-
cavity is yet developed, the nutritive fluid simply
diffuses through the body, and no vascular system
is differentiated. But in higher worms there is
generally a body-cavity, and with it the gradual
appearance of a definite vascular system. In some
we simply find a fluid moving in the body-cavity,
occasionally clear, usually with corpuscles; in
others, portions of the body-cavity are separated
off as blood-spaces, or eventually as blood-vessels ;
these may remain in connection with the general
cavity, or may at length form a closed —
The manifold worm-types afford abundant illustra-
tion of all the stages in this differentiation. In
the bristle-footed worms (Chetopods, q.v.), and
in some others, the perfecting of the blood-driving
mechanism may be instructively traced. Often a
dorsal vessel is diffusely contractile, less frequently
the ventral ; or there may be contractile connecting
loops between dorsal and ventral vessels, as in the
earthworm; or lastly, a special region in the
dorsal vessel may become the main seat of the
vascular contractility. Such a dorsal heart is
found from this point onwards throughout the
Arthropods and Molluscs. (The well-developed
and very difficult vascular system of Echinoderms,
which co-exists with an abundant body-cavity
fluid with relatively few corpuscles, has no special
interest for this general survey.) In crustaceans, the
dorsal heart, usually incl in a special space or
‘pericardial sinus,’ drives blood by more or less
well-developed arteries through the body. The
rest of the system is best described as lacunar.

262 CIRCULATION

The venous blood passes along body-cavity spaces
to the gills for purification, thence returns to the
pericardial sinus, and entering the heart is redis-
tributed. In insects a chambered dorsal heart,
inclosed in a sinus as before, drives the blood
forward, but as one would expect from the very
efficient respiratory apparatus, the general vas-
cular system is but slightly differentiated. The
blood, purified by diffusion from the everywhere
resent air-tubes, passes back by venous channels
into the sides of the pericardium and heart. In
myriapods, scorpions, and snigicra, the system
is more definitely developed, but illustrates
no new advance except that of more complete
establishment and wider extension of vessels. In
molluses, however, some progress is observable.
Except in the Elephants’ Tooth Shell (Dentalium ),
a heart is present, and the arterial system is often
very well developed, even to the extent of capil-
laries in some cuttle-fishes and snails. Usually,
however, the venous blood travels along lacune,
though gradual transitions occur between these
and true veins. The blood purified in the gills or
pulmonary chamber passes back into a special
portion of the body-cavity—the pericardium, and
thence into the heart. In certain worm-types,
several contractile lateral vessels may often be
observed to enter the dorsal vessel ; in the Pearly
Nautilus, which has four gills, four efferent vessels
dilating into four indistinct auricles, enter the
median dorsal heart or ventricle; in almost all
bivalves the entrant dilatations or auricles are
reduced to two, one on each side; while in most
Gasteropods and Pteropods the specialisation has
gone further, and the heart consists of a single
auricle and a thicker muscular ventricle. e
latter drives the blood through the body by a single
or double aorta. >

Passing now with equal brevity through the
vertebrate series, we notice first that the heart
arises as a dilatation no longer of a4 dorsal, but of a
ventral vessel. Up to and including amphibians,
the heart begins as a specialisation of the ‘sub-
intestinal vein’ in the throat region ; in most, if not
all higher vertebrates, it arises from the fusion of
two vessels. It always lies in a pericardial sac.

(1) Among the degenerate Tunicata there is con-
siderable variety in the vascular system. In one
case no heart is present; in several there are no
definite vessels or blood-corpuscles. The main point,
however, is that in most cases a tubular ventral
heart drives blood to the respiratory pharynx. In
all cases where the heart has been observed, the
direction of its beats has been seen to undergo
reversal at regular short intervals, a phenomenon
which has also been noticed as a rarity in certain
worm-types.

(2) The vascular system of the lancelet or
amphioxus is of a peculiarly diffuse and undiffer-
entiated nature. . It has in one sense no heart,
in another sense many ; for-while there is no main
centre of contractility, there are small pulsating
dilatations at the bases of the vessels passin
to the gill-slits, while the portal vein and ventra
vessel in the anterior pharyngeal region are both said
to be contractile. In general course, the circulation
is like that of a fish ; the blood passes from ventral
vessel to respiratory region, thence to dorsal aorta,
thence to body, thence by united sub-intestinal
veins to the liver czecum, and thence to the ventral
vessel from which it started.

(3) In the Round Mouths (Cyclostomata) the
typical fish-circulation is established. The mus-
cular ventricle drives the blood by a_ ventral
vessel (‘ventral aorta’) to the gill-sacs; thence
the purified blood is gathered into efferent dorsal
vessels, which form in uniting the ‘dorsal aorta.’
The latter gives off branches to the greater part

of the body, the head-region being directly
supplied from the anterior efferent branchials.
The blood returns from the anterior and posterior
regions into a uniting vessel behind the heart
(‘the sinus venosus’), thence into the receiving
auricle, and from that to the muscular ventricle.
(4) It is enough after the above to notice in
regard to the fishes proper, that with the excep-
tion of the double-breathing mud-fish (Dipnoi),
the heart never contains anything but impure
blood, that it drives this wholly to the respira-
tory organs, and is in no direct degree ‘systemic.’
The ‘dorsal aorta’ supplying most of the body is
formed from the union of efferent branchials,
and does not arise, as in higher vertebrates, from
the heart. It is important to notice that the
five or so arches which spring from the ventral
aorta are almost all quite alike, and arise
(except in Dipnoi) at slight intervals from one
another. great part of the differentiation
in higher vertebrates obviously concerns these
aortic arches, which are seen in Cyclostomata
and fishes in primitive uniformity, but become
modified in higher vertebrates into the caro-
tids, sub-clavians, aortic arches, and pulmonary
arteries. The heart of a fish consists of the sinus
venosus or general junction, running transversely
behind the heart ( athe erry hence onwards,
except in adult birds and mammals), of the
auricle and ventricle, and except in Teleostei
of a specialised contractile portion of the latter

ca ¢e

Fig. 3.—Arterial System
of Fish :

Fig. 4.—Arterial System
of Amphibian:
H, heart; c¢ and c’, anteriorand ra,rightauricle; la, leftauricle;

posterior cardinal veins; a,
branchial arteries; R, capil-
laries of the branchial ves-
sels; b, branchial veins; ce,
head circle; ca, carotids;
RA, root of the aorta; A,
dorsal aorta; E, artery to
viscera (coeliaco-mesenteric ) ;
N, renal arteries. (After
Wiedersheim.)

v, ventricle ; ca, conus arter-
iosus; c, carotid arteries;
aa, aortic arches; ao, dorsal
aorta ; pa, pulmonary artery ;
pv, pulmonary vein; ra re-
ceives venous blood from
body; both the pulmonary
arteries enter la. (After
Nuhn.)

known as the conus arteriosus. A dilatation
of the beginning of the ventral aorta is dis-
tinguished as the bulbus arteriosus. In regard to
the general system, it is worth noticing that in
fishes (as in amphibians and all reptiles except
Chelonians) there is a renal portal, as well as an
hepatic portal system. Veins from the caudal
region of the fish come into the same relations with
the kidneys as the portal veins do in regard to the
liver. The hepatic veins returning from the liver
do not unite with the other posterior veins, but
enter the sinus venosus independently. Thus fishes
have no inferior vena cava. (4a) The Dipnoi are
interesting as leading on to amphibians. The

CIRCULATION

263

heart receives pure as well as impure blood, drives
blood to lungs in addition to gills, is in part
systemic (driving pure blood in Protopterus and

pidosiren through the first two pairs of arches),
has the roots of the aortic arches close together,
and is practically three-chambered. In these
respects it reaches forward to the condition seen
in those amphibians which retain their gills.

(5) The heart of amphibians is three-chambered,
a right auricle receiving impure blood from the

y, a left auricle receiving purified blood from
the lungs or from the lungs and gills, a single
ventricle which drives the blood, mingling less
than might be sup , to head or y or
respiratory organs. In some cases, as one would
expect, the partition between right and left auricle
is imperfect. In the tadpoles at the fish-like stage
there are four aortic arches, of which the first three
supply gills. Where gills persist, such supply is
always of course in some degree maintained, In
such a metamorphosis as that of the frog, where all
trace of gills is lost, the first branchial arch becomes
the carotid; the second is the systemic, which
forms, by uniting with its fellow, the dorsal aorta ;
the third dwindles away ; the fourth supplies the
lungs. The same is generally true of the higher
vertebrates, except that it 1s usually the third
branchial which forms the pulmonary artery. An
inferior vena cava is definite y established in amphi-
bians ; there is a renal portal as well as an hepatic
portal system ; special lymph hearts are sometimes
present connecting the lymph system with the
vascular.

(6) Among the reptiles, the differentiation of
the heart goes a step further. In Chelonians, Lacer-
tilia, and Ophidia, a strong muscular ridge forms
an incomplete partition, dividing the ventricle into
a right portion containing purely venous blood,

Fig. 5.—Circulation of a Reptile (Tortoise):
ra, right auricle ; Ja, left auricle; rv, right (venous) portion of

ventricle; lv. left (arterial) portion of ventricle; lao, left

(venous ) aortic arch ; pa, pulmonary artery ; rao, right (arterial)

aortic arch; rs, ls, branches to fore-limbs; ce, carotids; pv,

pulmonary veins; svc, superior ven cave; ive, inferior vena

~ sed do aorta; cal, coeliac artery to viscera. (After
uhn,

‘and a left portion containing mixed and arterial
blood. The pulmonary artery rising from the right
cavity takes purely venous blood to the lungs; of
the two aortic arches rising from the left cavity
the left aorta contains more venous than arterial
blood, the right aorta more arterial than venous.
in C ilia, however, there is a complete septum

in the ventricle, and thus for the first time a four-
chambered heart, though it is not certain that the
division is exactly comparable to that of birds and
mammals, From the right or venous ventricle rise
the pulmonary artery and left aortic arch (taking
venous, not mixed, blood to the viscera); from the
left or arterial ventricle rises the me re aorta, with

ure blood to the greater part of the body. Though
the division of arterial and venous chambers brin
the crocodilian heart to the bird or mammal level,
there are two aortic arches, one venous, the other
arterial, which unite as usual, and also communicate
by a foramen at their roots. In all reptiles there
are two superior vene cave, an inferior vena cava
formed from the union of the two efferent renals,
and a renal portal system except in Chelonia. In
birds and mammals a single aortic arch forms the
dorsal aorta, not two or more as in reptiles. In birds
the aorta goes to the right, in mammals to the left,
but except in this variation and in the structure of
the Heart (q.v.), the circulation in Birds (q.v.) and
mammals (supra) is whee A identical.

III. Physiology.—The most important conditions
of circulatory function are (1) a general constancy
and rapidity of flow, and (2) a power of adapting
this to special needs. The conditions of the former
are mainly mechanical and physical—those of the
latter depend upon the nervous system.

(1) The Mechanism of Circulation wt depends
po > the rhythmic contractility of the heart, the
elasticity of the vessels, and the friction in the
small arteries and capillaries. The heart is a
muscular pump contracting under the influence of
its automatic nervous mechanism, but also respond-
ing in the nature of its beat to the conditions of
the body. The human heart usually beats about
seventy-two times a minute, and in the eight-
tenths of a second occupied by each beat, three
distinct events occur—the contraction (systole) of
the ventricles, a ‘passive interval’ of relaxation
(diastole) of both auricles and ventricles, and the
decidedly briefer contraction of the auricles. The

umping action of the heart is thus obviously an
intermittent force which drives the blood through
the closed series of elastic tubes formed by the
blood-vessels. To the latter attention must now
be directed

The arteries are surrounded by muscular tissue,
and are contractile as well as highly elastic. As
they break up into branches from the aorta to the
capillaries, the capacity for holding blood is con-
tinually increasing. The flow of blood within
them, though continuous, comes in gushes corre-
sponding to the heart-beats. The velocity of the
stream is test the nearer the heart. The veins
are much less elastic than the arteries, and have a
much greater total capacity for holding blood. As
they unite from the capillaries to the ven cave,
the total capacity is continually diminishing. The
flow of blood within them is continuous, but with
relatively little foree and small velocity. The
capillaries have a very small calibre, but are both
elastic and edutzestile. They are permeable b
fluids, and also allow the corpuscles to pass throug
their walls. The velocity of the flow is here at its
minimum. The resistance to the flow of blood,
due to the friction of these minute 3, works
back along the arterial system to the heart, and is
one of the most important factors in determining
the nature of the circulation.

To return now to the actual mechanism, it is
only n to note (a) that the whole system is
always over-filled with blood, which consequently
causes a pressure on the walls; (4) that the cause of
the fieiaiiation is the difference of pressure between
the blood in the aorta and pulmonary arteries on
the one hand and the vene cave an io sooner A
veins on the other; (c) that this difference of

264 CIRCULATION OF SAP

CIRCUMCISION

pressure is due to the contraction of the heart ; and
(@) that the interrupted current, which would natur-
ally arise from the intermittent action of the heart,
becomes continuous because of the rapidity of the
beats, the resistance in the small arteries and capil-
laries, and the elasticity of the arterial walls.

(2) The Control of the Circulation.—The pheno-
mena referred to above are mainly physical and
mechanical, and in their essential features can be
readily reproduced on a model. But in a complex
living organism there is a constant necessity for
modifiability. The organs vary in their require-
ments, and the external conditions are frequently
changing. Modifications in the circulation are
brought about by changes in the heart’s beat, and
in the calibre and resistance of the small arteries.
Both these changes are under the direct control of
the Nervous System (q.v.). Modifications of less
pia Kapa also occur in the capillary resistance
and in the total quantity of blood; but the
important point is simply the general fact that the
requirements of the organism are met by the
dominion of the nervous system over the circu-
lation.

IV. History.—Aristotle and the ancients thought
of the heart as a blood-fountain, but had no con-
ception of circulation. Galen (131-201) disproved
the prevalent notion that the arteries contained
air, Calvin’s contemporary Servetus demonstrated
the pulmonary circulation, and various physiolo-
gists had a distinct notion of the centrifugal flow.

n 1628 William Harvey published his Hzercitatio
Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Ani-
malibus, in which his discovery of the real nature
of the circulation was expounded. Soon after, the
use of the microscope revealed to Malpighi (1661 )
and Leeuwenhoek (1674) what Harvey had been
unable to trace—the capillary connection between
arteries and veins. Since those days the detailed
problems of circulation, the hydraulic mechanism,
the action of the heart and its valves, and the
nervous control have been worked at by many of
the greatest physiologists.

See AortTA, BLoop, HEART, VEIN, &c.; the physio-
logical text-books of Foster, Hermann, Huxley, Landois,
Stirling, &c., for human circulation; works on compara-
tive anatomy (Jeffrey Bell, Claus, Gegenbaur, Huxley,
Wiedersheim, &c.), for the gradual evolution of the
system ; Willis’s William Harvey, for the earlier notions
on the subject:

Circulation of Sap.
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Circumcision (Lat., ‘a cutting round’), the
cutting off the foreskin, a rite widely diffused
among ancient and modern nations. Three thou-
sand years before Christ it was familiar to the
Egyptians, who circumcised boys between the
sixth and fourteenth year, though it is not certain
whether it was extended to all males, or confined
to the priestly caste and others who were connected
in some special way with the religious mysteries.
The ceremony is clearly portrayed on a temple at
Karnak, in a drawing copied by Ebers, who adds
that most of the male mummies which have been
examined are found to have been circumcised.
Sayee (Hibbert Lectures, p. 83) affirms on pre-
carious grounds that circumcision was known to
the Babylonians. In any case it was not generally.
practised by them. It was known to the Colchians,
to some at least of the Phceenicians (compare Ezek.
xxviii. 10 with Herodot. ii. 104), and apparently also
to the Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites (see
Jerem. ix. 25, 26). Further, it appears among
Kaffirs, among many negro tribes, among Mexicans,
Indians of South America, and among the islanders
of the Pacific Ocean. Its original significance is
uncertain, and possibly it may have arisen from
different motives in different places. Sanitary

See PLANTS, Sap,

reasons, considering the primitive nature of the
nations in which it is found, are out of the question,
and of other theories which have been advanced
two only are plausible. It may have served like
the tattoo to mark and stamp the circumcised
person as a member of the tribe, and qualified to
take part in its sacred rites, or, which is much more
likely, it may have had a sacrificial character, the
object being to propitiate the god or spirit by
blood, and induce him to spare the life. The
former theory is illustrated and defended by Stade
(Gesch. des Volkes Israel, i. p. 423), the latter by
Réville (Relig. des Peuples non-civilisés, ii. p. 253).
Stade’s view finds some support in Ezek. xxviii.
10, xxxi. 18, when he who dies uncircumcised is
excluded from communion with the dead who have ~
received this token of initiation. But, in fact, as
Réville points out, primitive nations constantly
substitute some partial mutilation for the sacrifice
of the whole person. See the instructive story,
Exod. iv. 24-26. We may add that in some parts
of Africa an analogous operation is inflicted upon
young females.

The Seripture account of the origin of cireum-
cision amongst the Israelites is given in Gen. xvii.
7-14; but it is plain from what has just been said
that circumcision could not have been in itself a sign
of distinction between the Israelites and the neigh-
bouring nations ; and hence in the books of Judges.
and Samuel it is the Philistines, and the Philistines.
only, who are taunted with being uncircumcised ;_
while in Joshua, v. 9, it is implied that the uncir-
cumcised state of the Israelites who had grown up
in the desert was ‘a reproach’ to them in the eyes.
of the Egyptians. But after the exile circumcision
assumed a new prominence, because the nations.
under whose sway Israel then lived—the Baby-
lonians and Persians—practised no such rite. A
deep religious meaning was given to it. It became
the sign of the covenant between God and his.
chosen people, and their devotion to it grew in
proportion to the contempt which it excited in
their Greek and Roman oppressors.

According to the Levitical law every Jewish
male must be circumcised on the eighth day under

enalty of being cut off from the congregation of
srael. The same law applied to foreign slaves
bought by a Jew or born in his house. Strangers
also must circumcise their males if they wished to
partake of the Passover (Exod. xii. 48). The rite
was performed by the father of the house or by
some other Israelite, in case of necessity even by
women (1 Mace. i. 60). Modern Jews employ a
mohel or official who has the requisite surgical
skill. The child is brought to the door of the
room and handed to the mohel, who after prayer
cireumcises the child, and having drunk a glass of.
wine, gives it its name (Gen. xxi. 3,4; Luke, i. 59,
ii. 21), and placing his hand on its head blesses it.
The Jewish ritual contains special prayers for the
feast which follows. Circumcision was excluded
from the Christian community after a memorable
struggle, in which St Paul was the great champion
of spiritual religion. Many of the Jewish converts.
wished to impose circumcision on the Gentile Chris-
tians, not only as a condition of equality, but as an
essential to salvation. The result of the first.
struggle after a conference at Jerusalem was a
mutual compromise : circumcision was not to be
imposed on the Gentiles, who in return were asked to
abstain from meats offered to idols, from blood, from
things strangled, and from fornication. Much later,
however, circumcision was urged on converts as 4
title of preference, and it was long before Jewish
Christians could be brought to recognise the real
supremacy of the sospel, itself a New Covenant in
the place of the Old. St Paul speaks of his party
(Phil. iii. 3) as the ‘true circumcision,’ and by a

CIRCUMCISION

CIRCUS 265

bold metaphor applies the word concision (kata-
owl which in the rer some ice was applied only to
mutilations and incisions forbidden by the Mosaic
law, to the vaunted circumcision of the Judaisin
Christians. The contrast of the material an
—— circumcision occurs elsewhere in St Paul
u m. ii. 25-29; Col. ii. 11), The use made in the
ld Testament of the image of circumcision, as a
metaphor for purity, had prepared the way for the
apostle’s application—compare the circumcision of
e heart (Lev. xxvi. 41), of the ear (Jer. vi. 10),
of the lips (Ex. vi. 12, 30). At the present time
the Abyssinian Church alone among Christian
ies recognises it as a religious rite. It existed
nar ge 4 the Arabs before the time of the Prophet ;
and though never mentioned in the Koran, circum-
cision is practised with much pomp and great
rejoicings in all Mohammedan populations. The
Arabs in the towns of Egypt have their boys cir-
cumeised at the age of five or six; among the
peasants the age varies from twelve to fourteen.
A vivid account of the ceremonies is given in Lane’s
Modern 7G aig See a paper by Paul Lafargue
in the Bulletin de la Booléts. dAnthropelogle de
Paris (tome x., 3° série, 1887).

Circumcision, FEAstT or, a festival in honour
of Christ’s circumcision, observed on Ist January in
the Roman Church since about 487 A.D., and in the
Anglican since 1549. See NEW-YEAR’s Day.

Circumference, or PrrirHEry, the curve
which incloses a circle, ellipse, oval, cardioid, or
other plane figure. In figures bounded by straight
lines, as the triangle, square, and polygon, the
term agreed is employed to designate the sum
of the bounding lines taken together. The
length of the circumference depends partly on the
nature of the curve; thus, that of the Circle (q.v.)
= 2rr = rd; and that of the Ellipse (q.v.)

1\%e? /1.3\%e4 /1.3.5\%e%
=2ra{1-(5 i (54 x ~(ez6)5--.&
where a@ is the semi-axis major, and e the eccen-
tricity.

Circumlocution Office, the name under
which Dickens, in Little Dorrit, satirised the
Civil Service.

Circumna tion, the term usually applied
to the act of sai ing round the world, its literal
meaning being simply ‘a sailing round.’ The cir-
cumnavigation of the globe was at one time
considered a great feat, but it is now one of the
most commonplace affairs in a sailor’s experience.
The first to circumnavigate the globe was Sebastian
d@’Elcano, lieutenant of Magellan (1519-22); fifteen

ears afterwards it was accomplished by two

panish seamen, Grijalva and Alvaradi; and in
1577-80 by the illustrious Englishman, Sir Francis
Drake. The most celebrated of cireumnavigators
was Captain James Cook, who, between 1768 and
1779, made three voyages round the world.

Circumstantial Evidence. See EVIDENCE.

Circumvallation, Lines or, form a chain
of works surrounding an army engaged in besieg-
ing a fortress, but facing outwards towards the
port so as to guard against all attempts at
relief by a field army. Redoubts, either isolated
or connected by a line of parapet, were much
used for this p in the sieges of the ancient
and middle ages; but the greater mobility of
modern armies makes it preferable to meet such
attempts in the open field, many miles from the
ert occupied by the cheap J force. At

bastopol, owing to the smallness of the besieging
force compared with that of the besieged, an outer
cireuit of redoubts and lines was n to keep
off the Russian field army, which at Inkermann

very nearly succeeded in penetrating this external

defence. CONTRAVALLATION, SIEGE.
Circus, in ancient Rome, was a large oblong
building adapted for chariot-races and horse-races,

and used also for the exhibition of athletic exer-
cises, mock-contests, and conflicts of wild beasts.
The Circensian Games were alleged by tradition
to have originated in the time of Romulus; and
Tarquinius Priscus celebrated a notable victory by
games. The games continued to be held annually,
and a permanent edifice was soon afterwards con-
structed. This was distinguished, subsequent to
the erection of the Flaminian and other large circi,
as the Circus Maximus. It must have been altered
and rock pe at various times. Dionysius says it
could hold 150,000 persons; Pliny, 260,000; and
P. Victor, 385,000. Its extent also has been vari-
ously estimated. In the time of Julius Cesar it
was three stadia or 1875 feet long, and one
stadium or 625 feet wide, while the depth of
the buildings surrounding the open space was half
a stadium, or about 312 feet. he plan was
oblong, rounded at one end and square at the
other. Along the sides and at the curved end were
ascending ranges of stone seats for the spectators.
At the other end were the carceres or stalls in
which the horses and chariots were kept, until,
on a given ne pe the gates were simultaneously
flung open. In the centre was the spina, a long
and broad wall round which the charioteers drove,
percep ome at both ends at the mete or goals—
conical pillars which marked the turnings of the
course. Julius Caesar made an euripus or canal
round the course to protect the spectators more
effectually during the conflicts of wild beasts.

The circus was especially adapted for chariot-races,
an amusement of which the Romans were passion-
ately fond. The length of a race was seven circuits
round the spina, and twenty-five races were run in
each day. The number of chariots was usuall
four. he athletic exercises, such as boxing an
wrestling, sometimes terminated fatally. A regular
battle was sometimes represented (Pugna Equestris
et Pedestris). By the formation of canals and the
introduction of vessels, a Naumachia, or sea-fight,
was occasionally exhibited ; but, under the empire,
this species of exhibition, as well as the Venatio,
was gradually transferred to the Amphitheatre
(q.v.). Animals for the Venatio or hunting were
procured from every available part of the Roman
empire, pane Africa and Asia.. The exhibition
not only afforded an opportunity for the display of
private munificence or ostentation, but attained
the importance of a political engine, which none
who aspired to popularity could afford to overlook,
The turbulent classes often demanded doles of
bread and circus games (panem et circenses) from
candidates. When Pom opened his new
theatre he is said to have given public exhibitions
in the circus for five days, during which five
hundred lions and twenty elephants were destroyed.
The Greek Aippodrome was very similar ,in its
arrangements to the Roman circus.

In modern times the circus survives but as the
shadow of a name. It is about the same size as
the modern theatre, and is employed principally
for the exhibition of feats of horsemanship and for
acrobatic displays. Modern circuses are of two
kinds—those that hold performances in permanent
buildings, of which there are only a com tively
small number in Britain and the United States, and
those that ‘tent’ or occupy temporary erections in
spring and summer, and return to buildings in
winter. A circus manager on a tour must have a
plentiful supply of novelties in the shape of graceful
and daring riders, conjurers, and performing horses.
A stud of highly trained performing horses, often
of great value, is an important feature in every

266 CIRENCESTER

CISTERCIANS

well-appointed circus. English and American
equestrians are superior to those of any other
nationality, and their services are eagerly sought
for on the Continent, where the bulk of the per-
formers are aa hoe Astley (q.v.) was the most
famous of English cireus-managers. The Paris
hippodrome is celebrated. But the circus in con-
nection with Barnum (q.v.) and Bailey’s ‘ Greatest
Show on Earth’ is probably. the most important
ever organised, including a whole army of per-
formers, ‘mid-air artists,’ and male and female
equestrians.

Cirencester, a town of Gloucestershire, amid
the Coteswold Hills, on the Churn, a headstream of
the Thames, and on the Thames and Severn Canal,
14 miles SSE. of Cheltenham, and 18 by rail NW.
of Swindon. It has a very fine Perpendicular
church (restored 1867), a public hall (1863), some
remains of an abbey (1117), and, 1 mile distant,
an agricultural college (1846), a Tudor edifice (see
AGRICULTURE). Near this is the handsome seat
of Earl Bathurst. There is a considerable trade
in wool and agricultural produce, and the town
is a hunting centre. Till 1867 it returned two
members; till 1885 one. Pop. (1851) 6096; (1891)
7441. Cirencester (pronounced Cisseter) was the
Roman Corinium, at the junction of five Roman
roads; and there is a good collection of Roman
antiquities found in the neighbourhood. Canute
held a council here in 1020. Rupert stormed Ciren-
cester in 1642 and 1643. The early English chroni-
cler Richard (q.v.) of Cirencester was a native.

Cirrhosis, the drunkard’s liver. See LivEr,
ALCOHOLISM.

Cirripedia (Gr., ‘curl-footed’), a degenerate
sub-class of Crustacea, including the numerous
forms of Barnacles and ‘slgokn whinits (q.v.). Cirrho'-
poda was a form of the name once commonly in
use.

Cirrus. See CLouDs.

Cirrus, CIRRHUS, in Botany, see CLIMBING-
PLANTS and (under Plants) MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.
The term cirrus, in Zoology, may designate any
curled filament, and has been applied to the curiously
modified abdominal limbs of the Cirripedia (q.v.).

Cirta, the capital of ancient Numidia, now
Constantine (q.v.).

Cis, a Latin preposition, meaning ‘on this side’
(as opposed to trans or ultra, ‘ beyond’), which is
often prefixed to names of rivers and mountains to
form adjectives; Cisalpine, Cispadane, ‘on this
side of the Alps,’ ‘of the Po.’ As most of these
words are of Roman origin, Rome is usually the
point of view; but in Ultramontane (q.v.) it is
otherwise, as also in Cisleithania, a division of the
Austrian dominions—see AUSTRIA, Vol. I. p. 595.

Cisalpine Republic. After the battle of
Lodi, in May 1796, General Bonaparte proceeded to
organise two states—one on the south of the Po,
the Cispadane Republic, and one on the north, the
Transpadane. These two were on 9th July 1797
united into one under the title of the Cisalpine
Republic, which embraced Lombardy, Mantua,
Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Verona, and Rovigo,
the duehy of Modena, the principalities of Massa
and Cararra, and the three legations of Bologna,
Ferrara, and the Romagna. The republic had a
territory of more than 16,000 sq. m., and a popula-
tion of 34 millions. Milan was the seat of the
government or Directory. The army consisted of
20,000 French troops, paid by the republic. The
republic was dissolved for a time in 1799 by the
victories of the Russians and Austrians, but was
restored by Bonaparte after the victory of Marengo,
with some modifications of constitution and increase
of territory. In 1802 it took the name of the

Italian Republic, and chose Bonaparte for its
president. A deputation from the republic in 1805
conferred on the Emperor Napoleon the title of
King of Italy ; after which it formed the kingdom
of Italy till 1814. See ITALy.

Cissam’pelos, a genus of Menispermacee, of
which one species, C. Pareira, was formerly re-

arded as the source of the drug known as Pareira
rava (q.v.), also called Butua Root.

Cissoid (Gr., ‘ivy-like,’ from the shape), a plane
curve consisting of two infinite branches symmet-
rically placed with reference to the diameter of a
circle, so that at one of its extremities they form a
Cusp (q.v.), while the tangent to the circle at the
other extremity is their common asymptote. It
was invented by Diocles of Alexandria to solve the
et of finding two mean proportionals ; but

ewton first showed how to desoribs the curve by
continuous motion. The area included between
the two branches and the asymptote is exactly
equal to thrice the generating circle. In later
times the term has been generalised to comprise
higher curves described by the same law, but where
the generating curve is not a circle. When the
asymptote is vertical, the circular cissoid seems to

grow towards it as ivy does to a wall, &c. Draw
any straight line AB to the tangent. Measure
‘AO = BC, and thus O traces the curve.

Cissus. See VITACEA.

Cis-Sutlej States, a term first given to the
Sikh principalities which arose south of the Sutlej
in the end of the 18th century, and now includes
the British districts of Umballa (Ambala), Ludhi-
ana, Firozpur, Hissar, and the native states of
Patiala, Jind, and Nabha.

Cist. See CorFIN, BARROW, BURIAL.

Cistercians, a monastic order founded by
the Benedictine abbot Robert of Champagne, in
France, who, after repeated attempts—at first in
the forest of Molesme—at a reformation of the
secularised monastic life, established in 1098, in the
forest of Citeaux (Cistercium ), a small hamlet near
Dijon, along with twenty companions, a monastery
for the purpose of earrying out the strictest obser-
vance of the rule of St Benedict. By command of
the e Robert returned in 1099 to Molesme, where
he died in 1108; but his successor, Alberic (who died
in 1109) succeeded in gaining the pope’s favour and
the confirmation of the order, and drew up the
Instituta Monachorum Cisterciensium, which repre-
sented the new foundation as the only true Bene-
dictinism. His successor, Stephen Harding, ruled
in the same spirit, and still further stamped the
order with its distinctive character of austerity. Yet
Citeaux was near extinction when the famous St
Bernard, together with thirty companions, joined
the Cistercians in 1113. Two years afterwards he
became the first abbot of Clairvaux, which thence-
forward was the centre of the influence he wielded
throughout Europe. In 1119 the Abbot Stephen
issued a new rule, the ‘Charter of Charity,’ for the
monks of the order, which was already augmented
by two additional monasteries. It gained great
accessions in Spain and Portugal, as well as in
France, where the Cistercians now also bore the
name of Bernardines. Before the end of the 12th

CISTERN

CITRIC ACID 267

the order had 800 abbeys in different coun-
tries of Europe, and by the middle of the 13th its
establishments had reached the number of 1800.
But as riches increased, the old austerity and unity
decayed ; the Spanish abbots seceded, and even in
France and Italy arose separate congregations, such
as the Feuillans and the Trappists. The Cister-
cians did little for the Ry a of the sciences ; but
they rendered valuable service in the develop-
ment of agriculture, and in the 12th and 13
centuries they were consistent promoters of Gothic
architecture.

The Cistercians were distinguished from the order
of Clugny (q.v.) by their severer rule and stricter

verty, avoiding everything like splendour in
heir churches, even gold and silver crosses; by
being submissive to the jurisdiction of the bishops,
at least till after the death of St Bernard; by not
meddling with the cure of souls; by wearing a
white robe with a black scapulary; and by their

uliar form of pereeneeny, which was introduced

y Innocent III. in 1215 into all the monastic
orders. In England theig earliest establishment
was Waverley Abbey (1128), near Farnham, in
Surrey. The number of Cistercian abbeys in
England in the reign of Henr VIII. was 75,
besides 26 Cistercian nunneries. In Scotland there
were 11 abbeys and 7 nunneries. Among the
English abbeys were Woburn, Tintern, Furness,
Fountains, Kirkstall, and Rievaux; among the
Scottish, Melrose, Dundrennan, Kinloss, Glenluce,
Culross, Deer, Balmerino, and Sweetheart or New
Abbey. The chief French abbeys, ‘the four eldest
7 ey of Citeaux,’ as they were called, were
La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond, the
last of these egg itself 700 dependent benefices.
Port Royal des Champs was the most celebrated
of the Cistercian nunneries. Riches and indolence
brought this powerful order, as well as others, into
decay. Even before the Reformation many of
their convents had ceased to exist. The French
Revolution reduced the Cistercians to a few con-
vents in Spain, Poland, Austria, and Saxony. The
last remnant of the order in France was expelled in
1880. At Mount St Bernard, near Coalville,
Leicestershire, they have a ‘mitred’ abbey built
by Pugin the elder.
See Manriquez, An-
nales Cistercienses (4
vols. Lyons, 1642);
The Cistercian Saints
of England (ed. by

ewman, 1844);
Sharpe, Zhe Archi-
tecture of the Cister-
cians (1874); Janau-
schek, Origines Cis-
terciensium (1877);
also the articles
BENEDICTINES, Mo-
NACHISM.

Cistern.
WATER.

Cistus (Gr.), or
Rock-Rosk, a genus
of thalamifloral
dicotyledons, which

ives its name to the

istacere, an order
allied to Cruciferae
and Capparides, and
containing about four
genera and sixt
species of shrubs an
herbs, chiefly Medi-
terranean. Many
species are more or less resinous; and from the

See

Common Rock-rose
(Helianthemum vulgare).

twigs of some species of Cistus, natives of southern
Europe and the Levant, particularly C. ereticus, C.
Cc us, and C. ladaniferus, the resinous substance

led Ladanum is obtained, which is used as a
stimulant, chiefly in plasters, but has become obso-
lete in modern medical practice. Many species of
Cistus are much cultivated for the beauty of their
large wild-roselike flowers, which are red, white,
lilac, yellow, or frequently of two colours. Most of
the larger kinds require in Britain some protection
in winter. The common yellow Rock-roses of our
dry hillsides are species of Helianthemum, chiefly
H. vulgare. Many pretty varieties of this and other
species are grown in gardens, especially on rock-
work. Several kinds are North American.

Citation, the act of calling a party into court
to answer to an action, to give evidence, or to per-
form some other judicial act. In England the term
citation is applied particularly to process in the
ai Pe probate, and matrimonial courts. In

tland, a citation is given in the Court of Session
(q.v.) by an officer of court, or by a messenger-at-
arms, under authority either of a summons passing
the Signet (q.v.), or of a warrant by the court.
Where no messenger-at-arms is resident in the dis-
trict, it may be done by a sheriff-officer. Citation
is made either peeones ly, by delivery of a 7 of
the warrant to the party cited ; or at the dwelling-
es when the party cannot be found in person.
here must be one witness in every case, and in the
case of poindings two witnesses to the execution of
a warrant of citation. Parties resident out of Scot-
land, and tutors and curators of minors, are cited
edictally—i.e. by delivery of the warrant at the
office of the Keeper of Edictal Citation at the
General Register House in Edinburgh. The officer
who executes the citation returns a certificate,
called the Execution, of the manner in which it has
been done. A new form of citation was introduced
by the Citation Amendment Act of 1882, by which
any officer authorised under the older law, or any
enrolled law-agent, may execute a warrant of cita-
tion, by sending a registered letter to the known
residence or place of business of the person to be
cited, containing a copy of the summons or other
document to be served with the citation subjoined.

In criminal cases the party cannot appear volun-
tarily in court; he must be cited, and can plead
any omission in form, which cannot be obviated
even by consent. This form of citation is regulated
v, the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act, 1887.

nder this act the sheriff-clerk, for cases in the
Sheriff Court, and the clerk of nag nag i for cases
in the High Court, issue warrants in the form of
a schedule appended to the act. Service of the
indictment and citation on these warrants may be
made by any macer, messenger-at-arms, sheriff-
officer, or officer of police. When the accused is in
prison, it may be made by a governor or warder.

Citeaux. See CISTERCIANS.

Cithzeron. See ATTICA.

Cithara (Gr.), an ancient instrument closely
resembling the Guitar (q.v.). See also ZITHER.

Citizen. See City.

Citric Acid, H,C,H,0,, is the acid to which
lemon and lime juice owe their sourness. also
occurs, in some cases along with tartaric acid, in
oranges, cherries, currants, gooseberries, and other
fruits having a subacid taste. For praetical pur-
poses it is sere, iipcmeet from year may oe

rgamot juice, which contain it in large quantity.
The first saaied of these contains from. 20 to 40
grains of citric acid in each fluid ounce.

Citric acid is prepared from these ag by a
very simple process. The juice having been heated
to the boiling-point to c aay it from albumen,
mucilage, &c., is mixed with chalk, CaCO,, which,

268 CITRIC ACID

CITY

combining with the citric acid, falls to the bottom
as citrate of calcium. The supernatant liquid
being drawn off, sulphuric acid is added to the
precipitate, decomposing it, with the formation of
citric acid and sulphate of lime, CaSO, By
crystallisation it may be obtained pure in the form
of colourless, odourless prisms, which effloresce in
dry air, and possess an agreeable acid taste and an
acid reaction. It is readily soluble in water and
alcohol, but almost insoluble in ether and chloro-
form. A solution of it in water cannot be kept
owing to its tendency to ferment. Dissolved in
syrup it keeps much longer, and is used largely in
the manufacture of lemonade and other aerated
beverages, communicating an acid, fruity taste.
When heated, the crystals melt, then decompose,
and are finally reduced to a combustible form of
charcoal. In addition to its employment as a
flavouring agent it is largely used in the manu-
factures. Calico-printers employ it for discharging
the mordant from the cloth in patterns, and it is
used in dyeing silk with safflower, &c.

Citric acid may also be prepared artificially, but
the process is too complex ever to come into prac-
tical use. Chemically it is of great interest as
exemplifying that as soon as the chemical constitu-
tion is known there is a possibility of producing
the substance artificially. There is a popular idea
that some day uinine, morphia, and other natural
products wil be formed by the random mixing
together of chemicals in the chemist’s beaker, but
the first step towards this result must be the
knowledge of their constitution, to be followed by
a series of careful experiments.

Citric acid is a powerful tribasic acid (see AcIDs),
and the solution in water readily dissolves zine and
iron. It forms a class of salts called Citrates,
many of which are employed in medicine.

The so-called Citrate of Magnesia, a granular
substance, which effervesces on the addition of
water, and is very popular as a gentle aperient, is
not really a citrate at all, but consists of a mixture
of tartaric and citric acids, bicarbonate of soda, and
sugar, with perhaps a trace of some magnesium
salt to justify the name. The earn is effected
by mixing the powders and placing them in a pan
heated by steam, when, in proportion to the citric
acid present, the powders run together into a pasty
mass. This is forced through a coarse riddle, and
the granules are dried by a gentle heat.

Citrate of Potash, KzC,H;0,,H,O, is prepared b
neutralising citric aci with bicarbonate of potash.
It forms a white, granular, deliquescent powder,
which acts as a cooling diaphoretic in cases of
fever. Dissolved in lemon-juice it is of much value
in rheumatism. It is given in doses of 20 to 30 gr.

Citrate of Ammonia can only be obtained in
solution, as when this is evaporated decomposition
takes place and ammonia escapes. It is employed,
like the potash salt, in febrile diseases.

Citrate of Iron and Citrate of Iron and Quinine
are but examples of a large number of compounds
obtained in the form of Teh or greenish-brown
scales which are largely used in medicine. In these
the medicinal value lies not in the citric acid, but
in the iron or quinine with which it is associated,
although the acid has doubtless a subsidiary action.
A peculiarity about these ‘scale preparations,’ as
they are called, is that the inky taste, so character-
istic of iron in the form of steel drops, is in great
measure removed. Citric acid also forms a series
of organic salts called citric ethers, of which
citrate of ethyl is an example. Lemon-juice, in
which citric acid is the most active ingredient, is a
most valuable medicine in scurvy, and when it
cannot be obtained the acid may be used as a sub-
stitute. Citric acid in solution does not, however,
appear to be nearly so effective as the juice itself.

Citron (Citrus medica), a tree cultivated in the
south of Europe and other warm temperate or
subtropical countries for its fruit; a native of
northern India. By many botanists the lemon
(C. Limonium), the lime (C. Limetta), and the
bergamot (C. Bergamea) are reckoned varieties ;
but it at anyrate avoids confusion to describe these
ge sekoy ss § The fruit is large, warty, and fur-
rowed. The pulp is acid and cooling, and is used in
the preparation of ayTape, lemonade, &c.; but the
part chiefly valued is the thick and tender rind,
which has a delicious odour and flavour, and is

reserved or candied. From this also the fragrant

il of Citron, or Oil of Cedrate, used by perfumers,
is procured. In Germany the name cedrate is

Citron (Citrus medica) :
a, fruit; b, transverse section of fruit.

extended to all kinds of citron, and the name citron
is usually given to the lemon. The fruit of the

largest kinds (var. macrocarpa) sometimes weighs —

5 I In the United States the name citron is
ape to different varieties of the melon, espe-
cially one resembling the water-melon, but edible
only when made into preserves or pickles. It is
probable that the citron is meant in some passages
of the Old Testament where the word apple is used
in the English version.

Citronwood, or CirRUs-woop, the most costly
furniture-wood of Roman antiquity, is usually re-
garded as derived from Biota (Thwa) orientalis,
or possibly from Callitris quadrivalvis, allied coni-
ferous trees, both popularly known as Arbor Vite
(oriental and African). Cicero is said to have paid
an enormous sum for a table of this wood.

Citrus, a genus of Aurantiacez (q.v.), trees and
shrubs of tropical, subtropical, and warm temper-
ate Asia, but many of them now cultivated in all
similar climates for their fruit. To it belong the
Orange, Citron, Lemon, Lime, Bergamot, Shaddock,
Forbidden Fruit, &e.

Citta di Castello, a town of Central Italy, on
the Tiber, 25 miles NNW. of Perugia. It has a
castle, a cathedral, and several palaces rich in
works of art. In the church of Santa Trinita is

reserved Raphael’s first commission, a guild-
anner. Pop. 5433.

Cittavec’chia. See MALTA.

City (Fr. cité, Lat. civitas). In the sense in
which it was first used in the Romanic languages
of modern Europe, the word city, like its Latin
original, was probably equivalent to state (res-
publica) rather than to town or borough (urbs,
municipium). This usage may be contrasted with

Jb

CITY

CITY OF REFUGE 269

that of the Greek term polis, which, originally
denoting merely a town or collection of households,
came afterwards to be frequently used as synony-
mous with politeia, a state or free community.
Perhaps the nearest example in the present day to
the city in the above sense is to be found in such of
the cantons of Switzerland as consist chiefly of a
town and its surroundings, for example, Geneva.
It is difficult to find any precise meaning attached
to the word city in medieval times. In his glossary
of medieval Latin terms Ducange defines civitas as
urbs episcopalis, that is, a town in which there
exists an episcopal see; but this restricted use of
the word, though commonly accepted, rests on no
sufficient ground (see CATHEDRAL). It would
seem in fact that from a ve ay period in
English history towns have pe enominated
either civitas, villa, or burgum, and the inhabitants
thereof cives, homines, and burgenses, indifferently.
Thus in Domesday Book we find mention of the
y (civitas ) of Norwich, of Exeter, and of Coventry,
but town of Ipswich, of Bedford, and of Shrews-
bury; while Gloucester and Leicester are styled
both city and borough (burgum).

In its modern sense the term city, as used in the
United Kingdom, is generally applied to all towns
which are incorporated, and which either are or
have been sees of bishops. See BoROUGH.

In the United States, a city is an incorporated
town, invested with the highest municipal privi-
leges and duties. In some states, 10,000 inhab-
itants are requisite to the formation of a city
government, while in the new states a less number
is required. A city has power to legislate upon
local matters pertaining to it in accordance with
the provisions of its charter, granted by the
sovereign power of the people through the legis-
lature of a state. In several of the Western States
cities are organised under a general law, all havin
over 15,000 inhabitants being designated cities o
the first class ; under 15,000 and over 2000, cities of
the second class; and all villages with less than
2000, cities of the third class.

In the case of towns which have grown greatly
beyond their original dimensions it is not unusual
to give the name of city to the space which they
originally occupied—thus, we speak of the City of
London, in contradistinction to the metropolis,
la Cité of Paris, and similarly of other places.

A citizen (Fr. citoyen, Lat. civis) is defined by
Aristotle to be one to whom belongs the right of
taking part both in the deliberative, or legislative,
and in the judicial proceedings of the communit
of which he is a member (Politics, iii. 1). a
citizen, therefore, can exist only in a free state.
Between a citizen and a subject there is this dis-
tinction, that whilst the latter merely is governed,
the former also governs; and thus, though every
citizen is a subject, many subjects are not citizens.
At first the nights of citizenship in Athens and
other Greek communities were readily attained by
those who were not born to them; but at a later
oe gee when the organisation of Greek civic life
2 reached a high degree of perfection, admission
to the roll of citizens was proc with great
difficulty. In Rome, under the early law, there
were perfect and less perfect citizens ; that which
peculiarly distinguished the higher class was the
right to vote in a tribe, and the capacity of

enjoying magistracy. All the private rights of
citizenship (the jus connubit at jus foe cpa )
belonged to the citizens of the lower class. Under
these two classes, in, there were two others,
originally aliens—the Latini and the Peregrini.
man citizenship was acquired most commonl
by birth, but for this it was requisite that bot
father and mother should be citizens. If a citizen
married a Latina or a Peregrina, even believing

her to be a citizen, the children begotten of the
marriage followed the status of the mother. In
the earlier days of the republic, citizenship could
be conferred on a stranger only by means of a /ex—
i.e. by a vote of the people assembled either in one
or other of the Comitia. When the imperial power
was established, however, the public rights which
formed the chief characteristic of the full Roman
citizenship became little more than empty names ;
and the only value which thenceforth attached to
it consisted in the private rights which it conferred.
St Paul was ‘free-born ’—i.e. born a citizen. Such
as it was, the constitution of Caracalla extended
it to the free inhabitants of the whole Roman
empire, and under Justinian the only divisions of
subjects henceforth was into citizens and slaves.

In France, during the Revolution, the word
citizen was adopted by the republicans as the most
appropriate term to express the grand principle of
laberte, égalité, et fraternité. It took the place
of Monsieur. Every Frenchman became Citoyen in
relation to other Frenchmen, the highest in official
station being so addressed by the lowest. The
usage gradually died out after the assumption of
imperial power by Napoleon. In its modern use,
the term citizen is applied in Britain and elsewhere
either specifically to a dweller in a town, or to
any one who is either born in the country or has
become legally naturalised in it.

In the Gnived States, the words ‘citizens’ and
‘people’ are synonymous terms. From the point of
view of American constitutional law, a citizen being
a member of the political community to which he
belongs, every person born in the United States and
subject to its jurisdiction falls within the definition.
An alien may become a citizen by being natural-
ised under the Acts of Congress, Again, a citizen
of the United States residing in any state of the
union is a citizen of that state. here being a
government in each of the several states, as well as
a government of the United States, a person may
be at the same time a citizen of both, but his rights
as a citizen under one of these governments differ
from those under the other. us, although the
government of the United States is supreme and
paramount to the states, it cannot secure to the
citizen rights or privileges which are not placed
under its jurisdiction by the constitution. On the
other hand, a person may be a citizen of the United
States and not be a citizen of any particular state,
having his residence in one of the territories, or
not having a fixed residence in any state.

Citizens of each state are entitled to all privileges
and immunities of citizens in the several states,
and citizens of all other states have the right to go
into any state and on business, to ‘hold pro-
perty and be protected like the citizens of that
state in their rights. It may further be observed
that under the existing constitutional law, children
born of Chinese nts are citizens of the United
States, but Chinese aliens are incapable of becoming
citizens. See NATURALISATION, ALIEN, BOROUGH;
and Fustel de Coulanges, La Cité antique (1864).

City of Refuge. By the Jewish law with
re to unintentional manslaughter, indicated
in Exod. xxi. 13, and fully set forth in Num,
xxxv., Deut. xix., and Josh. xx., the LD serge: of
Palestine to the west and east of the Jordan were
each divided into three districts, and in each
district was a city in which the manslayer should
at once with all s seek refuge. If the elders
of the city of refuge recognised the manslayer's
claim to the right of asylum, he was provision-
ally secure from the goé/ or avenger. He was
then set before the community (represented by
its elders) in the midst of which the deed was
done, that they might decide judicially whether
the right of asylum should be further extended

270 CIUDAD BOLIVAR

CIVIL LIST

to him. In that event he was free to return
and sojourn in the city of refuge; and after-
wards, if the goel found him outside it, he had a
right (though not the duty) to kill him. Not till
the death of the high-priest was he at liberty to
return home. See BLoop (AVENGER OF); and for
the usage in other countries, see SANCTUARY.

Ciudad Bolivar. See ANGOSTURA.

Ciudade'la, a seaport town (formerly capital)
of the island of Minorca, on the west coast, with
a cathedral, ruined fortifications, and exports of
cattle, wool, cheese, and building-stone. Pop.
(1878) 7777; (1891, estimated ) 8431.

Ciudad Real’ (‘royal city ;’ Ciudad being
Lat. civitas), a town of Spain, capital of the pro-
vince of the same name—area, 6042 sq. m. ; pop.
(1885) 280,642—situated on a plain between the
rivers Guadiana and Jabalon, 105 miles S. of
Madrid by rail. It is a poor, dull place, but has a
fine Gothic church, and remains of the old town-
walls, with one handsome gateway. There are
manufactures to a small extent of coarse woollens,
linen, and table-cloths, and a trade in the agricul-
tural produce of the district. The population has
declined, and in 1897 was estimated at 13,500.

Ciudad Rodri’go (‘ Roderic’s Town’), a for-
tified town of Spain, 17 miles from the Portuguese
frontier, and 56 SW. of Salamanca by rail, on a
steep hill above the river Agueda, which is here
crossed by a fine bridge. It is a poor, dirty town,
with a Gothic cathedral. It was taken by the
English (1706) and French (1707) in the War
of the Spanish Succession, but is chiefly of in-
terest for its sieges during the Peninsular war. In
the spring of 1810 the French under Massena in-
vested the town, and after a gallant defence by the
Spaniards, it was forced to surrender on the 10th
July. Meanwhile Wellington was gaining time to
strengthen his lines at Torres Vedras; and in
January 1812 he pouriced down on Ciudad Rodrigo,
and after a siege of eleven days, took the qlaeerbs
assault. For this brilliant achievement he was
created an English earl, and, by the Spanish
Cortes, Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo. Pop. 6856.

Civet ( Viverra), a genus of cat-like carnivores.
Besides several species of Viverra proper, there are
sundry other closely related forms, such as the
Genettes, which some regard as separate genera.

The long, thin body, the pointed head, the short
legs, and small hairy feet are external characteris-
tics. The larger species, such as the two first
named below, are rather larger than a fox, but
the Viverricula, the Genettes, &c. are often de-
cidedly smaller. They are active and fierce car-
nivores. The civets are best known in connection
with the strong perfume obtained from two (per-

ineal) glands near the anus. Such glands are com-
mon enough : it is only their penetrating fragrance
which is peculiar. The civet perfume of commerce
is obtained from V. civetta, the African civet or
civet cat; from V. zibetta, the Indian civet of
Bengal, China, and the Malayan region; from V.
tangalunga, similar in distribution to the last ; and
from Viverricula malaccensis, the Rasse of India,
China, Java, and Sumatra. Civets are often kept
in confinement for the sake of the perfume, which
is removed from the glands about twice a week
by means of a small spatula, and is obtained
most abundantly from the male, especially after
he has been irritated. A dram is a large quantity
to obtain at a time. Abyssinia is one of the
rincipal seats of the trade, and Java another.
he perfume is most used in the East.

Civil Damage Acts, passed in several of the
United States, giving to husbands, wives, children,
arents, guardians, employers, and others who
ave sustained injury in person or property or
means of support, by any intoxicated person in
consequence of such intoxication, the right of
action against the person who sold or gave away
the liquor which caused such intoxication, have
been held to be constitutional. In some cases
the right of action has been extended to the owner
of the premises where such intoxicating liquor has
been obtained.

Civil Death. See DEATH (CrvIL).
Civil Engineer. See ENGINEERING.

Civilian is either a person whose pursuits are
civil—i.e. neither military nor naval; or one who
is skilled in the civil law—a student, professor, or
doctor of the Roman civil law.

Civilisation. See ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHA-
OLoGy, ART, GOVERNMENT.

Civil Law. See Law.

Civil List. Down to the period of the Restora-
tion in 1660, notwithstanding an attempt at nego-
tiation between James I. and the parliament for
the commutation of the hereditary revenues of the
crown, the whole expenses of the government of
England, civil and military, were included in one
list, or rather they were defrayed out of what was
called the royal revenue. his revenue, which
arose partly from crown-lands, partly from the
hereditary excise and other hierenftary revenues,
and partly from the ordinary excise, was for a lon
period after the Conquest really at the disposal o
the crown. Even after the supplies were provided
by parliament, the specific mode of their expendi-
ture continued to be free from parliamentary con-
trol. But at the Restoration a distinction was
made (by statute 12 Charles II.) between the extra-
ordinary expenses occasioned by war, and the
ordinary cost of the civil establishments of the
country. For the latter the needful funds were
provided, partly from such crown-lands as were
still unalienated, and partly from taxes which
parliament voted for the purpose at the commence-

‘ment of each reign. ‘These were called the heredi-

tary or civil list revenues, the amount of which was
in 1689 fixed at £600,000 per annum. During the
reign of William ITI. the civil list was twice raised,
and in 1698, after the war with France, stood at
£700,000. To provide the additional sum a new
subsidy of customs was granted to the king for life.
The branches of expenditure included under this
head were the following : (1) The royal household ;
(2) the privy purse ; (3) the royal palaces; (4) the
salaries of the chancellor, judges, great officers of
state, and ambassadors; (5) the incomes given to
the other members of the royal family; (6) the
secret-service money, pensions, and other irregular
claims. The support of the army and navy was,

CIVIL LIST

CIVIL SERVICE 271

however, hg for by an annual vote of the
House of Commons, and the interest of the national
debt was never charged against the civil list. Dur-
ing Queen Anne’s reign matters remained nearly
on their former footing ; the civil list remaining at
£700,000, provided for out of the excise on liquors
the new subsidy of customs of 1698, and the lan
revenues of the crown. This was also the amount
during the reign of George I., but on the accession
of George II. it was raised to £800,000; and in
in the fifty-fifth year of the reign of George III. it
had to be further raised to £1,030,000. George
III. surrendered some eine of the hereditary
revenue of the crown which had been retained by
his predecessors, and the annuities to members of
the royal family were now paid out of the Con-
solidated Fund ( a-) to the amount of £260,000.
When George . succeeded to the throne,
£255,000 of expenditure was transferred to other
funds, and the civil list was fixed at £850,000
_ annum, The crown enjoyed, in addition, the
ereditary revenue of Scotland, amounting to
about £110,000, and a separate civil list was kept
up for Ireland of £207,000. Against these large
sums, however, were still placed many charges
which belon, to the nation rather than the
crown ; and it was not till the 15th November 1830
that Sir Henry Parnell, afterwards Lord Congleton,
carried a motion for the appointment of a select
committee for the purpose of separating the proper
expenses of the crown from all other charges. The
result of this measure was the act, 1 Will. IV. ec.
25, for the regulation of the civil list. The sum of
£510,000 was in 1831 granted to his majesty, and
exclusively devoted to the privy purse, the salaries
-and expenses of the dee ousehold, secret-service
money, and pensions. The separate list for Ireland
was discontinued, and the Scotch hereditary
revenues and other items were directed to be paid
into the Exchequer. The change was rather a re-
distribution, which enabled the country to look
more closely into its expenditure, than a real
reduction of the civil list.

On the accession of Queen Victoria, the civil
list, which had long been of the nature of a
permanent compact between the monarch and
the parliament, and as such beyond the control
of parliament during the life of the sovereign,
was settled by 1 and 2 Vict. chap. 2. The Queen
surrendered the hereditary revenues of the crown
for life, in consideration of a yearly sum of
£385,000, charged against the Consolidated Fund,
to be devoted solely to the si re of Her Majesty’s
household, and the honour and dignity of the crown.
The application of this sum was intrusted to the
Lords of the Treasury, who were directed to pay
yearly (1) to the Queen’s privy purse, £60,000 ;
(2) salaries and expenses of the royal household,
£231,260 ; (3) retiring allowances and pensions to
officers, &c. of the household, £44,240; (4) for royal
bounties, alms, and special services, £36,300; (5)
general expenditure of the court, £13,200. This
sum of £385,000 does not include the annuities of
£40,000 per annum to the Prince, and £10,000 per
,annum to the Princess of Wales, nor the. other
es made by special acts of parliament to mem-

rs of the royal family. It is provided that if the
civil list charges in any one year shall exceed the
total sum of £400,000, an account of the particulars
of excess shall be laid before parliament in thirty
days. Besides the above sum, Her Majesty was
accorded the right of granting new pensions, to
the amount of £1200 every year, ‘to persons who
have just claims on the royal beneficence, or who,
by their personal services to the crown, by the
performance of duties to the public, or by their
useful discoveries in science, and attainments in
literature and the arts, have merited the gracious

consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude
of their country.’ These pensions amount to
about £25,000 per annum, so that the gross sum
allotted to the civil list every year is now about
£410,000.

Civil Service. Under this head are classed
all officers of the crown who do not belong to the
military or naval services and are engaged in the
administration of the civil affairs of the state, such
as the collection of the revenue, the administration
of law and justice, the performance of the executive
duties of the government, and the representation
of the country abroad. Originally the civil service
was a body small in number and personal to the
sovereign, but with the growth of popular control
over state affairs, the number of persons employed
under government has vastly increased, and there
have been many new departments called into
existence to carry out fresh laws. For instance,
the Education Department was established to ad-
minister the grants made by parliament in aid of
public education, the Poor-law Commission for the
administration of the Poor-laws, and the Board
of Trade for the purpose of carrying out new laws
relating to shipping and railways. Posts in the
civil service were originally in the gift of the min-
isters of the crown, and no qualifying test was
applied, though in some departments tests of
competency were applied =< the authorities at
their sole discretion to candidates for clerkships.
Amongst these departments were the Admiralty,
the Audit Office, the Customs, the Excise, the
General Register Office, the National Debt Office,
the Ordnance Office, the Pay-office, the Post-
office (London), the Stationery Office, the Trea-
sury, and the War Office. But no examination
whatever took place on appointment to some of
the most important offices of the state, such as the
Home Office, the Foreign Office, the Colonial
Office, the Board of Trade, the Office of Works, or
the Office of Woods. The inadequacy of these
arrangements having been forcibly pointed out in
1853 in a report by Sir Stafford Northcote and Sir
Charles Trevelyan, an order in council which was
issued in 1855 directed that tests of fitness should be
insisted upon as regards all junior situations in all
departments of the civil service, and that such
tests should be applied by a separate and inde-
pendent board created for the express purpose.

A Board of Commissioners was appointed, and
entered at once upon its duties. Some time, how-
ever, Was uired to bring under the new system
all the situations and employments which it was
intended to affect. Not the least important of the
tests were directed to the proof of a candidate's
fitness in respect of age, health, and character.
The Superannuation Act, 1859, made the grant
of certificates by the Commissioners an essential
condition, in ordinary cases, to the _ receipt
of a pension. In the earlier years of the Com-
mission its proceedings were almost exclusively
concerned with the examination of candidates
nominated singly to single ts, the only ques-
tion to be decided being whether the candidate
reached or did not reach a minimum standard of
competency. There was no rule providing for
competition either open or limited. On the other
hand, there was nothing to preclude competition
if those who had the power of appointment to any
situation should choose to nominate several candi-
dates for one vacancy, or to invite applications
from the public at large. The average ratio of
nominees to places was about three to one. But,
as many of the nominees failed to reach the
minimum standard, the proportion of competent or
effective candidates was lower, sometimes not more
than one to one, a result of course inconsistent
with the idea of competition. To remedy this defect

272 CIVIL

SERVICE

it was arranged in 1861, on the recommendation of
a select committee of the House of Commons,
that persons nominated to clerkships in the gift
of the Treasury should first be subjected to a
test examination of an elementary character,
and that those who passed this test should after-
wards compete in the proportion of three can-
didates to a vacancy. In 1870 the plan was
superseded, as far as regards these clerkships, by
open competition. Limited competitions have,
however, continued for various situations in respect
of which the heads of departments retain the night
of nomination. It was not until some years after
:the promulgation of the order of 21st May 1855
that the experiment of entirely open competition
was tried, The first absolutely open competition
occurred in 1859, when, at the instance of the then
Secretary of State for India (Lord Derby), 339
candidates, having offered themselves in answer to
public advertisement, were examined for eight
writerships in the India Office. The advantages of
open competition were formally recognised by a
resolution of the House of Commons on 24th April
1856, as well as by a select committee of that
House which sat in 1860.

The general application of the principle of open
competition to the home civil service dates from
the order in council of 4th June 1870, which laid
it down as to certain specified departments com-
prising the bulk of the service that open compe-
tition for clerkships and similar situations, instead
of being, as before, permissible at the discretion
of the heads of departments, should thenceforth
be the rule, unless expressly excluded. From
that date to the present time the field of open
competition has been continually extending, and
it now includes several departments which, though
not necessarily subject to the rule, have thought
fit voluntarily to accept it. From May 1855 to
June 1870 the number of competitors was 1594
for 37 appointments; and from June 1870 to
December 1885 there were 108,400 competitors for
14,717 appointments. Persons seeking appoint-
ments in the civil service which are open to com-
petition must pass either (1) a special examination
arranged to suit the class of appointment; (2) the
Class 1 examination, which is generally known as
the Higher Division; or (3) the Lower Division
examination. From 1870 to 1876 appointments to
the clerical staff were, except in a few special
cases, divided as regards examination into Class 1
and Class 2, the former of which still continues.
The latter was, however, superseded after the
report of a Royal Commission over which Sir Lyon
Playfair presided, by the examination for the Lower
Division of the service which was constituted b
order in council of 12th February 1876. This
order provided that no department throughout
Her Majesty’s civil service shall be permanently
increased or regulated afresh without providing for
the introduction of a system whereby such of its
duties as are of a suitable chargcter shall be per-
formed by members of the Lower Division. The
intention of this was to reduce the cost of the
clerical staff in the various departments. After the
system had been in force a few years it gave rise
to much agitation among the clerks, and eventu-
ally a Royal Commission was appointed in 1886 to
inquire into the whole administration of the ser-
vice. In September 1888 the Commission presented
its report on the working of the Playfair scheme,
and on the scales and regulations under which
pensions are granted. It recommended that the
service should be divided into ‘ First Division’ and
‘Second Division’ to take the place of the Upper
and Lower Divisions of the Playfair system ; the
salaries of the ‘ First Division’ to begin at £200 and
to rise to £1000 a year, and those of the ‘Second

Division’ to begin at £70 and to rise to £350 a year.
The entire civil service was to be placed on these
scales so as to secure uniformity and to facilitate
transfers from one department to another. The
Commissioners recommended a revision of the
pension system with a view of compelling civil
servants to make some contribution towards their
pensions, and they suggested a deduction of 5 per
cent. from salaries for this purpose. These recom-
mendations of the Commission have never been
fully carried out, and on this account there has
repeatedly been much agitating on the part of
the civil servants about their ‘ grievance.’

At the census of 1891 there were 76,361 persons
in the civil service, of whom 40,106 were officers
and clerks, and 36,255 office-keepers, messengers,
porters, and letter-carriers. Of the total 67,026
were males and 9335 were females. Appointments in
the civil service as a rule are held for life, and
confer the right to a pension. The pension system
was instituted by the Superannuation Act, 1859,
which provides that the superannuation allowance
to be granted to persons who shall have served
in an established capacity in the permanent civil
service of the state, whether their remuneration
be computed by day pay, weekly wages, or annual
salary, and for whom provision shall not otherwise
have been made by act of aynrretset or who may
not be specially excepted by the authority of
parliament, shall be as follows : To any person who
shall have served ten years and upwards and under
eleven, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of the
annual salary and emoluments of his office; for
eleven years and under twelve years, an annual
allowance of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and
emoluments; and, in like manner, a further ad-
dition to the annual allowance of one-sixtieth in
respect of each additional year of such service until
the completion of a period of service of forty years,
when the annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may
be granted, and no addition shall be made in
respect of any service beyond forty years. Special
allowances are made in cases of the abolition of
office, and these are entirely in the discretion of
the Commissioners of the Treasury. By the Pen-
sions Commutation Act, 1871, applies may be
commuted by persons entitled to them according to
a scale which bas been fixed by government.

In the public accounts of Great Britain the Civil
Service Estimates fall under the heads of: (1)
Public Works and Buildings; (2) Salaries and
Expenses of Civil Departments; (3) Law and
Justice; (4) Education, Science and Art; (5)
Foreign and Colonial Services; (6) Non-effective
and Charitable Services; (7) Miscellaneous. For
the publie accounts, see GREAT BRITAIN; and for
the Indian Civil Service, see INDIA.

CiviIL SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES.—In
January 1883 Congress passed a law to prevent the
abuse of the appointing power of the officers of
government. The President was authorised to
appoint, with the advice and consent of the Senate,
three Civil Service Commissioners, whose duty is
to aid the President in preparing suitable rules
which shall provide for open competitive examina-
tions for testing the fitness of applicants for the
public service, such examinations to be practical in
their character, and so far as may be relating to
those matters which will fairly test the relative
capacity and fitness of the persons examined to
discharge the duties of the service. All the offices,
places, and employments arranged in classes or
grades are to be filled by selections according to
grade from among those graded highest as the
results of such competitive examinations. The
appointments to the public service in the depart-
ments at Washington are to be proportioned upon
the basis of population to the several states and

CIVITA CASTELLANA

CLAIRVOY ANCE 273

territories and the District of Columbia. The law
provides a period of probation before any absolute
appointment is made, and exempts all persons in

e public service from all obligation to contribute
to any political fund or to render any political
service. It forbids any person in the public service
_ using his official authority to coerce the political
action of any other person or body. Non-competi-
tive examinations in all proper cases are provided
for after notice given of a vacancy, the appointing

wer to give notice in writing to the Civil Service

ommission of the persons selected for appointment
among those who have been examined. Power is
given this Commission to make regulations for, and
to have control of, such examinations, subject to
the rules made by the President. The Civil
Service Commission is required to report annually
to the President, for transmission to Congress, its
own action, the rules and regulations, and the
exceptions thereto in force, the practical objects
thereof, and any suggestions for the more effectual
accomplishment of the el gp of the law. Pro-
vision is made for holding examinations at con-
venient places twice each year in every state and
territory of the United States.

The Commission hrpaones by fine and imprison-
ment all in the public service who wilfully defeat,
obstruct, or deceive any person in respect to his or
her right of examination, or who shall corruptly and
falsely mark, grade, estimate, or report upon the
nee standing of any person examined, or aid in
so doing, or who shall furnish to any person any
special or secret information for the purpose of
either improving or injuring the prospects of any
person so examined bein A tengo employed, or

romoted. It was provided that after six months

m the passing of the act, no officer or clerk was
to be appointed until after passing examination,
unless specially exempted by the act; and no
person in the habit of using intoxicating beverages
to excess is to be appointed to or retained in any
office, appointment, or employment to which the
act app ies. This and subsequent legislation has
wrought a wonderful change for the better, lessened
the number of incompetent politicians who thrive
upon the ‘spoils system’ applying for office, and
secures a far better class of public servants in all
departments of the government.

Civita’ Castellana, a town of Central Italy,
25 miles N. of Rome by the old Flaminian Road,
on a plateau of voleanic tufa above the Treja. It
has a handsome cathedral (1210), and a citadel
built under Alexander VI., now a state-prison.
Pop. 4251. In the neighbourhood are remains of
the Etruscan Falerii,

Civita’ Vecchia, an Italian fortified port, 50
miles NW. of Rome by rail, on the Mediterranean.
‘The harbour is both a commercial and naval one,
and was originally constructed by the Emperor
Trajan ; the town indeed owed its origin entirely
to the port of this emperor, and hence came to be
known as Portus Trajani. Population, 12,300.
The harbour is formed by two moles and a break-
water, on which latter is a lighthouse. The place,
which became a free port under Pope Innocent XIL
in 1696, is regularly visited by steam-packets from
Marseilles, Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, Messina, and
Malta. It suffered at the hands of Goths and
Saracens, and was occupied by the French in 1849.
The papal troops opened the gates of the fortress
to the Tealian general Bixio in 1870.

Clackmannan, the county town of Clack-
mannanshire, on the Devon, 2 miles E. by S.
of Alloa. An eminence ate 100 feet above the
Forth is crowned by the ruined tower of the Bruces;
and there are also an old market-cross, three
——— and a public hall. Pop. 1503.

Clackmannanshire, the smallest county of
Scotland, lies between the counties of Perth, Fite
and Stirling, and slopes from the green Ochil Hills
tothe Forth. Its frente: length is 10 miles ; area,
48 sq. m. Pop. (1871) 23,747; (1891) 28.473. A
ridge of high ground, with inferior soil, often
resting on clay, runs west through the middle of
Clackmannanshire, between the very fertile alluvial
lands resting on the coal-measures in the south,
and the North Devon valley in the north. The
‘Hillfoots’ have long been celebrated for their
woollen manufactures; ale and glass bottles are
largely produced, and there is a trade in iron
and shipbuilding. Clackmannan is the county
town, but Alloa is the most important place.
Clackmannanshire, with Kinross-shire, returns one
member to parliament; since 1895 it includes the
pag? of Alva, formerly attached to Stirlingshire.
ee Beveridge, Between the Forth and the Ochils
(1888).

Clacton-on-Sea, an Essex watering-place, 15
miles SE. of Colchester ; pop. 1700.

Cladium, a genus of Cyperacee, of which one
species, C. Mariscus, is a native of bogs and
marshes in Britain, particularly in Cambridgeshire.
Its habit is to grow in large masses, but these ~
no means occur frequently. It is rough-edged,
and is consequently hurtful to cattle, but it is used
for thatching.

Claiborne Group, 2 name given in America
to certain beds of clay, lignite, shelly sands, and
marly limestone which occur at Claiborne, Alabama,
and are believed to belong to the Eocene system.

Clairac, a town in the French department of
Lot-et-Garonne, on the Lot, 18 miles NW. of
Agen. Here fine white wines are made. Pop.
2197.

Clairaut, ALExIs CLAUDE, mathematician,
was born at Paris, 13th May 1713. He early
exhibited a most remarkable aptitude for mathe-
matics, and was considered worthy of admission
to the Academy of Sciences when only eighteen

years of age. Clairaut wrote a great number of
scientific papers, but his fame rests principally

upon his Zhéorie de la Figure de la Terre (1743),
in which he promulgated the theorem that the
variation of gravity on the surface of the earth,
regarded as an elliptic spheroid, was altogether
independent of the law of density ; on his explana-
tion of the motion of the lunar apogee, a point left
unexplained by Newton; and on his computation
of the time of the return of Halley’s comet. He
died at Paris, May 17, 1765.

Clairvawx, a village of France, on the Aube,
10 miles SE. of Bar-sur-Aube, is remarkable as the
site of the once famous Cistercian abbey, founded
in 1115 by St Bernard, who presided over it till his
death in 1153, when he was buried in the church.
The unwholesome swampy valley became the
smiling Clara Vallis under the efforts of the monks,
who at Bernard’s death numbered 700; after-
wards the founder’s ascetic rule was disregarded,
and the simple row of cells gave place to a palatial
monastery, whose church was reckoned a master-

iece of architecture, but was destroyed at the
toration. The abbey, which at one time
possessed a revenue of 120,000 livres, had been
suppressed at the Revolution, and the extensive
buildings are now used as a central prison for the
thirteen eastern departments of France.

Clairvoy’ance, the faculty, attributed to
persons in the mesmeric state, of seeing objects
not present to the bodily senses, whereby the
clairvoyant is enabled to describe events passing at
a distance. For the scientific estimate of such
claims, see ANIMAL MAGNETISM. The simple

274 CLAM

CLAN

clairvoyance of the professional entertainer is
easily effected with the assistance of a code of
signals and a good memory ; generally the subject
is blindfolded on the stage, while a confederate
passing among the audience holds up the objects
offered to him, and requires them to be named.

Clam is the common name for bivalves of the
enus Chama (q.v.) and some other allied genera.
The common clam, or soft clam of northern waters,
is the Mya arenaria, or Chama arenaria; it is
found especially in gravelly mud, sand, and other
soft bottoms, especially between high and low
water mark. They are largely used for bait, and
in New England are a much relished article of food.
Some kinds of clams rival oysters in popularity in
New York. The hard clam, or Quahaug, is the
Venus mercenaria. The Giant Clam, the Zridacna
Gigas, found in East Indian waters, in lagoons,
and on coral islands, is of enormous size, the
animal (which is edible) without the shell weigh-
ing 20 lb., while with the shell it may weigh
500 lb. The shells are used as ornaments for
grottoes and fountains, and as bénitiers in Catholic
churches.—The BrEAR’s PAw CLAM is the Hippo-

us maculatus, a bivalve molluse of the Indian

cean, of the family Tridacnide. The shell is
one of the most beautiful of bivalves, alike in
form, texture, and colour. It is a favourite shell
for ornamental purposes. The margins of the
valves are locked together by closely fitting teeth.
It is 6 by 10 inches in length, broad in proportion,
and transversed by ribs which are roughened
by scale-like inequalities. The general colour is
white, but there are beautiful spots of purplish-red.

Clan (Gael. clann, Manx cloan, meaning ‘ chil-
dren,’ i.e. descendants of acommon ancestor). This
word became incorporated with the English lan-
guage at least as early as the 17th century, to
mean a body of men confederated together by
common ancestry or any other tie, and in this
sense it is used both by Milton and Dryden. It
came to be applied almost exclusively to the
several communities of the Scottish Highlanders,
as divided from each other topographically and by
distinctive surnames. The word has sometimes
been applied to those great Irish septs which at one
time were a sort of separate states ; but these, with
their characteristic forms of internal government,
were completely broken down by the power of the
English predominance, before the word came into
familiar use in the English language. In Scotland
it was used in the 16th century to designate the
freebooters of the Border as well as the Celtic tribes
of the Highlands ; and there were two character-
istics common to both—their predatory habits, and
their distribution into communities. The assump-
tion of a common surname was general, but by no
means universal. Men of the most various origin
were in the habit of enlisting under chiefs as men
now enlist in a regiment. Very often they took
the chief's name, but very often they did not. It
was essentially a military organisation for defensive
and predatory purposes; and the adoption of a
common name became a mere survival which kept
up the idea and theory of patriarchal times long
after the old tribal system had in all its essentials
disappeared. In the Act of the Scottish parliament
of 1587, for instance, which requires landlords to
find security for the conduct of their tenants, it is

rovided that those ‘who have their lands lying in
ar highlands or borders, they making residence
themselves in the inlands, and their tenants and
inhabitants of their lands being of clans, or
dependars on chieftains or the captains of the clans,
whom the landlords are noways able to command,
but only get their mails (or rents) of them, and no
other service or obedience, shall noways be subject

to this act but in manner following.’ Then follow
provisions for enforcing the law directly on the
chieftains or captains of those clans residing in
territories where the owner of the soil—generally
the merely nominal owner, in terms of some useless.
charter—had no control. It was always the policy
of the old law of Scotland to require all the High-
land clans to have some respectable representative
—a man of rank and substance, if possible—who
should be security at court for their good conduct.
Clans that could find no security were called
‘broken clans,’ and their members were outlaws,
who might be hunted down like wild beasts. The
Macgregors were a celebrated broken clan, whom
the law pursued for centuries with savage ingenuity.
Among other inflictions their name was proscribed,
and such members of the clan as endeavoured to
live by peaceful industry in the Lowlands adopted
derivations from it; hence we have the names of
Gregor, Gregory, and Gregorson or Grierson.

The clans are never treated in the old Scots acts.
with any respect, or otherwise than as nests of thieves.
and cut-throats. The following passage in the Act
of 1581 (chap. 112), which virtually authorises any
Lowlander, injured by any member of a clan, to
take vengeance against all or any of his clansmen,
contains a picturesque and striking account by men
who knew and had suffered from the system of the
Highland clans in the 16th century. ‘The saids
clans of thieves for the most part are companies of
wicked men, coupled in wickedness by occasion of
their surnames or near dwellings together, or
through ame pr society in theft or receipt of theft,
not subjected to the ordinar course of justice, nor
to ony ane landlord that will make them answer-
able to the laws, but commonly dwelling on sundry
men’s lands against the good-will of their landlords,
wherethrough true men oppressed by them can
have no remeid at the hands of their masters, but
for their defence are oftentimes constrained to seek
redress of their skaiths of the hail clan, or such of
them as they happen to apprehend. Likewise the
hail clan ae bears Find for the hurt received
by any member thereof, whether by execution of
laws, or order of justice, or otherwise.’ The High-
land clans are often spoken of as a feudal institu-
tion, and it is undoubtedly true that ‘ broken men’
were settled upon lands in possession of the chiefs.
on conditions of military service, just as under the
more perfected system of Norman feudalism. The
men receiving admission into ‘rooms,’ or small
barns, were in the habit of binding themselves to
such service by what was called ‘Bonds of Man-
rent,’ under which they engaged to follow their
chief in all his feuds and quarrels. But, on the
other hand, chiefship might become, and did often
become, dissociated from the legal ownership of
land, and in such cases the people of the clan were
apt to follow their chief, against the will of their
landlords. This was the survival of a far more
remote system which constituted the great danger
and great corruption of the clans. It dissociated
the military power of chiefship from the responsi-
bilities of property, and from subordination to
settled law. This was the evil struck at and
denounced by the parliament of Scotland in
repeated statutes. In general the great land-
owners were also great chiefs, and the two powers.
then worked in harmony, and on the whole in the
interests of civilisation under very rude conditions
of society. But the severance arose not unfre-
quently from the more definite laws and rules
applicable to the legal descent of landed property.

us it came about, as the acts above quoted.
explain, that the head of a clan and the owner,
according to feudal law, of the estates occupied by
it, were two different persons. Clans did not
acknowledge the purely feudal hereditary principle,

CLANDESTINE MARRIAGE

CLARE 275

and occasionally would recognise the chiefship in
a brother or an uncle, in preference to the son of a
deceased chief. See TRIBE,

Clandestine Marriage. See MARRIAGE.

Clanwilliam, a division of the Western Pro-
vince, N. of Cape Town, South Africa, embraces
within its area the rich valley of Olifant River
West, with a large stretch of mountain and karroo
on each side. Chief village, Clanwilliam on Jan
Dissels River.

Claparéde, Epovarp, a Swiss naturalist and
Magra of Comparative Anatomy at Geneva, was

rn in 1832, and died in 1871. He wrote numerous
works, including those on the fertilisation of eggs
(1858), on the Infusoria and it (1860), and
the Annelida of the Hebrides (1861).

Clapham is a south-western suburb of London,
lying a mile S. of the Thames. Battersea and

lapham form since 1885 one of the London parlia-
mentary boroughs. Clapham Common is still an
open common of 200 acres. Clapham Junction, in
Battersea parish, is one of the busiest and most

rplexing railway junctions in the world.—Clap-
Kaus Sect was a name given Wy Sydne
the Evangelical party in the Church of England ;
the Rey. Henry Venn was the vicar of Clapham,
and some of the most eminent Evangelicals—
Zachary Macaulay, Wilberforce, and the Rev. W.
Romaine—lived there. Thackeray’s Newcomes
has made the phrase familiar to a later genera-
tion. ;

Clapperton, Hues, African explorer, was
born at Annan, Dumfriesshire, in 1788. At the
age of thirteen he went to sea; and having after
a youthful illo been constrained to join a
man-of-war, he ultimately distinguished himself by
his services at Mauritius, and was appointed to
the rank of lieutenant, In 1817 he returned to
Scotland on come Government appointed
him and Major Denham to accompany Dr
Oudney, who was going as British consul to
Bornu, in an exploring expedition. By way of
Tripoli and Murzuk, they reached Kuka on Lake
Tchad in 1822; and Clapperton proceeded west-
ward, accompanied by Oudney, who died by the
way. He still pushed on alone as far as Sokoto,
but was here compelled to retrace his steps, and,
in company with Denham, returned to England in
1825. The journey had done much for the know-
ledge of Bornu and the Houssa country, but the

t geographical problem of the course of the
iger was still much in the same position. To
solve it, if possible, Clapperton—the rank of com-
mander having been conferred upon him—started
again in August 1825, in Con ERnY, with Captain
Pearce, R.N., Mr Dickson, Dr Morrison, and
Richard Lander. They commenced their explora-
tion into the interior from the Bight of Benin.
His other companions died early on the journey,
but es chron and his faithful attendant Lander
reached Sokoto. Here the Sultan detained him,
and vexation joined to the hardships of the
journey so affected his health, that he died at
Changary, near Sokoto, April 13, 1827. See the
Narrative of the first journey (1826); the Journal
of the second (1829); and the Records of Clapper-
eke Last Expedition to Africa, by Richard Lander
(1830).

Claque (from Fr. claquer, ‘to clap the hands,’
or ‘applaud ’) is the name given to an institution
for securing the success of a public performance
or hadappen: by bestowing upon it preconcerted
applause, and thus giving the peas, who are not
in the secret, a false notion of the impression it
has made. The claque is of great antiquity, its
first invention having been attributed to no less

Smith to:

noted a person than Nero. Its hy ary origin in
Rome gives the name of Romains to the claqueurs
to this day, who are also named chevaliers du
lustre, from their position in the middle of the pit.
The first regular use of the claque as an organised
and paid body seems to have been during the time
of the great Napoleon, in the famous struggle
between Mademoiselle Georges and Mademoiselle
Duchesnois, at the ThéAtre Francais; and from
that time its use became almost universal in
Paris. The chief of the claque, who is named
entrepreneur de succes dramatique, is an official
of importance. His business is to attend the
last two or three rehearsals of a new play; to
arrange the points at which applause, laughter,
or tears are to be forthcoming; and to communi-
eate his directions to his corps. This is divided
into several classes. The main body, whose busi-
ness it is to applaud, form a solid mass in the
centre of the pit; and in various parts of the
theatre are placed rieurs (‘laughers’), pleurewrs, or
rather pleureuses (‘ weepers’), and bisseurs (whose
business it is to call bés or encore!/). More artistic
developments of the claqueur are the sangloteure,
a female who sobs hysterically ; the padmeuse, who
faints ; and the moucheur, a well-dressed gentleman
who blows his nose with tact at affecting passages.

The members of the claque are generally men
who are glad to earn a small sum in any way, but
it is also recruited from the ranks of r amateurs,
who in return pay a smaller price for their tickets.
M. Perrin, the late director of the Théatre Francais,
succeeded in 1878 in abolishing the claque in his
theatre ; and the Grand Opéra followed the example
of the house of Moliére.

In London there is no regularly organised claque,
but in certain theatres precautions are taken on
first nights which have precisely the same effect as
the claque.

Clare, a maritime county in the province of
Munster, Ireland, lying between Galway Bay and
the Shannon. It is seventh in size of the Irish
counties ; length, 67 miles; greatest breadth, 43 ;
average, 21; area, 1294 sq. m.—The surface is
mostly hilly, with some mountains, bog, marsh,
and rugged pasture. There is an undulating plain
in the centre, from north to south. In the east
the hills reach a height of 1758 feet. The sea-line
is high and rocky, in parts precipitous, and occa-
sionally from 400 to 680 feet i h, with many isles
and fantastic detached rocks. The chief rivers are
the Shannon (q.v.) and the Fergus, running south
27 miles through the middle plain, and by an
estuary 5 miles broad. The county has about 100
small lakes. Carboniferous limestone is a prevail-
ing formation ; the south-west third of the county
forms part of the Munster coal-field. There are
lead-mines, slate and marble quarries, and many
chalybeate sprin The chief crops are oats and
potatoes. The chief towns are Ennis (the county
town), Kilrush, Ennistimon, and Killaloe. Pop.
(1841) 286,394; (1851) 212,428; (1871) 147,864;
(1891) 124,483, of whom nearly 98 per cent. were
Roman Catholics. The county returns two members
to parliament. There are many cromlechs, raths,
remains of abbeys, and old castles or towers, and
several round towers, one at Kilrush being 120 feet
high. Till the time of Elizabeth the county was
called Thomond; its present name comes from
Thomas de Clare, who received part of all the land
he might conquer. See books by J. Frost (1893)
and Father White (1893).

Clare, one of the most interesting of the smaller
towns of Suffolk, 68 miles NE. of London by rail,
and 19 SSW. of Bury. Pop. Vopr 1657. It has
a fine old castle, and gives an earl’s title to the
British sovereign. See CLARENCE.

-

276 CLARE ISLAND

CLARENDON

Clare Island, an island of Ireland, belonging
to County Mayo, situated in the Atlantic, at
the entrance of Clew Bay. It has a length of 5
miles, with a breadth of 3 miles. On its north-east
extremity there is a lighthouse.

Clare, JoHN, English peasant poet, the son of a
pee labourer, was born at Helpstone, near Peter-

orough, July 13, 1793. After some scanty school-
ing, he began to do outdoor work in his seventh
year, and for eleven months was an under-gardener
at Burghley Park ; meanwhile he studied Thomson’s
Seasons, and began to cultivate verse-writing. He
enlisted in the militia (1812), associated with
gypsies, in 1817 worked at a lime-kiln, but was
discharged for wasting his time in scribbling, and
had to apply for parish relief. His Poems, deserip-
tive of Rural Life and Scenery (1821), had a good
reception from critics and the public. Though the
Marquis of Exeter and other patrons secured him
£45 a year, he continued poor and unfortunate.
His Shepherd’s Calendar (1827) was unsuccessful.
His Rural Muse (1835) brought him £40, and he
received £50 from the Literary Fund. Bro’xen
down in body and mind, he died in the county
lunatic asylum, Northampton, 20th May 1864. See
Martin’s Life (1865), and Cherry’s Life and Remains
(1873).

Clare, St, born in 1193, of a noble family of
Assisi, in 1212 retired to the Portiuncula of St
Francis, and in the same year founded the order of
Franciscan nuns, which spread rapidly through
Europe. She died August 11, 1253. wo years
afterwards, she was canonised by Alexander IV.;
her festival falls on August 12.—The Nuns of the
Order of St Clara (also called the Poor Clares) at
first observed the strictest Benedictine rule, but
the austerity of this rule was mitigated by St
Francis in 1224, and further modified by Urban IV.
in 1265. Several convents adhered to the first and
strictest rule; but the large proportion of the nuns
adopted Urban’s rule, and are distinguished as
Urbanists. The existing convents are chiefly de-
voted to the education of girls.

Claremont, a mansion at Esher, Surrey, 144
miles SW. of London, originally built for himself
by Sir John Vanbrugh. The present house was
built in 1768 by Lord Clive for £100,000, from
designs by ‘Capability’ Brown. When the Prin-
cess Charlotte was married to Prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg, Claremont was assigned as their
residence, and here in 1817 she died. In 1848
Leopold, then king of Belgium, placed it at the
disposal of his father-in-law, ex-king Louis-
Philippe, who inhabited it till his death in
August 1850. At the death of Leopold in 1865,
an act was passed granting it to the Queen for
life, after which it was to revert to the country.
The Queen in 1882 bought the reversion of Clare-
mont (for £73,000), and it became her private
property.

Clarence, an English ducal title, conferred for
the first time in 1362 on Lionel, second son of
Edward III. and Philippa. Its origin has by some
been traced to Clarence, a French name of the
Greek Klarenza or Glarentsa (Ital. Chiarenza), a
decayed port on the west coast of the Peloponnesus,
50 miles SW. of Patras. Before the invasion of the
Turks it was an important place, and gave the
title of duke to the eldest son of the prince of
Achaia. That title is said to have come into
ri ech through Mie a, daughter of the Count
of Hainault, and wife o Edward IIL. Other authori-
ties derive it from the ancient Suffolk town of Clare
(q.v.). The most notable Dukes of Clarence, all
royal, are the second son of Henry IV., who fell at the
battle of Beaugé (1421); the third son of Richard
of York, and brother of King Edward IV. (Shake-

speare’s Clarence), who perished in the Tower in
1478—in a butt of Malmsey, according to three
contemporary writers ; William IV., who was Duke
of Clarence before his accession ; and Prince Albert-
Victor of Wales, who was born 8th January 1864,
and died 14th January 1892.

Clarenceux, or CLARENCIEUX, the first of the
two provinci Kings-of-Arms, in England, whose
jurisdiction of Clarenceux extends to all England
south of the Trent, that of Norroy (q.v.) compre-
hending the portion to the north. See HERALD.

Clarendon, CONSTITUTIONS OF, were laws
made by a council of the nobility and prelates held
at the hunting lodge of Clarendon, 2 miles SE. of
Salisbury, in 1164, whereby King Henry II. checked
the power of the church, and greatly narrowed the
total exemption which the clergy had claimed from
the jurisdiction of the secular magistrate. These
famous ordinances, sixteen in number, defined the
limits of the patronage, as well as of the jurisdiction,
of the pope in England, and provided that the crown
should be entitled to interfere in the election to all
vacant offices and dignities in the church. The
constitutions were unanimously adopted, and
Becket, the primate, reluctantly signed them. His
subsequent withdrawal of his consent, when Po
Alexander III. declined to ratify them, led to the
memorable disputes between Becket and the kin
(see BECKET). Notwithstanding the person
humiliation to which Henry submitted after
Becket’s death, most of the provisions of the con-
stitutions of Clarendon, which were part of a great
scheme of administrative reform, continued to be
a permanent ect to the civil power. See Stubbs,
Constitutional History, and his Select Charters.

Clarendon, Epwarp Hyper, EArt of, his-
torian and statesman, was born 18th February 1608
at Dinton, near Salisbury, the third son of a Wilt-
shire squire. Destined for the church, he went up
to Magdalen Hall in 1622; but the death of his
elder brothers left him heir to the propereds so in
1625 he quitted Oxford for the Middle Temple, of
which his uncle, Sir Nicholas Hyde, the chief-
justice, then was treasurer. Though he rose in his

rofession, he loved letters better than law; for

is friends he chose such brilliant spirits as Falk-
land, Ben Jonson, and Chillingworth, and, in his
own words, ‘ was never so eee or thought himself
so good a man, as when he was the worst in the
company.’ He married twice—in 1629, Ann,
daughter of Sir George Ayliffe, whose death six
months afterwards ‘shook all the frame of his re-
solutions ;’ next, in 1632, Frances, daughter of Sir
Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests and of the
Mint. She bore him four sons and two daughters ;
and with her, till her death in 1667, he ‘ lived very
comfortably in the most uncomfortable times, and
very joyfully in those times when matter of joy was
administered,’

In 1640 he was returned for Wootton-Bassett to
the Short Parliament, for Saltash to the Long; and
up to the summer of 1641 he acted heartily with
the opular party. Then he drew back. Enough,
he deemed, Rad been done ; a victorious oligarchy
might prove more formidable than a humbled
king; nor could he conceive ‘a religion without
bishops.’ Charles’s answer to the Grand Remon- |
strance was of Hyde’s composing, so were most
of the subsequent able manifestoes; and though
in a midnight interview with the king he declined
to take St John’s post of solicitor-general, thence-
forward, with Falkland and Colepeper, he formed a
veritable privy-council. If only they had known
everything, if only their advice had always been
followed! but no, the attempted arrest of the five
members had neither their privity nor their ap-
proval. Still, Hyde headed the royalist oppositian

CLARENDON

277

in the Commons, till, in May 1642, he slipped away
and followed Charles into Yorkshire, He witnessed
hill; in 1643 was knighted, and made Chan-

cellor of the Exchequer; in March 1645 attended
the Prince of Wales to the west of England; and
with him a twelvemonth later on to Seilly
and Jersey. In Scilly, on 18th May 1646, he com-
menced his history ; in Jersey he tarried two whole
years. From November 1649 till March 1651 he
Was engaged in a fruitless embassy to Spain; next
for nine years he filled the office of a ‘Caleb Balder-
stone’ in the needy, greedy, factious little court of
Charles IL., sometimes with ‘neither clothes nor
fire to preserve him from the sharpness of the
season, and with not three sous in the world to
buy a fagot.’

harles had made him High Chancellor in 1658,
and at the Restoration he was confirmed in that
dignity, in November 1660 being created Baron
Hyde, and in the following April Earl of Clarendon.
To this period belongs the strangest episode in all
his autobiography. In November 1659 his daughter
Anne (1638-71), then lady-in-waiting to the Prin-
cess of Orange, had entered into a secret marriage-
contract with the king’s brother, James, Duke of
York ; and nine months later they were privately
married at her father’s house. He, on learning the
news, if news indeed it was, burst into a passion of
the coarsest invective against her—it were more
charitable to suppose he was acting a part, not
really less jealous for his daughter’s honour than
for the dignity of the royal house. Anyhow, people
fancied that in Catherine of Braganza he purposely
selected a barren bride for the king, that so his own
daughter might some day come to the throne. Nor
as chief minister was he otherwise popular. A
bigoted churchman, a thorough Conservative, and
always a lawyer, he would fain have restored things
to the status quo of twenty years earlier. He loved
a in agg little better than a sectary, so would have
nought of Charles’s toleration. He looked sourly
on Charles’s vices, yet stooped to im Charles's
mistress on Charles's queen. He could not satisf
the Cavaliers, who contrasted his opulence with
their own broken fortunes; he did more than
enough to irritate the Puritans. The sale of Dun-
kirk, the Dutch war, the very Plague and Great
Fire, all heightened his He ear el and though
in 1663 he weathered Lord Bristol’s frivolous charges
against him, in August 1667 he fell an easy un-
lamented victim to a court cabal. The t seal
was taken from him ; impeachment of high-treason
followed; and on 29th November, at Charles’s
bidding, he quitted the pry, 2 for France. All
but murde at Evreux by some English sea-
men, at last the old man settled at Montpellier,
where and at Moulins he = nearly six tranquil
years. Then moving to Rouen, he sent a last
piteous entreaty that Charles would permit him to
‘die in his own country and among his own chil-
dren ;’ nay, at Rouen must he die, on 9th December
1674. No monument marks his grave in West-
minster Abbey.

Men’s estimates of Clarendon have varied widely.
Southey calls him ‘the wisest, most upright of
statesmen ;’ George Brodie, ‘a miserable sycophant
and canting hypocrite.’ The truth lies somewhere
between the two verdicts, but Southey’s is much
the truer of the two. The failings and merits of
the statesman are mirrored in his great History of
the Rebellion in England (3 vols. 1704-7), with its
supplement and continuation, more faulty and less
valuable—the History of the Civil War in Ireland
(1721), and the Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon
(3 vols. 1759). An apology more than a history, a
vindication of himself and of Charles L, it is not,
does not profess to be, impartial ; it suppresses the
truth, where the truth seemed unfavourable ; and

it is grossly inaccurate—the result of a fallible
memory. But, Mr Green notwithstanding, it does
not ‘by deliberate and malignant falsehood’ pervert
the whole action of Clarendon’s adversaries ; care-
less and ungenerous he might be, wilfully dishonest
he was not. And what though his style be prolix
and redundant, though it ‘suffocate us by the
length of its periods,’ his splendid stateliness, his
anecdotic talent, his reas of motives, and,
above all, his marvellous skill in portraiture (shown
best in the character of his dear friend Falkland),
have rendered the history a classic, imperishable
where dry-as-dust chronicles have perished. The
best and latest edition is that by W. Dunn Macray
(6 vols. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1889). We have,
besides, twenty-five essays by Clarendon, his Con-
templations on the Psalms (begun in 1647, and
finished, like the Life, during his second exile),
several controversial writings, and 3 vols. of his
State Papers (1767-86; calendared, 1872-76).

See Ranke’s able analysis of the History; works cited
under CHARLES I. and CHARLES II.; the Hon. Agar-
Ellis’s Historical Inquiry respecting the Character of
Clarendon (1827); Lady Theresa Lewis’s Lives of the
Friends and Contemporaries of Clarendon (3 vols. 1852);
two articles by Mr Peter Bayne in the Contempora
Review (1876); and the Life of Clarendon, by T. HL
Lister (3 vols. 1838 ).

Clarendon, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK
VILLIERS, EARL OF, a great English diplomatist,
was born in London, 12th January 1800. He was
a descendant of that Thomas Villiers, second son of
the Earl of Jersey, who married the heiress of the
last Lord Clarendon of the Hyde family (1752), and
was made Baron Hyde (1756) and Earl of Claren-
don (1776). Having studied at Cambridge, he
early entered the diplomatic service, and in 1833
was appointed ambassador at Madrid, where he
acqui great influence, which he employed
in helping Espartero to establish the govern-
ment of Spain on a_ constitutional basis. On
the death of his uncle, the third earl of the
second creation, without issue, in 1838, he sue-
ceeded to the title, and in 1840 was made
Lord Privy Seal under Melbourne. When the
Whig ministry was broken up in 1841 he became
an active member of the opposition; but warmly
supported Sir Robert Peel and his own brother,
Charles Pelham Villiers, in the agitation for the
abolition of the corn laws. Under Lord John
Russell’s premiership he became President of the
Board of Trade in 1846, and the following year was
appointed Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He entered
upon his duties in troublous times. The insurrec-
tionary follies of Smith O’Brien and his coadjutors
might have set the whole country in a blaze but
for the prompt and decisive measures which the
new viceroy adopted, and which soon restored
general tranquillity. At the same time, his tact
and impartiality contributed to allay and reconcile
the exasperations of party, though it did not avert
the bitter hatred of the Orangemen. He was
thanked in the speech from the throne in 1848, and
next year received the coveted honour of the | raves
When the Russell cabinet resigned in 1852, Claren-
don was replaced by the Earl of Eglinton, but on
the formation of the Aberdeen ministry next year
was intrusted with the portfolio of the Forei
Office. It was thus upon his shoulders that the
responsibility for the Crimean war actually fell.
Mr Roebuck’s resolution in 1855 cost him his office,
which, however, he soon resumed at Palmerston’s
desire, and he sat at the Congress of Paris. Lord
John Russell was Foreign Secretary from 1859 to
1865, but became Premier on Palmerston’s death,
when Clarendon returned to the Foreign Office.
Next year he retired with his colleagues, to resume
the same office in Gladstone’s government in 1868,

278 CLARENDON PRESS

CLARK

which he retained till his death, 27th June 1870.
Lord Clarendon was a man of singularly genial and
charming manners, who added by his rare tact and
perfect temper an unwonted grace to the difficulty
and invidiousness of diplomacy.

Clarendon Press. See BooK-TRADE.

Clarens, a beautiful Swiss village on the Lake
of Geneva, 34 miles SE. of Vevey by rail.

Claret (Fr. clairet), a term originally applied
to wines of a light-red colour, but which is now
used in England as a general name for the red
wines of Bordeaux (q.v.). The name as used in
England is unknown in France. ;

Claretie, JULEs (properly ARSENE ARNAUD), a
versatile French writer and popular novelist, born
at Limoges, 3d December 1840. While still a
schoolboy at the Lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he pub-
lished a novel, and ere long his facile and clever
ee made him one of the most important art and

ramatic critics and political writers on the Paris

ress. His short story Pverrilie (1863) had the

onour to be praised by George Sand; and his
novels, Mademoiselle Cachemire (1865), and Un
Assassin, renamed later Robert Burat (1866), gained
general applause. Meantime he continued his
career as a journalist, although he suffered some-
times from the imperial censorship. During the
Franco-German war he sent a series of remarkable
letters to the Rappel and Opinion Nationale, and
i the materials for a later series of bright
and vigorous anti-German books of an _ historical
character: Histoire de la Révolution de 1870-71
(new ed. 5 vols. 1875-76); Les Prussiens chez Fux
(1872); and Cing Ans aprés, l’ Alsace et la Lorraine
depuis ? Annexion (1876). He distinguished himself
by his conduct during the siege of Paris, and showed
that he possessed also high talent for affairs. His
more important later novels are Madeleine Bertin
(1868) ; Le Train 17 (1877); Monsieur le Ministre,
an enormous success (1881); Le Million (1882);
Michel Berthier (1883); and Le Prince Zilah (1884).
He first found a firm footing on the stage with his
pictures of the great Revolution, Les Muscadins
(1874), Le Régiment de Champagne (1877), and Les
Mirabeau (1878); and in 1885 he became Director
of the ThéAtre Francais. In 1888 he was admitted
to the Academy. is Life of Camille Desmoulins
was Englished in 1876.

Claribel was the pen-name of Mrs Charlotte
Alington Barnard (1830-69; married in 1854 to
Charles Cary Barnard ), who wrote a hundred songs
and ballads, some of which, like ‘Come back to
Erin’ and ‘ Won’t you tell me why, Robin?’ were
wonderfully popular. She was buried at Dover.

Clarification is the process of clearing a fluid
from a turbid condition. Natural waters contain-
ing much organic matter in mechanical suspension
and in chemical solution are clarified by the addition
of a little alum, which is precipitated with the
organic matter, and the water then becomes healthy
and refreshing. Liquids are often clarified b
straining through several layers of cloth, or throug
sand or charcoal. A ‘centrifugal’ is a circular
vessel provided with an outlet in the centre and also
at the circumference, and which is capable of being
made to revolve at a very high mabes When the
muddy liquid is placed in the vessel, and the whole
caused to revolve, it is found that the particles of
dust, mud, or other matter fly to the circumference,
leaving the liquid in the centre practically clear, so
that it can be drawn off. See BEER, CLEARING-
NUT, FILTER, GELATINE, WINE.

Clarinet, or CLARIONET, a wind-instrument,
usually of wood, in which the sound is produced by
a single thin reed. It is supposed to have been
invented in 1690 by Joseph Christoph Denner, at
Nuremberg, though some authorities trace its exist-

ence to medieval times. Since its invention it has
undergone many changes and improvements, and
the modern clarinet, from the extent, quality, and
variety of its tone, is one of the most perfect of
wind-instruments. The tube of the instrument is
cylindrical, ending in a bell, with holes to be
covered by the fingers and left-
hand thumb; and keys, generally
thirteen in number, to supply the
additional tones and half-tones.
The mouthpiece is cone-shaped,
flattened on one side to form a
table for the reed ; in the table is
a square opening about an inch
long and half an inch wide (a in
fig.), on which the reed is fastened
by the lower and thicker end (6 in
fig.). _ The table being slightly
curved towards the point, a gap is
left between the end of the reed
and the mouthpiece; and the sound
depends on the vibration of the
reed against this curved table.
The reed is a thin slip from a tall
gras (Arundo sativa) grown in
pain. The clarinet has two prin-
ore registers—viz. the lower,
called the chalumeau, from E in
the bass stave to BD in the treble;
and the upper, of a different
quality, from Bf treble stave to C
above the stave. Another octav
higher can be played by cross-
fingering, but beyond G the notes
are not very effective. The differ-
ence between the lower and upper
registers is an interval of a twelfth,
which gives the clarinet a much

greater compass than the flute, for Clarinet :

instance, which is an octave-scaled * mous Peay aes
instrument. The upper register yemoved; b, the
is fingered exactly like the lower, same with reed

except that the BD key (the highest attached

on the tube, ¢ in fig.) is kept open

by the thumb of the left hand. The Boehm modi-
fication of fingering (see FLUTE) has been applied
to the clarinet, but is not so suitable to it as to
octave-scaled instruments.

The ordinary difficulties of the fingering are so
much intensified in playing in keys with many
sharps or flats, that in orchestras it is usual to have
instruments of different pitch to sim lity the key. ©
These are usually the AJ, Bb, ame 2 clarinets,
though the latter is gradually going out of use.

In military reed-bands the Bb clarinet is the
leading instrument, with the addition of one or two
smaller clarinets in ED to assist in the sharper
_ es (see BAND). Clarinets in various other
eys have been introduced but seldom used.

ozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Weber, Meyer-
beer, Spohr, and Rossini have made extensive use of
the clarinet in the orchestral compositions, though
some of the parts written for the instrument,
especially in the overtures to Semiramide, Otello,
and Gazza Ladra by Rossini, are so difficult as to
be almost unplayable.

A tenor clarinet, known as the Basset-Horn
(q.v), is also used in orchestral music. The Bass
Clarinet is an instrument of the same construction
as the ordinary clarinet, an octave lower, usually
pitched in Bb. It is also used in orchestral and
military bands.

Clark, Str ANDREW, paren was born at
Wolfhill in Cargill, Perthshire, 28th October 1826,
and educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. After
a brilliant career as a student of medicine at
Edinburgh, he assisted Dr Hughes Bennett and Dr
Robert Rnox the anatomist, and next had charge

CLARK

CLARKE 279

for four years of the pathological department at the
Haslar Naval Hospital. After uating at Aber-
deen in 1854, he settled in London, where he
uired a high reputation for his skill in the
treatment of diseases affecting the respiratory,
renal, and digestive organs. Among his patients
were some of the most eminent men in the political
and literary world of his time, and he will live in
remembrance as the ‘ beloved physician’ of George
Eliot. President of the Royal College of Physi-
cians, Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians in Ireland, and Consulting Physician
to the London Hospital, he was besides LL.D. of
Edinburgh and Aberdeen, a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and a baronet since 1883. His favourite
work was clinical teaching at the London Hospital,
for which Holl painted his portrait. He died (of
se emer doubtless by ten years of self-
evyoting overwork) on the 7th November 1893.
Although his professional success left him scant
leisure for writing, he made numerous important
contributions to medical science, both in papers con-
tributed to the special journals and in such books
as Evidences of the Arrestment of Phthisis, Lectures
on the Anatomy of the Lung, The Theory of Asthma,
The History o Sind, My relation to Lung
Disease, R yy rest 6 Anemia of Girls,
Neurasthenia, and Mucous Disease of the Colon.
Clark, Sir JAMEs, physician, was born at
Cullen, nffshire, 14th December 1788. He
took the degree of M.A. at King’s College,
Aberdeen, studied medicine at Edinburgh and
London, and entered as a navy surgeon in 1809—
a position he held until 1815. At Rome he
goery eight years as a physician; but in 1826
e settled in London. On the accession of Queen
Victoria, Clark, who for two years previously had
acted as physician to the Duchess of Kent, was
Seana physician in ordinary to Her Majesty, in
1838 being created a baronet. He was author of
a work On the Influence of Climate in the Cure of
Chronic Diseases (1829), and A Treatise on Pulmon-
ary Consumption (1835). He died June 29, 1870.

Clark, THomAs, chemist, was born at Ayr in
1801, and studied at Ayr Academy. He became a
chemist in Glasgow, lectured on chemistry there,
and in 1833 became professor at Marischal llege,
Aberdeen. He fell into ill-health in 1843, and died
27th November 1867. His name is specially re-
membered for his discovery of the soap-test for
hardness in waters, and his method of softening
water by means of caustic lime. See WATER.

Clark, WILLIAM GEORGE, an eminent scholar
and man of letters, was born in March 1821, and
educated at cone and Shrewsbury under Ken-
ri He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in
1840, and, graduating second classic in 1844, was
elected fellow of his college, where he resided
till his retirement in 1873. He had been ordained
in 1853, but wrote to his bishop resigning his
orders in 1869, and published his reasons in a
remarkable pamphlet, The Present Dangers of
the Church of England. He acted long as tutor
in his college, and was public orator in the univer-
sity from 1857 to 1869. He died at York, 6th
November 1878, nD poareneee to Trinity College
property to endow a lectureship on English litera-
ture, to which Mr Gosse was appointed in 1883.
Clark travelled in Spain, Greece, Italy, and
Poland, during the long vacations, and published
lively accounts of his experiences. In 1850 he
helped to edit the Sabrine Corolla, himself con-
tributing some of the most finished versions therein.
He also edited the first series of Cambridge Essays
(1855), and long acted as one of the editors of the
Journal of Philology. Other works were his edi-
tion of George Brimley’s Essays (1858), and Lee-

tures on the Middle Ages and the Revival of Learning
lea ). His greatest work was the famous Cam-

age Shakespeare (9 vols. 1863-66), planned b
Clark, and prepared in collaboration with Mr
Glover and afterwards Mr Aldis Wright. Its text
was reprinted in the popular ‘Globe Edition’
(1864). Clark’s projected edition of Aristophanes
was unhappily left unfinished.

Clarke, ADAM, Wesleyan divine, was born
about 1762, at Moybeg in County Londonderry.
Under John Wesley's influence he studied at Kings-
wood, near Bristol, and began to preach in 1782.
Like his brethren, he aired from place to place,
from the Channel Islands to Shetland, but after
1805 lived mostly in London. Although peri-
patetic preaching is scarcely conducive to scholar-
ship, Clarke contrived to find time for extensive
study of the classics, the Fathers, oriental lan-
guages, and natural science. Aberdeen gave him
the degree of LL.D. in 1808, and many learned
societies admitted him to membership. His first
work was a Bibliographical Dictionary (8 vols.
1802-6). The Board of Commissioners on the
Public Records selected him to edit Rymer’s
Federa, but his health obliged him to abandon
the work before he had finished the second volume.
He also edited and abridged several other works,
but the great work of his life was his edition of
the Holy Scriptures (8 vols. 1810-26) with a com-
mentary, into which were compressed all the
results of his varied reading. ile orthodox in
essentials, Clarke had some unusual notions.
Thus, he denied the eternal sonship of Christ
while maintaining his divinity; held that Judas
repented unto salvation, and that the tempter of
Eve was a baboon, not a serpent. He died August
26, 1832. See his Life (3 vols. 1833). .

Clarke, CHARLES AND MAry CowDEN, one
of the most amiable among the pairs of English
writers. Charles was born 15th December 1787, at
Enfield, Middlesex, where his father kept a school
at which Keats was a pupil. His name is im-
perishably linked with the dawning genius of the

t—but seven years younger than himself—who

in a poetical epistle (1816) addresses Clarke as ‘ you
who first taught me all the sweets of song.’ He
early imbibed a passion for the theatre, and after
his parents’ retirement to Ramsgate, continued to
pay frequent visits to London, where he formed the
iendship of Leigh Hunt, Shelley, Hazlitt, Charles
and Mary Lamb. After his father’s death in 1820,
he became a bookseller in London, and ere long
partner as music publisher with Alfred Novello,
whose sister, Mary Victoria (born 1809), he married
in July 1828. <A year later Mrs Cowden Clarke
began her famous Concordance to Shakespeare's
Plays, published after sixteen years’ toil in 1845.
The married life of the pair was exceptionally
happy, and they enjoyed the warm friendship of
most London men of letters, from Lamb and
Hazlitt down to Douglas Jerrold, Macready, and
Charles Dickens. In 1834 Clarke began that
twenty years’ course of public lectures on Shake-
speare and other dramatists and ts which
brought him so much celebrity and profit. He read
admirably, and put the fruit of much sound study
and profound thought into the aha tera os of the
lectures. Some of his courses of lectures were pub-
lished, as his Shakespeare Characters, chiefly those
Subordinate (1863), and Moliére Characters (1865).
In 1859 he published Carmina Minora, a volume of
fair original verse, and in 1863 he edited the poems
of George Herbert. The joint productions of the
pair were the valuable Shakespeare Key (1879) ; an
edition of Shakespeare’s works with good if some-
what verbose annotations (1869), now re-issued as
Cassell’s Illustrated Shakespeare ; and Recollections

280 CLARKE

CLARKSON

of Writers (1878), a charming book, full of reminis-
cences of Keats, Lamb, and other famous men. In
1856 they went to live at Nice, but removed in 1861
to Genoa, where Charles died, 13th March 1877.
Mrs Cowden Clarke, who died at Genoa, 12th Jan-
uary 1897, alone wrote novels, volumes of verse, &c.
aie best known being The Girlhood of Shake-
speare’s Heroines (1850) and World-noted Women
(1857). See her Sketch of her husband (1887) and
an Autobiographie Sketch (1897). \

Clarke, EDWARD DANIEL, traveller and author,
born at Willingdon in Sussex in 1769, studied at
Cambridge, and from 1790 to 1799 was employed as
tutor and travelling companion in several noble-
men’s families, making the tour of Great Britain,
France, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. In 1799
he set out on an extensive tour with a young man
of fortune; they traversed Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, the country of
the Don-Cossacks, Tartary, Asia Minor, 8 ria,
Egypt, Greece, and did not return to England till
1802. In 1808 Clarke was made first professor of
mineralogy at Cambridge. He presented to the
university library a number of valuable marbles
collected during his travels; his manuscripts he
sold to Oxford; and the university of Cam ridge
purchased his collection of minerals. Ordained in
1805, he held two livings from 1809 until his death,
9th March 1822. His Travels (6 vols, 1810-23)
were received with extraordinary favour; his
other works, chiefly on antiquarian subjects and
mineralogy, are now of little value. See his Life,
by Bishop Otter (1825).

Clarke, HybE, an English financier and philo-
logist, born in London in 1815, was employed as a
civil engineer in the improvement of Morecambe
Bay and Barrow, and next in the promotion of
telegraph and railway service in Upper India. He
became cotton councillor in Turkey, and in 1868
founded the Council of Foreign Bondholders, whose
affairs he administered for years. A promoter of
the Anthropological Institute and the Press Fund,
he died 1st March 1895. His writings include books
and pamphlets on railways, foreign loans, banking,
mythology, and comparative philology, sopectalig
the native American languages and their supposed
connection with those of the Old World. nfor-
tunately his views are much more original than
sound, and most of his generalisations have failed
to commend themselves to really scientific philolo-
gists. Among his books are The Pre-Hellenie Inhab-
atants of Asia Minor (1864), The Mediterranean
Populations from Autonomous Coins (1882), &e.

Clarke, JAMES FREEMAN, theologian, was born
in Hanover, N.H., 4th April 1810, and studied at
Harvard and Cambridge Divinity School. He be-
came a Unitarian pastor, and in 1841 founded the
Church of the Disciples at Boston. From 1867 to
1871 he held a chair of Natural Theology in Harvard
University. He died 8th June 1888. He assisted
in Leagan the memoirs of the Marchioness Ossoli;
and among his numerous works are books on the
forgiveness of sin, on prayer, and on orthodoxy;
Steps of Belief (1870), Ten Great Religions (1871-83),
Common Sense in Religion (1879), Manual of Uni-
tarian Belief (1884), and Vexed Questions (1886).

Clarke, Dr SAMUEL, an eminent philosopher
and theologian, was born at Norwich, October ll,
1675, and educated at Caius College, Cambridge.
The system of Descartes at that time held almost
universal sway ; but this failing to satisfy his mind,
he, as was to be expected, adopted the views of his
friend Newton, and expounded them in the notes
to his edition of Rohault’s Physics. Along with
philosophy he pursued the study of theology and
philology. Chaplain from 1698 to Bishop Moore
of Norwich, in 1706 he became chaplain to Queen

Anne, and in 1709 rector of St James’s, Westminster.
By his work on the Trinity (1712), in which he
denied that that doctrine was held by the early
church, he raised a violent and protracted contro-
versy (in which Waterland was his chief oppon-
ent). The upper house of Convocation, desirous of
avoiding controversy, rested content with an ex-
planation, anything but satisfactory, and a pro-
mise from Clarke to be silent for the future on that
subject. His views were of the kind known as
Semi-Arian (see ARIUS). For the rest, Clarke was
a vigorous antagonist of the Deists of his time; he
wrote against materialism, empiricism, and necessi-
tarianism; and against Dodwell maintained the
essential immortality of the soul. He taught that
the fundamental truths of morals, arising out of the
fitness or unfitness of certain relations, were as.
absolutely certain as the truths of mathematics.
Space and time he held to be attributes of an
infinite and immaterial being. His most famous
work is Discourse concerning the Being and Attri-
butes of God, originally the Boyle Lectures of 1704-5.
They were expressly in answer to Hobbes, Spinoza,
Blount, and other freethinkers, and contained the
famous and elaborate demonstration of the exist-
ence of God, often, but inaccurately, called an
a priort argument, on which his fame as a the-
ologian largely rests. At the instigation of the
Princess of Wales, Clarke entered into a keen
correspondence with Leibnitz on space and time,
and their relations to God, and on moral freedom.
This correspondence was published under the title
of Collection of Papers which passed between Dr
Clarke and Mr Leibnitz (1717). He was not merely
a keen dialectician and a man of great strength of
mind, but was possessed of great general ability.
He published several collections of much admired
sermons and innumerable pamphlets, besides a.
posthumous rks apres of the Church Catechism
and a beautiful edition of Cesar (1712); that of
Homer (1729-32) was completed by his son. He
died 17th May 1729. A collected edition of his
works appeared in 4 vols. (1738-42), with a Life
by Hoadly. His friend Whiston also wrote a Life
(1741).

Clarkson, THOMAS, philanthropist, the son of
a clerical schoolmaster at Wisbeach, where he was
born, March 28, 1760. From St Paul’s School he
passed to St John’s College, Cambridge, where he
took a good degree in 1783. His introduction to
the chief interest of his life was his gaining a
prize for a Latin essay in 1785, on the question,
‘Is it a to make slaves of others against
their will?’ which, in an English translation
(1786), was widely read. Clarkson henceforward
devoted himself with indefatigable energy to a
vigorous crusade against African slavery, Poth by
an incessant shower of essays, pamphlets, and
reports, and by visiting the chief towns of England
and even Paris to form associations. Wilberforce
brought the subject -before parliament in 1787.
On March 25, 1807, the law for the suppression of
the slave-trade passed the legislature—the occasion
of Wordsworth’s sonnet: ‘Clarkson, it was an
obstinate hill to climb,’ and Clarkson next wrote a
History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment
of the Abolition of the African Slave-trade (2 vols.
1808). On the formation of the Anti-slavery
Society in 1823, for the abolition of slavery in the
West Indies, he became one of its leading members,
and had the happiness to see the object of its efforts
attained in the August of 1833. e took an active
part in other benevolent schemes, particularly in
establishing institutions for seamen in seaport:
towns similar to the Sailors’ Homes. He was in
deacon’s orders in the Church of England, but all his
life kept close to the Society of Friends, although
he never joined its ranks. He died at Playford

CLARY

CLAUDIANUS 281

Hall, near Ipswich, September 26, 1846. See Lives
by Taylor (1839 and 1876) and Elmes (1854).

Clary (Salvia sclarea), a native of southern
Europe, which has been cultivated from a very
early period for its aromatic and other properties.
It is a biennial (2 feet), with clammy stem, large,
heart- , rough, doubly crenate leaves, and
whorls of pale-blue flowers in loose terminal spikes,
with large coloured bracts. Clary is antispasmodic
and stimulating, and is used for seasoning soups,
and in confectionery, while a fermented wine is
ny from its flowers.—A British species of

via (S. Verbenaca) is sometimes called Wild
Clary; 8. tensis, Meadow Clary; and S. hor-
minum, Annual Clary. See SAGE.

Classics. The term classici was originally
ye to those citizens of Rome that belonged to
the first and most influential of the six classes into
which Servius Tullius divided the population, As
early as the second century after Christ ib is
applied figuratively by Gellius to writers of the
highest rank, and this mode of designation has
since been very generally adopted both in litera-
ture and art. Most nations have had at some

one time a more than usually rich and abundant |

outburst of literature, and they usually style this
the Classical period of their literature, and its
most distinguished writers their Classics. Thus,
in Latin literature the classical period may be
regarded as extending from the time of Varro,
Cicero, and Lucretius, from about 80 B.c., to the
time of Juvenal and Suetonius, about 180 A.D.;
and is divided into a Golden and a Silver Age. But
as the t productions of the writers and artists of
antiquity have continued to be looked upon by
moderns as models of perfection, the word classics
has come to designate, in a narrower sense, the
best writers of Greece and Rome, and ‘classical’ to
mean much the same as ‘ancient.’ The question
of the relative value in modern education of the
study of the classics in this sense has been much
discussed (see EDUCATION). For Classicism as
opposed to Romanticism, see ROMANTICISM.

Clastic Rocks (Gr. klastos, ‘broken’) are
rocks composed of Me™ materials. The term
includes all rocks of a secondary or derivative
origin—i.e. rocks like conglomerate, sandstone,
shale, &e., which have been formed out of the
remains of previously existing rocks. Besides the
large class of sand-and-gravel rocks, it also em-
braces many rocks of organic origin, such as certain
limestones, composed of the debris of shells,
corals, &c.; coals, made up of the remains of
plants; and some ironstones, consisting in whole
or in part of organic debris. ental voleanic
rocks, such as Tuff (q.v.) and Agglomerate (q.v.),
come also into the same division.

Claude Lorraine (properly named CLAUDE
GELLEE), a celebrated landscape-painter, was a
native of Lorraine, and born in 1600. According
to Baldinucci, a relative who travelled as a lace-
dealer took Claude when still a boy to Italy, but
deserted him in Rome. However, he soon found
cece fate in grinding colours, and doing other
menial services for Agostino Tassi, a landscape-
painter, from whom he gained some — of
art. He seems next to have studied under frey
Waals at Naples, and after some time spent in
wandering through various portions of Europe, he
finally settled at Rome in 1627. Here he made his
way slowly with the public, and it was about ten

ears afterwards that he received a commission

om Cardinal Bentivoglio, who introduced him to
Pope Urban VIII., for whom he executed four
landscapes, two of which, ‘ La Féte Villageoise’ and
‘Un Port de Mer au Soleil Couchant,’ both dated
1629, are now in the Louvre. His position was

now assured, and his works were much sought after.
During his later years he suffered from gout and
other maladies, and died in November 1682

Claude’s landscapes, which number about four
hundred, are found in the chief galleries of Italy,
France, Spain, and Peat and in particular
England, which, according to Dr Waagen, contains
fifty-four paintings by “iaude. Four of his best
works—the landscapes 'snown as ‘ Morning,’ ‘ Noon,’
‘Evening,’ and ‘Tvilight’—are in the imperial

Nery at St Petersburg. The painting on which

laude himself set the highest value is the ‘ Villa
Madama.’ He kept it as a study, and refused to
sell it, even when Pope Clement IX. offered for it
as much gold coin as would cover the canvas. As
Claude’s paintings have always commanded very
high prices, many copies and imitations have been
im on buyers. This was the case even during
the artist’s lifetime; for he set high prices on his
works. It has been stated that it was in order to
stop the fraudulent trade carried on in his name
that he collected the sketches of his pictures in six
books titled Libri Veritatis, which are now in the
library of the Duke of Devonshire ; but these were
probably executed simply to preserve a record of
the works and of their destination. They were
engraved in mezzotint by Earlom, and it was in
rivalry with these prints that Turner executed his
celebrated Liber Studiorum.

Claude was an earnest, indefatigable student of
nature, of which, however, he a far less
close and scientific knowledge than is evinced by
the works of many modern landscape-painters.
He was restricted in his range of subjects and
effects, and he had little sympathy with nature in
her wilder and sterner moods. On the other hand,
his composition, if rather formal, is always grace-
ful and well considered; his colour is singularly
mellow and harmonious; and as a sky-painter his
work is full of delicacy and great tenderness of
gradation and aerial quality. Claude produced
about thirty etchings, the best of which are dis-
tinguished by great technical skill, refinement, and
freedom. Hamerton has pronounced ‘ Le Bouvier’
to be in many ways ‘the finest landscape etching
in the world. is said have been recently
reproduced by Amand-Durand, and they are cata-
logued by Meaume in Le Peintre-Graveur Francais
of Robert-Dumesnil. His figures, in which he was
sometimes aided by other painters, are in general
such inferior accessories that he was wont to say
he made no charge for them. See Ruskin’s Modern
Painters ; Mrs Mark Pattison (Lady Dilke), Claude
Lorrain, sa Vie et ses Gluvres (Paris, 1884) ; Dullea,
Claude le Lorrain (Lond. 1887); Grahame in The
Portfolio for March 1895.

Claudianus, CLAuptus, the latest of the

t Latin ts, a native of Alexandria, flour-
ished in the end of the 4th and beginning of the
5th century. He wrote first in Greek, which
appears to have been his native tongue, though
he was originally of Roman extraction; but in
Gibbon’s words, he ‘assumed in his mature age the
familiar use and absolute command of the Latin
language; soared above the heads of his feeble
contemporaries, and placed himself, after an in-
terval of three hundred years, gem, the poets of
ancient Rome.’ His poems brought him into such
reputation that, at the request of the senate, the
Emperors Arcadius and Honorius erected a statue
in honour of him in the forum of Trajan. The
productions > Claudianus that seer eae down to
us consist of two epic poems, tus Proserpine
and the fragmentary Gigantomachia ; besides

egyrics on Honorius and Stilicho, Hidyllia,
os Rancapaage and occasional poems. Claudianus
displays a brilliant fancy, rich colouring, with
variety and distinctness in his pictures; but he is

282 CLAUDIUS I.

CLAVAGELLA

often deficient in taste and gracefulness. His
works have been edited by Gessner (1759), Bur-
mann (1760), Jeep (1879), and Birt (1892).

Claudius I., Roman emperor, whose full name
was Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus, was
the younger son of Drusus, brother of the Emperor
Tiberius and Antonia, and was born at Lyons in
Gaul, 10 B.c. He was natorally sickly and infirm,
and his education was neglected, or left to be cared
for by women and freedmen. His supposed im-
becility saved him from the cruelty of Caligula;
but Claudius, in his privacy, had made consider-
able progress in the study of history, and wrote in
Latin and Greek several extensive works now lost.
After the assassination of Caligula, he was found
by the soldiers in a corner of the palace, where, in
dread, he had concealed himself. The preetorians
carried him forth, proclaimed him emperor, and
compelled his recognition by the senate and many
citizens who had hoped to restore the republic.
By giving largess to the troops who had raised
him to the throne, Claudius commenced the
baneful practice which subjected Rome to a mili-
tary despotism under the succeeding emperors.
The first acts of his reign seemed to give promise
of mild and just government, but in the year 42,
when a conspiracy against his life was detected,
his timidity led him to yield himself entirely to
the guidance of his third and most infamous wife,
Messalina, who, in concert with the freedmen
Pallas and Narcissus, practised cruelties and extor-
tions without restraint. The emperor meanwhile
lived in retirement, partly occupied in his studies,
and expended enormous sums in building, especially
in the famous Claudian Aqueduct (Aqua Claudia).
At the same time he ruled well though mildly,
and carried out the enlightened policy of extending
citizenship to the provincials. Abroad his arms
were victorious, auritania was made a Roman
province, the conquest of Britain was commenced,
and the frontier provinces in the east were settled.
At home the uxorious emperor continued to be
governed by his wives. Tacitus tells us that the
shameless Messalina, after abusing her blind and
doting husband by a series of the vilest rofligacies,
went so far as to marry herself publicly to a
young lover, on which the emperor, at last awakened
to her wickedness and his own shame, put her
to death. He next married his own niece, the
equally vicious and more cruel Agrippina, who
procured his death by poison (54 A.D.) in order to
secure the succession of Nero, her own son by an
earlier husband.

Claudius, Appius, a Roman decemvir (451
and 450 B.c.), who gained the high favour of his
fellow-citizens by his ability and activity. In the
latter year, however, he began to show his real
aims towards absolute and illegal power. The
growing indignation of the Roman populace reached
a height on account of his grossly tyrannous action
towards Virginia, daughter of a respected plebeian
named Lucius Virginius, who was abroad with the
army. The roud patrician gained possession of
the person of the maiden by pretending that she
was the born slave of one of his clients. Her lover
Icilius summoned her father Virginius from the
army, but another mock-trial again adjudged the

irl to be the property of the decemvir’s client.

o save his daughter from dishonour, the unhappy
father seized a knife and slew her. The popular
indignation and the father’s appeal to the army
overthrew the decemviri, and the roud Appius
was flung into prison, where he dod by his own
hand. The story is specially familiar to English
readers from Macaulay’s Lays. The Claudian Gens
was one of the most numerous and important of
- the patrician tribes of Rome; and besides the sons

and grandsons of the decemvir, there were numer-
ous persons of distinction who bore the name of
Appius.

Claus, KARL, zoologist, born 2d January 1835,
at Cassel, became professor successively at Wiirz-
burg (1860), Marburg, Gottingen, and Vienna
(1873). His principal work is the Grundziige der
Zoologie (4th ed. 1878-82).

Claus, SANTA. See NIcoLAs (St).

Clause. See DEED.

Clausel, BERTRAND, a French marshal, was
born at Mirepoix, Ariege, 12th December 1772, and
obtained distinction in the Italian and Austrian
campaigns of Napoleon; but more especially as
commander in Spain, after the battle of Sala-
manca in 1812, Condemned to death as a traitor
on the return of the Bourbons, he was in 1820 per-
mitted to return from America to France; com-
manded the army and was governor in Algeria in
1830 ; and was made governor-general of Algeria in
1835. He returned to France in 1836, voted with
the opposition in the Chamber, and died 21st April
1842. See ALGERIA.

Clausewitz, KARL VON, a very distinguished
Prussian general, whose writings prepare? the way
for a complete revolution in the theory of war, was
born Ist June 1780 at Burg. He served with dis-
tinction in several campaigns in the Prussian and
in the Russian service, in 1815 became chief of a
Prussian army corps, and was ultimately director
of the army school, and inspector of artillery. He
died of cholera at Breslau, 16th November 1831. Of
his works the best known are his great book on
war, Vom Krieg (3 vols. 4th ed. 1880), and his life
of Scharnhorst. See his Life by Schwartz (Berlin,
1877).

Clausius, RUDOLF, a great German physicist,
born 2d January 1822 at Késlin in Pomerania,
He studied at Berlin, and afterwards lectured on
natural philosophy as privat-docent at Berlin, and
as professor at the Ziirich Polytechnic School. In
1869 he was appointed to the chair of Natural
Philosophy at Bonn, and here he died, August 24,
1888. He was elected a foreign member of the
ae tes Society in 1868, and in 1879 was given its
highest honour, the Copley Medal. His scientific
labours cover parts of the field of optics and of
electricity, but his especial work was his contribu-
tion to the science of thermo-dynamics, the honour
of establishing which on a scientific basis he divides
with Rankine and Thomson. His mathematical
methods he also applied to the theory of the steam-
engine, the dynamical or kinetic theory of gases,
and to electricity and electro-dynamics. His great
work is his Abhandlungen iiber die mechanische
Wdarmetheorie (1864, and 1867), which in its second
edition took a more systematic form as vol. i., Die
mechanische Wdrmetheorie (1876), and vol. ii., Die
mechanische Behandlung der LElectrizitat (1879).
Other books are Ueber das Wesen der Wdrme
(1857), and Die Potentialfunction und das Potential
(3d ed. 1877).

Clausthal. See KLAUSTHAL.

Clavagella, or CLUB-SHELL, a genus of marine
Lamellibranchiate Molluscs of the same family
with Aspergillum (q.v.). They mostly live in
kpaavasee holes in rocks or in masses of coral.
The ordinary form of the bivalve shell is curiously
modified. ne valve (the right) is fixed to the
inner surface of the chamber in which the animal
lives, and is continued without interruption into
a secondary shell-tube, which extends from the
chamber outwards, and varies considerably in
length in different species. The left valve is free
and movable on the right. The mode of excava-
tion is not known. ix living species of wide

Pus

* of lizards,

CLAVARIA

CLAY 283

distribution are known. The fossil forms, which

Clavagella lata, showing the cavity and fixed valve:
a, the fixed valve; b, the calcareous tube.

are more numerous, were first discovered. They
do not occur below the Upper Chalk.

Clavaria, a genus of Fungi, of the order
Hymenomycetes,; family Clavariei, in which the
ake gd tissue is produced over all parts of
the surface. The species are numerous, some of
them simple and club-shaped, some branched.
C. botrytis, a species common in oak and beech
woods, especially in Germany, growing on the
ground, among moss, grass, heath, &c., is gathered
when young and used as food, having a very agree-
able sweetish taste. (Botrytis is also the name of
a genus of Ascomycete Fungi.) Other species of
Clavaria, notably C. flava, coralloides, aurea, and
Jormosa, are used in the same way. See FUNGI.

Claverhouse, See GRAHAM (JOHN).

Clavichord, an obsolete instrument of the
same type as the Harpsichord (q.v.) and Spinet
( +.) A Claviharp is a harp struck with keys
like a piano.

ib an important part of the pectoral

irdle of Vertebrates, perhaps most familiarly

nown in the collar-bone of man and in the
merry-thought of birds. It is well develo in
those mammals in which the fore-leg or arm is used
very strongly and freely, but is poorly developed
or absent in many cases, as in Carnivores and
Ungulates. In most flying birds it is strong, and
often fused to the breast-bone ; in the ostrich tribe
it is rudimentary or absent. It is not a prominent
bone in reptiles, being absent in snakes and croco-
diles, apparently continuous with the scapula in
tortoises, and in fact only well seen in the majority
A ‘clavicle’ is also to be seen in most
Amphibia, though its exact relations are much
disputed. A prominent part in the girdle of ordi-
nary bony fishes is also called the ‘clavicle,’ but it
is not certain that it corresponds to that of higher
vertebrates. Of the clavicle generally it may be
said that it is a paired bone pase from the
skin as an auxiliary to scapula and coracoid,
that its position is ventral and anterior to the
coracoid, and that it is often associated with an
interclavicle. See Brrp, BoNE, SKELETON; also
Huxley’s recagangy | of the Vertebrate Animals, and
other works on Comparative Anatomy, such as
those of Gegenbaur and Wiedersheim (translated
by. Professors Bell and Parker). There is a separ-
ate article on the human COLLAR-BONE (q.V.).

.

Clavicor’nia, « name sometimes applied to
several tribes of beetles with club-shaped (clavate)
antenne. They are included within the great
Pentamerous section of Coleoptera. Burying
beetles illustrate the type.

Clavije’ro, Francisco Xavier, Mexican his-
torian, born at Vera Cruz in 1721, entered the
order of the Jesuits in 1748, and became a teacher
of philosophy. On the suppression of the Jesuits
in 1767, he retired to Italy, where he died at
Bologna in 1787. He wrote in Italian a History of
Mexico (Eng. trans. 1787).

Clavijo M Fayardo, Jose (1730-1806), a
Spanish publicist, who had a duel with Beau-
marchais, and was made, with a character much
altered, the hero of Goethe’s Clavigo.

Claws, a term often applied to the chelz at the
end of Arthropod limbs, but best restricted to the
epidermic tips found at the ends of the digits in
most reptiles, on the toes, and often on the thumb
and first finger of birds, but seen in perfection in
many mammals—e.g. Carnivores, Insectivores,
Edentates. It is obviously oy type to draw any
sharp line between claws and Nails (q.v.).

Clay (A.S8. clag; of the same root as ‘clag,’
‘claggy’), a term applied, in a vague way, to
those kinds of earth or soil which, when moist,
have a notable degree of tenacity and plasticity.
The clays are not easily distinguished as rock
species, but they all appear to owe their origin to
the decomposition of various rocks, and to consist
chiefly of aluminic silicate, along with other in-
gredients, which vary in character with the nature
of the parent rock from the degradation of which
they are derived. Thus common clay is a mixture
of kaolin or China clay (which is a hydrated clay),
and the fine powder of some felspathic mineral,
which is anhydrous and not decomposed. Clays
vary much in plasticity—all being more or less
ee when moistened with water, and capable of

ing moulded into any form. But while many
retain their shape when dried by heat, others,
which in the damp state would ordinarily be called
clays, tend to fall to powder when all the water is
driven off. Clay is eaten by the Botocudos and
os ty a tribes, as also in Georgia and the
Carolinas by negroes and ‘poor whites.’ The
plastic clays are used for many purposes, as for
making pottery of all kinds, bricks and _ tiles,
tobacco-pipes, firebricks, &c. The following are
the commoner varieties of clay and clay-rocks:
China clay or Kaolin (q.v.); Papeclay (q.v.), very
like kaolin, but containing a larger eee stKe of
silica ; potter's clay, not so pure as the preceding ;
sculptor’s clay or modelling clay, a fine potter's
clay, sometimes mixed with fine sand; plastilina,
a potter’s clay from Italy, supposed to be composed
of oil, glycerine, rosin, and powdered clay, which,
as it does not shrink, need not be kept wet; brick-
clay (see BRICK), an admixture of some clay and
sand with some ferruginous matter; Fireclay
(q.v.), containing little or no lime, alkaline earth,
or iron (which act as fluxes), and hence infusible or
highly refractory; Shale (q.v.), a laminated clay-
rock ; clay-slate, an indurated cleaved clay-rock ;
Loam (q.v.), a non-plastic mixture of clay and sand ;
Marl (q.v.), a clay containing much calcareous
matter. Clay at the deepest sea-bottom is largely
of animal origin. See PETROGRAPHY.

CLay Sorts derive their character from the
aluminic silicate which they contain in a state of
mixture, as well as in chemical combination with
other substances. Some soils contain so large a
proportion of alumina as 35 per cent., but generally

the proportion is much smaller. The felspars
which chiefly yield the alumina of clay soils con-
tain also a, potash, and lime, substances which

284 CLAY

CLEARING-HOUSE

tend to render clays fertile when under cultivation.
The physical characters, however, of the different
varieties of clay soils arising from the varying pro-
portions of silica, and other substances mixed with
the alumina, are chiefly concerned in their relative
fertility. Calcareous matter exercises a consider-
able influence on their powers of producing crops.
For an account of the distribution of soils in this
country, see Johnston’s and Cameron’s Elements of
Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.

Clay, CAsstus MARCELLUS, a zealous aboli-
tionist, born in Kentucky in 1810, graduated ati
Yale in 1832, and three years after was elected to
the legislature of his native state. He opposed
the annexation of Texas (1844); started at Lexing-
ton The True American, a vigorous anti-slavery

aper, the following year; volunteered in the

exican war (1846); supported Mr Lincoln in
1860; and from 1861 till 1869 was U.S. Minister to
Russia. A true son of Kentucky, Clay delivered
his political addresses armed to the teeth, was in-
volved in a number of serious quarrels, and in 1877
was tried but acquitted on a charge of killing a dis-
charged negro servant who had threatened his life.
See his Life, Writings, and Speeches (2 vols. 1886).

Clay, HENRY, an eminent American statesman,
called, from his birthplace in the Virginia ‘ Slashes,’
and his pursuits in early life as
assistant in a grist-mill, ‘the
mill-boy of the Slashes,’ was
born in Hanover county, Virginia, April 12, 1777.
His father was a preacher, and the son received
but sere Tpcerbengp cl et in manhood, with Cal-
houn and Webster, he formed the great triumvirate
of American orators. At fifteen he became an
assistant-clerk in the Virginia chancery court, and
for four years was amanuensis to the chancellor,
George Wythe. After studying law for one year
with Robert Brooke, attorney-general of Virginia,
he was licensed in 1797 to practise, though he was
under age, and in the same year he removed to
Lexington, Kentucky, where he soon acquired a
high reputation as an orator and as a jury lawyer.
In 1799, when Kentucky was framing her constitu-
tion as a separate state, he publicly advocated pro-
visions for the gradual abolition of slavery. He
was sent in 1806, and again in 1809, to the United
States senate for short terms; and he entered the
lower house in 1811, sg, its Speaker, both
then and subsequently. He urged the war of 1812,
and was sent to Ghent on the commission which
ended the war. By his course in regard to the
‘Missouri Compromise’ of 1821, he won the title
of ‘the great pacificator.’ In 1824 he was one of
the strongest advocates of a high protective tariff,
and in the same year was one of the four candi-
dates for the presidency. No choice having been
made by the electoral college, Mr J. Q. Adams
was elected president by the yan of Representa-
tives; and Clay’s acceptance of the position of
secretary of state under Adams was by many
held to constitute a proof of a corrupt bargain be-
tween two statesmen, neither of whom, in truth,
would have been guilty of countenancing such
a bargain. Clay re-entered the senate in 1831,
and in the same year was renominated for the
presidency ; but in the following year General
Jackson was re-elected to that office. His candi-
dature for the office of president in 1844 was in
like manner unsuccessful. The compromise of
1850 between the opposing free-soil and pro-slavery
interests was largely Clay’s work. He died July
29, 1852. Although he was the most attractive
public speaker in his country during what is
justly regarded as ‘the golden age of American
oratory,’ his ability as a reasoner was excelled
by that of Webster; while his other principal

Copyright 1889, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J. B.
Lippincott Company.

rival, Calhoun, surpassed him in intensity and
fiery earnestness. o man had a rd aa following
of devoted personal friends than Clay, and for
more than forty years he had a very conspicuous
share in shaping the legislation of the republic.
As a public man his career was without a blemish.
Of the rather numerous biographies of Clay the
best is that by Carl Schurz ( Boston, 1887).

Clay Cross, a town in Derbyshire, 44 miles
S. of hesterfield, the centre of a coal and iron
district. The collieries here were begun by George
Stephenson in 1838. Pop. (1891) 7148.

Clay Ironstone, a granular or compact
admixture of the mineral siderite (ferrous carbon-
ate) and clay. It occurs as nodules or in thin
beds in various geological systems, but especially in
the carboniferous strata. It frequently contains
organic matter. When very highly carbonaceous,
it passes into the variety called blackband iron-
stone. See Iron, Vol. VI. p. 216. ;

Claymore (a Gaelic term meaning ‘the great
sword’) is properly used of the old Celtic one-
handed, two-edged longsword, often engraved on
ancient tombstones, with the guards pointing
downwards. The name is now commonly given,
inaccurately, to the basket-hilted sword of the
officers of Highland regiments.

Clayton, JoHN MIDDLETON, statesman, was
born in Sussex county, Delaware, 24th July 1796,

studied at Yale, and practised as a lawyer. In

1829 he became a United States senator, and while
secretary of state in 1849-50, he negotiated the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain, guaranteeing
the neutrality of lines of interoceanic communica-
tion across athens or elsewhere. He died 9th
November 1856. See BULWER.

Clazom’enz, one of the twelve cities of Ionia
which stood on the gulf of Smyrna, westward from
Smyrna. Under the Romans it was a free city, and
had an extensive commerce. It was the birthplace
of Anaxagoras. It is now called Vurla.

Cleinthes, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos,
in Troas, about 300 B.c. His poverty was such
that he had to work all night at drawing water in
order to obtain money for his support and to pay
his class-fee while attending the lectures of Zeno—
a fact discovered only when the Areopagus called
upon the ardent young student to show how he
obtained his living. For nineteen years he listened
patiently to the great Stoic, and, on his death,
succeeded him in his school. He died of voluntary
starvation when about eighty years old. Cleanthes
differed from the other Stoies in regarding the sun
as the governing principle of the world; but none
of his writings are extant except a Hymn to Zeus,
one of the purest and noblest pieces of poetry in
the Greek language, showing an admirable union of
religious feeling and philosophic thought.

Clear, CAPE, a headland of Clear Island, the

most southerly point of Ireland, with a lighthouse _

and telegraph station. Clear Island, 66 miles SW.
of Cork, is 1504 acres in area. Pop. 594.
Clearing-house. The _ business facilities
afforded by bankers to their customers in collecting
their bills, cheques on other firms, and _ similar
obligations, early necessitated an organised system
of interchanging such documents, whereby labour
might be saved, and the cash-balances required in
settlements reduced. It is claimed by a French
writer that the Chambre de Compensation de Lyon,
as reorganised in 1667, was practically similar to
the ati clearing-house ; and the Scottish bank-
note exchanges (a species of clearing) were estab-
lished as far back as 1752. The present system,
however, originated in London at an unknown
date. It is said that the clerks, when collecting

CLEARING-HOUSE

285

from the various banking-houses, to inter-
change the documents of mutual indebtedness in
the street, and rape pom at taverns or any
~ hanking-oflice where they were tolerated, Some
time previous to 1773 a special apartment was
devoted by the bankers to the purpose; and in
1810 the building in Lombard Street, since known
as the ‘Clearing-house,’ was set apart for the
clearing, under the direction of a committee of
bankers, and the immediate management of two
tors. The joint-stock were not
admitted to the clearing-house until 1854. Four
ears later the country-cheque clearing was estab-
ed as a department of the clearing-house. In
1864 the Bank of England entered, but it clears
only against the other banks. Only twenty-seven
banks, including the Southwark branch of the
London and Westminster Bank, are members.
Other London bankers arrange with clearing banks
to represent them.

The system pursued is as follows: From time to
tinie during the day, each firm transmits to the
clearing-house cheques and bills payable by other
bankers, classified according to the banks retiring

them, account being also taken of obligations-

coming against their firm. At a certain hour the
doors are closed, and the balances struck. Time is
allowed for each bank to decide as to honouring
the drafts upon it, after which the final adjustment
of balances takes place. Subjoined is an actual
balance sheet as at the close of a day’s clearing.

Debtors, GLYN & Co. Creditors.
z£ a 2 a -&
2,510 8 6 Alliance

12,950 18 2 Barclay
3 2 Bank of England 254,182 12 6
8,394 8 1 Brown
5611711 Capital and Counties 4,992 19 11
Central 7,904 18 10
6,136 0 2 City
Consolidated 72,068 1 6
County 128,188 6 3
Dimsdale 3,644 4 1
Fuller 1,956 13 11
$2,885 19 0 Imperial
95,444 10 _, | London Joint-stock
119,712 18 8 \ London and Westminster

492 2 9 Lioyd’s
1,938 2 4 London and South-western
6,494 2 2 Martin
551 3 O Metropolitan
4,775 1 2 National

27 9 O National Provincial 72,668 0 1
13,263 18 11 Prescott
21,246 19 8 Robarts
8,755 14 2 Southwark
850 6 3 Smith ;

7 0 Union 70,547 16 2
33,605 18 8 Williams
Country Clearing 30,327 13 10
398,158 5 2 646,381 7 1
6,311 10 4 Returns 5,443 12 4
399,469 15 6 651,824 19 5
252,355 311 Balance
651,824 19 5

The figures in either column are the sums due to or
by Glyn & Co. in account with each of the other
members of the clearing-house, after allowing for
their mutual indebtedness ; the differences as they
occurred that day being also shown interlined ;
as well as the total amount of vouchers returned
unpaid. The result was that after placing all
their claims on the other banks against the
claims of the latter on them, there remained a
sum of £252,355, 3s. lld. due by Glyn & Co.
on the general balance. This was more than
accoun for by the claims of the Bank of
range who only clear on one side. Each
bank makes up a similar form. The inspectors
having satisfied themselves that the general
balance is correct (all the members having agreed

between themselves, and the total debtor balances
equalling the creditor), warrants for settling the
balances by transfer at the Bank of England,
certified by the inspectors, are passed between the
members. Formerly these balances were settled
in cash. Thus, transactions to the amount of
several millions daily are settled without the use of
a bank-note or coin. The importance of the system
is illustrated by the fact, stated in evidence before
the House of Commons, that the London and
Westminster Bank, by getting admission to the
clearing-house, were enabled to reduce their cash-
balance by £150,000.

The record of the total amount of bills, cheques,
and drafts passing through the clearing-house is
regarded as an index of the state of nin Ag and as
London is the chief centre of trade for the world,
this reecrd has a world-wide range. The sums
passed through the clearing-house are greatest on
certain ‘special days.’ hese are (1) the 4ths
of the month, trade bills being mostly dated on the
first of the month, and, with three days’ grace,
falling due on the 4th of some succeeding
month ; (2) consols settling days, once a month;
(3) Stock Exchange settling days, twice a month.
The following figures, commencing with the earli-
est record, show the magnitude and growth of
the clearing-house work: (1839) £954,401,600;

(1868) £3,425,185,000; (1873) £6,070,948,000 ;
(1878) £4,992,398,000; (1883) £5,929,404,000;
(1887) £6,077,097,000; (1890) £7,801,048,000;
(1893) £6,478,013,000. In most of the large towns

in England there is now a clearing-house, and in
Scotland.the system, including the separately con-
ducted note-exchanges, has been eos a organ-
ised, so that clearings take place all over the
country, balances being settled in Edinburgh.

The first clearing-house in America was started
in New York on 11th October 1853, and the system
has since assumed enormous proportions through-
out the United States ; in 1888 there were upwards
of 30 clearing-houses. The progress of the New
York elearing-house will be seen from the follow-
ing figures for the years ending 30th September
(1854) £1,150,091,197; (1868) £5,696,857,727 ;
(1873) £7,092,210,565; (1878) £4,501,687,688 ;
(1883) £8,058,633,051 ; (1891) £8,513,600,000.

The system has more recently spread to the con-
tinent of Europe. La Chambre de Compensation
des Banquiers de Paris was formed March 1872,
the clearing-house of Berlin in 1883, and that of
Vienna in 1864; but their transactions are greatly
less than those of London and New York. While
it was in connection with banking that the clear-
ing-house system originated, the principle (in
modified forms) has been adopted by other depart-
ments of business. The London Railway Clearing-
house was founded in 1842, the Stock Exchange
Clearing-house in 1874, and others more recently.
See Howarth, Our Clearing System (1886); Francois,
Clearing House et Chambres de Compensation ( Lille,
1887); The New York Clearing House, its Methods
and Systems (New York, 1888).

THE RAILWAY CLEARING-HOUSE is an asso-
ciation instituted to enable railway companies in
Great Britain to carry on, without interruption,
the through traffic in passengers, animals, minerals,
and goods passing over different companies’ lines of
railways, and to afford to the traffic the same facili-
ties as if the different lines had belonged to one
ey. The arrangements are conducted in
London by a committee, the members of which
are appointed by the directors of the companies
who are parties to it; and the association is -
lated by the Railway Clearing Act, 1850. The
companies are each represented on the committee
by a delegate. The committee holds stated meet-
ings four times a year, and oftener if necessary.

286 CLEARING-NUT

CLEF

Subordinate committees of -railway officers also
meet from time to time. The accounts of the
clearing system, and the balances due to and from
the several companies, are settled and adjusted by
the secretary of the committee, with appeal to the
committee, whose decision is final. The clerks at
stations of the various companies send abstracts
of all traffic monthly. The collected passenger-
tickets are also sent monthly. Number-men are
employed by the clearing-house at junctions where
the lines of different companies meet, who
note the number of every carriage, horse-box,
wagon, van, and sheet or wagon-cover on the
train going beyond the parent line, and make
weekly returns. The returns from the companies’
stations, together with those of the number-
men, enable the accounts of mileage and de-
murrage incurred to be made up by the clearing-
house, by whom the companies are debited and
credited, as the case may be. A debtor and
creditor account is sent from the clearing-house
monthly to each company, showing on the one side
in one sum what the company has to receive from
all other companies as their proportion of through
passenger fares, through goods and parcels rates,
and mileage and demurrage of carriages, wagons,
and sheets ; and on the other side, also in one sum,
what the eomueny has to pay to others out of
moneys drawn by them. The balance is struck as
against, or in favour of, the clearing-house (as a
common debtor or creditor). .In addition to declar-
ing the balances, the clearing-house supplies to
each company monthly statements of the details
of the traffic of each station. ;

The number of companies parties to the clearing
system was recently between sixty and seventy,
oeateee | ractically all the working railway com-
panies 0 Cenat Britain ; and the amount of business
of an intricate kind which was involved may be
judged of from the foregoing particulars, and from
the number of separate settlements, which amount
to eleven and a half millions per annum, represent-
ing seventeen millions of money. The staff now
numbers nearly two thousand. Regulations are
published annually by the clearing-house for the
guidance of the different companies in connection
with the system.

The clearing-house system is made available
also for the recovery of lost articles of luggage.
Reports giving the description of each lost article
are sent from all stations daily to the clearing-
house, and by this means almost all lost luggage
is restored to the owners. The reports number
nearly half a million perannum. The government
scheme of the parcel post involves a quarterly
payment by the Post-office to the whole of the
railway companies of Great Britain and Ireland,
and the apportionment as between the companies
is effected through the machinery of the clearing-
house. There is a similar railway clearing system
in Ireland, with its headquarters in Dublin.

The general railway clearing-house has never
been established in the United States, but there
are several of limited extent, each embracing such
lines as belong to an individual system. Thus,
one at Philadelphia is a common centre for an
association of lines, with about forty members.
. Others are at Atlanta (Ga.), Louisville (Ky.),
Boston (Mass... There are besides various rail-
way commissions, pools, and associations partaking
of the nature of a limited clearing system.

Clearing-nut (Sirychnos potatorum), a small
tree of the same genus with the Nux Vomica (q.v.),
abundant in the forests of India, and of which the
seeds are much used for clearing water. They are
sold for this use in the bazaars, and travellers com-
monly carry some with them. These seeds being
rubbed on the inside of a vessel, muddy water put

into it quickly becomes clear, all impurities settling
to the bottom.

Clear-story. See CLERESTORY.

Cleator Moor, a town of Cumberland, 4 miles
SE. of Whitehaven, with coal-mines and iron-fur-
naces. Pop. of parish (1861) 3995; (1891) 9464,

Cleats, in Shipbuilding, are pieces of wood
or iron fastened to various parts of the vessel, and
having holes or recesses for fastening ropes. There
are several kinds, applied to various purposes.

Cleavage, or SLATY CLEAVAGE, is a condition
of rocks in which they split easily into thin plates.
In true bedding the layers of rock correspond te
planes of deposition or accretion, but in slaty
cleavage the planes along which the rock splits
may or may not coincide with bedding-planes. In
point of fact they rarely do, but intersect the

edding-planes at all angles. Slaty cleavage is a
superinduced structure—the result of the extreme
compression which the rocks have undergone while
they were being squeezed into anticlinal and
synclinal folds (see ANTICLINE). When thin

, Shs Neen eae

LOLA RY rag Ly L

ELTA RATT
ETERNAL ELT :
UR RN ey

D

Section exhibiting Lines of Cleavage.

sections of clay-slate are examined microscopically.
the grains of which the rock is composed are found
to be flattened or compressed, and drawn out in the
direction of the cleavage planes. Although slaty
sniper is best developed in homogeneous fine-
grained clay-rocks, it yet occurs in many coarse-
grained rocks as well, but in.these the cleavage is
never so perfect as in the finer-grained clay-rocks.
As induration necessarily accompanies cleavage,
the cleaved clay-rocks become of great economic
importance, and are familiar to every one in the
common blue and purple roofing-slates.

Cleavers, or GOOsE-GRASS (Galiwm Aparine),
a species of Bedstraw (q.v./, a coarse Rubiaceous
annual, with whorls of six to eight leaves, both
stem and leaves rough with reflexed bristles, the
fruit also hispid, and when ripe distributed by ad-
hering like a bur to any animal which may brush
against it. A very common weed in hedges and
bushy places in Britain and most rgb of Europe
and Worth America, it was formerly of repute in
domestic medicine as a diuretic. From the time
of Dioscorides, and it is said still in Sweden, its
prickly stems have been used as a strainer for milk.

Clef, a musical character placed on the ae
which the absolute pitch of the notes is fixed.
There are three clefs—viz. the G, the C, and the F
clef. The G clef is placed on the second line, and
the stave with this clef is known as the treble
stave; the C clef on the third line as the alto
stave; and the F clef on the fourth line as the
bass stave. The C clef is a fifth below the G clef,
and a fifth above the F clef, thus :

aN T
Uv --=---= 4 < — Se ae me
a { fy a
t | of Res
2
The C clef is also placed on the fourth line for some

instruments, and for the tenor part in vocal music,

4

; and in old vocal music, and

thus :

TTO

also in full scores, the C clef placed on the first line
is used for the soprano.

CLEG

CLEMENT 287

Cleg, a name — to some insects of the
dipterous family Tabanide, the females of which
are in summer extremely troublesome to horses,

cattle, and human beings.

Some of them are well

known as ‘breeze - flies.’

The females pierce the

skin of their victims by

— of ae —

Chrysops cecutiens). cet-like mouth organs, an
re greedily suck the blood
from the wounds. The name cleg is sometimes
given in England to Chrysops cecutiens, a fly fre-
uent in most parts of Europe, but rare in Scot-

d. It often attacks man, and not unfrequently
inserts its proboscis through the sleeve, or some
other part of the dress. It is about one-third of an
inch in length, mostly black, with yellow markings
on the abdomen, and very large eyes of the most
beautiful n and golden colours. The insect
always called cleg in Scotland is Hamatopota

uvialis—a rather smaller but equally troublesome

y, mostly of a gray colour, but also remarkable
for its very large and beautiful eyes, which are
eeah, with waved purplish-brown bands. In

gland it is sometimes called the Stout. It is
particularly common in low damp places.

Cleland, WILLIAM (1661-89), Covenanting
poet. See CAMERONIAN REGIMENT.

Clematis (Gr. cléma, ‘the shoot of a vine’), a
— of plants of the natural order Ranunculacee,

aving four coloured sepals, no corolla, and for
fruit numerous one-seeded achenia with long—
generally feathery—awns. The species are pretty
numerous, herbs or shrubs, anseatly with climbin
stems, natives of very different climates, and muc
scattered over the world. They possess more or
less active caustic properties. e long awns give
the plants a beautiful appearance even in winter.
The flowers of many species are also beautiful. C.
vitalba, the common Traveller’s Joy (fancifully
so named because of its ornamental appearance
by the wayside), is the only native of Britain.

Clematis montana.

It is common in the south, but becomes rarer
towards the north, and is scarcely found in Scot-
land, The twigs are capable of being made into
baskets. It rapidly covers walls or unsightl

objects. The fruit and leaves are acrid an

vesicant, the leaves are used as a rubefacient in
rheumatism; and those of other species are also
employed in the same way. In ornamental garden-
ing the genus is a most important one. A number
of species and many pa varieties are of the

Song vd beauty, and most profuse in flowering.
he flowers of some in different varieties attain
the diameter of from 4 to 8 inches, and range in
colour from pure white to pale azure, deep purple,
and claret or ruby. In the United States there are
many native species. A beautiful evergreen species
from New Zealand, C. indivisa, with pure white
flowers, is one of the handsomest of greenhouse
climbers; and C. Jammula, a native of southern
Europe and northern Africa, with white flowers,
which have a very strong honey-like smell, is the
species known as Sweet Virgin’s Bower. The
garden varieties are propagated by grafting the
young shoots in spring on the roots of such com-
mon species as C. vitalba and C. flammuln. Many
are propagated by cuttings, and all may be in-
creased W seeds, but the garden varieties cannot
be depended upon to come true by that means.

Clemens, SAMUEL LANGHORNE (‘Mark
Twain’), a popular American author, in early life
successively printer, Mississippi | c,,,rignt 1889, 1897, and
River pilot, and versatile hu- | 1900 in the u.8. byJ. 8.
morous writer, was born at! Mppincott Company.
Florida, in the state of Missouri, November 30, 1835.
From a well-known call of the man sounding the
river (‘Mark twain,’ meaning ‘by the mark two
fathoms’) his pseudonym as a writer was subse-
quently taken. After the outbreak of the war of
1861-65, he went to Nevada, where he tried silver-
mining ; next he edited for two years the Virginia
City Enterprise, to which he had previously con-
tributed as ‘Mark Twain;’ and in 1864 movin
to San Francisco, became a journalist, and lectur
with success there and in New York. In 1867 he
joined a pleasure party going abroad, and visited

rance, Italy, and Palestine, gathering material
for his Innocents Abroad (1869), which established
his reputation as a humorist, 125,000 copies sell-
ing within three years. He was afterwards an
editor at Buffalo, New York, with an interest in
the Eapress, where he married Miss Langdon, a
lady of wealth. He, later, removed to Hartford,
Connecticut, where he erected a unique and costly
residence, and afterwards became a member of
the unsuccessful publishing firm of Charles L.
Webster & Co. He was made M.A. of Yale in
1888. His humour, however grotesque, is never
laboured, never mean or ungenerous; it is singu-
larly direct and simple in form, and has appealed
as successfully to British as to American readers.
‘If the prevailing spirit of Mark Twain’s humour,’
writes Mr Howells, ‘is not a sort of good-natured
self-satire, in which the reader may see his own
absurdities reflected, I scarcely should be able to
determine it.’ Mr Clemens has varied much of his
work by excellent character-sketches and graphic
descriptions. Among his books are The Innocents
Abroad (1869); Roughing It (1872); The Gilded
Age (1873), the last written with the co-operation
of Mr Charles Dudley Warner, and subsequently

ut on the stage, where it had great success ; Jom
awyer (1876); .A Tramp Abroad (1880); The Prince

and the Pauper (1882); Life on the Mississippi (1874,
re-issued 1983) 3; The Adventures of Huckleberry

Finn (1885); a ary oeeyt Library of Humour
(1888) ; Pudd’nhead Wilson (1894 ) ; Recollections of
Joan of Arc (1896); Huckleberry Finn as Detective
eet ; and short stories and magazine articles.

he author lost all his money in a publishing enter-
prise (1884-95), and in 1898 wrote an autobiography.

Clement. CLEMENS, or CLEMENT, is the name
of seventeen Popes (q.v.). The first of the series,
CLEMENS ROMANUS, is accounted one of ‘the
Apostolic Fathers (q.v.), and is reckoned variously
as the second or third successor of St Peter in the
see of Rome. A 9th-century legend makes him
martyred in the Crimea in the year 102. His day

288

CLEMENT .

is November 23. Origen (185-254) was the first
to distinctly identify Clement with St Paul’s
‘fellow-labourer’ (Phil. iv. 3); but this assumption
las nothing to support it, while the ancient
tradition makes Clement the disciple of St Peter.
Moreover, on a name so common endless theories
may be built. Distinguished German scholars,
such as Hilgenfeld, and Harnack (doubtfully ), have
identified the bishop with Flavius Clemens, cousin
of the Emperor Domitian, whose sons had been
named successors to the empire, and who was
consul in 95 A.D., and in the same year put to
death on a charge of ‘atheism’ and ‘Jewish
manners.’ The most probable view is that ad-
vanced by Lightfoot—that Clement was a freed-
man of Jewish parentage belonging to ‘ Cesar’s
household ’—strong arguments in support of which
are set forth in his edition of the two Epistles.
Of these, the so-called second epistle is really a
homily, and is certainly not Clement’s; but the
first, although its genuineness has been earnestly
disputed by the author of Peregrinus Proteus
( Lond. 1879), is generally accepted. Chiefly horta-
tory and didactic, it is addressed to the Corinthian
Church, in which serious feuds had arisen, and
treats of social dissensions and of the resurrection,
which is illustrated by a curiously circumstantial
account of the phoenix. It was probably written
about 95 A.D., and it was widely known and
highly esteemed at an early date. Clement would
appear to have had some reputation among his
contemporaries as a letter-writer ; Hermas (a-¥-)
Oy ae os himself as directed by thé angel to
deliver a copy of his Shepherd to him, that he may
transmit it to the cities abroad, ‘for this function
belongs to him.’ To-day the epistle is chiefly of
interest as the first though innocent step towards
apal aggression, and for what Lightfoot calls
its liturgical position. There is no respectable
evidence that it was ever placed in the same
catalogue with the canonical books, but in the
church at Corinth it was publicly read from time
to time, and by the 4th century this use had ex-
tended to other churches. For convenience of
reading it would be attached to MSS. of the New
Testament, as is the case in the famous Alexandrian
MS. of the 5th century; but neither on this fact
nor on its insertion in the forged Apostolic Canons
can any argument be based; and it is only in the
late Syriac MS. that it actually appears with the
catholic epistles. The first edition was edited by
Patrick Young in 1633, from the mutilated and
incomplete Alexandrian MS., then in the king’s
library. This was the only copy known to the
world until in 1875 Bryennios (q.v.) published a
complete MS. (dated 1056) found at Constantin-
ople, and in 1876 a complete Syriac MS. (1170)
came into the possession of Cambridge University.
See Lightfoot’s scholarly and exhaustive edition
(1869 ; appendix, 1877), where the second epistle
will also a found. Quite a mass of literature has
sprung up round the name of Clement, but the
other works attributed to him—the Apostolic Con-
stitutions and Canons (q.v.), two Syriac epistles
on Virginity (MS. dated 1470; published 1752),
the Clementine (the Recognitions and Homilies),
and two epistles to James, which, with three
forged Clementine letters, were in the 9th century
incorporated in the notorious Isidorian Decretals—
are all undoubtedly spurious. The Clementine is
a fiction of which St Peter is the hero; it was
regarded by Baur and the Tiibingen school as
the most notable outcome of the Ebionite party in
the early Christian church, and on it much of their
theory is based; the Recognitions (the Latin form,
preserved by Rufinus ) have been edited by Gersdorf
(1838), the Homilies (the Greek form) by Schwegler
(1847), Dressel (1853), and De Lagarde (1865).

For the Epistles to Virgins, see Beelen’s edition
(Louvain, 1856), and Funk (Tiib. 1881); for their
source, see Cotterill’s elaborate and convincing
Modern Criticism (Edin. 1884).

CLEMENS, TITUS FLAVIUusS, a celebrated father
of the Christian church, was born probably at
Athens, of heathen parents, about the middle
of the 2d century, and resided during great part
of his life in Alexandria, whence the epithet AJlex-
andrinus. In his earlier years he devoted himself
with great zeal to the study of philosophy, and
wandered far and wide in quest of truth. The date
of his conversion is unknown, but it is certain that
after coming to Egypt, and listening to the pre-
lections of Pantzenus, he joined the Alexandrine
Church, and was made a presbyter. Afterwards
he became assistant to his master, whom he suc-
ceeded, about 190 A.D., as head of the celebrated
Catechetical school. In 203 the persecution of
the Christians under Severus compelled him to flee
to Palestine. The only later notice we have of him
is as the bearer of a letter from his pupil Alexander,
afterwards Bishop of Jerusalem, to Antioch ; and
the date and place of his death are matters of pure
conjecture, some writers putting it in 213, others as
late as 220. His most distinguished pupil was
Origen. Clement held a place in the Western
martyrologies until the 17th century, when his
name was omitted by Clement VIII. from the
revised Roman martyrology; but in France, at
least, he has never lost his title, his festival is still
celebrated on the 4th December, and his name
appears in the popular list of saints whose names
may be given to children at baptism.

The chief writings of Clement that have survived,
besides a practical treatise, Who is the Rich Man
that is Saved, are the Missionary, the Tutor, and the
Miscellanies, which form a connected series, prob-
ably continued in his lost Outlines, which was an
investigation of the canonical writings. The first
is an exhortation to the Greeks to abandon idolatry ;
the second, an exposition of Christian ethics; and
the third, a collection of treatises and brief observa-
tions on Greek and Christian literature, designed
as an introduction to Christian philosophy. They
show that Clement, when he became a Christian,
did not cease to bea philosopher. His liberal mind
saw in science not a gift of devils, but of God through
the Logos ; Greek philosophy was part of the divine
education of man, and his teaching is the result of
the lofty purity of character that led him to seek
the truth alike from heathen writers and from
Christian heretics, believing that all that comes
from God is good. The period in which he lived
must also be taken into account: in his day all
believers were regarded as in process of salvation ;
the distinction between the visible and invisible
church had not yet been suggested, while Gnosti-
cism offered to many minds an attractive solution of
some obvious difficulties. Clement therefore dis-
tinguished between the ordinary believer and the
Christian gnostic ; above faith he placed know-
ledge, above salvation the more august Gory and
full spiritual life of the ‘ perfect man.’ Faith im-
plies knowledge, but imperfect knowledge; many
things must be accepted in simple trust, until by
contemplation and the practice of what is right the
believer shakes himself free from the power of
evil, and rises to intelligent sympathy with the
divine will. And this system of spiritual evolu-
tion Clement extends to the future life, where the
process of development is continued before the
gnostic becomes as far as possible like God. Here
are easily visible the germs of the later mysticism,
just as his view of the Father as a pure Monad,
undemonstrable, who can only be manifested
through the Son, marks an important step in the
progress of Neoplatonism. God and the cause of

JT eet

CLEMENT XIV.

CLEOPATRA 289

all things he sought to discover in the simplest

conceivable ; and he went equally astray in
: g Christianity only a philosophy, and, as a
means to a perfect life, the fullness of what had
been ial in the Greek systems. Yet two truths
he nobly taught—the present recovery of the divine
likeness, and that formulated doctrine is not an
end but a means to final knowledge. Clement’s
extant works exhibit a man of pure and gentle
spirit, of sincere piety, of wide reading and of wider
sympathies, and with a noble conception of the
pu of God’s providence ; but his learning is
un ted, his quotations are often careless, and
his id, verbose style and desultory method
appear to have repelled most scholars.

The best edition of his works is still that of Bishop
Potter (1715), and others based on it; there is a trans-
lation in Clark’s Ante-Nicene Library (1877-79), and a
bibliography at the end of Dr Westcott’s article in the
Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877). Reference
should also be made to Merk, Clemens von Alexandrien
(Leip. 1879), to Winter's Ethik des Clemens (Leip.
1882), to Dr Bigg’s Christian Platonists of Alexandria

Bampton Lectures, 1886), and to works by Eugéne de

‘aye (1899) and F. R. Montgomery Hitchcock (1899).

Clement XIV., GIovANNI VINCENZO ANTONIO
GANGANELLI, born in 1705 at Sant’ Arcangelo, near
Rimini, at the age of eighteen entered the order of
Minorites, and studied philosophy and theology,
which he afterwards successfull taught at ‘Aseoke
Bologna, and Milan. He was the friend and con-
fidant of Benedict XITV., who appointed him to
the important post of counsellor to the Inquisition,
and under Clement XIII. he was made a cardinal.
He succeeded to the pa chair, May 19, 1769,
after a conelave agita by the intrigues of the
Catholic sovereigns, who united in opposing every
candidate favourable to the Jesuits. The new pope
first set about reconciling these monarchs ; he sus-
pended the bull Jn Cena Domini, and entered into
negotiations with Spain and France. After four

ears of deliberation, he issued in 1773 the famous

rief Dominus ac Redemptor noster, suppressing
‘for ever’ the society of the Jesuits. The motive
assigned in the brief is, ‘regard to the peace of the
church.’ From this time his strength gradually
gave way, and he died September 22, 1774, of
poison, it was said, although no evidence has been
produced to verify this suspicion. Clement was
remarkable for liberality of mind, address as a
statesman, sound learning, and integrity of char-
acter. He cherished the arts and sciences, and
was the founder of the Clementine Museum, which,
by the additions of Pius VI. and Pius VII., became
the chief ornament of the Vatican. See Theiner,
Geschichte des Pontifikats Clements XIV. (Paris,
1853 ; also in French),

Clement, JACQUES (1564-89), the Dominican
who stabbed Henry III. (q.v.) of France.

Clementi, Mvzi0, in his time an eminent pianist
and composer for the pianoforte, was born in 1752
at Rome, where he competed successfully for a post
as organist at the age of nine. Before he was four-
teen, he had composed several contrapuntal works
of considerable size, one of which, a mass, had pro-
duced some sensation in Rome; he then attracted
the notice of an Englishman, Peter Beckford,
M.P., who brought him to England, and at whose
house in Dorsetshire he studied till 1770. When

“he appeared in London, his extraordinary com-

mand of the pianoforte secured him an almost un-

Lhe pe success. From 1777 to 1780 he con-
ucted the Italian Opera ; in 1781 he visited Paris,

Strasburg, Munich, and Vienna, where he en

in a prolonged musical combat with Mozart before

the emperor, the victory being left undecided.

Mozart’s letters express the verdict that Clementi

. 123

was ‘a mere mechanician ;’ but the latter had
not then exchanged his brilliant execution for the
melodic style of his after performances. He made
other visits to the Continent, and amassed an inde-
pendence in England by teaching; and when much
of this was lost in the failure of a musical firm
with which he had become connected, he founded
the business of manufacturer of pianofortes which
is still carried on under the name of his associate,
Collard. He died at Evesham, 9th March 1832.
He has left over a hundred sonatas, of which sixty
are for the pianoforte alone ; his ‘Op. 2’ (composed
in his eighteenth year) is considered the model of all
modern pianoforte sonatas. Of his other works, the
Gradus ad Parnassum (1817) is a splendid series
of 100 studies, ‘on which to this day the art of solid
piano-playing rests.’

Cleome’des, author of a Greek treatise, in
two books, On the Circular Theory of the Heavenly
Bodies, which sets forth the Stoic theory of the
universe, and which is remarkable as containing,
amid much error and ignorance, several truths of
modern science—such as the spherical shape of
the earth. Nothing is known definitely regard-
ing his life, but it seems most probable that he
flourished in the 2d century A.D. Editions of his
treatise are those of Bake (Leyden, 1820), Schmidt
(Leip. 1831), and Ziegler (Leip. 1891).

Cleon, a famous Athenian demagogue in the
time of the Peloponnesian war, for about six years
the leader of the party o to peace. Origin-
ally a tanner, he gradually abandoned his business,
and became the champion of popular rights, a
eee o for which his fluent speech and loud voice

tted him admirably. He first became prominent
about 427 B.c. by his advocating the putting to
death of the Mytilenean prisoners, but his first

eat success was the reduction of the island of
phacteria, in which a Lacedemonian force had
long held out. It is by no means clear how far
this exploit was not really due to the skilful dis-
itions of his coll e Demosthenes, but Cleon
imself was highly elated with his success, and
many of his countrymen must have credited him
with military genius, for in 422 he was sent to
oppose Brasidas, the great Spartan general, in
acedonia and Thrace. But for this task the
demagogue was insufficient, and he only saved his
character by falling in the battle fought under the
walls of Amphipolis.

Our picture of Cleon has had the misfortune to
have been painted in unfavourable colours by such
masters as Thucydides and Aristophanes; and,
as Grote has pointed out, it should be remembered
that the great historian was full of oligarchical
prejudices, while we know that Aristophanes girded
at other men about whose nobility of character
there is no doubt at all. Besides, it appears not
unlikely that both owed the demagogue a private
grudge ; the former for having been banished at

leon’s instance while holding a subordinate com-
mand, the latter because Cleon had complained to
the senate that in his comedy, The Babylonians,
Aristophanes had ridiculed his country’s policy in
the face of foreigners, and that, too, in time of
war. Whether just or unjust the picture, Cleon
will live in the Knights of Aristophanes as the
shifty and inca ag 2 ie, lying and
pandering to the mob, which he befools for his own
selfish ends. In this comedy he is one of the
actual dramatis persone, and this part the author
played himself, not being able to find an actor bold
enough to take it.

Cleopa’tra, was daughter of the Egyptian
king, Ptolemy Auletes, and was born in 69 B.c. By
the will of her father, who died in 51, she should
have inherited the throne along with her younger

290 CLEOPATRA

CLERGY

brother, Ptolemy, who was also to be her husband,
in accordance with Egyptian custom. But she was
expelled from the throne by young Ptolemy’s
guardians, Pothinus and Achillas, whereupon she
retreated into Syria to’ raise troops, and was just
about to return to reassert her rights when the
great Cesar arrived in Egyptin pursuit of Pompey.

er charms quickly touched the susceptible heart
of Cesar, who warmly espoused her cause, and,
after the successful issue of the Alexandrine war,
in which Ptolemy fell, placed her again upon the
throne, this time with, as nominal colleague and
husband, a still younger brother, of whom she
soon rid herself by poison. Cleopatra bore a son to
Cesar, who was called Cesarion (afterwards cut
off by Augustus), and soon followed her lover to
Rome, where she received such honours as were
but ill-pleasing to the Roman populace. In the
civil war after Czsar’s murder, she hesitated
at first which side to take. After the battle of
Philippi, Antony summoned her to appear before
him at Tarsus in Cilicia, to give account of her
conduct. The ‘serpent of old Nile’ sailed up the
river Cydnus to meet him, in a gorgeous galley,
arrayed as Venus rising from the sea, and accom-
panied with all the gorgeous and romantic splendour
of the East. She was then in her twenty-eighth
year, in the perfection of matured beauty, and
that, from her pure descent, almost certainly of
the best Greek type, spite of Shakespeare’s ‘gypsy’s
lust,’ Tennyson’s ‘swarthy’ cheeks, and Geréme’s
typical Egyptian features. The splendour of her
beauty and her wit so fascinated the amorous
heart of Antony that he at once flung away for her
sake, duty, a Roman’s pride, and at last all his
ambition and his life. They spent the next winter
at Alexandria, where they steeped their senses in the
most delirious revelries of reckless love. Antony,
although in the meantime he had returned to Rome
to marry Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, soon
returned to the arms of Cleopatra, who met him
at Laodicea, in Syria (36 B.C.), and accompanied
him on his march to the Euphrates. From this
time his usual residence was with her at Alex-
andria, and here he heaped upon her and _ her
children the most extravagant gifts and honours,
His infatuated folly cost him all his popularity
at Rome, and weakened his energies for the in-
evitable struggle. It was at Cleopatra’s instiga-
tion that Antony risked the great naval battle of
Actium, and when she fled with sixty ships, he
forgot everything else and flung away half the
world to follow her. When the conqueror appeared
before Alexandria, Cleopatra entered into private
negotiations with him for her own security ; while
Antony, who was at first indignant at her treachery,
being told that she had already killed herself, fell
pron his sword. Mortally wounded, and learning
that the report which he had heard was false, he
had himself carried into her presence, and died in
her arms. Octavianus, by artifice, now succeeded
in making the queen his prisoner. Finding that
she could not touch his colder heart, and too proud
to endure the thought that her life was spared only
to grace her conqueror’s triumph at Rome, she
took poison, or as it is said, killed herself by
causing an asp to bite her bosom (30 B.c.). Her
body was buried beside that of Antony, and the
syed Octavia brought up the twin children she had

orne to Antony as if they had been her own.

For Cleopatra, ‘age cannot wither her ’—the
fascination of her beauty and the rare romantic
interest of her story defy the touch of time. Helen
of Troy and Mary Stuart. alone divide with her
that sovereignty over the imaginations of men that
survives across the centuries. To dramatist, to
poet, and to painter, she will continue to be all
that she was to Cesar and to Antony.

Clepsydra (Gr., ‘ water-clock’), an instrument.
to measure time by the trickling or escape of water.
In Babylonia, India, and Egypt, the clepsydra was.
used from before the dawn of history, especially in
astronomical observations. A Hindu form of it
was that of a copper basin put to float in a vessel,
so that by the gradual influx of water through an
aperture beneath, it should sink in a certain time.
A more common type is that referred to by Greek
and Latin writers, which resembled the modern
sand-glass, and was used in courts of law to limit
the length of the pleadings. Julius Ceesar (Com.
de Bell. Gall., lib. v. 13) speaks of measuring time
in Britain ‘by accurate water-measures,’ and some
commentators infer that the clepsydra was used
by the Britons. More probably, however, it was"
brought by the Romans, being regularly used in
their armies for allotting out the three hours’
watches. Pliny ascribes the invention of the
clepsydra to Scipio Nasica, but he, no doubt, —
merely introduced it from Alexandria or Greece,
where it had already been greatly improved and
perfected.

The general form of the clepsydra consisted
essentially of a float which slowly rose by the
trickling of water from above through a small hole
in a plate of metal. As the float rose it pointed
to a scale of hours at the side of the water-vessel,
or, in the more elaborate forms, moved a wheel by
means of a ratchet, and thus turned a hand on a
dial. The first great difficulty was to secure a
constant and uniform supply of water. This was
well and simply done by using an intermediate
cistern, so that, by means of a waste-pipe near
the surface, the water always remained at the
same level, even when the amount poured in ex- -
ceeded the average.

There remained a much greater difficulty, arising
from a fact often overlooked—viz. that by the
Greek and Roman calendar the hour was not a
fixed space of time, being very much longer in
summer than in winter. A day meant the inter-
val from sunrise to sunset, and an hour being the
twelfth part of it was by no means so simple and
Rashad a a magnitude as the unit of time shown
on our modern dials. The problem of measuring
the hour, thus varying through the year, was
solved by Ctesibius of Alexandria, who invented
an elaborate self-adjusting mechanism.—Clepsydra
was also the name given to an ancient musical
instrument, a hydraulic or water organ, described
by Athenzeus.

Clere, JEAN LE. See LE CLERC.

Clerestory, an upper row of windows rising
clear above the adjoining parts of the building,
but more probably so named as admitting clear-
ness or light. The term is particularly applied to
the windows in the upper part of the central nave
of churches (see GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; and for
an illustration, the article BristoL). This mode
of lighting was also in use among the Romans.
See BASILICA.

Clergy (Gr. Aléros, ‘a lot, an inheritance’). The
word cléros occurs in the Septuagint as the equiv-
alent of the Hebrew nachalali, ‘an inheritance,’
applied to the Jewish nation generally as peculiarly
the divine heritage (Deut. iv. 20; ix. 29), and to
the Levitical office specifically, as a ‘spiritual’
heritage, distinguished from the temporal posses- _
sions of the other tribes (Deut. x. 9; xviii. 1-2).
In the New Testament it is found in cognate
senses applied to the Christian body or its several
congregations (1 Peter, v. 3, where the word is

lural), and to the apostolic office (Acts, i. 17, 25).
tenes the term was very generally applied to
the ministers of the Christian religion, as holders
of an allotted office, in contradistinction to the

CLERGY

CLERMONT 291

term Laity. This use of the term is very ancient,
being found in Clement of Alexandria (De Divite.
0, 46) and Tertullian (De Monog. 12), and

_— to have gradually become prevalent, as

ministers of religion more and more exclu-
sively, instead of the members of the Christian
church generally, began to be regarded as God’s
“ves, and ‘priesthood’ (1 Peter, ii. 9), con-
secrated to him, and peculiarly his. The distince-
tion between the clergy and the laity became
more marked through the multiplication of offices
and titles among the clergy, the ascription to
them of a place in the Christian church similar
to that of the priests and Levites in the Jewish
Church, with peculiar rights and privileges (which
occurs as early as Clement of Rome, Ep. ad.
Corinth. i. 40), their nema gp of a peculiar dress
and of official insignia, the growth of monastic
institutions, and the introduction of celibacy. In
harmony with the notions on which this distinction
is founded, is that of an indelible or almost indelible
character derived from ordination, so that a renun-
ciation of the clerical office is either viewed as an
impossibility, or a sort of tosis These notions
in their highest degree belong to the Church of
Rome. In the Protestant churches, the distinction
between clergy and laity is much less wide; and
although the same terms are often used, it is
rather conventionally than in their full significa-
tion. The employment of official robes by the clergy
receped their assumption of a opt gees ordinary
ress (indeed, for the most part, there was no direct
adoption of a special garb for ordinary occasions,
but the clergy did not change their fashions as the
laity did, and continued to wear attire, such as the
eassock, which was once commonly worn by all
persons, but was discarded by the laity), and
1s not so intimately connected with any peculiar

pretensions,
Among the privileges accorded to the clergy
by the Roman emperors, and in the middle ages,

was exemption from civil offices ; among the rights
asserted by them, and which caused much dispute,
was exemption from lay-jurisdiction, even in cases
of rata & With the revival of the Western
Empire by Charlemagne, the clergy became one
of the Estates of the empire, and the bishops
were given baronial rank, and entitled to sit
along with the temporal nobles in the imperial
Diets. This institution survived the break-up of
the Carlovingian empire, and ibonge in several
parts of Europe, very noticeably in France until
the Revolution. In England the clergy are still
technically and constitutionally one of the three
Estates of the realm, and taxed themselves in their
convocations as late as 1663. The bishops who sit
in the House of Lords do so in virtue of baronies
annexed to their sees, but not as prelates of the
church, and it was held by parliament in Henry
VIII.’s time, and later by Coke, that the right of
session in convocation made the clergy of the
second order ineligible to sit in the House of
Commons. But the point remained doubtful till the
Act 41 Geo. III. chap. 63, sec. 4 definitely excluded
clerks in holy orders from sitting there, under a
penalty of £500 per day if so sitting or voting.

hose only who have formally relinquished the
clerical office can sit, in virtue of the Clerical Dis-
abilities Act of 1870. The clergy were distinguished
into the higher clergy and the lower clergy, that is,
those in the ‘major orders’ of bishop, priest, and
deacon (and, since the 13th century, sub-deacon ), or
those in the ‘ minor orders’ of acolytes, lectors,
exorcists, &c. The term Secular Clergy is the
designation of priests of the Latin and Greek
churches who do not follow any religious rule
(regula), but have the care of parishes. Monks
who are in holy orders are designated Regular

Clergy. See BENEFIT OF CLERGY, Bishop, ORDERS
(HoLy), Priest, Rector, &c.
Clergyman’s Sore Throat. See Turoar.
Clericus, JOHANNES. See Le CLERC.

Clerk (Lat. clericus), properly a clergyman ;
also, in old usage, a scholar; an officer attached to
courts and corporations, who keeps the records; a
lawyer’s assistant; a booking or railway clerk ;
and in the United States, a shopman.

The PARISH CLERK is an official in the Church
of England, who leads the responses in a congre-
gation, and assists in the services of public worship,
at funerals, &c. There is usually one in each parish.
In cathedrals and collegiate churches there are
several of these lay-clerks ; and in some cases they
form a corporate y, having a common estate,
besides payments from the chapter. Before the
Reformation, the duties of parish clerk were
always discharged by clergymen in minor orders.

Clerk, Joun, of Eldin, writer on naval tactics,
was born in 1728, the seventh son of the
antiquary, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, Mid-
lothian (1676-1755). He prospered as an Edin-
burgh merchant, and by 1773 purchased the small
estate of Eldin at Lasswade, where he devoted
himself to etching, to geology, and to studyin
deeply both the theory and practice of nava
tactics. In 1779 he communicated to his friends a
new manceuvre for ‘breaking the enemy’s line’ in
a naval battle; and during a visit to London the
following year, he claimed to have had some con-
ferences on the subject with naval officers, among
whom was Sir Charles Douglas, Lord Rodney’s
captain of the fleet in the memorable action of
April 12, 1782, when the experiment was tried for
the first time, and a decisive victory gained over
the French. In 1782 Clerk printed 50 copies of his
Essay on Naval Tactics, for private distribution
among his friends. It was reprinted and published
in 1790; three were added in 1797; and the
work was republished entire in 1804, with a preface
explaining the origin of his discoveries. Clerk died
‘May 10, 1812.—His son, JOHN CLERK (1757-1832),
was raised to the Scottish bench in 1823, when he
assumed the judicial title of Lord Eldin.

Clerkenwell, a London parish, lying within the
parliamentary borough of Finsbury, and due north
of St Paul’s. It is largely inhabited by watch-
makers, goldsmiths, and opticians. The Fenian
attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison took place
13th mber 1867. Pop. (1891) 66,216.

Clerk-Maxwell. See MAxwELt.

Clermont (in the middle ages, Clarus Mons, or
Clarimontium) is the name of several towns in
France. The most important are: (1) CLERMONT,
in the department of Oise, 41 miles N. of Paris by
rail, with a large hospital and a prison for women.
Pop. (1891) 3783.—(2) CLERMONT-FERRAND, the
capital of the department of Puy-de-Déme (the
Augustonemetum of the Romans, in the country of
the Arverni), which is finely situated on a gentle
elevation between the rivers Bedat and Allier, 135
miles S. of Paris by rail. Among the principal
buildings are the old Gothic cathedral, built of
dark lava from a neighbouring range of extinct
volcanoes ; the fine church of Notre Dame, where
Peter the Hermit preached the first Crusade ; the
handsome Palais des Facultés; and the government
buildings, formerly a convent (1250). ‘The town is
the seat of a medical and a theological college,
technical schools, and several scientific bodies, and
has a public library with 40,000 volumes. The
streets, with the exception of a number of fine
squares, are narrow, tortuous, and steep. The chief
manufactures are candied fruits, wax matches, chem-
icals, linen, rope, lace, and machines, and there is

292 CLEVEDON

CLEVELAND

an extensive traffic in the produce of the district,
and in the transit trade between Paris and the
south of France. There are several mineral springs
in the town, of which the iron spring of St Alyre
(65° F.) has formed by deposits in the course of
ages two natural bridges. The bishopric of Cler-
mont was founded in 253; and seven ecclesiastical
councils were held here during the middle ages,
the most remarkable of which was that in 1095, at
which the first Crusade was instituted by Urban‘II.
A statue has been erected to Pascal, who, as well
as Gregory of Tours, was a native of Clermont.
Pop. (1872) 32,963 ; (1891) 41,950.—(3) CLERMONT
7 REAL, 33 miles W. of Montpellier by rail,
with manufactures of leather and of cloth for the
army. Pop. (1891) 5056.

Clevedon, a pleasant Somersetshire watering-
place, on the Bristol Channel, 12 miles by road but
16 by rail WSW. of Bristol. The historian Hallam,
and Arthur, his son, lie in the old parish church ;
Coleridge lived a while here at Myrtle Cottage
(1795); and Clevedon Court (much damaged by fire
in 1882) is the ‘Castlewood’ of Thackeray’s Esmond.
Pop. of parish (1851) 1905 ; (1891) 5412.

Cleveite. See ARGon.

Cleveland, a wild mountainous district, with
some picturesque fertile valleys, forming the east
part of the N. Riding of Yorkshire between Whitby
and the Tees. In the south the hills rise 1300 to
1850 feet. An extraordinary change has been
wrought in the aspect of the country by a rich
discovery of ironstone in the Cleveland hills; since
1851, lonely hamlets have become populous towns.
The ironstone is chiefly an argillaceous carbonate,
inferior to that of the coal-measures. See MIDDLES-
BOROUGH, IRON. The title of Duchess of Cleveland
was conferred in 1670 by Charles II. (q.v.) on his
mistress, Barbara Villiers, and her eldest son
(Fitzroy) was first duke. In 1827 the marquisate
of Cleveland was bestowed on William Harry Vane,
Earl of Darlington (whose grandfather married a
descendant of the first duke); in 1833 he became
duke—a title extinct since 1891.

Cleveland, next to Cincinnati the most impor-
tant city of Ohio, and in population the tenth, in
1890, in the United States, is| ¢,..,:ent 1899, 1807, and
situated at the mouth of the | 1900 in the u.8. by J. B.
Cuyahoga River, on the south ! MpPinectt Company.
shore of Lake Erie, 255 miles by rail NE. of
Cincinnati, 183 SW. of Buffalo, and 350 E. of
Chicago. The city is built mainly upon a plain
from 60 to 150 feet above the lake, and is divided
into two great divisions, the east and west sides,
by the tortuous valley of the Cuyahoga. The
‘flats,’ about half a mile wide, along the river are
occupied by vast lumber-yards, numerous factories,
iron, flour, and other mills, coal-yards, ore docks,
ship-yards, &e. A wide and massive viaduct, 3211
feet long, constructed mainly of stone, and com-
pleted in 1878 at the cost of $2,250,000, crosses the
valley at the height of 50 to 70 feet; and another
viaduct of iron (1888), 100 feet above the river
and 3931 feet long, makes a second broad level
highway between the two divisions of the city.
The river is the harbour, and is spanned by
numerous bridges. An outer harbour, safe and
commodious, is completed by the construction of
an immense United States breakwater, about 2
miles long and half a mile from the shore,
opposite the mouth of the river, where there is a
large opening for vessels. The business centre of
Cleveland extends east from the lower part of the
river-valley, for three-fourths of a mile along
Superior Street, which is 132 feet wide, and the
chief shopping thoroughfare. It embraces several
parallel and intersecting streets. In this district is
the Public Square, 10 acres in area. The custom-

house and post-office, a large stone structure, is
situated on the east side of the square, upon which
front also a court-house, the fine old ‘Stone’ (first
Presbyterian) Church, a theatre, an hotel, banks,
and many business blocks. This attractive breath-
ing spot contains fountains, a stone speakers’ stand
for public meetings, and a statue of Commodore
Perry, the hero of the battle of Lake Erie in
1813. From the south-east corner of the square,
Euclid Avenue, the most famous street in the city,
and, according to Bayard Taylor and other travel-
lers, the most beautifat in the world, extends nearly
east through the best residence quarter of Cleve-
land. Four and a half miles from the square it
passes Wade Park, a beautiful tract of about 65
acres, containing a lake for boating, a deer pad-
dock, fountains, and groves of noble foieat-thebe

A mile farther east, just beyond the city limits,
is Lake View Cemetery, one of the finest in the
country. Here, on a commanding site, 250 feet
above Lake Erie, stands the stone monument to
the late President Garfield, built by subserip-
tion at a cost of about $130,000. he monnu-
ment is 125 feet high, and surmounts the presi-
dent’s grave. Euclid Avenue is lined with stately
mansions upon a gentle eminence, 200 to 500 feet
from the Avenue, in a park-like stretch of shade-
trees, smooth lawns, flowers, shrubbery, and wind-
ing walks and drive-ways. The same wealth of
gardens and shade-trees is noticeable in a less degree
throughout the ‘ Forest City,’ except in the poorest
quarters. Few houses are built in blocks, and tene-
ments are virtually unknown. At least 20,000
families, it is believed, own the houses in which
they live, and the area of the city, 264 sq. m., is
about 20 per cent. greater than that of Manhattan
Island, on which New York is mostly built.
About 19°5 sq. m. lie east of the river and 6°8
miles west. The soil is light and sandy, the
drainage excellent, and the water supplied from
Lake Erie by a tunnel, two pumping stations and
standpipes, and two large reservoirs, is pure and
abundant. The climate is temperate, the average
yearly rainfall being 37°6 inches, and the mean
annual temperature 50° F. Naturally the death-
rate is low, averaging about 18 in the thousand of
population. Cleveland has a music-hall capable
of seating 5000 persons, 4 fine theatres and 6 of less
importance, 150 churches, 8 colleges—3 of which are
medical schools—7 hospitals, and many asylums and
other benevolent institutions. There are two large
circulating libraries, one, containing about 52,000
volumes, Seite free. The schools number about
100; and 60 periodicals, daily, tri-weekly, weekly,
and monthly, are published in the city. Cleveland’s
rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere
else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal
of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake
Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply.
The chief industries of the city are the various
manufactures of iron, including steel rails, forgings,
wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, engines, boilers,
nails, screws, sewing-machines, agricultural imple-
ments and machinery of all kinds, the refining of
petroleum, wood-work, and other manufactures of
endless variety. In 1880 the value of manufactured
products was $48,600,000, the number of persons em-
ployed 21,700, and the capital invested $19,430,000.
At the census of 1890 the annual value of products
was $105,500,000, and 50,000 hands were employed.

In 1880-90 the vessel tonnage constructed in Cleve-
land, nearly all in steamships of 1500 to 2500 tons
burden, exceeded that built in the entire state of
Maine. The city has a commanding commercia
situation, due, primarily, to its position at the north
terminus of the Ohio Canal, connecting Lake Erie
with the Ohio River at the mouth of the Scioto.
The start obtained when the canal was opened in

CLEVELAND

CLICHY 293

1834 has been maintained, Seven railroads termin-
ate in the city, and two pass through it from east to
west, Cleveland’s lake commerce is very great, the
total tonnage entered and cleared annually exceed-
ing 3,000,000 tons, Cleveland is the greatest
iron ore receiving point in America, one of the
largest lumber markets in the country, and the
mercantile centre of an extensive and productive
region. In 1796 a party under General Moses
Cleveland laid out the site of a town on this spot.
Tn 1809 Cleveland was chosen the seat of justice for
Cuyahoga county, and in 1814 the village was in-
rated ; the city charter followed in 1836, since
which the growth has been very rapid. Pop. (1830)
1096 ; (1840) 6071; (1850) 17,034; (1860) 43,417,
Ohio City, on the opposite side of the river, having
been united with Cleveland in 1856 ; (1870) 92,829 ;
(1880) 160,146 ; (1890) 261,353 ; (1900) 381,768.

Cleveland, Grover, the twenty-second oes
— of the 8 Spee: He the terms 1885-89
and 1893-97, was born at Cald- | q, }
well, N. J., March 18, 1837. | 19Wit the US. by 3B.
In early life he removed to! Mppineott Company,
the state of New York. In 1859 he was ad-
mitted to the bar, and began the practice of law
at Buffalo. From 1863 to 1866 he was assistant
district attorney for Erie county, and in 1870 was
chosen sheriff. After filling the office of mayor of
Buffalo, he was, in 1882, elected governor of New
York by an unexampled majority of more than
190,000 votes. His course as governor was ap-
proved by the best people of all parties. In 1884
e was nominated by the Democrats for the chief-
istracy of the United States. The canvass
which followed was one of extreme earnestness
and excitement. Cleveland received 219 electoral
votes (Blaine, the Republican candidate, securing
182); and the returns of the popular vote also
ae him a plurality. He took his seat as presi-
ent in 1885. In a unique and forcible message
to congress in December 1887 regarding the reduc-
tion of the great surplus in the national treasury,
he strongly advised a careful readjustment of the
tariff charges on certain manufactured articles of
import, and the admission duty-free of some of
the raw materials of manufacture—a position
which led to a well-defined issue between the
two political parties. Protectionists classed the
president’s message as a free-trade document, but
this was denied by the Democrats, and its doctrines
were adopted as the basis of the Democratic plat-
form at the convention of that party in 1888, when
Mr Cleveland was unanimously nominated for re-
election to the presidency. In the following August,
on the rejection of the peepee Fisheries Treaty
with Canada by the Republican majority in the
senate, the president sent a m to congress,
declaring a policy of ‘retaliation’ against Canada
now necessary. In October he demanded the recall
of Lord Sackville, the British minister, for writing a
letter held to trench on American polities. At the
election in November, Cleveland was defeated by
the Republican candidate, General Harrison, over
whom, however, he secured a large majority in
November 1892. His next term of office was sig-
nalised by his zeal for currency reform, for the re
of the Silver Act, and against the high republican
tariff. In 1895 he suggested to the British govern-
ment the appointment of a commission to determine
the true boundary between British Guiana and
Venezuela. On retiring from the presidency (1897),
he settled at Princeton, N. J., and the same year
was made LL.D. of Princeton University.
Cleveland, Joun, cavalier poet, born at Lough-
rough in June 1613, the son of a clergyman ousted
by the parliament from the living of Hinckley in 1644.
In 1627-31 he wasat Christ’s Col ege, Cambridge, and

then migrated to St John’s College, where he
was elected to a fellowship in 1634, and lived nine
years ‘the delight and ornament of St John's
society.’ Here he studied both law and ps Pree
Cleveland vigorously op Cromwell's election
to the Long Parliament for Cambridge, and was for
his loyalty ejected from his fellowship by the
liament in 1644. He betook himself to the
ing’s army, was popular among the cavaliers, and
was pe ‘judge-advocate’ at Newark, but
was obliged to surrender with the garrison. His
indignation at the Scotch army for handing over
the Ting to the parliamentarians he expressed in
some stinging verses, which, however, are too vio-
lent to be really strong. Henceforward Cleveland
lived upon the hospitality of his partisans, and was
forced to keep his wit in check. In 1655 he was
arrested at Norwich, but was soon released b
command of Cromwell, whose magnanimous spirit
could admire the courageous manliness of the
poor poet’s letter addressed to him. In 1656 he
ublighed a small volume containing thirty-six
oyal poems, consisting of elegies upon Charles L.,
Strafford, Laud, and Edward King, the subject
of Milton’s Lycidas, also some stinging satires.
Cleveland now went to live at Gray’s Inn, where
he soon after died, April 29, 1658. In the year
1677 was published, with a short account of the
author’s life, Clievelandi Vindiciew, or Cleveland’s
Genuine Poems, Orations, Epistles, &c. Cleveland
undoubtedly exercised a strong influence upon the
greater genius of Butler. homas Fuller com-
mends him as ‘a general artist, pure latinist,
exquisite orator, and eminent poet. His epithets
were i a with metaphysics, carrying in them
a difficult plainness, difficult at the hearing, plain
at the considering thereof.’

Cleves (Ger. Kleve, Dutch Klee), a town of
Rhenish Prussia, 48 miles NW. of Diisseldorf. It
is situated on three gentle elevations, about 24
miles from the Rhine, with which it communicates
by canal, in the midst of a rich and beautiful
country. It is well built, in the Dutch fashion,
and surrounded by walls. The fine old castle,
known as the Schwanenburg, partly built on a
commanding rock, is the reputed scene of the
legend of the Knight of the Swan, made familiar
by Wagner’s opera of Lohengrin. Anne of Cleves,
fourth wife of Henry VIII., was born in this castle.
In the collegiate church, which dates from the 14th
century, are some good monuments to the counts
and dukes of Cleves. Cleves has manufactures of
cotton and leather goods, tobacco, &c. Pop. (1885)
10,170. Cleves was anciently the capital of a
seer he countship until 1416) extending along
both banks of the Rhine, which passed by inherit-
ance in 1609 to Brandenburg.

Clew Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the
west coast of County Mayo, Ireland, about 15 miles
long by 9 broad. The upper part of the bay con-
tains an archipelago of fertile and cultivated islets;
and at the entrance of the bay is Clare Island (3949
acres; pop. 62), which, as well as Inishgort (27
acres ; pop. 23), has a lighthouse.

Cliché (Fr.), the impression made by a die in
any soft metal. It is the proof of a medallist’s or
die-sinker’s work, by which they judge of the effect,
and ascertain the stage of progress which they have
reached before the die is hardened. The same term
is applied by the French to electrotype casts from
wood-engravings.

Clichy, a town of France, on the Seine, to the
north-west of Paris, of which it forms a suburb.
It has numerous manufactories, be eer of chem-
icals and catgut, and is much affected by washer-

women. Pop. (1886) 26,741; (1891) 30,561.

294 CLICK-BEETLE

CLIMATE

Click-beetle, or Sxkrp-Jack. See WIRE-
WORMS.
Client. See AGENT AND CLIENT. See also

PATRON.

Clifford, a family descended from Walter,
Richard Fitzponce’s son, who by marriage, prior to
1138, acquired Clifford Castle on the Wye, 17 miles
W. of Hereford, and who assumed the surname
Clifford. He was the father of Fair Rosamond,
Henry II.’s mistress, who seems to have died about
1176, and to-have been buried at Godstow Nunnery,
near Oxford. The legend of her murder by Queen
Eleanor appears first in the 14th century; the
Woodstock maze, the clue, the dagger, and the

oisoned bowl belong to a yet later age. Among

alter’s descendants were the soldier-judge Roger
de Clifford, who by marriage with Isabella de
Vipont got Brougham Castle in Westmoreland
(circa 1270); John (1435-61), the savage Lancas-
trian; Henry (1455-1523), the ‘shepherd lord ;’
Henry (1493-1542), fifteenth Lord Clifford and first
Earl of Cumberland; George, third earl (1558-
1605), naval commander ; and Henry, fifth and last
earl (1591-1643). To a cadet branch belonged
Thomas Clifford (1630-73), a Catholic member of
the Cabal, who in 1672 was created Lord Clifford of
Chudleigh.

Clifford, WILLIAM Kinapon, F.R.S., one of
the foremost mathematicians of his time, was born
at Exeter, May 4, 1845. He’ was educated at a
school in his native town, at King’s College, Lon-
don, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. hile at
Trinity he did not confine himself to examination
subjects, but read largely in the great mathemati-
cal writers, and came out second wrangler in 1867,
next year being elected a fellow of his college.
At this time, while excelling in gymnastics, he
would also solve and propound problems in the
_ pages of the Educational Times, and could discuss
with ease complicated theorems of solid geometry
without the aid of paper or diagram. A High-
Churchman at first (though on unconventional
speculative grounds), Clifford soon after taking
his degree threw off all dogmatic restraints,
and discussed the fundamental questions of the
seme ons of pe ee with complete independence.

n August 1871 he was elected to the chair of
Mathematics and Mechanics at University College,
London, which post he retained until his untimeiy
death at Madeira, March 3, 1879. Clifford first
established his reputation as an original thinker
with the faculty of expressing scientific thought in
plain and simple language by a Friday evening dis-
course at the Raval nstitution, On Some of the Con-
ditions of Mental Development. He was a valued
member of the London Mathematical Society, con-
tributing to the Proceedings ; for a time he acted
as secretary, and afterwards vice-president of the
Mathematical and Physical section of the British
Association; he also lectured to the Sunday Lecture
Society on various physical and 5 gcapeiteene sub-
jects. The versatility of his mind for philosophical
and scientific discussion was further shown by
his varied contributions to periodical literature.
Clifford issued in his lifetime the first part of
Elements of Dynamics (1878). A further portion,
edited by Mr if Tucker, was published in 1887.
A work on the Common Sense of the Exact
Sciences, which Clifford left unfinished, was com-
pleted and edited by Professor Karl Pearson in
1885. <A selection from his Mathematical Papers
appeared in 1881, anda series of lectures on Seeing
and Thinking in 1879. Clifford’s general scientific
and philosophical writings are collected, with a
Poet ony memoir, in Lectures and Essays, edited

y L. Stephen and F. Pollock, 1879 (2 vols.; 2d ed.

in 1 vol. 1886).—Mrs Clifford (née Lucy Lane) has

aigaont a really striking novel, or rather tragedy,
rs Keith's Crime (1885), Aunt Anne (1892), and
uite unusual

two books for young children of
Very Short

interest, Anyhow Stories (1884) an
Stories and Verses for Children (1886).

Clifton, England. See BrisTou.
Clifton (now Niagara Fabs), a town and

port of entry of Ontario, on the Niagara River,
about 2 miles below the cataract. Here a noble
suspension-bridge and a cantilever cross the river,
connecting the Canadian railways with the railway
systems of New York. Pop. 4000.

Climacter'‘ic Years (from Gr. klimaktér, ‘the
step of a stair or ladder,’ klimax). It was long
believed that certain years in the life of man had a
peculiar significance to him, and were the critical
points, as it were, of his health and fortunes. The
mystical number 7 and its multiples with odd
numbers (e.g. 35, 49) constituted crises of this
kind. The most important of all was the 63d year,
called, by way of eminence, the ‘ climacteric year’
or ‘grand climacter,’ which was. supposed to be
fatal to most men; its influence being attributed
to the fact that it is the multiple of the two
mystical numbers 7 and 9. An actual ‘change of
life’ (Fr. age critique) in woman is marked by the
cessation of menstruation, usually between the
48th and 52d years. Astrologers called any period
which an evil conjunction marked as threatening,
a climacteric time.

Climate (from the Greek klima, ‘a slope or
inclination,’ afterwards applied to a tract of
country, with reference to its supposed inclina-
tion to the pole, and the-effect of the obliquity of
the sun’s rays upon the temperature), a term now
employed as including not merely the conditions
of a place or country with regard to temperature,
but also its meteorological conditions generally,
in so far as these exercise an influence on the
animal and vegetable kingdoms. The effect of
the sun’s rays is greatest where they fall perpen-
dicularly on the surface of the earth, and diminishes
as their obliquity increases; the surface which
receives any given amount of the sun’s rays
increasing with their increased obliquity, as a’b’
is greater than ad in the annexed figure; whilst

c c

a I) f

at the same time the oblique rays being subjected
to the influence of a greater number of particles
of the atmosphere, as c’a’ is longer than ca, a
greater amount of their heat is absorbed before
they reach the surface of the earth at all. The
greater or smaller extent of surface receiving a
certain amount of heat, also makes important
differences to arise from exposure by slope towards
the equator or towards the nearest pole. Elevation
is a most important cause of differences of climate.
As we ascend from the level of the sea to the
greatest mountain altitudes, the temperature
gradually diminishes, and we ultimately reach a
region of perpetual snow, as in approaching the
th 8 The progressive diminution of the tempera-
ture is, however, affected by many causes, so that
the line of perpetual snow is far from being at the
same elevation in all places of the same latitude.
Thus the snow-line on the southern side of the
Himalayas is depressed by the heavy rainfall
brought by the winds from the Indian Ocean ;
and that on the northern side is elevated by the
extreme drought and summer heat in the vast

CLIMATE

CLIMBING PERCH 295

tablelands of Central Asia, thus causing active
evaporation from the snow-fields; so that the dif-
ference between the two is not less than 4000 feet
in favour of the northern side of the mountain-
ranges; and Humboldt says, ‘millions of men of
‘Tibetan origin occupy populous towns in a country
where fields and towns would, during the whole
ear, have been buried in snow, if these tablelands
ad been less continuous and less extensive.’

As the actual temperature of the atmosphere
depends not so much upon the direct rays of the sun
as upon the radiation from the heated surface of the
earth, the diversities in the character of that surface
are productive of great effects in modifying climate.
A sandy desert, a tract of country clothed with
luxuriant vegetation, and an expanse of water,
absorb and radiate heat in very different de :
A newly ploaghad field both absorbs and radiates
heat much more rapidly than a field covered with

rass, A ony desert heats the atmosphere above
it much more than either a fertile tract or a watery
expanse, whilst a watery expanse only slightl
raises the temperature; but, on the other a
the desert cools sooner by terrestrial radiation ;
whilst the heat absorbed 4 the water being dif-
fused eenrgs a larger mass, owing to the depth
to which solar radiation penetrates and to vertical
as well as horizontal currents generated by the
winds to great depths, the influence of the ocean,
of seas, and of great lakes, is very powerful in
maintaining a greater equableness in the tempera-
ture of the air. Thus maritime places, and par-
ticularly islands and peninsulas, have a more equal
temperature, with less diversity of the extremes of
summer and winter, than more inland or conti-
nental ooge otherwise similarly situated. The
effect of the sea is modified by many circumstances,
and peeesny by eurrents, of which the Gulf
Stream (q.v.) affords a notable instance, the heated
water conveyed by it and by the general surface-
flow north-eastwards of the waters of the Atlantic,
from the equatorial to the polar regions, having a
great influence on the climate, particularly of the
north-west of Europe. Over the world generally,
atmospheric currents or prevailing winds must be
regarded as exercising even a greater influence on
climate than oceanic currents. The quantity of
rain or snow that falls in the course of a year, and
the times and manner of its falling, are cireum-
stances which have the test possible effect on
climate ; these being in their turn much influenced
by the distribution of land and water, and by the
character and elevation of the surface of the land,
according as the mountain-ranges lie across or in
the line of the rain-bringing wind.

The relations of climate to vegetation are gener-
ally determined less by the mean annual tempera-
ture than by the relative duration of summer
and of winter. Thus maize, which may be men-
tioned as an important example, succeeds well in
climates of which the winter-cold is severe, the
summer season alone being sufficient for its whole
life; whilst, on the other hand, such plants as
fuchsias, some kinds of laurel, and even the
common hawthorn, which succeed: well enough
where maize would scarcely put forth an ear,
would perish from the colder winters of countries
where it is profitably cultivated. The polar limit
of particular species of animals, except those which
hibernate, is generally determined by the degree of
winter-cold which they can bear without injury.

Bogs and marshes exercise an unfavourable influ-
ence on climate, cooling the air and generating fogs,
as do clay-soils also to some extent, through their
retentiveness of moisture; whilst marshes of some
kinds, and in some situations, abound in malarious
and other exhalations very unfavourable to health.
Similar remarks apply to large tracts of forest.

The clearing, drainage, and cultivation of land
have generally favourable effects on climate;
although plantations are often beneficial for
shelter, and a too complete removal of natural
forests may prevent the deposition of moisture
from the atmosphere to such a degree as to cause
droughts, a result stated to be exemplified in some
of the smaller West India Islands, and the ten-
dency to which is said to be manifested on a
at scale in some sections of the continent of
orth America.

The important and difficult subject of climate will
be found further elucidated in some of the princi-
pal geographical articles (AsIA, &c.), and in the
articles ATMOSPHERE, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU-
TION, GLACIAL PERIOD, HEALTH-RESORTS, HyGRO-
METER, METEOROLOGY, MONSOON, PLEISTOCENE,
RAIN, SEASONS, SNOW-LINE (under article SNow),
StrorMs, TEMPERATURE, WIND. See also Ramsay,
Bibliography and Index of Climate (1888), and the
works named under CROLL.

Climax (Gr., ‘a stair,’), in Rhetoric, that arti-
fice which consists in placing before the mind of the
reader or hearer a series of propositions or objects
so arranged that the least forcible strikes it first,
and the others rise by successive gradations in im-
pressiveness, See the example in 1 Sam. iv. 17.

Climbers (Scansores), an old-fashioned popu-
lar title for several orders of birds whose feet are
mainly adapted for climbing. In many cases two
toes are turned forward, and two backward ; or it
may be that one permanently turned backward is
joined in branch grasping by another reversed for
the nonce. Parrots (Psittaci), cuckoos (Coccygo-

he), woodpeckers (Picaria), &c. are included
under this wide and somewhat inexact title.

Climbing Perch (Axnabas scandens), abony fish
in the Acanthopteri division, famous for its peculiar
clambering habits. It is a native of rivers and
ponds in most parts of the East Indies. Itis about
six inches long, and in general form somewhat re-
sembles a perch. That this fish climbs trees, has
been asserted by observers whose veracity and
accuracy cannot easily be questioned ; yet others,
who have enjoyed ample opportunity of observa-
tion, express t doubt concerning this habit.
According to circumstantial accounts, the fish sus-
pends itself by its spiny gill-covers, and by fixing
its anal fin in cavities of the bark, urges its way
upwards by distending and contracting its body.

ere is no doubt that it often leaves ls when
they are in danger of being dried up, and travels in
search of water. Though these fish are sometimes

Climbing Perch.

compelled in their distress to travel by day, and
have been met in the glare of noon toiling along a
dusty road, their migrations are generally performed
at night or in early morning, whilst the grass is
still wet with dew. This restless fish is aided in
its epee out of water by an accessory
labyrinthine respiratory cavity, in which water may
be retained for a considerable time. Climbing
perches are plentiful in the Ganges, and the boat-
men have n known to keep them for five or
six days in an earthen pot without water, using

296 CLIMBING PLANTS

CLINTON

daily what they wanted, and finding them as
lively as when just caught. Some related forms,
such as the walking fish (Ophiocephalus ), exhibit to
a less marked degree the same power of living
out of water. Closely related also is the Chinese
Macropod, not unfrequently kept for its beauty in
aquaria. Many of the genera make nests for the
eggs, over which the males frequently keep guard.

Climbing Plants, or CLIMBERS, are, in the
most extensive and popular sense of the term, those
plants which, having weak stems, seek support
from other objects, chiefly from other plants, in
order to ascend from the ground. This, however, is
accomplished in very different ways. Some climb
by means of small root-like processes growing from
the stem, as the ivy ; others by means of hooks (e.g.
Cleavers, q.v.); others again twining round their
support—e.g. hop, convolvulus, &c.; and others, the
most evolved, by help of sensitive organs, which
are branches or leaves or leaf-stalks more or less
modified. The subject of climbing plants has been
worked out with peculiar fullness and interest in
Darwin’s classical monograph. See also the sec-
tion MOVEMENTS OF PLANTs in the article Plants,
in this work; also the articles CLEMATIS, CON-
VOLVULUS, HONEYSUCKLE, Hop, Ivy, LIANAs,
PASSIONFLOWER, VINE, Xc.

Clinical Medicine (Gr. kliné, ‘a bed’) is
that department of the art which is occupied with
the investigation of diseases at the bedside of the
sick; and a clinical lecture is one delivered to
students there. So with clinical surgery. Clinical
baptism is baptism administered to sick or dying
persons on their sick-bed ; a clinical convert’is one
converted on his death-bed.

Clinker, the name given to the scales or globules
of black oxide of iron, obtained from red-hot iron
under the blows of a hammer. The same term is
applied to the slags of iron-furnaces. By geologists
the cindery-like masses which form the crust of
some lava-flows are termed clinkers.

Clinker-built, or CLENCHER-BUILT. See BoAT.

Clinkstone, or PHONOLITE, is a greenish gray
or brownish compact or very finely crystalline igne-
ous rock, remarkable for its tendency to split into
slabs, which are now and then thin enough to be
used for roofing purposes. This structure is due to
the parallel arrangement of plate-like or tabular
crystals of sanidine felspar. The slabs give a
metallic ring or ‘ clink’ when struck with a hammer,
whence its name. Its essential mineral components
are sanidine and nepheline, but other minerals,
such as augite or hornblende, leucite and mag-
netite, are usually present. The rock has often a
porphyritic structure.

Clinom’eter, an instrument for the purpose of
taking the amount of dip or angle of Enelination of
astratum. There are various kinds in use, but the
simplest consists of a strip of wood upon which is
mounted a graduated are with a pendulum. When
this instrument is held horizontally, the pendulum
points to zero; when it is held in a slanting posi-
tion, the pendulum shows the number of degrees
that the upper edge or the base of the strip deviates
from horizontality. The most useful form of clino-
meter is that which is combined with a compass—
both these instruments being required in geological
observations.

Clinton, (1) es ory of Clinton county, Iowa, on
the Mississippi, which is here crossed by an iron
railroad bridge, 4000 feet long, 60 miles SSE. of
Dubuque by rail. It has numerous mills, foundries,
and factories, and a trade in lumber and grain.
Pop. (1870) 6129; (1890) 13,619.—(2) A town of
Massachusetts, on the Nashua River, 45 miles W.
of Boston by rail. It has large manufactures of

ginghams and plaids, carpets, combs, and machin-
ery. Pop. (1890) 10,424.—(3) A post-village of
Oneida county, New York, 9 miles WSW. of
Utica, is the seat of Hamilton College (1812), a
Presbyterian foundation, with about 160 students,
and of several other noteworthy educational insti-
tutions. Pop. (1890) 1269.

Clinton, a distinguished American family,
descended from Charles Clinton, who was born in
Ireland in 1690, settled in New York state in 1731,
and died there in 1773.—His third son, JAMES, born
in 1736, served with distinction against the French,
and as brigadier-general took part in several opera-
tions during the War of Independence. He died in
1812.—His brother, GEORGE, born in 1739, studied
law, and from 1768 sat in the New York assembly ;
in 1775 he was sent as a delegate to the second
Continental Congress, and in 1776 he was appointed

eneral of militia, serving against Sir Henry
‘linton on the Hudson. In 1777 he was chosen
first governor of New York, to which post he was
re-elected from 1780 to 1795, and in 1801; and to
him was due the first conception of the Erie Canal.
In 1804 he was chosen vice-president of the United
States, and in that office he died at Washington,
20th April 1812.—James’s son, DE WITT, born in
1769, was admitted to the New York bar in 1788,
and was private secretary to his uncle, then gover-
nor, from 1790 to 1795. He sat in the state legis-
lature (1797) and in the state senate (1798-1802) ;
and in 1802 he was elected to the United States
senate, but resigned in the same year on being
appointed mayor of New York by his uncle. In
this office he continued, save for two short inter-
vals, until 1815, holding other appointments at the
same time; he was defeated by Madison in the
presidential contest of 1812. It was he who pressed
the adoption of the Erie Canal scheme ; the bill was.
passed and Clinton elected governor of the state in
1817, and in 1825 he opened the canal. He was.
several times re-elected in spite of the untiring
efforts of his political opponents, and died in office
at Albany, llth February 1828. He published a
number of addresses, some literary and historical,
which will be found in his Life by Campbell
(1849).

Clinton, Str Henry, British general, born
about 1738, was the son of the Hon. George Clinton,
colonial governor of Newfoundland, and afterwards
of New York. He first entered the New York
militia, was gazetted to the Guards in 1751, served
with conspicuous gallantry on the Continent, and
was promoted colonel in 1762 and major-general in
1772. From 1772 to 1784 he sat in parliament in.
the interest of his cousin, the Duke of Newcastle.
Sent to America in 1775, he fought at Bunker’s Hill,
and in 1776 was repulsed in an attack on Charleston,
but was shortly afterwards knighted for his services.
under Howe. After Burgoyne’s surrender in 1778,
Clinton succeeded Howe as commander-in-chief of
the forces in North America, which he at once con-
centrated in New York. In 1780 he captured
Charleston and the entire southern army; but after
Cornwallis’ capitulation at Yorktown in 1781,
Clinton resigned his command and returned to-
England, where in 1783 he published a Narrative
of the campai In 1794 he was appointed gover-
nor of Gibraltar, and died there, 23d December
1795. His two sons both rose to be generals in
the army and G.C.B.’s, the younger being one of
Wellington’s favourite officers.

Clinton, HENRY FYNEs, a great classical
scholar, was born January 14, 1781, at Gamston, in
Nottinghamshire. He was educated at Southwell,
Westminster, and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
graduated B.A. in 1803. He represented Ald-
borough in parliament from 1806 till 1826. He

CLINTON GROUP

CLIVE 297

dicd at Welwyn, October 24, 1852. His great
works on Greek and Roman chronology are un-
likely ever to be superseded or forgotten. These
are the Fasti Hellenici (1824-34), and Fasti Romani
(1845-50).

Clinton Group, name given in North America Bite

to a subdivision of the Upper Silurian strata.

Clio, in Greek Mythology, the Muse of History
and Epic Poetry. She was represented as sitting
with a half-opened scroll in her hand, and a casket
for holding manuscripts at her feet. See MUSEs.

Clio, a genus of shell-less pelagic molluses in the
class of Pteropods. They occur in myriad swarms
in northern ( C. borealis) and southern ( C. australis)
seas, and along with such related forms as Limacina
form the principal part of the food of some species of
whales. The whalers rightly call it ‘ whales’ food.’
The whale has simply to swim through a shoal with
its mouth open to engulf thousands. Clio is a small
animal of a spindle-shape, towards an inch in length,
with distinct head, bearing six tentacle-like pro-
cesses, which are sensitive and glandular, and in
part used for laying hold of the prey of small
animals. It is active in habit, rising to the surface
when calm, or as rapidly sinking again. It swims
hy means of two locomotor expansions of the ‘ foot.’
See PrEROPODA.

Clipper is a name familiarly pre to a sailing-
ship built expressly for speed. Aberdeen was lon
celebrated for building swift tea-clippers, whic
since 1860 have been gradually superseded by
steamers. The Baltimore clippers were also famous,
As to the ible rate of s , it may be noted
that the ce La built at Boston, U.S., in 1854,
during a voyage from Melbourne to Liverpool ran
2550 En lish miles in one week, or at the rate of
about 154 miles an hour during the whole period.

Clipping the Coin. See CorInina.

Clitheroe, a roy IR borough in Lancashire,
on the left bank of the Ribble, 35 miles N. of Man-
chester, and 225 NNW. of London by rail. It lies
on a low eminence of carboniferous limestone, at
the base of Pendle Hill, which is 1831 feet high.
Clitheroe has cotton and paper mills, and extensive
lime-quarries are piven on in the neighbourhood.
Its ruined castle, founded by Robert de Lacy in
the later part of the 12th century, was dismantled
by the parliamentarians in 1649. The free gram-
mar-school dates from 1554. About 4 miles south-
west of Clitheroe lies Stonyhurst College (q.v.).
Clitheroe has been a borough since about 1280.
Till 1832 it returned two members to parliament ;
till 1885, one. Pop. (1851) 7244; (1881) 10,176;
(1891) 10,815. See Whitaker’s History of Whalley
and Clitheroe (1801; 4th ed. 1872-76).

Clive, CAROLINE, novelist, was born in London,
24th June 1801, the daughter of Mr Meysey-
Wigley, M.P. for Worcester. In 1840 she married
the Rev. Archer Clive; and, for several years a

t invalid, she died, through her dress catching

re, at Whitfield, Hereford, 13th July 1873. Be-

tween 1840 and 1872 she published eight volumes

of poems by ‘V.’, but she is best known by Paul

Ferroll (1855), a really strong sensation novel,

much +) oh to Why Paul Ferroli killed his
Wife (1860).

Clive, Kitty, comic actress, was born in Lon-
don in 1711, the daughter of William Raftor, a
Jacobite lawyer from Kilkenny. She came out at
Drury Lane about 1728, and chiefly at Drury Lane
she continued to play till 1769, when she quitted

the stage, and retired to Twickenham. About 1731
she had married George Clive, a barrister, but the

soon . She died at Little Strawberry Hill,
6th mber 1785. Garrick, Handel, Horace

Walpole, and Dr Johnson all liked her, the last

remarking to Boswell that ‘in the sprightliness of
humour he never had seen her equalled.’ And of
him she said: ‘I love to sit by Dr Johnson ; he
always entertains me.’ See her Life by Percy
Fitzgerald (1888).

Clive, Ropert, the creator of our Indian empire,
born at the manor-house of Styche, near
ager eerie fear 29th September 1725. He was
the eldest of thirteen children ; his father, a lawyer
and small landowner, of a very old Shropshire
family. The boy was brought up by an uncle near
Eccles. There, and at all his four schools—Lostock,
Market-Drayton, Merchant Taylors’, and Hemel-
Hempstead—he proved a much better fighter than
scholar, a thorough young dare-devil ; and in 1743
he was packed off to India asa writer in the service
of ‘John Company.’ He reached Madras penniless,
and the drhdgery of his life there moved him to
suicide. But the pistol snapped twice, and he flun
it from him, exclaiming: ‘It appears I am destin
for something ; I will live.’

The capture of Madras by the French (1746),
Clive’s escape thence to Fort St David (the scene
of his gallant duel with the card-sharper), his share
in its defence, in the fruitless siege of Pondicherry
(1748), and in the storming of Devikota (1749)—
these events bring us up to the August of 1751,
and Clive’s daring dash upon Arcot. He seized it,
and held its enormous citadel for eleven whole
weeks against 7000 natives and 120 French soldiers.
His own little force was reduced to 80 Englishmen
and 120 sepoys (splendid fellows these); but, after
a last desperate assault, the siege was raised (14th
November), and Clive followed up his success by
the victories of Arni and Kaveripak, and the cap-
ture of Kovilam and Chingalpat.

In February 1753 he married Margaret Maskelyne,
sister to the astronomer, and immediately after
sailed with her for England, where he was pre-
sented with a diamond-hilted sword, cleared his
father’s estate from encumbrances, stood for St
Michaels, but was unseated, and otherwise got
through a very fair fortune.

So in October 1755 he was back in India, and a
twelvemonth later was summoned, with Admiral
Watson, from Madras, to avenge the atrocity of
the Black Hole. Caleutta was soon retaken ;
Chandernagore, the French settlement, captured ;
and at Plassey, on 23d June 1757, Clive’s 3200 men
(two-thirds of them sepoys) encountered Suraj ud
Dowlah’s 50,000 with 40 to 50 French gunners.
The battle took eight hours to win, that truly
‘decisive battle of the world.’ But its lustre was
sullied by the only two blots on Clive’s memory.
In his dealings with Mir Jaftier, the would-be next
nawab of Bengal, he had imposed on a go-between,
the merchant Omichand, with a fictitious treaty,
to which he had forged his colleague Watson's
signature ; and now from Mir Jaflier he accepted a
oa of upwards of £200,000. Both actions are

efended by Malcolm, both sternly condemned by
Macaulay and Malleson.

For three years sole ruler in all but name of
Bengal, Clive, in 1760, with a fortune of more than
£40,000 a year, returned to England, to be hailed
by Pitt as ‘a heaven-born general ;’ in India he
was known as Sabat Jung, ‘ the daring in war.’ In
1761 he entered parliament as member for Shrews-
bury ; in 1762 was raised to the Irish peerage as
Baron Clive of Plassey; in 1764 was created a
Knight of the Bath. But meanwhile in India the
Company’s affairs, through the dishonesty of its
servants, high and low, had fallen into the utmost
disorder ; and Clive was the only man who could set
them right. He arrived at Calcutta in May 1765,
and at once applied himself wisely and firmly to
reform the civil service and re-establish military
discipline. This second governorship, lasting but.

298 CLOACA

CLOGS

twenty-two months, marks the beginning of our
Indian administration, as Plassey of our military
supremacy. ; ‘

arly in 1767 Clive quitted India, never to
return ; in all he had spent there less than a dozen
years. This time he came back to England poorer
than when he last left it; but this time he came
back to encounter a storm of obloquy. The ener
with which he had cleansed that Augean stable
had raised up a host of influential enemies, who
employed their influence to gratify their enmity,
to stir up ill-feeling against him. His early pro-
ceedings in India were in 1772 made the subject of
animadversion in parliament, and next year matter
for the inquiry of a select committee. He was
examined and cross-examined more like a sheep-
stealer than the Baron of Plassey. Indignation at
treatment so unmerited found vent at last in the
exclamation ; ‘By heaven, Mr Chairman, at this
moment I stand astonished at my own moderation.’
The censure implied in the ultimate resolution was
hardly wiped out by its rider, that he ‘did at the
same time render great and meritorious services to
his country’ (21st May 1773). Sickness, opium,
mental depression—on 22d November 1774 Clive
died by his own hand. He is buried in the church
of Moreton Say, the parish that gave him birth.

Clive’s eldest son, Edward (1754-1839), was
governor of Madras 1798-1803, and in 1804 was
made Earl of Powis, having in 1784 married the
daughter of the last Herbert Earl of Powis.

See Arcot, DupLErx, INDIA; Sir John Malcolm’s Life
of Clive (3 vols. 1836), with Macaulay’s essay thereon ;
two works by Malleson (1882 and 1893); Sir Charles
Wilson’s Clive (1890); Sir A. J. Arbuthnot’s Clive
(1899); and Browning’s Dramatic Idylls (2d series,
1880). For the conflicting accounts of the manner and
place of Clive’s death, whether by penknife, razor, pistol,
or poison ; whether at his mansion in Berkeley Square, or
his Shropshire seat, Walcot Park, see Horace Walpole’s
Letters to the Countess of Ossory (i. 155) ; the Gentleman’s
Magazine for September 1848, p. 227 ; and several articles
‘in Notes and Queries for 1888.

Cloa’ea, in Zoology, the technical name for the
common terminal chamber into which the aliment-
ary canal, the genital and the urinary ducts, all
open. <A cloacal chamber and aperture occurs in
many fishes, in all amphibians, reptiles, and birds,
and in the three lowest mammals. In all other
mammals the urinogenital orifice is independent of
the end of the alimentary canal or anus.

Cloa’ca Maxima, the most important of the
sewers of ancient Rome, according to tradition, con-
structed by Tarquinius Priscus, or by Tarquinius
ti prdicagy to drain off the stagnant waters of the
Velabra, a swampy land between the Capitoline
and Palatine hills on which the Forum and Cireus
Maximus also stood. Running from the valley of
the Subura, under the Forum along the Velabrum,
it opened into the Tiber in an archway still 11 feet
wide by 12 feet high, consisting of three concentric
arches, built of large blocks of peperino stone, fixed
together without cement, of the uniform size of
rather more than 5 feet 5 inches long and 3 feet
high. The sewer was flushed by a continual stream
of superfluous water from the aqueducts. Large
portions of this and of the other cloace remain
entire after two thousand years, but the

considerable depth below the present level of the
streets. During the Republic, the surveillance
of the Roman cloacze was one of the duties per-
formed by the censors. The cloaca maxima was
repaired by Cato and his colleague in the censor-
ship. Agrippa, when zdile, obtained praise for his
exertions in cleansing and repairing the cloace, and
is recorded to have passed through them in a boat.
Under the empire, officers called curatores cloa-

, ; eater.
part is buried, by the accumulation of soil, at a

carum urbis were appointed for their supervision,
So thoroughly was the city undermined by these
large sewers that Pliny calls it wrbs pensilis, a city
suspended in the air.—Cloacina (‘The Purifier ’)
was a surname of the goddess Venus at Rome.

Clocks, See Horo.oey.

Clodius. See CIcERo.

Clog Almanac, the name given in England
to a primitive kind of calendar or almanac, called
also a ‘rim stock’ and ‘ prime
staff.’ In Seandinavia it was
called a ‘ Runic staff,’ from the
Runic characters used in its
numerical notation. It was
generally of wood (whence its
name of ‘clog’—i.e. log or
block), of about 8 inches in
length, but was sometimes of
brass, of bone, or of horn.
When of wood it was most
commonly of box ; but elm, fir,
and oak were also employed.
‘This almanac,’ says Dr Plot,
in his Natural History of
Staffordshire, written in 1686,
when it was still in use among
the common people of that
county, ‘is usually a square
piece of wood, containing three
months on each of the four
edges. The number of days in
them are expressed by notches :
the first day by a notch with a

atulous stroke turned up from
it, and every seventh by a large-
sized notch. Some are perfect,
containing the dominical letters
as well as the prime and marks
for the feasts, engraven upon
them, and such are our prime
staves in the Museum at Oxford: others imper-
fect, having only the prime and immovable feasts
on them, and such are all those I met with in
Staffordshire.” The marks on the left side, in the
figure, indicate the golden numbers of a cycle show-
ing the new moons throughout the year. On the
right side against the 6th January is a star, the
sng of Epiphany ; against the 13th St Hilary is
shown by the bishop’s double cross ; 25th, conver-
sion of St Paul, by an axe. The mark against the
first notch (or New-year’s Day) symbolises the Cir-
cumcision of our Lord. Christmas was marked by
a horn, the sign of health-drinking—notans cornua
exhaurienda, as Dr Plot quotes. Examples of the
clog almanac may be seen in the British Museum
(one cut apparently towards the end of the 17th
century); in the Ashmolean Museum and the
Bodleian Library at Oxford ; in St John’s College,
Cambridge ; and in the Cheetham Library, at Man-
chester. It is described by the Swedish historian,
Olaus Magnus, in the 16th century ; and by the
Danish antiquary, Olaus Wormius, in the 17th
century. Some of the clog almanacs show a
peculiar numerical notation. The first four digits
are marked by dots; the fifth, by a sign like the
Roman numeral V ; the next four, by this sign and
additional dots ; and the tenth, by the sign +. See
Chambers’s Book of Days.

Clogher, a decayed episcopal city of County
Tyrone, on the Blackwater, 15 miles SSE. of
Omagh. The Protestant Episcopal see is now
united to that of Armagh. The cathedral and
episcopal palace are handsome edifices ; but, though
pn a parliamentary borough, the place is now
a mere village. Pop. 225. .

Clogs are a sort of shoes, the uppers of which
are leather and the soles of wood (specially alder

Clog Almanac for
January.

CLOISONNEE

CLOTILDA 299

wood); much used in the north of England and
south-west of Scotland, specially in winter.
Cloisonnée, See ENAMEL.
Cloister (Fr. clottre, claustrum, ‘an enclosure’
# covered passage or ambulatory running round

Cloister, Kilconnel Abbey.

the walls of certain portions of monastic and colle-
giate buildings. e cloister usually surrounded
or ran along three or four sides of a quadrangular
area, which was called the cloister garth, generally
situated on the south or sunny side of the church,
as shown under CHURCH in the ground-plan of
Durham cathedral. That of Salisbury, one of the
finest in the kingdom, is 195 feet square. The
roof of the cloister, which was often vaulted, was
ml on the side next to the quadrangle by
pillars and arches, which were frequently occu-
pied by tracery. The upper portions of these
arches above the mullions were often glazed ; and
sometimes latterly even the whole arches, so that
they became a row of windows, as at Gloucester.
Cloisters were used for exercise and recreation by
‘the inmates of the religious houses. Occasionally,
when wholly glazed, they had cells or stalis for
study on the inner side; and very frequently a
stone bench may still be seen, which runs along the
same side. Many of the larger monasteries had
more cloisters than one ; and so characteristic were
they of the religious houses, that the term cloister
came to be used in a general sense for the whole
establishment, which is still the sense of the word
kloster in German, See MONASTERY.

Clonakilty, a seaport of County Cork, at the
head of Clonakilty Bay, 33 miles SW. of Cork, with
several corn and flax mills, and a considerable trade
in in. There are ‘druidical’ remains in the
neighbourhood. Pop. 3276.

Clones, 2 town of County Monaghan, 94 miles
NW. of Dublin by rail, with spade manufactories,
‘corn-mills, and the remains of an abbey and of a
round tower. Pop. 2016.

Clonfert, an ancient episcopal city of Ireland,
is in the extreme east of County Galway, and has
now a population of 2200. he bishopric was
founded in the 6th century, and ceased to be a
separate Anglican one in 1602, being ultimately
incorporated with Killaloe; but it is still the see
of a Roman Catholic bishop. There is another
‘Clonfert, a parish in County Cork.

Clonmel’, a municipal borough in —
and Waterford counties, on the Suir, 135 miles SW.
of Dublin by rail. It has flour-mills, and a trade in
agricultural produce, especially butter. In 1650
Cromwell besieged the town, and demolished the
castle. Clonmel gave birth to Sterne and oe
Blessington, and was the chief scene of Smit
O'Brien’s attempted rising in 1848. Till 1885 it
sent a member to parliament. Here Bianconi (q.v.)

first established his jaunting-cars ; and Clonmel is
still a great tourist centre. Pop. (1891) 8480.

Clontarf’, a towa in Coanty Dublin, 3 miles
ENE. of Dublin city. It ie much frequented for
sea-bathing. Here, in 1014, Brian Boru won a
great victory over the Danes. Pop. (1891) 5105.

Clootz, JEAN Baptiste pu VAL bE Grice,
BARON, better known as Anacharsis Clootz, was
perhaps the most singular of all the frothy enthu-
siasts brought to the surface of society by the
French. Revolution. He was born near Cleves in
1755, and from his eleventh year was educated in
Paris. While still young he traversed Europe
under the name of Anacharsis, lavishing his money
to promote the union of all nations in one family.
In the French Revolution he saw the fulfilment of
his dreams. He constituted himself the ‘ orator of
the human race,’ and wearied out the National
Assembly with his endless rant, at one time leading
in a tatterdemalion regiment of strangers dressed ia
the costumes of different nations, at another raving
at Christianity and preaching in screams the wor-
ship of Reason.‘ He gave his vote for the king’s
death ‘in the name of the human race.’ With all
its folly his enthusiasm was honest, and he was at
once hated and feared by the jealous teagan
who had him excluded as a noble from the Jacobin
Club, and at last involved him in St Just’s im-
peachment of Hébert and his adherents. He was
guillotined, March 23, 1794, preaching materialism
to the last, and protestin ainst his sentence, as
usual, ‘in the name of the human race.’ Of his
absurd books, may be named : Certitude des Preuves
du Mohammédisme (Lond. 1780), L’Orateur du
Genre Humain (1791), and Base Constitutionnelle de
la République du Genre Humain (1793). See his
Life by Avenel (2 vols. Paris, 1865).

Close, in England, specially the precincts of a
cathedral. In tland the word means a narrow
side-street, or a passage leading to a court, or to
the stair of a block of tenements.

Close mtane, the time during which game,
certain wild birds, salmon, and some other fish
may not be shot or caught, varies for the different
animals and for different places. Lists of the dates
may be found in such almanacs as Whitaker’s;
and see WILD-FOWL, SALMON, TROUT, &c.

Closterseven. See CUMBERLAND (DUKE OF).

Closure (formerly in the French form cléture),
the name used for a power given in 1882 to the
Ss er of the House of Commons, or chairman
of committees, to close a debate when it seems
to him that the subject has been discussed, and he
is authorised to do so by a motion duly supported.
For the rules of procedure, see PARLIAMENT.

Clotaire I. (Hlothar), son and successor of
Clovis (q.v.), first king of the Franks in Gaul,
reigned as sole king from 558 to 561.—CLOTAIRE
II., of the same Merovingian cyauey reigned over
the Franks thirty years later. See FRANCE.

Cloth. See (under Wool) WooLeN CLOTH
MANUFACTURE and WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

Clothes-moth, See Morus.

Clotho, one of the Fates. See FATE.

Cletho, a genus of spiders which spins a curious
tent for itself and its young. See ng ree Spltao

Clotilda, St, born in 475, was the dau ro
Chilperic, thee of Burgundy, and in 493 oreo
wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. She was the
chief means of securing the conversion of her
husband to Christianity, and largely influenced his
life. After his death she lived a life of austerity
at Tours, where she died in 545. She was canon-
ised a few years after. Her remains were buried
in the church of St Geneviéve at Paris, and burnt

300 CLOUDBERRY

CLOUDS

at the Revolution to prevent their desecration.
See Life by Professor Kurth ( Eng. trans. 1899).

Cloudberry (Rubus Chamemorus), a plant
related to the bramble, although of very different
appearance, having a herbaceous single-flowered
stem destitute of prickles. The plant is of humble

rowth, 8 to 10 inches in height; the leaves few,
arge, lobed, and kidney-shaped; the flower large
aad white ; the fruit orange red, equal in size to a
bramble-berry, and of an agreeable flavour. It is
a native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and
America. In Britain it is chiefly confined to
elevated moors ; in Norway and Sweden it is much
more abundant, and the fruit is highly valued and
made into excellent preserves. —

Clouds are masses of fog, consisting of minute
articles of water, often in a frozen state, floating
in the atmosphere. When air has its temperature
lowered below the saturation point, either by
ascending and becoming rarer, or by meeting a
colder current, a portion of the vapour loses its
gaseous form, and eatin condensed into minute
specks of water. It has been shown by Dr Aitken
that this condensation always takes place round a
small particle of dust. A cloud, therefore, does not
consist of vapour, in the proper sense of the word,
but of very small drops oF wate. How this water-
dust is suspended in the atmosphere—why the
particles do not descend as soon as formed, has
never been thoroughly explained. Professor G. G.
Stokes holds that the rate of fall is rendered
exceedingly slow by the friction and drag of the
air-particles, just as fine powders remain suspended
for a long time in liquids of much less specific
gravity than themselves. Besides, as Sir J.

erschel says, ascending air-currents also oppose
the fall of clouds, for the air may be ascending
faster than the particles of the cloud are fallin
through it; while at night, in the absence o
rising currents, clouds often descend to, and dis-
solve in lower and warmer levels. The conditions
under which clouds are formed, and afterwards
deposited in rain, are more fully considered under
EVAPORATION, DEW, RAIN, SNOW-LINE (under
article SNow). The present article is confined to
a description of the various kinds of clouds and of
the weather they indicate.

A general haze of precipitated vapour covering
the sky, and coming down to the earth, is termed a
Fog or Mist ; and the term cloud is usually con-
fined to masses of fog floating in the higher regions,
and not descending to the ground. They are mostly
within a mile of the earth’s surface; and few are
more than six miles above it. From observations
made at Upsala in Sweden, it has been found that
there are three principal cloud layers: the low
clouds at from 2000 to 6000 feet; middle clouds,
12,000 to 15,000 feet; and high clouds, 20,000 to
27,000 feet. These three layers are found at
apparently much the same heights all over the
earth. Clouds spread and move with the wind in
varied, often grand forms; they are generally
disposed in beds parallel to the earth’s surface ;
vertical clouds occur rarely, if at all.

Mr Luke Howard’s classification of clouds, pro-
posed in 1802, into three primary forms—Cirrus
(Cir.), Cumulus (Cum. ), and Stratus (Str.); three
intermediate—Cirro-cumulus ( Cir.-c.), Cirro-stratus
(Cir.-s.}, and Cumulo-stratus (Cum.-s.);. and one
compound form, Nimbus (Nim.)—has been uni-
versally adopted, and has been shown by the Hon.
Ralph Abercromby and others to hold good in all
climates and atmospheric conditions.

Cirrus, or curl cloud, consists of parallel, curling,
flexuous, diverging, and partly straight fibres,
increasing in any or in all directions by elongation,
branching, or addition of new fibres. It is the

highest and least dense of clouds; varies most in
extent, direction, and shape; retains longest its.
varied outlines; and is the longest illuminated
after sunset and before sunrise. It has been com-
pared to a mare’s or cat’s tail, a lock of hair, fine

trellis-work, or thin silvery streaks, and it may
cover all the sky. Threads and groups of Cir.,
during gentle wind after severe weather, presage
serene settled weather. But after a long tract of
fair days, whitish filaments or parallel bands of Cir.
crossing the sky, with the ends converging by per-
spective in each horizon, foretell a change to wet ;.
they move with the upper currents of the atmo-
sphere, and generally indicate by this motion a.
change of wind long before it is felt on the earth's
surface. Cir., being so high, consists of minute ice:
crystals, whose refractions and reflections produce
the halos, coronze, and mock suns and moons almost:
restricted to this cloud and its derivatives the
Cir.-s. and Cir.-c. Cir., especially with fine tails,
varying much in a few hours, presages rain or
snow, and windy variable weather.

Cumulus, ball of cotton, day or summer cloud,
consists of dense, convex, hemispherical, or conical
heaps of small roundish clouds, piled or stacked
on each other. The heaps enlarge upwards from a

Cumulus.

horizontal base, and have rounded or rocky tops ;
they sometimes unite into stupendous white-topped
mountains. It is formed by the condensation of
vapour in local ascending columns of air, and is

enerally at from 4000 to 6000 feet elevation,
Cina often begin after sunrise as a few scattered
specks in the clear sky ; these specks enlarge and
unite to form clouds, which nearly cover the sky in

the afternoon, and generally decrease and vanish

about sunset; but rain follows if they increase in
number and darkness in the evening. Cum., of

CLOUDS

CLOUGH 301

pleasing forms, dispositions, and colours, and of
moderate size, p fine dry warm and calm
days; but cold, rain, and tempest follow dark,
abrupt, dense, sh Cum., covering the sky, and
rolling on each other. Hemispherical, silvery
white Cum. presages thunder.

Stratus, fall or night-cloud, the lowest of clouds
is a widely extended, horizontal sheet, of varied

_ thickness, seldom rising above 4000 feet, and often

quite close to the earth’s surface. It is common in

Stratus.

. summer and autumn, often from sunset to sunrise,

and is densest at or after midnight. It arises in
calm clear evenings, r warm days, from the
sinking and flattening out of Cum., from the cool-
ing of moist air on damp ground, marshes, lakes,
rivers, or from the cooling of moist air mixed with
smoke enveloping great cities. From a height it is
seen spreading around like a sea, and creeping up
hillsides. After sunrise it rises higher, sometimes
forming Cum., and sometimes entirely disappear-
ing; but it may quietly accumulate in layers, and
become Nim.

Cirro-cumulus, or sonder-cloud, consists of Cir.
compressed into dense roundish-white cloudlets, or
woo y irregular tufts, and is found either in the
middle or high cloud layers. It forms the well-
known mackerel sky, but is also often seen through
breaks in lower clouds moving differently. It may
vanish or pass into Cir. or Cir.-s. Solar and lunar
corone appear in it. It occurs in warm dry
weather and between summer showers, and pre-
sages increased heat. Cir.-c. very dense, round,
and close, and with Cum.-s., p a storm or
thunder. In winter it precedes a thaw and warm
wet weather.

Cirro-stratus, or vane-cloud, consists of long,
thin, horizontal clouds, sometimes hairy, with bent
or undulated edges. It is found on the advancing
side of cyclonic storms, and hence is a sure prog-
nostic of wind or rain. Being of great extent, but
little depth, and at a great height, it is the most
usual source of solar and lunar halos.

Cumulo-stratus, or twain-cloud, is a Cir.-s. mixed
with Cum. heaps, or a wide flat base surmounted
by a bulky Cum., with fleecy protuberances or
rocky and mountain masses. It is much denser

than Cum., though being formed by less rapidly
ascending currents, the air is not dry enough to
round o It often forms vast

sharply its tops.
banks of cloud, with overhanging masses. It is
common towards night in dry windy weather, when
it has a leaden hue. It generally arises from Cum.
becoming denser, wider, and protrudiug in large
irregular projections over the ‘base It tends to
oversp the sky, and partly or wholly to become
Nim., and fall inshowers. Cum.-s. is intermediate

between clouds indicating fair and those indicating
rough, rainy weather, and attends sudden atmo-
spheric changes, Distinct Cum.-s. forms before
thunder, Cum,-s. increases the grandeur of moun-
tain scenery, and drops on and envelops mountain-
tops like a curtain.

imbus, or Cumulo-cirro-stratus, the black rain-
cloud, is a cloud, or mixed system of clouds, with
rain or snow falling from it. It is a dense, con-
tinuous, horizontal black or gray sheet, with
fringed edges, having rolling masses of Cum. above
it and pen fr by Cir. Before rain, vast towering
masses of Cum. often pass into Cum.-s., which,
increasing in density, darkness, irregularity, and
extent, become Nim. capped by Cir.-s. Thunder-
storms are always accompanied by Nim. in its most
perfect form.

The term seud has been applied to loose vapoury
fragments of clouds driven by wind, and cumu/onus
to very shaggy cumuli.

The formation and height of clouds depend on
the quantity of vapour in the air, the course and
height of air-currents, the climate, season, tempera-
ture, disposition, and extent of sea and land, and
the height of land. The highest clouds yet ob-
served were Cir. at 43,800 feet elevation. mark-
able cloud-rings prevail over the calm zones of the

uator, and over those of Cancer and Capricorn.
The tops of mountains are often capped by clouds
formed by the moisture in the air condensing as it
is forced up and over the hill. Clouds, viewed
from above in bright sunshine by the aéronaut or
mountaineer, appear as dense volumes of steam or
masses of white cotton.

Clouds moderate the sun’s rays during day, and
the earth’s radiation during night. They always
exhibit positive or negative electricity, but of
greatest tension in thunderstorms. They are the
carriers of the moisture required by plants ; of the
water of springs, lakes, and rivers ; and of the
polar, glacial, and winter snows, which cover
temporarily or permanently parts of the earth.

In Britain, six or seven tenths of the sky is on an
average daily obscured by clouds. There is most
cloud in winter, and about mid-day, and least in
May or June, and during night. Summer and
autumn nights are freest of clouds. All the forms
of clouds may be seen in one day, often very much
commingled.

Crees . ARTHUR HuvuGH, t, was born at
Liverpool, January 1, 1819. is father, a cotton-
merchant there, belonged to an old Denbighshire
family. In the winter of 1822-23 he emigrated
to Charleston, in South Carolina, and there the
boy mostly lived in the midst of a home-life of
singular happiness, until in November 1828 he
was sent fae to school at Chester, and to Rugby
in the summer following. Dr Arnold had already
been head-master for a year, and his high ideal
of Christian ngs Ogi made a profound ioapees
sion upon the boy. At Rugby he was fore-
most in athletic sports, edited for some time the
school magazine, and not only worked his way to
every honour open to him, but gained the warm
affection of all his school-fellows. In November
1837 he entered Balliol College, Oxford, but_aston-
ished all who knew his powers by only obtaining a
second-class in 1841. In the spring of the follow-
ing year he was elected to a fellowship at Oriel.
Clough’s residence at Oxford had fallen at a time
of fierce theological controversy, and his sensi-
tive spiritual nature reflected all the unrest of the
atmosphere around him. For a time he fell under
the spell of Newman’s influence, but this was soon
followed by a period of severe inward struggle
between his absolute honesty of mind and the
religious prepossessions of his youth, the result of
which was that he felt it his duty to withdraw in

302 CLOVE BARK

CLOVER

1848 from Oriel. A little earlier he had published
his first long poem, the Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich,
a ‘Long Vacation pastoral’ in hexameter verse.
He next spent some time in travelling in France
and Italy, part of the time with Emerson, and
was Sppoinved on his return (October 1849) War-
den of University Hall, London. His life here
was far from congenial to him, but he found
much help in the warm friendship of Carlyle.
At Rome, in 1849, he had written his Amouxs
de voyage, and at Venice, during a holiday in
1850, he wrote Dipsychus. In 1852 he resigned
his office, and sala to America ; but an examiner-
ship in the Education Office soon recalled him to
England. In June 1854 he married, and the
remaining seven years of his life were spent in
the calm peace of domestic happiness, free at once
from the unrest of religious perplexity and the
vexation of his earlier monetary liabilities under-
taken for the sake of his father’s business, In
the spring of 1856 he was nominated secretary to
the Commission for examining scientific military
schools on the Continent, and the duties of this
office carried him to France and to Vienna. But
his health now began to give way, and he was
advised by his physicians to travel. After visits to
Greece, Constantinople, the Pyrenees, and Italy, he
was carried off at Florence by paralysis succeeding
a malarial fever, November 13, 1861.

Clough’s poetry reflects with absolute sincerity
all the spiritual unrest and conflict of his life, his
passionate love of truth, and intense longing for
reality. His few short lyrics are almost perfect in
form and matter, but, as an artist in words, his best
gift was perhaps his undeniable humour, which is
of a rare and indeed exceptional quality. But
his true significance is that pointed out with sure
insight by Mr Lowell: ‘We have a foreboding
that Clough, imperfect as he was in many respects,
and dying before he had subdued his sensitive tem-
perannent to the sterner requirements of his art, will

e thought a hundred years hence to have been the
truest expression in verse of the moral and intel-
lectual tendencies, the doubt and strug zle towards
settled convictions, of the period in which he lived.’

Clough is the subject of Matthew Arnold’s elegy
Thyrsis, one of the finest tributes of passionate
admiration to the dead in the English language,
almost worthy indeed to be compared with the
Lycidas of Milton, the Adonais of Shelley, and the
In Memoriam of Tennyson. No truer words have
been spoken of Clough than these :

The music of his rustic flute
Kept not for long its happy country tone ;
Lost it too soon, and learnt a stormy note

Of men contention-tost, of men who groan,
Which tasked his pipe too sore, and tired his throat.

See Samuel Waddington’s Monograph (1882). A col-
lected edition of Clough’s Poems was published in 1862,
with a memoir by F. T. Palgrave, and his Poems and
Prose Remains, edited by his wife, with an admirable
short memoir, in 2 vols. in 1869.

Clove Bark, a name vaguely used for various
aromatic drugs; some belonging to the clove,
others to the cinnamon alliance. To the former
class belong the bark of Eugenia caryophyllata of
Ceylon, &c.; to the latter, the Culilawan bark
(Cinnamomum Culilawan) of the Moluccas.

Clovelly, a coast village of North Devon,
11 miles WSW. of Bideford. From its rude little
pier it climbs 400 feet upwards in a steep narrow
combe, white house rising over white house, and
all nestling in flowers and greenery. Dickens
describes it in A Message from the Sea. Pop. of
parish, 787.

Clover, or TREFOIL (Trifolium), a genus of
Leguminose, sub-order Papilionacez, containing a
great number of species, natives chiefly of temperate

climates, abounding most of all in Europe, and
some of them very important in agriculture as
affording pasturage and fodder for cattle. The
name clover is indeed popularly extended to many
plants not included in this genus, but belonging
to the same natural order, and agreeing with it in
having the leaves formed of three leaflets, par-

ticularly to those of them which are cultivated for _

the same purposes, and sometimes collectively
receive from farmers the very incorrect designation
of artificial grasses, in contradistinction to natural
grasses—i.e. true grasses. See MEDICK and MELI-
LoT. The true clovers (TZrifoliwm) have herb-
aceous, not twining stems; roundish heads or
oblong spikes of small flowers ; the corolla remain-
ing in a withered state till the ripening of the
seed; the pod inclosed in the calyx; and con-
taining one or two, rarely three or four seeds.
About 20 species belong to the flora of Britain, and
many are North American.—The most important of
all to the farmer is the Common Red Clover (7.

pratense), a native of Britain and of most parts —

of Europe, naturalised in America, and growing in
meadows and pastures. It is a perennial, but is
generally treated as if it were a biennial. This
lant was formerly reputed very noisome to witches ;
nights and peasants wore the leaf as a potent
charm against their arts. The Zigzag Clover
(7. medium), also called Meadow Clover, Mazr!-
rass, and Cow-grass, much resembles the Common
ed Clover, but is easily distinguished by the
stems being remarkably zigzag, and more rigid

than in 7. pratense; the heads of flowers are _

larger, more lax, more nearly globose, and of a
deeper purple colour; and the leaflets have no
white spot. It is a common plant in Britain and
most parts of Europe, and grows sparingly in the

A, White Clover (Zrifolium repens).
B, Red Clover (Trifolium pratense).

United States. —White or Dutch Clover (7. repens)
is also a common native of Britain and of most
parts of Europe, and grows everywhere in North
America. en a barren heath is turned up
with the spade or plough, White Clover almost
always appears. his is sometimes but errone-
ously called the Shamrock (q.v.). The flowers
of all kinds of clover are the delight of bees,
but those of this species A dag a8 particularly so.—
Alsike Clover (7. hybridum), a perennial species
introduced from the south of Sweden about 1850,

PP ————— ss

|
|

CLOVER-WEEVIL

CLOVES 303

| has proved a most valuable forage plant.—Crimson

annual, native of the south of Europe, with o
or cylindrical spikes of rich crimson flowers, is
much cultiva in France and Italy, and has of
late been pretty extensively grown in some of
England, producing a heavy 4 The Crimson
Clover is sometimes employed as a decorative
annual in the flower- en.—Moliner’s Clover
T. Molineri) very much resembles Crimson Clover,
ut is biennial, and has pale flowers. It is cul-
tivated in France and Switzerland.—Alexandrian
Clover, or Egyptian Clover i. Alexandrinum),
an annual species, a native of Egypt, universally
cultivated in its native country, where it is the
incipal fodder for cattle, has been tried in Britain,

t the colder climate has been found to render it
less luxuriant and productive. It is supposed to
be one of the best kinds of clover for many of the
British colonies. It has oval heads of pale-yellow
or whitish flowers.—Yellow Clover, or Hop Trefoil
(7. rium), is very common in dry velly
soils in Britain, and in parts of the United States,
but is not much esteemed. It has smaller leaves
and heads of flowers than any of the cultivated
species. Its flowers are yellow.—The Showy

over (7. speciosum) is the only plant made into
hay in the island of Zante, and has therefore
been recommended on trial as a fodder plant in
the south of England and the warmer colonies.
None of the strictly native North American species
have been much utilised as forage plants.

It is little more than a century and a half since
clovers were introduced into field-culture in Britain.
They are now universally cultivated on large farms
in alternation with -crops. The kinds most

nerally sown are the Common Red, Cow-grass,

utch ite, Yellow, and Alsike. The Common
Red is the finest and most valuable, but it is diffi-
eult to grow unless on naturally rich soils. Land
must be thoroughly cleaned of perennial weeds
before it is sown with clover, as the land cannot be
subjected to cultivation while it is under this plant;
clover, therefore, is always sown in the end of the
rotation, or as near the fallow or turnip crop as pos-
sible. A well-manured soil tly assists in keeping
the plants from dying out in spring. Clovers, like
greece, play a most important part in restoring

ertility to land which has been exhausted by

grain-crops. Their leaves gather food—carbonic
acid and ammonia—from the atmosphere, which
they store up in their roots and stems; and these,
on decomposing, afford food for cereals or other
crops which are more dependent on a supply within
the soil.

The caterpillars of a number of species of moth
feed on the leaves of different kinds of clover; but
the insects most injurious to clover crops are
weevils of the genera Apion and Sitona. See
CLOVER-WEEVIL, and WEEVIL.

Clover-weevil, a small black beetle of the
genus Apion, which in larval and adult state infests

Clover, or Italian Clover ie ropa ws an
ong

* clover and other leguminous plants. See WEEVIL,

Cloves 2 ae clavo, ‘a nail’) are the flower-
buds of the Clove-tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus).
The genus to which this tree belongs is of the
natural order M ; the tree is from 15 to
40 feet high, with a beautiful pyramidal head.
The leaves are large, ovate-oblong, acuminated at
each end, evergreen; the flowers are small, but

roduced in t profusion in cymes, Leaves,
lowers, and bark have an aromatic odour, The
ripe fruit resembles an olive in shape, but is not

quite so large; it is of a dark-red colour ; it some-
times appears in commerce in a dried state, under
the curious name of Mother Cloves ; it has an odour
and flavour similar to cloves, but much weaker ;

the broken fruit-stalks are sometimes also used for
the same pu as cloves; but the flower-buds
themselves are the principal product of the tree.
They are gathered, and are dried by exposure to the
smoke of wood fires, and afterwards to the rays
of the sun, or by the latter alone. When first
aerate they are reddish, but become of a deep-
rown colour, The unexpanded corolla forms a
little round head at the end of the calyx tube,

Clove :
a, a branch with leaves, buds, and flowers ; }, a bud,

which is about half an inch long, and thus the
eppesrenss is not unlike that of a little nail,
whence the name. The clove-tree is a native of
the Moluccas, and the Amboyna cloves are still
esteemed the best; but the tree is now cultivated
in Java, Sumatra, Réunion, Mauritius, Zanzibar,
Guiana, and some parts of the West Indies. The
Dutch, in order to secure a monopoly and keep up
the price, destroyed the trees in the other Molucca
Islands in the 17th century, and confined the culti-
vation of them to Amboyna. In 1770 the French
succeeded in introducing the plant into the Isle de
Bourbon (Réunion). It is not deemed quite certain
that cloves are the karyophyllon of the ancient
Greeks; but before the discovery of the Spice
Islands eastern merchants brought them from
Arabia, Persia, and Egypt, to the harbours of the
Mediterranean, from which the Venetians and
Genoese diffused them over Europe.

The Wild Clove-tree of the West Indies is Myrcia
acris. See MYRCIA.

The properties of cloves depend chiefly on an
essential oil, Od of Cloves, which forms one-fifth
or one-sixth of their whole weight. They are used
for flavouring dessert dishes and articles of con-
fectionery, also for driving moths from clothing,
furs, &c., by placing them in the boxes or drawers.
with the clothing. They are also reputed to

febrifuge properties. They have a hot

taste and a characteristic odour. The oil of cloves
is obtained by repeatedly distilling cloves with
water, when two oils pass over, one of which is
lighter and the other is heavier than water. The
oil has a hot acrid taste, is of a light yellow when
pure, and brown red when not so y_pre-
. It has a well-known odour, and is soluble

in ether, alcohol, and the fixed oils. It is useful in
medicine to check nausea and griping, caused by
the administration of purgatives, and consider-

304 CLOVIS

CLUB-RUSH

able reputation as a cure for toothache. It is also
employed in the scenting of soap, and by the
distiller. Tincture of Cloves is obtained by treating
cloves with alcohol for several days, and then
straining, or by a solution of the oil of cloves in
spirits of wine. It is added, in medicine, to
stomachie, tonic, and purgative mixtures. Cloves
are adulterated by adding to the fresh spice more
or less of the buds from which the oil has been dis-
tilled, and which are thereby rendered practically
worthless. The exhausted buds are made to
appear fresh by rubbing them between the hands
moistened with sweet oil, or otherwise varnishing
them with a thin coating of oil.

Clovis (old Ger. Chlodwig, modern Ger. Ludwig,
Fr. Louis), king of the Franks, was of the Mero-
vingian race, and was born 465 A.D. By the death
of his father, Childeric (481), he became king of
the Salian Franks, whose capital was Tournai.
His first achievement was the overthrow of the
Gallo-Romans under Syagrius, near Soissons. He
then took possession of the whole country between
the Somme and the Loire, and established himself
in Soissons. In 493 he married Clotilda, daughter
of a Burgundian prince. His wife was a Christian,
and earnestly desired the conversion of her husband.
In a great battle with the Alemanni near Cologne,
Clovis was hard pressed, and as a last resource
invoked the god of Clotilda, offering to become a
Christian on condition of obtaining the victory.
‘The Alemanni were routed, and on Christmas Day
of the same year Clovis and several thousands of
his soldiers were baptised by Remigius, Bishop of
Rheims. Most of the Western Christian princes
were Arians, but Clovis was strictly orthodox, and,
in consequence, was saluted by Pope Anastasius
as the ‘Most Christian King.’ In 507, love of
conquest concurring with zeal for the orthodox
faith, Clovis marched to the south-west of Gaul
against the heretic Visigoth, Alaric II., whom he
defeated and slew at Vouglé, near Poitiers, taking
possession of the whole country as far as Bordeaux
and Toulouse ; but he was checked at Arles in 507,
by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Clovis now
took up his residence in Paris, where he died in
511. is great aim was the subjugation of all
the Frankish princes, and the union of the whole
Frankish people into a single powerful kingdom.—
Clovis II., son of Dagobert, reigned over the
Franks from 638 to 656.

Clowes, WILLIAM, an Elizabethan surgeon of
distinction, was born about 1540, became surgeon
at St Bartholomew’s Hospital, served with Leicester
in the Low Countries, and also on board the fleet
that defeated the Spanish Armada. He became
“surgeon to the queen, and after a prosperous
Sette in London retired to a country house in

issex, where he died in 1604. He wrote five books
in clear and vigorous English, of which two long
continued popular: A Prooved Practise Sor all
Young Chirurgians (1591), and A Treatise on
the Struma (1602).

Clown. See JESTERS (CoURT), PANTOMIME.

Cloyne, an ancient episcopal town of County
Cork, 15 miles ESE. of Cork. The cathedral was
founded in the 6th century by St Colman ; opposite
is a finely preserved round tower over 90 feet high.
About 1430 the see was united to that of Cork,
acperoed in 1678, and reunited in 1835; the town
still gives its name to a Roman Catholic diocese.
Berkeley was Bishop of Cloyne (1734-53). Pop.
1126.

Clubbing, in cabbages, turnips, and other
plants of the genus Brassica, a diseased growth of
tubercular excrescences in the upper part of the
root or lower part of the stem, caused by the larvee
of the Cabbage-fly (q.v.) and of other insects, by

which the vigorous growth of the plant is pre-
vented, and crops are often much injured. tt is
common for gardeners to cut away these excres-
cences, with their contained larve, in planting out
young cabbages, &c. ; and where they are not so
numerous that the injury done by the knife is
necessarily great, this plan succeeds very well.
— of gas-lime applied to the soil some time
before planting is the best preventive of this evil ;
but change of crop, when practicable, is of all
things the most commendable. Clubbing is some-
times confounded with Anbury (q.v.), from which
it is quite distinct.

Club-foot (Lat. talipes) is a distortion of the
foot primarily due to shortening occurring in one or
other of the groups of muscles which carry out its
intricate movements; subsequently, this error in
the muscular activity becomes aggravated by
shortening of the ligaments which bind the bones
together, and ultimately the shape of the bones

themselves becomes altered so as to constitute a

very serious deformity, difficult to correct. In the
majority of cases the condition is congenital, and at
the time of birth it is usually only the muscular
structures that are affected. Thus it is of great
importance to recognise its presence early in life ;
for until the ligaments and bones become altered,
it may be remedied by very simple means, such as
manipulation and electric stimulation of the affected
groups of muscles. If these simple measures

appear ineffectual, recourse must be had to the

division of the tendons (Tenotomy, q.v.), by which
the shortened muscles are attached to the bones of
the foot. The foot thus freed from the cause of the
distortion, should be placed at rest in good position
within an immovable apparatus, such as a plaster
of Paris case, until healing of the tendons has
occurred. The weakened parts should then be

Club-feet :
A, Talipes equinus; B, Talipes varus.

exercised by suitable manipulations which restore

their strength. In ve ad cases it may be

necessary to remove portions of the distorted bones

and thus restore the natural shape of the foot.

These affections are very markedly hereditary,
and they are in all probability due to disordered

function in the nerves leading to the affected”

muscles, or in the brain or spinal cord, in which
these nerves have their origin. Four chief varieties
of club-foot are recognised by surgeons : (1) Zalipes
equinus (fig. A), in which the heel is drawn up,
and the patient walks on the under surfaces of the
toes; (2) Talipes calcaneus, in which the reverse
condition is present, and the patient walks on the
heel only ; (3) Talipes varus (fig. B), in which the
patient walks on the outer border of the foot; and
(4) Zalipes valgus, where the inner edge of the
sole alone touches the ground. See DEFORM-
ITIES.

Club-moss.
Club-rush.

See LYCOPODIACEA.
See SCIRPUS.

_ trees.’

CLUBS

305

Clubs. The word club is from the same root
as clump ; and its secondary meaning of ‘a collec-
tion o rsons’ is illustrated by ‘a clump of
s specially applied to a select association
meeting for social intercourse, it dates from the
17th century, and the use has since been extended
to other bodies having a common object, such as
literature, science, amusements, politics, or the
furtherance of material interests. The practice of
some kind of club-life is almost universal, and can
be traced in the earliest civilisations, Modern
travellers in Africa, the Pacific, and elsewhere,
constantly speak of a kind of club-houses where
the men meet for gossip and recreation. Vacancies
in the public tables among the Spartans were filled
up by ballot, and Aristotle refers to members of
the same locality in Greece as clubbing for merry-
making. Many such associations both in Greece
and Rome were, however, really secret societies
for the cultivation of religious mysteries; others
were more of the nature of Guilds (q.v.). But
there are records of social clubs more closely allied
to the modern form, and Cicero tells of his pleasure
in uenting such gatherings. We also hear of
a club of old soldiers belonging to the armies of
Augustus, and another among the officers of an
African legion. Women had their sociable codlegia.

In England the history of clubs dates from the
Court de Bone Compaignie mentioned by Occleve
in the early part of the 15th century. Nearly two
hundred years later the symposia originated by
Raleigh made the Mermaid Tavern in Bread Street
famous, while Ben Jonson is said to have founded
a similar gathering at the Devil Tavern. The
Apollo is connected with Jonson’s Leges Con-
viviales. The Rota (1659) and the clubs of the
Restoration were mainly political. The members
of the Calves’-head Club (4.¥.) were supposed to
ridicule the memory of Charles I. The portraits of
the members of the Kit Kat Club (1700) are still
preserved. Addison, Steele, and the essayists of
the Spectator and Tatler class have made us familiar
with the coffee-house and tavern clubs of their
time. The Royal Society Club (1743) is the
earliest of the many dining-clubs associated with
the learned societies. To Reynolds is due the
institution of the still existing Literary Club (1762),
which numbered so many distinguished members,
among them Dr Johnson, who established the Ivy
Lane and other clubs of a less formal character.
Good fellowship and conversation were the leading
features of these societies.

The present of English club is quite different
from the earlier bodies bearing the same name. It
arose about the commencement of the 19th cen-
tury, and is characterised by dining and other
arrangements whereby members seek to preserve
their independence while sharing in the benefits to
which their united subscriptions contribute. The
modern club-house is generally a spacious and
handsome building, with dining, smoking, billiard,
newspaper, writing, and drawing rooms, &c. Some

ess libraries, the most extensive being that of
he Athenzeum, which owns one of the choicest
collections of books of reference in London. The
Garrick is famous for its theatrical pictures. Por-
traits of eminent members are to be found on the
walls of many club-houses. Clubs are usuall
managed by a changing committee who submit
their accounts and report to an annual meeting.
Some are proprietary. The number of members is
rage limited. They are either elected by a
llot of the whole club, a certain number of black-
balls or contrary votes excluding, or by the com-
mittee, who sometimes choose all or a select
number, The revenue is derived from the sale of
provisions, &c, consumed in the house, and from an
nes fee and annual subscription paid by each

member. Some clubs have a dining-room to which
strangers may be invited; in others a select number
of honorary members are admitted. House-dinners
are a revival of a former habit, Many of the recent
clubs contain bedrooms for members. Concerts and
entertainments are also innovations. Moderate
card-pla ring is allowed, but games of chance are
invariably forbidden in respectable English clubs.
Clubs have been instituted to unite persons of
every class, profession, and opinion. There are
clubs for ladies alone, and some to which ladies
are admitted on equal terms with gentlemen. In
others ladies are allowed as guests. It is difficult
to say where the club proper ends and the mere
drinking saloon commences ; some of the numerous
working-men’s clubs and inferior political clubs fall
in the latter class. Others are developments of
the old betting and gambling rooms. tee

The best waetioel and finest clubs in the world
are in London, where there are over a hundred of a
high class. The chief among them are the Albe-
marle (1875), for ladies and gentlemen ; Army and
Navy (1838); Arthur’s (1765), social; Arts (1863);
Athenzum (1824), literature, science, and art;
Bachelors’ (1881), ladies admitted ; Boodle’s (1762),
social; Brooks’s (1764), Liberal politicians; Bur-
lington Fine Arts (1866), exhibitions held; Carlton
(1832), for Conservatives ; City Conservative (1883) ;
City Liberal (1874); Conservative (1840); Con-
stitutional (1883), for Conservatives ; Cosmopolitan,
conversation; Devonshire (1875), for Liberals ;
East India United Service (1849); Garrick (1831);
German Athenzeum (1869), entertainments given ;
Grillion’s (1812), breakfast parties; Grosvenor
(1883), social; Guards’ (1813); Hogarth (1870),
artistic ; Isthmian (1882); Junior Army and Navy
(1869); Junior Athenzeum (1864); Junior Carlton
(1864); Junior United Service (1827); Literary
(1762); Lyric, entertainments given; National
(1845), Chureh of England ; ational Liberal
(1882); National Union (1887), for Unionists ;
New Athenzeum (1878); New University (1863) ;
Oriental (1824); Orleans (1877); Oxford and
Cambridge (1830); Press (1882); Reform (1836),
for Liberals; St George’s (1874), social; St Ste-
yee (1870), for Conservatives ; Salisbury (1880),
adies admitted ; Savage (1857), literature, drama,
&e.; Savile (1868); Scottish (1879); Thatched
House (1865); Travellers’ (1819); Turf (1868);
Union (1822); United Service (1815); White’s
(1730); Windham (1828). County clubs are to be
found in all English provincial towns. At Edin-
burgh the New Club (1787), and in Dublin the
Kildare Street (1790), are equal to the best
metropolitan clubs. The English in India and
the colonies possess luxurious sub-houses in which
bedrooms for temporary visitors are a convenience.

Well-appointed clubs in the English style have
been established in all the leading cities of the
United States. Among the best in New York are
the Lotos (1870), Union League (1863), Century,
Manhattan, Union, Knickerbocker, and University.
Gambling and the giving of dramatic and musical
entertainments and exhibitions of pictures are
special features of club-life on the European con-
tinent. The Jockey Club (1833) and the Union
Artistique ‘Cercle des Mirlitons’ (1863) at Paris
are representative examples. The political asso-
ciations formed in Paris at the time of the first
revolution exercised considerable influence on public
affairs. In 1848 similar bodies in Germany and
Austria were suppressed by order of the police.
‘Club’ is frequently used as an equivalent to
society, as in benefit societies, Alpine Club (q.v.),
Book-club (q.v.), and ericket, cycling, rag ae
boating, and racing clubs. The word has been

ado in most European languages, although
Cercle in France and Circolo in Italy are used.

306 CLUGNY

CLYDE

See Ned Ward, The Secret History of Clubs of all
Descriptions (1709); Ward, Account of all the most
Remarkable Clubs and Societies in London and Westmin-
ster (1750); C. Marsh, The Clubs of London, with Anec-
dotes of their Members (2 vols. 1832); The London Clubs
(1853); Admiral W. H. Smyth, Sketch of the Royal
Society Club (4to, 1860); J. Timbs, Club-life in London
(2 vols. 1866); J. Strang, Glasgow and its Clubs (1857);
W. Arnold, Zhe Sublime Society of Beefsteaks (1871);
Col. G. J. Ivey, Clubs of the World (1880); Sir P. G.
Egerton, Grillion’s Club (privately printed, 1880);
Club-Almanach (Paris, 1883-84, discontinued ) ; L. Fagan,
The Reform Club (4to, 1887); F. G. Waugh, Mem-
bers of the Atheneum Club (1824-87; privately printed,
1888). The rights and obligations of members are dis-
cussed by A. F. Leach, Club Cases (1879), and J. Wer-
theimer, Law relating to Clubs (1885),

i aioe (o or CLUNI, an industrial town in the
French department of Saéne-et-Loire, on the
Grosne, 15 miles NW. of Macon by rail. Pop.
3653. The famous Benedictine abbey, founded
here in 910 by the Duke of Aquitaine, had two
centuries later attained a degree of splendour and
influence unrivalled by any similar institution of
the middle ages; at its height, Clugny stood
second to Rome alone as a chief centre of the
Christian world. It was the asylum of kings, the
training-school of popes ; its abbot took rank above
all others, issued his own coinage, and was a power
in the political world ; it was enormously wealthy,
and covered Europe with its affiliated foundations,
Two hundred priors of subordinate houses assem-
bled here in the 12th century, and in the 15th
century there were said to be over 2000 religious
houses that were offshoots of or connected with the
abbey in France, Italy, Spain, England, Germany,
and Poland; although the alphabetical] list of
Clugniac foundations in the 15th century, at the
end of the Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, represents only
825. In England the extension of the order dates
from the Conquest; William and his successors
were devoted to Clugny, and numerous foundations
were shortly established, of which the priory of
Lewes (1077) became the chief. At their ultimate
suppression in 1539 these numbered 35, exclusive
of such Scottish foundations as Paisley and Cross-
raguel. In the 16th century, the conventual
buildings at Clugny covered upwards of 25 acres.
The grand basilica or abbey church, commenced by
St Hugh, the eighth abbot, in 1089, and dedicated
by Pope Innocent II. in 1131, was, until the con-
struction of St Peter’s at Rome, the largest church
in Christendom. Of this magnificent and imposing
pile one tower and part of the transept alone
remain ; the site of the nave is traversed by a road.
The abbey, over which cardinal-ministers and
+ princes of the blood had once ruled as commendator-
abbots (see COMMENDAM), had outlived both its
utility and its importance; it was no longer a great
seat of learning, and its 300 monks had dwindled to
40, when in 1790 the order to whom Pope Urban II.
had said, ‘Ye are the light of the world,’ was
finally suppressed. Its library was the richest and
most important in France, and its archives are of
the greatest value to monastic history and that of
the early Norman kings of England. In 1562 the
Huguenots sacked the abbey and scattered its
records; but most of this literary treasure was
afterwards wonderfully recovered. Many records
were burned along with religious books by the mob
in 1793, and the library was again scattered ; it
was generally supposed that nothing had survived,
but in 1829 no fewer than 225 folio and quarto
volumes of charters and MSS. were discovered in
the town-hall, of which many are preserved in the
Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, and some have
found their way to the British Museum. For those
relating to England, see Sir G. F. Duckett’s valu-
able Record-Evidence of Cluni (1886), and Charters

and. Records of Cluni (1888). See also the works
of Pignot, the historian of the order, Lorain,
Penjon, Cuchérat, and Champly. The ancient
palace in Paris of the Abbots of Sine became in
1833 a museum of antiquities.

Clumber, a seat of the Duke of Newcastle
3 miles SE. of Worksop. It has given name to
a breed of Spaniels. See SPANIEL,

Clunes, a gold-mining township of Victoria, 119
miles NW. of Melbourne. Pop. 4717.

Clupeidz. See HERRING, SARDINE, SPRAT.

Clu’sia, a ery of tropical trees and shrubs
of the order Clusiaceze or Guttiferse (q.v.), some
of which are commonly called Balsam trees, from
their resinous or balsamic products. They are
very often epiphytes, growing on larger trees,
but also take root in the ground. C. rosea, a
native of the West Indies and tropical America,
yields a resin, which is used as an external applica-

tion in veterinary medicine, and for covering boats.

instead of pitch, The abundant resin exuding
from the dise of the flowers of C. insignis, the
Wax-flower of Demerara, is used to make a gently
stimulating and soothing plaster. The name was

iven in honour of the botanist and traveller

lusius, or Charles de Lecluse (1526-1609).

Clusium. See CHIUusI.

Clwyd, a river of North Wales, rises on Crai
Bronbanog, in Denbighshire, and enters the Iris
Sea after an irregular course of 30 miles.
Ruthin it flows through the fertile Vale of Clwyd,
24 miles long, and 2 to 7 wide.

Clyde (Welsh Clwyd, ‘strong’), a world-famous
river and firth of south-west Scotland. The river
rises as Daer Water at an altitude of 1600 feet,
and runs 106 miles northward and north-westward,
round Tinto Hill (2335 feet), and past Lanark,
Bothwell, Glasgow, and Renfrew, till at Dumbar-
ton it merges in the firth. Its drainage area is
estimated by Sir John Hawkshaw at 1481 sq. m.,
of which 111 belong to the South, North, and
Rotten Calders, 127 to the Kelvin, 200 to the Black
and White Carts, and 305 to the Leven and Loch
Lomond. Tributaries higher up are Powtrail
Water, Little Clydes Burn, Douglas Water, Med-
wyn Water, Mouse Water with its deep gorge
through the Cartland Crags, and, near Hamilton,
the Avon. Of these, Little Clydes Burn, rising
close to head-streams of the Tweed and the Annan,
is often wrongly regarded as the Clyde’s true
source. In the four miles of its course near
Lanark the river descends from 560 to 200 feet,
and forms the four celebrated Falls of Clyde—
Bonnington, Corra, Dundaff, and Stonebyres Linns,
of which the finest, Corra, makes a triple leap of
84 feet. Above the falls the Clyde is a beauti-
ful pure trout-stream, traversing pastoral uplands ;
below, it flows nee a rich fertile valley, here
broadening out into plain, there pent between bold
wooded banks. But its waters become more and
more sluggish, begrimed, and polluted, the nearer
they get te Glasgow, where experiments made
with floats in 1857-58 showed that the sewage
sometimes took a whole week to travel only 24
miles. Since 1765 upwards of ten millions sterling
has been expended on rectifying and deepening the
channel from Glasgow to Dumbarton, no less than
32,261,776 cubic yards of materials having been
lifted by steam-
result has been that whereas ‘a hundred years
ago there was a depth at low-water of 15 inches,
now they have at Glasgow from 18 to 20 feet at
low-water ;’ and that whereas even lighters could
once ‘not pass to and from Glasgow except it be
in the time of flood or high-water at spring-tides,’
now a steamer has been docked at Glasgow that

Below .

redgers during 1844-87. The, .-.

CLYDE

COACHING 307

is second in size only to the Great Eastern. In
1812 Henry Bell (q.v.) launched on the sages the
first t in Europe successfully propelled by
steam; and since then the rivers shipping and
shipbuilding (the latter dating from about 1718)

ve both grown enormously, 404,383 tons having
been launched from the Clyde yards in 1883.—The
Firtu, which some make begin at Glasgow (the
highest point of the tide), and some not until
Gourock, extends 12 miles westward and 52 south-
ward, and broadens from 1 mile at Dumbarton
to 1} at Dunoon, and 37 at Ailsa Craig. It sends
off the Gareloch, Loch Long, Holy Loch, and the
Kyles of Bute; contains the islands of Bute, Arran,
and the two Cumbraes; is bordered along its
ancient sea-margin with an almost continuous
fringe of seaports and watering-places (Greenock,
Rothesay, Ayr, &c.); and, like the last 14 miles
of the river, is one of the world’s chief commercial
waterways. See the reports of Smeaton (1755),
Rennie (1799), Hawkshaw (1876), and Deas (1881-
87); Dorothy Wordsworth’s Your in Scotland
(1874); W. J. Millar’s The Clyde Srom its Source
to the Sea (1888); and Pollock’s Dictionary of the
Clyde (1888). For the ‘Clydesdales,’ or famous
Lanarkshire horses, see HORSE.

Clyde, Lorp. See CAMPBELL (Str COLIN).

Clyster (Gr., from kluzé, ‘I wash out’), called
also enema, a medicine administered in the liquid
form by the rectum, or lower end of the intestine.
It is used either for the pur of procuring evacu-
ation of the bowels, or of conveying stimulants
(brandy, wine, &c.), other medicines, or nourishing
substances into the system. A nourishing clyster,
in order to be effective, must be specially prepared
or digested by means of pepsin, pancreatin, or some
such agent; for the rectum, though it has the
power of absorbing food already digested, is not
capable of performing the functions of digestion.
A nourishing or medicinal clyster must be adminis-
tered in as small bulk as ible ; no more than
a a should be introduced at one time,
or it will probably be rejected. For the purpose
of procuring evacuation, on the other hand, as large
a quantity should be introduced as possible; simple
warm or cold water may be employed, or in special
cases, various cathartics may be used in addition,
such as colocynth, aloes, castor-oil, or turpentine
made into an emulsion with yolk of egg; and
sometimes carminatives, to expel air. The intro-
duction of a teaspoonful of glycerine is often very
effectual in procuring an action of the bowels when
other methods fail. Medicinal elysters should only
be used under medical superintendence. An in-
jecting syringe, with a flexible tube and a double-
action valve, is usually employed for the adminis-
tration of remedies in this way.

Clytzmnes'tra, in Homeric legend, the wife
of Agamemnon. See AGAMEMNON, AZSCHYLUS.

Onidus, or GNrDos, the chief of the cities of
the Doric e in Asia Minor, stood on the pro-
montory of Triopion (now Cape Krio), in Caria,
and, with its two harbours, was long a wealthy
and flourishing port. Here, in 394 B.c., a great
sea-fight took place between the Athenians under
Conon, and the Spartans under Pisander, in which
the former were victorious. The city was a princi-
pal seat of the worship of Aphrodite, who was
therefore sometimes called the Cnidian goddess.
One of its many temples contained the famous
statue in Parian marble of the naked Aphrodite
by Praxiteles. Excavations were made on the
site in 1857-58, and many of the marbles then
recovered are in the British Museum.

Coach-building. See CARRIAGE.
Coach Dog. See DALMATIAN Doa.

Coaching. One of the most remarkable cir-
cumstances in connection with this subject is the
prc oe ie short period in which its history is
comprised. It might very reasonably have been
thought that the exigencies of commerce, no less
than those of private requirements, would, even
in the earliest times, have demanded a system of
communication as 8 as possible, and that
some steps would have been taken to secure the
desired end. Such, however, scarcely appears to
have been the case; and merchants and squires
contented themselves with whatever facilities for
travel were afforded by the stage-wagon, a cum-
brous vehicle drawn at a walk by six, eight, or
more horses. Passing over all earlier attempts to
organise road traffic, we may come to the year
1659, when the first stage-coach—that from Coven-
try—was started. Its pace was probably not faster
than that of the Oxford coach, which went from
London to Oxford in two days, at about 3 miles an
hour, or that of the vehicles which occupied two
days and a half in compassing the distance between
London and Dover. In 1700 a week was required
to go from London to York; and two days from
London to Salisbury. The first mail-coach was not
put on the road until 1784, when Mr John Palmer,
manager of the Bath theatre, and M.P. for Bath,
overcame strenuous opposition, and induced Mr Pitt
to supersede Allen’s system of postboys, whose
contract rate of speed was 5 miles an hour, by his
( Palmer’s) plan of carrying the mails by mail-coach.
The first experiment was made on the 8th of August
1784, on which day Mr Palmer entered government
service as comptroller-general of the Post-office.
A coach left London at 8 A.M. and reached Bristol
at eleven at night. The other coach left Bristol at
four in the afternoon, arriving in London at eight
the next morning, the up journey thus taking six-
teen hours, or two hours longer than the down
journey. The scheme appears to have worked so
well from the beginning, that the municipal
authorities of the more a towns soon
petitioned for the adoption of Mr Palmer's plan
in their districts, and in nearly every instance the
request was complied with. It was part of the
new scheme that the mails should be timed at each
stage, so that they might all reach London at
about the same hour; and that the outgoing mail-
coaches should start at the same time from the
General Post-office. At the outset the regulation
pace was 6 miles an hour; but in course of time
this was increased until the coaches were rated at
10 miles per hour.

This acceleration, however, was due to causes
other than the judgment and enterprise of Mr
Palmer, the skill of coachmen and coach-builders,
and the employment of better horses. At the
period above mentioned the bad state of the roads
precluded quick travelling, and although we find
that roads were the subjects of legislation as early
as 1346, it was not till the days of Macadam and
Telford that road-travelling was, so to speak, revo-
lutionised. The former returned to Ayrshire from
America in the year 1783, and after studying road-
making as a science while one of the road commis-
sioners in Scotland, came south to Bristol in 1816,

e surveyor in that district, and was con-
sulted as to the making of other roads in all parts
of England. As soon as M am’s plans were
carried into effect, good roads took the place of bad
ones ; quick travelling commenced, an ved the
way for the palmy days of coaching, until, in 1836,
there were fifty-four mail-coaches in England,
thirty in Ireland, and ten in Scotland. Meantime
the stage-coaches had grown in number, travelled
at a high rate of speed, and necessitated the
employment of a vast amount of capital. Among
the best-known London proprietors were Chaplin,

308 COACHING

COAL

Horne, Sherman, Nelson, and Mountain ; the two
first named having the judgment to discern that
the railways would eventually drive coaches off the
road, threw in their lot with the London and
Birmingham Railway. It was not till after George
IV. came to the throne that coaching reached the
zenith of its fame in respect of organisation, pace,
appointments, and one may, Fag say coachman-
ship as well. The ‘ palmy days,’ concerning which
so much has been written, began about 1820, and
coaching was possibly at its most perfect pitch
about 1836. For about four years it enjoyed this
repute, and then the downward journey, far more
rapid than the upward one, began; one by one
coaches were taken off ; coaching inns became road-
side public-houses; coachmen and guards found
other occupations, or migrated to the workhouse ;
stables were emptied, and admiration for coaching
gave way to appreciation of railroad-travelling.

Of amateur coachmen and coachmanship in the
last century comparatively little is known; but,
when good roads were the rule instead of the
exception, ‘gentleman coaching’ became a fashion-
able amusement. Mr John Warde, the famous
master of foxhounds, was a renowned whip, to
whom were due the thanks of the old coachmen for
having originated the idea of placing springs under
the coach-box. The name of Devtan has ever been
connected with the annals of the road ; the Messrs
Walker, Sir St Vincent Cotton, the Marquis of
Worcester, Mr Henry Villebois, Mr Maxse, Mr
Jerningham, Mr Sackville Gwynne, Sir Belling-
ham Graham, Mr Stevenson, Hon. Fitzroy Stan-
hope, Hon. T. Kenyon, Colonel Sibthorpe, and Mr
C. Buxton are among the number of those who
patronised the road by every means in their power,
Others, scarcely less enthusiastic, succeeded them,
until there were no road-coaches to be driven.
So far as London is concerned, the link between
the past and present was broken in the year 1858,
when the Brighton ‘ Age,’ under the management
of Clarke, assisted by the Duke of Beaufort and
Sir George Wombwell, was given up; and for eight

ears there was no road-coach running out of

ondon. But the love for the road was only
slumbering, it was not dead; and it was on the
Brighton road that the first step was taken in the
coaching revival in 1866. In that year Captain
Haworth, Captain Laurie, and a few others, started
the ‘Old Times’ to Brighton. At the end of the
season the confederacy was broken up, and in 1867
the Duke of Beaufort, Mr Chandos Pole, and Mr
B. J. Angel took the road, running a coach each
way daily. Between then and the present time
coaches have been started to Sevenoaks, Tunbridge
Wells, Virginia Water, Dorking, Sunbury, High
Wycombe, Westerham, Reigate, Watford, Windsor,
Rochester, Guildford, Portsmouth, Maidenhead,
&c. Some only lasted a short time, and since the
revival began there have been many changes in
routes and proprietors. Thus in 1884 only four
coaches were left, the Brighton road being vacant ;
whilst in 1888 there were eight coaches running
out of London, and three of them on the Brighton
road. From time to time coaches have also been
put on in the provinces.

The year 1877 was a somewhat memorable one in
the annals of modern coaching, as on 4th November
the ‘Old Times’ was put on to St Albans, and has
run every ‘lawful day’ since without a break,
though not always on the same route. In 1888 it
was put upon the Brighton road, and on the 11th
July James Selby, its coachman since 1877, drove
from Piccadilly to Brighton and back in seven
hours fifty minutes, the outward journey being
accomplished in three hours fifty minutes and ten
seconds. This performance, though a good one, is
not a ‘record,’ as in 1837 Israel Alexander, a pro-

fessional on the Brighton road, drove down with the
Queen’s first speech in three hours forty minutes.

The meets of the Four-in-hand Driving Club and
the Coaching Club are justly regarded as among

the sights of the season. The former is the more ex-
clusive as well as the elder, having been established
in 1856, chiefly at the suggestion of Mr W. Morritt.
The club could not entertain one quarter of the
applications for membership, so in 1870 the Coach-
ing Club was established, and has been gradually
increasing in size. For the first driving club of
which we have any account, we must go back to
the year 1807, the date of the establishment of the
Bensington Driving Club—the B.D.C. it was gener-
ally known as—which was limited to twenty-five
members. For the first sixteen years of the club’s
existence its members used to drive down two days
in the season to Bensington, near Wallingford,
in Oxfordshire, and twice to Bedford ; but in 1823
the Bensington gatherings were. given up. A
second, club was Founded in 1808 by Mr Charles,
Buxton, The new association was called the Four-
horse Club; but it was sometimes, though wrongly,
designated as the Whip Club, and the Four-in-hand
Club. The Four-horse Club was broken up in 1820,
was revived in 1822, but became extinct altogether
about 1829. The B.D.C. was then the only body of
the kind until 1838, when Lord Chesterfield estab-
lished the Richmond Driving Club, the members
of which, after meeting at Chesterfield House, drove
to Richmond for dinner. This club, however, came —
to an end after nine or ten years; and in 1852
the B.D.C. was broken up. From that time there
was no driving club until the present Four-in-hand
Driving Club was founded as already mentioned.
See Driving, by the Duke of Beaufort (Badminton
series, 1888).

Coadju'tor (Lat.), a fellow-worker, not as

rincipal but as second, an assistant. Technically,
it is applied in ecclesiastical law to one mr eho.
to assist a bishop, whom age or infirmity has dis-
abled. If a bishop or archbishop is too ill to.
execute a resignation, the crown may give the dean
and chapter power to appoint a bishop-coadjutor.

Coagulation, the amorphous (q.v.) solidifi-
cation of a liquid, or part of a liquid, as when the
casein of milk is solidified by rennet in making
Cheese (q.v.), or the white of an egg by boiling.
The process varies in various substances. Albumen,
or the white of an egg, coagulates at a temperature
of 160°. Milk is coagulated or curdled by the action
of rennet or by acids. The fibrin in the blood,
chyle, and lymph of animals is coagulated by the
separation of these fluids from the living body. See
BLoop.

Coahuila, a state of Mexico, separated from
Texas by the Rio Grande, has an area of 59,280
sq. m., partly mountainous, and forming in the
west a part of the wilderness of the Bolson de
Mapimi. The climate is healthy, although ex-
tremes of heat and cold are usual.. The state is
rich in minerals, especially silver, and coal has been
found. It has valuable pasturage, and in many

arts a most fertile soil; but no district of Mexico
is so little known, or has been less developed. The
construction of the National Railway has, however,
prepared the way for a change, and already several
cotton-factories and a large number of flour-mills
are in operation. Pop. (1882) 144,594. Capital,
Saltillo (q.v.).

Coaita. See SPIDER-MONKEY.

Coal, in the sense of a piece of glowing fuel
(and hence a piece of fuel, whether dead or alive),
is a word common to all the languages of the Gothic
stock (A.S. col, Icel. kol, Ger. kohle). The dif-
ferent sorts of fuel are distinguished by prefixes, as
charcoal, pit-coal; but in England, owing to the

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COAL

309

absorbing importance of mineral or pit coal, the
word coal alone has come to be used in this
signification (Ger. steinkohlen, Fr. charbon
€ terre).

Coal is one of the most important of all rocks ;
it consists chiefly of carbon, and is universally
ed as of vegetable origin. Its geological
relations are noticed in the article CARBONIFEROUS
System. It occurs in layers or beds, and is always
of a black or blackish-brown colour. Some of the
varieties have a very considerable degree of vitreous
or resinous lustre, while others are destitute of
lustre ; some have a shell-like fracture, and others
have a highly cross-jointed structure, and are
readily broken into cubical or rhomboidal frag-

ments. The precise characters of coal as a roc
species are not easily defined, and both in Britain
and other countries important cases have occupied
courts of law, in which this difficulty was strongly
felt, as in the great Scottish lawsuit concernin the
Torbanehill Mineral or Boghead Coal (q.v.). Coal,
indeed, is rather a commercial than a scientific
term, but in a general way we may define it as a
fossil fuel of black colour and stony consistency,
which, when heated in close vessels, is converted
into coke with the escape of volatile liquids and
The variety known as blind coal or anthra-
cite no doubt gives off scarcely any volatile matter,
but this is because it has undergone a natural dis-
tillation through the action of subterranean heat
or of the proximity of intrusive igneous rock. We
may therefore divide coal into two primary divisions
—namely: (1) Anthracite, which ie not, and (2)
Bituminous coal, which does, flame when kindled.
Anthracite (q.v.) sometimes contains as much as
94, and if we exclude the ash, 98 per cent. of carbon,
and as this element decreases in amount it graduates
into a bituminous coal. The term anthracite is,
however, still applied to some coals which do not
contain more than 80 per cent. of carbon. Various
synonyms, such as stone coa}, glance coal, culm,
and Welsh coal, are also used to designate this
substance, which is used chiefly for smeltin pur-
and for penernn steam. In the United
tates it is also ver argely used for domestic
perros heating and cooking. It is difficult to
indle, but gives out a high heatin burning. Bitu-
minous coal includes an almost endless number
of varieties, one of the best marked being cannel
or parrot coal. Cannel coal is probably so called
from burning with a bright flame like a candle,
and the name parrot coal is given to it in Scot-
land from the Seeking or chattering noise it
makes when_ burned. at of different localities
varies much in appearance, but it is most commonly
dull and earthy, or with only a slight lustre ; some
examples are, however, bright and shining. In
texture it is nearly always compact, and certain
beds of it admit of being polished in slabs of con-
siderable size, which approach black marble in
appearance. Of this material vases, inkstands,
boxes, &c. are made. Cannel coal contains a large
percen of ash, but the best cannels are in some
laces much used for open-grate fires in houses.
annel is for the most part consumed in making
gas, of which it yields from 8000 to 15,000 eubic
eet per ton. When distilled at a low red-heat it
yields paraffin oil. The other varieties of bitu-
minous coal are so numerous that, as an Admi-
ralty report states, there are as many as seventy
denominations of it imported into London alone.
Still, among these there are three leading kinds
—l. Caking coal, which cakes or fuses into one
mass in the fire. It breaks into small uneven
pan ears and is found largely at Newcastle
and some other localities. 2. Splint or hard coal,
occurring plentifully in Scotland, which is hard,
and breaks into cuboidal blocks. This is often

called block-coal ; and locally it is very valuable, be-
cause it can be employed in smelting without being
first coked, It is not very easily kindled, but when
lighted makes a clear lasting fire. 3. Cherry or
soft coal, which breaks easily into small irregular
cubes, has a beautiful shining lustre, is readily
kindled, and gives out a cheerful flame and heat.
It is common in Staffordshire. Brown coal or
Lignite (q.v.), though for the most part inferior to
true coal, is nevertheless an important fuel in some
countries in default of a better kind. There are,
however, large deposits of lignites in some regions,
as in North America, which coke well, and which
are excellent substitutes for true coal.

The use of coal does not seem to have been known
to the ancients; nor is it well known at what time
it began to be used for fuel. Some say that it was
used by the ancient Britons; and at all events it
was to some extent an article of household con-
sumption during the Anglo-Saxon period as early as
852 A.D. There seems to be reason for thinking
that Britain was the first European country in
which coal was used to any considerable extent.
A coal-pit at Preston, Haddington, was nted
to the monks of Newbattle between 1210 and 1219.
Henry III. is said to have granted a license to dig
coal in 1234. About the end of the 13th century it
began to be employed in London, but at first only in
the arts and manufactures ; and the innovation was
complained of as injurious to human health. In
1306 the parliament petitioned the king to prohibit
the use of coal, and a proclamation was accordingly
issued against it; but owing to the high price
of wood, its use soon became general in London.
It was for a long time known there as sea-coal,
because imported by sea.

Several theories as to the mode of the origin of
coal have been put forth from time to time. The
one now generally believed in is that the rank and
luxuriant vegetation which prevailed during the
carboniferous age grew and decayed upon land but
slightly raised above the sea; that by slow sub-
sidence this thick layer of vegetable matter sunk
below the water, and became gradually covered
with sand, mud, and other mineral sediment; that
then, by some slight upheaval or gradual silting up
of the sea bottom, a land surface was once more
formed, and covered with a dense mass of plants,
which in course of time decayed, sank, and me
overlaid with silt and sand as before. At length,
thick masses of stratified matter would accumulate,
producing great pressure, and this, acting along with
chemical changes, would gradually mineralise the
vegetable layers into coal. Microscopical examina-
tion shows that coal consists principally of the corti-
cal pebenage of plants—more especially of the bark of
such trees as Sigillaria—commingled with the debris
of various other plants, amongst which the spore
cases and spores of certain lycopodiaceous trees not
infrequently occur in great abundance. It seems
probable indeed that many coal-seams simply repre-
sent great swamps and saree d a.

As will be seen from the following table, wood,

at, lignite or brown coal, and true coal indicate
by their composition the changes which vegetable
matter undergoes by decay and pressure; and a
table in which a considerable number of examples
of each substance could be given would show how
gradually these substances pass into each other :

Wood. Peat. Lignite. Coal.
Carbon ..........++ 50-0 60-0 65-7 82-6
Hydrogen.......... 6-2 6-5 5-3 5-6
0 EE 43-8 33-5 29-0 11:8
100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0

In each of these bodies there is usually a small per-
centage of nitrogen, which in the above table has
not been separated. In passing from wood or peat

310

COAL

to coal, the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen
decreases, these substances being given off in the
form of marsh-gas and carbonic acid in the process
of decay.

On the continent of Europe, productive coal-fields
occur in Belgium, France, Prussia, Spain, Silesia,
and in Russia—the only important Russian coal-
field being that of Donetz, on the north shore of the
Sea of Azov. Coal is also found in India, China
(where several extensive coal-fields occur, in which
coal has been worked from a very early period),
Japan, and the Malayan Archipelago, in Australia
Gad New Zealand, and in Africa. There is evi-
dence of promising coal-deposits in several South
American countries, but, owing to the great supply
of wood in their forests, there is little temptation
to work them. Considerable importance already
attaches, however, to the mines of Chili (q.v.). In
Canada there are small, though valuable, coal-
fields; but in the United States enormous fields of
fossil fuel are found. The entire area of these is

about 200,000 sq. m., being 83-times greater than

the area of the coal-fields of Great Britain. But
although the coal-measures of the States are of
vast extent, and contain many valuable coal-seams
—a few of them 40 and even 50 feet thick at

certain places—it has been doubted whether the |

amount of workable coal in them has not been
exaggerated. In proportion to the extent of the
seams, the quantity of coal annually raised in the
States is small, and amounted to 160,000,000 short
tons of 2000 lb. each in 1892. The distribution of
the coal-fields of Britain and North America is dis-
cussed at CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.

Coal-supply of Britain.—The probable duration
of the Butish coal-supply is a question which
until recent years rarely excited any public
anxiety. Early in the 19th century attention
had been called to the subject by Sir John
Sinclair, Mr Robert Bald, and Dr Buckland, but
the existing store of coal was generally believed
to be practically inexhaustible—its exhaustion at
all events seemed to be relegated to so remote a
date as to relieve the nation from all anxiety on
the matter. In recent years, however, Professor
Hull, from a more accurate survey of British coal-
fields. than was possible before the map of the
Geological Survey had been published, came to the
conclusion in 1860, that at the then rate of produc-
tion we had enough coal to last for 1000 years.
But as the rate of consumption was yearly increas-
ing, it was obvious that our coal-supply might not
last nearly so long. In 100 years, as Professor
Jevons showed, if the same rate of increase con-
tinued, the annual consumption would be415,000,000
tons, and our coal-fields by that time would be
nearly exhausted. A Royal Commission was
appointed in 1866 to consider the whole question,
and came to the conclusion in 1871 that at the then
rate of consumption there was enough coal to last
for 1273 years, but with a constantly increasing
consumption this term would necessarily be re-
duced. The amount of coal at all depths down to
4000 feet was estimated at the date of the Royal
Commissioners’ Report to be 90,207 million tons,
while including the coals at greater depths, the total
was 146,480 millions of tons. Although, therefore,
we know approximately the extent of available coal,
we cannot tell how long that coal will last, for we
cannot say whether the present rate of consumption
will be maintained, increased, or diminished in the
future. It seems most probable, however, that the
rate of increase of coal used per head of the popula-
tion will follow a diminishing ratio, and that it will
be 300 or 400 years before the coal-supplies of these
islands begin to fail.

Coal-trade.—The production and sale of coal, like
every other important branch of industry, was long

fettered with legislative regulations. At a very
early period, the corporation of the city of London
undertook the duty of either weighing or measur-
ing the coal brought into the port, and by a series
of statutes commencing with 7 Edward VI. chap.
7, the mayor and aldermen of London, and the jus-
tices of the counties, were empowered to fix the
price of coal to be sold by retail; and in case of
refusal by the parties to sell at the prices fixed, to
enter their wharves, or other places of deposit, and
to cause it to be sold at the prices which they had
set. In addition to the general supervision which
they thus possessed, and the sums which they were
empowered to exact for their trouble, the corpora-
tions of London and other towns have exacted, and
still continue to exact, dues on coal for local pur-

oses. These were first imposed in London in
1667, after the great fire, in order to enable the cor-
poration to pad the ravages which it had com-
mitted; and they have been since continued as a
fund for civic improvements, though, as M‘Culloch —
has remarked, no improvement could be equal to
a reduction in the price of coal. In the reign of
William III. a general tax, payable to government,
was laid on all sea-borne coal—a tax which was in
the highest degree unjust to places which were
dependent for their supply on the coasting trade,
and oppressive to the whole country, inasmuch as
it amounted to more than 50 per cent. on the price
paid to the owner at the pit’s mouth. The tax
varied in amount, not only at different periods, ©
reaching its highest point of 9s. 4d. per chaldivh
during the great war, but also in different parts of
the country, being higher in London and the south
of England, and lower in Ireland and Wales, whilst
Scotland for a considerable ah was altogether
exempt. The tax itself, with all its inequalities,
was abolished in 1830; and the tax on coal,
long collected for local purposes in London, was
abolished in 1889. The repeal, in 1845, of the
duty on coal exported to foreign countries was
a measure of much more doubtful policy. The
annual quantity of coal exported from Great Britain
during the yearsfrom 1890to 1898 was from 25,000,000
to 38,000,000 tons.—For the regulation and in-
spection of mines, explosions, &c., see MINING;
where also mention is made of the varying arrange-
ments as to the proprietorship of mines. The con-
dition of colliers and salters in Britain is discussed
at SLAVERY. For coal-tar products, see COAL-
TAR, DYEING. See also the articles FUEL, GAs
AND GASES, PETROLEUM.

Coal-whipping is the name given to a mode of
unloading coal from vessels at anchor to barges,
which convey them to the wharves. When the
number of these men at work on the Thames was
about 2000, public-house keepers got into the habit
of acting as middlemen; the trade fell into such a
state, that the men were virtually slaves to the

ublicans. They asked for the interference of the
egislature. An act was passed in 1843, and a
Coal-whippers’ Board was formed, which contracted

for the whipping of ships of coal, and employed the
men; and other acts were passed in 1846 and
1851. But in 1856 the coal-owners agreed with the
Board of Trade to maintain a Whipping Office, to
give the men a refuge from the publicans, but with-
out interfering with the liberty of coal-shippers.
The necessity for coal-whippers has been much
lessened by the use of hydraulic or steam machinery
in discharging.

See Green and Miall, Coal: History and Uses (1878);
Galloway, History of Coal-mining in Great Britain (1882) ;
Hull, Coal-fields of Great Britain (1880); Pameley, The
Colliery Manager’s Handbook (1891); Meldola, Coal and
what we get from it (1891); H. W. Hughes, A Zeat-book
of Coal-mining (1892); D. M. D. Stuart, Coal Dust an
Explosive Agent (1894).

a ae oe
- °
« ut —

COALBROOKDALE

COALING STATIONS 311

Coalbrookdale is a district in Shropshire,
extending 8 miles along the river Severn ; its coal-
field supplies coal and iron as well as limestone,
and manufactures iron. The village of Coalbrook-
dale, which gives it name, is 11 miles SE. of

_ Shrewsbury,

Coal-fish (Gadus carbonarius), a species of
cod, with black upper
seas. It occurs from 80° N. lat. to the Mediter-
ranean, and is common off North American and
British coasts. In Scotland it is often called Saith.
Tt often measures 2 to 3 feet in length, and may
be considerably larger ; occurs in great shoals; is
exceedingly voracious. Though decidedly coarse,
its flesh is much eaten in northern parts. The
young ones are often caught by boys fishing off
the rocks, and are variously known as podleys,
sillocks, cuddies, and coalseys. See Cop.

Coaling Stations. The question of coaling
stations has of late en da large share of public
attention in Britain. e necessity for maintain-
ing a suflicient number of fortified outposts on the
great lines of British trade has been recognised by
successive governments, and the work of defence
has, after a ttable delay,’ at length been
vigorously taken in hand. The inquiry by a Royal

_ Commission resulted in the publication in 1881-82

of an exhaustive report, from which the present
article has been compiled.

The Commissioners estimated the value of British
ships and the freights which they carried annually
at £900,000,000, British property to the value of
“acta ge being at all — moat -~ eater

rt on distant vo ' roadly, the foreign
rade of the United. Kingdom may be divided into
two great divisions—the trade with the Americas,
and that with the Mediterranean, the East, and
Australia, by the Suez Canal and the Cape. It is
chietly with the latter that we are here concerned.

On the great trade-route by the Suez Canal to
India and to Australia, steamships have entirely
superseded sailing-ships. It is along this route
that the possession of a continuous chain of coal-
ing stations gives Britain an advantage which it
is imperatively n to maintain. The Cape
route, again, is essential to the retention by Great
Britain of her possessions in India, Ceylon, Mauri-
tius, Singapore, China, and Australia. It is by
this route that reinforcements of troops and neces-
sary ro. 4s could, in the contingency of war, be
despatched to the East with the least exposure to
capture.

t must be accepted as a leading principle that
the defence of harbours should be secured by forts
and not by ships. The Royal Navy is not main-
tained for the purpose of affording direct local
‘protection to seaports and harbours, but for the

urpose of blockading the ports of an enemy, of

estroying his trade, attacking his possessions,
dealing with his ships at sea, and preventing an
attack in force upon any special place. It is by
the efficient performance of these duties that
British commerce and colonies will be best protected.

The t fortresses of Gibraltar and Malta are
maintained wholly from resources provided b
the imperial exchequer. Improvements in their
defences have been going forward ever since they
came into the ion of Britain ; and it may be
assumed that Gibraltar and Malta are well pre-
pared to resist attack. For the manning of the
works strong garrisons of 6000 men are permanently
maintained.

Pursuing our way through the Suez Canal,
which, in consequence of recent political changes,
has practically under British control, we
find at Aden another commanding position. The
distance from Suez is 1300 miles, from Mauritius

rts, common in northern’

1970, from Bombay 1637, and from Ceylon 2130.
Aden is not - an important coaling station in
-time for ships using the Suez Canal, but, in
the event of war with any of the Mediterranean
wers, it would be the only place in possession of
ritain from which a fleet could prevent foreign
ships of war, that had passed through the canal
into the Red Sea, from gaining access to the Indian
Ocean. The Royal Commission urge strongly that
Aden should be made secure against the attack of
a small naval squadron.

Bombay is much more than a mere coaling
station. It is the greatest port of India, and one
of the busiest entrep6ts of commerce in the world.
The harbour, defended by batteries and by two
armoured vessels, was declared by Sir Frederick
Richards, when naval commander-in-chief on the
East India station, to be sufficiently secured against
ag! probable attack.

urrachee is a post of immense importance as
the base for the military defence of the north-west
frontier of India. As compared with Bombay,
Kurrachee is nearer to England by two days’
steaming. By skilful engineering, the entrance to
the port, the anchorage, and the wharfage have
been adapted to the requirements of steamships of
large tonnage. The defences, both by batteries and
to oes, are well advanced.

he distance from Ceylon to the Cape of Good
Hope is 4400 miles, from Mauritius 2100, from
Aden 2130, from Bombay 960, from Singapore 1510,
and from King George’s Sound 3400. if measures
are taken to prevent an enemy’s ships from coaling
in the adjacent seas, Ceylon will be comparativel
safe from heavy attacks. The possibility of attac
4 a hostile cruiser must, however, be admitted.

he Commissioners carefully weighed the relative
advantages of Galle, Colombo, and Trincomalee.
Galle, for many years the port of call for mail-
steamers, has a taalty been abandoned in favour
of Colombo. The latter port has a commodious
harbour, already sufficiently advanced to afford
well-sheltered anchorage during the south-west
monsoon. For local reasons, no less than for im-
rial considerations, the Royal Commission held

it necessary that Colombo should be adequately
protected, both by floating defences and by batteries
on shore. Trincomalee is the safest and most com-
modious harbour in the Indian Ocean, and very
capable of defence. But it is out of the course of
trade, and has no facilities for the repair of ships ;
so the Commissioners did not recommend a large
expenditure on fortifications at Trincomalee.

ingapore is the next important position in the
possession of Great Britain. The annual value of
the imports and exports of the Straits Settlements
(of which it is by far the most important) is about
£100,000,000. At Singapore the quantity of coal
supplied to passing steamers varies from 15,000
to 20,000 tons a month. Extensive wharves, three

ving-docks, and all the 9g pe for repairing
ships have been provided by private enterprise.
The colonial government has carried out a scheme of
defence, planned by officers of the Royal Engineers.
The torpedo defences are complete.

Hong-kong is the chief centre of British trade with
China, and the only dependency from which that
trade can be defended. The entries of shipping in
1890-95 included about 30,000 vessels and a an-
nually, of over 7,000,000 tons, and manned by 500,000
hands. Graving-docks exist in the hands of com-
mercial companies, capable of receiving ironclads
of the largest class which will be seen in the China

The defence of the harbour is now nee
made good at the cost of the local and imperi
vernments. A small ironclad is stationed at
Tega kone for the defence of the harbour.
To the Cape of Good Hope, the distance from

312 COALING STATIONS

‘COAL-TAR

England is 6000 miles. The intermediate coal-
ing stations now used are Lisbon, Gibraltar,
Madeira,. St Vincent, and Sierra Leone. Lisbon,
Madeira, and St Vincent being in foreign terri-
tory, Sierra Leone is the first British coaling
station. The harbour is capacious and secure, an

the works for its defence are nearly completed.
Ascension, distant from Sierra Leone 1000 miles,
‘from St Helena 680 miles, and from the Cape of
Good Hope 2380 miles, has a roadstead, or landing-

lace, on its west or leeward side; there is no
Gashor. Ascension has been used as a depét for
stores and the supply of coals. By a wise decision
of the Admiralty (1887) the stores were to be
removed from Ascension, which was henceforth to
be used only as a sanatorium for the benefit of
ships whose crews have suffered from fever. .

St Helena, in the opinion of the Royal Com-
mission, has many advantages over Ascension. It
is larger, has a cooler temperature, more vegeta-
tion, and a better roadstead. Within a recent
period £30,000 has been expended on fortifications ;
and it has been decided to further strengthen the
defences, and to supply a modern armament.

The Royal Commission showed that the value
of British trade either with the Cape of Good Hope,
or passing round it, amounted to £91,352,000
annually, the whole, with the exception of about
£4,000,000, being carried.on directly with the
United Kingdom. Enormous, however, as is the
value of this trade, it by no means represents that
which, in the event of war with one or more of the
great naval powers, might pass round the Cape.
The annual value of British trade with India,
Ceylon, China, and the East, conveyed through the
Suez Canal, falls little short of the trade by the
Cape route. If the long sea-route became alone
available, the annual value of the traffic by the
Cape would amount to £150,000,000, exclusive of
that of the shipping employed. The Cape penin-
sula, about 32 miles in length, is a rugged mountain-
ous district, connected with the continent by a
low isthmus, 13 miles in length (see map of CAPE
COLONY). Simon’s Bay affords a secure anchorage,
and naval establishments have been formed on
its shores. The anchorage in Table Bay, the
scene of many disasters in former days, has been
rendered secure by a noble breakwater. Docks
have been formed. The graving-dock is capable of
receiving large ironclads. To make the Cape
thoroughly secure, it is necessary to fortify both
Table Bay and Simon’s Bay. The defences at
Simon’s Bay have been completed at the sole cost
of the imperial government. At Table Bay the
works are being executed by the colony, while the
armaments are provided by the imperial govern-
ment.

Mauritius lies nearly midway between the Cape
and India, 4440 miles apart. ‘The colony has a
trade of the annual value of £6,000,000. Port Louis
is a safe and commodious harbour. The Royal
Commission recommended additions to and im-
provements of existing defences. Mombasa (q.v.)
was made a naval coaling-station in 1890.

Having dealt with British trade with the East,
we turn to the West. The trade of the United
Kingdom with the United States and Canada ex-
ceeded, at the date of the Commissioners’ report,
£119,000,000 in annual value. The largest pro-

ortion is food and raw material supplied to the

nited Kingdom. War with the United States
cannot be contemplated by practical British poli-
ticians. In the event of war with any other power,
merchant-steamers would require protection only
near the coast at either end of their voyage,
trusting to their own speed for the intermediate
portion.

British trade with the West Indies amounts

_ defences of the great

represented by the Duke of Newcastle.

annually to £21,000,000. The defence of this
important trade rests on Jamaica and St Lucia,
The defences of Jamaica have been modernised
and greatly improved in recent years. St Lucia
has been selected by the Admiralty as a coaling
station for the fleet in the Windward Islands.

It is not necessary to refer in detail to the land
orts of Australia. The
combined expenditure of the several governments.
may literally be reckoned by millions. The man-
ning of the works and the general defence of the
colonies by land is guaranteed by an army of more
than 30,000 volunteers, of splendid physique, well
equipped, and provided with a small staff of officers
from the imperial service. A considerable flotilla,
for harbour defence has been created at Melbourne.
Adelaide has a powerful coast-defence vessel.
Brisbane has two efficient gunboats. Naval bri-
rades have been organised both in Victoria and
Hew South Wales.

New Zealand is secured by its geographical
position from an attack in force. The defence
of a few principal ports has been taken in hand,
under the able advice of Sir William Jervois. A
considerable body of volunteers, both for the sea.
and the land service, has been enrolled.

By an arrangement concluded by the administra-
tion of Lord romain a joint agreement was in.
1887 entered into, with the approval of the legisla-
tures in the Australias and at home. Under its pro-
visions, by a colonial contribution from the several
governments, a special squadron of highly efficient.
cruisers has been built for the defence of trade in
Australian waters and on the coasts of New
Zealand.

Coalition, in Politics, is applied to the union
of two parties, or, as generally happens, portions of
parties who agree to sink their differences, and
act in common. Pitt the elder, when he took
office in 1757, coalesced with the Whig igen

e
ministry always spoken of, however, as the Great
Coalition was formed in 1782, when Fox, the
leader of the reformers, took office along with
Lord North, the leader of the opposite party.
When Lord Derby’s ministry resigned in 1853,
there was a short coalition between the Whig
party under Lord John Russell, and the more:
moderate of the Conservative party under Lord
Aberdeen. The arrangement made between Con-
servatives and Liberal Unionists in 1886 can
searcely be called a coalition, inasmuch as the main
responsibility of government rests on the former,
while the latter give them a general support. The
term is also used of alliances between separate
states.

Coal-tar, or GAS-TAR, is a thick, black, opaque
liquid, which comes over and condenses in the pipes.
when coal or petroleum is distilled. Now usually
obtained in the manufacture of gas, tar was about
1782 extracted from coal by the ninth Earl of Dun-
donald under a patent, ne ay for the purpose of
being used for protecting ships from rotting. Coal-
tar is slightly heavier than water, and has a strong,
disagreeable odour. The amount of tar so obtained
of course varies with the nature of the coal em-
ployed, but it is also dependent on the average
temperature of distillation. With a low tempera-
ture, a large quantity of tar is produced, along with
a small yield of a highly illuminating gas. At first.
this tar was regarded as a waste product, or, at
most, as a source of pitch; but it soon became
apparent that as a source of Benzene (q.v.), and
through it of the aniline dyes (see ANILINE), it-
was a commodity of great commercial value.

When coal-tar is distilled, a large number of
volatile substances pass over as the temperature

i ee

COALVILLE

COATZACOALCO 313

rises higher and mane. At first various gases,
ammonia and naphtha, are obtained to the extent
of about yy th part of the a ogre tar, and then dis-
tillation ceases, although the temperature gradu-

rises. After a period of about an hour, more
oils, like the former, lighter than water, are
obtained, and so on the distillation proceeds, with
successive intervals, yielding what are known as
Creosote oils, and finally Anthracene oils, the
residue in the still being pitch.

At first, when anthracene was of little import-
ance, distillation was not pushed so far, and the
anthracene oils were allowed to remain in the
pitch ; but since the discovery of the process for
making artificial Alizarin (q.v.), the heat is pushed
as far as ible consistent with the produenes of
a pitch that will sell, The first light oils yield
chiefly benzol, carbolic acid, and naphtha. The
creosote oils yield creosote and naphthaline, while
the anthracene oils produce anthracene and lubri-
cating oils.

After this enumeration of the chief coal-tar pro-
ducts, it will be ible to realise the great im-
peenee of this substance. The ar seep besides

ing used as a solvent for india-rubber and gutta-

reha, is burned to produce a fine variety of carbon
or printing-ink. he benzol, including in this
term many nearly allied substances, not only yields
many brilliant dyes, but is used for cleaning gloves,
silks, &c., and other articles which would be injured
by washing. The creosote in its erude form is
largely used for preserving wood, enabling it to be
exposed in damp situations without open hile,
when burned, its smoke yields lampblack. The
naphthaline, besides being a source of many dyes,
is employed in the Albo-carbon light to give to
ordinary coal- very high illuminating power.
Finally, the residual pitch is in constant requisition
for making roofing felt and asphalt pavement.
Besides these primary products of coal-tar, there
are of course numerous compounds derived more or
less remotely from it. Such are the aniline dyes, the

uinine substitutes, antipyrin, antifebrin, &c., and
the sweetening substance, Saccharin (q.v.), which
may be used to replace sugar in many cases. For
further references, see ANILINE, ALIZARIN, BEN-
ZENE, CREOSOTE, and NAPHTHALENE ; also Lunge’s
Coal-tar and Ammonia (1887).

Coalville, a village of Leicestershire, 16 miles
NW. of Leicester by rail. Pop. 1904.

Codnza, a river of West Africa, in the Portu-
guese colony of Angola, flows generally NW., and
enters the Atlantic about 30. miles 8. of St. Paul
de Loando, by a mouth over a mile broad. It is
navigable for light vessels as far as the Cambambe
cataracts, over 120 miles, and is regularly traversed
as far as Dindo, a few miles below, by the trading
vessels of a steamship company established by the
tea apm who have many settlements on the

8.

Coast Defence. The character of the defence
provided for the coasts of a state must depend on
the nature of the coast and of the attack to be anti-
cipated. In Germany a solution of the problem has
been sought mainly by means of submarine mines,
associated with a strong flotilla of torpedo-boats,
and, in certain spots, with powerful batteries.
Italy intrusts the defence of her coasts chiefly to
her very powerful fleet of ironclads, which can move
from place to place as required. In France and Eng-
land all these methods are employed : mine-fields,
which to be effective must be protected by artillery ;
torpedo-boat flotillas; batteries ; and a strong
fleet of heavy ships, some of which have been
specially designed for this purpose, eenee their
usefulness has been much questioned. In Italy

the unusual feature of 120-ton guns mounted in /

n-barges, to take part in the defence of certain
important harbours, is also to be noticed. As a

neral defence against an attack in force, strong

tteries in connection with mine-fields offer, per-
haps, the best security. Against depredations by
isolated ships or cruisers, well-placed guns on
the disappearing system, with some fast torpedo-
boats, would probably be most efficacious. The
question of the best system of defence, under the
great changes which have taken place in the
material of warfare, must probably remain unde-
cided until more experience has been gained.

Coastguard, an organisation formerly in-
tended to prevent smuggling merely, but now con-
stituted so as to serve as a defensive force also.
The old coastguardsmen were in the employment.
of the Customs department; they were posted along
the shore at ho commanding extensive views of
the beach, and were expected to be always on the
lookout for smugglers. In 1856 the coastguard
was transferred to the Admiralty, and under this
arrangement the Admiralty may, from time to
time, issue orders for the augmentation of the
coastguard, not to exceed 10,000 men in all.
Lands not exceeding three acres each may be
bought by the Admiralty for coastguard stations.
The coasts of the United Kingdom have been
divided into eleven districts. Each district is under
a navy captain, who has an ironclad guardship at
some port in the district. All the revenue cruisers
and defence-gunboats are attached as tenders to
the ships, and are manned therefrom. The able
seamen, borne on the ships’ books, and employed
on shore in coastguard service, are in three classes
—chief boatmen, commissioned boatmen, and boat-
men. They receive high-sea pay, besides Is. 4d.
per day in lieu of provisions, and house-rent and
medical attendance free. In war-time, all of these
men may be called upon to serve as regular sailors
on board ship; but their families are allowed to
live rent-free during this time. The coastguard are
taught naval gunnery, gunboat exercise, and the
serving of land-batteries. The roe are also
employed as training ships for the navy. The whole
of the coastguard now comprises some 4200 men ;
and the charge for their maintenance and that of
their ships is about £460,000.

Coast Range, a range of mountains nearly
parallel to the Pacific Coast in California (q.v.).

Coast Survey of United States. See CHART.

Coatbridge, a thriving manufacturing town
in Lanarkshire, 9 miles E. of Glasgow by rail,
and 32 W. by 8S. of Edinburgh. The centre of a
great mineral district, it is surrounded by numer-
ous blast-furnaces, and produces malleable iron,
boilers, tubes, tin-plate, firebricks and tiles, and
railway wagons. Coatbridge has grown very
rapidly in size and prosperity—a_ growth largely
due to the development of the Gartsherrie’ lron-
works of Messrs Baird (q.v.), first put in blast, 4th
rag Oa By (1831) 741; (1851) 8564; (1871)
15 ; (1881) 18,425; (1891) 29,996. In 1885 Coat-
bridge was made a municipal burgh. See A. Mil-
ler’s Rise and Progress of Coatbridge (Glas. 1864).

Co’ati, or CoatI-Munp1 (Nasua), a genus of
the raccoon family (Procyonide), in the bear-like
section of Carnivora. There are two species found
in Mexico, Central America, and South America.
They live on trees, feeding somewhat omnivorously,
and grubbing with an upturned flexible snout.
They are social in their habits, and readily adapt
themselves to domestication. See Raccoon.

Coat of Arms. See HERALDRY.

Coatzacoaleo, a river of the isthmus of
Tehuantepec in Mexico, rises in the Sierra Madre,
and falls into the Gulf of Mexico, 130 miles S.E. of

314 COB

COBBETT

Vera Cruz. It is navigable for large vessels for 30
miles, and.is interesting as part of a route which
was once surveyed for an interoceanic canal. Near
its course was Captain Eads’s projected ship-railway.

Cobalt (sym. Co, eq. 59, from Cobalus, ‘a
malicious sprite’ or ‘ gnome’) is a metal the ores
of which are sparingly distributed. In the metallic
state it is found in meteoric stones or aerolites to
the extent of one per cent., but it generally oceurs
combined with arsenic as Speiss-cobalt, CoAs,, or
as cobalt-glance, the skienide and sulphide of the
metal, CoSAs. To obtain the metal itself from its
ores is a matter of some difficulty, and although it
is more tenacious than iron, yet it has not been
applied to any nove! use. It is of a gray
colour with a reddish tinge, brittle, hard, and very
magnetic. Many of its compounds are valued on
account of the brilliance and permanence of their
colours. The Protoxide of Cobalt, CoO, is employed
as a blue pigment in porcelain-painting. Zaffre is
the impure oxide obtained by partially roasting
cobalt ore previously mixed with two or three
times its weight of fine sand. Smalt is the term
applied to a deep-blue glass, which owes its colour
to the presence of oxide of cobalt, and which, when
reduced to very fine powder, is employed occa-
sionally by laundresses to correct the yellow colour
of newly-washed linen, and by paper-makers as a
blue pigment for staining writing-paper. Smalt is
also used in the production of the blue colours in
porcelain, pottery glass, encaustic tiles, fresco-
painting, &c., and forms the principal ingredient in-
Old Sevres Blue, Thenard’s Blue, Turquoise Blue,
&c. (see BLUE). A compound containing the
oxides of cobalt and zine is of a beautiful green
colour, and is known as Rinman’s Green. The
chloride of cobalt dissolved in much water, may
be employed as a sympathetic ink. In dilute solu-
tions, it is of a faint pink colour, which is not
observable when it is used for writing upon paper ;
but when heated before the fire, it loses water,
and becomes blue, and the writing is then capable
of being read. On allowing the paper there-
after to lie in a damp place, or exposing it to
the vapour of steam from a kettle, water is again
absorbed, and the writing returns to its invisible
state. The addition of a little perchloride of iron
to the ink makes the writing appear green; a solu-
tion of zine imparts a red tint; and a salt of copper,
a yellow shade.

Coban, capital of the department of Vera Paz,
in Guatemala, on the fertile Tierra Templada
plateau, about 85 miles N. of the town of Guate-
mala. Pop. (1895) 27,700.

Cobbe, FRANcEs Power, author, born near
Dublin, 4th December 1822, was educated at
Brighton, and early had her interest aroused in
theological questions. Her mother’s death drove
her for spiritual help to Theodore Parker, whose
counsels are contained in his famous Sermon of
the Immortal Life. She travelled in Italy and
the East, and wrote The Cities of the Past
(1864), and Italics (1864). A strong Theist, a
supporter of women’s rights, and a prominent
anti-vivisectionist, she published her Aatobiography
in 1894. Among her other works are Friendless
Girls, and How to help Them (1861); Broken
Lights: an Inquiry into the Present Condition and
Future Prospects of Religious Faith (1864); Studies
New and Old (1865); Criminals, Idiots, Women,
and Minors: Is the Classification Sound? (1869) ;
Darwinism in Morals (1872); The Hopes of the
Human Race Hereafter and Here (1874); Re-echoes
(1876); The Peak in Darien (1882); and The
Scientific Spirit of the Age (1888).

Cobbett, WiLL1AM, born at Farnham, Surrey,
on 9th March 1762, was the son of a small farmer,

and grandson of aday-labourer. From scaring crows
the hay rose to be ploughman; but a visit to
Portsmouth and a sight of the fleet had spoiled him
for farming, when, in May 1783, a sudden freak
took him to London. He reached it with just
half-a-crown, and for nine months was quill-driver
to a Gray’s Inn attorney. Enlisting then in the
54th Foot, he first spent a year at Chatham, where
he mastered Lowth’s English Grammar, and read
through a whole lending itbrary_-Swift’s Tale of a
Tub had been his boyhood’s delight. Next he
served as sergeant-major in New Brunswick (1785-
91), meanwhile saving 150 guineas, and studying
rhetoric, geometry, logic, French, and fortification.
On his return he obtained a most flattering dis-
charge; in February 1792 married ; but in March
went to France to get out of a court-martial on three
of his late officers, whom he had taxed with pecula-
tion. Six months later he sailed for America, At
Philadelphia he taught English to French refugees
(Talleyrand wanted to be one of his pupils); trans-
lated from the French ; and, as ‘ Peter Poreupine,’
wrote fierce onslaughts on Dr Priestley, Tom Paine,
and the native Democrats. Twice he was pro-
secuted for libel, and America got too hot for him,
so in June 1800 he returned to England. The
Tories welcomed him with open arms; and in 1802
he started his famous Wee. ly Political Register,
which, with one three-months’ break in 1817, con-
tinued till his death. But, Tory first, it altered its

olitics in 1804, till at last it ‘became the most

erce and determined opponent of the government,
and the most uncompromising champion of Radical-
ism.’ A great lover of the country, Cobbett
settled at Botley in Hampshire, where he planted,
farmed, and went in for manly sports; a true
soldiers’ friend, he got two years in Newgate
(1810-12), with a fine of £1000, for his strictures
on the flogging of militiamen by German mercen-
aries. In 1817 money muddles and dread of a
second imprisonment drove him once more across
the Atlantic. He farmed in Long Island, writin
all the while for the Register, till in 1819 he
ventured back again, and came bringing Tom
Paine’s bones—the one really silly action of his
life. Botley had to be sold, but he started a
seed-farm at Kensington; and bent now on enter-
ing parliament, stood for Coventry (1821) and
Preston (1826). Both times he failed; but his
ill-advised trial for sedition (1831) was followed
next year by his return for Oldham to the first
Reformed parliament. His career there, if not
quite a failure, was signalised chiefly by a crack-
brained attack on Peel; anyhow, the late hours
were too much for him, and on 18th June 1835 he
died at Normanby farm, near Guildford. He was
buried at Farnham.

Coarse, virulent, braggadocio, inconsistent—
Cobbett was all this. He was often right, but he
must have been oftener wrong, for oftener he came
to abuse what once he had gulogiet than vice versa.
He was a very Ishmael of politics; Lord Dalling
dubs him ‘the contentious man.’ Still, a man he
was, a genuine John Bull ; and if he wrote nonsense
about Waterloo and the national debt, and more
nonsense than sense about the Reformation, he
wrote it in fine strong English. He loathed Whi
and ‘mock gentlefolks,’ but he honestly loved the

oor—loved Nature, too, and could paint her dear

nglish scenery with a freshness and insight
wholly and solely his own. The Rural Rides (new
edition, with notes by Pitt Cobbett, 1885) are un-
surpassable. They were a reprint (1830) from the
Register, and followed or were followed by Porcu-
pine’s Works (12 vols. 1801), the excellent and
entertaining English Grammar (1818), the savage
History of the Refoomanon (1824-27), the Wood-
lands (1825), the shrewd, homely Advice to Young

COBBOLD

COBLENZ 315

Men (1830), and forty or fifty more works. Cobbett

was further the originator of Hansard’s Debates

Howell's State Trials (1809). See

rd Dalling’s Historical Characters (5th ed, 1876),
and Edward Smith’s Life of Cobbett (2 vols. 1878).

Cobbold, THoMAs SPENCER, writer on parasitic
worms, was born at Ipswich in 1828, studied medi-
cine at Edinburgh, lectured in London on botany,
zoology, comparative anatomy, geology, and helmin-
thology, in connection with various hospitals and
coll , and died 20th March 1886. He wrote Ento-
zoa (1864), Parasites (1879), Tapeworms (1866), and
numerous other works on kindred subjects.

Cobden, RicHARD, a at English poli-
tician, ‘the Apostle of Free Trade,’ was born at
Heyshott, near Midhurst, Sussex, 3d June 1804.
His father, a thriftless yeoman, had to sell his
farm in 1814, and relations charged themselves
with the maintenance of the eleven children;
Richard, the fourth, being sent to a ‘ Dotheboys’
school in Yorkshire. After five wretched years
there, in 1819 he was received into a wholesale
warehouse in London, belonging to his uncle,
where he soon showed great aptitude for business,
and as a commercial traveller he visited Scotland
and Ireland. In 1828 Cobden and two of his
friends entered into a —- for selling cali-
ecoes by commission in London. They set up an
establishment for yrs oe orm in Lancashire in
1831, and in 1832 Cobden settled in Manchester,
the town with which his name is so closely asso-
ciated. He wrote a comedy which was rejected
by the manager of Covent Garden Theatre. In
1835 he visited the United States, and in 1836-
37 travelled in Turkey, Greece, and Egypt. The
result of his travels appeared in two egg awn
England, Ireland, and America (1835), and Russia
(1836); the latter intended as an antidote against
the ‘ yoy gel then prevalent. In these pam-
phlets he also ridiculed the baa of diplomacy,
and asserted England’s mission to be the avoidance
of war and the extension of commerce. He con-
tested the borough of Stockport unsuccessfully on
free-trade principles in 1837, In 1838 he carried
in the Manchester Chamber of Commerce a motion
to petition peterpan for the repeal of all duties
on corn. In the same year seven merchants of
Manchester formed the association which soon grew
into the Anti-Corn-law League. Of this League
Cobden was the most energetic and prominent
member. His lectures all over the country, and
his speeches in eng (to which he was
returned in 1841 by the constituency which had
rejected him iu 1837), were characterised by clear,
> oa persuasiveness ; and to them was in great part

ue, as Sir Robert Peel acknowledged, the aboli-
tion of the corn laws at so early a period as 1846.

Cobden’s zeal for free trade in corn had, however,
to such a degree withdrawn his attention from pri-
vate business, that he was now a ruined man, and
a subscription of £80,000 was raised in recognition
of his great services; and with this in 1847 he
re-purchased Dunford, the farmhouse in which he
was born. As his health, too, had suffered, he
re-visited the Continent, and during his absence
was elected both for Stockport and the West
Riding of Yorkshire. He chose the latter con-
stituency, which he continued to represent till
1857. He shared Mr Bright’s anpopalatty for
Spposing sp policy that led to the Crimean war;
and on an to the country by Lord
Palmerston to support him in his Chinese policy,
of which Cobden was a strenuous opponent, he
retired the West Riding and contested Hud-
dersfield, where, however, he was defeated. Cob-
den spent his leisure in a second American tour.
During his absence he was elected for Rochdale.

Lord Palmerston, who was at this time forming his
i of 1859-65, with Pee appreciation of
Cobden’s great services, offe him a seat in the
cabinet as, President of the Board of Trade; but
Cobden, as the uncompromising opponent of Palm-
erston’s policy, felt bound to decline the honour.
After his election for Rochdale, the state of his
health did not permit him to take any part in par-
liamentary proceedings, but as Her Majesty’s pleni-
potentiary, he (1859-60) arranged and concluded
the treaty of commerce with France. Cobden
oe out strongly in favour of the North during
the American civil war, and in 1864 strenuously
op intervention in favour of Denmark. e
died in London, April 2, 1865, and was buried at
Lavington, Sussex. Few politicians have had such
an honourable record as Cobden. In all the rela-
tions of life he was amiable, single-minded, and
earnest. In parliament and on the platform he
was a master in the art of clear, persuasive, and
convincing speech. He may be regarded as the
representative man of the Manchester school, and
therefore as the most prominent champion of free
trade, peace, non-intervention, and economy.

His Speeches on Questions of Public Policy were edited
by John Bright and Thorold Rogers (1870). See the
articles CORN LAws and FREE TRADE; the publications
of the Cobden Club; his Life by John Morley (2 vols.
1881); Ashworth, Recollections of Cobden (1877); Sir
E. Watkin, Alderman Cobden (1891); A. J. Balfour’s
Essays and Addresses ; Mrs Salis-Schwabe, Reminiscences
of Cobden (French, 1879; trans. 1895).

Cobet, CAREL GABRIEL, Dutch Hellenist, born
at Paris in 1813, studied at Leyden, travelled in
Italy, and in 1846 settled in a chair at Leyden, where
he died 6th October 1889. He published De Arte
Interpretandi (1847) ; collections of Varia Lectiones
and Miscellanea ; works on the comic poet Plato,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Xenophon ; and
editions of oly eer Laertius, Xenophon’s Anabasis
and Hellenica, Lysias, and Cornelius Nepos (1881).

Cobham, Lorp. See OLDCASTLE.

Cobi'ja, a seaport of the Chilian province of
Antofagasta (q.v.), on a shallow, open bay. See
ATACAMA,

Coble. See Boar.

Coblenz, or KosLenz, a city of Rhenish
Prussia, 56 miles SSE. of Cologne by rail, is beau-
tifully situated at the junction of the Rhine and
the Moselle, the former of which is here crossed
by a bridge of boats, and the latter by a fine
stone bridge, built originally in 1344. Both rivers
are also spanned by railway bridges. Coblenz is
very hate fortified with a wall and a series of
detached forts, including the almost impregnable
castle of Ehrenbreitstein (q.v.), on the opposite
side of the Rhine. In the old town, many of the
streets are irregular, narrow, and dirty; but the
new town, which is situated nearer the Rhine, is
handsomely built, spacious, and clean. Among the
principal buildings are the church of St Castor,
the oldest Christian church in the Rhine district,
founded in 836, though prea J in its present form
from the 12th century; the Kaufhaus (1479); the
Protestant Florins ‘Kirche (12th century); the
church of Our Lady (1250-1431); and the old Jesuit
College, now a gymnasium. The extensive B ee
was built in 1778-86 by the last Elector of Tréves,
and restored in 1845. The old archiepiscopal palace
is now a factory. The favourable position of
the place secures it an active commerce in wine,
corn, mineral waters, &c. It manufactures cham-

e (about 1,000,000 bottles annually, exported
chiefly to England), cigars, japanned s, and
furniture. Pop. (1875) 29,290; (1890) 32,671.
Coblenz (Fr. Coblence) was known to the Romans
as Confluentes. From 1018 till 1796 it belonged to

316 COB-NUT

COCA

Tréves. In 1798 it was made the capital of the
new French department, Rhine and Moselle, and
by the treaty of 1815 was given to Prussia.

Cob-nut, a name given to some of the largest
and finest cultivated varieties of the Hazel-nut
(q.v. ).—In the West Indies the name cob-nut is
given to the fruit of Omphalea triandra, a tree of
the natural order Euphorbiaces. It is also called
Hog-nut. The tree has a white juice, which turns
black in drying, and in Guiana is used instead of
ink. The albumen of the seed is eaten, after the
embryo, which contains a cathartic principle, is
removed.

Cobourg, a port of entry and capital of North-
umberland county, Ontario, on Lake Ontario, 69
miles NE. of Toronto. Itis a railway junction, and
contains a Wesleyan university, and several woollen-
mills, foundries, and breweries. Pop. (1891) 4829.

Cobra da Capello (‘hooded snake’), the
Portuguese name for one of the most deadly of the
poisonous Indian snakes, technically known as Naja
tripudians. It belongs to the sub-order of venomous
Colubrine snakes (Proteroglyphia), in which the
fangs borne on the upper jaw are not perforated by
a complete canal, but possess simply an anterior

oove down which the poison trickles. The cobra
is a large snake, 5 feet or more in length; the
colour varies considerabl
from pale yellow to dar
olive; one variety has spee-
tacle-like black markings
on its neck. By the dila-
tation of the anterior ribs
during excitement the neck
can be distended so as to
produce a hood-like appear-
ance. It is by preference
nocturnal, and feeds on
amphibians, reptiles, birds,
eggs, small mammals, Xe.
It does not appear to be
naturally aggressive, but
instinctively assumes a
threatening attitude when
disturbed. It then dilates
its neck, hisses loudly, and
prepares to strike by rais-
ing its fangs in the usual
snake fashion. The habits
vary greatly in different
situations. It may haunt human dwellings for the
sake of poultry and other food, and is said to oceur
8000 feet up the Himalayas. Though essentially
land animals and fond of concealing themselves
among old masonry, stone heaps and the like, the
cobras can swim and climb with ease. In graceful-
ness of movement they excel. The head and neck
are often raised above the level of the rest of
the body, which remains horizontal. In spite of

ictures to the contrary, they can only raise the
ront part of the body to a very limited extent.

The bite of the cobra is as usual accompanied b
the compression of one of the salivary glands modi-
fied as a poison bag. The secretion trickles down
the grooves of the fangs, and entering the wound
produces rapid nervous paralysis, from which re-
covery is, to say the least, extremely rare. Great
numbers of deaths occur annually in India from
cobra bites; but as the assailant often escapes,
identification is frequently a matter of conjecture.
The victims are usually natives, despite the rattles
they use to warn off the reptiles. No certain remedy
is known, but excision, cauterisation, ligaturing,
doses of ammonia, drugging with rum, &c. are
often resorted to. Thecobrais the object of animal-
worship, and the centre of numerous native super-
stitions, and is a favourite with snake-charmers.

Head of Cobra.

Naja tripudians is found in India, Java, and
South China; NV. Aaje, an allied species, is common
in Egypt and parts of Africa. The coral snake
(Elaps), the rock-snake (Bungarus), the venomous
water-snake (Hydrophis), are genera within the
same sub-order.

See SNAKES, and works there quoted ; also Professor G.
Giinther’s Reptiles of British India (Ray Society, 1861),
and Sir Joseph Fayrer’s Thanatophidia of India (1874).

Cobre, a city of Cuba, 9 miles NW. by N. of
Santiago de Cuba. In the vicinity are copper-mines.
Pop. (1899) 1028.

Coburg, the capital of the duchy of Coburg,
in the united duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, is
icturesquely situated on the left bank of the
tz, 81 miles SSE. of Eisenach by rail. The older
part of the town, which is fairly well built, is
surrounded by attractive modern suburbs. Coburg
is, alternately with Gotha, the ducal residence,
and the palace, erected in 1549, is one of the prin-
cipal buildings in the town. Among the others
are the government buildings, the arsenal, contain-
ing a public library, the town-house, and the palace
of the Duke of Edinburgh. The old castle of
Coburg, mentioned in 1057, beside which Coburg
originally grew up, is situated on an eminence
530 feet above the town. It afforded Luther a
shelter during the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, and
in 1632 successfully resisted a siege by Wallenstein.
In 1782 it was converted into a prison, but in 1838
it was thoroughly restored, and now contains
valuable collections of engravings, zoology, &e.
Luther’s apartments are preserved as he used
them. Coburg has manufactures of woollen,
cotton, marquetry, baskets, porcelain, furniture,
and carriages, and exports beer. Pop. (1875)
14,567 ; (1895) 18,688. Prince Albert, to whom a
statue was erected in the market-place of Coburg
by Queen Victoria in 1865, was born at Rosenau, a
ducal seat 4 miles to the north.

Coburg Peninsula, the most northerly part
of Australia to the west of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
runs out in a north-west direction towards Melville
Island, from which it is divided by Dundas Strait.
On its north side is the bay known as Port Essing-
ton, at the head of which was established, in 1831,
the settlement of Port Victoria—abandoned, on
account of its insalubrity, in 1850. Swamp buffa-
loes, originally brought from Java, have increased
here enormously.

Cobweb. See SPIDERS.

Co'ea (Lrythroxylon Coca—which has of course
no connection with Cocoa or with Cocoa-nuts), a
shrub of the order Erythroxylacez, of which the
leaves furnish an important narcotic and stimulant.
The shrub is 6 or 8 feet high, and somewhat re-
sembles a blackthorn bush; the leaves are ovate-
lanceolate, simple, and with entire and slightly
waved margins, and strongly marked veins, of
which two on each side of the midrib run parallel
to the margin. It has been in use from a very
remote period among the Indians of South America,
and was extensively cultivated before the Spanish
conquest. Many of the Indians of the Peruvian
Andes are to this day excessively addicted to it,
and its use is quite general among them, besides:
extending to men of European race. The dried
leaves are chewed with a little finely powdered
unslaked lime, or with the alkaline ashes of
the Quinoa (q.v.), or certain other plants. An
infusion is also occasionally used. An habitual
coca-chewer takes a dose about four times daily.
In soothing effect it recalls tobacco, but its influ-
ence is a much more remarkable one. It greatly
lessens the desire for ordinary food, and at the
same time permits of much more sustained exer-

Se

COCANADA

COCCULUS INDICUS 317

tion, even without sleep; it affects the nervous
mechanism of respiration, so that the difficulty of
breathing, so common in the ascent of long and
steep slopes at high elevations, is little felt. These
properties readily explain its high esteem among

Coca (Erythroxylon Coca):
a, a flower; 6, fruit.

the Indians, to whom long and difficult journeys,
heavy burdens, and constant privation have always
been familiar.

CocAInE.—In Europe, little importance was
attached to coca until the veteran pharmacologist
Christison awakened interest by personally verify-
ing in old age its sustainin wers. Investign-
tions followed, and the alk oid cocaine, upon
which the active properties mainly depend, has
now come into regular use as a local anesthetic,
by help of which not merely some of the operations
of dentistry, but much more serious surgical opera-
tions, can performed without chloroform. To
oculists it is of special value, at once dilating the
pupil and removing all sensibility. Cases of intoxi-
cation and abuse are not oe with the leaves,
and have been already recorded in connection with
the more powerful extract.

Cocana’da, a seaport and headquarters of
Godavari district, Madras, 315 miles N. of Madras.
Its roadstead is comparatively safe, and it =
cotton, oil-seeds, sugar, rice, and cigars. ‘op.
(1881) 28,856 ; (1891) 40,533.

Cocceius, or Koc, JOHANNES, a distinguished
theologian, was born at Bremen in 1603, and
studied at Hamburg and Franeker. In 1636 he
became professor of Hebrew there, and in 1650 of
Theology at Leyden, where he died in 1669. His
chief work is the Lexicon et Commentarius Sermonis
Hebraici et Chaldaici Veteris Testamenti (Leyden,
1669), the first tolerably complete dictionary of the
Hebrew language. Cocceius held very peculiar her-
meneutical principles, which enabled him to discover
the whole New Testament in the Old. The repre-
sentation abundantly empires in the former of a
covenant between God and man, usu the place
of the New Testament doctrine of the Fatherhood
and Sonship ; and Cocceius carried the ‘covenant
theology,’ as it is called, to an absurd extreme (see

COVENANT). The most complete exposition of his
views is in his Summa Doctrine de Federe et Testa-

mento Dei (1648).

Cocceji, Hervrich FREIHERR VON, born at
Bremen, March 25, 1644, studied jurisprudence
and philosophy in Leyden from 1667 to 1670, and

went from thence to England. In 1672 he was
made professor of Law at Heidelberg ; in 1689, at
Utrecht; and in 1690, at Frankfort-on-the-Oder.
In 1713 the emperor named him a baron of the
realm. Cocceji died in 1719. His work on civil
law (Juris Publici Prudentia, 1695) was long used
as a text-book.—His years son, SAMUEL, born
at Heidelberg in 1679, acquired no less renown.
He too, in 1703, became professor at Frankfort-on-
the-Oder, filled several honourable state-offices,
and was ultimately the chancellor of Frederick the
Great. He died in 1755. He reformed the Prussian
administration of justice, and published several
works on law.

Coccinella. See LApy-prrp.

Cocco, Coco Root, or Eppogs, plants of the

enus ocasia, and of the nearly allied genus

aladium, of the order Aracez, widely cultivated
in tropical and subtropical countries for their
edible starchy root-stocks, of which the food-value
broadly corresponds to the potato. These are de-
prived by roasting or boiling of the characteristic
acridity of the order, which, indeed, some of them
possess in a comparatively small degree. They are
sometimes included under the name Yam, but are
totally different from the true Yam (q.v.). The
names more strictly belong to Colocasia antiquorum,
a stemless plant with ovate leaves, and flowers
inclosed in a cylindrical erect spathe. This is a
native of India, but was early introduced to Egypt
and the Mediterranean countries, whence it
now passed even to America. C. esculenta, C.
macrorhiza, or Tara (q.v.), and C. Himalensis are
also of economic importance in different of
the world, and many species of these and allied
genera are to be seen in European hothouses,
where their handsome foliage has gained them
an important place.

Coccoliths are small saucer-like discs found
abundantly in the Atlantic ooze, probably uni-
cellular alge. They are sometimes called coccolite,
a word also used to denote a greenish kind of Augite
(q.v.).

Coccoloba. See SEASIDE GRAPE.

Coccomilia, or CocumIGLiA (Prunus _cocco-
milia), a species of pe a native of Calabria,
and of which the bark—particularly of the root—
is used in that country for the cure of intermittent
fevers.

Coccos'teus, a genus of fossil placoganoid
fishes, pertaining chiefly to the Devonian and Old
Red Sandstone system, but met with also in Silu-
rian strata. The head was protected by a Beet
shield covered with tubercles. Besides this bony
cuirass there was alse a ventral shield, but the rest
of the body was naked. The mouth was furnished
with small teeth.

Coc'culus In‘dicus (Ital. coccola, ‘a berry’)
is the fruit of the Anamirta paniculata, a climbing
shrub found in the eastern parts of India, and in
the Malayan Archipelago. It was introduced into
Britain in the 16th century for the parsers of
separa fish so that they might caught
by hand. It acts as an acrid narcotic poison, and
when the berries are thrown into a stream it quickly
poisons any fish in the neighbourhood. It contains
a crystalline principle called picrotoxine, which is
very poisonous. It has often been asserted that as
cocculus indicus imparts to beer a bitter taste, and
at the same time a fullness and apparent richness,
it is largely used in the manufacture of that _bever-
age. Asits effects are very deleterious, considerable
attention was directed to the point, but no evidence
is as yet forthcoming to substantiate the statement.
In 1876 the report of the Laboratory Department
of the Inland Revenue stated that in no case were

318 COCCUS

COCHIN-CHINA

the officers of the department able to detect it
either on the brewer’s premises or in the beer itself.
Of the large quantity imported into England,
nearly the whole is re-exported to the Continent.

Cocculus Indicus :
a, branch with leaves; 6, panicle of female inflorescence; ¢, a
female flower ; d, the same with sepals removed ; e, male flower;
Jf, fruit. (From Bently & Trimen.) |

In Russia and elsewhere it is a popular remedy
for tapeworm, lice, &c. ; but when applied to the
scalp it is not unattended with danger, as several
deaths have occurred from its use.

Coccus, a genus of insects in the order Hemip-
tera, and type of a family (Coccide), including
many forms very injurious to plants, and a few
others which have come to be of use to man. For
the latter, see COCHINEAL, LAC, MANNA, WAX.
As general characteristics may be noted the beaded
feelers, the general absence of wings in the female,
the degeneration of suctorial proboscis and posterior
wings in the males, and the peculiar history of both
sexes. The young forms are somewhat tortoise-
like, and run about on plants with some activity.
The adult females attach themselves by their pro-
boscis to a juicy part of the plant, and surrender
themselves to feeding and maternity. They often
become berry-like, plump, much resembling excres-
cences, or else very flat and scale-like. In the latter
form they are often called scale-insects. The body
always degenerates more or less, and after fer-
tilisation becomes simply a case, or eventually a
dead covering for the eggs and larve. The young
males also come to rest, and’ undergo a peculiar
metamorphosis. From the resting larva an elegant
male insect results, with developed anterior, but
degenerate or aborted posterior wings. The males
fertilise the females, but being without suctorial
proboscis, are probably short-lived. In fact, both
male and female adults seem to fall victims to
the characteristics of their sex. The young shelter
for a while under the dead female, and then start
for themselves. For the important species and
related genera, see the articles above referred to.

Coccyx. See SPINAL COLUMN.

Coccyzus. See Cuckoo.

Cochabamba, a central department of Bol-
ivia, with offshoots of the Eastern Cordilleras, and
extensive plateaus. The climate is equable and
healthy, and though the department is compara-
tively poor in metals, its fertile valleys render it the
richest as well as the most picturesque district of
the republic. Agriculture vol cattle-raising are the
chief occupations ; but here, as elsewhere in Bolivia,

trade is sadly hampered by the want of roads.
Area, 21,500 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 360,500. The
capital, Cochabamba (8396 feet above the sea), on a
tributary of the Guapay, was founded ‘in 1565, as
Ciudad de Oropesa. It has some fifteen churches,
a so-called university and high school, and an
industrious population, estimated at 25,000, with a
trade in corn and Peruvian bark.

Cochba. See BAR-COCHBA.

Cochin, a native state of India, politically con-
nected with Madras, between the British district of
Malabar and the state of Travancore, with the
Arabian Sea on the SW. It contains 1361 sq. m.,
and (1891) 722,906 inhabitants. Its hydrography
is singular. The Western Ghauts, which have*
here an elevation of fully 4000 feet, intercept the
south-west monsoon, and render the coast one of
the most humid regions in the world during June,
July, August, and September. As the space be-
tween the mountains and the sea is almost on a
level with the tide, the countless streams have each
two contrasted sections—a plunging torrent and a
sluggish river ending in a_ brackish estuary.
Further, these estuaries, almost continuously
breasted by a narrow belt of higher ground, form
between them a backwater or lagoon of 120 miles
in length, and of every width between a few hun-
dred yards and 10 miles, which communicates at
only three points with the ocean. The forests
produce the cocoa-nut, teak, red cedar, and many
other woods, while the low country pees drugs,
dyes, and gums. The great mass of the Mgrs
(430,000) are Hindus, but there are also 34,000
Mohammedans and 138,000 Christians (of the
moe and Roman confessions), and 1250 Jews.

e capital is Ernakolam (pop. 14,000). Cochin
ones a treaty with the East India Company in
1798.

Cochin, once the capital of the principality
above described, but now a seaport of the district
of Malabar, in the presidency of Madras, stands on
the south side of the principal channel between the
open ocean and the backwater mentioned in the
preceding article. In spite of the bar, Cochin is
next to Bombay on this coast for shipbuilding
and maritime commerce, the annual exports reach-
ing a value of £700,000. Here the Fe oe.
erected their first fort in India in 1503. They
were supplanted by the Dutch in 1663; and in
1796 Cochin was captured by the British. Pop.
about 20,000, of whom 8500 are Christians, 4
Hindus, and 3000 Mohammedans. Half a mile
south is a town of the same name, in the native
state of Cochin (pop. 13,775).

Cochin-China, formerly a name for Annam,
but now specifically used for French Cochin-China
or Indo-Chine, a colonial possession of France,
occupying the south extremity of the Indo-China
peninsula, from 8° to 11° 30’ N. lat., and from
104° 26’ to 107° 30’ E. long. It is bounded
N. by Cambodia and Annam; area, 23,400 sq.
m. Through nearly its whole extent Cochin-
China is low and almost flat. To the north
and east, however, the ground rises into the
hills of Cape St Jacques, Ba-ria, and Bien-hoa,
and the mountain of Dienba. Cochin-China
is watered in the west by two branches of the
Mekhong (q.v.), the Han-gisns and the Tien-giang,
which follow a nearly parallel course for about
120 miles. In the east the Dong-nai River
flows from north-east to south-west, receiving the
Saigon River from the north-west. The Little
Vaico flows parallel to and south of the Saigon
River. These rivers are all connected with one
another by the innumerable arroyos and canals
which intersect Cochin-China in all directions.
The climate alternates between the rainy season,

COCHINEAL

from April to October, when it rains almost every
day, and the dry, from October to April, when no
per falls. The temperature rises in the dry season
to 95° F. by day and 62° by night, and in the wet
season varies between 68° and 86°. Of all hot
climates that of Cochin-China shows perhaps the
least considerable variations. The climate is
trying, but its insalubrity has been much ex-
aggerated. The soil, mostly alluvial, is exceed-
ingly fertile, producing the best rice in the world.
r-cane, eeans: cotton, arachis, mulberry,
in , maize, tea, betel, hemp, are rai on a
cit scale; and coffee, cacao, and vanilla have
also been introduced. The province of Bien-hoa
and the north of Py si do not yield to the finest
. lands of India in the luxuriance of their vegetation
and the beauty and variety of their fauna. The
province of Vinhlong owes its Annamite name of
(‘garden’) to the abundance, variety, and
exquisite taste of its fruits.
e population in 1891 was estimated at 2,034,-
453, of which about 2500 were Europeans ( French),
1,500,000 Annamites, 120,000 Cambojans, 60,000
Chinese, 5000 Malays, and the balance savages
a Chams, &c.). The colony is divided into
our provinces. The total exports in 1892 (chiefly
rice to China and Europe) amounted in value to
81,464,560 francs, the imports to 38,255,664 francs.
A railway of 44 miles between Saigon and Mytho
has been in operation since 1885, while Saigon
and Cholon are also united by a steam-tramway.
There are in the colony 51 miles of railway. In
1892 the lines of telegraph wire in Cochin-China
measured 1840 miles; and Cape St Jacques is
joined by telegraph to Singapore, Tonkin, and
ong-kong. Though not yet paying its expenses,
the colony of Cochin-China has improved financi-
ally, and with the development of its resources its
ultimate profit to France is considered asrured.
For an account of the natives and history, see
ANNAM; for a map, BuRMA; and for fowls,
POULTRY.

Cochineal, a dyestuff employed in dyeing
scarlet and crimson, and in the preparation of the
pigments Carmine and Lake (q.v.).

ochineal consists simply of the bodies of the
females of a oo of Coceus (q.v.), called C. cacti,
because it feeds upon plants of the Cactus family,

Cochineal (Coccus cacti) :
a, living on cactus (Opuntia); b, male; c, female.

particularly on one, therefore designated the coch-
ineal plant, but known in Mexico as the N
(Opuntia coccinellifera), figured in the article

COCKADE 319
CacTE&. This plant is nearly allied to the
ey r, and assumes a somewhat tree-like
orm. 1¢ insect as well as the cactus are natives
of Mexico and other warm parts of America, but
they are now cultivated chiefly in Guatemala.

This cultivation was carried on by the Mexicans.
long before the country was known to Europeans.
The insect is not uncommon on wild cacti in Texas
and Florida. Both plant and insect have been suc-
cessfully introduced into the Canary Islands, Algeria,
Java, and Australia. But the attempt to produce
cochineal in India has been practically a failure.

The cochineal insect is a small creature, a pound
of cochineal being calculated to contain 70,000. ina
dried state. The male is of a deep-red colour, and
has white wings. The female, which is wingless,
is of a deep-brown colour, covered with a white
waxy powder ; flat beneath, convex above.

In some parts of Guatemala large plantations of
Nopal exist for the cultivation of the C. cacti.
Before the rainy season commences, branches of
this cactus plant covered with these insects are cut.
off and stored in buildings to protect them from the
weather. When the wet season is over, four or five
months afterwards (October), the plantations are

in stocked from these supplies. Little ‘nests’
of some vegetable fibre, each containing about a.
dozen re 2a are placed on the spines of the cacti.
The eggs dre soon deposited, and when the young
females are developed, they spread over the plants,
attaching themselves to the leaves, and looking
more like vegetable excrescences than insects. They
become covered with a cottony substance. The
first crop of pregnant females, only these being
valuable for cochineal, is gathered in December,
and several more crops are obtained till the follow-

ing May..

n the Canary Islands the insects are reared in
winter and put out on the cactus leaves from May
to July. Small gauze bags containing pregnant.
females are hung on the cactus plants, 5 Bia which
the young when developed spread over the leaves.
In August and September, just before the females.
are ready to deposit their eggs, they are collected
in trays, and those gathered in one day are placed
in the evening in an oven heated to 150° F. They
are afterwards more thoroughly dried in the sun.
Hot iron and boiling water are also used in killing
the insects. According to the way the insect is
killed and dried, the cochineal is known in com-
merce as silver or black; an inferior kind being
sometimes called foxy. The colouring principle
of cochineal is called cochinealin or carminic acid,
and the insects scarcely yield more than 10 per
cent. of pure dye, although the amount is generally
suppo to be much greater. Carmine has also:
been demonstrated in other kinds of coccus and in
aphides.

The cochineal industry has suffered very much
through the introduction of aniline dyes. To see
to what extent this is the case, it need only be
stated that the amount of cochineal exported from
the Canary Islands, where it is produced in by far
the largest quantity, amounted in 1869 to 6,310,600
lb., which was valued at £842,921, while in 1885-95
the annual export from these islands only reached
about 1,500,000 Ib., valued at £80,000. Meanwhile
the price has fallen from etrhieee or twenty shil-
lings per lb. to about two shillings (1895).

Cochléa. See Ear.

Cochléaria. See Scurvy Grass.

Cochrane, Lorp. See DUNDONALD.

Cockade (Fr. cocarde, or coguarde), an orna-
ment or knot of ribbon or rosette of leather, worn
either as a military or naval decoration, or as the
badge of a political party. Cockades made of
ribbons of the national colours were worn by

320 COCKATOO

COCKBURN

soldiers during the. wars of the 18th century, the
white and red being united in the combined army
of France and Spain. In 1767 an authoritative
regulation was issued that every French soldier
should wear a cockade of white stuff; and in 1782
cockades were prohibited to all but soldiers. From
this time till the Revolution the cockade was an
exclusively military badge; and, both in France
and England, ‘to mount the cockade’ was synony-
mous with becoming a soldier. After the Revolu-
tion, the tricolor ribbon took the place of the white
cockade.

In England, after the expulsion of the Stuart
family, the white cockade became the distinctive
mark of the adherents of the exiled house, in opposi-
tion to the orange of Nassau and the black of Han-
over; it is a favourite theme in Jacobite songs.
The black cockade, to be seen on the hats of officers’
servants, was unknown in Britain till the accession
of the House of Hanover, and was then introduced
by George I. from his German dominions. It seems
to be understood that the right to use it belongs
not only to naval and military officers, but also to
the holders of some offices of dignity under the

crown, including privy-councillors, officers of state, -

supreme judges, &c., and some would extend it to
deputy-lieutenants. The privilege is one of which
the law takes no cognisance. See BADGE.

Cockatoo, a popular name for several genera
and species of parrots (Psittaci), which may be
associated in a family of Cacatuide or Plissolo-
phine. Some of them are well known as decora-
tive birds. The general characteristics are the
tuft on the head, the strong high beak with a
notch behind the point, the frequently bright
colours of the plumage, the long wings, the
loquacious habit. The cockatoos inhabit Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the Indian
Arehipelago. The word which the birds seem to
say, and which is curiously represented by the
English cockatoo, is said to be Malayan for ‘old
father,’ and to have been taught to the birds by
their captors. Of the genus Plissolophus, fifteen
Australian and Malayan species are known—e.g.
Pl. sanguineus, Pl. molluccensis, Pl. cristatus. The
great palm cockatoo (Microglossus aterrimus) is
the strongest of the parrot tribe, and measures
about two feet in length; its colour is mostly
black; its special home is New Guinea. The crest-
less Nasiterna, the smallest of all the parrots,
also inhabits New Guinea. The black cockatoos
(Calyptorhynchus) form another important genus
in Australia. The cockatoos feed mainly on fruits
and seeds, but do not disdain insect larvee.

Cockatrice, a fabulous monster, often con-
founded with the Basilisk (q.v.), and regarded as
possessing similar deadly powers. To the charms
of the basilisk it added a dragon’s tail, armed with
a sting ; and it shared also its power
of destroying by a glance, so often
referred to in Shakespeare and other
early writers. In medieval art the
cockatrice is an emblem of sin gener-
ally, and the special attribute of St
Vitus. The name occurs in the
English authorised version of the
Old Testament, where the original
Hebrew word means _ evidently
‘venomous serpent.’ In Heraldry
the cockatrice is represented’ as a
winged monster having the head, body, and feet of
a cock, the tongue barbed, and the tail of a dragon.

Cockayne. See CocKNEY.

Cockburn, Sir ALEXANDER, judge, was born
24th December 1802, studied at Cambridge, was
called to the bar in 1829, and soon became distin-
guished as a pleader before parliamentary com-

Cockatrice :
in Heraldry.

mittees. In 1847 he became member of parliament
for Southampton in the Liberal interest, became
Solicitor-general and was knighted in 1850, was
made Chief-justice of the Common Pleas in 1856,
and Lord Chief-justice in 1859. He was prosecutor
in the Palmer case: and among the many famous
trials over which he presided were the Wainwright
case and Tichborne case. He represented Britain
at the Geneva arbitration in the Alabama ¢ase.
He died 20th November 1880.

Cockburn, ALISON, poetess, was born 8th
October 1713, the daughter of Robert’ Rutherford,
laird of Fairnilee, Selkirkshire. In 1731 she married
Patrick Cockburn, advocate, and in 1753 was left a
widow, with an only son, who predeceased her in

1780. She died 23d January 1795, having for sixty —

ears and more been a queen of Edinburgh society :
in person she was not unlike Queen Elizabeth. Of
her lyrics the best known is the exquisite version of
The Flowers of the Forest (‘I’ve seen the smiling of
Fortune beguiling’), commemorating a wave of
calamity that swept over Ettrick Forest, and first
printed in 1765. rs Cockburn in 1777 discerned
in Walter Scott ‘the most extraordinary genius
of a boy ;’ in 1786 she made Burns’s acquaintance.
See Songstresses of Scotland (vol. i. 1871), and
Craig-Brown’s History of Selkirkshire (1886).

Cockburn, HENRY, Scottish judge, was born
26th October 1779, perhaps at Cockpen, but more

robably in the Parliament Close of old Edinburgh.

e entered the High School in 1787, and the
university in 1793, ‘being kept,’ in his own words,
‘nine years at two dead languages which we did
not learn.’ Dugald Stewart's lectures, then, ‘ were
like the opening of the heavens,’ they ‘changed
one’s whole nature ;’ and through a debating club
he became the companion of Jeffrey, Horner, and
Brougham, from whom he imbibed Whig opinions,
pe to the annoyance of the hereditary Toryism
of his family. He was called to the Scottish bar in
1800; and in 1807 his uncle, the all-powerful Lord
Melville, gave him an advocate-deputeship—a _non-
political post, from which, on political grounds, he
‘had the honour of being dismissed’ in 1810. He
rose, however, to share with Jeffrey the leadership
of the bar, and with Jeffrey was counsel for three
prisoners accused of sedition (1817-19). His
powers were better adapted for success with a
popular than with a professional tribunal. Simple,
clear, and impressive, at times pathetic, humorous
at times, and, when he pleased, eloquent, but
always unaffected, always Scotch, he would urge
his case with an earnestness and candour that was
all but irresistible. A zealous supporter by pen as
well as by tongue of parliamentary reform, he
became Solicitor-general for Scotland under the
Grey ministry in 1830; had the chief hand in draft-
ing the Scottish Reform Bill; was elected Lord
Rector of Glasgow University (1831); in 1834 was
made,'as Lord Cockburn, a judge of the Court of
Session ; and three years later a lord of justiciary.
He died, 26th April 1854, at Bonally Tower, his
beautiful home by the base of the Pentlands since
his marriage in 1811, and was buried near Jeffrey
in the Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh.

Besides five or six pamphlets, and as many
articles in the Edinburgh Review, dealing mostly
with legal and parliamentary reform, Cockburn
was wading of an admirable Life of Jeffrey (1852),
and of four posthumous works—Memorials of his
Time (1856), Journal, 1831-44 (2 vols. 1874),
Circuit Journeys (1888), and Examination of
Trials for Sedition in Scotland (2 vols. 1888).
The first three of these form a kind of autobio-

aphy, into which are woven characteristic anec-

otes of old-world Scottish life, and graphic
sketches of the men who composed the brilliant

i ee
.

COCKCHAFER COCK-FIGHTING 321
circle of Edinburgh society in the first four decades | name of Cocker is as indissolubly associated
of the 19th century. Withal they illustrate his | with accuracy in figures as that of Murray with

love of nature and veneration for antiquity.
Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris), a common
beetle of the Lamellicorn section, too well known
in Europe for its voracious destruction of both
crops and foliage. It is a comparatively large
beetle, about an inch in length; generally of a
reddish-brown colour; with fine hairs, seanty on
the wing covers, but thick on the breast ; and with
the expanded ends of its feelers divided in the
leaflet-like manner characteristic of Lamellicorns.
In Scotland they are less abundant than in England.
The males appear first, usually in the month of
May, and are soon joined by their partners. They
fly with a whirring noise, and being hungry as
well as active, do great damage to many of our
common trees. After some weeks of flight, the
females heavy with eggs deposit these in the
und and thereafter die. In a month or so the
w develop, but do not attain winged life for

Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) :
a, full-grown larva; b, pupa; c, perfect insect.

four years. . Meanwhile they are anything but
idle, are in fact most voracious, and do great
damage to crops and herbage. In some years when
the conditions are cere jd favourable, they
commit ravages estima in millions. In the
fourth year of larval life the young beetles bury
themselves, and fall for two months into the usual
quiescence of the pupa stage. The liberated insect
works its way to the surface, and takes its flight
in the spring of the fifth year. In warm seasons
and regions the period of larval life may be
shortened. The adults do most of their disastrous
work in the twilight. The only riddance seems to
be the exposure of the larvie by harrowing, and the
destruction of young and old by every possible
means. Rooks and other birds, insectivorous
animals, and other beetles help to reduce their
numbers. They have oftener been plagues on the
Continent than in Britain, but in 15T4 their corpses
are said to have clogged mill-wheels on the Severn,
and in 1688 they clung like swarming bees on the
trees and hedges in Galway. Melolontha hippo-
castanit is another very destructive European
species. The May bug of the United States
( Lachnosterna quercina) is an allied form of similar
habits.

Cocker. See SPANIEL.

Cocker, EDWARD, schoolmaster and author,
was born in 1631, and died in London in 1675.
His book on arithmetic was the first English
work of the kind really adapted to commercial
life, one became so widely known that the

the rules of grammar. He attained considerable
success as a teacher of arithmetic and writing in
London, and is mentioned repeatedly in Pepys’s
Diary, who qualifies him as ‘very ingenious
and well read in all our English poets.’ Cocker
published over thirty works on writing or
arithmetic, but the famous book so often reprinted,
Cocker’s Arithmetick, was posthumous, being dated
1678, and edited by John Hawkins. De prc
has contended, apparently on insufficient grounds,
that this book, which passed through 112 editions,
was not really Cocker’s work at all. Among other
works published under his name are an English
dictionary, and the Muses’ Spring Garden, which
contains some quaint verses of his own composi-
tion.

Cockerill, Joun, manufacturer, born in Lanca-
shire in 1790, was the son of William Cockerill
(1759-1832), an inventor and machinist who in
1807 settled at Liege in Belgium. John, with an
elder brother, succeeded to their father’s business
in 1812, established a woollen factory in Berlin in
1815, and in 1817 founded the famous works at
Seraing (q.v.). He died at Warsaw, 19th June
1840 ; in 1867 his remains were brought to Seraing,
where his statue was erected in 1871.

Cockermouth, a town of Cumberland, 25
miles SW. of Carlisle, and 12 NW. of Keswick.
It is oy situated in an agricultural district,
and has a walk a mile long beside the Derwent. A
ruined castle, founded towards the close of the 11th
century, crowns a bold height on the left bank of
the Cocker, near its influx to the Derwent. It
became Mary Stuart’s prison in 1568, and in 1648
was dismantled by the parliamentarians. Near
Cockermouth is a tumulus, Toot’s Hill; and at
Pap Castle are remains of a Roman camp. Words-
worth was born here in an old-fashioned house,
stillstanding. Pop. (1881) 5354; (1891) 5464. Till
1867 Cockermouth returned two members to parlia-
ment ; till 1885 (when it was incorporated in the
county), one.

Cock-fighting was common among both the
Greeks and the Romans, as to-day it is common in
India; the Malay countries, and Spanish America.
In England it flourished for fully six centuries,
the cockpit at Whitehall having been erected
and patronised by royalty. In 1709 a German
visitor to London describes the Gray’s Inn cock-
pit as ‘round like a tower, and inside just like
a theatrum anatomicum, the benches rising all
round ;’ with the scene at a cock-fight Hogarth
has made us familiar. Cock-fighting was prohibited
in 1365, in 1654, and in 1849; but it is still some-
times practised in spite of prohibition. a ow 03
readers are familiar with paragraphs on cock-fights
interrupted by the police, and fines are from time
to time inflicted.

The favourite breed of fighting-cocks is the
oe i ht (see PoULTRY), and very large sums

ave been given for chicks. Much art is dis-
se in the training of cocks, and in trimming
and preparing the cock for the combat; the
fastening on of the spurs is a matter of consider-
able experience. Young cocks are called stags ;
two years is the best age. In fighting a match,
a certain number of cocks to be shown on either
side is agreed upon, and the day before the match
the cocks are shown, weighed with the greatest
nicety, and matched according to their weights.
Their marks are all also carefully set down to
prevent trickery. The cocks within an ounce of
each other in weight are said to ‘fill én,’ and are
matched. Those which do not fall in are matched
to fight what are called ‘dyes.’ Those which do

322 COCKIE-LEEKIE

COCK OF THE ROCK

fall in come into the main. The main is fought
for a stake upon each battle, and so much for the
main, or the winner of the most battles in the
main; while the byes have nothing to do with the
main, and are usually fought for smaller sums. A
middling size is considered the best, and from 3 lb.
6 oz. to 4 lb. 8 oz. is the medium. Cocks some-
times fight in silver spurs, but more often in steel.
In a Welsh main the cocks fight until only one
is left alive. By the Act of 1849, a penalty of £5
may be levied on any person keeping fighting-
pon OF letting a cockpit, or otherwise connecting
himself with esek hu htiag, for every day that he
shall so act.

Strange to say, cock-fighting was a specially
sanctioned annual sport of public schools, the
schoolmaster receiving a regular tax from the
boys on the occasion, which was on Shrove Tuesday.
It was so in the days of Henry II.; and in his
Scholemaster (1570) Riaer Ascham announced his
intention, never fulfilled, of writing a ‘Book of
the Cock-pitte,’ as ‘a kinde of pastime fitte for a
gentleman.’ As late as 1790 the income of the
schoolmaster of Applecross in Ross-shire was
formally said to be composed of salary, fees, and
cock-fight dues. And Hugh Miller, in My Schools
and Schoolmasters, gives an account of the yearly
cock-fights in the grammar-school of Cromarty
about 1812, The yet more barbarous custom of
throwing sticks at cocks fastened to stakes, was
also long practised at Shrove-tide. The slang cock-
shy is a survival.

Cockie-leekie is in Scotland a kind of soup
made of a fowl boiled with leeks.

Cock Lane Ghost. In the year 1762
London was thrown into a state of extraordinary
excitement by the reported existence of a ghost in
the house of one Mr Paneons: in Cock Lane, Smith-
field. Strange and unaccountable noises were
heard in the house, and a luminous lady, bearing
a strong resemblance to one who, under the name
of Mrs Kemt, had once resided in the house, but
who had died two years before, was said to have
been seen. Dark suspicions as to Mr Kemt havin
poisoned the lady were immediately aroused, “en
were confirmed ie the ghost, who, on being in-
terrogated, answered, after the fashion of the
spirits of our own day, by knocking. Crowds were
attracted to the house to hear the ghost, and the
great majority became believers. At length a plan
was formed by a few sceptics to ascertain the real
origin of the noises. arson’s daughter, a girl
eleven years of age, from whom they supposed the
sounds to proceed, was taken to another house by
herself, and threatened with the imprisonment
of her father in Newgate if she did not renew
the rappings that evening, the noises having
for some time been discontinued. She was dis-
covered to have taken a board with her into bed,
and when the noises took place, no doubt was
entertained that they had all along been produced
by similar methods. A prosecution was then
raised by Mr Kemt, and Parsons was condemned
to stand thrice on the pillory for imposture and
defamation. Among those wip visited the house
was Dr Johnson, but it is not true that, with all
his natural bent to easy belief in the supernatural,
he was one of the dupes of this miserable impos-
ture. Churchill’s gross caricature of Pomposo’s
credulity in his tiresome poem of over four thousand
lines, Zhe Ghost, was mere false and malicious
slander, and deserved the payment that the burly
Johnson promised to give Foote upon his own stage
if he persisted in taking him off in the same way.
See A. Lang’s Cock Lane and Common Sense (1894).

Cockle (Cardium), a large and typical genus
of bivalve molluscs (Lamellibranchs). The thick,

ribbed, heart-shaped, equal-valved shell, and the
large knee-bent ‘foot’ are characteristics well
known to every one. The shell is closed by two
muscles; the hinge has large teeth; there are two
minute respiratory siphons. About two hundred
living species are known, and have a very wide
distribution, though most abundant in the tropical
seas. They live freely and gregariously, generally
buried in the mud or sand. The foot is used for
burrowing, but by it the cockle can also jump a.
few inches. C. edule is very largely eaten, and is
often sold in great quantities on the streets of

British towns. The fossil forms are very numer-

ous, and increase from the Silurian onwards. (For
figure and structure, see BIVALVES.) :
Cockle, or CORN-COCKLE (Githago—Agros-

temma—segetum), of which one species, a caryo-
phyllaceous annual weed, is common amongst

crops of grain, is a native of Europe or the west
of Asia, but is now found in cereal crops im
almost all parts of the world. Its tall graceful

habit, and large lilac-purple flowers, make it one
of the most beautiful of corn-weeds ; its seeds are,
however, unwholesome, especially to fowls and
domestic animals, and thus the undesirableness of
its presence in crops is increased. A special sieve is.
employed for their removal in bad cases in Ger-
many. It is an annual plant, clothed with very
long hair; with large, solitary, terminal lilac
flowers. The root, stem, leaves, and seed were
formerly used in medicine; the seed is still some-
times sold in Germany under the name of Black
Cumin (Schwartzkiimmel). The corn-cockle is a
very troublesome weed in some parts of Britain,
and is rare and almost unknown in others.

Cockney, a familiar name for a Londoner, the
earlier meaning of which was a foolish, effeminate
person, or a ous child. The original meaning is
very obscure, but in Chaucer cokenay (a trisyllabic
word) had much the same meaning as this. Pro-
fessor Skeat points out its obscurity of meaning in
two famous passages in Piers Plowman (x. 207),
and in the last stanza of the ‘Tournament of
Tottenham’ in Percy’s Religues. The word occurs
twice in Shakespeare (Twerpeh Night, IV. i. 15;
and Lear, II. iv. 123), and there with the meaning,
according to Schmidt, of a person who knows a
the life and manners of the town, and is conse-
quently well acquainted with affected phrases, but
a stranger to what every child else knows. The
French Pays de Cocagne, with which the word is
usually connected, denotes a Utopia—an imaginary
land of luxurious abundance without labour. The
true origin of the word cockney has been much
debated. The explanation of Wedgwood, followed
by Skeat in his ‘Errata,’ connected it with the
ench coguin, ‘a rogue;’ itself, according to
Littré and Scheler, derived through a Low Latin
coguinus from Latin coquus, ‘a cook’ or ‘ kitchen-
scullion.’ Diez doubted this, and assumed a con-
nection with the old Norse kok, the throat. But
according to Dr Murray, the word cockeneye or
cockenay means really cock’s-egg, i.e. either simply
a hen’s egg or a diminutive hen’s egg; then a
‘nestle-cock,’ a mother’s darling, a cockered or
pampered or effeminate person.

Cock of the Plains. See GROUSE.

Cock of the Rock (fupicola), a genus of
South American Passerine birds in the family of
Cotingidze or Chatterers, beside the ere (4. v.)
and Pompadours, the Umbrella-bird (Cephalo
terus), ae the Bell-bird (Chasmarhynchus), The
bill is high and strong, the tail short and straight,
the sole naked, the feet are strong and stout. The
male is remarkable for a lofty, laterally compressed
crest. In the best-known species (2. crocea), from
Guiana and the north-east of Brazil, the male is

q
>
j

- sober brown female,

COCK OF THE WOODS

COCOA 323

predominantly orange-red in colour, with a dark
purple-red crest, and decidedly larger than the
It is about the size of a
common pigeon,

Cock of the Woods. See CAPERCAILZIE.

Cockpit, in a ship of war, is the name still
ag to the compartment in the lower part of the

where the wounded are attended to during

on. The surgery and dispensary which contains

the medicine chests for the ship’s company adjoin
the cockpit.

Cockroach (Blatta or Periplaneta), a large
genus of insects, type of a family (Blattide)
within the important order Orthoptera, which
likewise includes locusts, grasshoppers, crickets,
leaf-insects, earwigs, &c. Though often spoken
of as beetles, cockroaches have in no sense direct
connection with that order. Familiar enough
as pests, cockroaches require no minute deserip-
tion. The antenne longer than the body—
i.e. over an inch, the bent down head (half-
hidden by the large first thoracic plate), the lon
spiny legs compressed terminally, the flat br
segmented abdomen, the cigar-shaped anal append-
ages (which are supposed by some to represent
a pair of rudimentary abdominal legs), are among
the more striking external features. The two
adult sexes in the common cockroach are readily
distinguished, since the female has a somewhat
broader abdomen, and only slight traces of wings.
In the male, the anterior wings form stiff opaque
wing-covers (tegniina), while the posterior pair are
membraneous, really wing-like, and folded longi-
tudinally ; in the female, the tegmina are very
small, and the posterior wings only suggested by
marks. Certain cockroaches, however, are wing-
less in both sexes. There are complex copulatory
and egg-laying structures in the respective sexes.

Common Cockroach :
a, female; b, male.

The essential male organs atrophy in the adult
males, The eggs are surrounded by a peculiar
hard capsule, which the female carries about for a
long time, but evenly attaches by a glutinous
secretion to some suitable sheltering object. This
cocoon, in the common species, usually contains
sixteen eggs, one from each of the ovarian tubes.
Like other true Orthoptera, the cockroaches have
no marked metamorphosis in their life-history.
The larvae, when apy een appear to soften the
edges of a side slit in the inclosing capsule, and
emerge through this into active life. They pass
through no fasting quiescent state, and when
hatched, differ from the adults only in minor
quantitative details, They are said to moult seven
times before becoming quite adult in the fifth year
of their life.

Cockroaches are voracious insects, devouring both
animal and vegetable substances, which they seek
out by aid of their almost certainly olfactory

antenne. Their mouth organs (three pairs of
jaws) are very jd ag and well adapted for biting.
The juices of the mouth leave a disgusting smell
on the objects over which the insects pass. They
are nocturnal in habit, most abundant in warm
countries, fond of sheltering in houses, and notori-
ously a pest to bakers and millers. To get rid of
them a tame hedgehog is often employed, or the
may be caught in large numbers in a tes ery milk
basin, baited with treacle, and led up to by a piece
of wood which cannot be regained from the bottom.
The commonest species in Britain (Periplaneta
orientalis) is said to have been brought to Europe
from Asia within the last two hundred years;
P. americana has found its way hither in bales,
&c. from America. The German cockroach ( Blatta
or Phyllodromia germanica) is a troublesome,
widely distributed form, which appears, however, to
0 to the wall before our common pest. Another
orm (Blatta or Ectobia lapponica) of smaller size,
which occurs commonly in the woods of north and
central Europe, is specially important in Lapland,
where it sometimes does great injury wy devouring
the winter stores of salted fish. The largest form
known is a native of South America and the West
Indies, which measures about 3 inches in length,
and makes a loud drumming noise. The cock-
roach is an ancient insect, having been actuall
found in Silurian strata. As a tolerably sveived:
and yet not too highly specialised type, the cock-
roach forms a very convenient type for the anatom-
ical study of insects. See Miall and Denny, The
Cockroach: an Introduction to Entomology (1886).

Cockscomb ( Celosia cristata), an East-Indian
annual of the order Amarantacez, familiar in con-
servatories, often also planted out in warm borders,
especially in the southern parts of Britain. It
grows with an upright stem, which becomes

attened upwards, divides, expands, and forms
a sort of wavy crest, covered with pointed bracts,
and bearing on its surface many very small abortive
flowers, so crowded as often to present a rich
velvety appearance. The colours are various, and
often very brilliant. In the wild species, however,
the flowers are of ordinary type, and in simple
spikes and panicles; while in the so-called C. aurea,
a golden variety formerly much cultivated, only a
few flowers of the base ot the inflorescence are per-
fect, the other being represented only by bracts
and scales; while in the cockscomb proper the
monstrosity known as Fasciation (q.v.) has further
taken place.

Cock’s-foot Grass (Dactylis), a genus of
Grasses, closely allied to Fescue (Festuca), but
differing in habit. The Common or Rough Cock’s-
foot. Grass (D. glomerata) is a native of both pale-
arctic and nearctie regions, and is very abundant
in Britain. It furnishes an important part of both
natural and artificial pastures. In America this
grass is called Orchard Grass, and is extensively
cultivated. To this genus belongs also the Tussae
Grass (q.v.). See PASTURE, GRASSES.

Cockton, HENRY, comic novelist, was born
in London in 1807, and died 26th June 1853 at
Bury St Edmunds, where eleven years earlier he
had married and settled in business. Unless for
their illustrations, all of his ten works are almost
forgotten but one—Valentine Vow, the Ventriloquist
(1840).

Cocoa, Cacao, or Coco. The different kinds
of cocoa are prepared from the seeds of trees of the
genus Theobréma.

The genus Theobroma (Gr., ‘food of the gods’)
belongs to the natural order Byttneriacew (q.v.),
and contains a number of species, trees of moderate
size, with large undivided leaves and clustered
flowers, all natives of the tropical parts of America.

324 COCOA

COCOA-NUT

By far the most important species of this genus is
T. cacao, to which the name cocoa-tree is often
exclusively appropriated. It is extensively culti-
vated in tropical America and the West Indies,
and its cultivation has been introduced into some
arts of Asia and Africa. The fruit is somewhat
ike a cucumber in shape, is 6 or 8 inches long,

WOW)

Cocoa ( Theobrima cacao):
a, branch with leaves ; b, fruit (partly in section).

yellow, and red on the side next the sun; the
rind is thick and warty, the pulp sweetish, and
not unpleasant ; the seeds numerous, compressed,
and not unlike almonds, with a thin, pale, reddish-
brown, fragile skin or shell, covering a dark-brown,
oily, aromatic, bitter kernel. These seeds are the
cocoa beans of commerce; when bruised so as to
be reduced to small pieces, after being shelled or
decorticated, they become cocoa nibs. The cocoa-
tree produces larger seeds in cultivation than in a
wild state. The tree attains its full vigour and
productiveness in seven or eight years, and gener-
ally yields two principal crops in the year. hen
gathered, the fruit is subjected to five days’ fer-
mentation in earthen vessels or in heaps on the
ground, and then opened by the hand; or it is
buried for a while in the earth till the pulp
becomes rotten. The latter method is said to
produce the best cocoa (earthed cocoa or cacao
terré). The seeds are then roasted.

The average composition of the shelled and
roasted bean is, inround numbers, about as follows.
There is considerable variation in different samples.

(Hydrocarbon ) Cocoa-butter...... 60.0. ccc cee eeeees 51
(Nitrogenous food ) Gluten, albumen, &............ 22
(Carbo-hydrates) Starch, gum, &...............2.- 13
IVAURER <<. ..0's,00 o5 SURES Feldy TERE EEEE REGO v2 secs aeons 5
Mineral matbericcisls/sk,00s dome eee ck esse cesmile de 3h
Indigestible woody matter (cellulose)...............- 3
TNGODLOMING ooo. Se svele erent cae eee vob. ae Ra ee 23
100

This expresses a very high nutritive value, as
will be understood by comparing it with the
following, which shows the proportion of corre-
sponding constituents in lean beef—a beefsteak,
for example :

(Hydrocarbon) Fate. 20, 2. ceawasaiee’. ceeainice meats 4
{ Nitrogenous food ) Gelatin, albumen, &c............ 19
(Carbo-hy Grates iis. é:< spec te «siete eieeeits « - palates ona winiglog
Mineral matter... jciod so. oc tue « apicloctales « oy Mabe ves 5
WSU i oiccrsias'aemigin tatals canis « hy SMe 0 3 «cers aft 72

100

In order to render its large amount of nutritious

matter digestible, the nut must be prepared. The
best mode of preparation is by crushing and con-
tinuous grinding under rollers until the whole is
reduced to an impalpable paste. This, when
dried, adheres, and forms a hard eake. In this
form it is now supp hed to the navy and many mer-
chant ships, and forms a most valuable beverage-
food for sailors when scraped or pounded and boiled
for a short time in water. The large amount of
fatty matter and nitrogenous food renders it
especially suitable for men exposed to cold and
fatigue. It is a most valuable reserve food for
travellers, so much of both heat-giving and flesh-
forming nutriment being concentrated in a given
bulk and weight. It is thus used by Swiss and
Tyrolese mountaineers in the form of edible
chocolate. For the preparation of chocolate, see
CHOCOLATE.

‘An infusion of the broken and roasted shells,
which are set aside in preparing the best qualities
of chocolate, is used in Italy, Spain, and other
countries as a cheap substitute for coffee, and bears
the name of miserabile (‘poverty stricken’). The
pulp of the fruit is eaten in the countries in which
the tree grows, and a kind of spirit is obtained
from it by fermentation and distillation.

Cocoatina, cocoa essence, concentrated cocoa, are
names given to preparations from which some of
the cocoa-butter ee been extracted to render the
beverage more we a ge These, when honestly
prepared, are excellent. Another mode of Fe
tion consists in adding large quantities of cooked
farinaceous material to the ground cocoa, mixin
these when in a pasty condition, then drying an
selling the mixture under various names—soluble
cocoa, &c. Some of them contain but a homeo-
pathic proportion of actual cocoa, producing, when
prepared by the addition of boiling water, merely
a gruel flavoured with cocoa. Those who prefer
such mixtures will find it economical to prepare
their gruel or porridge themselves, and add genuine
cocoa toit. The writer has done this by sprinkling
a little powdered cocoa into ordinary Scotch por-
ridge. By using whole or ground cocoa nibs, a
genuine cocoa beverage may be obtained, but for
this it is necessary to subject the nibs to very lon
boiling; a whole day is desirable. The full an
peculiar flavour of the nut comes out, and much of
the butter floats on top, while the cellulose and
other insoluble constituents remain as sediment.

The Theobromine or special crystallisable alkaloid
of cocoa resembles that of tea and coffee, but con-
tains a larger proportion of nitrogen, and appears
to be less stimulating in its action on the nervous
system. Some regard it as highly nutritious.

In South Carolina the earth-nut is roasted and
used as a spurious cocoa ; and in Spain the root of
the earth chestnut (Cyperus esculenta) is similarly
used. See ADULTERATION.

Cocoa-nut is the current English form of what
was till Dr Johnson’s time spelt Coco-nut; coco,
‘mask,’ being the Portuguese name given to the
nut from the resemblance of its lower part to a
mask. It is the well-known fruit of a species of
palm, Cocos nucifera, perhaps originally a native
only of the Indian coasts and South Sea Islands,
but now diffused over all tropical regions, generally
succeeding best in sandy soils near the sea. It is
always one of the first of the larger plants to estab-
lish itself in the low islands of the Pacific Ocean, so
soon as there is soil enough, its. nuts being widel
distributed by marine currents, while the thie
husk protects the embryo from injury. It has a
cylindrical stem, about 14 feet in diameter, and
from 60 to 90 feet high, with many rings marking
the places of former leaves, and bearing at its
summit a crown of from sixteen to twenty leaves,
which generally curve downwards, and are from 10

ee

COCOA-NUT

COCOON 325

to 15 feet in length. The short racemes bear from
five to fifteen or more nuts; and ten or twelve of
these racemes, in different stages, may be seen at
once on a tree, about eighty or one hundred nuts
being its ordinary annual produce; the best trees
are said to produce two hundred. ‘The tree bears
fruit in from seven to eight years from the time of
planting, and continues productive for seventy or

Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera) :

a, portion of young spathe, with inclosed inflorescence; b,
branch of spadix; c, smaller portion enlarged, showing a
female flower below and male flower above; d, cocoa-nut—
e, husk cut open, showing hard endocarp, at f opened to show
the single seed.

eighty years, the fruit being gathered four or five
times annually. This affords to the inhabitants of
many tropical coasts and islands great part of their
food ; it is not only eaten as it comes from the tree,
both ripe and unripe, being filled in a yous state
with a pleasant milky fluid, but it is also prepared
in a variety of ways. The structure of the fruit will
be understood by reference to the article PALM.
The kernel of the cocoa-nut contains more than
70 per cent. of a fixed oil called Cocoa-nut Oil, or
Cocoa-nut Butter, which, however, must not be
confounded with the fixed oil of the chocolate, also
known as cocoa butter. The oil is itself an import-
ant article of commerce, being much employed in
ot im particularly for the manufacture of stearine
candles ; and also of a marine soap, which forms a
lather with sea-water. In tropical countries, and
particularly in the East, it is much used as a lamp
oil and as an unguent. It is also employed as an
article of food, so long as it remains free from
rancidity, to which, however, it is very liable. It
has been recommended as a substitute for lard in
the preparation of ointments, and in this con-
nection its property of readily taking up a lar
quantity of water has given it a certain value. It
may be used instead of cod-liver oil in consump-
tion, for which purpose it is more palatable and
less likely to cause nausea. It is obtained by
pressure of the bruised kernel, or by boiling over
a slow fire, and skimming off the oil as it floats
on the surface. A quart, it is said, may be
obtained from seven or eight cocoa-nuts. It is
liquid in the ordinary temperatures of tropical
countries, but in colder climates becomes a white,
solid, butter-like oil. It becomes liquid about 74°
(23°3° C.). It can be separated by compression in

the cold into a more liquid portion called olein,
and a more solid part termed cocostearin, or cocosin,
which is of complex constitution, and contains at
least six fatty acids.

The root of the cocoa-nut palm possesses narcotic
properties, and is sometimes chewed instead of the
areca-nut. The terminal bud (Palm Cabbage) is
esteemed a delicacy, and trees are often cut down
for the sake of it; the central part of the young
stem is also succulent and eatable.—The sacchar-
ine sap (toddy) of this, as of some other palms, is
an esteemed beverage in tropical countries, either
in the state in which it is obtained from the tree,
or after fermentation, which takes place in a few
hours; and from the fermented sap (palm wine)
a spirituous liquor (arrack) is obtained by distilla-
tion. The juice is often also in the East Indies
boiled down to yield sugar (jaggery). A variety of
arrack is also distilled from the fermented milk.

The dried leaves of the cocoa-nut palm are much
used for thatch, and for many other purposes, as
the making of mats, screens, baskets, &c., by
plaiting the leaflets. The midribs of the leaves
supply the natives of tropical coasts with oars.—
The wood of the lower part of the well-grown stem
is very hard, takes a beautiful polish, is employed
for a great variety of purposes, and is imported into
Britain for ornamental joinery, under the name of
Porcupine Wood.—The fibrous tissue of the less
mature stems is made into cordage. A kind of
gan is also frequently obtained from the stem.—By

ar the most important fibrous product of the
cocoa-nut tree is Coir (q.v.), the fibre of the husk
of the imperfectly ripened nut. The husk of the
ripened nut is used for fuel, and also, when cut
across, for greg furniture, scrubbing floors, &c.
The shell of the cocoa-nut is made into cups,
oblets, ladles, &c., and is often polished or carved.
ithin the nut there is occasionally found a small
stony substance, of a bluish-white colour, ‘a sort of
vegetable bezoar,’ called in India Calappa, to which
the Chinese ascribe great virtues. There are about
30 species of the genus, mostly South American,
of which C. butyracea and C. coronata may be
mentioned as x eigen on rtant sources of oil and
starch respectively.—The Double Cocoa-nut of the
Seychelles Islands is the fruit of a totally different
palm, Lodoicea Seychellarum. See Coco DE MER.

Cocoa-nut Beetle (Batocera rubus), a large
Longicorn beetle, the larve of which are very
destructive in cocoa-nut plantations, eating their
way in all directions in the stems of the younger
trees. They are destitute of feet, large and pulpy,
and of repulsive aspect ; but are esteemed a luxury
by the coolies of the East. They resemble the
grugru worms of South America.

Coco de Mer (also called Sea or Maldive
Double Cocoa-nut) is the fruit of the Lodoicea
Seychellarum palm. Its double kernel has long had
an extraordinary value over a large area in the
East. As a sovereign antidote to poison, and long
known only from specimens thrown up on the
Maldive coasts, it was supposed to grow on a sub-
marine tree, and had other fables attached to it.
The tree on which it grows is peculiar to some of
the Seychelles Islands, reaches a height of 100 feet,
and has very large fern-like leaves.

Cocoon, the silken sheath spun by the larve of
many insects in passing into the pupa or resting
stage. The cocoon proper is due to the secretion
of special spinning glands, situated anteriorly or
posteriorly, but larval hairs and foreign objects of
many kinds may also be utilised. The amount of
secretion, the arrangement of the threads, and the
oo sagan of the covering vary very widely ; nor
is the presence of any cocoon whatever essential
to the pupa stage. The most typical and pevfect

326 COCOS

CODE

cocoons are those of many moths, a familiar ex-
ample being that of the silkworm. The delicacy,
neatness, and labour exhibited by these last silken
robes make them as marvellous as they are useful.
See CATERPILLAR, CHRYSALIS, INSECTS, and espe-
cially SILKWORM (under the article SILK).

Cocos. See KEELING ISLANDS.

Cocy’tus, a river of Epirus, a tributary of the
Acheron, supposed to be connected with the lower
world. Homer makes it a branch of the Styx;
Virgil makes the Acheron flow into the Cocytus.

Cod (Gadus), a genus of bony fishes in the soft-
rayed order (Anacanthini), and type of a family
(Gadidz ) which includes some valuable food-fishes,
such as Ling (Molva), Hake or ‘ Stockfish’ (Mer-
lucius), Burbot (Lota), &c. The genus Gadus
itself is undoubtedly the most valuable. A moder-
ately elongated body with small smooth scales, the
three dorsal and two anal fins, the distinctness of
the tail from the fins, the position of the pelvic
limbs on the throat, the toothed vomer and tooth-
less palatine, are among the more important distinc-
tive features. The genus includes about a score of
species, distributed in the cold and temperate seas
of the northern part of the globe, and well known
to be very abundant off Newfoundland, at the
Lofoden Islands, and on the Dogger Bank. They
seem to follow the herring shoals. As part of our
food-supply, and as sources of cod-liver oil, the
species of Gadus are of great economic importance.

Besides the cod proper (G. morrhua), the follow-
ing species are well known: the Haddock (q.v.,
G. eglefinus), the Whiting (q.v., G. merlangus),
the Bib or Whiting-pout (G. duscus), the Power-
cod (G. minutus), the Pollack (G. pollachius), the
Coal-fish (G. wrens). .

The cod itself is too familiar an animal to deman
description. It attains a length of 2 to 4 feet,
and may weigh as much as 100 lb. The sensitive
barbule on the chin is tolerably long. The colour
varies considerably. A smaller variety (dorse) is
sometimes distinguished—e.g. in the Baltic. The
cod occurs between 50° and 75° N. lat. in great pro-
fusion, to a depth of 120 fathoms, but is not found
nearer the equator than 40° lat. It spawns from
January to May, according to the climate, and it
is only at this season that numbers crowd together.
The cod is very voracious, and feeds at the bottom
on crustaceans, molluses, worms, and even on small
fishes. They are very prolific, and it has been
calculated that the roe of a large female may con-
tain towards 9 million eggs. The productiveness
of the great banks of Newfoundland excels that of
all others, but the cod-fisheries near the coasts of
Sweden, Iceland, and the north of Scotland are
also important. The Dutch were engaged in the
cod-fishery as early as the middle of the 14th cen-
tury, and the English resorted for this purpose to
the coasts of Iceland about the same period. The
French have also engaged largely in the cod-fishery.
The fishery is always carried on by means of lines
and hooks, partly by /ong-lines and partly by hand-
lines. Whelks and the like are used for bait.
One man has been known to catch from 400 to 550
fish, on the banks of Newfoundland, in ten or
eleven hours; and eight men to take eighty score
in a day on the Dogger Bank. Great quantities of
dried cod are carried from Newfoundland to the
West Indies, and are consumed also in the Roman
Catholic countries of the south of Europe. The
principal seat of the cod-liver oil industry, in which
other species are also utilised, is on the Norwegian
coast. The preserved ‘sound’ or swim-bladder of
the cod is esteemed a delicacy. It is also used in
a dried state as isinglass. See Day’s British
ala and Giinther’s Introduction to the Study of

shes.

Coda (Ital., ‘a tail’), a passage at the end of a
musical composition, intended to round it off and
give a sense of completeness in form. In early
music it consisted often of a few simple chords ;
but it was enlarged, by Beethoven more especially,
into a feature of the greatest importance and
dimensions, it being one of the most characteristic
features in the form of his symphonies; and other
composers have with rare exceptions followed his
lead. See SYMPHONY.

Code (Lat. codex and caudex). The primary
meaning of the Latin word was the trunk or stem
of a tree; afterwards it came to signify more
especially wooden tablets bound together, and
covered with a coating of wax, which were used
for writing on. After parchment and paper were
substituted for wood, the name code was still re-
tained. Cicero applies it to a bill; but it was not
till still later, in the times of the emperors, that
it was used to express a collection of laws.

In its modern sense the word code may be
defined as a systematic statement of the laws of

a country (either the whole law, or any special
department of it) having the authority of an act
of the legislature. In other words, it is the ex-
pression of the law of a country in a systematic
and authoritative form. This definition distin-
guishes it, on the one hand, from a digest, which
properly signifies a collection of the decisions and
rules of the common law arranged on a methodical

plan, and, on the other hand, from a consolidated —

statute, which is nothing more than the incorpora-
tion of all the statutes relating to a particular
branch of the law into one general enactment.
While the digest differs from a code in so far as it
wants the authority of a legislative enactment,
the consolidated statute differs from it in that it
does not deal with the unwritten or common law.
Whether it is for the advantage of a community
that its laws should be expressed in the form of a
code, is a question which has been much discussed
both in Great Britain and abroad. On the Continent
it has been practically settled in the affirmative,
while in Great Britain and in some of the states of
America (particularly the state of New York)
the controversy is still keenly maintained. Two
principal objections urged by the a of
codification may be thus summarised: (1) That
it checks the natural growth of the law and
hinders its free development; and (2) that, as
law is progressive, there would be no finality—
that it would be necessary to be constantly alter-
ing the code in order to adapt it to the new
conditions of society. The answer usually made
to the first of these objections is, that although
law is a flexible and progressive science, it is
nevertheless capable of being known as it exists
at any given time, and if so it must be capable
of being expressed in language. ‘The law of a
country,’ observes Mr Dudley Field, the distin-
ished American jurist, ‘may be likened to its
anguage, and to make a code of the one is like
making a dictionary of the other.’ If the law is
not expressed in language, it must almost neces-
sarily be left to the fluctuating opinions of judges
to say whether a particular set of facts is In any
given case of legal effect or not. To the second of
the above objections the answer is: Granted that a
code cannot be made for all time, there is never-
theless no reason why any changes required by
altered conditions of society should not be ade-
quately met by periodical revision. A commission
of lawyers might be appointed for that purpose,
and revision might take place, say, every ten
years. On the other hand, the arguments speci-
ally urged in favour of codification are: (1) That
it will simplify the law, thereby getting rid of a
vast mass of statutes and judicial decisions, whose

Se Se ee eS

CODE

327

authority has become more or less doubtful, and
which overload the book-shelves and waste the
time of our lawyers and judges ; and (2) that by
simplifying the law it will be made accessible to
and comprehensible by ordinary citizens.

Viewing the subject historically, we find that
the Romans were the first to realise the idea of
codification. The compilation of the Twelve
Tables (q.v.) in 303 B.c. was the earliest attempt
to codify the whole law, both public and private.
But with the Romans the term code was confined
in its application to the collections of the laws and
constitutions promulgated by the emperors (the im-
perial edicta, rescripta, and decreta ), and had not the
extensive meaning of the word in its modern sense.

The following is an enumeration and description
of the more celebrated codes, ancient and modern :

I, ANCIENT CopgEs.—(1) Codex Gregorianus et
Hermogenianus.—These two collections of imperial
constitutions (mainly of rescripta) were the first
to receive the designation codex, and they supplied
a model which was to a considerable extent
followed in the subsequent codes of Theodosius
and Justinian. They were both the work of
rivate hands, although they were subsequently
eclared authoritative by a decree of Theodosius
and Valentinian. The first of them is gg
to have been published about the end of the 3d
«entury, and that of Hermogenianus a little later.
‘Only fragments of each have been preserved.

(3) Codex Theodosianus, named after the Em-
peror Theodosius the Younger, during whose
reign it was compiled. The original idea of
‘Theodosius was to prepare a complete body of the
law, collected from the writings of the jurists as
well as the constitutions of the emperors, but his
instructions to this effect were never carried out.
The codex, as we have it, occupied three years in

reparation, and was promulgated as law for the
tern empire on Ist January 439, and a few
days the r adopted and declared to be law
for the Western empire by Valentinian III. This
Codex Theodosianus has nina t measure
preserved. It consists of sixteen books, which are
subdivided into titles, and a chronological order
in the arrangement of the constitutions has been
followed. All but the first five books (containing the
purely private law) have come down to us.
means, however, of the so-called Breviarium Alari-
cianum—an abridgment in (gro part of this code
made by the order of Alaric II., king of the Visigoths
—it became possible to reproduce a considerable
proportion of the earlier books. Palimpsest restora-
‘tions have also during the 19th century brought

to our knowledge a number of the genuine con-,

stitutiones which were not to be found in the
breviary of Alaric. The best editions of this code
are those of Jac. Gothofredus, with his celebrated
‘commentary Books VI. to XVL., originally
published in 1665, and Hiinel, contributed to the
Corpus Juris Rom. Antejustin. (Bonn, 1842),

(3) Codex Justinianeus.—This, which is the
most celebrated of the ancient codes, was named
after the Emperor Justinian, in whose reign it was
prepared. In the year 528 A.D. a commission of
‘ten persons, with the famous Tribonian at their
head, was appointed by Justinian to compile a
code, incorporating in it the earlier es of
Gregorianus, Hermogenianus, and Theodosius, and
also the various constitutions issued subsequent
to these codes. The work was performed in four-
teen months, and it was then declared that the
new code should supersede the older compilation.
A second edition of this work, revised and havin
‘a number of new enactments of Justinian himse
incorporated, was promulgated in 534 under the
name of the Codex repetite prelectionis. This is
‘what has come down to us, and is now known as

the Codex Justinianeus, and forms part of the
corpus juris. It consists of twelve books, each of
which is divided into chapters.

(4) Romano-Barbarian Codes.—Several collec-
tions were made of the laws of the barbarians of
western Europe after they had become free from
the domination of Rome. To three of these collec-
tions the name of the Romano-Barbarian Codes is
usually applied. They are (1) the Ldictum Theo-
dorici, compiled under Theodoric, king of the
Ostrogoths, about the year 500, and consisting of
154 sections (unsystematically arranged), dealing
with all departments of the law, its materials
being derived mainly from the Gregorian, Her-
mogenian, and Theodosian Codes. (2) The Lez
Romana Visigothorum, ee under Alaric, king
of the Visigoths, and published in the year 506.
This collection was one of great importance, and
during a considerable part of the middle ages was
treated as the principal exponent of Roman law,
thus exercising great influence upon the Gothic
law of western re It was compiled by com-
missioners, appointed by Alaric, who fextwod their
materials in great part from the Theodosian Code
and the institutes of Gaius. This codex is com-
mole described as the Breviarium Alaricianum.
(3) The Lex Romana Burgundionum, also published
about the beginning of the 6th century, under
Gundobald, king of the Burgundians. It was
compiled from much the same sources as the code
of Alarie IT.

Il. MopERN CopEs.—As already observed, the
idea of a code in the modern sense—viz. as a com-
a statement of the whole law, or any particular

epartment of it—was not realised by the ancients.
The Roman Codex was in many respects more akin
to what we call a consolidated statute than a
proper code.

(1) Prussian Code.—The first of the modern codes
(leaving out of view certain ordonnances of a general
nature promulgated at an early date in France and
some other countries, but which hardly deserve the
appellation Code) was the celebrated Landrecht of
Prussia—the Code Fréderic—published in 1751. This
work was due to the genius of Frederick the Great,
and was intended by him to firmly cement the union
between the various parts of his kingdom. In the
introductory plan (or projet), Frederick tells what
induced him to undertake the work—viz. the great
uncertainty in the law arising out of the want of
uniformity in the customs and statutes prevailing
in the different parts of his dominions, and the ex-
cessive and costly litigations due to this praypeck ete
He makes, at the same time, a violent onslaught
upon lawyers geneelly, and ho
diate result of the code will to restrict their
number to the most moderate dimensions. Out of
this Code Fréderic, the existing Al/gemeines Land-
recht of Prussia has grown.

(2) Code Napoléon.—This is the most celebrated
of the modern codes. At the time of the great
Revolution there was an endless variety of par-
ticular laws and customs (droit écrit et droit cou-
tume) prevailing in the different parts of France,
entailing t uncertainty and expense in the
administration of justice, and oe anything
like true solidity and unity in the nation. Napoleon
realised the necessity of the unification of the
local laws by a e applicable to the whole
country. No doubt, a good deal had been done
towards unification by the pre tion of an ad-
mirable act of ordonnances in the reigns of Louis
XIV. and Louis XV., but they only went a small
way in rectifying the evils. The Constitution of
1791 and Projet de Code Civil of Cambacérés (q. v.)
partly anticipated the Code Napoléon, which,
elaborated in four months by a commission com-
prising Tronchet and three others, was published

that one imme-

328 CODE

COD-LIVER OIL

and Meher seg between 1804 and 1810. It con-
sisted of five parts—viz. the ‘Code Civil,’ dealing
with the main body of the private law; the ‘Code
de Procédure Civile;’ the ‘Code de Commerce,’
dealing with the laws relating to commercial
affairs ; the ‘Code d’Instruction Criminelle ;? and,
finally, the ‘Code Pénal.’ Each of these five parts
was independent of the others, though prepared on
the same system and governed by a prgalenee | of
plan. In order to prevent absolutely an appeal in
any case to the authority of the old laws and
customs, it was expressly enacted that if cases
should occur for which the code had made no pro-
vision, the judge should decide according to what
he might consider to be good sense and equity or
ancient custom—in this respect differing from the
Prussian Landrecht, which requires that any ques-
tions unprovided for by it shall be referred by the
judge to a legislative commission for decision.

he Code Napoléon (or, as it has been re-christened
under the Republic, the Code Civil) remains in

‘orce as the law of France at the present day, and .

despite many defects in its original construction—
necessitating a large number of interpretative com-
mentaries—it has, beyond doubt, proved a great
boon to that country. Napoleon (though he had,
of course, no share in the legal work performed by
Cambacérés, Tronchet, Pothier, &c.) is said to have
been prouder of it than of any of his victories. The
best test of his excellence is that it has been (in
whole or part) the model for a large number of
continental codes; as, for example, those of Belgium,
Italy, and Greece. So also in the Rhenish pro-
vinces, upon which it was originally imposed by
force, it remains to this day the basis of legislation.

(3) German Codes.—Prior to the constitution of
the present German empire in 1871, two important
codes of the German commercial law had been

repared and adopted by the North German Con-
ederation. These were the Wechsel-Ordnung,
codifying the laws relating to bills of exchange,
which was published in 1848, and the Allgemeines
Handelsgesetzbuch, codifying the whole commer-
cial law, exclusive of bills of exchange and bank-
ruptey, which was published in 1861. Since 1871
these two codes have been made applicable to the
whole of the empire, and three other departments
of the law have since been codified—viz. the law
of bankruptcy (Konkurs-recht), the law of pro-
cedure, 2 the criminal law. A commission was
charged with the enormous task of codifying the
whole civil law of Germany, and from time to time
groups of laws have been adapted for the empire.

(4) United States Codes.—In most of the states
codification, either of the whole law or of particular
branches of it, has been effected. At the same time
it is noticeable that in one or two of the states the
expediency of codifying the private law is still much
controverted. This is particularly the case with
New York, where in 1857-65 a draft civil code was

repared (mainly by the distinguished jurist, Mr

udley Field), but did not receive the sanction
of the legislature. This code has, however, been
adopted by California and (with modifications) the
Dakotas. The penal code was adopted in 1882.

(5) British and Colonial Codes.—The only result
in the way of codification achieved in the United
Kingdom is in the department of the law which
relates to bills of exchange (including promissory-
notes and cheques). By the Bills of Exchange
Act, 1882, the statute and common law of the
three kingdoms relating to this important depart-
ment of mercantile jurisprudence was in great
measure reduced to the form of a code. This
enactment is, perhaps, not a complete code in the
strict sense, seeing that it does not profess to
entirely shut the door of the common law in ques-
tions affecting bills—decisions prior to the Act

being still authoritative so far as they are not
inconsistent with its express provisions. But in
other respects it fulfils the proper requirements of
acode. Having been drafted with much care and
skill, it has, since it came into force, proved of
great value and benefit to the mercantile com-
munity in the way of diminishing litigation and
otherwise. Efforts have been and are now being
made by law-reformers ( prominent among them bein.
Sir James F. Stephen) to have other tranthed 0
the law codified, and more particularly the law of
evidence and the law of crimes, and criminal pro-
cedure. As regards British possessions it may just
be observed that an excellent code exists in Canada,
and that in India several branches of the law have
been codified by the celebrated Anglo-Indian codes.
The criminal code of India was drawn up in the
year 1837 under the auspices of Lord Macaulay,
though it was not promulgated till 1860.

Codeine, an alkaloid obtained from poppy-_
heads. See Poppy.

Codex (Lat., ‘manuscript,’ pl. Copices: see
CopDE), the name applied to ancient manuscripts,
as of the classics or of the Scriptures. Of the latter
class the four great Uncials (q.v.) are the Codex -
Sinaiticus, discovered in 1844 and 1859 in the mon-
astery of Mount Sinai by Tischendorf, and the
Codex Vaticanus, both of the 4th century ; and the
Codex Alexandrinus (see under ALEXANDRIA)
and Codex Ephraemi of the 5th century. All four ©
originally contained the Old and New Testament.
complete, but none are perfect copies, while the
last, besides having great lacune, is almost
illegible. See PALIMPSEST.

Codieil (Lat. codicilius, diminutive’ of codex ),.
a supplement to a will, whereby anything omitted.
is added, or any change demanded by the altered
circumstances of the testator or the beneficiaries,
is effected. A codicil is authenticated in the same
manner as a will, and possesses the same privileges.
when holograph, or written by the hand of the
testator himself. See WILL.

Codilla is the coarsest part of hemp and also of
flax, sorted out and separated from the rest.

Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonana), the
moth whose larvee cause the ‘ worm-eaten’ apples,
which fall prematurely off.

Cod-liver Oil is generally obtained from the
livers of the common Cod (q.v.), but likewise from
allied species, as ling, dorse, coal-fish, torsk, &c.
In these fish the Adipose Tissue (q.v.) containin
oil is almost entirely confined to the liver, in whic

_they agree with the shark tribe, whilst in other

fish, as in the herring and salmon, the oil is diffused
over the entire structure of the animal. The sup-
plies of medicinal cod-liver oil used to be derived
mainly from Newfoundland, but Norway now sup-
plies the bulk of that used in Great Britain. The
most famous of the Norwegian fishing-grounds is.
that of the Lofoden Islands. On the outer shores.
of these islands immense shoals of fish begin to
arrive in December, but owing to the storms to
which the coasts are liable, only a comparatively
small number of boats (some 800) engage in the
fishing. Later on, in the beginning of January,
the fish pass in between the islands and enter the
calmer waters of the Westfjérd to spawn. Then
the fishermen, assembling in immense numbers,
catch the fish by net or baited line. A good catch
for a boat, with a crew of five men and a boy,,
is from 600 to 1200 fish ; and some idea of the im-
ortance of this industry is obtained from the
fact that in a single year these fisheries alone
employed 4000 vessels, with a crew of 27,000
men, the catch amounting to 25,000,000 of fish.
The fishing-grounds being near the shore, the

ee

~ result. The

either removed by straining or b

COD-LIVER OIL

COEHOORN 329

fish are at once cleaned, and the livers re-
moved, These may be treated in different ways,
the various qualities of cod-liver oil being the
nest oil, known as ‘non-freezing
pale oil,’ is obtained by warming the livers b

means of steam heat, when the oil separates, and is
allowing it to
float to the surface. It is then cooled to 14° ( — 10°
C.), and filtered, either by mechanical pressure
or in the usual way. A white tallow-like sub-
stance remains in the flannel filter, and a bright
ceod-liver oil passes through, which is now capable
of being exposed to frost without turning turbid.

In the ease of those fisheries which are situated
at some distance from the shore, the livers are
placed in tanks, till a sufficient quantity has been
collected, with the result cl gree putrefaction
takes place. The oil obtained in this way is of
a dark-brown colour, and possesses a nauseous
empyreumatic taste.

still coarser variety is manufactured for use in
leather-making. In it the livers of the cod, herring,
haddock, &c. are indiscriminately used, a very
fishy-tasted oil being the result.

It will be seen from the above that the different
varieties of cod-liver oil may be produced from the
same livers. Thus, that obtained by pressure or
steam heat frem fresh livers is the freest from taste
and colour, while the oil becomes darker and darker
as the livers become less fresh. It has been sup-

by some authorities that the dark-brown oil
is the more efficacious, but others find no difference
in actual practice, while the pale oil can alone be
tolerated by delicate stomachs. Cod-liver oil mainly
consists of oleic, stearic, and oper acids, in com-
bination with glycerine. In addition to these,
uin, a substance of biliary origin, but possess-
ing no recognised medicinal virtues, is present
along with iodine and bromine. Some have
ascribed the virtues of cod-liver oil to the iodine or
bromine, but as the iodine is only present in the
proportion of 1 part in 2000 parts of the oil, this
view seems untenable. Sometimes the oil is adul-
terated with spurious oils, to which iodine has been
added, and this may be assumed if the proportion
of iodine exceeds that stated above. There are
unfortunately no chemical tests that can with
certainty detect the presence of other oils, although
there are tests which distinguish liver-oils from
those of other origin. Thus with nitric acid, cod-
liver oil ee a purple colour, changing to a
brown ; while a drop of sulphuric acid rotune a
violet colour, soon changing to brownish red. In
order to prevent it from ming rancid and fishy-
tasted, it is well to keep it jnakntod from the air.

Cod-liver oil is at present one of the most import-
ant remedies in the Materia Medica. Although
possessing a high reputation on the Continent, it
was not till 1841, when Professor Hughes Bennett
(q.v.) of Edinburgh wrote a treatise on it, that
it came into general use in Britain. It is most
valued in cases of pulmonary consumption, chronic
rheumatism, and gout, besides all diseases of a
scrofulous nature. In all these it is, however,
useless to expect results unless the remedy
has been regularly taken for several weeks.
Its mode of action is uncertain. While some
hold that it merely acts as a nutrient, it is
certain that pork-fat, butter, and other digestible
oils, do not have the same specific action that
characterises cod-liver oil. It is given in doses of
from half a teaspoonful to one tablespoonful three
or four times a day, and it does not seem that
excessive doses, such as a cupful or more, are of
any real benefit, while they are a severe strain on
the digestive organs.

As its peculiar flavour is very repulsive to many
patients, various devices have been adopted to

render it more palatable. The addition of a trace
of sulphuric ether, while rendering it more easily
digested, does not improve the flavour. It may,
however, be made into a jelly with isinglass, or be
taken floating on the surface of porter; while in
the form of Emulsion, of which many varieties are
in the market, the flavour is more or less skilfully
disguised. Most druggists also keep gelatin
capsules, containing from one to one and a half
teaspoonful, which are easily swallowed.

Codogno, a town of Northern Italy, 17 miles
SE. of Lodi by rail. Pop. 8935.

Codrington, Sir Epwarp, a British admiral,
was born of a good old Gloucestershire family, 27th
April 1770, and entered the navy in 1783. In 1794
he was lieutenant of Lord Howe’s flagship, and
took a prominent part in the action off Ushant
on the glorious Ist of June. At Trafalgar, in
1805, he was captain of the Orion, and leader of
a squadron. He afterwards served in the North
Sea, in Spanish waters, and in North America,
and rose to the rank of vice-admiral in 1821. In
1826 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the
Mediterranean squadron, and in that capacity
took the leading part in the battle of Navarino.
(q.v.), which destroyed the Turkish navy. In
reward for this victory he received the Grand
Cross of the Bath, with Russian and French
orders; but the battle being considered an ‘ un-
toward event,’ Codrington was recalled. He
attained the full rank of admiral of the red in
1837, and in 1839 was appointed commander-in-
chief at Portsmouth, He was M.P. for Devon-
pare from 1832 to 1839. He died April 28, 1851.

he ‘ Narrative’ written to prove that at Navarino-
he had not exceeded his instructions, is printed in
the Memoir by his daughter, Lady Bourchier (2 vols.
1873).—His son, GENERAL SIR WILLIAM JOHN
CoDRINGTON, G.C.B. (1804-84), was commander-
in-chief in the Crimea from 11th November 1855.
—Another son, ADMIRAL SIR HENRY JOHN Cop-
RINGTON, K.C.B. (1808-77), took part in the
destruction of St Jean d’Acre, and served in the
Baltic in 1854-55.

Codrus, the last king of Athens, was the son
of Melanthus, and according to Greek legend,
sacrificed his life for his country about the year
1068 B.c. A war raging between the Athenians.
and Dorians, the oracle declared that the victory
should belong to those whose king was slain by the
enemy ; whereupon Codrus, attiring himself as a
peasant, entered the Dorian camp, and having
picked a quarrel with some of the soldiers, con-
trived to have himself slain. See ARCHON.

Coé@flicient, the numerical or literal factor
prefixed to an unknown quantity in any algebraic
term. Thus in the expression ax — 2by8 + \ 327 -
(a + 5)y there are four terms, and the coéflicients.
are, in order, a, 2b, V3, and (a +5). A special
and very, important instance is found in the
phrase Differential Coéfficient of a given function
with reference to one or more of the variables
involved. In the theory of equations, also, coétti-
cients play an important part: thus, in the cubic
z* + ax? + be +e=0, we know that (supposing
the 3 roots are p, g, r)p+q+r=-4@, pg+qr
+ rp = b, and pgr = - ¢.

Coehoorn, or CoHoRN, MENNO, BARON VAN,
called the Dutch Vauban, was the son of a captain
of infantry, and born near Leeuwarden in 1641.
He studied fortification and mathematics at
Franeker, and already captain of a tie gad in his
sixteenth year, he greatly distinguished himself at
the siege of Maestricht, and in various battles. At
the siege of Grave, in 1673, he demonstrated that
the small portable mortars name after him might

eA

330 COEHORNS

COFFEE

be advantageously employed. Coehoorn covered
himself with honour at Senef (1674), before Kaisers-
werth (1689), and at Fleurus (1690). He fortified
Namur, and defended it against Vauban in 1692;
besieged that fortress in 1695, and retook it; was
appointed lieutenant-general and director-in-chief
ot the Dutch fortifications, and fortified several
towns, of which Bergen-op-Zoom was considered his
masterpiece. In the war of the Spanish succes-
sion he defeated the French more than once, and
took Huy and Limburg. He died at the Hague,
on his way to meet Marlborough, March 17, 1704.
He left two important works on fortification.

Coehorns—named from the military engineer
who introduced them—are small bronze Mortars
(q.v.), # ewt. in weight, and of 4? inches calibre.
Being easily carried, they are useful in sieges, to
annoy working parties, and in situations where
guns cannot be employed, such as the attack of

ill-forts in India.

Ceelenterata, the technical name for the
second lowest alliance of many-celled animals.
The class includes (1) locomotor types—jelly-fishes,
swimming bells or medusoids, colonial medusoids
such as the Portuguese Man-of-war, and extremely
active organisms known as Ctenophores ; (2) tubu-
lar forms or ‘ polyps’ (mostly fixed )—the common
Hydra, the compound Hydroids or zoophytes, the
s#ea-anemones, compound sea-anemone-like types
such as Dead-men’s Fingers, and limy or coral
modifications from all these. The two types,
medusoid and polypoid, are inseparably linked
together by eat though not obvious resemblance
in structure, and by the facts that many swimming
bells are only detached and modified reproductive
members of fixed zoophyte colonies, and that a
fixed polypoid stage occurs as a chapter in the life-
history of some common jelly-fishes.

General Characters.—(1) The Coelenterates are
nearer the primitive two-layered sack-like ancestral
form, the Gastrula (see EMBRYOLOGY), than are
higher animals; (2) they are radially symmetrical
in almost all cases, that is, they are the same all
round, and a line drawn vertically through the
body of Hydra, Sea-anemone, or Jelly-fish corre-
sponds to the long axis of the gastrula; (3) they
do not possess any body-cavity distinct from the
alimentary tube; (4) they have not a distinctly
developed third or middle layer of cells, as in
higher animals; (5) there is an almost constant
presence of offensive stinging cells; (6) vegetative
multiplication by budding is very common, and
division of labour is frequent in the resulting
colonial organisms ; (7) the life-history often illus-
trates Alternation of Generations (q.v.); (8) ‘coral’-
forms occur abundantly by the formation of limy
“skeletons’ in various passive types.

Classification.—(a) The Hydroids and the swim-
ming bells often associated with them, the jelly-fish
proper, colonial locomotor colonies like the Portu-
guese Man-of-war (q.v.), the limy Hydrocorallinze
(see MILLEPORES), &¢., are grouped together
as Hydrozoa. (b) The Sea-anemone and Dead-
men’s Finger types, with their associated ‘corals,’
form the division known as Actinozoa (q.v.). (¢)
‘The climax of activity is represented by the Cteno-
»hora (q.v.), such as Berée (q.v.). For details and
ossil forms, see separate articles.

Habit of Life.—F¥ive or six Ceelenterates, in-
cluding the common Hydra, are fresh-water
animals ; the others are marine. A few are para-
sitic. Most of the active forms are found in the
open sea, near the surface, but some live at great
depths. The sedentary forms occur at all depths,
and are often anchored on other animals, which
they sometimes mask, The food of the great
majority consists of small organisms, in the seizure

of which the almost constant tentacles and sting-
ing cells are very important.

Relationships.—For the connections between
Hydra and the compound zoophytes, between the
Eerped and medusoid types, between the medu-
soids and the Portuguese Man-of-war order, be-
tween medusoids and Ctenophores, between Sea-
anemones and the sessile type exhibited in the
life-history of some jelly-fishes, see separate
articles (ANEMONE, BEROE, CORAL, CTENOPHORA,
HYDROZOA, JELLY-FISH, &c.).

Pedigree.—The ancestral Coelenterate was prob-
ably gastrula-like. Modification has taken two
main directions of increasing activity and increas-
ing fixedness. The class as a whole probably arose
apart both from the lower Sponges and from all
the higher animals. See Huxley’s Anatomy of
Invertebrates, and other general works of Claus,
Gegenbaur, Rolleston and Hatchett Jackson, Zittel,
&c., and monographs noted under special articles.

Coelestinus. See CELESTINE.

Ceele-Syria (‘Hollow Syria’), now called by
the natives El-Buké’a, ‘the deep plain,’ a valley
of Syria, extending between the ranges of the
Lebanon and Bis Labencn: It is 1706 feet above
the sea, and is watered by the Orontes (now EI-
Asi). Above the valley stand the ruins of Baalbek.

Coe'liac Axis. See AorTA.

Coenobites (Gr. koinos, ‘common,’ and bios,
‘life’), the name given to those monks who live
together, in contradistinction to anchorites or
hermits, who withdraw from all society, and live in
a solitary fashion. See MONACHISM.

Coenurus. See BLADDER-WworRM,
Worms, TAPEWORMS,

Coffee (Turkish gahveh, from Arabic gahweh,
originally meaning ‘wine’). This well-known
beverage is an infusion of the roasted seeds of the
coffee-tree (Coffea Arabica), a native of Abyssinia,
Arabia, and many parts of Africa, and naturalised
in many of the tropical countries colonised by
Europeans. There are some twenty species of
Coffea, but few of them seem to possess valuable
properties ; the seeds of C. Mauritiana, prepared in
the same way, are bitter and slightly emetic. The

enus belongs to the natural order Cinchonacee.
tt has a tubular 4-5-cleft corolla, and a succulent
fruit containing two cells lined with a cartilaginous
membrane, and each containing one seed.

In a wild state, it is a slender tree of 15-25
feet high, with few branches; in cultivation,
it is seldom allowed to become more than 6-10
feet high, and is made to assume a sort of

yramidal form, with horizontal branches almost
oe the ground. The leaves are evergreen,
opposite, very shining, oblong, and leathery; the
flowers are small, clustered in the axils of the
leaves, and snow-white; the whole appearance of
the tree is very pleasing; and the smell of the
flowers is delicious. The fruit, when ripe, is of a-
dark-scarlet colour, and the seeds are semi-elliptic
and of a horny hardness. The seeds are commonly
but incorrectly termed coffee beans, or, still more
incorrectly, coffee berries.

The coffee-tree succeeds only in countries where
the average temperature of the year is about
64-70° F. In Peru and Quito it is acclimatised
at an elevation of 6000 feet, where, however, frost
never occurs; but as it delights in a moist atmo-
sphere, it nowhere thrives better than in tropical
islands. In the hothouses of Britain the coffee-
tree frequently flowers and the fruit ripens.
Coffee plantations are laid out pretty much in the
same way everywhere. In quadrangles, bordered by
fruit-trees, the coffee-trees stand in rows; they are
pruned to the same height, and the ground between

CESTOID

COFFEE

331

them is carefully kept clear of weeds. Where the
«limate is dry, abundant irrigation is necessary,
but the supply of water is cut off as the fruit

ins to ripen, in order to improve the aroma of
the seeds, The tree yields its first crop in the
third year; from a full-grown tree it may amount
to a pound of coffee beans. As the coffee-tree
continues flowering for eight months, its fruits
Are at any stp time of rey unequal ripeness ; in
the West Indies and Brazil, three gatherings are

Coffee ; branch with fruit.

therefore made annually. The beans are placed
on mats or large floors = weer adapted for the

urpose, where they are dried by the sun’s rays,
tales meanwhile frequently turned. They are
passed between rollers to remove the dried pulp of
the bean, and the membrane which incloses the
seeds themselves. The coffee is afterwards freed
from impurities by winnowing, and conveyed in
bags to the seaports. As equal care is not, how-
ever, bestowed upon the preparation of it in all
places where it is cultivated, there are great differ-
ences in quality and price.

The earlier history of the coffee-tree is not very
«clear. Coffee was not known to the Greeks or
Romans; but in Abyssinia and Ethiopia it has
been used from time immemorial. In Arabia it
was certainly in use in the 15th century, and over
the rest of the East in the 16th century. Towards
the end of the 17th century, the coffee-tree
was carried from Mocha to Batavia by Wieser, a
burgomaster of Amsterdam, where it was soon
extensively planted, and at last young plants were
sent to the botanical garden at Amsterdam, from
which the Paris garden obtained a tree. A layer
of this was carried out to Martinique in 1720,
where it succeeded so well, that in a few years all
the West Indies could be supplied with young
‘trees.

The following sorts are particularly distinguished
from each other in commerce. Mocha Coffee, which
comes from Arabia, and is known by its small gray
beans inclining to nish ; Java or East Indian
Coffee, which has large yellow beans; Jamaica
‘Coffee, with beans somewhat smaller and greenish ;
Surinam Coffee, which has the largest beans ;
Bourbon Coffee, with beans pale yellow and almost
whitish. e devastation of the Ceylon plantations
‘by the leaf disease (see CEYLON) has led to the

introduction of a hitherto neglected variety, the
Coffea Liberica, or Liberian Coffee, a native of the
west coast of Africa. It appears to resist the
ravages of the disease which has been so fatal
to the Arabian variety in Ceylon; but being of
coarser character, it is grown only to a very small
extent.

The great demand for coffee has led to the
employment of a number of cheaper substitutes,
of which Chicory (q.v.) root is the best known.
Of others, dandelion root, carrot, and the seeds
of the common yellow iris may be mentioned.
They are prepared by roasting like coffee. The
seeds of Astragalus Beticus, are known on the
continent of Europe as Swedish Coffee, and are
said to be the best substitute for coffee yet dis-
covered. But all these substitutes want the most
important constituent of true coffee, caffeine ; and
are therefore very different from it in their qualities.
Ground coffee is subject to great adulteration, as
will be seen from the article ADULTERATION.

In France and other continental countries, ground
coffee is largely mixed with caramel or burnt sugar.
This is for the most part prepared by skilfully
roasting the ‘foots’ or dregs obtained in the refin-
ing of sugar. In moderate quantities it imparts
a flavour considered by many to improve the infu-
sion. The so-called ‘French coffee’ now so largely
sold in England contains more or less of cara-
mel—commonly much more than is desirable, its
commercial value being very small. A rough test
or indication of this is easily obtainable by dipping
a bright silver or plated spoon into the infusion.
The caramel infusion adheres to the spoon much
more decidedly than the pure coffee infusion, and
leaves a darker stain. Infusion of chicory behaves
similarly to that of caramel.

The leaves of the coffee-tree are used in the
western part of Sumatra instead of the seeds.
They are prepared by quick drying in a manner
similar to that in whieh tea-leaves are prepared ;
and in this state contain even a larger proportion
of caffeine than the coffee beans of our shops.

Coffee owes its exhilarating and refreshing pro-
perties to the presence of three substances: (1)
Caffeine (q.v.), which occurs in the roasted bean
to the extent of # to 1 per cent. ; (2) a volatile oil,
which is not present in the raw bean, but is
developed during the process of roasting to the
extent of only one part in about 50,000 of the
roasted coffee; and (3) astringent acids, resem-
bling tannic acid, but called caffeo-tannic and

caffeic acids. The average composition of un-
roasted coffee is as follows : 7

MPRIIOLIN Oy an sored nes ect co ad nek d's bob 0Cs Cec eeee 08
Legumin (vegetable Caseine ) (q.v.)...........- 13°0
SUNN EM fees drs did Can vicaceaien dé beds 16°5
Caffeo-tannic and Caffeic acids................. 5-0
EEE UM ETOS OBR ences vp apices csccccenvscus 13°0
SIP GE cen ccdadereccasessetucoecuses 34-0
DRE A Mass laccedscckerakssteswsentetes 67
1 oS AE ere ore eer -12°0
100°0

When the beans are roasted till they assume a
reddish-brown colour, they lose 15 se cent. by
weight, and gain 30 per cent. in bulk; when
further roasted till they become chestnut brown,
they have lost 20 per cent. by weight, and increased
50 per cent. in bulk; whilst if the roasting is con-
tinued till the beans become dark brown, they lose
25 per cent. in weight, and acquire 50 per cent. in
rt When the roasting is carried too far, more
or less charring is the result, and a disagreeable
burnt smell is produced, which tends to overcome
the natural pleasant aroma.

In Britain coffee is usually under-roasted, prob-
ably in order to escape the loss of weight, as the
roaster is also the retailer. But in France, in
Norway, in Germany, and other countries where it

332 COFFEE

COFFERDAM

is roasted at home by the consumer, the roasting is
carried to the dark-brown stage. The writer, who
has watched the domestic roasting of coffee in
many countries, attributes the superiority of the
pure infusion made in these countries mainly to
this and the use of the freshly roasted and ground
coffee. The Norwegian peasant usually adds a
very small quantity of butter to the beans while
roasting in the simple apparatus, like a covered
shovel or frying-pan, she uses; always shaking ‘it
while over the fire. Every tourist praises the result.

The important offices which coffee fulfils are, to
allay the sensation of hunger; to produce an exhil-
arating and refreshing effect; and, according to
some authorities, to diminish the amount of wear
and tear, or waste of the animal frame, which

roceeds more or less at every moment. See DIET,

IGESTION, Foon.

An endless variety of apparatus have been con-
trived—some of them of reat complexity—for
preparing coffee for the table. The chief object
aimed at is to obtain the liquor free from all sedi-
ment. The simplest and cheapest device is that
of placing a bag or metal strainer—by means of a
suitable rim—in the upper part of the coffee-pot,

lacing the ground coffee in this, and pouring

oiling water through it. Or the ROTE | coffee
may be simply placed in a saucepan or coffee-pot,
hot water poured upon it, and boiled for a few
minutes. After this the grounds will settle down,
and the coffee may be poured off fairly clear.

Many forms of coffee-pot have been devised in
which atmospheric pressure is applied for forcing
the hot water through the ground coffee resting
upon a metal strainer, doing this in such a manner
that the water shall all pass through while just at
the boiling heat, and then shall leave it.

The question whether coffee should be boiled at
all, or are infused like tea by pouring boiling
water on it, has been much discussed. The writer
has observed that in countries where pure coffee is
used, boiling is practically in favour. This sug-
gested some experiments which have shown that
bei coffee is improved by two or three minutes’

oiling, while chicory is rendered bitter and un-
palatable by such treatment. We therefore recom-
mend that where a sufficient quantity of mixed
coffee is peer to render it worth while to take
the trouble, the chicory should be separately
infused like tea, the coffee boiled, and the two
then mixed. Soyer recommends that, before the
boiling water is poured in, the saucepan should be
set dry on the fire, and the powder stirred till it is
quite hot, but not in the least burned. In France,
an equal measure of boiling milk is added to a very
strong infusion in making café au lait. The chief
effect of adding chicory to coffee is to deepen the
colour. When milk is added to coffee it should be
boiled ; cream may be used without boiling. The
Turks drink it thick with sediment; some Arabs
make a tea-like beverage from the dried pulp; the
Somali boil the berries in oil, and soak maize in
the mixture. Raw coffee beans are improved
by age. Essence of coffee is a highly concen-
trated infusion, mixed to the consistence of treacle
with extract of chicory and burnt sugar, which
must be kept in well-corked bottles; mixed with
boiling water, it makes a tolerable beverage.
Of a total world’s production of 12,000,000 bags
in 1894-95 (each of 132 Ib.), Brazil produced
7,500,000 bags, Java and the Dutch Indies 1,000,000.
The destructive coffee-bug is a Coccus (q.v.), specifi-
cally Coccus or Lecanium adonidum.

See Lester Arnold, Coffee: its Cultivation and Profit
(1886); Lock, Coffee: its Culture and Commerce in all
Countries (1888) ; works by Hull (1877), Nietner (1880),
Thurber (1881), and A. Brown (1884). Also E. F.
Robinson’s Karly History of Coffee-houses (1893).

‘wise woul

Coffee-houses were first heard of in Europe
at Constantinople, in the middle of the 16th cen-
tury, and are spoken of as among Turkish habits.
by Burton (1621) and Bacon (1627). They were
introduced at Venice in 1645. Jacobs, a Jew,
opened one at Oxford in 1650. The first in London
was set up about 1652 in St Michael’s Alley, Corn-
hill, by Pasqua Rosee, a Ragusan. The Rainbow
was the second (1656). ‘The first coffee-house in
France was opened at Marseilles in 1671, and some
years later an Armenian kept one in Paris. The
Café Procope (1725), the first of the Parisian
literary cafés, was founded by a Sicilian, Procopio
Cultelli. The Régence became favoured in after-
years by the romantiques. Coffee-houses were.
established in Sweden in 1674, at Hamburg in
1679, and at Vienna in 1683. In 1675 an attempt.
was made by Charles II. to suppress them by pro-
clamation as the resort of political agitators. For
nearly a century they were in England much what
they have remained in France to the present day,
free and open clubs. Among the most famous.
were Garraway’s, where tea was first retailed, and
Jonathan’s, both in Change Alley, the latter the
stock-jobbers’ resort ; Dick’s ; Lloyd’s (q.v.); the
Jerusalem, one of the earliest city news-rooms 3;
Don Saltero’s, at Chelsea, with an absurd museum
of curiosities ; St James’s, the resort of the Whigs.
from the reign of Queen Anne to the close of George
III. ; and Wills’s, the predecessor of Button’s, and
the resort of Dryden. Addison and Swift patron-
ised Button’s. Other coffee-houses were Tom’s.
in Birehin Lane, Cornhill; the Bedford, Tom
King’s, and the Piazza, in Covent Garden; the
Chapter in Paternoster Row; and Child’s in St
Paul's Churchyard. Cocoa and chocolate houses.
were coffee-houses under other names. The
modern philanthropic coffee-tavern system was.
first promoted by Mr and Mrs Hind Smith in
1867. In 1875 a number of cocoa-houses were
started in Liverpool, and at the present time about.
four hundred temperance coffee-houses, owned by
public companies, are prospering in various towns.
of Great Britain. Modern coffee-houses are eating-
rooms without excise licenses, and French cafés-
chantants merely music-halls.

Cofferdam, a watertight structure used in
engineering for excluding the water from the foun-
dations of bridges, quay walls, &c., so. as to allow
of their being built dry. Cofferdams are generally
formed of timber piles driven close together (called
sheeting) in two or more rows, according to the
depth of water and the nature of the bottom ; the
space between the rows, which may vary from 4 to.
10 feet, being spooned out, down to the solid and
impervious bottom, and filled up with clay puddle.
Sometimes they are made of only one row of piles.
of the full height, caulked above low-water, with a.
low or dwarf row outside to confine the puddle up
to that level, or, where there is no wave or current,
with a mere bank of clay thrown against the out-
side ; and occasionally the upper work is formed of
horizontal planking, fixed on open main piles, and
caulked in the joints. When the bottom is rock, so.
as to prevent piles being driven, and is not much
below low-water, cofferdams are occasionally formed
of two stone walls, with a space between filled with.
clay. Cofferdams require to be strongly shored.
within, to prevent their being forced inwards by
the pressure of the external water ; and the rows:
of piles require to be strongly bolted together, to
resist the pressure of the clay puddle, which other-

y burst them. This method of founding is:
now seldom practised ; it is costly and obstructive
to the stream.

In the construction of the Victoria Embankment.
on the river. Thames, between Blackfriars and
Westminster Bridges, 1} mile in length, the coffer-

a
“a

et jell

COFFER-FISH

COFFIN 333

dams were constructed of wrought-iron Caissons
(4. y.) or boxes, in substitution for ordinary timber

; on the suggestion of Sir Joseph Bazalgette,
in order to effect a saving by using the same
caissons two or three times successively in different

of the dam. The caissons were oval, 124 feet
ong, 7 feet wide, joined end to end, and made
watertight at the joints by felting. In about two-
thirds of the length of the embankment, 195 caissons
were employed,

Coffer-fish (Ostracion), a peculiar genus of
bony fishes in the small order Plectognathi, and in
the family Sclerodermi, which also includes the
file-fishes. The body is inclosed in a firm box
formed of hexagonal bony scales fitted into one

Coffer-fish,

another like a mosaic. The snout, the bases of
the fins, and the end of the tail are the only soft-
skinned parts. Over a score of species are known
from tropical and subtropical seas. The _ best-
known form is 0. quadricornis from the tropical
Atlantic. Seé GLOBE-FISH, and SUN-FISH.

Coffin (Lat. cophinus, Gr. sean in both
languages signifying a basket, coffer, or chest, but
never a coffin). Coffins for the bodies of the dead
constructed of wood are known to have been used
in prehistoric times in Europe. The earliest form
of the wooden coffin is simply a suitable length of
an oak-tree trunk split, and hollowed out for the
reception of the y- Two such coffins contain-
ing the skeletons of a man and a woman of the
bronze age, with their clothing undecayed, and
their weapons, are preserved in the museum at
Copenhagen. The wooden coffins of the iron age
were sometimes of tree trunks, and at other times
of hewn planks fastened with clinker nails. From
Bede we learn that the Saxons occasionally em-
ployed wood ; but the common people, both then
and in the subsequent Norman and English eras,
were simply wrapped in cloth, and so put into the

und. The same custom seems to have been
ollowed with monks down to a comparatively
recent period, and is still in use among the poorer
classes in the East. See EMBALMING.

It has been keenly disputed amongst scholars,
whether it was more usual with the Greeks to bu
their dead or to burn them (see BURIAL); but both
customs ep gina prevailed. Greek coffins
were called by various names (soroi, pueloi, &c.),
and composed of various materials, the most com-
mon being baked clay, or earthenware. Their
forms also varied. In Rome the ancient practice
was to bury the dead, not to burn them; though
under the Empire, and previous to the recogni-
tion of Christianity, the latter custom became
almost universal. The coffin in Rome was called
arce or loculus, and was frequently made of
stone, sometimes of a uliar kind of stone
brought from Assos, in Troas, which was said to
consume all the body except the teeth in forty
days, and which, from this circumstance, was called
sarcoph —an eater of flesh (see SARCOPHAGUS).
Roman stone coffins, both of the heathen and
early Christian time, have been found in Britain.
Cremation was repugnant to the feelings of the
primitive Christians, who buried their dead in
receptacles of stone. These were either hewn out

of the rock as in the catacombs, or were sarcophagi
elaborately oe with scenes from Scripture
history and emblems of the faith. The simplest
form of stone coffin was that used in prehistoric

TS Cee.

times throughout Europe, consisting of unhewn
stones set on their edges, so as to cover the sides
and ends of the grave, one or more flat stones being
then laid over the body to form a lid. This form
of rude stone cist or coffin was continued long after
the introduction of Christianity in most European
countries, and many ancient cemeteries, formerly
regarded as pagan and prehistoric, are now recog-
nised as Christian by the orientation of their stone-
lined graves. To these succeeded stone coffins,
which were commonly used for persons of the
higher classes throughout the middle ages; and
so late as 1686 the antiquary Dugdale was buried

Stone Coffin, Temple Church, London.

in a stone coffin. These stone coffins were gener-
ally of a single block, commonly tapering from the
upper end. In the hollow for the reception of the

, there was from the 12th century a a: pecu-
lark fitted for the head, and a hole in the bottom
to alive of the escape of moisture. Such coffins,
for the most part, were not buried deeply in the
earth, and were frequently placed so near the sur-
face that the lids were visible, which, within a
church, often formed part of the pavement, and
were covered with elaborate sculpture representing
crosses and other ornaments. Sometimes they
were even above the ground altogether, and thus
became the originals of the table-tombs and altar-
tombs of the middle ages. Leaden coffins were
also occasionally used in the middle ages, as those
in the Temple Church in London testify, but the
slight wooden cases now in common use appear
to be of comparatively recent origin. The practice
of surrounding the wooden shell with a coffin of
lead, and inclosing both in an oak casket, is, for
sanitary reasons, to be discouraged. Even a
wooden coffin, if well made, greatly retards decom-
position, and keeps the process long incomplete ;
and to remedy this the use of wicker coffins, of
white or stained osiers, has been suggested. In
America, however, zine or copper lining and lids
of heavy French glass are employed by under-
takers to render their work as far as may be air-
tight and indestructible ; and of late years caskets
of zine or copper, and even of iron or rolled
steel, have come into use. The modern hexagonal
form of coffin is peculiar to Great Britain. The
sides of the American casket are parallel, the ends
either rounded or broken into three panels; the
exterior is sometimes ornamented with carved work,

334 COGGESHALL

COINA

but is more commonly covered and draped with
broadcloth, velvet, or satin, fringed and tasseled.
Expensive woods and silvered handles and nails are
frequently employed ; and the lid may have a remov-
able face glass. French and German coffins are
of a similar shape, but plainer. The colour in Ger-
many is usually brown. At Leipzig formerly coffins
were always painted green, as a symbol of hope.

Coggeshall, a town of Essex, on the Black-
water, 44 miles NE. of London. - It has a school,
founded by Sir Robert Hitcham (1636), remains of
a Cistercian abbey (1142), a good Decorated church
(restored 1868), and some manufactures of silk,
velvet, and lace. It is supposed to have been the
Roman Canonium, and the remains of a Roman
villa have been found. John Owen was minister
here. Ralph de Coggeshall, abbot here (1207-18),
wrote a Chronicon Anglicanum (of the period
1161-1224), edited by J. Stevenson in 1875. Pop.
3830. See Beaumont’s History of Coggeshall (1890).

Cognac, a town of France, in the department
of Charente, on an old eastle-crowned hill over the
Charente, 42 miles SE. of Rochefort by rail. The
cultivation of the vine and distillation of Brandy
(q.v.) form the chief industry of the district ; in
the town, casks and bottles are manufactured.
Francis I. was born here. Pop. (1872) 12,950;
(1886) 14,537 ; (1891) 16,956.

Cognate. See AGNATE.

Cognizance, in Heraldry, a Badge (q.v.), in
the more restricted sense of that. term. :

Cognoscen ti (Ital., from Lat. cognosco, ‘I
know ’), persons professing a critical knowledge of
works of art, and of a somewhat more pretentious
character than amateurs.

Cogno Vit (viz. actionem, ‘he has confessed the
action’), in the law of England, is the defendant's
written confession that the plaintiff's cause against
him is just and true. By this confession before or
after issue, the defendant suffers judgment to be
entered against him without trial, in which case
the judgment is called judgment by confession.

Cogswell, JosrerpH GREEN, LL.D., American
bibliographer, born at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in
1786, studied at Harvard and Gottingen, and was
professor of Geology at Harvard from 1820 to 1823,
when he established the Round Hill School with
Bancroft (q.v.). He was for some years editor of
the New York Review, and, with Halleck and
Washington Irving, assisted in planning the Astor
Library, of which he was for many years superin-
tendent. He died in 1871.

Cohabitation, See CONCUBINAGE, MARRIAGE.

Cohesion depends upon the molecular forces
which keep together the parts of bodies, and are
insensible at sensible distances. In the case of a
small body these forces are much more efficient in
keeping the parts together than are the mutual
gravitational attractions of the parts. On the
other hand, in the case of a large body, such as the
earth, gravitation is much more powerful in pre-
venting rupture than cohesion. e term adhesion
is generally, though quite unnecessarily, used when
the cohering particles are dissimilar—as when water
clings to glass.

After the parts of a body have been separated, so
as to form an incoherent mass, the force of cohesion
may be again brought into action by the applica-
tion of pressure sufficient to force the particles close
enough together. Thus two smooth, freshly cut
pieces of lead can be made to adhere by slight pres-
sure acount by a screwing motion. Also two
very smooth slabs of marble adhere, if pressed to-
gether, so that considerable foree must be exerted
to separate them. Barton made a set of cubes
with surfaces so true that, if twelve of them were

iled one over the other, the whole series could be
ifted by raising the upper one. Lead pencils are
made by applying pressure to powdered graphite,
so as to make it cohere.

Cohesion Figures. See SuRFAcE TENSION.

Cohoes, a prosperous manufacturing city of
Albany county, New York, on the Hudson, at the
mouth of the Mohawk, 3 miles above Troy, and on
the Erie Canal. It has six large cotton-mills, and
some thirty knitting-mills, besides manufactures of
axes, gas-piping, machines, pulp, pins, thread, &e.
Pop. (1860) 8799 ; (1880) 19,416 ; (1890) 22,509.

Cohort, in the ancient Roman armies, was a.
portion of a legion, consisting usually of 600 men.
Generally, there were ten cohorts to a Legion
(q.v.).

Coif (Fr. coffe, Ital. cuffia, ‘a cap’), a covering
for the head in general, but more especially the
close-fitting cap of white lawn or silk, originally
worn by Serjeants-at-law (q.v.). Like the Biretta._
(q.v.), it always represented distinct rank. and
dignity. Its use on all professional and official
occasions was both an obligation and a privilege.
Later it was the custom to wear a small skull-cap
of black silk or velvet over the white coif; and in
the beginning of the 18th century, when the fashion
of powdered wigs in lieu of natural hair invaded
the law-courts, in order that the badge of the order
might not be concealed, the peruquiers contrived a.
small round patch of black silk edged with white,
to be worn on the crown of the wig. The notion
that the coif was a device merely to conceal the
tonsure of the monkish lawyérs rests only on a.
loose conjecture of the commentator Spelman, and,
though carelessly fostered by Lord Campbell, may
be consigned to the same category as the conceit,

reserved in Brand’s Antiquities, which derives the

ead-dress from a child’s caul worn for luck. See
Serjeant Pulling’s Order of the Coif (1884).

Coimbatore, the capital of a district of
Madras Presidency, on the Noyil, 304 miles SW. of
Madras by rail. It lies 1437 feet above the sea,
is well built and drained, and has a cool tempera-
ture that renders it a comparatively suitable resi-
dence for Europeans. Pop. (1891) 46,383; pop. of
district (1891), 2,004,839.

Coimbra, capital of the tbh} 708 province
of Beira, on a hill above the river Mondego, here
crossed by a stone bridge, 135 miles NNE. of
Lisbon by rail. Its streets are steep, narrow, and
dirty, its manufactures confined chiefly to earthen-
ware and combs, and its interest consists mainly in
its historical associations. The place derives its
name from the Roman Conimbria, traces of which
lie to the south; it was held by the Goths, and
from them passed to the Moors, from whom it was.
finally conquered in 1064, by Fernando the Great,
aided by the gallant Cid. Coimbra was the capital
of Portugal for about two centuries and a half from
its erection into a kingdom, in 1139, and many of
the early kings are buried in and around the old
town. Of the public buildings, the most note-
worthy are the older of the two cathedrals, the
church of San Salvador, and the ruined convent of
Santa Clara; across the river is the Quinta das
Lagrimas (‘House of Tears’), where Inez de
Castro (q.v.) was murdered. The university of
Coimbra, the only one in Portugal, was originally
established at Lisbon in 1288, but was permanently
transferred here in 1537. It has five faculties and
some 900 students, and is still held in repute;
attached to it are a museum, an observatory, a
botanical garden, and a library of 60,000 volumes.
Pop. 13,369.

Coina, a town of Spain, 20 miles WSW. of
Malaga, with marble-quarries. Pop. 10,065.

COKE 335

COINING
Coining. The privilege of coining money
being aa eaeindve aamnetes of the crown, the

crime of ae EPS the king’s money, as it
was called, was decl to be treason, both by the
common law of England and by many statutes.
In Scotland, there continued to be some differences
_in regard to this crime, even after the Union had
extended the treason laws of England to that
kingdom, and prosecutions were in use to be laid
at common law. That practice is now abandoned,
and the laws of the two countries were assimilated
by a series of statutes, which are codified in the
Act of 1861 passed to consolidate the law relating
to offences against the coin. All such offences are
now prosecuted under this statute. By this act it
is a Migh crime and offence, punishable by penal
servitude for life, to counterfeit gold or silver coin ;
or to colour coin or metal with intent to make it
- pass for genuine gold or silver coin; or to buy,
sell, or import counterfeit gold or silver coin; or
unlawfully to make, mend, buy, sell, or possess
instruments used in fabricating gold or silver coin ;
or to convey such instruments out of the mint. To
impair or diminish or lighten gold or silver coin (as
by clipping or sweating) is punishable with fourteen
ears. It isan offence punishable with penal servi-

de for seven years to unlawfully possess gold or
silver taken from any coin; or to counterfeit copper
coin; or unlawfully to make, mend, buy, sell, or
possess instruments for counterfeiting copper coin ;
or to deal in base British copper coin ; or to utter
or import base Seetgn gold or silver coin. Several
offences of a less heinous nature are dealt with
in the act. In order to bring these offences within
the limits of the statute, it is not necessary that
the resemblance of the false to the true coin shall
be very perfect ; but if it be not such as to deceive
a person of ordinary observation, the attempt to
bring it into circulation is fraud, and not uttering.
For false bank-notes, see FORGERY.

In the United States, the crime of counterfeiting
coin or money is punishable with fine and imprison-
ment at hard labour for a term of from two to ten
years; and includes falsely making, forging, or
counterfeiting coins or notes, postal money orders,
postal cards, government stamps of all kinds, and

vernment securities, as also importing, possess-
ing, uttering, or passing false coins or notes with
fraudulent intent. Mutilating and debasing the
coin is also counterfeiting, but is not so severely
punished as the making of counterfeit coins.

For coinage and coins, see MINT, NUMISMATICS,
MONEY, BULLION, CURRENCY.

Coir, or Cocoa-NuT Frpre, is the fibre of the
husk of the cocoa-nut. The husks are steeped in
water, in eee for six months, or even for a year,
and then ten with a stick till the fibre readily
separates. The material is largely used on account
of its strength and wear-resisting qualities for floor-
matting in positions where there is much traffic,
and for making hall and door mats. It is also in
demand for coarse brushes, for ships’ fenders, and,
to some extent, for ropes and cables. In the South
Sea Islands, ropes of coir fibre, made by the natives,
are extensively used. Coir rope, on account of its
lightness, possesses some advantages for maritime
purposes. The Chamerops (q.v.) is sometimes
called the coir-palm.

Coire (Ital. Coira; local Romansch, Quera ;
ancient Curia orum ; Ger. Chur), a town of
Switzerland, ates of the Grisons, in the valley
of the Upper Rhine, lies in a fertile plain 1940
feet above the sea, and surrounded by high moun-
tains. It is 80 miles SE. of Zurich by rail, and
stands on the Plessur, a mile and a half from its
Junction with the Rhine. It is of importance as
standing on the great road to Italy by the Spliigen

’

Pass, and thus eerie a considerable transit
trade. The bishop's palace, and the quarter
around it, inhabited by 2400 Catholics, occupy
the summit of an eminence, and are separated
from the rest by walls and battlements, closed by
double gates. Here stands the old cathedral of
St Lucius—a Romanesque edifice dating from the
8th voi’ b It contains singular old carving,
paintings by Cranach, Holbein, and Diirer, and
also, it is said, the bones of St Lucius, a legend-
ary British king. The town-hall, the Rhwtian
museum, and two Protestant churches are in
the lower town. Romansch is still spoken in the
vicinity. Coire is a great tourist centre ; and wine,
fruit, and corn are produced by the country round,
Population, 9500.

Coix. See Jop’s TEARS.

Cojutepeque, a town of the republic of Sal.

vador, Central America, 15 miles E. of the city of
San Salvador. Pop. 4154.

Coke is a form of fuel obtained by the heating of
coal in confined spaces whereby its more volatile
constituents are driven off. aking coal is the
most suitable for the manufacture of coke, which,
in its principal qualities, is approached by the hard
anthracitic coals. The process of coking is con-
ducted (1) in heaps or mounds, or (2) in ovens;
but coke is also produced in gas retorts, where,

however, it is merely a secondary product. Cok-
ing in mounds—a method now little practised—is
done in a way similar to that employed for prepar-

ing charcoal from wood. The coal is built up into
round stacks, around a wide open chimney or
column, the larger masses being placed in the
centre, and small broken coal outside, the whole
being covered with wet coke-dust, except at certain
air-holes. The mound of coal is ignited from
above, and burns gradually downwards and out-
wards, giving off at first much smoke and vapour,
which consist mainly of tar-water and coal-gas.
When the fire ceases to be smoky, the process of
coking is concluded, all openings are covered over
to exclude air and extinguish combustion, and
cooling of the mound is aided by drenching it with
water. The principle of making coke in coke-
ovens is the same, but the process is much quicker
and more economical, and the resulting coke is
better in quality than that made in mounds.
Formerly the heat and volatile gases given off in
coking were allowed freely to escape, but in modern
coke-ovens arrangements are made for utilising the
combustion in one retort to force the heat of an-
other, by passing the hot in flues around
contiguous ovens. The whole of the gases pass
from these flues into a common flue, by which they
are carried away to heat steam-boilers. In a
similar way the coal- is, from certain kinds of
ovens, poi Bare and burned, and the tar-water
evolved is condensed and used as a source of
ammonia and gas-tar products.

Coke is a hard, brittle, porous solid, with a steel-
gray, somewhat metallic lustre, and it does not soil
the fingers when being handled. It is principally
valued for the intense heat which it gives off in
combustion, for its freedom from smoke in burning,
and because it does not become pasty and adhesive
in the fire. The process of coking also drives off a
good deal of the sulphur which may be present in
coal, and all these properties render coke a most
valuable fuel for many metallurgical operations,
and for use where intense smokeless combustion is a
desideratum. The higher the temperature to which
coal in coking is submitted, the harder and more
valuable is the resulting coke, and the heat it gives
off is relatively more intense. In chemical constitu-
tion coke consists of a modified form of graphite
contaminated with earthy impurities from the ash

336 COKE

COLBERT

present in coal. Coal yields by weight about 70
‘per cent. of coke, which, however, increases in
volume in the process of coking by about one-
fourth. Coke will absorb about 30 per cent. of
moisture from the air, a circumstance which should
be borne in mind in its purchase and its use, for
‘such moisture in being driven off greatly reduces
the calorific value of the substance.

Coke, Sir EDWARD, jurist, was born of a good
-old Norfolk family, at Mileham, lst February 1552.
From Norwich grammar-school he passed in 1567
to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1571 to Clifford’s
Inn, in 1572 to the Inner Temple; and he was
called to the bar in 1578. His rise was rapid—from
recorder of Coventry (1585) to member for Ald-
borough (1589), Solicitor-general (1592), Speaker of
the House of Commons (1593), Attorney-general
41594), Chief-justice of the Common Pleas (1606),
-Chief-justice of the King’s Bench and privy-council-
lor (1613). Meanwhile he had married twice, first,
‘in 1582, Bridget Paston, who brought him £30,000,
-and died 27th June 1598; next, nineteen weeks
later, Lady Elizabeth Hatton, the granddaughter
-of his patron, Lord Burghley. The rancour shown
by him in the prosecutions of Essex and Southamp-
ton, Raleigh, and the Gunpowder conspirators ( 1600-
3-5) has gained him little credit with posterity ;
but from 1606 he stands forth as a vindicator of
the national liberties, opposing, unlike Bacon,
vevery illegal encroachment on the part of both
-church and crown. He dared to cite Bracton’s
words to James’s face, that ‘the king should be
‘subject not to man, but to God and the law;’
alone of twelve judges, he resisted the royal pre-
rogative ; and in the Overbury case he showed an
indiscreet zeal to come at the real truth. His
removal from the bench on most trivial grounds
( November. 1617) was aggravated by a quarrel with
his wife; and though ten months afterwards he
was recalled to the council, his conduct in parlia-
ment from 1620 as a leader of the popular party,
an opponent of Spain and of monopolies, estranged
him for ever from the court party. In 1621-22
he suffered nine months’ durance in the Tower;
-still, old though he was, he carried his opposition
into the next reign, the Petition of Ri ht (1628)
being largely his doing. He died at Stoke Poges,
3d September 1634, and was buried at Tittleshall
in his native county.

Coke was a great lawyer, withal an honest lover
-of legality, but too bitter and narrow-minded to be
really a great man. His four Institutes (1628-44)
-deal with tenures, statutes, criminal law, and the
jurisdiction of the several law-courts. The first of
these, and most famous, which in 1832 reached a
19th edition, is the so-called Coke upon Littleton
(q.v.)—a commentary that, in spite of its puerile
etymologies, has still a real, if mainly historical,
value. Eleven of the thirteen parts of his epoch-
making Law Reports were published during his life-
time (1600-15); and the whole, translated out of the
original French and Latin, fills 6 vols. in Thomas
and Fraser's edition (1826). Mr G. P. Macdonell
mentions six minor works in his able and exhaustive
article on Coke in the Dictionary of National
Biography (vol. xi. 1887). See also the Lives by
Serjeant Woolrych (1826) and W. Johnson (2 vols.
1837 ).

Coke, THomas, Methodist bishop, born at
Brecon in 1747, graduated in 1768 at Oxford, from
which university he received the degree of D.C.L.
in 1775. He settled as a curate in Somersetshire,
but a course of open-air preaching and cottage
‘services, initiated after his introduction to John
Wesley in 1776, brought about his dismissal by his
rector, and he joined the Methodists, by whom he
was attached to the London circuit. In 1782 he

became first president of the Irish conference, and
he was elected president of the English conference
in 1797 and 1805. In 1784 he was set apart by
Wesley as ‘superintendent’ of the societies in
America, to which country he made nine voyages,
the last in 1803, and where his outspoken opposi-
tion to slavery aroused much hostility ; in 1787 he
induced the American conference to alter his title
to that of bishop. In 1784 Coke had drawn up the
first plan of the Methodist foreign missions, and to
this cause he devoted the later years of his life ©
with untiring zeal and skill, retaining to the last
the direct control of the system he had created.
He died in the Indian Ocean on a missiona:
voyage to Ceylon, 3d May 1814. He published,
besides religious works, extracts from his American
Journals (1790), a History of the West Indies (3
vols. 1808-11), and, with Henry Moore, a Life of
Wesley (1792), intended to forestall Whitehead’s
labours, with whom the two others, being joint
literary executors, had disagreed.

Col (Fr., ‘neck’), in Geography, is a depression
or pass in a mountain-range. In those parts of the
Alps where the French language prevails, the

asses are usually named cols—as the Col de

alme, the Col du Géant, &c.

Cola Nuts. See Kouta Nuts.

Colard, MANSION, the first printer of Bruges,
was of French extraction. He published twenty-
one works, all in French, save one Latin one; and
died in 1484.

Colberg, or KOLBERG, a seaport and watering-
place of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, on
the Persante, near its mouth in the Baltic, 170
miles NNE. of Berlin by rail. It stands on a hill,
surrounded with three suburbs. The principal
church dates from 1316. In 1102 Duke Boleslaus
of Poland vainly besieged Colberg, which endured
long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War, in the Seven
Years’ War, and again in 1807, when it was most
pany defended against the French. Colberg

as manufactures of woollens, agricultural machines,
and spirits; and salmon and lamprey fisheries.
Pop. (1895) 18,622.

Colbert, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the greatest
French statesmen, was born at Rheims in 1619,
Before he was twenty years of age he obtained a

ost in the War Office under Le Tellier, and at once
hagas a very successful career. In 1651 he entered
the service of the great minister Mazarin, who
soon employed him in most important affairs of
state. On his death-bed Mazarin warmly recom-
mended Colbert to Louis XIV. ‘I owe you every-
thing,’ Mazarin is reported to have said to the king,
‘but I pay my debt to your majesty in giving you
Colbert.’ It was in 1661 that Colbert became
the chief-minister of Louis XIV. He found the
finances in a ruinous condition, and immediately
began his reforms. Fouquet, the superintendent
under Mazarin, was found guilty of impoverishing
the state by his maladministration, and imprisoned
for life. The farmers of the state-revenues were.
forced to yield up the resources of the crown of
which they had fraudulently sta them-
selves. The debts of the state Colbert reduced by
arbitrary composition. In all the departments of
finance he introduced order and economy as far
as he could. So complete and thorough was the
change which Colbert effected, that in ten years
the annual revenue had risen to 104 million livres,
of which 27 were spent in collection and adminis-
tration; whereas, when the management of the
finances was intrusted to him, the revenue
amounted to only 84 million livres, and 52 millions
were absorbed in its collection. The financial
reforms of Colbert, however, only served as a

COLBURN

COLCHESTER 337

basis for a thorough reorganisation of the entire
administration. He took measures to improve
agriculture. Commerce was extended, roads and
canals—including that of Languedoc—were made.
In every way he sought to apply the protective
stem then in vogue to promote the industries of
ce. He organised anew the colonies in
Canada, Martinique, and St Domingo, and founded
others at Cayenne and Mad r. He found
France with a few old rotten ships, and in a few
ears had provided her with one of the strongest
ts in the world, with well-equipped arsenals
and a splendid body of seamen. Colbert im-
proved the civil code, introduced a marine code
of laws, and drew up the so-called Code Noir for
the colonies.

While attending to material interests, he did not
neglect the arts and sciences ; all men of learning
an nius found in Colbert a generous patron.
The Rsadeuien of Inscriptions, Science, and Archi-
tecture were founded by him. In short, Colbert
4 was the patron of industry, commerce, art, science,
a and literature—the founder of a new epoch in
, France. His aim was to raise the strength of
4 France by eas tos 29eu ret side of the national life.

In this he entirely succeeded during the early part
of the reign of Louis XIV., but his work was not
destined to last; the wars of Louis and the ex-
travagance of his court undid all that had been
accomplished by Colbert. The rigorous order and

recise rules which he established might be bene-

Reial in such hands as his own, but when abused

by a selfish or incompetent despotism, could only

have the most mischievous results. Colbert died
in 1683, bitterly disappointed at seeing the failure
of his plans for the regeneration of France. The
eons were so enr with the oppressive taxes,
or which they blamed him, that his corpse had
to be removed from his house by night in order to
avoid their fury. Colbert had indeed carried out
_ Many measures that were arbitrary and oppres-
sive. He had served a despotic king, who posed
as the representative of all that was fair in the
government, and left the disagreeable tasks. of
administration to his ministers. See his Lettres,
Instructions et Mémoires (8 vols. 1862-82); Lives by
Clément (2 vols. 1874), Neymarck (1877), and Gour-
dault (6th ed. Tours, 1885); and the Comte de
Cosnac’s Mazarin et Colbert (1892).

Colburn, ZERAH, a mathematical prodigy,
born in Vermont, U.S., in 1804, displayed such
remarkable powers of calculation that in 1810 his
father left Vermont to exhibit him. | At this period
he answered correctly such questions as ‘ How
many hours in 1811 years?’ in twenty seconds ; and
a few years later much more complicated problems
were solved with equal rapidity. He was shown
in Great Britain, and for some time in Paris;
from 1816 to 1819 he studied at Westminster
School at the expense of the Earl of Bristol. His
father died in 1824, and he returned to America;
here he was a Methodist —— for nine years,
and from 1835 professor of Lan in Norwich
University, Vermont, where he died 2d March
1840. His remarkable faculty disappeared as he
grew to manhood.

Colchester, an ancient municipal and parlia-
mentary borough in the NE. of Essex, on the
right bank of the Colne, 51 miles NE. of London,
and 12 miles from the sea, It is built on the
ridge and sides of a promontory, with a port on the
river at a suburb called the Hythe, which has a
quay for vessels of 150 tons. It is a town of special
historical and antiquarian interest. Before the
Roman conquest of the island it was the British
“Royal Town’ of Cunobelin (the Cymbeline of
Sha mapente) ; and when the Emperor Claudius

had conquered the south-eastern part of the
island, he founded a colonia here—the first Roman
town in Britain. There are still many remains
of that town. The walls are the most perfect
Roman walls in England. Immense quantities of

avements, coins, pottery, and other remains of

omestic use and personal adornment have been
found here. A large cemetery along the principal
road out of the town has been carefully explored,
and a valuable collection of sepulchral remains
found, many of which are in the town museum.
The tower of Holy Trinity Church has all the
characteristics of Saxon architecture. The castle
is the largest Norinan keep in England. In the
Norman west front of St Botolph’s Priory the
Roman bricks are a striking feature ; and all the
old churches have an intermixture of Roman brick
in their walls. The Domesday Survey is very full,
and gives a a census of the people. Two
taxations of the beginning of the 13th century give
not only a complete census of the inhabitants, but
also an inventory of their domestic furniture and
stock-in-trade, and present a complete view of an
English borough of the period. The Protestant
refugees from the Low Countries at the end of the
16th century introduced the bay and say (baize and
serge) trade, which became an important manufac-
ture, and spread into the neighbouring towns and
villages. Colchester was one of the eight ‘Dutch
Congregations’ incorporated by royal license. The
wars with Spain in the reign of Queen Anne closed
the markets for these goods, and the trade died out.
The only important historical event of later times
was the siege of Colchester, one of the last events
of the Civil War between Charles I. and the parlia-
ment. The royalists of Essex and Kent under
Goring took possession of the town, and were be-
sieged by Fairfax and the parliamentary army from
the middle of June 1648 till the middle of August,
when the town, starved out, surrendered, and the
execution of Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George
Lisle, by sentence of court-martial, created a great
sensation.

The chief cause of the prosperity of the town
throughout its history has been that it was the
principal town and natural market of an extensive
and fertile corn-growing district, inclosed on three
sides by the rivers and the sea. It was during the
great continental wars of the beginning of this
century, and has again in later times become, a
large military dep6t; and the number of troops
quartered here, with their officers and their families,
have contributed to its prosperity. The fishery of
the Colne and its creeks has for centuries been
famous for the quality of its oysters, and has been
a valuable portion of the property of the corpora-
tion, to which it has belonged from, or even before,
the Norman Conquest. ‘Thou h always the most
important town in Essex, it has never been the
county town, owing probably to its being too far
down in the Essex peninsula. Pop. (1851) 19,443;
(1881) 28,395; (1891) 34,559. See the Rev. E.
Cutts’s Colchester (‘ Historic Towns’ series, 1888),
and Benham’s Colchester Worthies (1892).

Colchester, CHARLES Appot, LorD, Speaker
of the House of Commons, was born at Abingdon,
Berkshire, 14th October 1757. He was educated
at Westminster School (1763-75) and Christ Church
College, Oxford, and in 1779 entered the Middle
Temple. In 1792 his practice was bringing him
£1500 per annum ; and two years later he received
the post, worth £2700, of clerk of the rules in the
Court of King’s Bench. Returned to parliament
as a strong Tory in 1795, he effected in his first
session an improvement in the legislation regarding
temporary and expiring laws ; and it is due to his
exertions that gee 2a bodies receive a copy of all
new acts as soon as they are printed. The country

338 COLCHICUM

COLD

is mainly indebted to him for the Private Bill
Office and for the royal record commission, whose
ghee he for many years superintended. But

is greatest service was in the Act (1800) for tak-
ing the first census. In 1802 he was elected
Speaker, the duties of which high and honourable
office he continued to discharge with as much
impartiality as distinction until May 1817, when
ill-health compelled him to resign. He received
a pension of £4000 a year, and was raised to the
peerage as Baron Colchester, his father having been
rector of All Saints, Colchester. He died 7th May
1829. See his Diary and Correspondence (3 vols.
1861), edited by his son Charles, second Lord Col-
chester (1798-1867), who was postmaster-general in
1858.

Colchicum, a genus of Liliacew, sub-order
Melanthaces. The species, which are few in
number, are stemless, with flowers half subter-
ranean like the crocus, the limb of the perianth and

part of the tube oy
rising above ground.
The flowers much re-
semble crocus-flowers,
but are readily distin-
guished by having six
instead of three
stamens, and three
styles instead of one.
The superior ovary does
not remain to ripen
underground, but after
the flowering is over,
rises in the form of three
little follicles slightly
adhering to each other,
on a lengthened stalk.
The only British species
is C. autumnale, the
Meadow Saffron, some-
times also, but incor-
rectly, named Autumn
Crocus, which is plenti-
ful in meadows and pas-
tures in some parts of
England and of the
continent of Europe.
The flowers are pale
purple; they appear
in autumn, unaccom-
panied by any leaves;
the leaves, which are
large and broadly lan-
ceolate, appear in
spring, when the stalk
which bears the ripen-
ing fruit arises amongst
them. The whole plant
is very acrid and poisonous, chiefly owing to the
presence of an alkaloid called Colchicine or
Colchicia. Cattle are not unfrequently injured
by it in pastures where it abounds. It is a
valuable medicinal plant, and is administered, in
small doses, to allay the pain of gout and rheu-
matism. Repeated doses produce vomiting, purg-
ing, increase of the urinary secretion, and profuse
perspiration. The parts chiefly used for medicinal
purposes are the corm (popularly called the root)
and the seeds. The seeds are round, brown, rather
larger than mustard-seed. Other species of col-
chicum appear to possess similar properties. The
hermodactyls of the druggists’ shops, which for many
centuries have enjoyed an extensive celebrity for
soothing pains in the joints, and are brought from
the Levant, are believed to be the corms either of
C. variegatum or C. bulbocodioides. C. autumnale
is not unfrequent in flower-borders, particularly a
variety with double flowers.

z io a= »S an

Meadow Saffron
(Colchicum autumnale) :
a, a leaf,

Colehis, a province of ancient Asia, on the east
coast of the Pontus Euxinus or Black Sea, situated
north of Armenia and south of the Caucasus.
Colchis was famous in Greek mythology as the
land of Medea (q.v.) and the goal of the Argo-
nauts (q.v.); afterwards it was better known to
the Greeks as the seat of some colonies of the
Milesians. It was noted for its wines and fruits.
The principal town was Dioscurias; the principal
river the Phasis. The Colchians were at one time
subject to Persia, and subsequently to Mithridates,
arr of Pontus, and ultimately passed under the
mighty empire of Rome.

Colcothar is the name given by the alchemists
to the red powder (mainly red oxide of iron) which
remains in the retorts when green vitriol or the
sulphate of iron is calcined. It is used for polish-
ing glass and the like, and is called crocus by
artists.

Cold is the term by which we signify a relative
want of sensible heat. There are therefore no
determinate boundaries between cold and _ heat,
and it is a mere arbitrary distinction to call the
degrees of the thermometer below the freezing-
point degrees of cold. When the atmosphere, or
any substance which comes in contact with our
body, is at a lower temperature than the skin, it
absorbs heat from it, and we call it cold. See
HEAT.

The physiological action of cold on the animal
organism requires. a brief notice. All animals
(the warm-blooded animals to the greatest extent)
have a certain power of maintaining the heat of
the body, in defiance of external cold, as has been
shown in the article ANIMAL HEAT. This power is
mainly due to a process analogous to combustion, in
which carbon ana hydrogen taken into the system
in food are made to unite with oxygen derived
from the air by respiration. If the combustible
materials are not duly furnished, or if the supply
of oxygen be deficient (as in various diseased con-
ditions), there must be a depression of temperature.
Now, if the temperature of abird or mammal (except
in the case of hybernating animals) be lowered
about 30° below its normal standard (which in birds
ranges from 100° to 112°, and in mammals from 96°
to 102°), the death of the animal is the result. The
symptoms indicating that an animal or a man is
suffering from a depression of the temperature of
the body are—retardation of the circulation of the
blood, causing lividity of the skin, which is followed
by pallor, in consequence of the blood being almost
entirely driven from the surface through the
contraction of the vessels ; a peculiar torpor of the
muscular and nervous systems at the same time
manifests itself in an indisposition to make any
effort or exertion, and in intense sleepiness. -The
respiratory movements become slower (see RESPIRA-
TION ), and the loss of heat goes on, therefore, with
increasing rapidity, till the fatal limit is reached,
and death supervenes.

In hibernating animals (the marmot, dormouse,
bat, &c.) the power of generating heat within their
own bodies is very slight, their temperature fol-
lowing that of the external air, so that it may be
brought down nearly to the freezing-point. See
the articles HIBERNATION, STARVATION, DORMANT
VITALITY: also, for other phenomena connected
with cold, HEAT, CLIMATE, FREEZING MIXTURES,
Frost, IcE, THERMOMETER, TEMPERATURE.

Great or prolonged atmospheric cold is a most
powerful depressing agent, and is a fruitful cause
of disease and even of death. Whenever the
temperature of the atmosphere is suddenly re-
duced, and particularly when it is reduced below
the freezing-point, a considerable addition takes
place to the mortality of the country at large. The

COLD CREAM

COLEBROOKE 339

effects of cold are, in ordinary circumstances, most
seeerent among the aged and the very young,
and among those suffering from chronic disease ;
but when a very low temperature is long con-
tinued, even the healthy are sure to suffer, when
impoverished so as not to have sufficient means
of external warmth in their homes. The most
direct effects of cold are in the production of what
is commonly called Frost-bite (q.v.).

Cold is as in various ways in the treatment

disease. In some forms of fever, a cold bath, or
cold wet pack, is the best means of reducing a
very high temperature which of itself threatens
life. In many inflammations relief is best obtained
by the local application of ice, or of a coiled tube
through which cold water circulates. The tonic
and stimulating effects of a temporary application
of cold are familiar in the cold morning bath, or
the use of cold water sprinkled on the face of a
age who has fainted. The disease commonly

rmed a ‘cold’ has been already described under
CATARRH.

Cold Cream is the term applied to an oint-
ment containing rose-water which is used as a
mild and cooling dressing for the skin. It may
. be prepared by melting together almond-oil five
= parts, spermaceti one part, and white wax one

part. Three arts of rose-water are then added
with brisk stirring, which is continued till the
whole is cool, and of a soft creamy consistence.
As cold cream prepared in this way is liable to
turn rancid, glycerine is sometimes added, or the
almond-oil is replaced by white vaseline. Cold
cream is a pleasant application to irritated surfaces,
protecting them from the influences of the weather,
“a PONDS the healing of wounds and chapped
nds.

Coldstream, a town of Berwickshire, 15 miles
SW. of Berwick by rail, on the Tweed, over which
there is a fine bridge by Smeaton (1766). At Cold-
stream was the famous ford by which Edward I.
entered Scotland in 1296, and near which he met
the Scottish nobles, to settle the dispute about the
crown of Scotland. By this ford also the Scots
invaded England in 1640. Being convenient as a
Border town, Coldstream, like Gretna Green and
Lamberton toll-bar near Berwick, was formerly cele-
brated for its clandestine marriages. Pop. 1616.

Coldstream Guards, a regiment in the
Foot Guards (q.v.) or Household Brigade, the
oldest in the British army except the lst Foot,
now called the Royal Scots. Raised in 1660 by
General Monk at Coldstream, it was at first called
*‘Monk’s Regiment ;’ but when parliament con-
sented to give a brigade of guards to Charles IL,
this corps, underthe nameof Coldstream Guards, was
included in it. See the history of Col. Ross (1896),

Coldwater, capital of Branch county, Michi-
gan. 156 miles E. of Chicago, on the Lake Shore

ilway, has several foundries, flour-mills, and
manufactories, and a public school which cost
$100,000. Pop. (1880) 4681 ; (1890) 5462.

cole, Sir HENRY, was born at Bath, 15th July
1808, educated at Christ's Hospital, and_became
assistant-keeper of the Records in 1838. He wrote
much for the newspapers and reviews, and under
the name of ‘Felix Summerly’ produced about
twenty children’s books. He was chairman of the
Society of Arts, did valuable service on the com-
mittee of the Great Exhibition of 1851, was the
founder of the South Kensington Museum, and in
1860 became its director. For his services on innu-
merable committees and councils, and in promoting
valuable reforms, he was made K.C.B. in 1875;
and he held several foreign decorations. He died
by oe: 1882, See his Autobiography (2 vols.

Cole, THOMAS, painter, born at Bolton-le-Moors
in 1801, removed to America in 1819, where he
became one of the best-known landscape-painters.
In 1830 two of his pictures appeared in the Royal
Academy, and he afterwards made sketching tours
through England, France, and Italy; but all his

andscapes were American. He died 11th
February 1848.

Cole, Vicat, landscape painter (especially of
Surrey scenes ), was born at Portsmouth, 17th April
1833, and from 1853 was a frequent contributor
to Royal Academy exhibitions. Chosen A.R.A. in
1870, and R.A. in 1880, he died 6th April 1893. See
Life by R. Chignell (3 vols. 1898).

Colebrooke, Henry Tuomas, the pioneer of
Sanskrit scholarship in Europe, was born in London,
15th June 1765, the son of ee George Colebrooke,
banker, and eventually chairman of the board of
directors of the East India Company. He was edu-
eated at home, and early showed a strong disposi-
tion for mathematical studies. In 1782 his father’s
influence procured him a writership in the Bengal
service. eé was a voracious reader, and his alert
mind found its relaxation in the change from
administrative to scientific labour. His duties as
revenue officer at Tirhut led him to make a minute
study of the state of husbandry in Bengal, and his
Remarks thereon (Calcutta, 1795, ater printed )
formed so searching a criticism of the existing poli
that the work could not be published in Englan
At Purneah his legal functions led him to study
Indian law and learn Sanskrit; and he began in
1794 publishing essays on Indian religion, poetry,
and science in the Asiatic Researches of the recently
founded Asiatic Society of Calcutta. His removal
in 1795 to the hp of Mirzapur gave him the
opportunity of cultivating the acquaintance of the
learned men of the neighbouring Sanskrit college
at Benares, and with this advantage he brought
out his Digest of Hindu Law on Contracts and
Successions (translated from the Sanskrit, 1798,
4 vols. Calcutta). A mission to Nagpur (1799-1801 )
interrupted his work, and on his return he was
ap inted a judge of the new court of appeal at

aleutta, and at the same time honorary professor
of Hindu Law and Sanskrit at the college of Fort
William. Yet he contrived during this busy period
to publish the first (and only) volume of his Sans-
krit Grammar (1805), based upon Panini and the
native commentators, to write his famous articles
on the Vedas and on the sect of Jains, besides
many other valuable essays for Asiatic Researches,
and also to supplement his Digest by Two Treatises
on the Hindu Law of Inheritance (1810). Before
this he had reached the eminence of a seat on the
| Seherosi aerial council (1807), and was using

is influence earnestly in the direction of adminis-
trative reform and the encouragement of oriental
studies. He retired in 1814, and devoted himself
to scholarly work in England, especially to eastern
science. veral of his essays in Asiatic Researches
related to Hindu astronomy, meteorology, mathe-
matics, logy, and botany. He contributed also
to the Transactions of the Astronomical Society, to
The Quarterly Journal of Science, the Linnzean and
the Geological Societies, as well as, more especially,
to the Royal Asiatic Society, which he hel to
found in 1823. His last years were troubled b
care, blindness, and much ily suffering, ada
with fortitude ; and on 10th March 1837 he died at
the age of seventy-two. His translation of the Sdn-
khya Karika was posthumously edited by Professor
H. H. Wilson. is work as a Sanskrit scholar
the highest merits of extreme conscien-
tiousness and caution, scientific accuracy, and a
stern repression of the tendency to fanciful exaggera-
tion which marked the early theories of European

340 COLENSO

COLERIDGE

scholars on Indian science and religion. His life
has been well written by his son, Sir T. E. Cole-
brooke (1873), and his immense services to Sans-
krit_ scholarship are lucidly criticised in Max
Miiller’s Biographical Essays (1884).

Colenso, JoHN WILLIAM, D.D., Bishop of
Natal, the son of a Cornish gentleman, was Ba
at St Austell, January 24, 1814. He was educated
at St John’s College, Cambridge, where he gradu-
ated as second wrangler in 1836, and became
fellow and assistant-tutor of his college. From
1838 to 1842 he was an assistant-master at Harrow,
and for the next four years a tutor at Cambridge.
Appointed, in 1846, rector of Forncett St Mary,
Norfolk, he published Miscellaneous Examples in
Algebra in 1848, Plane Trigonometry in 1851, and
Village Sermons in 1853, in which same year he
was appointed first Bishop of Natal. With that
poerey. of character which always distinguished
him, Dr Colenso at once began a close study of
the natives and of the Zulu language, and after a
time prepared a grammar and dictionary, and
made a translation of the English Prayer-book and
a portion of the Bible, printing them in his own
house. In 1860 he memorialised the Archbishop
of Canterbury against compelling those natives
who had already more than one wife to renounce
polygam as a condition to baptism, alleging that
ne could find no warrant for such compulsion
either in the gospel or in the ancient church.
In 1861 he published his _ Zranslation of St
Paul's Epistle to the Romans, commented on from
a Missionary Point of View, in which he objected
to the doctrine of eternal punishment. He next
announced that he had become convinced of the
improbability of many statements of facts and
numbers in the historical books of the Bible;
and in 1862 there appeared the first part of his
work on The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua
Critically Examined. This treatise brought down
upon its writer an avalanche of criticism and
remonstrance. He had called in question the
historical accuracy and Mosaic authorship of the
books cited, and his work was condemned as
heretical by small majorities in both Houses of
Convocation of the province of Canterbury. The
bishop was entreated to resign his see by his
episcopal brethren, some of whom inhibited him
from preaching in their dioceses. The second part
of his work appeared in 1863. Convocation cen-
sured him in the succeeding year, and he was
declared to be deposed from his see by his Metro-
heap Bishop Gray of Capetown. e appealed
rom this judgment in 1865, when the Privy-council
declared the deposition to be ‘null and void in
law.’ The bishops constituting the council of the
Colonial Bishoprices Fund, however, refused to
pay him his income, upon which he appealed to
the Court of Chancery. On October 6, 1866, the
Master of the Rolls delivered an elaborate judg-
ment, ordering the payment of the bishop’s income,
with all arrears and interest, unless his accusers
should bring him to trial for heresy ; but this the
declined to do. Immediately before Dr Colenso’s
return to his diocese in August 1865, his English
friends presented him with £3300 as a testimonial.
The Anglican community at the Cape was now
divided into two camps, and although Dr Colenso
remained the only bishop of the Church of England
in Natal, Bishop Gray publicly excommunicated
him, and in 1869 consecrated Dr W. K. Macrorie
as Bishop of Maritzburg, his authority practically
extending over the same diocese. In 1874 Dr
Colenso visited England to report upon the affairs
of his diocese to the Archbishop of Canterbury,
and to consult with the heads of the chureh upon
its relations to the new see of Maritzburg. While
in England he pleaded the cause of Langalibalele,

a dispossessed Zulu chief. On his return to South
Africa he paige’ espoused the interests of the
natives against the oppression of the Boers, and
the encroaching policy of the Cape officials. He
opposed the attitude of Sir Bartle Frere and the
home SOURED during the Zulu war, and
earnestly strove to make peace between the con-
tending parties. Owing to his exertions, Cety-
wayo was allowed to visit England and plead
for his rights. Dr Colenso’s defence of the
aboriginal claims lost him much valuable support ;
but the bishop and his daughter never swerved
from what seemed to them to be the wisest as
well as the only honourable course to pursue
towards the natives of South Africa. In addition
to the works already named, Dr Colenso was
the author of Ten Weeks in Natal (1855); The
New Bible Commentary Literally Examined (1871-
74); Lectures on the Pentateuch and the Moabite
Stone (1873); and a volume of Sermons (1878).
His critical analysis of the Pentateuch extended
to seven parts, the last of which appeared in
1879. This work was not without inline in
modifying the views of Kuenen and other con-
tinental commentators. Bishop Colenso died at
Durban, Natal, June 20, 1883. He was a man
of upright and inflexible character, yet gentle
in demeanour and chivalrous in controversy. His
theological works still find many readers, while
his treatises on algebra and arithmetic have long
been text-books in the public schools and uni-
versities. See his Life by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols.
1888 ).
Coleop'tera. See BEETLE.

Colepeper, JOHN, was a native of Sussex,
but, save that he had seen much foreign service,
little is known of him till his return for Kent in
1640 to the Long Parliament. There he pursued
a course much the same as Hyde’s (see CLAREN-
DON), and in January 1642 was created Chancellor
of the Exchequer, a twelvemonth later Master of
the Rolls, and in 1644 Lord Colepeper. With
Hyde he attended Prince Charles to the western
counties, and from Jersey he brought him to
Henrietta Maria, to whose party he thenceforth
attached himself. He lived to see the Restoration,
dying on 11th June 1660. He was an able, far-
seeing councillor, but rough and unstable.

Coleraine, a seaport in County Londonderry,
on the right bank of the Bann, 4 miles from its
mouth, 33 by rail NE. of Londonderry, and 61
NW. of Belfast. It has manufactures of fine
linens, pork-curing, distilling, and important fish-
eries in the river. The Bann is here spanned by
a fine stone bridge, 288 feet long, ahah connects
Coleraine with its suburb on the left bank of the
river, Waterside or Killowen. Vessels of 200 tons
can discharge at the quay—those of greater burden
lie at Portrush, 63 miles off. Pop. (1861) 6236;
(1881) 5899; (1891) 6845. Until 1885 Coleraine re-
turned a member to parliament.

Coleridge, HARTLEY, eldest son of the great
Coleridge, was born, an eight months’ child, at
Clevedon, Somersetshire, 19th September 1796.
Very early he showed uncommon parts, and a
singular power of living entirely in a make-believe
world of dreams and imagination. Wordsworth’s
lovely and touching poem to the child at six years
of age was strangely and sadl fe apie of his
after-life ; hardly less the concluding lines of his
own father’s two poems, The Nightingale and Frost
at Midnight. Hartley was brought up, after the
separation of his = by Southey at Greta
Hall, and was educated chiefly at Ambleside
school. In 1815 he went to Oxford as postmaster
of Merton College. His scholarship was great but
unequal, and not such as to lead to high distine-

COLERIDGE

341

tions in the schools, His failure after no less
than three attempts to gain the Newdigate filled
him with ‘a passionate despondency,’ from which
he turned for relief to a fatal remedy. When at
length he had gained with credit an Oriel fellow-
=. at the close of his probationary year he was
_ judged to have forfeited it mainly on the ground
of intemperance. ‘The sentence might be con-
sidered severe,’ says his brother; ‘it could not be
said to be unjust.’ phan. aged it ruined his life,
erushed his spirit, and made recovery impossible.
With £300 given him by the college, er spent
the next two years in London, then tried for four
or five years a pupils at Ambleside, occasion-
ally writing for Blackwood’s Magazine, next lived
some time at Grasmere, and then went to live at
Leeds with one Bingley, a publisher, for whom he
eyed to write a biographical work on the worthies
of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Of these but thirteen
lives had already been written when Bingley failed.
These were published under the titles of Biographia
Borealis (1833) and of Worthies of Yorkshire and
Lancashire (1836). Bingley also printed a small
volume of his poems in 1833. Hartley next
returned to Grasmere, the only remaining inter-
ruptions to his ordinary life being two short and
not unsuccessful intervals of teaching at Sedbergh
grammar-school. His father, who died in 1834,
made a special provision for him in a codicil to
his will, and his mother’s death in 1845 made him
by an annuity completely independent. He con-
tinued to write, poetry, and wrote a life of Mas-
singer for an edition projected by Moxon. His days
were spent in fitful stu ne lonely reverie, and wan-
derings over the Lake Country, with, unhappily,
occasional lapses into intemperance. The dales-
men everywhere treated ‘Poet Hartley’ with a
singularly affectionate respect, not without a kind
of awe at his eerie appearance, his abstracted air,
his small stature, prematurely white hair, and
gentle manners. He loved children and animals,
and was fondly loved by them in return. He died
6th Janu 1849, and was buried beside what was
soon to be Wordsworth’s grave.

Hartley Coleridge’s poetry falls short of the
great, but sometimes approaches it, and even
ca It is graceful, tender, and sincere, per-
vaded throughout with a charm of a nature rare and
almost unique, alternately wise and playful, and
often perfect in the expression of the thoughts
it has to convey. He is greatest in the sonnet—
a form which seems exactly to have been the
measure of his powers, or rather of the fitful
periods of his poetic passion. Leonard and Susan,
a narrative — in blank verse, and Prometheus,
a dramatic fragment, are the only poems of any
length. His Poems were collected by his brother
Derwent, with a Memoir (2 vols. 1851); also his
Essays and Marginalia (2 vols. 1851).

Coleridge, Lorp. John Duke Coleridge (eldest
son of Sir John Taylor Coleridge, the t poet's
nephew, and himself the biographer of Keble) was
born in 1821, and educated at Eton and Oxford,
was called to the bar in 1847, and was for some
years leader of the western circuit. Appointed
recorder of Portsmouth in 1855, he took silk in
1861, and from 1865 to 1873 represented Exeter in

rliament. He was successively Solicitor-general

1868), Attorney-general (1871), Chief-justice of
the Common Pleas (1873), and (1880), Lord Chief-
justice. An occasional contributor to the reviews
and a man of exceptional culture and polished
eloquence, he died 14th June 1894.

Coleridge, SAmuEL TAYLOR, was born at
Ottery St Mary, Devonshire, October 21, 1772,
where his father was vicar, and master of the
grammar-school. He was the youngest of ten

children of his father’s second marriage. A singu-
larly precocious child, he had read the Arabian
Nights in his fourth year; but he said of himself,
‘IT never thought as a child.’ On his father’s death
he was sent, in his ninth year, to be educated at
Christ’s Hospital, where he had Charles Lamb for
a school companion. He was poorly fed, and badly
taught; but he plunged with eagerness into a whole
library of literature, and read Homer and Virgil
for the mere pleasure of it. Remaining at Christ's
for eight years, he became head of the school, and
showed a remarkable capacity for assimilating all
sorts of knowledge. He was a mental rover from
his boyhood onwards, with a very miscellaneous
intellectual appetite. At school he translated the
hymns of Synesius, studied works on medicine in’
Latin, on metaphysics in Greek, and fell in love
with the sister of one of his companions. His last
ears at school, however, were years of suffering.

He used to bathe in the New River, plunging
into the water with his clothes on, and after a
swim, resumed his games, or returned to his books,
without changing his
result was rheumatic fever and other ailments.
While at school he had a passing attraction
not only to his schoolmate’s sister, but to the
shoemaker’s craft. This was a short-lived fancy ;
and in October 1791 he passed to Jesus College,
Cambridge, a few months after Wordsworth had
taken his B.A. degree, and left the university.
During his first year at college he did good work in
classics, and became one of four selected candidates
for the Craven scholarship in 1793; but his bent
not being mathematical, and having little chance
of winning the chancellor’s medal, he gave himself
up to general literature. He also became inter-
ested in politics, took a strong position on the
Liberal side, and won distinction, even thus early,
as a marvellous talker. He got into difficulties
in Cambridge, through extravagance in furnishing
his rooms, became depressed, and in a ic fled to
London, where he enlisted in the 15th Dragoons,
under the name of Silas Tomkyns Comberbach (a
name assumed to conceal and yet reveal his identity
as 8. T. C.). He never could learn, however, how
to manage a horse, never rose out of the awkward
squad ; and a chance accident disclosing his know-
ledge of classics, led to his discovery by his friends,
and to his being bought out of the service. At the
close of the summer term, he went from Cambridge
to Oxford ; and there, at Balliol College, he for the
first time met Southey. In July he took a pedes-
trian tour in North Wales, after which he went to
Bristol, and there again met both with Southey
and with Robert Lovell, the latter of whom had
just married a Miss Fricker, to whose sister ( Edith)

uthey had engaged himself. Coleridge at once
followed his example, and became engaged to
another sister (Sara); and amongst them they
formed the Quixotic plan of emigration to the banks
of the Susquehanna in America, where they were to
form a ‘ Pantisocracy ’—an ideal community on the
eet of Communism. Two hours of daily
abour were to suflice for providing the necessaries
of life, the rest of their time being devoted to intel-
lectual work and social converse. They were to
have all things in common ; and, as a result of the
experiment, were to bring in a golden age, for
themselves and others, It was a dream; and it

ed, as dreams do.

Coleridge had left Cambridge without taking a
degree. In the late autumn of 1794 he went up to
London, and there renewed his acquaintance with
Lamb. But in December he was brought back to
Bristol by Southey, who feared he might come
under some new fascination in the metropolis. He
had to find the means of livelihood, not on the
Susquehanna, but in the west of England; and

arments. The inevitable ~

342

COLERIDGE

he began a course of miscellaneous lecturing on
literary and political subjects. It was now that
he made the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the
Bristol bookseller, who became so kind a friend.
Cottle offered to publish a volume of poems for
him, giving him thirty guineas for the copyright ;
and, vexed at his delay in completing the volume,
subsequently offered him a guinea for every hundred
lines of verse he would write, after this first volume
was printed. With this promise, and what ‘he
thought provision for life, he ventured to marry ;
and in October 1795 Sara Fricker became Mrs
Coleridge. They went at once to a small cottage,
which is still to be seen at Clevedon in Somerset.
Here, however, Coleridge did not long remain.
We find him in Bristol in December getting his
first volume of poems ready for the press (it was
published in April 1796), and at the same time
attempting to start a weekly journal to be called
the Watchman, which was to contain general
news, parliamentary reports, literary intelligence,
and reviews. In his efforts to float this journal
he went north to Birmingham, Manchester, Shef-
field, &c., to procure subscribers. He succeeded
in starting it, Cottle being the publisher ; but it
only reached its tenth number, and failed—the
generous pains bearing all the loss. arog
next tried the experiment of preaching in the
Unitarian chapels around Bristol. Cottle gives
an account of his appearance in one of these at
Bath on a Sunday, ‘in blue coat and white waist-
coat,’ to discourse on the corn laws and the powder
tax. This eccentricity did not last. Another
friend, and a somewhat remarkable man—Thomas
Poole of Nether Stowey—provided him with a
small house and garden in the village of Stowey ;
and there Coleridge went to live, in January 1797,
with his wife and child (whom he had named
Hartley, from his admiration for the philosophy of
David Hartley). Poole also very generously raised
a sum of money to provide an annuity for his
friend.

Before this date Coleridge had made the acquaint-
ance of Wordsworth. In the early spring of 1796
Wordsworth went up to Bristol from Racedown in
Dorsetshire, to see both Coleridge and Southey ;
and, in a list of authors with whom he was
acquainted, drawn up by Coleridge in March of
that year, Wordsworth’s name occurs. In the
following year Coleridge went down from Stowey
to Racedown to return the visit. As late as 1845
Mrs Wordsworth gave a graphic account to Sara
Coleridge of her father’s ‘ eaping over a gate, and
bounding down a pathless field’ on this first visit
to Racedown. In July 1797 the Wordsworths
moved from Racedown to Alfoxden, partly to be
nearer Coleridge; and during that winter—which
William and Dorothy Wordsworth spent in Somer-
set—Coleridge was their almost daily companion,
roaming the woods and coombs of the Quantocks
with them, or spending the night at Alfoxden.
Wordsworth aha. he discussed together the prin-
ciples of poetry, and planned a joint volume of
verse to illustrate these principles; Wordsworth
undertaking to invest commonplace themes with
an imaginative interest, by disclosing what under-
lay them; and Coleridge taking supernatural or
romantic incidents, humanising the stories so as to
give new life to them. This was the origin of the
Lyrical Ballads, the little volume which more than
any other marked a new departure in poetical
literature at the beginning of the 19th century.
To it Coleridge contributed the Ancient Mariner.
The book was published in 1798.

This meeting of Coleridge and Wordsworth was
one of the most remarkable conjunctions of genius
in the literary history of England, and the days
they spent together in Somerset were perhaps the

‘life.

most joyous in their lives. While living at Nether
Stowey, Coleridge kept up the practice of occasional
preaching; and ‘to prevent the necessity of his
oing into the ministry,’ another admiring friend,
Tosiah Wedgwood, sent him a draft for £100. He
returned it to the donor; but, soon afterwards,
Coleridge accepted an annuity of £150 from the
brothers Wedgwood, given to him on the condition
that he would devote his life wholly to poetry
and philosophy. In 1798 he started with the
Wordsworths for Germany, crossing from Yar-
mouth to Hamburg ; and while Wordsworth went
to Goslar, Coleridge proceeded to Ratzeburg, to
study the language and literature of the country.
He moved on to Gottingen in January 1799. An
interesting picture of his life in Germany is given
in Satyrane’s Letters. He returned to England in
June; in August we find him at Stowey; and in
September in Yorkshire with the Wordsworths.
They had some idea of settling together, to renew
the fellowship of the Quantock days. On the
approach of winter, however, Coleridge went up to
London, and there translated Wallenstein, one of
the best bits of work he ever did. He now made
fresh attempts at journalism, and wrote both prose
and verse for the Morning Post ; but, while some
of his articles were admirable, he was such an
irregular contributor, that his connection with the
Post lasted only for a few months. In July he
went north to Keswick, and took up his residence
at Greta Hall, which Southey also made his home
in 1803. At Keswick he continued his poetic work,
and wrote the second part of Christabel. The
Wordsworths had now been settled for some time
at Dove Cottage, Grasmere, and there Coleridge was
their frequent guest. Dorothy Wordsworth’s Gras-
mere journal (ed. Knight, 1897) is full of allusions
to his visits, and to the wonderful friendship of these
days—a friendship immortalised in her brother's
Stanzas written in a pocket copy of Thomson’s
Castle of Indolence. But during the years he spent
at Keswick, Coleridge came under the influence of
what was henceforward to be the very curse of his
His health had never been robust; rheuma-
tism and neuralgia had tortured him; and, becom-
ing his own doctor, he had recourse to the anodyne
of opium. Little by little the habit grew, and the
‘Kendal black drop’ at length enslaved him. It
injured his constitution and killed his imagination ;
it enfeebled his will and destroyed his sense of
truth and honour. Few things in literature are so
pathetic as his own lament over the deterioration
of his nature, in his Dejection, an Ode. ‘The details
of this malady; and what it led to, have not yet
been fully told. rst:
Charles Lamb came to visit him at Keswick in
1802. In 1803 he started with the Wordsworths, on
their memorable Scottish tour; but left them in a
fortnight, and did wonderful feats of walking alone.
He now thought of nuany plans for the recovery of
health, which were really but plans to flee from
his own shadow. The frugal Wordsworth forced
him to accept a loan of £100, He was befriended
by others, and he sailed for Malta in April 1804.
There he became secretary to the governor, Sir
Alexander Ball, an office for which he was entirely
unsuited. His letters from abroad were hypochon-
driacal, valetudinarian, and sad in many ways.
From Malta he went to Sicily, to Naples, and to
Rome; but he had to leave Italy with some abrupt-
ness, an order, it is said, having been issued by
Napoleon for his arrest, on the ground of some
republican utterances years before ; and the vessel
in which he sailed being chased by a French cruiser,
he threw all his papers (which included many of
Wordsworth’s poems) overboard. In August 1806
he returned to England. It is unnecessary to
trace his subsequent wanderings to and fro, from

COLERIDGE

COLEROON 343

London to Keswick, to Penrith, to Coleorton, to
Bristol, and to Bridgwater. At London he began
what might have been a very remarkable series of
lectures at the Royal Institution ; but the experi-
ment failed, for the same cause as previous ones
had failed, He next thought of a fresh venture in
journalism, and projected a new weekly paper, The
Friend, for which he gota number of subscribers.
Tt was printed at Penrith at his own expense. The
Wordsworths took him into their house at Allan

k, Grasmere, for the winter ; and while Coleridge
wrote most of the papers for The Friend himself,

- Wordsworth supplied him with some of the articles,

and Sarah Hutchinson transcribed them week by
week for the press. The paper lived from August
1809 to March 1810. The habit of opium-eating,
which had now obtained a fatal ascendency, pas
not be hidden from his friends; and at this junc-
ture the Wordsworths, with the greatest delicacy,
tried their utmost to help and to befriend him.
haf were misunderstood, He went up to London
in 1810, and a strange cloud (the full story of which
has yet to be told) obscured for a time the old
relationship between the households. A partial
estrangement lasted for some years, but was at
length overcome by the friendly offices of Henry
Crabb Robinson. _

During Coleridge’s later years in London he
lived for four years with an old Bristol friend,
John Morgan, at Hammersmith. He first tried the
experiment of lecturing on Shakespeare. Occa-
sionally his a rances were brilliant; more
usually they were absolute failures. His conversa-
tional powers, however, seem to have increased,
while his success as a lecturer diminished. All his
life he had been in the habit of receiving gifts freely
from such friends as the Beaumonts, and the
Wedgwoods, from Stuart, and Wordsworth, and
De Quincey; and though he occasionally did
——— things to others, his neglect of the primal

uties to his own family put a severe strain upon
the tie that bound these friends to him.

The remaining years of his life were spent at
Highgate with Mr and Mrs Gillman, whose kind-
ness and consideration were unbounded, Though a
wreck of his former self, the baleful opium-habit
lessened, as molecsige grew older, and he was able
to do a good deal of miscellaneous writing. Some
of his best prose work. was written at Highgate.
Though a dreamy and often unintelligible sage, he
became a sort of oracle to a circle of enthusiastic
admirers that gathered round him, and he com-
pletely fascinated the young men, who made their
weekly pilgrimages to Gillman’s house to hear him
talk. As the years went on, his health somewhat
improved, and he was even able to make occasional
visits. In 1829 he took a short tour with the
Wordsworths, accompanying the poet and _his
daughter to the Rhine. He died on the 23d July
1834, and was buried at Highgate.

As a Poet, Critic, and Philosopher (the three
functions having been combined by Coleridge as
they had never been by any haghate Englishman )
he was certainly a star of the first magnitude in
the firmament of letters. For originality, insight,
grace, musicalness, deft subtlety of thought, natural-
ness and charm of diction, he had only one rival
amongst the poets of the Renaissance. It is true
there have been greater poets in England, but there
has been no ter poetical critic in British litera-
ture. Coleridge was a critic of poets (and the poets
have, as a rule, been the best critics of each other ).
As yet there is no estimate of the literary revival
which Coleridge and Wordsworth inaugurated
that is superior to what the former wrote in his
Biographia Literaria ; and he was a philosophical
critic, use he was a philosopher amongst the
peets. He may be said to have inaugurated a new

era by his poetic idealism, and by introducing the
spirit of Plato alike into his poetry and his literary
criticism. As a philosopher, however, he does not
occupy the foremost place. He was too miscel-
laneous, too assimilative, and his intellect too
meteoric and vagrant for speculative originality of
the highest order. But he was one of the most
suggestive of critics. Though not profoundly
learned, he was very widely read ; and he did more to
leaven English philosophy, literature, and theology
with the depth and the free spirit of Germany,
than any one of his contemporaries. He vitalised
whatever he discussed ; and his writings will prob-
ably continue to kindle successive generations, and
to fascinate them, even while they fail to convince.

Coleridge’s most important works are: Poems (1876);
Wallenstein (1800); The Friend (1809-10); Remorse
(1813); Christabel, Kubla Khan, dc. (1816); The States-
man’s Manual (1816); Sibylline Leaves (1817); Bio-
graphia Literaria (1817); Aids to Reflection (1825).
Posthumously published—four volumes of Literary
Remains (1836-38); Confessions of an Enquiring Spirit
(1840); Essay on Method (1845).

The chief authorities in reference to Coleridge are
Letters, Conversations, and Recollections, by Allsop ( 1836) ;
Cottle’s Early Recollections (1837); Gillman’s Life
(1838); Coleridge’s Letters to Sir George and Lady
Beaumont (1886); Mrs Sandford’s Thomas Poole and his
Friends (1889); the Biographia Literaria (1817); De
Quincey’s ‘8. T. Coleridge,’ in his Recollections of the Lakes
(1857); Eliza Meteyard’s Group of Englishmen, 1795-1815
(1871); the Memoirs of Wordsworth (1851); Southey’s
Life and Correspondence (1850); Lamb’s Letters (1888) ;
Mr Traill’s Coleridge (1884); Brandl’s S. 7. Coleridge
and the English Romantie School (1882); the short lives
by '[raill (1884) and Hall Caine (1887); the life by Dykes

ampbell, prefixed to his admirable edition of the works
(1893; separately published 1894) ; and the Letters edited
by Ernest Coleridge (1895).

Coleridge, Sara, the gifted daughter of the
reat Coleridge, was born, 23d* December 1802, at
Crete Hall, near Keswick, where she was brought u
bySouthey. Her ‘depth of meditative eye’ is noti
by Wordsworth in the finest lines of his rather Pps
poem, the Zriad (1828), the other maidens of the
roup being Edith Southey and Dora Wordsworth.
ae early showed remarkable powers of mind,
with all hoe father’s leaning towards peychology
and abstract thought. At twenty she published,
to aid her brother Derwent’s college expenses, a
translation of Martin Dobrizhofer’s Latin Account of
the A bipones (1784), and three years later the ‘ Loyal
Servitor’s’ memoirs of the Chevalier Bayard. In
1829 she married her cousin, Henry Nelson Cole-
ridge, and on his death in 1843 succeeded him in
the task of annotating and editing her father’s
writings. Her health failed early, and she died
3d May 1852. Her own works were Pretty Lessons
Sor Good Children (1834), and Phantasmion (1837),
a somewhat remarkable fairy-tale. Her Memoirs
and Letters were edited by her daughter in 1873.—
Her son, HERBERT COLERIDGE, born in 1830, was
educated at Eton and Balliol College, took a double-
first in 1852, and was called to the bar, but devoted
himself to the study of cunpersats hilology.
Elected a member of the Philological iety in
1857, he threw himself with enthusiasm into its
ambitious project of a standard English dictionary,
and was practically editor in its earlier stages.
His own works were a Glossarial Index to the
Printed English Literature of the Thirteenth Cen-
tury (1859), and an excellent essay on King Arthur.
printed after his untimely death (at London, 23d
April 1861) by the Philological Society.
Coleroon, the largest and most_ northerly
branch from the Kaveri, flows 94 miles, chiefly
between Trichinopoly and Tanjore, into the Bay of
Bengal. It is remarkable for its two weirs or
dams, the anicuts, constructed in 1856.

344 COLES

COLIC

Coles, CowPER Putrps, naval architect, born in
Hampshire in 1819, early entered the navy, and
pecame lieutenant in 1846 and captain in 1856.
In 1855 he constructed a gun-raft, which was
favourably reported on; from 1856 he was engaged
in experiments, and ultimately produced a form of
turret-ship, the general idea of which had probably
occurred to him independently, although its de-
velopment owed much to the invention of Ericsson
(q.v.). A vessel was built from his designs, with
little more than 6 feet of freeboard ; it was com-
missioned as the Captain early in 1870, and on
7th September jobeed bottom upwards in a gale,
and sank off Cape Finisterre, almost all on board,
including Coles, being drowned.

Coleseed. See RAPE.

Coleshill, a market-town of Warwickshire, 10
miles ENE. of Birmingham. Pop. of parish, 2356.

Colet, JoHN, born in London about 1467, was the
eldest son of a family of twenty-two. His father,
Sir Henry Colet, was twice Lord Mayor of London.
Colet studied at Oxford with the view of entering
the church, and about 1493 made a prolonged visit
to the Continent, travelling through France into
Italy. While in Italy he became acquainted with
the views of Savonarola, which subsequent study
and experience led him to regard with increasing
approval. Having returned to England in 1496,
and been ordained priest, he delivered at Oxford a
series of lectures on the Epistles of St Paul, which
attracted great attention, his principles of interpre-
tation being at every point opposed to those of the
scholastic theologians. In 1498 Erasmus came to
Oxford, and it is one of Colet’s chief claims to
remembrance that he powerfully influenced that
scholar’s opinions on the proper methods of Scrip-
ture interpretation and on the value of the scholas-
tic philosophy. In 1505 Colet was made Dean of St
Paul’s, London, and in this office still continued to
deliver lectures on different books of Scripture,
which gave rise to much diversity of opinion.
With the large fortune he inherited on the death of
his father, Colet founded St Paul’s School (q.v.). At
this school 153 scholars were received, whose educa-
tion was conducted in a spirit far in advance of the
time. On account of Colet’s vigorous denunciation
of the ignorance and corruption of the clergy,
charges of heresy were brought against him, but
Archbishop Warham refused to support them.
Colet also spoke out strongly against the French
wars of Henry VIII., who, nevertheless, always
treated him with regard. In 1518,: feeling his
end approaching, Colet appointed the Mercers’
Company of London as managers of his school—a
step of decisive importance, as it was the first
example of lay management of an educational in-
stitution. He died of dropsy, 16th September 1519.

Of late years it has been conclusively shown that
Colet was one of the most striking figures of his
time in England. He was not a great scholar, and
he left no writings that entitle him to remem-
brance ; but by his clear view of the urgent need of
reform in the church, and by the intensity of his
religious convictions, he gave an impulse to men
like Sir Thomas More and Erasmus, which influ-
enced their whole life-work. At the same time,
Colet, though an ardent religious reformer, never
entertained the thought of a formal rupture with
Rome. His foundation of St Paul’s School, and
the character he gave te that institution, entitles
him to an eminent place among educational re-
formers. See Seebohm’s Oxford Reformers (2d ed.
1869), and the Rev. J. H. Lupton’s Life of Colet
(1887).

Colewort. See CABBAGE.

Colfax, SCHUYLER, American statesman, born
it New York, 23d March 1823, removed in 1836 to

Indiana, where in 1845 he acquired a newspaper at:
South Bend, which he made the most influential
Whig journal in the district. He was a delegate
to the Whig conventions of 1848 and 1852; he was.
returned to congress in 1854 by the newly-formed
Republican party, and re-elected until 1869, being
thrice chosen Speaker; and in 1868 he was electe
vice-president of the United States, in Grant’s first
term. Implicated, apparently unjustly, in the
Crédit Mobilier charges of 1873, he spent the
remainder of his life in political retirement, mak-
ing public appearances only on the lecture plat-
form, and died at Mankato, in Minnesota, 13th
pacscis 1885. See his Life by O. J. Hollister
(New York, 1886).

Colibri. See HUMMING-BIRD.

Colic (Gr. colon, ‘the large intestine ;’ see
INTESTINES), a name employed by the later Greek
and the Roman physicians to denote diseases.
attended with severe pain and flatulent distension
of the abdomen, without diarrhoea or looseness of
the bowels. The disease (commonly called gripes
or belly-ache) is now generally believed to be spas-
modic in character, and to be dependent upon
irregular contractions of the muscular coat of the
intestines : its supposed particular connection with
the colon, or large intestine, however, is not
usually to be made out from the symptoms. Pain-
ful disorders of the bowels are very frequent in
persons who are not attentive to the regular
evacuations, especially when they are exposed to
cold so as to experience chill or coldness of the
feet, which will often suffice to bring on an attack
of colic. The disease is usually attended with
Constipation (q.v.), and ceases when the regular
action of the bowels is restored, although often in
this case the operation of medicine is attended by
continued pain for a time. Warm fomentations to
the abdomen may be employed with advantage,
sometimes medicated with opium, or decoction of
poppy-heads ; and great relief is commonly experi-
enced from friction with a warm liniment, such as.
opodeldoc, or the soap and opium liniment. Pres-
sure with the hand over the painful part commonly
diminishes the suffering for the time in_ simple
colic, but increases it in more serious diseases.
Warmth to the feet, and the recumbent posture,
are also to be recommended. In very severe or
protracted cages opium may be taken internally.
A good remedy in such cases is a full dose of
castor-oil (one ounce or more for an adult), with
30 or 35 drops of laudanum, or of solution of
morphia.» (Opiates should not be given to children
except under medical advice, and in very reduced
doses.) When colic resists such mild and eae i
remedies as the above—when it is accompanied by
tenderness of the belly, or by hard swelling in any

art of it—when constipation is obstinate, or vomit-
ing is present—when there is feverishness, or ten-
dency to exhaustion—or when there is reason to
believe that it may depend on any other cause than.
the mere accumulation of the products of digestion
in the intestines, no time should be lost in seeking
the best medical assistance that can be procured ;
for colic is closely allied as a symptom to several
very severe and dangerous diseases. One of these
complicated forms of colic is termed Ileus, or iliac

assion (from the idea that its seat was in the small
intestine—/eum). It is attended with obstruction
of the bowels, often from mechanical twisting or
involution of one part with another (hence termed
volvulus). This is, of course, a disease of extreme:
danger. The only treatment that can be attempted
without medical assistance is the employment of
large injections by the lower bowel, and opium in
moderate and repeated doses (4 grain to 1 grain, or
12 to 20 drops of laudanum) by the mouth, care-

“

COLIGNY

COLLECT 345

fully watched, and discontinued if there is any si
nareotism (see OpluM). Colic pains are also
nt in peritonitis (see PERITONEUM), another
most dangerous form of disease ; and they form one
marked sh of the slow poisoning by lead,
oceasionally observed as the consequence of con-
tamination of drinking water by leaden cisterns, &e.
In this form the treatment is different from that
of simple colic, and is treated of in the article
Lead, under LEAD-POISONING.

Coligny, GASPARD DE, one of the test
Frenchmen of the 16th century, was born at
meee on scr-Loing, February 16, 1519. At the
age of twenty-two he be his career as a soldier,
and greatly distinguished himself in the wars which
Francis I. and Henry II. carried on against Spain.
By Henry II. he was appointed colonel-general of
the French infantry, and the severe system of dis-
cipline he introduced gave a new character to the
art of war in the 16th century. In 1552 he was
made admiral of France, though he never com-
manded on the sea. By holding the town of St
Quentin (1557) with a handful of men for seventeen
days against the army of Spain, he was the means
of saving his country. It was during his im-
gira after the capture of this town, that

e embraced the views of the Huguenots, to the
furtherance of which the rest of his life was con-
secrated. On the accession of Francis II. in 1559,
the Guises became all-powerful, and their interest
and fanaticism led them to op all toleration of
the Huguenots. To obtain this toleration, how-
ever, was Coligny’s great aim, and by his high
character and his abilities as a statesman and
ee he succeeded in conjunction with the

eads of the Bourbon family in effecting the
treaty known as the ‘Pacification of Amboise’
(1563), by which the Huguenots were allowed

om of worship. This concession having
been gradually withdrawn by the queen-mother,
Catharine de’ Medicis, the second Huguenot war
broke out in 1567, when, on the death of the
Prince of Condé, Coligny was appointed general-
issimo of the forces of Henry of Navarre, afterwards
Henry IV. of France. Both parties having grown
weary of the war, peace was concluded in 1570 on
the basis of the treaty of Amboise, mainly through
Coligny’s energy. Catharine de’ Medicis, how-
ever, again becoming alarmed at the growing power
of the Huguenots, and especially at the ascendency
of vary wf over the young king, Charles [X., deter-
mined by one desperate stroke to in her power.
In 1572, a numerous body of the Huguenot nobles
having been drawn to Paris by the marriage of
Henry of Navarre with Margaret, the sister of the
king, the massacre of St Bartholomew took place,
when Coligny was murdered in his bed, and his
tT thrown into the street by Henry of Guise and

is fo

llowers.
In his personal character Coligny was one of the
noblest Frenchmen of his time. is religious zeal

was purely disinterested, and he had deeply at
heart the welfare of his country. His great aim
was to make the Huguenots a national party, and
by their enthusiasm to defeat the schemes of Spain,
who he saw was bent on supremacy in western
Europe. Had he lived a few years longer the
history of French Protestantism would have been
different. Coligny’s wide views are further seen in
his unsuccessful attempts to found Protestant
colonies in Brazil and North America. See his
Life by Blackburn (2 vols. Phila. 1869), Bersier
(Eng. trans. 1884), Delaborde (3 vols. Paris, 1880),
and Marcks (Stuttg. 1892).

Coli’ma, a Mexican state on the Pacific coast,
with an area of 2694 sq. m., and a pop. (1882) of
72,591. The soil 1s very fertile, the climate warm ;

large quantities of coffee, sugar, rice, tobacco,
maize, and cotton are grown. The capital, Colima,
1450 feet above the sea, about 40 miles ENE. of
the port of Manzanillo, is ularly built, with
narrow streets crossing at right angles, and has
several large cotton-factwries. Pop. (1895) 18,977.
Beyond the state frontier, about Bs miles NE. of
the capital, rises the voleano of Colima (12,75C
feet), which burst out in June 1869.

Colin. See VirGrnian QUAIL.
Coliseum. See AMPHITHEATRE.

Coll, one of the Argyllshire Hebrides, 16 miles
W. of Tobermory in Mull. It is 13 miles long, 1 to
34 broad, and 30 sq. m. in area. It nowhere
exceeds 326 feet in height; mica-slate is the pre-
dominant rock; and more than a third of the sur-
face is cultivated or in pasture. Pop. (1801) 1162;
(1881) 643; (1891) 522.

Collar-bone, or CLAVICLE (q.v.), is in man,
as in most mammals, the only bone directly con-
necting the upper extremity with the skeleton of
the trunk. It is consequently very often broken,
more often than any other bone except perhaps
the radius. Under proper treatment, in children
sometimes even without treatment, it readily re-
unites without any impairment of the usefulness
of the limb. But it is very difficult to maintain
such exact adjustment that no irregularity of the
surface of the bone will remain; and as it lies
close under the skin, the resulting deformity is
often visible.

Collateral. See CoNsANGUINITY, SuccEs-
sion. Collateral Security is an additional and
separate security for the performance of an obliga-
tion.

Collation. See BENEFICE.

Col'lé, a town of Italy, on the Elsa, 24 miles
SSW. of Florence. It has an old cathedral and
castle. Pop. 5090.

Collect, a short form of prayer, peculiar to the
liturgies of the Western Church. It consists of a
single sentence, conveying one main petition, which
is on an attribute ascribed to God in the
gers invocation, and closing with an ascription
of praise or a pleading of the merits of Christ.
Thus much for the structure of these prayers, which,
whether in Latin or English, may be described,
alike from their noble rhythmical harmony and from
their pathos and devout simple earnestness, as
models of liturgical petitions; the etymology of
their name is more difficult to determine, beyond
the fact that it is from the Latin colligere, ‘to
collect.’ According to some, the prayer was so
called because, as in the English Pree book. it
collects or condenses the teachings of the epistle
and gospel for the day; but this explanation
applies only to the class of special collects. Accord-
ing to others, the term implies that the prayer
poneete and sums up all the previous petitions, or
gathers and offers up in one comprehensive form all
the spoken and unspoken petitions of the people.
Both these derivations are 5 8 to serious objec-
tions, and neither has any historical basis; the
most probable view is that which traces the name
to the collecta, or assembly of the people for divine
service, at which certain prayers (orationes ad col-
lectam) were said, distinct from the later prayers of
the mass (orationes ad missam). Of the collects
used in the litu of the Church of England, some,
including most of those for saints’ days—since the
old collects were mainly prayers for the saints’
intercession—were com at the Reformation,
or even later ; but most, taken from the old Roman
Missal, are derived from the Sacramentaries of
Popes Leo, Gelasius, and Gregory (5th and 6th
centuries). The remoter source of the weekly

346 COLLECTIONS

COLLEGIATE CHURCHES >

collects Freeman finds in the hymns of the Eastern
Church, founded on the gospels, of which these col-
lects would thus be the ‘very quintessence.’ In
the English Prayer-book, for every Sunday there is
proper collect, with corresponding epistle and
gospel ; and this collect stands for every day in the
following week, except in the case of festivals and
their eves or vigils, which have collects of their
own. Good Friday alone has three collects; and
during Advent and Lent the collect for the first day
of the season is repeated after the collect for the
week.

Collections at Churches. The collections
which are still made at all churches in Scotland—
either at the church-doors before the service, or in
the church after it—were, till a comparatively
recent period, the principal fund for the support of
the poor. The proceeds of these collections were
originally under the control of the kirk-session, and
remain so under certain restrictions. By a pro-
clamation of the Privy-council in 1693, it was
ordered that one-half of the sums so collected, and
of dues received by the kirk-session, be paid over
into the general fund for the support of the poor.
The other half has generally been applied for the
relief of sudden or temporary distress. The kirk-
session may be called upon by any single heritor to
account for its management of this remaining half.
By the Poor-law Amendment Act, 1845, it is enacted
that in all parishes in which it has been agreed that
an assessment shall be levied. for the relief of the
poor, all moneys arising from the ordinary church
collections shall in future belong to, and be at the
disposal of, the kirk-session ; provided, however,
that they shall be applied to no purposes other
than those to which they were, in whole or in part,
legally applicable before the date of the act. A
power is reserved to the heritors to examine the
accounts of the kirk-session, and to inquire into
the manner in which the collections are applied ;
and the session-clerk is enjoined to report annually
as to the application of the moneys, to the Board of
Supervision. The collections made at Dissenting
meeting-houses, under which denomination Episco-
pal chapels are included, are entirely at the disposal
of the congregations, and do not form part of the
poor’s funds. The making of a collection is properly
the province of the minister and elders; but when
they neglect the duty the heritors have been in use
to perform it. See Black’s Parochial Ecclesiastical
Law of Scotland (1888), p. 145.

In England there are no regular collections at
churches as in Scotland. The alms collected in
chapels, as well as in parish churches, during the
reading of the offertory, are declared by the rubric
to be at the disposal of the incumbent and church-
wardens of the parish, and not of the minister or
proprietor of the chapel. If the minister and
‘churchwardens disagree as to the distribution of
the alms, they shall be disposed of as the ordinary
‘shall appoint.

Colleetivism is a word of recent origin, in-
tended to express the central idea in the economic
theory of socialism, that industry should be carried
on with a collective capital. It means that capital
‘should not be owned and controlled by individuals,
but by groups of associated workers, that it should
be the joint property of the community or other
form of eal organisation. Its exact meaning
depends very much on the form of socialism with
which the principle is connected. See SOCIALISM.

College (Lat. collegium, ‘a collection or assem-
blage’). In its Roman signifieation, a college
signified any association of persons for a specific
purpose, and was in many cases practically what
we call a corporation. It required also to be incor-
porated by some sort of public authority, springing

either from the senate or the emperor. <A college
could not consist of fewer than three persons,
according to the well-known maxim, ‘ three make a
college’ (Dig. 50, tit. 16, 1. 85). Some of these
colleges were for purely mercantile purposes, but
there were others which had religious objects in
view, such as the colleges of pontifices and augurs,
&c., and some were political, as the colleges of the
tribunes of the plebs. With us, a college is an in-
corporation, company, or society of persons joined
together generally for literary or scientific purposes,
and frequently possessing peculiar or exclusive
privileges. See PHYSICIANS (COLLEGE OF), SUR-
GEONS (COLLEGE OF), HERALDS’ COLLEGE. Very
often in England a college is an endowed institution
connected with a prvsbeiga S having for its object
the promotion of learning. In this relation a co ge
is a sub-corporation—i.e. a member of the body
known as the university. For a more detailed ac-
count of college in this sense, see UNIVERSITIES,
OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE. In Scotland and in America
the distinction between the college as the member
and the university as the body has been lost sight
of ; and we consequently hear of ee granting
degrees, a function which in the English and in the
original European view of the matter belonged ex-
clusively to the university. Where there is but one
college in a university, as is the case in Edinburgh
and Glasgow universities, the two bodies are of
course identical. Trinity College, Dublin, is prac-
tically the university. Owens College is a branch
of the Victoria University. University College
is a very usual name for recently founded institu-
tions for the higher learning in the United King-
dom. Some of the public schools are colleges, and
many secondary schools are so called. Theological
schools often bear this name, which is sometimes
given to a hospital. In Germany there are no
colleges in the English sense. In France_ the
name of college is sometimes given to the local
branches of the University of France (see FRANCE) ;
as also to a school, corresponding, however, more
to the Gymnasium (q.v.) of Germany than to the
rammar-school of this country. The principal col-
ons have articles under special heads ; see KING’s
COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (LONDON).

Collége de France, originally a Collége de
Trois Langues merely, founded by Francis I. in 1530,
is now a very important educational institution
giving instruction over a very wide field of litera-
ture, history, and science. It is independent of the
University of France (q.v.), is directly under the
Minister of Public Instruction, and is supported by
the government. As in the Sorbonne (q.v.), the
lectures are gratuitous ; and for the most part are
designed to attract auditors older than ordinary
university students. The college comprises two

faculties, one literary, one scientific ; and each has
about twenty professors. Amongst the professors
have been some of the most distinguished scholars

and scientists in France, such as M. Renan, M.
Laboulaye, M. Gaston de Paris, in the literary
department ; and M. Brown-Séquard in the science
division. Amongst the subjects discussed are
political economy, Assyrian and Egyptian archee-
ology, Arabic, Slavonic literature, French litera-
ture; physiology, anatomy, and embryology.

College of Arms. See HERALD.

College of Justice. See Court or SESSION,

Collegiate Churches—o called from having
a college or chapter, consisting of a dean or
provost and canons, attached to them—date from
the 9th century, when such foundations in large
towns became frequent. They are under the juris-
diction of the bishop of the diocese in which they
are situated, and he exercises visitorial powers over
them. There were about ninety collegiate churches

COLLEMBOLA

COLLIER 347

in England and Wales at the beginning of the 16th
century, but nearly all of them were suppr or
dissolved in Edward VI.’s reign under the Acts of
Henry VIII. which followed upon the dissolution
of the monasteries, and granted the hospitals,
chantries, and colleges to the crown. Those re-
maining in England are Westminster, Windsor,
Wolverhampton, Haytesbury, Middleham; also
Brecon in Wales, and Galway in Ireland. Ripon,
Manchester, and Southwell have been constituted
the cathedrals of new dioceses. Some churches
called collegiate (such as Beverley ) have no chapters.
In the Roman Catholic Church, no new collegiate
church can be founded without the sanction of the
pope, acting on the favourable report of the Con-
gregation of the Council of Trent, that the necessary
conditions have all been fulfilled, such as suitable
population and locality, adequate buildings, suffi-
cient endowments, and the assent of the diocesan
bishop ; while a priority of rank in their class is
conceded to some such churches, distinguished by
the title ‘eminent’ (insignis). The History of
Renfrewshire (1886) contains a very full and in-
teresting account of the collegiate church of Castle-
Semple, founded in 1504.

Collem’bola, the name given by Sir John
Lubbock to a tribe of wingless insects, to which the
Podura (q.v.) or spring-tail belongs ; though he
and other entomologists question their claim to
be called insects.

Colley, Sir GEORGE, major-general, was born
in 1835, and in’1852 received an ensigncy in the 2d
or Queen’s Foot, whose headquarters, then in the
eastern frontier of Cape Colony, he joined in 1854.
He was a border magistrate in 1857-58, surveyed
the Trans-kei country, and served with his regiment
in China in 1860. He was then for some years
major of brigade at Plymouth, and a professor at
the Staff College. He ably managed the transport
service in the Ashanti expedition, and in 1875 ac-
companied Sir Garnet Wolseley to Natal, where he
was for some time colonial treasurer, and prepared
a valuable report and map of the Transvaal and
Swaziland. rom 1876 to 1880, except for a short
agp of service as chief of Wolseley’s staffin Zulu-

and and the Transvaal, he was private secretary
to Lord Lytton, then viceroy in India. Appointed
governor and commander-in-chief of Natal in April
1880, he commanded his small force against the
Boers at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and fell, shot
through the forehead at Majuba Hill, F ebruary 27,
1881. See Life by Sir W. Butler (1899 ).

Collie. The origin of the collie is somewhat
obscure, but great antiquity is claimed for it.
Buffon has gone so far as to call it the oldest
known breed of dogs, an opinion not now generally
entertained ; though it is only reasonable to suppose
that the ancients, after providing a dog for the
chase, next turned their attention to obtaining a
guardian for their flocks. For many years collies
were confined to Scotland and the northern counties
of England, until their good points as a graceful
and intelligent companion attracting more atten-
tion, they were taken south in large numbers, and
became the most popular breed of the day. Thanks
to judicious breeding and a large expenditure of
money, the best show collies are now all found in
England. Tempted by the demand for black-and-
tan dogs, a cross with the Gordon setter was
resorted to, producing many collies with the flat
ears and open coat of the setter, a cross to be
avoided at all costs. In judging the collie the fact
should never be forgotten that it is meant to do
work in all weathers, requiring the best of le
and feet, a close coat, and a strong active y
oepatls of great speed ; and that a long and beauti-
ful coat, if unaccompanied by a thick under-coat,

is a hindrance, not a protection. The chief points
of the collie are—head long and sharp, with
bright, keen eyes, set rather close together, and a
small ear drooping slightly at the tips; back
strong and muscular ; legs with plenty of bone and
not too much feather, bare below the hocks; feet

Collie.

round and cat-like. The collie should have a
short dense under-coat fitted to withstand the
severest wet or cold, with a long and beautiful
outer-coat springing from it; round the neck this
coat develops into a ‘ruff’ or ‘frill’ which sticks
out in front and on each side to a great length,
adding largely to the dog’s beauty. Many anec-
dotes are told of the collie, who from his
intimate association with man has acquired almost
human intelligence, a good dog being able to
separate the sheep under his care from those of
other flocks. The collie often deteriorates in in-
telligence when kept merely as a companion; he
is be, ( to get ee a fact which the
shepherd does not consider a fault, as it prevents
strangers interfering with the sheep. But when
not spoilt no dog makes such an agreeable com-
pombe as the collie, as his instinct is to attach
1imself to one person to whom he becomes devoted.

Collier, ARTHUR, metaphysician, the son of a
clergyman, was born in 1680 at Langford Magna,
Wiltshire, studied at Oxford, and became rector of
the family living at Langford in 1704, remaining
there till his death in 1732. At Balliol College,
Collier had devoted himself to the study of Descartes
and Malebranche; and his notable book, Clavis
Universalis, or a New Inquiry after Truth, being a
Demonstration of the Non-Existence and Impossi-
bility of the External World (which, though pub-
lished in 1713, was written ten years before), coin-
cides in a remarkable way with Berkeley's Theory
of Vision (published 1709). He was a High-Church-
man, and wrote also A Specimen of True Philosophy
(1730) and a Logology (1732).

Collier, JEREMY, nonjuror and purifier of the
English stage, was born at Stow cum Quy, in
Cambridgeshire, 23d September 1650. His father
was a clerical schoolmaster at Ipswich, and here
and at Caius College, Cambridge, he was educated,
graduating B.A. in 1672. For six years he was
rector of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and
for some years before the Revolution he was
lecturer at Gray’s Inn. His reply to Dr Gilbert
Burnet’s Inquiry into the State of Affairs (1688) cost
him some months’ imprisonment in Newgate. He
next waged warfare on the crown with a succession
of incisive pamphlets, carrying his refusal to recog-

348 COLLIER

nise the authority of the government so far as
hardly to be persuaded by his friends to let them
bail him out of prison when arrested in 1692 on
suspicion of being involved in a treasonable plot.
In 1696, along with two other clergymen, he out-
raged public feeling by solemnly pronouncing
absolution, without any public confession, on the
scaffold at Tyburn upon the heads of Friend and
Parkyns just before their execution for a plot to
murder the king. For this gross and public
offence he was obliged to go into hiding, but
though he was formally outlawed, no attempt was
made to punish him. In 1697 he published his
famous Short View of the Immorality and Profane-
ness of the English Stage, which fell like a thunder-
bolt among the wits. The boldness of the
onslaught can only be understood by remembering
the greatness of the odds and the might of his
antagonists. ‘It is inspiriting,’ says Macaulay,
‘to see how gallantly the solitary outlaw advances
to attack enemies, formidable separately, and, it
might have been thought, irresistible when com-
bined, distributes his swashing blows right and
left among Wycherley, Congreve, and Vanbrugh,
treads the wretched D’Urfey down in the dirt
beneath his feet, and strikes with all his strength
full at the towering crest of Dryden.’ Collier’s
argument carried the country with it, and brought
back the English drama to good morals and good
sense. That excessive stage-profligacy which was
a mere reaction against the rigidity of Puritan-
ism, and had far outrun the parallel laxity of
contemporary social morals, at once disappeared,
and the theatre in England again became a mirror
in which nature and truth were reflected without
distortion. But it was not without a struggle that
the wits consented to be worsted. Congreve and
Vanbrugh, with many of the smaller fry, answered
angrily but weakly, and were crushed anew by the
redoubtable nonjuror, who was ‘complete master
of the rhetoric of honest indignation.’ ‘Contest,’
says Dr Johnson, ‘ was his delight ; he was not to
be frighted from his purpose or his prey.’ The
great Dryden stood apart at first, but at length in
the preface to his Fables (1700) acknowledged with
a noble honesty that he had been justly reproved.
‘I shall say the less of Mr Collier,’ he says,
‘because in many things he has taxed me justly ;
and I have pleaded guilty to all thoughts and
expressions of mine which can be truly argued of
obscenity, profaneness, or immorality, and retract
them. If he be my enemy, let him triumph; if he
be my friend, as I have given him no
occasion to be otherwise, he will be glad of my
repentance. It becomes me not to draw my pen
in the defence of a bad cause, when I have so often
drawn it for a good one.’ But Dryden complained,
and fairly, that his antagonist had often perverted
his meaning, that he was ‘too much given to
horse-play in his raillery, and came to battle like a
dictator from the plough.’ Spite, however, of all
its pedantry and overstatement of the case, and
its faults of taste and of relative proportion in
charges made with equal indignation, the Short
View was a noble protest against evil, and was
as effective as it deserved to be.

Collier continued to preach to a Sonereeet of
Nonjurors(q.v.), and was consecrated bis op in 1713.
A great controversy soon rent the nonjuring com-
munity on the lawfulness of returning to certain
‘usages’ allowed in the communion-office of the
first prayer-book of Edward VI., which Collier’s
party preferred to the revision of 1552. Collier
at length pronounced these usages essential, and
not unnaturally laid himself open to a charge of
holding Romish views. He masqueraded as ‘ Jere-
mias, Primus Anglo-Britanniz Episcopus’ in some
abortive attempts to form a union with the Eastern

ersonal

Church. His last years were racked by the
torments of the stone, from which he found relief
in death, April 26, 1726. Of his forty-two books
and pamphlets, those on the stage alone are still
read. The fifth edition of his famous treatise
(1730) contains all the successive pamphlets which
fortified the first. His largest works were the
Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical, and
Poetical Dictionary (4 vols. folio, 1701-21), and An
Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain... to
the end of the Reign of Charles II. (2 vols. folio,
1708-14; new ed. by T. Lathbury, with Life, 9
vols. 1852).

Collier, Joun, known under the pseudonym of
‘Tim Bobbin,’ was the son of the curate of Stret-
ford, near Manchester, and from 1739 to his death
in 1786 was master of a school at Milnrow, near
Rochdale. He early wrote verse and painted
grotesque pictures; his rhyming satire, The
Blackbird, appeared in 1739, and his View of the
Lancashire Dialect (in humorous dialogue ), his most:
notable production, in 1775. It has been often
rennet Other works are Truth in a Mask, The
Fortune-teller, The Human Passions. See Life by
Fishwick, prefixed to his works ( Rochdale, 1895).

Collier, JoHN PAYNE, Shakespearian critic and
commentator, was born in London, 11th January
1789, son of an unprosperous merchant who had
succeeded as a reporter and journalist. His parents
were friends of Lamb,
Wordsworth. The boy passed some years at Leeds,
and early began to write. Still a boy, he became
parliamentary reporter for the Times, next for
the Morning Chronicle, and wrote regularly for
the latter down to 1847. His call to the bar was
delayed till 1829, probably through the odium he
incurred by a foolish volume of satirical verse. His
real literary career commenced in 1820 with the
publication of The Poetical Decameron. From 1825
to 1827 he issued a new edition of Dodsley’s Old
Plays, and in 1831 his best work, a History of
English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shake-

eare, and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration.
This opened up to him the libraries of Lord Francis.
Gower, afterwards Lord Egerton and Earl of Elles-
mere, and of the Duke of Devonshire, the latter
ap ointing him his librarian. From 1835 to 1839
Collier published his New Facts regarding the life
and works of Shakespeare, followed by an edition
of Shakespeare (8 vols. 1842-44), and supplemented
by Shakespeare’s Library (2 vols. 1844), a reprint
of the histories, novels, and early dramas on which
Shakespeare founded his plays. He was one of the
leading members of the Camden Society from its.
foundation in 1838, and he edited for its issues Bale’s
Kynge Johan (1838), the Egerton. Papers (1840),
and the Trevelyan Papers (1857 and 1863). He
contributed ten publications (1840-44) to the Perey
Society, and twenty-one (1841-51) to the Shake-
speare Society, of me he was long director. In
1852 he announced his discovery of an extensive
series of marginal annotations in a_ 17th-cen-
tury hand on a copy of the second Shakespeare
folio (1631-32) he had bought—the famous Perkins.
folio, so called from a name inscribed on the cover.
Late in the same year he published these to the
world as Notes and Emendations to the Plays of
Shakespeare, and calmly lifted them into the text.
in his 1853 edition of Shakespeare, and again in
his annotated six-volume Shakespeare in 1858.
The emendations caused a great commotion in the
literary world, and were furiously applauded or
furiously assailed. The best Shakespearian students
were more or less sceptical, but 8S. W. Singer and
E. A. Brae were the first to express openly an
unfavourable opinion. The latter also attacked
Collier’s alleged discovery of his suspiciously long-

azlitt, Coleridge, and .

es ee
‘ ° : ws .

_—

COLLIERS AND SALTERS

COLLINS 349

’ Jost notes of Coleridge’s lectures on Shakespeare
and Milton, delivered in 1811. Collier, in the
course of abortive proceedings for libel against
Brae’s publisher, swore to the truth of his state-
ments respecting both the Perkins folio and his
Coleridge notes. Meantime he had been judi-
cious enough to keep his folio from the eyes of
experts, but at length in 1859, the Duke of Devon-
, to whose predecessor Collier had given it
in 1853, sent it, at Sir F. Madden’s request, to
the British Museum for examination. The result
was a conclusive proof, by Mr N. Hamilton in
letters to the Zimes, and more completely in his
Inquiry (1860), that the boasted 17th-century
emendations were entirely recent fabrications.
Still further forgeries were later brought to light
in Mr Warner’s Catalogue of MSS. at Dulwich
College (1883), from which Collier had prepared
three publications for the ng ig 1 Society.
Collier replied angrily in the Times, in his
long Reply (1860), the disingenuousness of which
injured his reputation as much as the facts
of his antagonist. The controversy widened, but
every competent writer concluded against Collier,
the only question that remained uncertain being
whether he himself was merely a dupe or more.
Unhappily for the name of a sound scholar ruined
by one fatal weakness, this too was answered by
the discovery after his death of some manipulated
books in his own ag SY In 1847 Collier was
named secretary to the Royal Commission on the
British Museum, and in 1850 he removed to Maiden-
head, where he died 17th September 1883. He
had enjoyed since October 1850 a civil list pension
of £100. His later books were A Booke of Rox-
burghe Ballads (1847), Extracts from the Registers
of the Stationers’ Company (2 vols. 1848-49), The
Dramatic Works of Thomas Heywood (1850-51), a
good edition of Spenser (5 vols. 1862), a series of
small reprints of rare 18th and 17th century pieces
in prose and verse (1863-71), Bibliographical and
Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English
seamuage (1865), and An Old Man’s Dia Forty
Years Ago (1871-72). See Dr Ingleby’s Demapiats
View of the Shakspere Controversy (1861).
Colliers and Salters. See, under Slavery,
Vol. IX. page 500, section SERFDOM.
Collimator, a subsidiary telescope used to
detect or correct errors in collimation (i.e. in
directing the sight to a fixed object) when adjust-
ing for transit observations. hen the vertical
thread in the field of view exactly coincides with
the vertical axis of a telescope, the instrument is
collimated vertically; and when the horizontal
spider’s thread just covers the horizontal axis, the
instrument is correct in horizontal collimation. If

three solid piers stand on the meridian, so that the
telescope to be tested can be laid between the col-
limators and have its axis coincident with both of
theirs, the principle of correction becomes almost
self-obvious. Removing the great telescope, the
collimators (AA’ and BB’ in fig.) are adjusted till

the cross-wires in one coincide perfectly with those
of the other in all possible positions. Then re-
placing the ‘transit circle,’ it is examined and
tested by reference, first to one, and then the other
collimator, the verification requiring that it be
turned through 180° till the threads in the three
fields of view absolutely coincide, and the collima-
tion is pronounced perfect.

Practical astronomers set great value on the col-
limator (in the arrangement just described) for
having entirely superseded the ‘meridian mark.’
By Rittenhouse’s principle a telescope can become
its own collimator, especially in determining the
nadir point. When the axis is vertical over a
vessel containing mercury, the telescope will be
collimated when the cross-wires are brought to exact
coincidence with their image seen in the mercury.
See TELESCOPE.

Collingwood, a town of Ontario, on the south
shore of Georgian Bay, where it connects the rail-
ways with the Huron lake steamers, It has several
factories, ship-yards, and grain-elevators, and a con-
siderable trade in lumber and grain. Pop. (1871)
2829 ; (1891) 4940.

Collingwood, Curnupert, Lorp, admiral,
was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 26th September
1750. Sent to sea as a volunteer at the age of
eleven, his life thenceforth, with the exception of
some half-dozen years, was spent wholly on board
ship. From 1778 his career was closely connected
with that of Nelson, whom he followed up the
ladder of promotion step by step, until Nelson’s
death left the topmost round vacant for himself.
Among the great naval victories in which Colling-
wood bore a prominent part, were those of Lord
Howe off Brest in 1794; of Lord Jervis off Cape
St Vincent in 1797; and of Trafalgar in 1805,
where he held the second command. In the last-
named engagement, his ship was, by Nelson’s com-
mand, the first to break through the line of the com-
bined French and Spanish fleets ; and after Nelson
had received his death-wound, he assumed the
chief direction. A peerage was his reward for his

llant conduct in this battle. He died at sea,

th March 1810, but was buried beside Nelson, in
St Paul’s. Collingwood was not the stuff great
tacticians are made of, and his talents as a com-
mander-in-chief were at best mediocre ; but he was
a brave and capable seaman, earnest and pious asa .
man, firm and mild as an officer, and admirable as
a second in command. See his Correspondence and
Life, by his son-in-law (1828), and shorter Lives of
him by W. Davies (2d ed. 1878) and Clark Russell
(1891).

Collins, ANTHONY, deist, was born 2lst June
1676, at Heston, near Hounslow, in Middlesex,
and was the son of a country gentleman. He
studied at Eton and at King’s College, rate ag
and became the disciple and friend of John Locke.
In 1707 he published his Lssay concerning the Use
of Human Ban ; and in 1709, his Priesteraft in

erfection. The controversy excited by this last
work induced Collins to write his Historical and
Critical Essay on the Thirty-nine Articles. His
next work was a Vindication of the Divine Attri-
butes, in reply to King, Archbishop of Dublin, who
asserted the compatibility of Divine Predestination
and Human Freedom. Collins was a_philoso-
phical Necessitarian, and afterwards advocated his
opinions more fully in his Philosophical Inqui
concerning Liberty and Necessity (1715). In 171
he visi Holland, where he made the friendshi
of Le Clere and other eminent (terati. In 171
he published his Discourse on Free-thinking, the
best known, and the most important of all his
works; to it Bentley made reply in his famous
Remarks. In 1713 Collins made a second visit to

350

COLLINS

Holland; and in 1718 he was made treasurer for
the county of Essex. In 1724 appeared his Grounds
and Reasons of the Christian Heligion. The con-
tention that no fair interpretation of the Old
Testament prophecies will secure a correspondence
between them and their alleged fulfilment in the
New Testament, created a violent controversy,
and called forth no fewer than thirty-five replies.
Two years later he defended himself in his Scheme
of Literal Prophecy ; and in 1727 he published his
last work, the Scheme of Literal Prophecy Con-
sidered. Collins died 13th December 1729.

Collins, Mortimer, a versatile writer, was
born the son of a solicitor at Plymouth, June 29,
1827. He was educated at private schools, and
held for some years a mathematical mastership in
Guernsey, which he resigned in 1856 to devote him-
self entirely to literature. He settled at Knowl
Hill in Berkshire, and kept up an incessant activity
in the varied forms of articles on current politics,
novels, and playful verses until his death, 28th
July 1876. is physical was equal to his mental
ph Gio he was tall and remarkably strong, an
athlete, a lover of dogs, flowers, and outdoor-life.
His old-world Toryism and hatred of irrever-
ence and irreligion, his humour, his wonderful
facility in extemporising clever verse, his chess-
playing, not to say his mathematics, made him a
delightful companion, and endeared him to such
friends as R. H. Horne, Frederick Locker, Edmund
Yates, and R. D. Blackmore. His volumes of verse
were Summer Songs (1860), Idyls and Rhymes
(1865), and The ya of Strange Meetings (1871).
Of his numerous novels the chief are Sweet Anne
Page (1868); The Marquis and Merchant (1871);
Two Plunges for a Pearl (1872); Mr Carington,
by ‘ Robert Turner Cotton’ (1873); Transmigration
(1874) ; From Midnight to Midnight (1875); and A
Fight with Fortune (1876). His second wife, who
died March 17, 1885, collaborated with him in
Frances (1874), Sweet and Twenty (1875), and in
two novels published posthumously, The Village
Comedy (1876) and You Play me False (1878);
and wrote alone A Broken Lily (1882). One of his
most popular books was The Secret of Long Life
(1871), a collection of essays at first published
anonymously, The pious affection of his friends
kept his memory green by editing from his papers
Pen Sketches by a Vanished Hand, by Tom tay or,
(1879); Aétice Salt, a selection of epigrammatic
sayings from all his books, by F. Kers ake (1880) ;
and Thoughts in My Garden, by E. Yates (1882).
See his wife’s account of his Life (1877), and his
Select Poetical Works (1886).

Collins, WILLIAM, a distinguished English
oet, was born at Chichester, 25th December 1721.
is father was a hatter in that town, of which he
was several times mayor. Collins received the
rudiments of his education at the prebendal school
of his native town. At the age of twelve he was
sent to Winchester School, where he remained seven
years. While there he wrote his Oriental Ecloques,
which in his own day, and for a considerable period
afterwards, were the most popular of his produc-
tions. He was himself convinced that this pre-
ference was misplaced, and the world has long
since come round to his opinion. In 1741 he
roceeded to Oxford, where he was distinguished
y ‘his genius and indolence.’ Having taken the
degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1743, he shortly after-
wards left the university for reasons which are not
accurately known. His private means being but
slender, he obtained the title to a curacy, but was dis-
suaded from entering the church. As his only other
alternative, he took up his residence in London, and
sought to make a living by literature, a profession
for which he was utterly unfitted by his desultory

ways and uncertain health. He now fell into
what are vaguely described as ‘irregular habits,’

and was at times reduced to the greatest straits.

On one occasion Dr Johnson rescued him from the

hands of bailiffs by obtaining an advance from a.
bookseller on the promise of Collins to translate
the Poetics of Aristotle. It was during this period,

however, that he wrote his Odes, upon which his
fame as a poet now rests. They attracted no
notice at the time of their publication, and they

were little valued even by such contemporaries as.
Gray and Dr Johnson. By the death of an uncle

in 1749, Collins inherited the sum of £2000, which

enabled him to retire to Chichester, and apparently

to pursue a regular course of study. It was about,
this time that he met Home, the author of Douglas,

to whom he addressed his Ode on the Popular
Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland, a poem
in which, according to Mr Russell Lowell, ‘the
whole Romantic School is foreshadowed.’ The ode
was first published in the Transactions of the Royal.
Society of Edinburgh (1788). Before 1753, Collins.
felt the approaches of the mental disease to which
he finally succumbed, and sought relief in a visit to
France. On his return he gradually became worse,

and in 1753 his reason completely gave way. He
lived for six years longer in this state, though
with lucid intervals. He died on 12th June 1759,

so unknown to fame that no newspaper or magazine:
of the day has any notice of his death.

Collins, like Gray, holds a middle position be-
tween the school of Pope and the school of Words-
worth. In his maturer work he is almost completely
free from the so-called ‘ poetic diction’ of the 18th
century. He has not the passionate rigor, for
nature of later poets, but his feeling is at least.
real and not conventional. _In respect of naturah
poetic gifts, Coleridge, and Mrs Browning, and
other high authorities, place him above his con-
temporary, Gray. His choice of subjects, however,
and his subtler modes of treatment, debar him from.
the popularity of the author of the Elegy. His.
most highly finished ode is that To Evening, which
is unsurpassed for exquisiteness of tone and diction.
The ode entitled The Passions has merits of a differ-
ent order, but evinces genius of even wider scope.
The allegorical character of this ode and its com-.
panion pieces, Jo Liberty, To Mercy, and To Pity,
removes them from direct human sympathy. That
Collins was capable of simplicity and pathos, how-
ever, is shown by his two most popular poems, On
the Death of the Poet Thomson, and his lines begin-
ning ‘ How sleep the brave.’

Collins, WILuIAM, R.A., landscape and figure
painter, was born in London, September 8, 1788, of
a Wicklow family. In 1807 he entered the Royal
Academy as a student, and in the same year he
exhibited two small landscapes. In 1812 his ‘Sale:
of the Pet Lamb’ was sold for 140 guineas, and
from this time his pictures became popular. He
exhibited 169 works, of which the best known are
the ‘ Blackberry Gatherers’ and ‘The Birdeatchers’
(1814), which gained his associateship ; ‘Scene on
the Coast of Norfolk’ (1815), now at Windsor ;
‘The Fisherman’s Departure’ (1826), ‘As Happy as.
a King’ (1836), and ‘Early Morning’ (1846). Collins.
was elected R.A. in 1820. He studied and sketched
in Italy in 1836-38, and in 1839 sent to the Acad-
emy several Italian subjects. Two pictures on
sacred subjects (1840-41) were not particularly
successful, and he wisely fell back on his green.
fields, his sea-beaches, his rustics, and his children
at their games. A visit to the Shetland Islands.
in 1842 supplied materials for the illustrations of
Seott’s Pirate. Collins died in London, February
17, 1847. See his Life (1848) by his elder son,
William Wilkie Collins.—His second son, CHARLES
ALLSTON COLLINS (1828-73), in early life painted.

Se ee ee ae a
7 - i a.
: : "

bury,
Italy.

COLLINS
a number of pictures which are highly valued by
collectors. In 1860 he married the younger

daughter of Charles Dickens, and having already
turned his attention to literature, produced The
Eye-witness essays (1860), two novels, and other
works, all exhibiting high promise.

Co WILLIAM WILKIE, novelist, elder son
of William Collins, R.A., was born in London, 8th
January 1824. He was educated puss at High-

but during 1836-39 was with his parents in
After his return he ares four years in busi-
ness, and then entered Lincoln’s Inn ; but gradually
took to literature, the Life of his father (1848) being
his earliest production. To it succeeded Antonina,
or the Fall of Rome (1850); Basil (1852); Hide and
Seek (1854); The Dead Secret (1857); The Woman
in White (1860); No Name (1862); Armadale (1866);
The Moonstone (1868); The New Magdalen (1873),
&c.—in all, fully a score of novels and collections
of novelettes. veral of them originally appeared
in Household Words, All the Year Round, the
Cornhill, and other periodicals. The best is The
Woman in White, whose ‘Count Fosco’ is reall
a creation, and in which the author’s almost invari-
able method of unfolding an intricate plot by
narratives of the chief dramatis persone had not
grown hackneyed. The Moonstone also is a strong
story. Died September 23, 1889.

Collinson, PETER, botanist, was born at Hugal
Hall, near Windermere, 14th January 1694, and
became a manufacturer of hosiery, having a large
business with the American colonies. He was
early distinguished as a naturalist, studied ento-
mology and botany, and in 1745 communicated to
Franklin his first intimation of the recent advance
of electrical science in Europe. But it was as a
botanist he was most distinguished. He intro-
duced the culture of numerous European plants
into the United States, and introduced American

trees into rae He died llth August 1768.
A genus of labiate plants’ was named Collinsonia
after him.

Collisions. See RarLways, Wrecks, RULE
OF THE ROAD.

_Collodion (Gr. kollao, ‘1 stick’) is a_solu-
tion of Gun-cotton (q.v.) or pyroxylin. Cotton
itself is not soluble in aleohol or ether, but when
treated, either in the form of cotton-wool, rags, or
paper, with a mixture of five parts of strong nitric
acid, and six of sulphuric acid, it is found that it
can now be dissolved in ether, or in a mixture of
ether and alcohol. To this modification the name
pyroxylin is pole There are many varieties of
collodion divisible into surgical or medicated collo-
dions, and photo hie collodions. When one

of pyroxylin is dissolved in thirty-six parts of
ether and twelve parts of alcohol, a thickish liquid
is obtained, which evaporates rapidly, leaving a
thin film of pyroxylin. As an application to
wounds, where it is desired to keep the edges close
together, this form of collodion is of use, owing to
the contractility of the pyroxylin film which it
leaves, but for general purposes a flexile or flexible
collodion, as it is called, is desirable. This is pro-
duced by the addition of a little Canada balsam
and castor-oil to the ordinary variety. Flexile
collodion is largely used as a covering for abraded
surfaces, as a remedy for burns, for sore nipples,

&c., and it is also the basis for many medicated
collodions, such as styptic collodion, cantharidal
or blistering collodion, &e. Salicylated collodion
is well known as a popular corn cure, and it is
certainly most effectual in removing hard or soft
corns with but slight inconvenience. It contains,
in addition to wee acid, the active principle,
a little extract of Indian hemp, which prevents
the slight pain, which might otherwise prove

COLMAN 351
troublesome. Collodion plays a very important.
part in Photography (q.v.),

Colloid is a name applied by Graham to any
soluble substance which, when exposed to dialysis
(see OSMOSE), does not pass through the porous
membrane. Starch, gum, albumen, and gelatin are
examples of colloids ; and the name is used in con-
tradistinction to crystalloids.

Collot d’Herbois, Jean Marie, a French
revolutionist of infamous notoriety, was born in
Paris in 1750. Originally a provincial actor, he was.
attracted by the Revolution to Paris, where his im-
pudence, his loud voice, and his Almanach du Pére
Gérard, secured him the public ear and his election
for Paris to the National Convention. In 1793 he
became president of the Convention and a member
of the murderous Committee of Public Safety.
Sent by Robespierre to Lyons in November of the
same year, he took bloody revenge by guillotine
and hot on the inhabitants for having once
hi him off the stage in the theatre. His popu-
larity at length exciting the envy of Robespierre,
Collot d’Herbois for his own safety joined in the
successful plot for the overthrow of Robespierre
and his party in July 1794; but the reaction that.
followed this happy event proved fatal to him-
self, He was expelled from the Convention, and
sentenced to deportation to Cayenne, where he
died in misery that deep debauches couid not
stupefy, January 8, 1796.

Collusion, a deceitful agreement between two
or more persons to defraud or prejudice a ‘third
person, or for some improper purpose. The most:
common cases of collusion occur in arrangements.
between bankrupts and their creditors, such as.
payment by preeieetion to a favoured creditor on
the approach of bankruptcy, arrangements for
granting preferences by circuitous transactions or
otherwise. Transactions in which there is evidence
of collusion are reducible at common law, and
many of the same nature are struck at by the
bankruptey statutes. Collusion in judicial pro-
ceedings is an agreement between two persons that
one should institute a suit inst the other in
order to obtain a judicial decision for some sinister’
i arent The judgment so obtained is null. Col-
usion between petitioner and respondent in a suit.
for dissolution of marriage bars the suit.

Collyrium is a term for various kinds of eye-
salve or eye-wash.

Colman, GEORGE, commonly called ‘the Elder,’
a dramatic author and theatrical manager, was.
born at Florence in 1732. In 1760 his first
dramatic piece, entitled Polly Honeycomb, was
roduced at Drury Lane with great success,
ext year he gave to the world his comedy of The
Jealous Wife, and in conjunction with Garrick,
he wrote The Clandestine Marriage, which was.
layed at Drury Lane, 20th February 1766. In
767 he became one of the purchasers of Covent
Garden Theatre, and held the office of acting
manager for seven years, after which period he
sold his share. In 1777 he purchased the patent.
of the theatre in the Haymarket from Mr Foote.
In 1785 he was attacked by paralysis, which caused
a gradual decay of his mental powers, and he died
in confinement on 14th August 1794. Colman was.
an industrious author; besides poetry and transla-
tions, he wrote and adapted upwards of thirty
dramatic pieces.

Colman, GEoRGE, ‘the Younger,’ son of the
receding, was born October 21, 1762. His bent
ay in the same direction as his father’s, during
whose illness he acted as manager of the Hay-
market Theatre; and on the death of the elder
Colman, George III. transferred the patent to his

352 COLMAN

COLOGNE

son. Colman held, till the time of his death, the
office of Examiner of Plays, to which he was
Sppagees on 19th January Ysb4, and in which he
behaved with great arrogance. In industry he
rivalled his father, and he received large sums for
his dramatic writings, some of which continue in
possession of the stage. He was twice married,
and died on the 17th October 1836. In 1830 he
epee a very imperfect autobiography, which
1e named Records of My Life ; but his most notori-
ous work is the prefacé to his play of Zhe Iron
Chest, in which he furiously attacked John Kemble.

Colman, SAMUEL, American painter, born in
Portland, Maine, in 1832, studied in Europe in
1860-62, was elected a member of the National
Academy in 1862, and first president (1866-71)
of the American Society of Painters in Water-
colours. He has travelled extensively, and his
ape include seenes from Algeria, Germany,

rance, Italy, and Holland.

Colmar, the capital of the German district of
Upper Alsace, stands on a plain near the Vosges,
42 miles SSW. of Strasburg by rail. Among the
principal public buildings of Colmar are the church
of St Martin (1263), the Dominican convent of
Unterlinden, now a museum, the college, court-
house, and town-hall. Colmar is one of the chief
seats of the cotton manufacture in Alsace. Other
manufactures are paper, leather, ribbons, and
hosiery. Colmar is an old place, having been
raised to the rank of a free imperial city in 1226.
It rapidly became one of the most prosperous towns
in Ue Alsace. Fortified in 1552, its fortifica-
tions were razed in 1673 by Louis XIV. Pleasant
boulevards now occupy their place. Colmar was
formally ceded to France in 1697, but was recovered
by Germany in 1871. Pop. (1875) 23,778; (1885)
26,537 ; (1890) 30,399.

Colne, a town in the east of Lancashire, on a
high ridge near the source of the Calder, a western
branch of the Ribble, 26 miles N. of Manchester by
rail. It has manufactures of cotton calicoes and
mousselines-de-laine ; and it was formerly a seat of
the woollenindustry. Slate and lime abound. Man
Roman coins have been found at Colne. Pop. with
Marsden (1881) 11,971; (1891) 16,774.

Colney Hatch, a village of Middlesex, 64
miles N. of London, with a great lunatic asylum,
opened in 1851.

Colocasia. See Cocco.

Colocynth (Gr. kolokynthis), a well-known
medicine, much used as a purgative, is the dried
and powdered pulp of the Colocynth Gourd, Colo-

uintida, Bitter Apple, or Bitter Cucumber, a glo-

ose fruit about the size of an orange, of a uniform

ellow colour, with a smooth, thin, solid rind.

he plant which produces it, Cucumis (or Citrul-
lus) Colocynthis, is nearly allied to the Cucumber
(q.v.). It is found very widely distributed over
the Old World, growing in immense quantities on
the sand hillocks of Egypt and Nubia. It is also
common in India, Portugal, Spain, and Japan. It
has long been known for its purgative properties,
and as early as the llth century was in use in
Britain. The main supplies of the drug are
obtained from Mogador, Spain, and Syria. The
fruit is gathered when it begins to turn yellow,
peeled, and dried quickly either in a stove or in
the sun. It is chiefly in the form of a dried extract
that it is used in medicine. It owes its properties
to a bitter principle called Colocynthine, which is
more or less abundantly present in the fruits of
many of the gourd family. It is a curious fact,
but to which there are many analogies, that the
seeds of the colocynth plant, produced in the midst
of its medicinal pulp, are perfectly bland, and they
even form an important article of food in the north

of Africa.—The name False Colocynth is some-
times given to the Orange Gourd (Cucurbita aur-
antia), sometimes cultivated as an ornamental
plant in our gardens, on account of its globose,
deep-orange fruit. The pulp of the fruit possesses
the properties of colocynth, but in a milder degree.

Colocynth is generally administered in the form
of pills, in which the extract is associated with
aloes, sceammony, and in some cases with calomel
or with extract of hyoscyamus. In small doses,
the colocynth acts as a safe and useful purgative ;
and when accompanied by hyoseyamus, the latter
prevents much of the pain and griping which are
attendant on the use of colocynth by itself. In
large doses, colocynth is a poison. Colocynth
enters into the composition of some moth powders,
and renders them very efficacious.

Cologne (Ger. Kéln), a city and free port on
the left bank of the Rhine, 362 miles by rail
WSW. of Berlin, 175 SE. of Rotterdam, 149 E.
of Brussels, and 302 NE. of Paris. Formerly an
independent city of the German empire, it is
now the capital of Rhenish Prussia. Cologne
is a fortress of the first rank, forming a semi-
circle, with the Rhine as its chord, and the town
of Deutz on the opposite bank as a téte-du-pont.
It is connected with this suburb by a bridge of
boats, and an iron bridge 1362 feet in eos
for railway and carriage traffic. Pop. in 1871,
129,233 ; (1891) 282,537; (1895) 321,964—one-sixth
being Protestants. The old streets are narrow
and crooked; but the area freed by the removal
of the ancient fortifications, which dated orig-
inally from the 13th century, is laid out on a
more spacious plan. This area, which doubles
that occupied by the old town, was purchased in
1882 by the corporation for about £600,000; its
most prominent feature is the handsome ‘ Ring-
strasse’ or boulevard, nowhere less than 60 feet
wide, which encircles the entire old town. The
new fortifications include a number of detached
forts, planted round Cologne and Deutz, within a
radius of about 4 miles from the cathedral. The
ancient buildings in Cologne, both secular and
ecclesiastical, are of great architectural interest ;
the Romanesque and Transition styles are specially
well represented in the numerous churches of the
llth, 12th, and 13th centuries. The church of St
Maria im Capitol, consecrated in 1049, is the
earliest example in Cologne of a church with a
trefoil-shaped ground-plan for transepts and choir.
In the church of St Ursula are preserved the bones
of the 11,000 virgins, companions of St Ursula
(q.v.). The church of St Gereon boasts of the
possession of the bones of St Gereon, and of
the 308 martyrs of the Theban_ legion, slain
during Diocletian’s persecution. The church of
St Peter contains the altar-piece of the cruci-
fixion of St Peter by Rubens, and that of the
Minorites the tomb of the famous scholastic, Duns
Scotus.

The chief object of interest in the city, however,
as well as its greatest ornament, is the cathedral,
one of the nitlest specimens of Gothic architec-
ture in Europe. This cathedral is said to have had
its origin in an erection by Archbishop Hildebold,
during the reign of Charlemagne in 814. Frederic
Barbarossa, bestowed upon it, in 1162, the bones
of the three Magi (q.v.), which he took from
Milan, and this gift greatly increased its import-
ance. The bones are retained as precious relics to
this day; but the old structure was burned in 1248.
According to some accounts, the present cathedral
was begun in the same year, but others fix the
date of its commencement in 1270-75. To whom
the design of this noble building is to be ascribed
is uncertain. The choir, the first part completed,
was consecrated in 1322. The work was carried on,

_ executed was not properly kept in repair.

COLOGNE

COLOMBIA 353

sometimes more actively, sometimes more slowly,
till 1509, when it was suspended; and during
the subsequent centuries what had been already

Cologne Cathedral.

the beginning of the 19th century, however, the
necessary funds to repair and complete it according
to the original design, have been supplied by sub-
scriptions from al) parts of Germany. The work
of renovation began in 1823, and in 1842 the
foundation-stone of the new part was laid. The
naves, aisles, and transepts were opened in 1848 ;
the magnificent south portal was completed in
1859; in 1860 the iron central fléche was added ;
and with the exception of the western spires, the
church was completed in 1863. The spires, the
crown of the edifice, were finished in 1880, and on
October 15 the completion of the work was cele-
brated before the Emperor William I. The body of
the church measures 440 feet in length, and 240
feet in breadth; the spires rise 515 feet above the
pavement of the nave. Since 1823, upwards of
£1,000,000 has been expended on the building ;
the total cost of the whole is estimated at
£2,000,000. For the ‘ Kaiserglocke,’ see BELL.
Among the chief secular buildings of Cologne are
the town-house, begun in the l4th century upon
Roman foundations ; the Giirzenich (1441-52), the
finest secular Gothie erection in Cologne, a public
banqueting-hall, now containing the exchange ;
the modern law-courts; and the Wallraf-Richartz
Museum, containing a good collection of paintings.

The educational and benevolent institutions of
Cologne are numerous and well equipped. The
town has recently acquired a high reputation for
music. The situation of Cologne is extremely
favourable for commerce. Various branches of
manufacture are carried on, of which the chief are
the making of beet-sugar, tobacco, glue, carpets,
soap, leather, furniture, pianos, chemicals, and
spirits of wine, besides the characteristic manufac-
ture of Ean-de-Cologne (q.v.). In 1886, 4859 craft
entered, and 3190 cleared, the port of Cologne.
Cologne has extensive and important railway con-
nections.—The city was founded by the Ubii, about
37 B.C., and was at first called Ubiorum oppidum ;

127

but a colony being planted here in 50 A.D. by
Agrippina, the wife of the Emperor Claudius, it
received the name of Colonia Agrippina. At the

Since | partition of the Frank monarchy in 511, it was

included in Austrasia ;
and by a treaty in 870,
it was united to the Ger-
man empire. It entered
the league of the Hanse
towns in 120], and con-
tended with Liibeck for
the first rank. The
merchants of Cologne
carried on commerce far
and wide, and had ware-
houses in London, near
the Guildhall. Cologne
was at a very early period
the seat of a bishopric,
which was elevated, at
the end of the 8th cen-
tury, into an arch-
bishopric. —The arch-
bishops acquired consid-
erable territories, some
of them distinguishing
themselves as politicians
and warriors. They took
their place amongst the
princes and electors of
the empire, but were in-
volved in a protracted
contest with the citizens
of Cologne, who asserted
against them the inde-
pendence of the city; and
the archiepiscopal resi-
dence was therefore removed to Bonn. The arch-
bishopric was secularised in 1801, when the city also
lost its independence, and the congress of Vienna
did not attempt to restore to it its former character,
but assigned the whole territories to Prussia. The
archbishop, therefore, has not now the political
rights and power that belonged to his predecessors.

Colombia, a republic occupying the north-
west corner of the South American continent,
and including also the Isthmus of Panama.
Its limits were officially stated in 1887 as 12°
25’ N.—5° 8’ S. lat., and 70° 40’—82° 40’ W.
long., and its area was estimated at 513,938 sq.
miles (nearly as large as Great Britain, France,
and Spain together), exclusive of most of its
hundreds of islands and keys, which stretch as
far north as the Mosquito coast. The population
amounts to about 4,000,000, including some 200,000
uncivilised Indians who inhabit the remote forests.
The situation of Colombia, washed by two oceans,
with a total coast-line of nearly 3000 miles, posses-
sing all along the Atlantic shore and on the Pacific
side of Panama commodious bays and lagoons, and
with several fair harbours even on the less favoured
coast to the south, presents great commercial pos-
sibilities—though it has lost an expected impulse
by the stoppage of the Panama Canal through the
north-west department. The surface of the country
is extremely varied, with lofty mountains in the
west, and vast plains in the east scarcely above the
level of the sea. For the mountains, see ANDES.
This system spreads out in three great ranges, like
the rays of a fan, from the extensive plateau of
Pasto in the south-west; thus forming valleys
running from north to south parallel to the three
chains, except where disproportionate activity of
the voleanic forces has caused an upheaval of the
country near them. The fundamental formations
of the country are igneous and metamorphic, and
everywhere are traces of the disturbances (still not
unfrequent in the form of earthquakes) that have

354

COLOMBIA

upheaved plateaus and opened fractures that now
mark the courses of the principal rivers. Of the
sections outside the main Cordilleras, the princi-
pal are the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in
the north, and the low Baudo range, along the
north-west coast, which extends into Panama.
From the Central Cordillera descend the two
principal rivers of Colombia, the Magdalena and
its tributary the Cauca, which flow north into the
Caribbean Sea, besides several affluents of the
Amazon in the east, and the Patia, which forces
its way to the Pacific, through a gorge between
cliffs 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, and forms the only
notable break in the long wall of the Western
Cordillera from Darien to Patagonia. The Eastern
Cordillera, by far the largest chain, consists of a
series of extensive tablelands, cool and. healthy,
where the white race flourishes as vigorously as in
Europe. This temperate region is the most thickly
populated portion of the republic; and on one of
its plateaus, at an elevation of 8694 feet, stands
the capital, Bogoté (q.v.). Eastward from this
Cordillera stretch vast Jl/aiios or plains, through
which flow the Meta, the Guaviare, and other
tributaries of the Orinoco. Besides these, the chief
rivers are the San Juan (navigable 150 miles), on
the Pacific coast; the Atrato (q.v.) and Zulia (150
miles), flowing north; the Arauca (600), which,
as well as the Meta (700) and Guaviare (850),
feeds the Orinoco; and the Caqueta (1350), the
Putumayo (1100), and the Napo (750), tributaries
of the Amazon. The lakes are unimportant.
Climate and Productions.—In the course of one
day’s journey, the traveller may experience in this
country all the climates of the world; perpetual
snows cover the summits of the Cordilleras, while
the valleys are smothered in the rich vegetation
of the tropics. The mean temperature ranges
from 32° to 82°, according to the elevation. he
climate of Panama is notoriously unwholesome,
and in some parts of Bolivar and Magdalena, in
the north, marsh fevers abound. The rainy season
falls from November to April, except among the
low-lying forests of the south-east, where the rain-
fall is distributed throughout the year, and in the
Choeé coast district of the north-west, where, shut
in from the north-east winds, the heavy atmo-
sphere hangs motionless, anid mists and torrents of
rain alternate. Colombia naturally yields a variety
of productions corresponding to this great diversit,
of climate and of elevation. The hot region, extend-
ing to an elevation of about 3200 feet, produces in
abundance rice, cacao, sugar-cane, bananas, yams,
tobacco, indigo, cotton, caoutchouc, vegetable ivory,
arid many medicinal plants; and the forests, with
their tagua and other stately palms, their rare
balsamic resins and valuable dyewoods, are ablaze
with flowers and creepers, and steeped in the
perfume of the delicate vanilla orchid. In the
temperate zone, from 3200 to 8500 feet above the
sea, many of these plants are equally common, but
the cocoa-nut palm gives place to the oak, the
encenillo, groups of laurels, and arborescent ferns,
and here flourish the coffee plant, the odorous
Cherimoya (q.v.) and curibano, the fig, and the
cinchona-tree. The Wax-palm (q.v.) extends
beyond this region, and is found at a_height
of nearly 11,000 feet, and large crops of potatoes,
grain, and leguminous plants are raised in the
cold region; but from 10,000 feet rises the bleak
dramo, with its scanty vegetation, ending in
ichens at the snow-line. The fauna of Colom-
bia is very extensive. Both coasts abound with
turtles and _pearl-oysters; the rivers swarm with
fish and alligators, and on their marshy banks
the capybara is found; the forests are the haunt
of the tapir, armadillo, cavy, opossum, and deer,
and during the day are alive with monkeys

(of which no less than seventeen species are:
common), squirrels, paroquets, and numerous.
bright-plumaged birds, whose notes give place at-
night to the plaintive cry of the sloth. Beasts.
of prey are the jaguar, puma, ocelot, margay,
and bear. The boa and numerous other snakes
are common, but venomous serpents cease at
an elevation of 6000 feet, the centipede and
the chigoe are not met beyond 9850 feet, while
the plague of mosquitoes and ants, and of other
more dangerous insects, is mainly confined to
the lowlands. In the northern departments, and
in the immense llafios of the east, great herds of
cattle, descended from those imported by the
Spaniards, are reared; in the central districts,
shorthorns and other English, Dutch, and Norman
cattle and horses have been introduced, and are
largely raised throughout the temperate zone.
Fish life ceases in the lakes at 13,000 feet; and in
the solitudes above, the condor dwells alone. In
minerals the country is exceedingly rich, although
its scanty population, their poverty, and the
absence of roads have combined to limit the ex-
ploitation of the precious metals. Nevertheless,
in 1887, claims were presented to 751 mines in
Antioquia; and from this department alone over
£400,000 worth of gold is annually exported.
The department of Tolima is the richest in silver.
It is estimated that gold to the value of
£125,000,000, and silver to the value of ney
£7,000,000, have been exported since the 16t
century; and over 95 per cent, of this ore has
been found west of the Magdalena. Iron, copper,
lead, coal, sulphur, zine, antimony, arsenic, cinnabar,
rock-salt, crystal, granite, marble, lime, gypsum,
jet, amethysts, rubies, por hyry, and jasper are
also found; while much of the world’s platinum
is obtained from the upper San Juan, and the
principal source of the finest emeralds is at Muzo
in Boyacd, although there are other mines near
Nemocon, in Cundinamarca.

Commerce, Finance, &c.—The only industries
common to all the departments of Colombia are
agriculture and the rearing of cattle. Coarse cloth
fabrics for the inland trade are manufactured to
some extent in Santander and Boyacd, and china-
ware and cardboard in Antioquia; also soap,
matches, and candles are made in Bogotdé, and
there are two foundries and a shoe factory in
Cundinamarea; but straw-hats, known abroad
by the name of Panama, although they are
made only in certain parts of Tolima, Anti-
oquia, and Santander, are perhaps the only
manufactured article exported from the country.
The transit trade across the Isthmus of Panama,
valued at £15,000,000 per annum, is of far
more consequence than the direct commerce.
The foreign trade proper is mainly with Great
Britain and the United States. The imports are
mostly food-stuffs, textiles, machinery, and iron-
wares ; the exports, coffee, gold, silver, and other
ores, caoutchouc, ivory-nuts, divi-divi, tobacco,
cacao, cotton, cinchona, cattle, balsams, timber
and dyewoods, hides and wool. The average
annual value of imports in the period 1875-84
was $9,662,806, of exports, $13,584,890; in 1893
the value of imports was $13,403,300, and of
exports, $14,630,330; but it is difficult to reduce
these figures to British currency, for although the
dollar has a nominal value of four shillings, the
rate of exchange has since 1878 varied between
five and a half and nine dollars to the pound
sterling. The nation has repeatedly undergone a
severe financial crisis. For the fiscal year 1895-96
the expenditure was estimated at $26,203,950, and
the revenue at $33,801,900, showing a very con-
siderable nominal surplus; in 1894 the internal
debt, floating and consolidated, amounted to

COLOMBIA

355

$9,413,060, the foreign debt was calculated at
$16,400,000, and $26,135,600 of government paper-
money was in circulgtion, There appears, how-
ever, some reason to expect that the measures
adopted to meet the nation’s liabilities may prove
effectual, and the present financial condition of
the republic is said to be comparatively hopeful.
For the rest, the government can only look to rigid
economy and the development of its rich mines,
which it is endeavouring to encourage to the utmost,
for relief from its embarrassments. All enterprise,
however, is sadly hampered by the difficulty of com-
munication. The Magdalena and the other great
streams are the principal arteries of commerce, and
a deal of steamer traffic is carried on ; but,
besides that of Panama, there were in 1895 eight
railways open for traffic, with only a total length
of 220 miles, although several others were expected
to be completed shortly. The telegraph system has
6900 miles of lines, and this and the postal service
(including a parcel post with Great Britain since
1888) are worked as efficiently as the condition of
the country will permit. For the railway, canal,
and other information as to the Isthmus, see the
article PANAMA.

Population.—The chief aborigines of the country,
the Chibchas or Muyscas, who inhabited the plateau
of th ea ranked among the nations of the New
World second to the Aztecs and Peruvians alone.
They worshipped the sun, had a calendar, and
a government closely resembling that of Japan,
lived in communes, were industrious farmers, and
dressed in garments of cotton. Their rich,
beautiful Sia has. been forgotten by their
descendants, but is preserved in a grammar
published at Madrid by the Dominican mission-
ary, Bernardo de Lugo, in 1619. The rest of the
country was occupied by a great number of
tribes, with as many dialects as divisions, sinkin
from the rae of the Chibchas to the nake
savages of the plains, who were little above the
level of the brutes they hunted.. Some of the inter-
mediate races, while understanding Spanish, have
eg their primitive speech ; the uncivilised

ndians are now mostly confined to the eastern
cetine the northern portion of Magdalena, and the
istrict of Darien and the Atrato. The pure whites
form about a fifth of the entire population, and the
Indian half-breeds more than half; there are now
scarcely any pure negroes left in the country, but
the mulattoes and zambos, resulting respectively
from the union of negroes with whites and Indians,
exceed a sixth of the whole. Slavery was finally
abolished in 1852, and in 1870 a system of com-
pulsory education was adopted which has on the
whole proved successful. Parochial, secondary,
normal, and technical schools are now within
general reach, and all the departments boast univer-
sities of more or less efficiency, except joke bys
Tolima, and Panama. Journalism is largely repre-
sented in most of the large towns ; and at the capital
a considerable number of books are published every
year. The state church is the Roman Catholic,
which in the management of its own affairs is inde-
pendent of the civil authority; religious orders
were suppressed in 1863, and toleration in matters
of religion is guaranteed; but, by the terms of
a concordat entered into with the holy see in
1888, in the universities and all educational
establishments public instruction is directed in
conformity with the dogmas of the Roman
Catholic Church, religion is one of the obligatory
subjects of study, and diocesans are empowered
to suspend teachers or professors who neglect or
disobey this order.

_History.—The northern coasts of Colombia were
visited by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci in 1499,
and afterwards by Bastidas; in 1502 Columbus

explored part of the country, and endeavoured, to
found on the Isthmus of Panama the first Spanish
colony on the American mainland. In 1513 Balboa
(q.v.) discovered the Pacific, and Pizarro and

magro sailed along the western coast of Colombia
on their way to Peru in 1526. Ten years later
Jimenez de Quesada broke the wer of the
Muyscan empire, and the Nuevo Reino de Granada
was formed. As the country was opened up, the
Indians sank, in spite of legislation designed for
their protection, to the condition of serfs, and
the policy of the crown, aided by the Inquisi-
tion, which was introduced in 1571, put an end
to the democratic institutions of the early settlers.
The — was administered by the Council of
the Indies ; nearly all posts were sold to Spanish
speculators, who recouped themselves at the
expense of the colonists; and even the com-
merce of the new ions was granted as a
monopoly to the merchants of Seville. The country
formed a presidency (except during the years 1718-
24) from 1564 to 1739, a period memorable for the
disastrous descents of Drake, Morgan, Dampier, and
others on the coast towns; it was then raised to a
viceroyalty, which lasted until the war of inde-
pendence.

On the 20th July 1810 the colony shook off the
yoke of the mother-country, and entered upon
the long struggle which ended in the election of
Bolivar (q.v.) to the presidency of the Republic of
Colombia, a term which, like the viceroyalty, em-
braced all that now belongs to Venezuela, Colombia,
and Ecuador. Independently of the singular difti-
culties of communication, and of the resulting
absence of anything like natural unity, this un-
wieldy state contained from the beginning the
germs of its own dissolution in the national charac-
ter of its inhabitants. So long as union was neces-
sary to meet external dangers, it maintained an
imposing attitude in the eyes of the world; but
gradually sectional interests and ee

id their work, and in 1831 the ill-asso elements
of the confederation were separated forever. What
is now Colombia was then formed under the title of
the Republic of New Granada ; but in 1861 a fresh
civil war led to the establishment of the United States
of Colombia. In 1863 a constitution was adopted,
based on that of the United States of America, with
a president elected for two years; but this proved
altogether unsuited to the Colombians, and, after
twenty years’ trial, brought about the revolution
of 1884-85. In 1886 a fresh constitution was
adopted for the new Republic of Colombia, placing
the central authority in the strengthened hands
of the federal government, and reducing the nine
former self-governing states of Antioquia, Bolivar,
Boyacé, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Pa-
nama, Santander, and Tolima to subordinate
departments, which still, however, retain the
management of their own finances. The executive
authority is vested in a president, whose term is
extended to six years, assisted by a vice-president,
seven ministers, and a council of state; and the
legislative power rests with a senate and House of
Representatives. Capital punishment has been
again established, and the members of the supreme
court of justice are made immovable. The strength
of the army is fixed at 6500 in time of peace, but in
case of war the executive can raise this as cireum-
stances may require.

1871); erra, Diccionario ,G de Colombia
(Bogots, 1879); Pereira, Les Etats-Unis de Colombie
Paris, 1883); Perez, Geografta General ( ota, 1883) ;

Etienne, Nouvelle Gren
Sievers, Reise in der Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
(Leip. 1887); and the same author’s Cordillere von

.

356 COLOMBO

COLONIAL ANIMALS

Mérida (Vienna, 1888) contains some notes on eastern
Santander. See also the Descripcion published by the
Colombian government in 1887, with the supplement
on the trade with Spain, published at Barcelona in
1888; F. ssianconi’s Wotice Descriptive et Carte Com-
merciale (Paris, 1888); and papers by F. A. A. Simons
(1879, ’81, ’85) and R. B. White (1883) in the Proceed-
ings of the Royal Geographical Society.

Colombo, the capital of Ceylon, is situated
on the western side of the island. Since the con-
struction of the great breakwater begun in 1875
(see BREAKWATER), the harbour has been greatly
improved, and commerce has largely increased ;
Colombo having superseded Galle as a Coaling
Station (q.v.) for large steamers. It contains the
povewment offices, is the seat of an Anglican

ishop, and is an important centre of missionary
enterprise. Among the chief buildings are the
government house, court-house, town-hall, asylum,
St Thomas’s College, and Wesley College. The
fortifications of Colombo were constructed by the
Dutch. Colpetty, a beautiful suburb, shaded by
moves of the cocoa-nut palm, is a favourite retreat.

he humble,, mud-constructed dwellings of the
Dutch, Portuguese, Eurasians, Singhalese, Tamils,
Moors, and Malays are outside the city walls.
The pettah or Black Town, the only ancient
- quarter, extends to the river Kalany-ganga. Pop.
(1871) 100,238; (1891) 126,926. Colombo is con-
nected with Kandy by railway. The early name
of Colombo, Kalan-totta, the ‘Kalany Ferry,’ the
Moors corrupted into Kalambu, and by this desig-
nation it was described by Ibn Batuta about 1340
A.D. as the finest city of Serendib. The Portu-

ese, who fortified it 1517 A.D., wrote the name

olombo, in honour of Christopher Columbus. The
Dutch succeeded to the Portuguese, and the British
took Colombo, 16th February 1796. See CEYLON.

Colon, a city of Cuba, 52 miles direct SE. b
E. of Matanzas, with which it is connected by rail.
It is in the centre of the sugar district, and has
several refineries. Pop. (1899) 7175. For Colon,.
Colombia, see ASPINWALL.

Colon, that portion of the large intestine be-
tween the Cecum (q.v.) and the rectum. See
DIGESTION.

Colonel (from the Italian colonello, the ‘leader
of a column’) is the grade of officer next below that
of general. As designating the chief officer of an
English regiment, it superseded in 1588 the title
of captain, in use up to that time. In the British
army, the lieutenant-colonel is commander of the
infantry battalion or cavalry regiment, the office of
regimental colonel being a sinecure. Regimental
colonels are general officers, who have had a
regiment ‘given to them,’ as it is called, as a
reward for long service, and virtually as a retire-
ment. The pay, except in the Guards (where it is
higher), is £1000 a year. In 1888 it was decided
to discontinue these appointments as soon as those
who have a vested diet to sueceed to them have
been satisfied, and it has been decided that no
officer shall obtain the rank of colonel except by
Brevet (q.v.) for distinguished conduct, or on being
selected for certain appointments carrying with
them that rank; such as aide-de-camp to the
sovereign, assistant-adjutant general, and com-
mander of a regimental district. See CoMmmMiIs-
SIONS (ARMY). In the German, Austrian, and
Russian armies, where the regiments are very
large, the colonelcies are mostly honorary posts,
held by royal and other distinguished personages.

Colonia, a department of Uruguay, on the
Plata, below the Uruguay River. The uplands are
barren, but in the fertile valleys and plains are
numerous European colonies, engaged in agriculture
and stock-raising. Area, 2185 sq. m. ; pop. (1895)
35,209. The capital, Colonia del Sacramento, on

the Plata, about 100 miles above Monte Video, has
a good harbour, a dock for vessels of 1000 tons,
ruined fortifications, and:some 1500 inhabitants.
Colonial Animals, organisms which cannot be
fairly regarded as unities, but consist of numerous
more or less similar individuals united in a common
life. Among the usually single-celled simplest
animals or Protozoa, loose colonies not unfrequently
occur, and are of not a little importance as sugges-
tions of the bridge between the single-celled and
many-celled animals. Such colonies arise when the
original cell, instead of reproducing discontinuously,
retains its daughter-cells in union with itself or
with one another, just like the egg-cell of a higher
animal. By sacrifice of individuality at the epoch
of reproduction, a higher unity is formed. In
the same way a simple Sig Sapo es sponge, by
continuous budding, forms a colony of similar
forms, which may possess more or less distinct
individuality. The common fresh-water Hydra, to

mount a step higher, buds off daughter Hydre, _

which remain for a while connected with the
arent organism, and make it temporarily colonial.
This becomes constant in the myriad colonies of
hydra-like forms which are known as Zoophytes, or

ydroids (q.v.). The same formation of colonies
is well illustrated in the higher polyps of the sea-
anemone type, where in Sondoees fingers and
in most corals, compound or colonial organisms
are beautifully illustrated. Some jellytish-like or
medusoid types also become compound, and lead

on to the order Siphonophora, where, as in the ~

Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia) or in Velella,
the occurrence of compound forms is a constant
character. But in this Nast case a further step has
been made, for the individuals not only share a
common nutritive life, but are bound together in a
more intimate way into a true unity of a higher
order. Among simple worm-like forms, chains of
individuals are occasionally formed, as in Oatenula,
and these point to the probable origin of the higher
or segmented worms which consist of a series of
similar ‘joints.’ Even among the higher worms,
temporary compound forms occasionally occur, as
in the fresh-water Nais or the marine Syltis The
Polyzoa afford good illustration of colonial life as
an almost constant character of a class. Finally,
passing beyond the limit of invertebrate animals,
we find the last examples of true colonial organisms
in the Ascidians (q.v.) or Tunicata. The occa-
sional development of double or multiple forms
from a single ovum is among higher animals the
| suggestion of compound organisms.
rom the above illustrations a few general con-
clusions may be drawn. The process of asexual
budding, which leads to the formation of compound
organisms, is commonest in relatively passive vege-
tative animals, like sponges, hydroids, corals,
polyzoa, and ascidians, and is an expression of their
general physiological constitution. When the colo-
nial organism is free-living, as in Siphonophora
and some Tunicata, the individual members are
more closely knit together, and the colony is more
perfectly integrated. As above suggested, some
colonial forms are of importance as illustrating in
loose union an order of individuality, which in
higher types becomes more firmly unified. We
first find loose ‘aggregates;’ at a higher level
these become ‘integrated.’ The loose colonies
of some medusoid types are thus succeeded by
more perfectly integrated forms in the Siphono-
hora. Finally, colonial organisms are of the
ighest physiological interest in illustrating divi-
sion of labour. In a compound organism the
internal and external conditions of life are not uni-
form for all the members ; certain ‘ persons,’ as the
individuals are technically called, exhibit the pre-
dominance of one function, and others of another;

COLONIAL CORPS

COLONY 357

the differences in function thus started bring about
more or less marked difference of structure as
its consequence; and thus division of labour and
‘polymorphism’ or difference in form are estab-
lished. See Perrier, Les Colonies Animales (1882).
Colonial Corps were regiments of the regular
British army, paid out of imperial revenues, and
located in the various colonies where they were
formed. The following corps, and numbers were
provided for in the Army Estimates for 1860-61 :

Three West India Regiments (after-

wards raised to five)............ 8420 Negro.

Newfoundland Veterans............ 229 British.
SEOUNS MANORS sks i-5 on wb a ceddniicn ond 1585 Native.

See TO VRIMES 5 bs oc caw shawecawhs 163 Native.
Cape Mounted Rifles.... 1084 Boers and natives,
Malta Fencibles...............00: 6388 Native.
Canadian Rifles .................+... 1106 British.
St Helena Regiment............... 433 "
Gold Coast Artillery ............... 351 Negro.
Falkland Islands Company......... 37 ‘British.
African Artillerymen..........+...- 64 Negro.
Hong-kong Gunners................ 88 Lascars.

All the officers were British, except those of the
Malta Fencibles. The Cape corps were mounted
infantry. Though maintained out of imperial
revenue, these corps were not available for the

neral defence of the empire, and accordingly have

n gradually disbanded, their places in the colonies
being supplied by levies of local militia. There
still exist, besides African commissariat, ordnance
store, and medical staff corps, one West India
Regiment of two battalions, the Malta Fencibles,
one company of Gun Lascars in Ceylon, and another
at Hong-kong.

Colonial Office. See SECRETARY OF STATE.

Colonial System, also called CoMMERCIAL
SYSTEM, a name for the theory long acted on by
European nations, that their settlements abroad
were to be treated as proprietary domains, exploited
for the benefit of the mother-country, which did
everything it could to import their produce as
cheaply as possible, and encourage them to a large
consumption of home manufactures. The system
was carried to its furthest extent by Spain. See
CoLoNy, FREE TRADE, MERCANTILE SYSTEM,
Monopo.y, NAVIGATION LAws, UNITED STATES.

Colonisation Society. See LIBERIA.

Colonna, CAPE (ancient Sunium Promon-
torium), a headland of Greece, forming the south-
most point of Attica, and crowned by the ruins
of a temple of Minerva, thirteen of whose white
marble columns, from which the cape derives its
modern name, are still standing.

Colonna, a celebrated Roman family, which
took its name from a village among the Alban
Hills, 12 miles ESE. of Rome, and which, from
its numerous castles, vast estates, and crowds
of clients, enjoyed a powerful influence from the
llth to the 16th century. From it have sprung a
pope (Martin V., q.v.), several cardinals, gene
statesmen, and noted scholars, and VITTORIA
COLONNA, the most celebrated tess of Italy.
She was the daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, Con-
stable of Naples, at whose estate of Marino she was
born in 1490. When four years old, she was
betrothed to a boy of the same age, Ferrante
Avalos, son of the Marchese de Pescara ; at seven-
teen ber yer married. After her husband’s death
in the battle of Pavia (1525), Vittoria Colonna
found her chief consolation in solitude and the cul-
tivation of her poetical genius. During seven years
of her widowhood she resided alternately at Monies
and Ischia, and then removed to the convent of
Orvieto, afterwards to that of Viterbo. In her later
years she left the convent, and resided in Rome,
where she died in Febru 1547. She was the
loved friend of Michelangelo, admired by Ariosto

(see canto xxxvii. of the Orlando), and the intimate
associate of the reforming party at the papal court.
Her poems belong chie ‘i to the period followin
her husband’s death, and are remarkable for truth
of sentiment and enlightened piety. They were
first published at Parma in 1538; the most perfect
edition is that of Ercole Visconti (Rom. 1840).
See Mrs H. Roscoe’s Vittoria Colonna, her Life and
Poems (Lond. 1868), and a study by the Hon.
Alethea Lawley (1888).

The family is still distinguished in Italy, three of
its four lines being princely. The Colonna palace,
situated at the base of the Quirinal (Rome), is cele-
brated for its splendid gallery and treasures of art.

Colonna, GIOVANNI PAOLO, composer, born
about 1640, either at Brescia or Bologna, became
principal of the musical academy at Bologna. Of
some 44 works, nearly all were for the church ; his
one opera, Amilcare, was first performed in 1693.
He died 28th November 1695.

Colonsay and Oronsay, two of the Argyll-
shire Hebrides, 16 miles NNW. of Port Askaig in
Islay, separated from each other by a sound, 100
yards wide, and dry at low-water. Colonsay, which
rises to a height of 493 feet, is 16 sq. m. in area;
Oronsay, only 3. On the latter are a sculptured
cross and a 14th-century Austin priory, with some
curious effigies ; whilst in the former are standin
stones, a bone cave, Colonsay House (1722), an
an obelisk to the memory of the lawyer, Duncan
M‘Neill, Lord Colonsay (1794-1874). Pop. (1851)
933 ; (1891) 381, of whom 23 were in Oronsay.

Colony (Lat. colonia), a name somewhat
vaguely applied to the foreign dependencies of a
state. In accordance with its etymology (colonus,
‘cultivator’), a Roman colonia ought to have been
an agricultural community ; but as a matter of fact it
was a military settlement, urban rather than rural,
planted in subject territory. It was essential that
the colonists should remain citizens, who thus both
extended and knit together the power of Rome.
The name survives to this day in Cologne and
Lincoln. The Greek colony (apoikia) consisted of
a band of emigrants, who were impelled by political
dissension or some similar cause to seek a new home
beyond the sea, and who were connected with their
mother-city (metropolis) by no tie stronger than
that of sentiment. According to the legend em-
balmed by Virgil in his 4neid, Rome itself was a
colony, in the Greek sense, of Troy. No Greek
colonists penetrated far inland ; but the shores of
Asia Minor, Sicily, Southern Italy, and even the
Crimea, were at an early date fringed with
commercial settlements, many of which surpassed
in wealth the cities of Greece proper. The Phe-
nicians, who preceded the Greeks as the traders
of the Old World, were not a colonising race.
Carthage, indeed, was an offshoot from Tyre ; but
the wide empire of Carthage was based partly spas
conquest, and partly upon a system of trading
factories.

Colonisation is an incident of a comparatively
settled state of society. The vast land migrations
which have so profoundly affected the populations
of Europe and Asia belong to a different comeeeey
Thus it happens that, after the break-up o
Roman empire, the very idea of a colony is
not heard again until the t outburst of
maritime enterprise in the 16th century. Spain
and Portugal led the way, followed by Holland,
England, and France. Love of adventure, thirst
for gold, the missionary spirit—all combined
to attract the energies of Europe, set free by the
Renaissance, to the New World and to the farther
East. The long and bitter struggle for territorial
aggrandisement beyond the seas went on with
various vicissitudes until, at the close of the 18th

358 COLONY

century, the foreign possessions of the several states
of Europe stood pretty much as they do now. Out
of her once mighty empire, Portugal retained only
a few petty settlements in India, an indeterminate
authority over long strips on both coasts of Africa,
and Brazil, which afterwards became independent
under a scion of the house of Braganza. Spain has
lost Southern and Central America within the pres-
ent century ; but she keeps her hold of Cuba and
Porto Rico in the West Indies, and of the Philip-
pine and Caroline groups of islands in the remote
eastern seas. Holland, having been deprived b
England of Ceylon and the Cape, still draws a ric
tribute from Java and the adjoining Spice Islands.
France, which entered last upon the struggle, has
suffered most severely of all, as the result of the
fortune of war with England. At one time it
seemed as if half North America, and perhaps all
India, would become French. But the twin stars
of Wolfe and Clive influenced the fate of two con-
tinents. The acquisition of Algeria dates from
1830 ; and within the last decade France has again
pushed forward in Tunis, Tonquin, and Mada-
gascar. Italy has no foreign possessions except the

ort of Massowah on the African shore of the Red
Sea; and those which Germany has _ recently
acquired with so much eagerness, in Africa and
in New Guinea and the adjoining islands, must
be regarded rather as possible outlets for trade
than as true colonies. The surplus population of
Germany will doubtless continue to pour into the
western states of North America, just as the
Italians and Basques will continue to be attracted
to the Rio de la Plata. ,

After this brief survey of the foreign possessions
of continental states, we pass on to those of
Britain, which alike in area, in population, and in
promise for the future, surpass tenfold all the rest
put together. If it be permissible, on historical
preeaes, to regard the United States as one with

ritain, it may be said that the story of modern
colonisation is the story of the expansion of the
Anglo-Saxon race. In North America, Austral-
asia, and South Africa, that race is already in
occupation of the only large tracts of uninhabited
territory where white men can work and multiply.
In India, England owns the most fertile and most
easily governed of tropical countries; while her
minor possessions are dotted over every land and
sea. hese advantages abroad—gained by the
valour of her children, who have known how
to make the most of their good fortune—are
maintained by a teeming population at home,
superabundant capital, and maritime supremacy.
Above all, it should ever be remembered that
this great colonial empire, as it was won with no
deliberate plan of aggression, so it is preserved
solely through the conscious recognition of mutual
rights and duties. Even in India, British rule
exists by the consent of the natives and for their
benefit ; while the autonomous colonies of Australia
are as free from British interference and as loyal to
the British name as the Channel Islands or Man.

The colonial empire of England is as varied in its
composition as it is vast in its extent. In the
political sense, it ought to include every foreign
posuere or dependency of the crown. It is only

y an accident of administration that India is the
charge of a distinct secretary of state, that some
indeterminate protectorates (such as that of the
Niger ) are controlled through the Foreign Office, and
that the island of Ascension is borne as a ship on
the books of the Admiralty. So again, the colonies
oh tne ie e. those in subordination to the Colonial

ecretary—vary in character from a settled country,
with a civilisation more than a century old, like
Lower Canada, to an unexplored wilderness of
savages, like New Guinea; from the continent of

Australia to the rock of Gibraltar; from Hong-kong,
the emporium of Chinese trade, to Heligoland, the
favourite watering-place of Hamburgers. Adopting
another principle of division, the colonies may be
classified according to the modes by which they
were acquired : (1) as conquered by force of arms
or ceded by an independent power ; (2) as occupied
by settlers, where no rights were recognised in the
aboriginal inhabitants. The former class would
comprise the Cape and Hong-kong, the latter class
Australia and British Columbia. The classification
adopted by the colonial office is based upon differ-
ences of administration, as follows: (1) Crown
colonies, in which the crown has the entire control
of legislation, while the administration is carried
on by public officers under the control of the home

overnment. Of this class examples are Gibraltar,

eylon, and Jamaica. (2) Colonies possessing
representative institutions, but not responsible
government, in which the crown has no more
than a veto on legislation, but the home govern-
ment retains the control of public officers. In this
class are Natal, Western Australia, and Barbadoes,
(3) Colonies possessing representative institutions
and responsible government, in which the crown
has only a veto on legislation, and the home
government has no control over any public officer
except the governor. This class comprises Canada,
Newfoundland, the Cape, and the Australasian

group. According to the Colonial Office List for —

1888, the total area of all the colonies and depend-
encies (excluding India) is 7,475,896 sq. m., with
an estimated population of 18,346,614. Of these
totals the nine self-governing colonies possess
between them 5,884,020 sq. m. and 9,413,855 souls.
(For Cyprus, North Borneo, the Niger Protectorate,
and all British dependencies, see GREAT BRITAIN.)

From an historical point of view, the expansion
of the Anglo-Saxon race divides itself into three

eriods: (1) The 17th century, when the first

eginnings were made, in rivalry with other
European states which had taken the lead;
(2) the close of the 18th century, when, as a result
of the French wars and the command of the sea,
Britain had won a preponderant position, despite
the loss of the United States ; (3) the 19th century,
which has been a continuous period of growth and
consolidation. Nawfingalagtt boasts herself the
premier British colony, having been annexed by
the ill-fated Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583. The
East India Company was incorporated in 1600; the
first permanent settlement of Virginia dates from
1607 ; the historic Mayflower sailed from Plymouth
to New England in 1620; Barbadoes was occupied
first of the islands in the West Indies in 1625.
The second period—a period of war—begins with
the capture of Gibraltar in 1704; its decisive point
was reached at the peace of 1763, when the French
yielded alike in Canada and in India; and it
culminated in the Napoleonic war, when Malta,
Mauritius, and many West Indian islands were

captured from France, and Ceylon and the i
e

from Holland, then a French dependency.
last period, which is almost co-extensive with the
reign of Victoria, has witnessed the consolidation
of India under the crown; the marvellous develop-
ment of Australia under the stimulus of gold dis-
coveries ; the erection of Canada into a dominion
of confederated provinces ; the extension of British
influence throughout South Africa; the commer-
cial growth of Hong-kong and Singapore ; and the
gradual advance of the British flag over new pro-
tectorates and isolated Coaling Stations (q.v.). It
is estimated that the population of the colonies
has multiplied more than fourfold since 1837,
while the external trade has multiplied nearly
ninefold.

Though colonisation is by no means synonymous

—-—_° = ©

COLONY 359

with emigration, it is poner natural for the
mother-country to rege her colonies primarily
as affording an outlet for her own surplus popula-
tion. As a matter of fact, the inhabitants of
Australia are almost exclusively British ; so, too,
are the inhabitants of Canada, with the notable
exception of the province of Quebec, which remains
to this day thoroughly French in language, in
religion, and in sentiment. At the Cape, again,
the descendants of the Dutch settlers still form
about one-half of the whole population. But when
the statistics of emigration are looked into, it will
be found that the United States prove much more
attractive than all the colonies added together.
In 1853-93 the total number of emigrants from
the United Kingdom, of British and Irish origin,
amounted to 7,759,329, of whom 5,194,930 selected
the United States as their new home. Of 227,179
emigrants (British and other) from Britain in
1894, 159,605 went to the United States, 23,731 to
Canada, and only 11,185 to the Australasian colo-
nies. ‘The census returns of the United States in
1890 show 3,122,911 persons born in the United
Kingdom. The figures for Canada in 1891 are
475,456 ; and the Australasian colonies in 1891 reck-
-oned nearly half their total population (4,297,889)
-as born in the United Kingdom. The home govern-
ment has taken no measures to direct emigration
to the colonies, beyond establishing in 1886 an
Emigrants’ Information Office in London, for the
collection and publication of trustworthy infor-
mation. Queensland alone gives free passages,
Natal and Western Australia give assisted pass-
; to farm labourérs and domestic servants. See

MIGRATION.

The tie between the mother-country and the
colonies is more manifest in the case of commerce.
The old practice has long ago been abandoned of
compelling the colonies to trade only with the
mother-country ; and those of them that are self-
governing have even been allowed to impose pro-
tective tariffs inst British manufactures. But,
nevertheless, the trade of Britain with her colonial
possessions has maintained itself more steadily
‘than her trade with the rest of the world. During
the fourteen years from 1872 to 1886, the imports

_ into the United Kingdom from British possessions

{ineluding India), notwithstanding the fall in
value, increased from £79,372,853 to £81,884,043,
while the proportion of these imports to the
total imports rose from 22 to 23 per cent. In
the same period the exports to British possessions
increased from £65,609,212 to £82,067,711, while
their Ede hea to the total exports rose from
‘21 to 31 per cent. In the year 189 the imports
from British possessions into the United Kingdom
had a value of £91,205,462 (20 per cent. of the
total imports), and the exports from Britain thither
of £86,991,135 (34 per cent. of the total). Such,
expressed in dry figures, is the meaning of the
maxim that ‘trade follows the flag.’ Though
statistics are not so readily obtainable, there can
no doubt that the investment of British capital in
the colonies, and the interest paid on it, forms a
still closer bond than the interchange of com-
modities. In 1893-94 the aggregate public debt
-of all the colonies was about 312 millions sterling.
The most interesting question that remains to be
considered is the political relation between the
colonies and the mother-country. Not so many
years ago it was tacitly assumed that the grant of
responsible government to the greater colonies
implied the further concession of complete inde-
ndence whenever the colonies should care to
-demand it. History seemed to afford support for
no other conclusion. Quite apart from the case of

the United States, it was argued that any form of

political union was impracticable between members

of a state scattered over such immense distances
and with such divergent interests. Above all, it was
doubted whether the slender link existing could
stand the strain of a great European war. What
concern has Canada with Constantinople, or Aus-
tralia with Afghanistan? But there were always
some to whom such calculations appeared to be a
base abandonment of England’s historic place
among nations; and the colonists themselves have
always professed the most perfect loyalty to the
British connection, exactly in proportion as they
have been intrusted with autonomy in their own
local affairs. Canadian voyageurs took a prominent
part in Lord Wolseley’s boat expedition up the Nile
in 1884; and a battalion of 800 volunteers from
New South Wales fought by the side of British
soldiers round Suakin in 1885, The sense of
distance has been largely obliterated by the mar-
vellous progress of steam and electricity. The
circumnavigation of the globe is now accomplished
as easily and as frequently as was the grand tour
in the 18th century. Many of the younger politi-
cians make it part of their education to visit India,
Australia, and Canada; the colonists, too, have
ceased to be strangers in England—‘ home,’ as they
always call it, though born thousands of leagues
away. In this connection the future historian will
not think it beneath his ~geatd to record the
beneficent influence of cricket. An English team
first went to Australia in 1862; while Australian
elevens have of on equal terms with the best
cricketers of Eng and in every alternate year since
1878. The increase of intercourse has brought with
it an increase of mutual knowledge and of mutual
respect. The holding of a great exhibition of
colonial and Indian produce at South Kensington
in 1886, and the plan of commemorating the jubilee
of the Queen by an Imperial Institute, have given
concrete expression to the feeling of solidarity that
was everywhere growing. Few persons, either in
England or in the colonies, would now be found
to advocate the weakening, still less the severing,
of the clangetl political ties.

With regard to the scheme known as Imperial Con-
federation, less agreement is to be found. It may
be suspected that many of its British supporters
have been influenced chiefly by their greater dislike
of separation ; while in the colonies it has nowhere
been received with enthusiasm. The essence of
the original scheme was that the parliament of
Great Britain and Ireland should divest itself
of its sovereignty in favour of a federal council,
formed by election out of all the constituent parts
of the empire. To this council would be delegated
the initiative in foreign affairs, the power of treaty-
making, the right of declaring war, with the con-
trol of the army and navy that necessarily follows
therefrom. Putting aside the difficulties that would
arise from the inequality of the colonies among
themselves, it is easy to see that Britain must,
for a long time to come, exercise the decisive pre-
eminence in such a council.

In the meantime something has already been
done, and more may be, to strengthen the position
of the colonies in the English political system.
Canada, the Australasian colonies, and the Cape,
each have an agent-general resident in London,
whose functions are steadily growing in dignity.
It has become the custom for every new Colonial
Secretary to invite the agents-general to a cere-
monious reception on his appointment; they are
consulted, either singly or collectively, in all
matters affecting the colonies which they repre-
sent. It is not impossible that their status may
ultimately develop into something intermediate in
authority and honour between the council of the
India Office and the corps diplomatique. The elastic
powers of the Privy-council might easily be utilised

360 COLOPHON

COLORADO

so as to constitute them (with other representatives
for the crown colonies) into a committee for the
general control of colonial affairs.

A still more important step forward was taken
in 1887, when a conference was held in London,
under the presidency of the Colonial Secretary, at
which delegates specially appointed by all the
colonies were present. Many of the subjects dis-
cussed were of a commercial or legal character ;
but a large measure of agreement was also arrived
at with regard to the burning question of colonial
defence. © Broadly speaking, the self-governing
colonies have undertaken to provide for their own
defence by land by maintaining a trained force of a
specified strength; while England supplies ships
and guns for the protection of commerce and coal-
ing stations. Steamers connect Canada and Austral-
asia, and a telegraph is proposed. The ‘Diamond
Jubilee’ celebrations (1897) helped to bring closer
the relation of the mother-country and the colonies.
The colonial premiers and colonial troops took a
conspicuous part, and were warmly received ; Canada
conferred fiscal favours on Britain, and Britain con-
ceded to Canada greater commercial autonomy.
During the Transvaal war in 1899-1900 the Aus-
tralian colonies, New Zealand, and Canada en-
thusiastically raised military corps to support the
mother country ; and the difficult problem of com-
bining colonial self-government with imperial unity
seems to be brought much nearer a solution.

The colonies of the chief countries will be found
under GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, GERMANY, SPAIN, Xe.
The following are some of the more important books
on the subject: Heeren’s Manual of the Political System
of Europe and its Colonies (Eng. trans. in 2 vols. 1841) ;
Sir G. Cornewall Lewis’s Essay on the Government of
Dependencies (1841); Herman Merivale’s Lectures on
Colonisation (1841-42; new ed. 1861); Sir C. W. Dilke’s
Greater Britain (1863); J. A. Doyle’s The American
Colonies Previous to the Declaration of Independence
(1869); E. J. Payne’s History of European Colonies
(1877) ; Colonies and Dependencies, by Mr Payne and the
present writer, in the ‘English Citizen’ series (1883) ;
Seeley’s Expansion of England (1885); Froude’s Oceana
(1886), and The English in the West Indies (1888); the
annual Colonial Office List, Colonial Year-book, and Year-
book of the Imperial Institute ; Silva White’s Britannic
Confederution (1892); and C. P."Lucas’s Historical Geog-
raphy of the British Colonies ( vols. i.—iii. 1888-94). Also
see the articles on the various colonies.

Colophon, an Ionian city of Asia, about 9
miles N. of Ephesus, and near the sea-coast. The
river Halesus, noted for the coolness of its water,
flowed past it. It was the native city of Mimner-
mus, the elegist, and claimed to be the birthplace
of Homer. In its neighbourhood was the famous
oracle of Apollo Clarius. The Greek proverb, ‘to
put the colophon to it,’ meaning to terminate an
affair, is explained by Strabo as arising from the
belief that the cavalry of Colophon was so excellent
that their charge always decided a battle. Hence,
in old printed books, any device, or printer’s name,
or the place and year of printing, printed at the
end, was called a colophon (see Book). It gave
its name also to colophony, a kind of black resin.
See RESINS.

Coloquin’tida. See CoLocynrn.

Colorado (Span. for ‘red’ or ‘reddish’), a
remarkable river of North America, formed by the
union of the Grand and Green
rivers, in 39° 17’ N. lat., 109° 50’
W. long. The Green River rises
in Wyoming, and drains the south-western por-
tion of that state; it also receives affluents from
Utah and the north-west angle of the state of
Colorado. The Grand River rises in Colorado,
where its more common name is the Gunnison. Its
main tributaries in that state are the Bunkara, or
Blue, and the Dolores. Below the junction of the

Copyright 1889, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J. B,
Lippincott Company.

Green and Grand rivers the main affluent in Utah
is the San Juan, which drains an interesting region
in the south-west of Colorado and the north-west of
New Mexico. In Arizona the main affluents are
the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the Bill
Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The
only important afiluent the Colorado receives from
the right is the Rio Virgen. From the junction of
the Grand and Green, the general course of the
stream is to the south-west, through the southern
part of Utah and the north-west of Arizona ; and it
afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and
California. The lower part of its course is in Mexi-
can territory, where it flows into the north extre-
mity of the Gulf of California. The most pinkie
features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, an
the deeply channelled surface of the greater part of
the country. Almost every stream and water-

course, and most of all the Colorado itself, has
cut its way through stratum after stratum of
rock, until now it flows, in a great part of its
course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cafion.

LSS oS

BES

Grand Cation of the Colorado, looking up.
(From a Photograph by E. Baer, of Prescott, Arizona.)

The main stream for nearly 400 miles below the.
mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus flows through
a great plateau, forming what is called the Grand
Caiion of the Colorado, the most extensive and
marvellous example of the kind anywhere known.
The cafion-walls throughout the upper part of the
great canon are from 4000 to 7000 feet in height,
and are often nearly perpendicular, at some points.
rising sheer from the water, while at others there-
is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of
fertile soil, on one or both banks. The fall averages.
from 5 to 12 feet to the mile. The river basin is.
240,000 sq. m. in area. Its former adaptedness.

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COLORADO 361

to the support of human life on a considerably
ter scale than at present, seems to be evidenced
y the presence of great numbers of abandoned and
prehistoric dwellings, sometimes perched upon clifis
within some cafion, or on a high ridge or mesa, as
if for protection from hostile attack. The Mogui
towns in Arizona are still inhabited by interesting
tribes of semi-civilised aborigines, no doubt relics
of a race once very much more seiagy spread. The
whole course of the river below the junction is
about 900 miles ; to its remotest sources it is 2000
miles. Navigation is possible for light-draught
steamers for over 600 miles. At extreme high
water, steamboats sometimes go up to the mouth of
the Rio Virgen to load rock-salt. The lower por-
tion of the river is visited at certain seasons by
bores, or high tidal waves, a phenomenon to be
seen in only a very few North American rivers.
The non-tidal portion of the river is subject to vast
and uent changes of volume, and except where
confined by cafion-walls, the river channel shifts to
and fro in its sandy alluvial bed to a very remark-
able degree. Navigation is much impeded by rocks
and sand-bars.

COLORADO RIVER OF TEXAS rises by many head-
streams in the south part of the Llafio Estacado, of
North-west Texas. Its two main head-streams
are the Concho or Salt Fork, and the Red or
North Fork. The river takes a devious south-east-
ward course of 900 miles, and discharges its waters
a de main outlets into Matagorda Bay. It is
about 900 miles long; and its drainage area is put
at 24,700 sq. m. Sand-bars at its mouth impede
navigation. Steamboats have ascended the river as
far as Austin, the capital of the state; but the
stream is not much navigated. The basin of ‘the
river is in part very level, but in some parts of the
course the banks are bold and bluffy. The valley
of the Colorado is fairly supplied with timber, and
the soil is generally fertile ; but the rains are much
less abundant than in the river basins lying farther
to the eastward. It is stated that this river was
named Brazos by the Spanish colonists, and that
the Colorado of the same settlers was what is now
called thé Brazos; the names having been mis-
applied or transposed in later times by mistake.

e Colorado is the largest river wholly within the
state of Texas, except only the Brazos.

Colorado, a west central state of the American
Nhs eke apes Se a , and 2 eepiad W. long., is
trave . and 8. by ranges o s
the Rocky Motiitine. It fakes 1900 in the U.S. by J. By
itsname from the Colorado River, | MPPitectt Company.
to the basin of which all the western slope of
the state belongs—as the eastern to the Mississippi
valley—while ty of the south is drained by the
Rio Grande. The area is 103,925 sq. m., or rather
more than half the extent of France ; so that Colo-
rado ranks as eighth in area among the states and
territories, being AG es b izona, Alaska,
California, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas.
The vast ranges which traverse this region have
mostly an approximate north and south direction,
with many deviations. The high plains and over-
drained mesas to the west are not clearly marked
off from the mountain-region; and much of the
western slope is actually mountainous. The eastern
slope, which embraces about two-fifths of the whole
state, is, apart from the foot-hills skirting the flank

of the mountain-region, an open and com tively
treeless plain, with a surface singularly mono-
tonous, and for the most part devo to the

tu of cattle and sheep, an interest which
is of high importance in nearly all parts of Colorado.
This level region averages 5000 feet in altitude,
and its lowest point is 3000 feet above sea-level.
The mountain-region contains many peaks exceed-
ing 14,000 feet in height, the loftiest being Blanca

Peak (14,464 feet); while the summits exceeding
13,000 feet are stated to be more than one hundrec
in number, The mountains, notwithstanding their
general parallelism, are greatly broken into short
and variously named chains, there being no one
ridge that can distinctly claim to rank everywhere
as the main range of the system. Six passes cross
mountain-ranges at points over 12,000 feet high ;
the Argentine Pass is 13,000 feet in altitude. Kail-
ways are led across many of these passes, and their
construction through the valleys and cafions has
called for many brilliant displays of engineering
skill and boldness. A marked feature of the
mountain-region is presented in the parks, or rich
mountain-valleys, often very spacious, and generally
bearing evidence of bia the basins of lakes once
extensive, but now nearly or quite dried up. The
central mountain-region, with its parks, cafions,
and hot springs, and its rich mineral deposits, has
attracted most attention. The western part of the
state is far less accessible and less developed,
although its mineral wealth and the construction
of railways have led to the settlement of some
parts of the region.

The rainfall of Colorado is small; yet the great.
altitude causes a considerable local fall of rain and
snow, and several important streams take their
rise in the state, including several tributaries of
the Colorado; the Arkansas and South-Platte,
flowing to the Mississippi; and the Rio Grande,
the only stream which reaches the sea under its
own name. Extensive and important irrigation-
works are fed by some of these streams. Colorado
has a great reputation asa health-resort, especially
for persons with pulmonary disease. The dryness
of the air is the great factor in the recovery of
consumptive patients in this region; but some
invalids only after a considerable period become
so habituated to the rarefaction of the atmosphere
as not to be seriously annoyed by it. The medi-
cinal and thermal springs of the state are numerous,
and are visited by large numbers. <A_ peculiar
disease called ‘mountain fever’ is endemic in some

laces, attacking principally strangers from lower
evels of country.

Wheat, maize, barley, oats, hay, potatoes, fruits,
and garden and dairy crops prove remunerative
under irrigation. At the beginning of 1898 Colo-
rado had 16,000 miles of irrigating canals and
ditches, furnishing water to over 3,500,000 acres,
without reckoning the ditches constructed by indi-
vidual farmers ; and projects were then on foot for
extending the system, bringing under cultivation
thousands of acres more. Visitations of insect-

lagues, including the well-known Colorado potato-
etle, have hitherto proved very destructive in
this state; but the Rocky-mountain locust (see
Locust) has of late years been comparatively harm-
less. Stock and wool raising are important indus-
tries, yielding $15,500,000 in 1897. Lumber-cutting
also employs a large number of hands.

Gold was first discovered in the neighbourhood of
Pike’s Peak in 1858, and at Clear Creek in 1859,
leading to the great immigration in 1859, 1860,
and 1861; and in 1891 the famous Cripple Creek
(q.v.) discoveries were made; new mining-camps
are springing up in many parts of the state. The
earliest discoveries were of placer-deposits ; but
quartz-mining soon followed, and in more recent
years a considerable proportion of gold has been
afforded by the richly argentiferous lead-carbo-
nate ores for which the state is famous. The in-
troduction of the cyanide and chlorination processes
has made possible the treatment of low-grade ores,
which formerly could not be profitably worked,
because of the high charges for smelting. In the
working of the best silver ores much lead is ob-
tained, and Colorado takes rank as the first state

362 COLORADO BEETLE

COLOSSUS

in lead-production. Vast sums of money have been
invested in the construction of works for hoisting
and reducing the ores; and railways have been
built along the mountain-cajions, generally at a
very high cost, so as to make the mines accessible.
Mining and smelting operations have been much
facilitated by the discovery of large beds of coal,
usually of good quality, though classed as lignite ;
and anthracite in extensive veins has been discov-
ered about 90 miles from Denver. Colorado led
the states in the yield of both gold and silver in
1897, producing $47,078,535, over one-third the
total. For many years from 1873, the output of
silver was greater than that of gold, in 1892 about
six times as much; but in 1898 the gold was esti-
mated at $24,000,000, silver at $14,250,000. Copper,
cement, fireclay, and manganese are wrought ; iron
and Bessemer steel rails are manufactured; and
petroleum is found near Florence.

History.—Not quite one-half of this region was
acquired by the United States from France in the
Louisiana purchase of 1804; the remainder was
ceded by Mexico under the treaty of 1848, together
with California and New Mexico, of which Yast it
formed a portion. The population is of mixed
origin, but is largely derived from the older states
of the Union, the first important settlement of
English-speaking people being caused by the dis-
covery of gold near Pike’s Peak; in the southern
part is a small Spanish-speaking population, partly
of Indian descent. The distinctly Auncriaas traits
of enterprise and progress, alike in business and
education, are conspicuous. Women are admitted
to the franchise. Colorado was organized as a ter-
ritory in 1861, and was admitted as a state in 1876.
The principal towns are Denver, the capital, Lead-
ville, in the carbonate-mining district (altitude,
10,200 feet), and Pueblo ; and there are a number
of others of considerable importance, chiefly mining
centres, among them Cripple Creek (q.v.), of recent
foundation ‘and rapid growth. Pop. of Colorado
(1860) 34,277 ; (1880) 194,327 ; (1890) 412,198.

Colorado Beetle (Chrysomela or Doryphora
decemlineata), a North American beetle which
commits fearful ravages among potatoes. First
discovered near the upper Missouri in 1824 by
Thomas Say, it belongs to the sub-order of Coleop-
tera known as Tetramera or Cryptopentamera,
and is a good type of the family Cheveomahiis
It is an oval insect, from 9 to 11 millimetres in
length, of an orange colour, with black spots and
lines as seen in the figure. The antennz are club-
shaped. The larve and adults live on the potato-
plant, and have sometimes (as in 1859) quite de-
stroyed the crop in certain parts of America. They
pass the winter underground, and emerge from
their hiding-places in the beginning of May. The

Colorado Beetle :
a, beetle, natural size; b, caterpillar ; c, eggs.
(From Miss Ormerod’s Injwrious Insects.)

cemaie lays many hundreds of eggs in groups
of twelve to twenty on the under side of potato
leaves. The larvee, which emerge in about a week,
are reddish and afterwards orange. They grow u
quickly and produce a second generation, whic
may again produce a third in the same summer.
Their rate of multiplication is therefore very rapid.

The home of the Colorado beetle is in the
western states; ‘from Nebraska and Iowa it

travelled eastward, until, in 1873-76, it reached the
eastern shores of America. In 1877 it was found
at Liverpool in a cattle-boat from Texas.’ Owin

in great measure to the stringent regulations o
an order in council, which provides that ‘it shall
not be lawful for any person to sell, keep, or dis-
tribute living specimens of the Colorado beetle in
any stage,’ this pest has fortunately not succeeded
in establishing itself in Britain. The surest remedy
in case of attack is said to be a preparation of
arsenic known as ‘Paris Green’ or ‘Scheele’s
Green.’

The genus Chrysomela (‘ golden beetle’) to which
the Colorado beetle belongs, is represented by
many hundred often beautifully metallic species
in temperate and tropical countries. C. cerealis,
sometimes injurious to grasses and cereals, C.
staphylea, C. or Lina populi, found on poplars,
are common species.

Colorado Springs, a popular summer-resort
of Colorado, situated in the midst of beautiful
scenery on the Fontaine gui Bowille Creek, 75 miles
S. of Denver by rail, and about 10 miles E. of Pike’s
Peak. Pop. (1880) 4226; (1890) 11,140.

Colossz. Colossze was a town of Asia Minor,
in the southern part of the province of Phrygia,
situated on the river Lycus, a tributary of the
Meeander, 12 miles east of Laodicea. It is mentioned
by Xenophon as ‘a populous city, prosperous and
great,’ but in the time of Strabo had become ‘a
small town.’
A.D. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27); but it was again rebuilt,
and in the middle ages was named Chon. See
COLOSSIANS.

Colosse’'um. See AMPHITHEATRE.

Colossians, THE EPISTLE TO THE, an epistle
sent from Rome by the Apostle Paul about the
year 63, in charge of Tychicus, to the church
founded at Colossee apparently by Epaphras. Here
Archippus exercised his ‘ministry’ (iv. 17), and
Philemon, together with Apphia ‘the sister,’ was
the entertainer of the methine, To Philemon
Paul persuaded the runaway slave Onesimus,
whom he had converted to Christianity, to return.
The Colossian church consisted chiefly of Gentile
Christians, but was distracted by certain Judaising
teachers, who laid stress on circumcision and ordin-
ances respecting food and festivals (ii. 11 and 16),
teaching a thorough-going asceticism, with angel-
worship, based on theosophiec speculations regarding
the higher world of spirits, and may be regarded as
the forerunners of the Judaising Gnostics (q.v.).
To counteract these was the chief aim of the epistle
(see BIBLE). Its genuineness has been contested
by recent criticism. Hilgenfeld, following Baur,
holds that ‘the Colossian letter has to do with an
already fully developed Gnosticism, and this carries
it not merely beyond Paul’s lifetime, but beyond
the first century.’ See the commentaries by Ellicott
(3d ed. 1865), Bleek (edited by Nitzsch, 1865), and
Klépper (1882); also i olumann, Kritik der Epheser
und Roertrpre (1872); and especially Lightfoot,
St Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and Philemon
(8th ed. 1886).

Colossus, a Greek word of unknown origin,
used to denote a statue of gigantic size. The
colossal was a common feature of all ancient
art, and in particular of Egyptian and Assyrian
architecture and sculpture. e image set up by
Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel, iii. 1) was of enormous

roportions. Even Greek art, through Aristotle,
aid down the principle that only the large can be
noble, and carried it out in its statues of gods and
heroes. Of the many colossi of which accounts
have come down to us, the most famous was the
bronze colossus of Rhodes, representing Helios (the
Sun), the national deity of the Rhodians, which

It was ruined by an earthquake in 61 »

and completed his work in 280 B.c.

a ~~ - eette Sdn

COLOSTRUM

COLOUR 363

‘was reckoned among the seven wonders of the
world, though it was by no means a masterpiece
Greek sculpture. It is said to have been the
work of Chares of Lindus, a distinguished pupil
of Lysippus, who gave twelve years to the casting,
Its height
is variously given at from 90 to 120 feet. It
stood near the harbour; but the legend that
placed it astride the entrance is certainly apoery-
phal, and probably arose from a misunderstanding
of the statement that it was so high that a ship
might sail between its legs. Fifty-six years after
its erection it was thrown down by an earthquake,
and there its ruins lay, the marvel of the place,
till in 653 A.D. an Arab general sold them to a
Jew from Edessa for old metal. Other famous
colossi of antiquity were the Chryselephantine
49.¥-) statues of Athena on the Acropolis, 37
eet, and of Zeus at Olympia, 40 feet, both by
Phidias ; the Zeus at Tarentum, by Lysippus, 107
feet ; a bronze Apollo, 66 feet, brought from Apol-
lonia to Rome by Lucullus; and a marble statue
of Nero, 131 feet, set up by the emperor before
the palace, but removed by Vespasian to the Via
Sacra, where Commodus afterwards superseded the
head by one of himself. Colossi came in again
with the Renaissance, and in later times the most
hoteworthy have been the S. Charles Borromeo
1697), on the bank of the Lago Maggiore, 72
eet; the ‘Bavaria’ national statue at Munich,
467 feet; the Arminius (q.v.) statue, 90 feet to
the point of the covenant sword; the Virgin of
Puy, 51 feet; the figure of Germania in the
national monument on the Niederwald, 112 feet;
and Bartholdi’s ‘ Liberty enlightening the World’
(1886), in New York harbour, 156 feet to the tip
of the torch. There are enormous images in Japan,
Polynesia, and elsewhere. See Lesbazeilles, Les
Colosses Anciens et Modernes (1876); Torr, Rhodes
in Ancient and Modern Times (2 vols. 1885-87 ).

Colostrum. See BEESTINGS.

Colour is not a material existence; it is a
sensation. The colour of an object varies slightly
with the brilliancy of the light emanating from it
to. the eye; and where the eye is abnormal, as in
the ‘colour-blind,’ the apparent colours of objects
may differ widely from their colour as perceived
by normal eyes. Light is due to waves—or other
periodic disturbances whose recurrence resembles
that of waves—in the ether of space; and just as
-air-waves of a certain definite frequency of recur-
rence will induce in the ear the sensation of a
sound of a particular pitch, so will the impact of
‘ether-waves’ of a certain particular frequency
induce in the “ye a sensation of light of a par-
ticular colour. e are exoretinenially acquainted
with ether-waves whose frequencies range be-
tween 20,000,000,000,000 and 40,000,000,000,000,000
per second; but the eye is blind to all except a
comparatively narrow range of these—viz. from
392 billion to 757 billion per second. Within that
eomparatively small range, however, we have a
large choice of fractional and integral numbers ;
and each number, each frequency, has its own
colour. When we look at the spectrum or rain-
bow we have marshalled before us a series of
colours, of which the extreme visible red is pro-
duced by about 392 billion, the extreme visible
violet by about 757 billion vibrations per second.
Between these the eye may rest upon certain dis-
‘tinctive colours, such as yellow, blue, and so on;
and the frequencies corresponding to these respec-
tive colours are, taking the centre of each distine-
tive colour as displayed in the spectrum—red,
492°4; orange-red, 484°1; orange, 503°3; orange-
yellow, 511°2; yellow, 517°5; preen, 570; blue-
green, 591°4; cyan-blue, 606; blue, 635°2; violet-

blue, 685°8; puce-violet, 740°5—all in billions
(1,000,000,000,000)—per second, Light due to
wave-motion of one simple frequency would be
‘homogeneous’ or ‘monochromatic’ light; it
would prenset the simplest colour-sensation ; but
no such thing is experimentally attainable. The
light from burning sodium is a compound of two
yellow lights, very near one another in the spec-
trum, and corresponding to the respective wave-

uencies of 508°9 and 510°6 billions per second ;
and this is the nearest attainable approximation
to monochromatic light.

The eye takes up, singularly enough, any con-
geries of several monochromatic lights impinging
simultaneously upon the same spot in the retina,
and the resulting sensation is always that of a
single colour, not necessarily resembling any of
the components. The retina is com of
numerous ultimate nerve-elements, each of which
is capable of perceiving one of three physio-
logically primary colours. These colours are red,
green, and violet (Young and Helmholtz); ver-
milion, emerald green, and ultramarine blue
Clerk Maxwell); or red, green, and blue (Fick).

imultaneous affection of the elements sensitive
to red and of those sensitive to green produces,
according to the ratio between the respective
irritations, any colour of the spectrum from red
through orange and yellow up to green ; similarly,
green and violet gpa blended in different pro-
portions produce all the intermediate blues; and
when the whole three sets of nerve-elements are
irritated, the sensation is still that of a simple
colour, or, it may be by due adjustment, of white
light. Coloured lights may be mixed so as to
show this, either by causing coloured lights from
different sources to coincide in the eye or on a
screen, or else, as in the colour-top, by causin
ocular impressions of different colours to succe
one another in the eye with such rapidity that the
eye or the brain blends them. But nearly every
example of what we call coloured light is in reality
an admixture of several monochromatic lights—
e.g. the light passing through a apg of green
glass is composed—as will be found on trying to
make a spectrum of it by means of a prism—not
only of green light, but also of blue and yellow,
and, often enough, of red and violet ; but the re-
sultant sensation is that of green, a simple colour.

White light is in general due to a simultaneous
impact of wave-motions of all visible frequencies.
But the sensation of whiteness may also be pro-
duced by the simultaneous impact on the retina
of two suitable spectral colours, such as yellow and
ultramarine blue; and such a pair of colours are
said to be complementary to one another; other
examples are red and greenish-blue, greenish-
yellow and violet, orange and cyan-blue (a rather
greenish blue). It will be observed that it is said
that yellow and ultramarine blue lights make
white light, while it is well known that yellow
and blue pigments make a green pigment. The
explanation of this is that the hght from the

ellow pigment is not pure; it contains green
ight ; similarly that from the blue pigment con-
tains green light; when the pigments are mixed,
the eye receives a simultaneous impression of blue,
yellow, and green; but the blue and the yellow
destroy one another, being, to the eye, comple-
mentary colours; jointly they produce white
light ; and thus the green alone remains, diluted
with white. Complementary coloured lights may
both or either be of any de of complexity ; if
an aggregate impression of blue light and an
aggregate impression of yellow be superimposed
on the same part of the retina, whatever be the
mode of their production, the result may be the
same—an impression of white light.

364 COLOUR

COLOUR-BLINDNESS

Colours vary in hue, in purity, and in luminosity.
The hue determines the name of the colour—e.g.
vermilion, scarlet ; the purity or absence of admix-
ture with white light determines its richness—ver-
milion reflects 80 per cent. of red light mixed with
20 of white; the luminosity or brightness deter-
mines the shade or tone of colour. Interfere with
any of these and the impression produced upon the
eye is modified. Take for example a definite red
light, saturated or unadulterated with white light,
such a red as may be found in the spectrum ; pro-
vressively lower its purity by mixing it with white
light—it becomes brighter, but passes through light
red and pink to pinkish-white tints ; lower its lum-
inosity by mixing with black—it passes through
terra-cotta tones to brown, which is a dull red;
interfere with both purity and luminosity by mixing
with various greys—it goes through russets and
maroons, the so-called tertiary colours. Any colour
in nature can be matched either by a spectral
colour or by a purple, treated in this way; and for

each such modification of the original colour there

will be a different complementary, which when
mixed with it forms not a white but a grey.

The colour of transparent objects is due to
Selective Absorption. A red object seen through
greenish-blue loin appears black; greenish-blue
giaee is opaque to the light from the red object.

old the same piece of glass up to the sky, and
the red lights, which are components of the white
light of day, are cut off; what passes through
produces a sensation of greenish-blue. The red,
which is eut off by absorption, and the greenish-
blue, which passes through, are complementary
to one another—both being really complex, not
monochromatic. The colour of a transparent body
will also apparently depend upon the thickness of
the layer examined : a thin layer of iodine-vapour
absorbs all the constituents of visible white light
except blue and red; it therefore appears in day-
light to be purple; a thicker layer effects the com-
pete absorption of the red but not that of the

lue, and a thicker layer of iodine-vapour there-
fore appears blue. If looked at in red light, a
thin layer of iodine-vapour appears red, while a
thick layer will present the blackness of opacity.

Before a non-luminous object can be seen
otherwise than by transmitted hight it must reflect
light; if it reflect none it will appear black; a
dustless pool in a mountain-hollow, a liquid in a
deep black vessel, may reflect no light to the eye
of the observer, and will appear black. (Black is
the negation of colour, because it implies that
there is no sensation of light; gray, produced by
mixing white and black, is white deficient in lum-
inosity). Let the pool become turbid, and there
will be some light reflected towards the observer.
A coloured liquid in a deep black vessel will have
its colour revealed by sprinkling a white powder
into it. White light (daylight) enters the liquid ;
it is reflected in all directions by the white powder;
but it is in part absorbed by the liquid, which
accordingly appears coloured. Of precisely the
same kind is the reflection of light by a solid
object. Bodies allow light to traverse them to a
very small depth, and then the light is, by internal
reflection, turned back in all directions; absorption,
meanwhile, comes into play, and the result is that
the object a pears to have a definite colour, the
purity of which is marred by surface-reflection:
The white light reflected from the surface of a
metal masks its true colour, which is brought out
by repeated reflection. Gold is deep orange;
cRpD es searlet ; silver, yellowish-bronze ; brass, a
rich golden red.

If the light supplied to an object do not contain
those kinds of light which it can reflect, the object
will appear black or colourless ; a bunch of flowers

looked at by the yellow light of burning sodium
or of a spirit-lamp with common salt in the wick,
will all appear black or colourless except those:
which are yellow. Surface-reflection modifies the
result.

There is one class of cases in which colour is
not due to absorption. A haze is blue if its.
particles be fine enough: if it be composed of
coarse particles it at once reflects white light in
all directions; but fine particles cause repeated
reflection, and at each reflection the reflected light.
becomes bluer; because those rays which would
have been most refracted (the blue and violet) are
in fact most largely reflected. The colour of the
sky is that of a haze, reflecting light downwards ;
if there were no dust-haze or water-haze above us,
the sky would be black. The light which is not.
reflected from such a haze is either transmitted
through it, yellower or redder in colour, or else
it is entirely absorbed. The sun thus appears.
yellower than it would do if our atmosphere did
not intervene. See also DICHROISM, INTERFER-
ENCE, IRIDESCENCE, LIGHT, OPTICS, PHOSPHOR-
ESCENCE, PLEIOCHROISM, RAINBOW, SPECTRUM,
DYEING, and the articles on the several colours ;.
and consult also Colour by A. H. Church (Lond.
1887), and Colour by C. T. Whitmell (Cardiff:
1888). For Heraldic Colours, see HERALDRY ; for
the Ecclesiastical Colours, VESTMENTS ; and for
Colour in Animals, PIGMENTS OF ANIMALS. ;

Colour-blindness, a term introduced by Sir —
David Brewster to denominate a defect of vision
owing to which some persons are unable to dis-
tinguish certain colours correctly. It is also called
Achromatopsia (Gr.) and Daltonism, from Dalton
the chemist, who suffered from the defect, and who
gave the first detailed description of it (1794). Of
this defect there are several degrees, classified as.
follows (by Holmgren of Upsala): (1) Total colour-
blindness, where there is no perception of colours as-
such, but only of gradations of light and shade;
(2) Complete partial colour-blindness, where some:
bright colours, different in different cases, are con-
fused with each other, though other colours are
correctly perceived ; (3) Incomplete partial colour-
blindness, where bright colours are recognised, but
more delicate shades are confused. The first form
is rare, and generally, perhaps always, associated.
with other defects in the eyes; the third is prob-
ably common, though not of great importance; to
the second attention will mainly be directed here.

With regard to the classification of the cases of
complete partial colour-blindness authorities are:
not agreed; the important practical point is that-
in the vast majority red and green are the colours.
confused. Some confuse a bright red with a green
that appears to a normal eye a much lighter colour ;
some with a green that appears darker. But if
suitable tests be applied it will be found that they
do not distinguish red and green as such. Experi-
ence, however, and observation of the different.
apparent brightness of ordinary reds and greens,
enables them to distinguish between them in most
cases with wonderful accuracy, so that they may
remain unconscious of their defect till some strik-
ing mistake, or the application of a systematic:
test, reveals it. Cases of colour-blindness for
yellow and blue, if they occur at all, are extremely
rare. Experience proves that this defect is gener-
ally hereditary, ane is quite incurable. The eyes.
may be, and usually are, perfect in every other
respect; no difference has been detected in their
structure, either during life or after death; so the-
cause of their defective perception remains abso-
lutely unknown.

Numerous careful and extensive researches both
in various countries of Europe and in the United
States have shown that this defect is present.

COLOUR-BLINDNESS

COLQUHOUN 365

in about 4 per cent. of the males (or one in
twenty-five), and less than 0°5 per cent. of the
females in those countries. Now red and green

_ are the very colours which are most largely used

for the purpose of signalling both at sea and on
eiwaye; at it at Ie obvious that most dis-

_astrous results may follow if the person whose duty

it is to distinguish them from each other is unable
to do so. It is then an important practical ques-
tion how the defect may best recognised,
Authorities on the subject are agreed that any test
which a5 rig the naming of colours is unsatisfac-
tory, and that for two reasons. First, a person
may perceive colours correctly, but may make
mistakes through imperfect knowledge of their
names ; second, a person may be colour-blind, and
"ae by his perceptions of different brightness in the
ts, may name the colours correctly. The most
perfect test yet devised is known by the name of
its introducer, Holmgren of Upsala, and consists in
a number of skeins of wool of different shades.
One of, these is placed before the person to be
tested, generally in the first instance a pale green,
and he is asked to select from the remainder those
which most resemble it. If colour-blind, he is sure
to pick out some of the ‘confusion colours,’ pale-
grays, buffs, &c., to match the green ; and further
similar tests may then be applied to determine
more precisely his defect. Within recent years the
importance of this defect has been recognised by
the railway companies and the Board of Trade
in Britain; though the tests applied are not in
either case so satisfactory as is to be desired,
as they consist in requiring the candidate to
name coloured cards, lights, &e. Moreover, the
Board of Trade examination is required only of
men applying for certificates as mates or masters
of vessels; there is no compulsory examination
of reaacany seamen, though one of their most
important duties is to peep a lookout at night for
signal-lights, many of which are red and green.
This arrangement is also productive of much hard-
ship to those unaware of their defect, who have
spent valuable years in the drudgery of preparation
for a calling to which colour-blindness should be an
absolute disqualification, and only find out their
unfitness when they should begin to reap the
reward of their labour. Further, in certain cases
colour-blindness does not prevent the granting of
a certificate by the Board of Trade; the fact that
its holder is colour-blind is indorsed upon it, but
he is permitted to act as master or mate notwith-
standing, if he ean find a shipowner to employ him.
There are difficulties in the way of substituting
any other colours than red and green for signals,
Blue and yellow are the only others sufficiently
definite and contrasted for the purpose. But blue
is much more quickly lost in passing through the
air than other colours; and yellow is just the
colour to which haze or distance reduces white.
Colour-blindness more or less complete may also
occur as the result of disease of the eyes, particu-
larly atrophy of the optic nerve and excessive use of
tobacco. See EYE (vol. iv. p. 513), and AMAUROSIS.
In the former, the distance from the direct line
of sight at which colours can recognised is
diminished ; in the latter, the colour of a small
dise is not recognised when it is in the. direct
line of sight, though it may still be perceived
at a little distance from it. As in the latter case,
the perception of red and green is specially affected,
its presence in engine-drivers, &c. may cause even
greater risk than the congenital form of colour-
blindness. For further information, see the Brit.
Assoc. Report (1886); Roy. Soc. Report (1892);
and works on sete pt ag and colour-vision

. by Jay Jeffries (Boston, U.S.), Eldridge Green

(1891), and Abney (1895); and the writings of

Sir David Brewster, George Wilson, Clerk-Max-
well, &c.

Colour-printing. See Lirnocrarny, Print-
ING.

Colours, Mivirary, are the flags carried by
certain regiments of the British army. Those of
the infantry were originally called ensigns, a name
still used in the navy. In former times there was
one for each company, but now there is, in each
Battalion (q.v.), a ‘pair of colours,’ one (the
‘Union Jack,’ on a blue ground) called the royal or
queen’s colour, is the more important, and of the
same pattern for all regiments; the other, or
regimental colour, matches the facings of the reyi-
ment, and has in one corner the blue union, in the
centre a wreath of roses, shamrocks, and thistles,
with the name, crest, and motto of the regiment,
and the campaigns in which it has taken part.
The facings of all regiments having the title
‘Royal’ are blue, otherwise they are white for
English, yellow for Scottish, and green for Irish,
The East Kent Regiment, formerly famous as the
‘ Buffs,’ retains the buff facings, and is the onl
exception. English regiments have the St George's
cross in red on their white colours. All colours
are made of silk, 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet, fringed
with gold, and have crimson and gold cords and
tassels, on a staff 8 feet 7 inches dong. They are
carried on parade by the two junior sub-lieutenants
(formerly ensigns), and guarded by two sergeants
and two men, forming what is called the ‘colour

arty,’ but are no longer taken into battle.

Renee the Franco-German war of 1870-71 it has
been recognised that they make too conspicuous a
mark. The last time British colours were taken
into the field was in the Zulu war of 1880. An
officer trying to save them after Isandula, was
drowned in the Tugela, and the colours were
found wrapped taka his body. Regiments of

ard pian have oblong ‘standards,’ 30 inches

y 27, and dragoon regiments have ‘ Baus,

41 inches by 27, slit in the fly, with the upper
and lower corners rounded off at one foot from
the end, These flags are all of crimson silk,
with gold fringe, cord, and tassels, and bear the
crest and campaigns of the regiment. The Royal
Artillery, Royal Engineers, Lancers, Hussars, and
Rifle regiments have no colours. When a regiment
obtains new colours, they are usually solemnly
rperaer? by a royal ee or some lady of

istinction, with much need pomp, after a
special religious service. The old colours are hung
up in the cathedral or parish church at the terri-
torial headquarters. A member of the Heralds’
College is ‘inspector of regimental colours.’ Camp
colours are small flags matching the facings of
the regiment, to designate the part of the camp
it occupies.

Colour-sergeant (so called as being a ser-
geant who, in addition to other duties, guarded
the colours) is the chief non-commissioned officer
in a Company (q.v.) of British infantry. On his
efficiency its 1 order mainly depends, as he is
the channel of communication between the Captain
(q.v.) and the men in almost everything. The
distinctive badge consists of ¢ colours worn
on the sleeve above the Chevrons (q.v.). The pay
is 3s. a day in the line, and 3s. 2d. in the guards,
The corresponding rank in the cavalry is troo
sergeant-major (corporal of horse in the Life an
Horse Guards). In the United States army each
battalion has a colour-guard, composed of a colour-
sergeant and seven corporals. The colour-sergeant
carries the national colours.

Colquhoun, JoHN, second son of Sir James
Colquhoun of Luss, was born in Edinburgh, 6th
March 1805, studied at Edinburgh University,

366 COLQUHOUN

COLUMBA

served in the army 1829-34, and became a
supreme authority on sport in Scotland. The
famous record of his experiences, The Moor and
Loch, published in 1840, was much extended and
improved in the 4th (1878) and 5th (1884) editions.
Rocks and Rivers appeared in 1849; Salmon Casts
and Stray Shots, 1858; and Sporting Days, 1866.
He died at Edinburgh, 27th May 1885.

Colquhoun, Patrick, born at Dumbarton,
14th March 1745, became provost of Glasgow ,in
1782, went to London in 1789, and in 1792 became
a police-magistrate there. He was indefatigable
in forwarding administrative legislation, educa-
tional and commercial reforms, wrote innumerable
pamphlets, and published two important works—
Police of the Metropolis (1795); and Population,
Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire
(1814). He died 25th April 1820.

Colston, Epwarp. See BRISTOL.

Colt, SAMUEL, inventor, born in Hartford, Con-
necticut, in 1814, ran away to sea in 1827, and
about 1832 travelled over a large part of America,
delivering lectures on chemistry a which he ob-
tained the funds required to prosecute his inven-
tion. In 1835 he took out his first patent for a
revolving pistol, which after the Mexican war
was adopted as a regular weapon for the United
States army, and since then has been adopted
universally. Colt expended over $2,500,000 on an
immense armoury in Hartford, where he died 10th
January 1862, and where his widow erected a
handsome Episcopal church to his memory. See
REVOLVER.

Colt’s-foot. See TussiLaco.

Coluber, a genus of non-venomous snakes, of
almost world-wide distribution. It forms a type of
the family Colubride, in which the common Ringed
English Snake (Tropidonotus natrix) is also in-
cluded. The Aisculapian Snake ( Coluber esculapii),
so familiar from ancient times as a symbol of medi-
cine, is the best known species. It is very common
in Italy, is the species of the Schlangenbad, and is
widely distributed in Europe. _ It is of a predomin-
antly brown colour, attains a length of 4 or 5 feet,
and is readily tamed. All the members of the
family are very typical, exhibiting few deviations
from the general snake structure. See SNAKE.

Columba, St—called also St CoLUM-CILLE
(‘Columba of the Churches,’) and St CoLM—was
born (it is believed at Gartan, County Donegal)
in the north of Ireland, on 7th December 521.
He was of high descent, his father Fedhli-
midh, of the powerful tribe of the Cinel Conaill,
being a kinsman of several of the princes then
reigning in Ireland and in the west of Scotland ;
and his mother, Eithne, was also of royal blood.
After studying under St Finnian at Moville on
Strangford Lough, and under another St Finnian
at Clonard (where he had as companions St Com-
gall, St Ciaran, and St Cainnech), he spent some
time near Dublin; but in 546, when no more than
twenty-five, he returned to the north and founded
' Derry, and, six or seven years afterwards, Durrow,
the greatest of all his Irish monasteries. The
belief that he had caused the bloody battle of
Culdremhne in 561 led to his excommunication by
an Irish ecclesiastical synod, and practically to
exile from his native land.

Setting out in 563, when in his forty-second year,
and accompanied by twelve disciples, he found a
resting-place in the little island of Hy or Ioua, now
better known as Iona (q.v.), or I Colum-cille, and
having planted a monastery there, he set himself
to the great work of his life, the conversion of the
Pictish tribes beyond the Grampians. His mis-
sionary efforts were highly successful, but unfortu-

nately very little is known of the way in which he
effected his purpose. _ Bede speaks simply of his
‘preaching and example.’ Adamnan, extolling his
gift of miracles, tells how the gates of the Pictish
king’s fort near Inverness burst open at his
approach, and how, as he chanted the 45th Psalm,
his voice was preternaturally strengthened so
as to be heard like a thunder-peal above the
din and clamour by which the Pictish magicians.
tried to silence his evening prayer under the
walls of the Pictish palace. e get another
glimpse of his missionary footsteps from the
Book of Deer (q.v.), which records how ‘ Colum-cille
and Drostan, the son of Cosreg, his disciple, came
from Hy, as God had shown them, to Aberdour,’
in Buchan; how ‘Bede, a Pict, was then high-
steward of Buchan, and gave them that town in
freedom for evermore ;’ how ‘they came after that.
to another town, and it was pleasing to Colum-cille,
for that it. was full of God’s grace ; and he asked of
the high-steward Bede that he would give it to him,
but he gave it not; and, behold, a son of his took
an illness, and he was all but dead, and the high-
steward went to entreat the clerics that they would
make prayer for his son that health might come to
him ; and he gave in offering to them from Cloch-
in-Tiprat to Cloch-Pette-mic-Garnait; and they
made the prayer, and health came to him.’ In
some such way as this St Columba and his disciples.
seem to have traversed the Pictish mainland, the
Western Islands, and the Orkneys, establishing
humble monasteries whose inmates ministered to
the religious wants of the people. The parent
house of Iona exercised supremacy not only over
all those monasteries, but over all the monas-
teries that St Columba had built in Ireland, and
over those that were founded by his disciples in
the northern provinces of England. Thirty-four
years appear to have been spent by St Columba in
raising up and perfecting his ecclesiastical system
in Scotland. ut the Tghout did not so wholly
engross him but that he found time for repeated.
voyages to Ireland, and for a visit to Glasgow,
where St Kentigern or Mungo was _ restorin
Christianity among the Welsh or British tribes o
Cumbria and Strathclyde. The health of St
Columba seems to have begun to fail in 593, but
his life was prolonged till he reached his 76th year,
when he breathed his last as he knelt before the
altar of his church in Iona a little after midnight,
between the 8th and 9th June 597. He was buried
within the precinct of his monastery, and his bones.
—which were afterwards enshrined—the stone
pillow on which he slept, his books, his pastoral
staff, and other things Bi

were long held in great veneration.

Whether any original composition of St Columba’s:
still survives is doubtful, though an Altus pub-
lished by Dr Todd in the Liber Hymnorum, and
republished by the Marquis of Bute in 1882, has.
been ascribed to him by unbroken tradition. Be
this as it may, he was certainly eminent as a
transcriber. Adamnan tells us that on the night.
before his death he was engaged on a transcript
of the Psalter, and in the Annals of Clonmacnois
it is stated that ‘he (Columba) wrote three hun-
dred books with his own hand . . . which books
have a strange property, which is that if they or
any of them had sunk to the bottom of the deepest
waters they would not lose one letter, or sign, or
character of them, which I have seen tried, partly
by myself on that book of them which is at
Dorowe.’ The two existing specimens of St
Columba’s work, both preserved at Dublin, are the
Book of Durrow just mentioned, and the Psalter
known as the Cathac or Battler. This name it has
received from the custom of bearing the relics of
the ancient Celtic saints into battle as sacred

: tes
re Ss

ich he had loved or used, |

COLUMBAN

COLUMBIA 367

victory-bringing ensigns. St Columba’s crosier
was also used in this way.

St Columba’s character was very complex, but
marked in all things by enthusiasm and earnestness,
Warlike and aggressive by temper and descent,
as well as from the ae of the times, he was
naturally more inclined to action than to melan-
choly, and yet he had a tendency to expatiate
amid visions; and though his disposition was

revailingly austere, he had frequent gleams of
Seaderness and kindness. ‘Angelic in appear-
ance,’ says Adamnan, ‘graceful in speech, holy in
work, with talents of the highest order and con-
summate prudence, he lived during thirty-four
years an island soldier. He never could spend
the space even of one hour without study, or
re or writing, or some other holy occupation.

incessantly was he engaged night and day in
the unwearied exercises of fasting and watching,
that the burden of each of these austerities would
seem n> feta the power of all human endurance.
And still in all these he was beloved by all; fora
holy joy ever beaming on his face revealed the joy
and gladness with which the Holy Spirit filled his
inmost soul.’

In the ecclesiastical system of St Columba as
in that of Ireland, the church was essentially
monastic with ‘ neither a territorial episcopacy nor
anything like presbyterian parity, but the same
anomalous position of the episcopal order. The
bishops were under the monastic rule, and as such
were in respect of jurisdiction subject to the
abbot, even though a presbyter, as the head of the
monastery ;’ but while the power usually reserved
to the episcopate was thus transferred to the
abbatial office, ‘the episcopal orders were fully
recognised as constituting a grade superior to that
of the presbyters,’ and as carrying with them the
functions of ordination and celebration of the
eucharist according to the episcopal rite. St
Columba himself, as well as his followers generally
till the year 716, kept Easter on a different day,
and shaved their heads after another fashion than
obtained in other parts of Western Christendom.
But with these exceptions, their creed and rites
appear to have been substantially the same.

he chief authority for the life of St Columba is
the account written by St Adamnan (q.v.), who was
abbot of Iona from 679 to 704, and who incorpor-
ated in his work an earlier life by Cuimine (abbot,
657-669). Of this Dr Reeves published an edition
in 1857 for the Bannatyne Club, re-issued in the
‘Scottish Historians’ series (1874); and there is
one by J. T. Fowler (1894). See also Smith’s Life
of St Columba (Edin. 1798) ; Lanigan’s Ecclesi-
astical Hi. of Ireland (1822); Father Innes’s
History of Scotland (Spalding Club, 1853) ; Monta-
lembert’s Monks of the West, vol. iii. ; Forbes’s
Kalendars of Scottish Saints (Edin. 1872); and
Skene’s Celtic Scotland, vol. ii. (Edin. 1877).

Columban, or CoLuMBANUS, St, one of the
most learned, eloquent, and devoted of the many
missionaries whom Ireland sent forth to the Con-
tinent during the Dark Ages, was born in Leinster
in the year 543. Having studied under St Comgall,
in the great monastery of Bangor, on the coast of
Down, he passed over to France, in his fortieth year,
accompanied by twelve companions, and founded
successively the monasteries of Anegray, Luxeuil,
and Fontaine, in the Vosges country. His adher-
ence to the Irish rule for calculating Easter
involved him in controversy with the French
bishops in 602; and a few years later, the courage
with which he rebuked the vices of the Burgundian
court; led to his expulsion, largely at the instiga-
tion of the notorious Brunhilda, the king’s grand-
mother. After various travels and ventures,
and having for a year or two settled at Bregenz,

‘tary on the Psalms (first

near the Lake of Constance, he passed into Lom-
bardy, and in 612 founded the famous monastery
of Bobbio, in the Apennines, where he died on
the 2lst November 615. His life, written within
a century after his death, by Jonas, one of his
successors in the abbacy of Bobbio, has been
repeatedly printed. The writings of St Columban,
which are wholly in Latin, consist of a rule for
the government of his monastery, six ms on
the vanity of life, several letters on ecclesiastical
affairs, seventeen short sermons, and a commen-
ublished at Rome
in 1878). The most complete edition of his
works is in Patrick Fleming's Collectanea Sacra
(Augsburg, 1621; Louvain, 1667), followed by the
Bibliothece Patrum, and Migne’s Patrologie Cursus
(1844). The town of San Colombano, in the pro-
vince of Milan, takes its name from the Irish monk,
as St Gall (q.v.), in Switzerland, perpetuates the
name of the most favoured of his disciples. See the

Vita by his’ successor Jonas of Bobbio (tr. by D. C.

Munro, 1896), Montalembert’s Monks of the West,
and Wright’s Biographia Literaria.

Columba'rium (Lat.), a dovecot or pigeon-
house, which probably differed little in form from
those in modern use, but was sometimes built
on a much larger scale, as we read in Varro of as
many as five thousand birds being kept in the same
house. The same name was applied to the niches
or Ege neice in a particular kind of sepulchral
chamber in which the urns (ol/@) containing the
ashes of dead bodies burned were deposited. Seach
niche usually contained two urns, and the four
walls of the sepulchre sometimes contained as
many as one hundred niches or more. The names
of the persons were inscribed underneath. Tombs
of this description were chiefly used by great
families for depositing the ashes of their slaves and
dependants.

Columbia, the name of nearly thirty places in
the United States, of which the most important
are: (1) The capital of South Carolina, at the head
of navigation on the Congaree River, 130 miles
NNW. of Charleston by rail. The town is
regularly built, with several handsome streets, and
contains a fine granite state-house ($3,000,000)
and other official buildings. It is the seat of a
Presbyterian theological seminary, and of the
university of South Carolina (1806). Pop. (1890)
15,353. —(2) A borough of Lancaster county, Penn-
sylvania, on the aacceianns, which is here
crossed by a railway bridge, 80 miles W. of
Philadelphia, with several iron-furnaces and roll-
ing-mills, and manufactures of machinery, flour,
&e. Pop. (1890) 10,597.—(3) The capital of Maury
county, Tennessee, on the Duck River, 45 miles
SSW. of Nashville by rail, with manufactures of
ploughs, furniture, and flour. Pop. (1890), with
suburbs, about 7000.—(4) The capital of Boone
county, Missouri, 24 miles E. of nville, with
manufactures of flour, tobacco, and woollens. It is
the seat of the state university (1840), which is open
to both sexes, and has some five hundred students
and fifteen professors. Pop. (1890) 3985.

Columbia, or OREGON, after the Yukon the
argest river on the west side of America, rises in
British Columbia, on the west slope of the Rocky
Mountains, near Mounts Brown and Hooker, in
about 50° N. lat., has a — irregular course,
generally south-west, through Washington, forms
the northern boundary of Oregon for about 350
miles, and enters the Pacific by an estuary 35
miles long and from 3 to 7 wide. Its estimated
length is 1400 miles. The area drained by this
stream and its affluents, of which the largest
are Clarke’s Fork and the Snake River (with
very remarkable cafions), has been computed at

368

COLUMBIA

‘298,000 sq. m. The river is broken by falls and
rapids into many separate portions, and the
ingress and egress are embarrassed by a surf-
beaten bar. Still, it is open to steamboat
navigation from its mouth to the Cascades (160
miles), and goods are carried past the obstruction,
for 6 miles, by railway; the next reach, of 50
miles, extends to Dalles, where another railway, of
14 miles, has been constructed past the Great
Dalles channel; and immediately above this are
two sections, of 185 and 250 miles respectively,
navigable for small steamboats. The extraordi-
marily abundant salmon-fisheries of the Columbia
have been largely developed. There are a number
of canneries, mostly near the mouth of the river
(where a great jetty now makes a good harbour),
the annual export of canned salmon exceeds 500,000
cases.

Columbia, BritisH, is a province of the
Dominion of Canada, bounded in the N. by

the 60th parallel of latitude; on the S. by the
United States; on the W. by the Pacifie Ocean
and part of Alaska; and on the E. by the provi-
sional districts of Alberta and Athabasca (North-

west Territories). The area of the province is
recorded as 383,300 sq. m., including Vancouver
Island (14,000 sq. m.) and Queen Charlotte Islands

(5100 sq. m.). The last named consist of a group
of about 150 islands, their united length being 156
miles, lying about 200 miles north-west of Van-

couver Island. British Columbia was practically
under the control of the Hudson Bay Company
until 1858, when owing to the discovery of gold,
and the consequent immigration of miners, it was
made a crown colony. Vancouver Island was
made a crown colony in 1849, and leased to the
Hudson Bay Company for ten years. The two
colonies were united in 1866, and the province
joined the Canadian Confederation on 20th July
1871.

The scenery is rugged and picturesque, being
-diversified with mountain, lake, and river. Be-
tween the western slopes of the Rocky Moun-
tains (highest peaks, Mount Brown, 16,000 feet,
and Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet) and the sea the
whole of the space is occupied to a considerable
extent by spurs and outlying groups belonging
to that chain. In the immediate vicinity of the
coast these form a nearly continuous line of
mountains of moderate elevation, known as the
‘Cascade Range. The territory is well watered by
rivers which have their origin in the highlands,
and find their way into the Pacific Ocean. Of the
rivers the most important is the Fraser, 800 miles
long, and 600 yards wide at its principal outlet
in the Gulf of Georgia, the arm of the sea which
separates Vancouver Island from the mainland.
Other rivers in British Columbia are the Columbia
(which has only its upper portion within the pro-
vince), the Stickeen, the Skeena, and the Finlay.

Many varieties of climate are found in this
province. That of Vancouver Island and the
coast of the mainland is very similar to that of
the south of England. The interior of the main-
land is divided as to climate into three zones—the
south, the middle, and the north. The south lies,
for the most part, between the 49th and 5lst
parallels N. lat., and the fall of rain and snow in
this district is slight. It contains a good deal of
grass or pasturage lands, but for arable purposes
the land requires irrigation. Between 51° and 53°
N. lat. is the middle zone; it includes the high
mountains west of the Columbia, contains dense
forests, and the rainfall is considerable. The north
zone lies between 53° and 60° N. lat.

Population.—In 1891 the pop. according to the
final official enumeration was 98,173 (including
39,000 Indians), it having increased from 33,586 in

1871 and 49,459 in 1881. The principal towns on
Vancouver Island are Victoria, the capital (pop.
22,000, increased from 5925 in 1881), and Nanaimo
(5000); on the mainland there are New Westminster
(8000), formerly the capital of British Columbia,
and Vancouver (30,000), the terminus of the Can-
adian Pacific Railway. The Indians of British
Columbia are as a rule law-abiding and industrious.
The coast Indians live largely by hunting and fish-
ing, and are also employed in connection with the
lumber industry and the salmon-canneries.

The province is represented in the Dominion
Senate by three members, and in the House of
Commons by six. The provincial government is
administered by a lieutenant-governor, appointed
and paid by the Dominion, and a Legislative
Assembly of 33 members, elected by the inhabit-
ants. Education is compulsory and free between
the ages of seven and twelve.

The province is not likely to become an agri-
cultural country, but there is a considerable area
of land available for arable and pastoral farm-
ing both on Vancouver Island and on the main-
land in the river-valleys. On the west of the island
but little arable land is to be found. The principal
settlements are upon the east and south coasts, but
good land is still to be found on the east coast, .
and also on the north. The rich valley of the
lower Fraser, or New Westminster district, is the
largest compact agricultural area on the mainland.
There are large tracts of alluvial soil farther
up the Fraser and along some of its most
important tributaries. Of the total area (say
250,000,000 acres ) only about 500,000 acres are as yet
occupied. The fruit-growing industry is expected
to become important, but it is still in its infancy.
The principal industries of the province are con-
nected with the mines, the fisheries, and the forests.
The minerals form one of its chief resources. Gold,
coal, silver, iron, copper, galena, mercury, platinum,
antimony, bismuth, molybdenum, plumbago, mica,
and other minerals have been discovered in different
parts, copper being very widely distributed. The
value of gold produced in 1898-99 was $2,844,563 ;
of silver, $2,375,841; of lead, $1,077,581; and of
copper, $874,781. The quartz-mines have hardly
been touched ; all the metal hitherto secured has
come from the alluvial deposits. Coal and lignite
are known to exist in many parts of the mainland,
At Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, there is a large
coalfield, and the mines are the most important
on the Pacific coast; in 1898, 1,117,915 tons were
raised, of which the greater part was exported to the
United States. Nanaimo is connected by rail with
Esquimalt, the headquarters of the Pacific squad-
ron and the site of a large graving-dock. Iron is
found in many localities. The fisheries are Be so
growing in importance, the annual value of the
produce being $4,000,000. The seas, bays, gulfs,
rivers, and lakes of the province swarm with food-
fishes. There are numerous salmon-canneries in
operation. The fur-sealing industry in the Pacific
is alsoa valuable one. But little timber has yet
been cut, notwithstanding the immense forests of
magnificent trees that abound in British Columbia.
The important commercial trees are the Douglas
pine, Dhenies fir, yellow cypress, and maple, and
the shipments so far have been chiefly to Australia,
South America, the Cape, and China. The annual
output of timber is about 500,000,000 feet, the
produce of about 60 mills. The total value of the
exports of the province in 1898-99 was $14,748,733,
and of the imports $8,414,738, a great portion of
the trade being with the United States. The an-
nual revenue was $1,439,623, and the expenditure
$2,001,031.

Until the completion of the Canadian Pacific
Railway in 1885, British Columbia was isolated ~

COLUMBIA

COLUMBUS 369

from the rest of the Dominion ; now everything
points to a rapid development of its resources. 1t
occupies a favourable position for trading with the
west of South America; and it is hoped that it
may become the entrepdt for a through trade
between Canada, China, and Australia, Lines of
steamers now connect Vancouver, Hong-kong, and
Australasian ports; the route for a Pacific tele-
ph cable between British Columbia and Australia
te been discussed, and an ‘all-British’ route be-
tween the two was being surveyed in 1897-98. The
recent discovery of gold in the Yukon gave a fillip to
traule. See Begg, History of British Columbia (1896) ;
Macnab’s British Columbia for Settlers (1898).

Columbia, District or, in the United States.
See District OF COLUMBIA,

Columbia College, in New York city, was
founded in 1754 as King’s College, and _reincor-
porated under its present title in 1784. The first
class, of eight, met in the vestry of old Trinity
‘Church, July 17, 1754. From 1760 to 1857 the col-
lege was located near the city-hall, whence it re-
moved in the latter year to 49th and 50th Streets
and Madison and Fourth Avenues. In 1896 it as-
sumed through its trustees the title of ‘‘ Columbia
University in the City of New York,” the institu-
tion embracing Columbia College with its faculty
of academic arts, Barnard College for Women estab-
lished in 1889 and now controlled by officers of the
University, the Teachers’ College for the training of
professional teachers, now a part of the university
system, and faculties of Law, Medicine, Philosophy,

olitical Science, Pure Science, and Applied Science.
‘There were in 1896 in the University abont 300 offi-
ers of instruction and 1858 students. The Uni-
versity is located on a plot of ground recently ac-
quired, bounded 8. by 116th Street, N. by 120th
Street, E. by Amsterdam Avenue, and W. by the

- Boulevard. President Low’s gifts to the University
during his presidency aggregate $6,000,000. See
the(anonymous) Four American Universities, Har-
ward, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia (N. Y. 1895).

Columbidz. See PiGEoN, Birp.

Columbine (Ital. colombina, ‘little dove’ ), the
female mask of the Italian improvised plays, vari-
ously figuring as the attendant of Pantaloon’s
daughter, or, occasionally, as the daughter herself.
She is the betrothed of Harlequin, and frequently
is called Arlecchinetta. In some cases she appears
in the garb of a chambermaid. See PANTOMIME.

Columbine (Aquilegia), a genus of plants of
the natural order Ranunculacew, having five
coloured sepals, which soon fall off, and five petals

Common Columbine ( Aquilegia vulgaris).

each terminating below in a horn-shaped spur or

nec The name (from Lat. columba, ‘a dove’)

is derived from the resemblance of the nodding

flower 4 a cluster of doves, of which the convergent
1

nectaries suggest the heads and necks, and the
divergent sepals the fluttering wings. They are
natives of the temperate and colder regions of the
northern hemisphere. One, the Common Colum-
bine (A. vulgaris), is found in woods in some parts
of Britain, and has long been familiar as an inmate
of flower-gardens. It is a perennial, generally 2 to
3 feet high, with flowers of considerable beauty.
Columbine was formerly much esteemed for medi-
cinal virtues.—Some of the other species are orna-
mental, and are common in flower-borders.
Columbium, See TANTALUM.
Columbus, a thriving city of the United States,
ben re of = nee - A ue is situated on the
ioto River, 116 miles »_ Of | Copyright 1889,
Cincinnati and 138 miles SSW. 1900 in the U8. by JB.
of Cleveland. Its site is level, | “?""°"* Company:
its streets are broad, and in the centre of the city
is a public square of 10 acres, in which stands the
state capitol, a fine stone structure 304 feet long
by 184 feet wide. Among other noted edifices are
the city-hall, containing a public library and city
offices ; a court-house erected at a cost of $400,000 ;
United States government and Board of Trade
buildings; a large state penitentiary; a hospital for
the insane, with a farm of 300 acres, and accom-
modation for 900 patients, erected at a cost of
$1,520,980 ; and institutions for the blind, the deaf
and dumb, &c. Here also are located the Ohio
State University, with its grounds of 320 acres, and
the Capital University entberen), both liberally
endowed ; and the public schools have a seating
capacity of about 15,000. Fourteen railway lines
radiate from the Union Depdt in this city in all
directions, which, added to the natural advantage
of its proximity to the great coal and iron fields of
the state, tend to a rapid development of its
manutacturing industries. The annual product
of its manufactories reaches a value of more than
$15,000,000, giving employment to many operatives.
Columbus was founded in 1812. Pop. (1870) 31,274;
(1880) 51,647 ; (1890) 88,150 ; (1900) 125,560.
Columbus is also the name of some twenty other
pen in the United States, the most important
ing: (1) Capital of Muscogee county, Georgia,
situated on the Chattahoochee River at the june-
tion of several lines of railroad, 100 miles SSW.
of Atlanta. It has a large trade in cotton, and
extensive manufactures of cotton, woollen, and
iron goods. Pop. (1880) 10,123 ; (1890) 17,303, in-
cluding suburbs, about 31,000.—(2) Capital of Bar-
tholomew county, Indiana, 41 miles 8. by E. of
eee with which it is connected by rail-
way. op. (1890) 6719.—(3) Capital of Lowndes
county, Mississippi, on the Tombigbee River, and
on a branch railroad about 150 miles NE. of Jack-
son. Pop. (1890) 4559.—(4) Capital of Colorado
county, Texas, on the Colorado River, about 95
miles SSE. of Austin by rail. Pop. about 3000.

Columbus, CurisToPHER (Ital. Cristoforo Co-
lombo, a great navigator, especially distinguished as
the sted nhs yr =
—and the i ‘orm of whose | 1900 in the U.S. by J. B.
name, Cristobal Colon, is some- | MPPimertt Company.
times Latinised into Colonus), was born in all prob-
ability in the city of Genoa in the year 1447. His
father, Domenico Colombo, seems to have been a
cloth-weaver or wool-comber, ultimately very pros-

rous, and it would appear that in early youth
fis son Christopher worked at the same trade;
but he spent some time, peueany not much,
at the university of Pavia. When fourteen years
old he went to sea, The mariners of those days
were fi oe: men, and ba find notices d : e

oung Columbus in an expedition against Naples
while in the service of the good King René, Count
of Provence, who, on one occasion, sent the youn,

Copyright 1889, 1897, and

370 COLUMBUS

COLUMBUS

man to Tunis, to cut out a captured galley. It
is not a little remarkable that on this occasion his
men, like so many of his later crews, refused to
obey his orders ; and he was obliged, as more than
once in later years, to deceive them as to his real
course. The accounts of his early voyages are
obscure and of doubtful accuracy. About 1470
he was wrecked in a sea-fight off Cape St Vincent,
and reached the shores of Portugal on a plank. In
Lisbon he married Filippa Moniz, a lady who had
been connected with the convent of All Souls there;
she was related to one Perestrello, an Italian navi-

ator, who had governed Porto Santo, off Madeira,
or the Portuguese king.

As early as 1474 he had conceived the design of
reaching India by sailing westward ; and in this
intention he was encouraged by Toscanelli, a
Florentine astronomer. In 1477, he tells us, he
‘sailed 100 leagues beyond Thule,’ probably to or
beyond Iceland (where he may have got some hint
of the old Norse adventures in Vinland, q.v.); he
seems also to have visited the Cape Verd Islands
and Sierra Leone. Columbus soon after this began
to seek a patron for his intended expedition. e
applied once or more to King John II. of Portugal ;
later by letters to Henry VII. of England; then
to the rich and powerful dukes of Medina Sidonia
and Medina Celi, in Spain, of whom the last
named at length referred him to Isabella the
Catholic, queen of Castile. His application to the

ueen was submitted to a body o Pha most of
them ecclesiastics, who reported adversely to the
project of the Genoese mariner. Finally, through
the intervention of Juan Perez de Marchena, a
monk who had been the queen’s confessor, he was
brought in contact with their Catholic majesties,
Ferdinand and Isabella. His plans and demands
were once more rejected, but afterwards recon-
sidered ; and finally, after seven years of alternate
encouragement and repulse, his proposals were
accepted by the monarchs, in the camp of Santa
Fé, April 17, 1492. On Friday, August 3, 1492,
Columbus, now an admiral, set sail from the bar
of Saltes, an island near Palos, in command of the
small ship Santa Maria, with 50 men, and attended
by two little caravels, the Pinta and the Nifia, the
whole squadron comprising only 120 adventurers.
He first made the Canary Islands, whence, on the
6th of September, he set sail westward. On the 13th
a variation of the magnetic needle was observed, a
circumstance which struck terror into the hearts of
his followers. From this and various other causes
he found it hard to keep up the courage and
patience of his crews. On Friday, October 12, land
was descried. There is no doubt that this first
landfall, named San Salvador by Columbus, was
one of the Bahama Islands; and the more general
recent opinion would appear to be that it was what
is now called Watling’s Island ; but this is not by
any means certain. He then visited Cuba and
Hayti, which he named Hispaniola or Little Spain,
and where he planted a small colony of Spaniards.
He set sail on his return with his two caravels
(for his flagship had been wrecked), and after an
exceedingly tempestuous voyage, the Nifa alone
cast anchor in the Tagus. e re-entered the port
of Palos, March 15, 1493. On the very same day
the Pinta also, which had parted company from
him more than a month before, entered the same
ort, having been driven out of her course to

ayonne. The voyagers brought back with them
some gold, various plants, birds, and land animals,
and six natives of the West Indies. Columbus
was received with the highest honours by the court,
‘then at Barcelona, and was hailed as admiral of
the sea and a grandee of Spain.

He sailed on his second voyage on the 25th of
September, with three carracks and seventeen small

caravels, and on the 3d of November sighted the
island of Dominica in the West Indies. His
remaining career presents one long series of fail-
ures, vexations, and miseries. After a succession of
wretched quarrels with his associates, and a long
and desperate illness in Hispaniola, he returned to
Spain much dejected in 1496. His third voyage,
begun in 1498, resulted in the discovery of the
South American mainland. In 1499 Columbus and
his brother were sent home in irons by a newly-
appointed ps da governor ; but the king and queen
repudiated this action, and restored Columbus to
favour. His last great voyage (1502-4), along the
south side of the Gulf of Mexico, was accomplished
in the midst of great hardships and in many dis-
tresses of body and mind. Spanish jealousy of
the nig by and of his well-earned honours worked.
against him on sea no less than at court. Colum-
bus died at Valladolid, in Spain, May 20, 1506.
He was buried at Valladolid; but in 1513 his
remains were translated to Seville, whence in 1536,
with those of his son Diego, they were removed to
Santo Domingo, in Hispaniola. In 1796 they
were, it is stated, transferred to the cathedral at.
Havana; but there is some reason to believe that.
by mistake it was the bones of Diego Colon, and
not those of his father, which were so transferred.
Anyhow, from Havana the outgoing Spaniards re-
moved the ‘ remains’ to Granada in 1899.

A man of ardent impulses and strongly poetical
imagination, Columbus was hardly the stuff
that leaders are made of; consequently he
failed to control the turbulent and adventurous.
spirits among his followers. Although an honestly
and earnestly religious and truly conscientious.
man, he was not seldom guilty of acts which sub-
sequently brought him many compunctions of con-
science. Irritable and impetuous, he was, never-
theless, magnanimous and benevolent. His conduct:
in the capture and sale of slaves, though justified
by the aden and divines of the time, was.
indignantly condemned by the queen, and can
only be explained by the desire of Columbus and
the crown to obtain some revenue from his new
discoveries, and by the expectation that while
detained in slavery the natives might become
christianised.

His brother BARTHOLOMEW, who died in Cuba.
in 1514, was a man of high character and excellent:
abilities, and assisted Columbus effectively in his.
labours. —Another brother, G1AcoMo (called in
Spain DreGo), who also assisted him in his West.
Indian government, was a man of gentle and pacific
disposition, but was no match for the turbulent.
adventurers he attempted to control. —Christo-

her’s eldest son, Diego (about 1480-1526), was the

eir to his honours, merits, and misfortunes. The:

eat discoverer left also a natural son, Don
Pernanan (1488-1539), who wrote an important Life
of his father, preserved only in an Italian trans-
lation (published at Venice, 1571; Milan, 1614; and
London, 1867). In 1578 the last legitimate descen-
dant of Columbus in the male line died.

It is doubtful if any of the portraits of Columbus.
are authentic. Las Casas says: ‘He had a figure
that was above medium height, a countenance Yong
and imposing, an aquiline nose, clear blue eyes, a.
light complexion tinged with red, beard and hair:
blonde in youth, but early turned to white.’

Among the biographies of Columbus the best in English
are those of Irving (1831), St John (1850), Crompton.
(1859), Helps (1868), Winsor, (1890), Elton (1892), Sir
Clements Markham (1892). See also The Narrative and
Critical History of America, edited by Winsor, vol. ii. >
Harrisse, Colomb (Paris, 1884); Varaldo, Christoforo:
Colombo (1887 ; The Select Letters of Columbus, edited
by Major (2d ed. London, 1870); the Journal of his first:
voyage ed. by Markham (Hakluyt Soc. 1893); Stevens's:
Columbus’s Book of Privileges (1894); and the monu-

x
q
y
.
,

‘

}

COLUMELLA

COLUMN 371

mental Spanish work by Asensio, published at Barcelona
in 1891, in view of the anniversary of the discove
of America by Columbus, which was celebrated wit
enthusiasm at Huelva, Genoa, Madrid, and New York in

Columella, L. Juntus Moperatus, the most
ed of Roman writers on practical iculture,

was born at Gades, in Spain, and flourished in the
earlier part of the first century of the Christian
era. or some time he resided in Syria, but
lived chiefly at Rome, and died most probably at
Tarentum. His great work, De Re Rustica, in
12 books—the tenth upon gardening, written in
dactylic hexameters
—is addressed to one
Publius Silvinus,
and treats of arable
and pasture lands,
culture of vines,
olives, &c., care of
domestic animals,
&c., respectiveduties
of masters and ser-
vants, &c. <A sup-
plementary treatise
relates to trees.
This ancient ‘ Book
of the Farm’ is
written in good
Latin, and the infor-
mation is copious,
though not precise,
and in some points
of questionable
accuracy. The best
edition is that by
Schneider in the
Seriptores Rei Rus-
tice (4 vols. Leip.

|

ENTABLATURE |

AP I-|ARe
TAL |TRavE)

Frieze”
~
TENA
UPPER FACIA
LOWER TACIA<.
NECK nee

€O0L UMN
SHAFT

L_ ly 1794-97 ).
3 Column, a round
pillar, usually pro-
Fig. 1.—Tuscan Column. vided witha base and

, : capital, employed
in architecture for the support of an Entablature
(q.v.) or other superstructure. Fig. 1 shows in
detail the names of the different parts of a column.
Columns are doubtless derived from the primitive
use of stems of trees in a similar position. Thus
the early Egyptian columns are evident imitations
vf bundles of reeds bound together, or of the stems
of palm-trees (figs. 2 and 3). A flat stone laid
beneath to prevent the
column from sinking, and
another on the top to
receive the lintel, would
naturally suggest the base
andeapital. Inthe Classic
‘orders’ thecolumn played
an important part, the
oP rtions of all the

ifferent members being
regulated by the diameter
of the column. In Greek
Doric the height of the
column varied from 5 to
8 diameters, and the other
orders from 8 to 10 dia-
meters, Columns invari-
ably taper from base to
cap, with a slight swelling

Fig. 3.

in the centre called the entasis, and they were fre-

quently carved with flutings or channels (see FLUT-
ING). The most conspicuous distinction was the
eapital. The characteristics of the three Grecian
orders, with the plain Doric capital, the Ionic
volutes, the Corinthian leafage, will be seen from
the accompanying cuts (figs. 4, 5, 6), and will be

further dealt with in GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE; the
Tuscan column is also shown in fig. 1. The com-
posite column retained the general proportions of
the Ionic, with the Corinthian capital. For a Byzan-
tine capital, see BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. In
Gothic, columns are also much used, but their
variety is infinite, and not regulated by any fixed

Fig. 4.—Doric. Fig.5.—Ionic, Fig. 6.—Corinthian.
proportions like the Classic columns. The articles
on the various styles of architecture show many
forms of columns. A single column was sometimes
erected to commemorate some remarkable event or
great personage, such as Trajan’s Column in Rome.

Column is a military formation several ranks
in depth, and of any length of front, adopted for
convenience of movement; Jine formation being
only two ranks deep and suited for actual fighting
in consequence of the wide front of fire that can be
develo Previous to the introduction of the
breechloading rifle, and the consequent increase in
the advantages of a wide front of fire, most Euro-
Sant nations moene in column, and especially the

rench, who, under the first Napoleon, sometimes
formed very heavy columns of infant by ranging
many battalions in line, one behind the other.
British infantry always fought in line. A thin
aa rank formation is now universal for the
leading troops in battle ; but the supports move in
Sarg until obliged, by hostile fire, to deploy into
ine.

A British battalion in column has its companies
each two deep, one behind the other, at distances

ual to the front of one company, so that on
wheeling into line to either flank, no gape are left.
In half-column these distances are halved, and in
quarter-column they are reduced to six paces.

Cavalry may be formed in columns of four squad-
rons, or eight troops; or each squadron may be
formed into a column of two troops, the wheeling
distance in each case being preserved or reduced
for infantry. Artillery form in columns of batteries,
half-batteries, or divisions—i.e. with a front of six,
three, or two guns at wheeling distances, which are
reduced to four yards in quarter-column.

Column of fours is the formation adopted for
marching along a road and for manceuvres. Infant
are then four abreast, cavalry eight—i.e. each ran
is four horses abreast. In column of sections (the
cavalry route formation) the rear rank fours follow
behind those of the front rank, instead of march-
ing in line with them. Column of route for artillery
and transport is one or wages followed by
another at four yards’ distance, and so on.

In the United States, besides the column of fours,
there is a double column of fours. Other columns

372 COLURE

COMB

are the column by platoons, by companies, the
column by divisions (of two companies each), &c.

Colure. See ARMILLARY SPHERE.

Colvin, SIDNEY, was born at Norwood, Surrey,
18th June 1845. He was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, where in 1865 he gained the chan-
pis hs medal for English verse, and graduating
in 1867 as third classic, became a fellow of his
college in 1869. He was elected Slade professor
of Fine Art in the university of Cambridge in 1873,
and director. of the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1876,
appointments which he resigned after succeeding
G. W. Reid as keeper of the Department of Prints
and Drawings in the British Museum in 1884. His
numerous contributions to the periodicals, marked
by accurate scholarship and poetic feeling, include
a valuable series of papers on ‘ Albert Durer, his
Teachers, his Rivals, and his Scholars’ (published
in the Portfolio for 1877); and his separate works
are: Notes on the Exhibitions of the Royal Academy
and Old Water-colour Society (reprinted from the
Globe, 1869), A Word for Germany by an English
Republican (1870), Children in Italian and English
Design (1872), Drawings by Flaxman (1876), and
Landor (1881) and Keats (1886) in the ‘ English
Men of Letters’ series. He has also edited Sedec-
tions from Landor (1884). As R. L. Stevenson’s
literary executor, he superintended the Edinburgh
edition of his works (1894 e¢ seq.), and edited his
Samoan Letters (1895) and Letters (2 vols. 1899).

Colza, a variety of cabbage. See RAPE.

Coma, a state of more or less profound insensi-
bility allied to sleep. In coma the patient lies on
his back, and is eathes simply insensible to external
impressions, or has a confused and dull perception
of them, with restlessness and low Delirium (q.v.).
The former kind of coma occurs in apopiery and
Spuerey and also in many other organic diseases of
the brain and its membranes, of which, indeed, it
may be said to be the natural termination. It is
also seen in nareotic poisoning, and most charac-
teristically in poisoning by Opium (q.v.). In the
most fatal forms, the breathing is very slow and
noisy (snoring or stertorous), accompanied with
puffing of the cheeks; the pulse is at first strong
and regular, afterwards feeble; there is often
lividity ; and the pupils are either contracted or
excessively dilated, but in either case immovable,
and totally insensible to light. In the second
variety of coma, there is perpetual restless delirium,
without enough of sensibility to lead to spon-
taneous and regular voluntary movements; the
patient mutters slightly, and grasps feebly and
without purpose at any object in his way; the
pupils are commonly contracted, and the tongue
is apt to be dry and brown. This kind of coma is
mainly seen in many fevers, and forms one of the
modes of their fatal termination. The treatment of
coma is that of the disease or accident leading to it.
Where there is a reasonable chance of recovery,
the patient must be roused to consciousness as
much as possible, either by frequent movements
or strong impressions on the skin, or by the use
of galvanism, so as to maintain the respiration (see
OpiuM). Blistering of the head is also sometimes
resorted to with good effect.

Comae’chio, a walled town of Italy, 30 miles

SE. of Ferrara, on an island in the east of the
Valli di Comacchio, a shallow lagoon, about 90
miles in circumference, shut out from the Adriatic
by a belt of land, 3 miles wide. It is a bishop’s
see, and has several fine churches. There are large
salt-works and extensive fisheries, the fry of the
eel and mullet being admitted to the lagoon in
pring by canals opening to the sea, and exit after
the fish are grown being prevented by nets and
other contrivances, which are referred to both by

Tasso and Ariosto. Over 2,000,000 lb. of fish are
caught annually. Pop. 7535.

Comanches, a tribe of American Indians,
belonging to the Shoshone family, and roaming for
the most part over the prairie-lands of Texas and
Mexico. Rplendid horsemen, warlike, and fond of
plunder, they have until very recently been trouble-
some neighbours; but they are now among the
most tractable and progressive of the Indians called
‘blanket Indians.’ onesty, truthfulness, self-
respect, and regard for chastity are marked char-
acters of this tribe. They are to some extént
addicted to intoxication, which they procure by
means of a species of cactus which has narcotic
qualities. Their numbers were estimated at 12,000
in 1847; now they are about 4000.

Comat’ula, See CRINOIDEA.

Comaya’gua, a city of Honduras, Central
America, is situated in a fertile valley, 1935 feet
above the sea, on the Rio Humuya, 190 miles E. of
Guatemala. Founded in 1540, it has a handsome
cathedral and a college, and before 1880 was
capital of the state. Pop. about 10,000.

Comb (Saxon camb). This well-known toothed
implement has been used in every age and by all
op for dressing and keeping clean the hair.

ombs are also used for fastening the hair when
dressed, and as head ornaments. In early times the
bodkin (acus), equivalent to the modern hair-pin,
was employed for the latter purpose, but in medieval
times elaborately ornamented combs, sometimes of

recious metal, were used for ornamental hair .
astening. An allusion to this practice we have
in the ancient Scottish ballad of Six Patrick
Spens :

O lang, lang may their ladyes sit,
Wi their gowd kames in their hair.

Fig. 1 represents an ancient Irish long rack comb
in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy.

Fig. 2 is an example of an ancient Scottish
double-edged comb of bone from the Broch of

Fig. 2.

Burrian, Orkney, drawn to half the size of the
original.
ombs of ivory or of boxwood have been fre-
quently found in early Christian tombs, it being a
common practice of antiquity to inclose in the
sepulchre objects, especially those of the toilet,
that had been used by the deceased. For a late
instance, see the article on ST CUTHBERT. — Combs
also figure commonly in inventories of articles be-
longing to the medieval churches, and, being
wade use of by the priests prior to service, that
they might approach the altar with the more
decency, these instruments became in some sort
sanctified by their ERK eee. ’
Combs are made of horn, tortoiseshell, ivory,
wood, bone, metal, india-rubber, and of a com-

ve

@an
leat

ee a ae

was done with a stadda, or

and finished by means of thin wedge-sha

especially in the males.

COMB

COMBE 373

tion called xylonite (see CELLULOID). In

g with horn, which is the principal comb-
making material, the horns are cut into rect-
pieces in a manner which involves the

possible loss. These segments are damped
and heated till they become soft, when they are
opened out and pressed quite flat. The plates
are next squared, smoothed, and trimmed pre-
paratory to the tooth-cutting, which formerly
ouble saw, having
two blades of steel set parallel to each other,
with a space between them equal to the thickness
of the intended tooth. tSregeati seer 4 is now done
by small circular saws to which the plates are
automatically applied, the horn moving the space
of a tooth after each cut. In this way 70 or 80
teeth may be cut in an inch of ivory for fine-toothed
combs. The teeth are then thinned, mao
es.
Saw-cutting is the only process available for bone,
ivory, and wooden combs, and it is used for the
finer kinds of horn combs also.

A Met economy of material and time, however,
is effected by making horn and tortoiseshell combs
by the method of ‘twinning’ or parting. By saw-
cutting, the material corresponding to the spaces
between the teeth is of course wasted; by the
vrocess of parting, this is made available to form

Fig. 3.

the teeth of a second comb. The annexed figure
will show how this may be effected. The pre-
pared horny plate is cut through by means of a
stamping-cutter, consisting of two thin chisels in-
clined to each other, as ac and bd, which represent
their edges; between these, and connecting the
ends, c, d, is a small cross-chisel. When this
compound cutter descends with sufficient force
upon the plate, it will cut one of the teeth
shown in the figure. By simple machinery, the
table carrying the plate is e to advance a dis-
tance equal to the thickness of one tooth while the
cutter is rising, and thus the successive cuts are
made as represented. A slight pull is now sufficient
to ao the plate into two combs, the teeth of which
only require filing and finishing.

India-rubber combs, now so extensively used, are
manufactured by pressing the caoutchouc to the
required form in moulds, and ‘vuleanising’ or
combining it with sulphur afterwards. Xylonite
combs are similarly made by moulding ; but comb
teeth of these materials are not so strong and
elastic as those of horn and ivory.

Comb, 2 crest of skin, usually brightly coloured,
found on the crown of the head in many birds,
Like the analogous
wattles, combs probably owe the perfecting of
their development to Sexual Selection (q.v.).

Combaconum (Kumbhakonam), one of the
oldest and most sacred cities of India, in the centre
of the fertile Kaveri delta, 193 miles NE. of Madras,
with Hindu temples, a government college, &c.
Pop. (1881) 50,098 ; (1891) 54,307.

Combat, TRIAL By. See BATTLE (WAGER OF).

Combatants, soldiers whose duty it is to fight
both in attack and defence, are either cavalry,
artillery, engineers, or infantry. _Non-combatants,
on the other hand, perform administrative duties,
and fight only in self-defence, though soldiers and

armed, as in the commissariat, transport, ordnance
store, medical, pay, and veterinary departments.
See FRANCS-TIREURS.

In the navy, all seamen are combatants, but
engineers, doctors, paymasters, and chaplains are
non-combatants.

Combe, AnvreEw, M.D., physician and physi-
ologist, was born in Edinburgh, October 27, 1797.
He studied medicine there and at Paris, and in
1823 commenced to practise in his native city. In
1836 he received the appointment of physician to
the king of the Belgians, but his health failing,
he returned to Scotland, where in 1838 he became
one of the physicians to Queen Victoria. Mild,
benevolent, and wise, Andrew Combe obtained
the esteem and admiration of all who could
gore purity and excellence of character.

y patient adherence to physiological principles
in the treatment of a delicate constitution, he
combated a serious pulmonary disease for nearly
thirty years at home and abroad. His death was
probably hastened by exposure to the poison-
ous air of an emigrant ship, in which he made
a voyage to America: he wrote to the Times on
the urgent necessity of a law regulating the sani-
tary arrangements in emigrant vessels, and in 1849
an act provided a remedy for the evil. He died
at Gorgie, near Edinburgh, August 9, 1847. His
principal works are: Observations on Mental De-
rangement (1831), Principles of Physiology (1834 ;
15th ed. 1860), The Physiology of Digestion (1836 ;
10th ed. 1860), and The Management of Infancy
(1840; 10th ed. 1870). See his L
George Combe (1850).

Combe, GrEorRGE, phrenologist and moral philo-
sopher, the son of a brewer, was born October 21,
1788, in Edinburgh. He became a Writer to the
Signet in 1812, and continued to practise until
1837, when he resolved to devote himself to
popularising his views on phrenology and educa-
tion. As early as 1816, cf had made the ac-
quaintance of Spurzheim, and become a convert
to his system of phrenology. The result was his
Essays on Phrenology (1819), and his Elements of
plight 8 (1824), which reached a ninth edition
in 1862. But his most important production is
The Constitution of Man (1828; 9th ed. 1879), in
which he endeavours to demonstrate the essential
harmony of the nature of man with the surround-
ing world, and the necessity of studying the
laws of nature. Combe’s doctrines were violently
opposed, being considered by many as inimical
to revealed religion. He aruibered amongst his
friends Cobden, Robert Chambers, and Miss
Evans (George Eliot). Combe contributed largely
to the Phrenological Journal (20 vols. 1824-47)
and to Chambers’s Journal and the Scotsman. He
travelled and lectured in the United Kingdom,
Germany, and America, and published Notes on
the United States (1841). He died 14th August
1858. Combe married, in 1833, Cecilia (1794-
1868), daughter of the celebrated Mrs Siddons.
Besides the works mentioned, he wrote Lectures
on Popular Education (1833), Moral Philosophy
(1840), Principles i Criminal Legislation (1854),
Npaaee4 applied to Painting and Sculpture
(1855), e Currency Question (1855), The Rela-
tion between Science and Religion (1857). His
writings roused popular interest in the science of
healthy living, but the phrenological works are
obsolete. Combe’s ideas on popular education were
put into experimental shape in a secular school
which he founded in Edinburgh in 1848, where
the sciences were taught, including physiology
and phrenology ; but it was too much in advance
of its time, and after a few years had to be aban-
doned. All his subjects, save phrenology, are now

ife by his brother,

374 COMBE

COMENIUS

taught in every well-appointed board school. A
physiology lectureship was founded by the trustees
of George and Andrew Combe. See the Life by C.
Gibbon (1878); and Combe’s views and articles on
Education, collected by Jolly (1879).

Combe, WILLIAM, author of Dr Syntax, was
born at Bristol in 1741, and educated at Eton and
Oxford, which he quitted without a degree. ‘God-
son’ (or natural son) of a rich London alderman,
who died in 1762, leaving him £2150, he led for
some years the life of an adventurer, now keeping
a princely style at the fashionable watering-places,
anon a cook at Douai, and a common soldier. The
last forty-three years of his life were passed mostly
within the ‘rules’ of the King’s Bench debtors’
prison ; but he died at Lambeth, 19th June 1823.
In the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xi.,
1887) Professor Tout enumerates Saar ne works
by Combe, published between 1774 and 1824; of
these, the Three Tours of Dr Syntax (1812-21)
alone are remembered, and even they owe much
to Rowlandson’s illustrations.

Combermere, Viscount Stapleton Staple-
ton-Cotton), a British field-marshal, son of Sir
Robert Salusbury Cotton, Bart., of Combermere
Abbey, Cheshire, was born in 1772 at Llewenny
Hall, Denbighshire. Educated at Westminster
School, he entered the army in 1790, and in 1794
was made lieutenant-colonel of a new regiment of
light dragoons, with whom he served in India for
several years. In 1808 he proceeded, with the rank
of major-general, to the Peninsula; in 1809 he
succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1810 he was
appointed to the command of the whole allied
cavalry. He was present at the battles of Tala-
vera, Tioeina: Salamanca, the Pyrenees, Orthez,
and Toulouse, and was raised to the peerage in
1814 as Baron Combermere; although not at
Waterloo, he had the command of the cavalry
of the army of occupation in France. He was
commander of the forces in the West Indies,
1817-20 ; commander-in-chief in Ireland, 1822-25;
and commander of the forces in India, 1825-30,
where he captured Bhartpur. Raised to the rank
of viscount in 1827, he succeeded Wellington as
Constable of the Tower in 1852, and was made a
field-marshal in 1855. He died February 21, 1865.
See his Correspondence (2 vols. 1866).

Combination. <A combination to commit a
crime is, in English law, an indictable Conspiracy
_(q.v.). A combination to commit an act which is
injurious, immoral, or contrary to publie policy,
is in some but not in all cases held to amount to
conspiracy. Combinations of workmen to raise
the rate of wages were formerly unlawful; but the
law was amended in this respect in 1825, and now
such combinations are freely permitted, provided
they effect their purposes by lawful means. See
CONSPIRACY and TRADE UNIONS.—For the Laws
of Combinations in Chemistry, see ATOMIC THEORY,
CHEMISTRY ; for Combinations in Mathematics, see
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

Combing, of wool, cotton, &c.
WOOL, SPINNING.

Combretacez, a tropical sub-order of Myrti-
floree, including about 240 species of trees and
shrubs, mostly astringent.

Combustion is the term commonly applied to
those chemical processes which are accompanied
in a marked degree by the production of heat
and light. The most familiar of such processes
are those in which oxygen of the atmosphere ¢éom-
bines chemically with the constituents of what are
ordinarily spoken of as combustible substances,
such as wood, coal, fats, oils, &. Chemical com-
bination is, as a rule, accompanied by the evolution

See CoTToN,

of heat and frequently of light (see CHEMISTRY);
but every case of chemical combination is not called
combustion, because in many cases the quantity of
heat evolved is inconsiderable.

When we speak of the combustion of, for
instance, coal or wood, we mean the chemical
process which consists, in general terms, in the
combination of the oxygen of the air with the
carbon and hydrogen which constitute the greater
part of the combustible portion of either of these
substances, and in the production of carbonic acid
and water. Many instances are known to chemists
in which the oxygen required for a combustion is
not derived directly from the atmosphere, but from
some oxidising (or oxygen-yielding) agent, and
frequently the place of the oxygen may be alto-
gether taken by some other element, as, for instance,
when metals, such as antimony in powder, burn in
chlorine.

The combustion of every combustible substance
is accompanied by the evolution of a quite definite
quantity of heat, which is invariable for each
substance, whether the combustion takes place
rapidly or slowly. A piece of phosphorus, for
instance, as is well known, glows in the dark,
This is a process of very slow combustion, and is
never accompanied by much rise of temperature.
When moderately heated in air, a piece of phos-
phorus bursts into flame, and the combustion is
rapid and is yee aneree by a considerable rise of
temperature ; whilst if the phosphorus be burned |
in pure oxygen, the combustion is an extremel
brilliant spectacle, and a high temperature is
attained. oh each case the actual quantity of
heat given out is identical for the same weight of
phosphorus, but the time occupied by the combus-
tion varies, and consequently the temperature at
any given instant must also vary.

he quantities of heat given out by the combus-
tion of the same weights of different substances
vary greatly. The measurement of quantities of
heat oe by combustion and in other ways is
called calorimetry (see HEAT).

The name combustion is applied to a particular
process in the analysis of organic compounds. See
(under Analysis) ORGANIC ANALYSIS. See also
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.

Comédie Fran¢aise. See THEATRE FRAN.
CAIS.

Comedy. See DRAMA.

Comenius, JoHN Amos (properly KOMENSKI!),
a distinguished educational reformer of the 17th
century, was born 28th March 1592, in Moravia,
either at Comna or at Nivnitz. His parents be-
longed to the Moravian Brethren. He studied at
Herborn (1612), and then at Heidelberg, became
rector of the Moravian school of Prerau (1614-16),
and minister at Fulnek, but lost all his property and
library in 1621, when that town was taken by the
Imperialists. He became a wanderer, and settled at
Lissa, Poland. Here he worked out his new theory
and method of education, wrote his Didactica Magna,
and was chosen bishop of the Moravian Brethren
in 1632. In 1631 he published his Janua Lin-
guarum Reserata, which was translated into many

uropean, and even into some oriental languages,
There is a trilingual edition, with woodcuts, in the
Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh. In this work he
points out a method of learning languages new at
that time, which has been called the intuitive or

erceptive system, in which the pupils were taught
Ey a series of lessons on subjects easily understood
or appreciable by the senses—such as natural _his-
tory, the sciences, different trades and professions,
&e. The Vestibulum, an introduction to the same,
appeared in 1633. Comenius also published about
the same time the Ratio Discipline Ordinisque:

_ to Sweden (1642).

“wards.

COMET

COMET 375

Ecelesie in Unitate Fratrum Bohemorum (1632;
blished 1702); and his Pansophia Prodromus
(1839), an attempt at a complete statement of the
circle of knowledge. In 1641 Comenius was invited to
England by parliament, through the philanthropist
Hartlieb, to assist nm reforming the system of public
instruction ; but as the breaking out of the Civil
War prevented the execution of this design, he went
There he was patronised by
Oxenstiern, who gave him a commission to draw up
a plan for the organisation of schools in Sweden;
and this he completed at Elbing, four years after-
He also put a ure (1643) a treatise on
Pansophia. He returned to his Polish home at
Lissa in 1648, and elaborated his work there. He
next went (1650) to Saros-Patak, Hungary, for a
similar em Here he com his celebrated
Orbis Sensualium Pictus, or The Visible World
<{Nurem. 1658), the first picture-book for children,
which has been often reprinted and imitated.
Finally, he settled in Amsterdam, where he pub-
lished several other works. He died at Naarden
on the 15th November 1671. Bacon’s speculations
appear to have stirred the imagination of Comenius
to the conception of universal and systematised
learning, to which he gave the name of Pansophia
or Encyclopedia.

His educational and pansophic works were pub-
lished at Amsterdam (4 vols. 1657), and dedicated
to the city of Amsterdam in recognition of his hos-
pitable treatment there. In education he was a
realist ; he was also fervently evangelical, and his
whole system was intended to lead up to know-
ledge, virtue, and piety. Late in life a mystical
tendency was ret gray in his works. Whatever
may be thought of his educational system, he first
fully developed educational method, made import-
ant reforms in the teaching of languages, and
introduced into schools the study of Nature. See
Lanrie’s Comenius, his Life and Work (1881), a
German Life by Kvacsala (1892), and Keatinge’s
translation of 7he Great Didactic (1896).

Comet. The word comet is derived from the
Greek kémé, ‘hair,’ a title which had its origin in
the hairy appearance often exhibited by the haze
or luminous vapour, the presence of which is at
first sight the most striking characteristic of the
celestial bodies called by this name. The general
features of a comet are—a definite point or nucleus,
a nebulous light surrounding the nucleus, and a
luminous train preceding or following the nucleus.
Anciently, when the train preceded the nucleus—
as is the case when a comet has passed its peri-
helion, and recedes from the sun—it was called the
beard, being only termed the tail when seen follow-
ing the’ nucleus as the sun is approached. This
distinction has disappeared from modern astro-
nomical works, and the name tail is given to
the appendage, whatever its apparent position.
Neither the tail nor the nucleus is now considered
an essential cometary element, but all bodies
visible in interplanetary space, which describe
orbits round the sun of an extremely elongated
form, are classed as comets. There are several
plain points of difference between comets and

lanets. The planets move all in the same

irection, from west to east, which is astronomically
ealled ‘direct motion ;’ but the movements of
comets are often from east to west, or retrograde.
The orbits of all the planets are confined to a zone
of no great breadth on either side of the ecliptic ;
but the paths of comets cut the ecliptic in every
direction, some being even perpendicular to it.
The orbits of all the planets are nearly circular;
or, more properly speaking, are ellipses of very
small eccentricity. The orbits of comets, on the
other hand, present every variety of eccentricity,
some of them being ellipses or elongated closed

orbits of various de of elongation; others,
hyperbolas ; while the majority have a form of
orbit not differing sensibly from the parabola,
which is the ee oe of curve to which both
the ellipse and hyperbola approximate under given
ten eke ! f hel f
t the point o rihelion passage of a
Sans and let the dbeciion of its a be in the
direction indicated by the arrow. There is a
certain velocity of motion at this point which
would give the orbit the form of a parabola, pa',
the direction of motion always tending to parallel-
ism with the straight line through pS. Any

ot

aw

as 7D

a

velocity less than this would cause it to deseribe a
closed curve, pa*a®, any greater velocity would
cause it to describe the hyperbola, pa*, in which
case it would approximate to the direction of the

pa line, , and would never return. This
would be the ease if there were no disturbing force
to interfere with the sun’s attraction; and con-

versely, comets approaching the sun along the
various paths above described would pass the
perihelion with the various velocities above indi-
cated. Any attraction, however, of an extraneous
a interfering with the attraction of the sun
might change the orbit from the ellipse to the
hy erbola, and vice versd, or from the parabola to
either. As, however, there is only one parabola
corresponding to infinite sets of ellipses and hyper-
bolas, an interfering cause is not likely to change
the orbit from an ellipse or hyperbola to the para-
bolie form.

There are twenty known periodical comets, eleven
of which have been observed at more than one
perihelion These latter have periods in

ears as follows: Encke’s, 3°3; Winnecke’s, 5°6;

rorsen’s, 5°5; Tempel’s I, 6; D’Arrest’s, 6°4;
Biela’s, 6°6; Faye’s, 7-4; Tuttle’s, 13°8; Halley’s,
76; Tempel’s II, 5:2; Swift’s, 55.

The orbits of forty-three comets appear to be
elli These are probably periodical. The paths
of about two hundred cannot be distinguished from
parabolas. These are possibly periodical, as the
ellipse, when very eccentric, cannot near perihelion
be distinguished from a parabola. Only six or
seven have orbits possibly hyperbolic.

Elliptic comets in a large majority move directly
—i.e. from west to east. Parabolic comets usually
move in the contrary direction. But, on the whole,
there is no general tendency in these bodies to
move either way. Periodic-comets have orbits but
little inclined to the ecliptic; but, on the whole,
cometary orbits show a tendency to gather round
a plane inclined 50° to the ecliptic. The perihelia
gather about two opposite regions, in longitude
60° to 120°, and 240° to 300°. The nodes of the
orbits gather also about two regions, not, however,
directly opposite.

The discovery that comets are celestial bodies,
extraneous to our atmosphere, is due to Tycho
Brahé, who measured the parallax of the comet

376

COMET

of 1557. Newton succeeded in demonstrating that
they are guided in their movements by the same
principle which controls the planets in their orbits;
and Halley was the first, by determining the para-
bolic elements of a number of comets from the
recorded observations, to identify the comet of
1682 with one which had been observed in 1607
and the observations recorded by Kepler and
Longomontanus, and also with a comet observed in
1531 by Apian, at Ingoldstadt, and thus confidently
to predict the return at the end of 1758 or beginning
of 1759, of a comet which would have the same
parabolic elements. These parabolic elements are
elements of a parabola nearly coincident with the
elongated elliptic orbit of the comet. They are:
(1) The inclination. (2) The longitude of the node.
These two determine the plane of the orbit. (3)
The longitude of the perihelion, or point of nearest
approach to the sun. (4) The perihelion distance,
or nearness of approach to the sun. (5) The time
of perihelion passage. (6) The direction of motion,
whether direct or retrograde.

To determine these parabolic elements, three
observations of the comet are sufficient; and by a
table of such elements deduced from the recorded
observations, it is possible at once to ascertain
whether any newly observed comet is identical with
any that have been previously observed. To pre-
dict, however, with accuracy the time of the return
of a comet, a much more elaborate calculation
must be made of the orbit, taking into account the
perturbations of the planets to whose influence it is
subject. This difficult problem was solved, in the
case of Halley’s comet, by the joint work of
Laland, Madame Lepante, and Clairaut, who
announced, in November 1758, just as astronomers
began to look out for the return of the comet, that
it would take 618 days more to return to the peri-
helion than on the preceding revolution. The
perihelion passage was fixed about the middle of
April 1759; but Clairaut distinctly forewarned the
world that, being pressed for time, he had neglected
small values, which collectively might amount to
about a month ,in the seventy-six years. The
comet passed the perihelion on the 12th March
1759, exactly a month before the time announced,
but within the assigned limits of divergence from
that date. The elements of its orbit proclaimed it
to be the comet of the former periods by their
similarity. For the next perihelion passage, the
different calculations executed by MM. Damoisean,
Rosenberger, Lehmann, and De Pontécoulant, fixed
res eta the 4th, the 26th, the 11th, and the
13th November 1835. Subsequently, observations
indicated the 16th—that is to say, a deviation of
only three days from what turned out the most
accurate calculation, and a deviation of twelve
days from the most remote. We have adverted
to the perihelion passages of this comet in 1531,
1607, 1682, 1759, and 1835. It is also now identi-
fied with a comet observed in 1456, and one in 1378,
recorded by Chinese observations. There are no
sufficiently reliable European observations previous
to 1456, but it is conjectured by Arago that this
comet is the same with the comet of 1305; that of
1230; a comet mentioned in 1006 by Hali Ben
Rodoan ; that of 885; finally, a comet seen in the
year 52 before our era.

This account of Halley’s comet has been given at
length to illustrate the principles on which the
calculations are made. > simple method, due to
Olbers, enables the elements of cometary orbits
to be caleulated in a comparatively short time, and
almost all comets discovered have now their paths
roughly determined soon after they become visible.

There are two other periodical comets of peculiar
interest : (1) That of Encke, with a short period
of 1204 days. Its orbit does not extend so far as

the orbit of Jupiter, and a slight acceleration in its.
periodic times of return was regarded until lately
as suggesting the possibility of the space, within
our solar system at least, being occupied by a
resisting medium, though of extreme rarity. (2)
That of Biela or Gambart, having a period of six
years and three-quarters. During the visit of this
comet in 1846, it was seen first at New Haven,
U.S., by Messrs Herrick and Bradley, on December -
29, 1845, in the act of separating into two distinct
comets, which kept moving side by side till they
disappeared. On the return of the comet in the
autumn of 1852, the distance between the two
nuclei had much increased. Since then, although
repeatedly due, it has not again been seen.

he celebrated comet of 1680, which furnished
Newton with the occasion for proving that comets
revolve around the sun in conic sections, and that,
consequently, they are retained in their orbits by
the same force as that which regulates the move-
ments of the planets, appears to have been about.
the most remarkable for pelliane of any of which
we have authentic accounts. This comet is sup-
posed to be identical with the one that appeared
about. the time
of Ceesar’s death
(44 B.C.), with
that which was
seen in the rei,
of Justinian in
the year 531, and
with another in -
the year 1106, in
the reign of

Hen IL, the
period of revolu-
tion, accordin

to the orbit cal-
culated for it by
Whiston, being
about 575 years.
There is, how-
ever, some doubt
among astrono-
mers as to the
real form of its
orbit, the one
assigned to it
by Encke giving
it a period
of 8813 years.
This comet ap-
proached nearer
to the sun than
any known, ex-
cept that of 1843.
The comet of 1680
approached the
sun within the 163d of the semi-diameter of the
earth’s orbit. The annexed seas ie shows a part
of its path ; the same diagram shows the direction
of the tail.

In the first half of the 19th century, the comets
chiefly notable are those of 1811 and 1843. The
former was a most brilliant object for many weeks.
in the northern heavens. It is periodic, though
travelling at aphelion to the enormous distance
from the sun of 40,121,000,000 miles. The latter
was also remarkable for its brilliance, but chiefly
for its very near approach to the sun, passing so
near that a trifling change in its direction of
approach would have caused a collision. Not
more than 32,000 miles separated their surfaces
when nearest. Its tail also was enormous, reach-
ing in length 200,000,000 miles. Since 1850 many
brilliant comets are recorded: Donati’s in 1858 ;
and the great comet of 1861, through the tail of
which our earth passed on June 30th of that year,

COMET

with scarcely a sign observable of the passage;
also Coggia’s comet in 1874, remarkable for the
series of envelopes of luminous matter which
seemed to combine to form its tail. The great
comet of 1880 astonished astronomers by follow-
ing the same track as that of 1843, almost grazing
the sun. That of 1881 iii followed the track of
that of 1807, for a return of which it was at first
mistaken. These two examples demonstrated that
in some cases several comets travel on
the same orbit, at great distances,
however, from one another. The
comet 1881 iii was the first success-
fully photographed, Janssen obtaining
a picture including 24°, and Dr Henry
Draper of New York one including
10°, of its tail. Dr Huggins and Dr
Draper were also both successful in
photographing its spectrum, with re-
sults confirming what eye observations
already had revealed. Dr Schiiberle
at Ann Arbor, Michigan, discovered
another bright comet, the fourth for
the year 1881, which for a time accom-
panied 1881 iii, both being in the
northern heavens together. At Dud-
ley Observatory, U.S., a comparatively
small comet was discovered soon after
by Mr Wells, remarkable as the first
in whose spectrum the sodium line
was seen. In 1882 the surprise of 1880 was
repeated. Another bright comet appeared in
September, following the tracks of the 1843 and
1880 comets, making the third in an orbital pro-
cession in space. It was seen in New Zealand
on September 3, at the Cape of Good Hope

on September 8, and at Rio de Janeiro on the |

llth. Mr Common at London had been seeking
for a short time to catch a bright comet near the
sun in the daytime. Independently, on
September 17, he discovered this one, close
to and rapidly nearing the sun. Clouds
“aires him from seeing the passage,
put it was observed at the Cape of Good
Hope by Messrs Finlay and Elkin, who
were watching at the time. Passing in
front of the sun, it disappeared from view,
overpowered by the solar brilliance, to
reappear shortly passing off the other edge
of the disc. All next day it was clearly
seen, only surpassed in brilliancy by the
sun itself. Though it had passed so close
to the sun, it experienced no retardation
of speed, proving that very near the solar
surface there can be no resisting medium
of density to affect such a body. It was followed
with the telescope to a distance from the earth
of 470,000,000 miles. This long observation en-
abled its period to be well ascertained as about
700 years. It exhibited in a marked degree a ten-
dency to disruption. ‘Space appeared,’ says Miss
Clerke, ‘to be strewn with the filmy debris of this
extraordinary body all along the track of its retreat
from the sun.’ Its tails corresponded to types 1
and 2 (see post), and there was a vast outburst of
luminous matter in October towards the sun, having
a diameter of 4,000,000 miles. Its spectrum showed
the sodium line in addition to the usual cometary
bands. The year 1883 was barren in cometary
results; 1884 saw three new comets discovered
respectively in Tennessee, Australia, and Europe by
Barnard, Ross, and Wolf. In 1885, on the 27th
November, there was a grand display of the meteors
into which Biela’s comet is now generally considered
to have broken up; 50 to 60 a minute being
recorded. Brooks, of Phelps, New York, discovered
a comet on August 31 in that year. But in the
next year (1886), within two months, three comets

|

| rewarded this diligent observer, a record equalled in
1887 by Barnard, of Nashville, Tennessee. In 1888
comets were discovered by Sawerthal on February
18, and by Brooks, New York, on August 7. The
| returns of Encke’s comet and of Faye's comet also
| marked that year, as they again did the year 1895,
|in which De Vico’s comet was seen for the first
| time since 1844. Seven new comets were seen for

| the first time between Nov. 1895 and Nov. 1896.

Comet of 1811.

is known to be very small, ss55 or so of that of the
earth in a calculated instance, much less probably
in many others. The nucleus, in which most of
this is contained, is generally admitted to be a more
or less close congeries of meteoric fragments. This
is shown by the smallness of its mass as compared

with its size, its spectrum, and the fact that comets
| and meteors follow one another in similar orbits.

| The quantity of matter in even the largest comet
|

Donati’s Comet, 1858.

Biela’s lost comet is now probably scattered into the
meteor stream which pursues its track (see ante).
The close agreement of cometary and meteoric or-
bits may appear from the fact that Tempel’s comet
(1866) has a period of 33°28 years, and the three
groups of November meteors, following the same
line, periods respectively of 32°25, 33°31, and 33:11
years. Also just as these groups follow one another
in procession round the sun, so do the comets above
mentioned of 1843, 1880, and 1882. Other systems
of mingled comets and meteors are also known, and
the spectroscopic researches of Lockyer may be said
to have demonstrated that the peculiar spectrum of
| comets can be produced from meteors. Carbon,
| hydrogen, and sodinm have been shown to enter
into the composition of cometary nuclei. A banded
spectrum of a hydrocarbon is the usual type, the
sodium line only showing when the nucleus 1s close
to the sun, and sweeping rapidly past it in a state
| of great disturbance. Usually as the nucleus nears
the sun, it appears disturbed; then jets or masses of
luminous material, gas or fine dust, are thrown up.
Some repulsive force appears to seize these and

378 COMFREY

COMINES

‘sweep them out into space with enormous rapidity,
producing the splendid phenomena of the tail. The
researches of Olbers, Bessel, Norton of Yale College,
U.S., C. F. Pope, Zéllner, and especially Professor
Bredichin, late of Moscow Observatory, have gone
far to establish the existence of this force, and
to identify it with electric repulsion. Professor
Bredichin has divided comets’ tails into three
classes, those of hydrogen, of hydrocarbons, and of
iron, due respectively to a repellent force (1) of 12
times solar gravity, (2) equal to it, and (3) 4 of it.
‘The first material and force give straight, the second
‘slightly curved, and the third strongly curved tails.
The comet, 1886 f, showed three tails, one corre-
sponding to each of these types. Observation and
calculation have verified these conclusions as to the
forces, and forms of tails, but not yet as to the
electric nature of the forces. The light of comets is
mainly due to electric discharges; a part, however,
is reflected solar light, and a part perhaps due to
incandescence. The tenuity of comets’ tails is in-
conceivable to us, stars, which the slightest fog
would conceal, shining clearly through a thickness
of millions of miles of their material. Hence,
although so great a display is caused by the matter
swept away from the comet at perihelion, it loses
‘but little in apparent bulk, though in the course of
‘centuries the loss is abundantly perceptible. Some
comets, Professor Kirkwood suggests, are probably
asteroids, thrown out of their proper eau by the
disturbing force of Jupiter. __

Comets have been alternately regarded with terror
and with welcome in the popular mind. The
‘appearance of Halley’s comet in 1456, just as the
Turks had become masters of Constantinople, and
threatened an advance into Europe, was regarded
by Christendom with a superstitious dread, and to
the Ave Maria was added the prayer: ‘ Lord save
us from the devil, the Turk, and the comet.’ At
Constantinople the occurrence of a lunar eclipse at
the same time increased the portentousness of the
event. The discoveries of science of the magnitude
-of the space filled by their bodies, and their pro-
digious velocity, together with the confessed impos-
‘sibility of always predicting their approach, pro-
duced fears of another kind, which have sometimes
been, especially in France, extravagantly exagger-
ated in the public mind. The groundlessness of
‘such alarms, from the extreme improbability of
collision with the nucleus, the innocuousness of a
‘contact with the extremely attenuated surrounding
matter, and, possibly, to the greater part of the
world, of a oiiiion with the nucleus itself, will be
sufficiently evident from what has been said above.
It is certain that already, on many occasions, some
-of the attenuated vapour in the tail of comets must
have come within the earth’s attraction, and been
absorbed in its atmosphere. Whether the effect is
deleterious or salubrious, or whether it has any

verceptible influence at all, is only matter of specu-
lation: The salubrity of cometary influence is now
a popular idea; and the vintages of 1811 and 1858
were favourable seasons, whose produce has been
advertised as the comet wines. It is scarcely worth
while, however, to follow further speculation on
these subjects, and it has been considered prefer-
able to confine this article chiefly to the description
of the general characteristics of comets, and the
facts respecting them afforded by science.

Comfrey (Symphytum), a common palzarctic
genus of Boraginaceee, somewhat coarse perennial

nerbs, although occasionally to be seen in flower-
borders. S. officinale (blue) and S. tuberosum
(yellow) are frequent in shady and moist places.
S. officinale was formerly much esteemed as a
vulnerary. Its young leaves and its blanched
shoots are still occasionally used as boiled vege-
tabies. The Prickly Comfrey (S. asperrimum),

a native of Siberia, 6-10 feet in height, has been
recommended for feeding cattle. he stamens
are covered in this genus by five awl-shaped
processes pushed in from the outside of the corolla,
and meeting so as to form a false bottom
impassable to ants, flies, and other small honey-
thieves, but which can be thrust aside by the

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale).

humble-bees which alone fertilise the flower.
Many bees, however (especially B. terrestris and
one or two others), prefer to bite a hole in the side
of the corolla below this cover, and the flowers may
thus be seen to be visited both in the legitimate
and illegitimate way. See, under FLOWER, Fertili-
sation of the Flower, vol. iv. p. 692.

Comines, a town on the borders of Belgium
and France, 15 miles SW. of Courtrai by rail,
divided by the Lys into two parts, of which that on
the left (pop. 4381) belongs to Belgium ; the other,
on the right (pop. 6355), to France. The town has
some manufactures, and was the seat of the family
of Comines.

Comines, PHILIPPE DE, Sieur d’Argenton, a
French statesman and historian, who was born
about 1445—at JRenescure, in the neighbour-
hood of Hazebrouck. His ancestors had been
citizens of Ghent. He joined the court of Bur-
gundy, and was sent by Charles the Bold on
important missions to France, England, and Spain.
In 1472 he forsook Charles and entered the service
of Louis XI. of France. He was rewarded with
the rich fief of Talmont, and became one of Louis’s
most trusted advisers. On the accession of Charles
VIII. he was deprived of Talmont, and cast into
prison for having incurred the displeasure of the
regent, Anne of Beaujeu. He accompanied
Charles VIII. on his Italian expedition, was pres-
ent at the battle of Fornovo, and had an inter-
view with Machiavelli in Florence. He held
sundry places and pensions under Louis XII., and
died in 1509. is Mémoires consist of seven
books, six of which deal with the reign of Louis
XI., while the seventh treats of Charles VIII.’s
wars in Italy. They are the earliest example in

COMISO

COMMANDITE 379

French literature of the history as distinguished
from the chronicle. Unlike the chroniclers,
Comines cares little for the mere spectacle of
courtly and military life. His sympathies are
with the king against the nobles; his interest is
centred in statecraft; he takes a keen delight in
the game of politics well played. His
reflections on men and affairs are always dispas-
sionate, and often pregnant and acute. His Lettres
et Négotiations were published in 1867-68. The
best edition of the Mémoires is that by Chantelauze
(Paris, 1881). The English translation by Danett
(1596) was re-edited by Whibley in 1897.

Comi’so, a town of Sicily, 37 miles WSW. of
Syracuse, with manufactures of soap and pottery.
tton is largely grown here. Pop. 19,333.

Comitia were the legal or constitutional meet-
ings of the Roman people, convened by a magistrate,
usually for the purpose of putting a question to the
vote. According to the constitution of the several
gatherings, they were comitia curiata, comitia cen-
turiata, or comutia tributa respectively. See RoME.

Comity of Nations—more frequently men-
tioned by its Latin equivalent, comitas gentium—
is the international courtesy by which effect is
given to the laws of one state within the territory
and against the citizens of another state. ‘In the
silence of any positive rule,’ says Story, ‘ affirming,
or denying, or restraining the operation of foreign
laws, courts of justice presume the tacit adoption
of them by their. own government, unless they are
repugnant to its policy or prejudicial to its interests.’
See Story’s Conflict of Laws ; and INTERNATIONAL

w.

Comma, in the mathematical study of sound,
is a small interval, generally corresponding to the
vibration-ratio 81: 80, which occurs between the
true pitches of two notes, which on the piano,
organ, and other tempered instruments, are repre-
sented by one only. See TEMPERAMENT.

Commandant is the officer, of whatever rank,
in command of a fortress or military post of any
kind—e.g. a station on the lines of communication
of anarmy. The title is also given to an officer
commanding a larger body of troops than is proper
to his rank, as captain-commandant, lieutenant-
commandant, &c., and to the senior lieutenant-
colonel of a volunteer battalion in the British
army, where there are two or more on its establish-
ment, There are also commandants to most mili-
tary schools.

Commander, in the British navy, is an officer
next under a captain in rank, and serves either as
second in command in a large ship, or in independ-
ent command of a smaller vomel In matters of
etiquette, he ranks with a lieutenant-colonel in the
army, but junior of that rank; and he bears the
title of captain by courtesy. There were, in 1888,
160 commanders ee ply with pay of £1 per day ;
while there were 69 on half-pay, but eligible for
re-employment, and 347 on retired pay; but the
whole list of those employed, or eligi le for em-
ployment, is to be raised to 270. tirement is
optional at the age of forty-five; and compulsory
at fifty, or after five years without employment.
In the United States navy, commanders have a
rank next below that of captain, and next above
that of a lieutenant-commander, and rank with
lieutenant-colonels in the army.

Commander-in-chief is the highest staff
on hg in the British army. After the death
of the Duke of Wellington in 1852, this title, which
had been borne by him for many years, was allowed
to lapse, and the administration of the army was
placed under a general on the staff who was styled
the general (or field-marshal, if of that rank) com-

manding in chief. In 1887 the title of commander-
in-chief was revived ; and in 1895 (on the resigna-
tion of the Duke of Cambridge) effect was given to
the recommendations of the Hartington Commis-
sion, by a more perfect organisation of our national
defences under one supreme authority—though nom-
inally since 1855 the commander-in-chief has been
strictly subordinate to the Secretary of State for
War. His office, technically called the Horse
Guards, is the military department of the War
Office (q.v.). At its head is the adjutant-general,
and its several branches are presided over by the
quartermaster-general, the military secretary, the
inspector-general of fortifications, the directors of
artillery, of military intelligence, of the army
medical department, and of military education,
the chaplain-general, and the S gprs ms veterinary
surgeon. All promotions and military appoint-
ments are recommended by the commander-in-chief,
those of t importance being supervised by the
war minister, and, if necessary, discussed by the
cabinet. He is responsible for recruiting opera-
tions, the technical education of officers and men,
and everything connected with the efficiency, dis-
tribution, and mobilisation of the troops, together
with the construction and armament of fortifica-
tions. He exercises an inspectional control over
the men who are under the immediate command
of the general officers commanding the various
districts. See WOLSELEY.

There is also a local commander-in-chief in India,
under whom all the forces there are placed, and in
many of the colonies the governor bears this title.
It would also be given to the officer in command of
any large army engaged in active operations. The
powers of these officers extend only to those troo
that may be placed under them by orders from the
commander-in-chief at the Horse Guards.

A naval commander-in-chief is the chief admiral
at any port or station. In the United States the
president is ex officio the commander-in-chief of the
army and navy.

Commandery, the district under a commander,
specially used in connection with the Templars
(q.v.), the Hospitallers (q.v.), and other religious
orders.

Commandite, Société EN, or PARTNERSHIP
IN, an expression used for at least two centuries
in France, to express a partnership in which one may
advance capital without taking part in the manage-
ment of, or incurring further liability in connection
with the business. The term ‘sleeping partner’
used in this country would nearly express the same
idea, were it not for the attendant unlimited liabil-
ity. The phrase is derived from the old meaning in
the commercial nomenclature of France of the word
commande, which was applied to the authority

iven to one person to transact business for another.

he working partner had a commande from him who
merely advanced capital. The term has acquired
importance in political economy, because the law of
France exempts the sleeping partners from respon-
sibility beyond the amount they agree to be re-
sponsible for. On the other hand, by the law of the

nited Kingdom, every member of a partnership is
liable for all its debts ; limitation of liability being
only obtainable by incorporation under the Com-
panies Acts. Hence, in the discussions about the
question, whether it would be prudent to relax this
law, and permit persons to invest money in trading
companies without undergoing this responsibility,
such companies were called ‘partnerships in com-
mandite.’ Proposals have from time to time been
made in Britain to establish a system of limited
oe independently of the Companies Acts,

he Act 28 and 29 Vict. chap. 86, 5th July 1865,
permits loans to trading firms in consideration of a

380 COMMELYNACEZ

COMMENSALISM

share of the profits, without involving partnership
liability. The contract must be in writing, and the
lender ranks in a bankruptcy after other creditors.

Commelyna’cez, an order of petaloid mono-
cotyledons, all herbaceous, chiefly neotropical, of
which a few species are cultivated in herbaceous
borders on account of the beauty of their flowers,
notably spiderwort, or Tradescantia ( Virginica, and
other species), Commelyna celestis, &c. Others
are grown in hothouses, notably the peculiar
Cochliostemma.

Commemoration, or ENC&NIA, the great
festival of the Oxford academic year, usually takes

lace on the third Wednesday after Trinity Sunday.
t is of very ancient date, public exercises and
recitations having been held from time immemorial
in honour of the Act, or period when: Masters
of Arts and Doctors complete their degrees. The

roceedings consist of a Latin oration in honour of
ounders and benefactors; the presentation of the
honorary degree of D.C.L. to strangers eminent in
science, politics, &e.; and the recitation of the
Newdigate or English prize poem, the Latin prize
poem, and the Latin and English prize essays. The
more strictly academic and solemn portion of the
proceedings was frequently wont to receive scanty
attention from a great part of the audience ; and the
noisy humours of the gallery have often encroached
on the stately periods of the public orator. In
1876 the undergraduates were removed from the
special gallery they had hitherto occupied, and
distributed amongst the general audience, which
includes ladies and strangers as well as members
of the university. ‘Commencement’ is the cor-
responding festival at Cambridge, where, however,
it is of less general observance.

Commendam, an ancient manner of holding
ecclesiastical benefices. When a living fell vacant
by the preferment of its holder, it was commended
by the crown to the care of a clerk, usually a
bishop in one of the poorer sees, to hold till a
proper pastor was provided for it. Such a livin
was called an ecclesia commendata, and was sai
to be held im commendam. A commendam in
ecclesiastical law may be defined as the power of
receiving and retaining a benefice contrary to
positive law, by supreme authority. Holdings in
commendam were abolished in 1836.—CoMMEN-
DATORS, in Scotland, in Roman Catholic times,
were stewards appointed to levy the fruits of a
benefice during a vacancy. They were mere trus-
tees; but gradually the pope assumed the power
of appointing commendators for life, without any
obligation to account. This abuse led in 1466 to a
No aa of all commendams except those granted

y bishops for six months and under. See ABBOT.

Commensalism (literally, ‘at the same table’),
the intimate, but never parasitic association of two
different kinds of organisms, for the benefit of one,
or very often of both. Of such advantageous
partnerships there are so many different forms and
degrees, that no precise ‘efinition of the term
can be given. (1) Every one who has looked at
shore animals must have observed how often
molluse shells, for instance, are covered with
span ene. hydroids, worm-tubes, acorn-shells, and
the like. But this is a purely external association,
and depends simply on the fact that the shells
afford convenient anchorage for the free-swimming
embryos. In many cases no great advantage can
accrue on either side. The habit is comparable
to that of vegetable epiphytes upon trees. This
grade might be spoken of as mainly external and
unadvantageous association. (2) In other cases,
however, the association, though probably acci-
dental, brings its reward. When one sea-mat
(Polyzoa) grows entangled with another of greater

vigour, or when different kinds of polyps are:
similarly associated, and that is often, there may be
distinct advantage to the weaker form, since with-
out becoming a parasite it enjoys the privileges.
of a messmate. Or the advantage may take
another form, when the associate is carried about:
by its bearer. Thus, Cirripedes are common upon
whales, and have evidently an advantage both.
in security and continual freshness of feeding-
ground over those which adhere to fixed objects.
This grade might be distinguished as that of fixed
external associates with the advantage on one
side. (3) Itis, however, evident that if a crab be
covered with acorn-shells, or polyps, or sponges,
there is no longer a one-sided, but a mutual advan-
tage. It is well for the sedentary growth to be
carried about continually to new pastures; but.
it is well also for the crab to be masked. Covered
with a rich growth, either vegetable or animal,
the crabs must appear all innocence, and like
walking-woods of Birnam, can steal unnoticed upon
their victims. A gasteropod may be similarly
masked by polyps, and doubtless gives and reaps.
similar advantages. This grade may be described
as that of fixed associates with mutual advantage,
to this extent, at least, that the weaker animals.
are borne about, and the bearers are masked. (4)
But a higher stage of fixed association is some-
times.exhibited, that, namely, where the partner-
ship is deliberate, where the masked bearer is.
not perros benefited, but is an active accomplice.
Probably the most striking case of such deliberate:
partnership is that referred to (and illustrated)
under the article ANEMONE—viz. the habit which
some hermit crabs have of bearing about sea-
anemones on the molluse shell which they inhabit,
or even upon their claws. It would appear that in
some cases the crustacean deliberately chooses its
ally, induces it to fix itself on the shell or claw,
and takes care not to leave it behind at the epochs
of shell-changing. When deprived of its com-
mensal, the crab is ‘said to be restlessly ill at ease
until another of the same species is forthcoming.
Off some parts of the British coast, the beautiful
sea-anemone (Adamsia palliata) is found envelop-
ing the mollusc home of a hermit crab (Zupagurus
prideauxti). The use of the sea-anemone as a
mask, and also as equivalent to a stinging organ,
is obvious enough, while the hermit crab returns.
the benefit by carrying about the sea-anemone
and giving it a share of the spoil. This grade may
therefore be described as deliberate partnership:
with mutual advantage.

So far only fixed commensals have been spoken
of, but organisms may be constantly associated
without being attached. Sometimes different
organisms, both plant and animal, are found in
almost constant association without any obvious.
connection obtaining between them. In many
cases this companionship may be ems due to
the fact that similar environmental conditions suit:
both. Small fishes are sometimes found as free
commensals within sea-anemones; the Remora.
(q.v.) attaches itself temporarily to sharks and
other fishes; the little crabs (Pinnotheres, &c.)
found living freely inside various bivalves are prob-:
ably true messmates, and similar habitual partner-
ship is very common among crustaceans; a brittle-
star is known to live as a free messmate on a.
crinoid ; many worm-types are found in constant
though free associations with other animals; and
the same habit is exhibited by some Ccelenterates.
and Protozoa. Many of the insects which frequent
plants are in strict sense commensals, feeding not
on their hosts, but on other visitors, &c. In some
cases they form an actual bodyguard.

Commensalism must, of course, be distinguished
from Parasitism (q.v.), whether external or internal,

COMMENSURABLE

COMMINATION 381

for in parasitism the one organism more or less
directly preys upon the other. Yet it is evident
that a commensal may readily degenerate into a
parasite. Commensalism must also be distin-
— from that most intimate kind of partner-

ip known as Symbiosis (g.v. ), and illustrated
by the union of algoid and fungoid organisms to
form a lichen, or by the occurrence of alge as con-
stant internal associates of Radiolarians, some
Celenterates, and some worm-types.

As part of the animate environment, commensals
have influenced one another in very direct ways.
See ENVIRONMENT; P. J. van Beneden’s Animal
Parasites and Messmates (1876); and Semper’s
Animal Life (1881).

Commensurable. Two quantities or numbers
are said to be commensurable which are of the same
kind, and each of which contains a third quantity
r number a certain number of times without
remainder; or when both can be measured exactly
by the same unit, however small.

Commentrey, a town in the French depart-
ment of Allier, 211 miles S. of Paris by rail, is close
‘to a great coal-field, and owes its rise to coal and
iron works. Pop. 9316.

Commerce, CHAMBER OF. See CHAMBER OF
COMMERCE, MERCANTILE LAw.—For the so-called
Commercial System, see MERCANTILE SYSTEM.

Commercial Travellers. A commercial
traveller (‘C.T.’) is a person whose occupation is
to transact business as the accredited travelling
representative of a trading house to other trading
houses. A further qualification is insisted upon by
benevolent institutions connected with the body,
in the rule that a traveller must have been
‘on the road’ for two years before he can claim
benefit. A ‘townsman’ or ‘town traveller’ is one
who confines his efforts to a a town. In thirty
years a fourfold increase in the number of com-
mercial travellers is shown by the annexed sta-
tistics: In 1851 there were in England, 8378; in
Scotland, 1017; in Ireland, 339; total, 9734. In
1881 there were in England, 35,570; in Scotland,
4793; in Ireland, 1558 ; total, 41,921. In the latter

ear, 878 of the total number were European
foreigners ; but at the present there is doubtless a
much larger proportion. The death-rate of com-
mercial travellers in 1881, though it shows a
‘considerable improvement on that of 1871, was
high (34 per 1000), or nearly 50 per cent. above
that of persons engaged in icultural pursuits.
A very large proportion of deaths was due to
‘diseases caused by intemperance. To this terrible
scourge must also be attributed the fact that the
number of suicides is x ei in this than in any
occupation save one. appily, of late years a
marked improvement is noticeable, owing to th
spread of temperance | oroem gaa: and an ine
number of temperance hotels.

Of the later half of the 18th century in Britain
‘many districts remained completely excluded,
so that foreign products never reached them
at all,’ and ‘even at the beginning of the 19th
century the Yorkshire yeoman was ignorant of
sugar, potatoes, and cotton.’ It has been the work
of the commercial traveller to materially assist in
altering this state of things, and to bring about
‘equality of distribution o produce, and corre-
sponding equality of prices,’ and generally to
promote that ‘facility of exchange which is the
very soul of industry.’ Commercial partie,
the specific sense is not an old institution. The
‘commercial traveller,’ ‘bagman,’ or ‘rider’ (in
the United States, ‘drummer’) was the successor
to the Ee gp ramagl or travelling merchant, who
carried with him not samples merely, but stock.
Chaucer tells us that :

In Surrye whylom dwelte a companye,

Of chapmen riche, and therto sadde and trewe,
That wyde wher senten her spycerie,

Clothes of gold, and satins riche of hewe,

The application of steam to machinery, the conse-
quent rise of the factory system, increased facilities
in banking, and improved means of locomotion,
have made the commercial traveller an important
factor in the commercial world. Within recent

ears a formidable competitor has entered the
field in the person of the foreigner, whose
superior education and commercial training have
hitherto placed the British commercial traveller at
a disadvantage. A further development of com-
mercial travelling is before us; there is room
especially for men possessing a thorough knowledge
of foreign and colonial trade, and above all of
modern languages.

There are several excellent institutions con-
nected with the body, owing largely to the efforts
of men like George Moore and George Stockdale.
The Commercial Travellers’ Schools for destitute
orphans and necessitous children were founded in
1845: the school at Pinner accommodates 360 chil-
dren. The Commercial Travellers’ Benevolent
Institution was founded in 1849 for the relief of
necessitous commercial travellers over the age of
fifty-five years, being members, and for their
widows. The relief is given in the form of an
annuity of £50 to members, and £30 to their
widows. The Commercial Travellers’ Society of
Scotland was founded in 1838 for the relief of mem-
bers incapacitated by disease, accident, or infirmity,
and for securing a payment at death. The British
Commercial Travellers’ Provident Society, like the
last named, is based on the Friendly Societies Act.
There is also a Commercial Travellers’ Christian
Association (1882); and the United Kingdom Com-
mercial Travellers’ Association (1883) has done
good work in pushing forward hotel and railway
reforms, and in gee 4 social intercourse amon
commercial travellers. newspaper, On the Road,
devoted entirely to the interests of commercial
travellers, was established in 1883.

In the United States the number of commercial
travellers has increased rapidly, till in 1890 it was
computed that there were between 230,000 and
300,000. Amongst their benevolent associations
are the Commercial Travellers’ Association of New
York (2000 members); the North-western Travel-
ling Men’s Association of Chicago (4000); one at
St , as (2100); an Order of Commercial Travellers,
a secret society organised in 1888 ; also a Travellers’
Protective Association (9000 members), for provid-
ing “eg overcharges by railroads and _ hotels,
&c. The organ of the travelling salesmen is The
Merchant Traveller, published at Chicago.

Commination (Lat., ‘threatening’), the ‘de-
nouncing of God’s anger and ar crac gy against
sinners,’ read in the Anglican Church on Ash-
Wednesday (q.v.). A solemn service, at which
penitents were expelled from the church, after in-
structions and prayers for their amendment, appears
to have been held on the first oy Be Lent from a
very early date, perhaps from the beginning of the
6th century ; but the commination office used in the
Church of England is rather a continuation of the
medieval practice of reciting the ‘articles of the
sentence of cursing,’ which were at one time read in
the ish churches four times a year; only the
opening exhortation to repentance was com
by the English Reformers. The present office is
nearly the same as those found in the Sarum
and York uses. The curses contained in Deut.
xxvii. are read as statements, not as prayers; and
the congregation answer ‘ Amen’ to every sentence,
as ddamelsiging the truth of what has been stated,
rather than as confirming the curse. The American

382 COMMISSARIAT

COMMISSION

Prayer-book omits this office, but several prayers
taken from it are appointed to be said on Ash-
Wednesday, at the end of the litany.

Commissariat is a name for the organised
system whereby armies are provided with food,
forage, fuel, quarters, and all other necessaries
except warlike stores. In feudal times, soldiers
were mainly dependent for food on their lords;
but they lived very much by plunder. During the
wars of the Crusades, the commissariat was so
utterly neglected that thousands died of starvation.

The first germ of the modern British commissariat
i iene in the office of proviant-master in the time
of Queen Elizabeth. nder Charles I., commis-
saries were stationed in the different counties.
Marlborough’s troops were supplied by contract ;
he received a percentage, and peculation was ver
common. After many changes during the 18t
century, a commissary-general was arabe in
1793 to superintend all contracts for food and forage.
The dire experience of the Crimean war showed
how inadequate the small existing establishment
was to bear the strain of a campaign. In 1858 and
1859 the commissariat was newly organised ; and
remained, until 1870, a War-office department,
under a commissary-general-in-chief.

In 1870 it was merged with other supply depart-
ments in the great ‘Control Department,’ which,
under the Surveyor-general of the Ordnance, per-
formed all the civil administrative duties of the
army, until its abolition in 1875. The ‘Commissariat
and Transport Department’ was then formed, and
administered by the Director of Supplies, an officer
on the staff of the Surveyor-general at the War
Office, the supply of warlike stores being placed
under the Ordnance Store Department (q.v.). The
reorganisation of the War Office in February 1888,
while leaving the duties of these two departments
unaltered, has placed them under the Quartermaster-
general. In India this has always been the case
so far as the commissariat is concerned, which is
officered by appointments from the combatant
branch. The present British staff consists of 2 com-
missaries-general ranking as major-general, 10
deputy-commissaries-general with honorary rank
of colonel, 62 assistant and 111 deputy-assistant
commissaries-general with honorary rank of major
and captain belay yee 40 quartermasters (hono-
rary lieutenants), 3 adjutants, 1 paymaster, and
2 riding-masters. Their pay varies from 9s. 6d.
a day in the lowest ranks to £1500 a year in the
highest. There are 37 companies, having each a
peace establishment of 2 officers, 123 of other ranks,
63 horses, and 12 wagons.

The war establishment laid down in 1888 for
a commissariat and transport company with an
infantry brigade is 5 officers, 192 non-commissioned
officers and men, and 234 horses, and if with the
headquarters of a division of infantry, 7 officers,
157 of other ranks, and 184 horses. The establish-
ment for an Army Corps (q.v.) in the field, with
three days’ rations for the men, and two days’
forage for the horses, is 60 officers, 2494 non-com-
missioned officers and men, 2796 horses, and 438
carriages. The wagons of the Army Medical and
Ordnance Store Departments are horsed by the
Transport Department. Camp equipment, fuel,
forage, food, &c. are supplied by the commissariat,
the actual cooking being done by the regimental
cooks. Clothing is supplied by the government
factory at Pimlico, aad like all other stores,
brought to the army, if in the field, by the trans-
port branch of this very important department.

The Indian commissariat is, as indicated above,
a local department, varying in strength with the
requirements of the moment. There is also a
sinall local staff of 1 commissary, 3 deputies, and
1 assistant on the west coast of Africa.

In the United States the army commissariat is:
administered by a commissary-general of sub-
sistence, having the rank of brigadier-general ; five
assistant commissary-generals, ranking as colonels.
and lieutenant-colonels; eight commissioners of
subsistence, ranking as majors, and twelve as.
captains. Their salaries are from $5500 to $2000.

Commissary, in general, is any one to whom
the power and authority of another is committed.
An ecclesiastical commissary is an officer of the
bishop, who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in dis- —
tant parts of the diocese. A military commissary
is an officer charged with furnishing provisions and
clothes to an army.

When the Patel authority was abolished in Seot-
land, a supreme commissary court was established.
in Edinburgh in 1563, by a grant of Queen Mary.
This court had jurisdiction in actions of divorce,
declarators of marriage, nullity of marriage, and
all actions which originally belonged to the bishops”
ecclesiastical courts. Its powers were gradu
conjoined with those of the Court of Session, and
it was finally abolished in 1836, the small remains:
of its once important jurisdiction being united in
the sheriff of Edinburgh. See Alexander on
Practice of the Commissary Courts in Scotland
(1858), and Fraser on Husband and Wife.

Commission. As a commercial term, com-.
mission is sometimes taken to be synonymous with
Brokerage, but there is a distinction. Brokerage:
is the percentage paid to a passive intermediary in
a transaction, who incurs no responsibility; com-
mission is the percentage paid to an active agent in a.
transaction, who inseally does incur some pecuniary
and always some moral responsibility.

A commission as a certificate of rank is granted.
by the highest authority of a state. All military
and naval commissions in Britain must be signed
by the sovereign: but in the United States a.
commission may be issued by a governor of a state:
as well as by the president of the republic, com-
missions in the volunteers (or militia) baie gener-
ally granted by state governors. The appoint-
ment of justices of the peace in the United ere
dom is also made by a ‘commission of the
peace,’ issued under the great seal. The great.
seal itself is in charge of a Lord-keeper, but is put.
‘into commission’ when a change of ministers is.
taking place. This means that certain persons are-
appointed to exercise jointly, but without individual
powers, the functions of the office. Another in-
stance of the functions of a great public officer
being delegated to others ‘in commission’ is that of
the Lord High Admiral, who formerly had control
of all naval affairs. This, however, is a permanent
commission, although commissioners of Lords of the.
Admiralty change with every change of the ministry.

An office in commission is an office in suspense.
Yet, curiously enough, the phrase has a directly
opposite meaning in naval affairs, for when a ship:
is ordered to be placed ‘in commission,’ it means
that she shall be fully equipped and prepared for
active service.

Permanent commissions are also constituted, not.
merely for the delegation of existing duties, but.
also for the execution of duties with which no per-
son had been previously charged. As instances we:
may take the Civil Service Commission in 1855.
(see CIVIL SERVICE); the Railway Commission,
appointed in 1873 to carry out the act for the
better regulation of railways passed in 1854, and
to otherwise act as a sort of court of arbitration
or appeal in disputes between railway companies ;
the Irish Land Commission, appointed to carry out-
some of the provisions regulating the land laws in
Ireland; the Crofters Commission, appointed for
five years from 1886 to fix fair rents for the Scotch.

“F try

q Be et

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT FREIGHT TEAMS, IDAHO.
Vol, IIL, page 382.

COMMISSION

COMMISSIONATRES 383

crofters. The members of these are nominated in
terms of special acts of parliament.
Other permanent commissions are the Charity

Commission, created 1853 (of four members, one

of whom is unpaid ), to examine into all the charities
and the management of them, in England and
Wales ; the Commission for the management of the
National Debt; the Ecclesiastical and Church
Estates Commission; the Land Commission of
England; the Public Works Loan Commission ;
the Thames Conservancy Commission; and the
Commission for the adjustment of Cases under
Income-tax Assessments. These are all bodies com-
missioned to execute certain specified functions,
more or less administrative, and casera. to some
extent of the character of public departments.

In law, a commission may be issued by mandate
of a court to take evidence from parties residing
abroad or incapacitated from appears in person.
A Commission in Bankruptcy is issued for the pur-
tg of taking charge of the effects of an insolvent
or behoof of his creditors. A Commission in
Lunacy is appointed by the Court of Chancery to
inquire into the mental condition of an alleged
lunatic whose property may be in question. There
are now permanent commissioners in lunacy whose
duties include visitation and supervision of asylums,

In governmental relations, commissions are some-
times constituted where Britain exercises protect-
orate but has not formed complete colonial estab-
lishments, as in Cyprus, South Africa (see CAPE
CoLony), New Guinea, and some islands of the
western Pacific. The commission in such cases
is a delegation, with certain limitations, of the
authority of the crown. In India (q.v.) the
administrative head of a province is sometimes
called chief-commissioner (assisted by district com-
missioners), who is responsible to the viceroy of
India. Sometimes commissions are international
—i.e. composed of representatives of various
nations for international purposes. A conspicu-
ous example of such was the commission in 1871
on the Alabama question (see ALABAMA); more
recent was the commission for Eastern Roumelia,
appointed under the Treaty of Berlin of 1878.

gain, a commission may take the form of a
temporary embassy for certain specific purposes.
The appointments are then made by the prime-
minister and cabinet, as when Mr Gladstone was
sent to the Ionian Islands in 1858, or Lord
Dufferin to Egypt in 1883. Somewhat different
in character was the commission given to Mr
Chamberlain in 1887 to proceed to America, to
confer with delegates of Canada and the United
States upon matters in dispute concerning the
fisheries.

In its parliamentary sense, a commission may be
either Special or Royal. In the former case it is
appointed usually, and in the latter case invariably,
in response to a motion in one or other of the
Houses. A royal commission is appointed only
by the crown; but a special commission may be
che by a department of state. The io
of a commission of this kind are usually defrayed
by the parties requiring it, but those of a royal
commission are included in the estimates for the
current year. The commissioners may be paid
by fees regulated by government. en a com-
mission sits in London, it has the power of author-
ising the payment of witnesses on the scale recog-
ni in courts of law; but when a commission
sits in the country, witnesses are not id.

A royal commission is appointed by motion in
parliament, and is issued by a royal warrant
nominating certain ‘trusty and_ well-beloved
cousins and counsellors’ to undertake a specified
-nquiry. Of such was the royal commission to
inquire into the condition of the crofters (1882),

which was a wholly different body from that
appointed by act of parliament in 1886 to carry
out certain legislative decrees. The former was
one of inquiry; the latter, one of administration.
The royal commissions appointed to inquire into
the causes of the depression of trade (1886-87),
and into the recent changes in the relative values
of the precious metals (commonly called the Silver
Commission ), also in 1886, are among the most
prominent of recent appointments of this kind.

When a royal commission is nominated by royal
mandate, a secretary is appointed, and such clerical
assistance as may be necessary is provided out of
some of the departinents. The commissioners are
empowered to call and hear evidence (although not
on oath), to examine documents, localities, &c.
The evidence is reported in extenso—question and
answer duly numbered—and is submitted, along
with the formal report, to the sovereign’ and to-

arliament. The whole is then incorporated in a

lue-book. The multiplication of royal and special
commissions has become rather a _ legislative
nuisance and a financial burden. Royal commissions.
always include members of the House of Lords or of
the House of Commons, or of both.

The cost of parliamentary and royal commissions.
varies much, In 1896-97 the Charity Commission
cost £42,869 (a small decrease on the preceding year),
the Civil Service Commission £39,700 ( decrease).
In 1888 the figures for all were :

Charity Commission... ....06sccscrcseccecccces £36,701

Civil Service Comimission............-sseeeeee 44,477
Land Commission of England................4+ 12,210
Lunacy Commission of England................ 15,217

" " BeOWanel wie seds ands a esos 5,990
Public Works Loan Commission................+ 9,533
National Debt Commission..................... 15,071

Week COMM ors os si ace sc ce ccadensacees 12,680

Crafters Commision s jasc i cvecccacscctscsaves 6,831
Land Commission of Ireland................+.- 45,912
Endowed Schools Commission.................. 700
Temporary Commissions. ............2++-eeeee 33,404

Another kind of commission is that sometimes
given to two or more judges to inquire into certain
alleged crimes, such as the commission (1867-69)
to He ar into the Sheffield trades-union outrages,
and that (1888-90) of three judges appointed by
act of parliament, to inquire into the ‘charges
and allegations’ pee ee in the Times newspaper
against Mr Parnell and others.

It should be added that the sovereign, who
nominally presides over the annual deliberations of
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland,
delegates the duty to a Scotch peer as Lord High
Commissioner, a fresh commission being issued
every year. For the ecclesiastical court created by
Queen Elizabeth, see HIGH COMMISSION.

Commission Agent, or MERCHANT, is @
person employed to sell goods consigned or delivered
to him by another who is called his principal, for a
certain percentage, commonly called his commission
or factorage. See BROKER.

Commissionaires is a name given a class of
attendants at continental hotels, who perform cer-
tain miscellaneous services. Employed to attend
at the arrival of railway trains and steamboats to
secure customers, they wait to take charge of lug-
page, see it through the hands of the custom-

ouse officers, and send it on to the hotel; for all
which service they charge a fee.

In 1859 the Corps of Commissionaires was estab-
lished by Sir Edward Walter in England, with
divisions in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds,
Liverpool, Manchester, and other large cities in the
United Kingdom. The corps has recently extended
its operations to the principal cities of Australia,

and pu to continue its further development
throughout the colonial empire. The corps is com-°
posed of picked men from every branch of Her

384 COMMISSION DEL CREDERE

COMMODORE

Majesty’s naval and military service, and in the
London division alone there are 1200 men. The

can be engaged by the day or any other jeriod,
and for any duty where honesty, sobriety, and in-
telligence are required. The wages range from
twenty to forty shillings per week.

Commission del Cre’deré.
DERE COMMISSION.

Commissioners of Supply. See Suppiy.

Commissions, ARMY, are warrants from the
head of the state for holding various military
offices, whether combatant or non-combatant.
The latter class comprises the various departments
of the army, such as chaplains, commissariat, trans-
port, veterinary, ordnance store, &c., in which, so
ar as the British army is concerned, commissions,
carrying honorary or relative military rank, are
obtained by direct examination, by nomination
coupled with special professional qualifications, or
by transfer from other branches of the service.
‘Candidates for the Medical Staff (q.v.) pass through
a course of instruction at the Army Medical School
attached to the Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley,
before being commissioned as surgeons. As regards
the combatant officers, a first commission as sub-
lieutenant can be obtained by any British sub-
ject of proper age, character, and physical qualifi-
cations, either by entering one of the Militar
Schools (q.v.) as a Cadet (q.v.), or by peseing bot
a literary and a military examination (similar to
that mentioned below for a lieutenant’s promotion ),
after having served two trainings as an officer in
the militia. All correspondence regarding first
commissions or cadetships is conducted by the
military secretary at the War Office. Commissions
in the Royal Marines are obtained by direct com-
petitive examination. Two or three sub-lieuten-
ants’ commissions are given each year to cadets
from the Royal Military College of Canada. It
is also possible to obtain such a commission by
enlisting ; but only two or three specially selected
sergeants are promoted each year to the rank of
sub-lieutenant in the cavalry and infantry (135
officers now serving have risen from the ranks),
though all quartermasters, riding-masters, or
officers of the Coast Brigade Royal Artillery,
and Coast Battalion Royal Engineers, are com-
missioned, as lieutenants, from the ranks.

Subsequent commissions up to that of lieuten-
ant-colonel are given, as vacancies occur, to the
senior officer of the next lower rank, provided
that he has been favourably reported on, and, in
the case of a lieutenant or captain, has passed an
examination for promotion in regimental duties,
drill, fortification, tactics, military law, and topo-
graphy. To assist officers in passing this test, a

eputy-assistant adjutant-general for instruction is
appointed to the staff of each military district, and
classes are held under him for the study of the
four last-mentioned subjects. The rank of colonel
is only conferred by Brevet (q.v.) for distinguished
service, or on ayer tment to certain positions
carrying that rank, such as aide-de-camp to the
Queen, assistant adjutant-general, or commander
of a‘regimental district. Promotion to major-
general, lieutenant-general, and general, is by
selection, as vacancies occur. The establishment
in these ranks has been much reduced, and only
these. who are eminently qualified, professionally
one physically, are eligible for commissions in
them.

Previous to lst November 1871 all combatant
commissions were purchased, except in the Royal
Artillery, Engineers, and Marines, and a few given
as prizes to those cadets who passed out of the
Royal Military College at the head of the list. It
was then also possible to qualify for a commission

See DEL CRE-

by purchase, by passing a direet non-competitive
examination. The lowest price of a first commis-
sion in the line was £450, the highest (in the Life
Guards) was £1260. Large sums had also to be
paid for each step in rank, so that the interest of
the money thus invested sometimes exceeded the
pay of the rank.

The entire abolition of the purchase system
(by royal warrant in 1871) has at the same time
increased the actual value of commissions as a
means of livelihood, and the number of those
who are in a position to compete for them. The
com posites has in consequence become very severe
at the examinations, which are held usually twice
a year, for admission to the two military colleges
and for militia candidates for army commissions.
To meet this, a large number of special educa-
tional establishments have been formed, devoted
entirely to the work of preparing candidates for
these tests, and most of the large schools have
special army classes. The expenses thus entailed
are often not much less than the cost of a first
commission under the purchase system, but no
further payment is incurred by promotion.

The subjects of examination for cadetships are
selected, so far as the number of marks allotted to
each is concerned, so as to encourage boys who
have received the usual classical education, to come
up direct from school without having to undergo a
course of cramming at a military tutor’s, where the
influences are not always desirable. See CADET.

Commissure, an anatomical term applied to
nervous connections between adjacent parts of the
nervous system. Though it is not always used in
quite the same way, the general signification of the
term, and the physiological import of the structure,
is that of a uniting bridge. See BRAIN, NERVOUS
SYSTEM.

Commitment. See CrimrnaL Law.

Committee (Fr. comité), a portion, generally
consisting of not less than three members, selected
from a more numerous body, to whom some special
act to be performed, or investigation to be made,
is committed. But though a committee usually
consists of several members of the body by which it
is appointed, it may consist of one member, or,
what is more frequent, of the whole of the members
acting in a different capacity from that which
usually belongs to them. For the committees of
parliament, whether ‘select,’ ‘of the whole house,’
‘grand,’ or ‘standing’ committees, see PARLIA-
MENT.

Commodore, in the royal navy, is a rank
intermediate between an admiral and a captain.
It is not permanent, but is bestowed for a time on
a captain. Usually a commodore commands more
ships than one, detached from a fleet on some
special service; he hoists at that time a white
broad pennant, with a red cross, at the main if
a commodore of the first class, at the fore if of
the second class. A commodore is privileged to
have a commander under him in his ship, in the
same way as an admiral is privileged to have a
captain. The commodore, in matters of etiquette,
ranks with a brigadier-general in the army. When
in independent command, a commodore of the first
class receives £7, 10s. a day, and a commodore of
the second class about £4, 10s.

Until 1862 the title of commodore, without any
commission as such, was given in the United
States navy to such captains as commanded, or
had commanded, a squadron. In 1862 the rank
of commodore became a commissioned one. A
commodore ranks higher than a captain and lower
than a rear-admiral. His rank is assimilated to
that of a brigadier-general in the United States
army.

eh

_ wife, the younger Faustina.

_the good customs of the realm, and in a

COMMODUS

COMMON LAW 385

Commodus, Lucius Avretius, a Roman
emperor, born at Lanuvium in 161 A.D., was the son
of the great Marcus Aurelius and his rll

He was carefully
educated under his father’s care, but lived to be-
come one of the most worthless and bloody wretches
that ever disgraced athrone. At his father’s death
in the spring of 180, he was successfully fighting
the Marecomanni and other tribes on the upper
Danube, but he at once concluded a treaty with
the barbarians, and hastened to Rome to enjoy the
pleasures of power. After the discovery of his
sister Lucilla’s plot against his life in 183, he gave
uncontrolled vent to the senseless rapes ort! of his
nature. Nearly all who, by virtue, a ility, and
learning, had risen to honour during his father’s
lifetime, were sacrificed to appease his savage jeal-
ousy of the good and the great. Proud of his own
physical strength, he demeaned himself by exhibit-
ont in gladiatorial combats, and besides used, in
ee lic, to sing, dance, play, and act the buffoon.

hough a glutton and a shameless debauchee, who
wallowed in the most sensual abominations, he yet
demanded to be worshipped as a £4, and assumed
the title of Hercules Romanus. Many unsuccessful
plots were devised against the life of this mingled
monster and madman, until at length his mistress,
Marcia, finding her own name marked down in his
tablets for death, in concert with two confederates,
tried first to sentir him, then caused him to be
strangled by Narcissus, a famous athlete, on the
31st of December 192.

Common Bench.

AW.

Commoner, one under the rank of nobility ;
also a member of the House of Commons. For the
Commoners at Oxford, a class of students eating
at the common table, see OXFORD.

Common Forms are the ordinary clauses
which are of uent occurrence in identical
terms in writs and deeds.

Common Good. See Boroucu.

Common Law, in England, is the ancient
customary law of the land. Before the Norman
Conquest, the rights of an er ds ero were deter-
mined mainly by the customs of the manor, borough,
or shire in which he lived. After the Conquest,
the king’s judges began to go their circuits in every
part of the country, doing justice according to the
eustom of the realm or the common law. In some

See BENCH, and ComMON

. points they kept to the ancient local customs, in

others again they introduced new rules. Primo-
geniture, e.g., is a rule introduced by the influence
of the judges; the ancient English rule of equal
division survives only as the ‘custom of Kent’
under the name of Gavelkind (q.v.). The custom
of certain ancient boroughs, which gave the land
to the youngest son, survives under the name of
Borough English (q.v.). The custom of a place,
or of a body of persons, is allowed to supplement
or modify the common law if it has been observed
from a time ‘ whereof the memory of man runneth
not to the contrary.” Legal memory does not go
back beyond the first year of the reign of Richard
I., but evidence may be given to te the ‘im-
memorial’ character of a local custom by showing
that it had its origin later than that year.

Even in making new rules, the judges never
assumed to legislate; they prof to oltre
the rules of common law, each generation o f
was guided by the decisions of its predecessors,
Decisions followed in a series of subsequent cases
acquired special authority, and were quoted as
eaite eases. The law fixed by custom and by
udicial decision could only be set aside or aniehied
y an pe of parliament. But without setting aside

the law, courts of equity, and a yrared the Court
of Chancery (q.v.), framed rules of their own, which
enabled them to prevent the stricter rules of com-
mon law from being used in defence of injustice.
By the Judicature Acts (q.v.), courts of common
law and equity were made parts of one supreme
court ; the two systems are administered concur-
rently ; where there is any conflict between equity
and common law, the rules of equity prevail. See
Equity.

English settlers going to an uncivilised country
take with them ‘as much of the common law
as the nature of things will bear.’ In Canada,
Australia, &c., and in the United States, the his-
torical basis of the law is the same as in England.
In Scotland, and in some other countries, the term
common law is used in a sense analogous to its
English meaning.

HE CouRTsS OF ComMMON LAW.—The superior
courts of Common Law in England had their
origin in the Curia Regis of the early Norman
kings, the chief officers of which were the Chief-
justiciar, the Chancellor, and the king’s justices.
The justices sat in the King’s Bench to supervise
the proceedings of inferior courts and corporations,
and to deal with criminal matters directly con-
cerning the crown. In the Common Bench or
Common Pleas they held pleas between subject
and subject. In the nape ery they sat, as Barons
of the Exchequer, to decide revenue cases. At
first all these courts followed the king, to the great
inconvenience of suitors. The Common Pleas were
fixed at Westminster by Magna Charta; and in
course of time the three superior courts of Common
Law were all established on one side of West-
minster Hall, each court having its own chief and
four (afterwards five) puisne or junior judges, who
were called justices in the King’s Bench and Com-
mon Pleas, and Barons in the Exchequer. On the
passing of the Judicature Acts (1873-76), the three
courts became divisions of the High Court of
Justice. The offices of Chief-justice of the Common
Pleas and Chief-baron of the Exchequer are now
abolished, and the three divisions are consolidated
in the Queen’s Bench Division. The Lord Chief-
justice of England is the presiding judge; he is
appointed by the crown on the advice of the prime-
minister, and his salary is £8000. There are four-
teen puisne justices, 2 opens by the crown on the
advice of the Lord Chancellor, each of whom has
a salary of £5000. The sittings of the Division are
held at the Royal Courts in London; the judges
also try cases on their circuits and at the
Central Criminal Court. The jurisdiction of the
Division includes all special authorities formerly
belonging to any of the old Common Law Courts.
It takes, e.g., appeals from Revising Barristers
(q.v.) which formerly went to the Common Pleas,
and revenue cases which belonged to the Exchequer,
Appeals from any of the old Comment Law Courts
went to the judges of the other two courts, sitting
in the Exchequer Chamber, and from them to the
House of Lords. Appeals from the Queen’s Bench
Division now go to the Court of Appeal, and thence
to the House of Lords.

Besides the superior courts, there are many
inferior courts which exercise a limited common-
law jurisdiction. Each manor has its own courts
but except in ay ve to Copyholds (q.v.)., manorial
jurisdiction has been superseded by local courts of
modern origin. The same remark applies to the
Hundred Court and the ancient County Court.
The Court of Common Pleas in Lancaster and the
Court of Pleas in Durham, now form of the
High Court. The modern County Court ( which
ought more properly to be called a district court)
has acommon-law jurisdiction; and several statutes
contain provisions for remitting the less important

386 COMMON PLEAS

COMMONS AND ENCLOSURES

class of common-law actions to the County Court
for trial.

Of Borough Courts some (as, e.g., the Court of
Hustings in London) are obsolete ; others (as, e.g.,
the Mayor’s Court in London and the Court of
Passage in Liverpool) are still of importance. The
City of London Court is framed on the model of
the modern County Courts. The Court of the
Cinque Ports is held before the mayor and jurats
of each port ; from them appeals are taken to the
Lord Warden’s Court, and thence to the Queen’s
Bench Division. Courts of Request for the recovery
of small debts existed in several boroughs ; they
are now obsolete, as also is the Court of Pie Poudre,
or dusty foot, held by the steward of a manor to
which a market belongs, for the immediate de-
cision of questions arising in the market. There
are still courts of some importance, established for
the benefit of privileged bodies of persons. See, as
to miners (under Stannaries), STANNARY COURTS ;
as to Oxford and Cambridge, see UNIVERSITIES.

Common Pleas. See Common LAw.

Common Prayer, Book or. See PRAYER-
BOOK.

Common-riding is the Scotch equivalent of
Beating the Bounds. See BOUNDS.

Common Room, an apartment in a monas-
tery in which a fire was constantly kept burning
for the use of the monks, and which was preside
over by a monk called the master. It was the
prototype of the common rooms in the colleges of
the English universities, where the dons take their
wine after hall.

Commons, the dinner provided in English
colleges and inns of court for their members. In
the inns of court it is provided only during term.
Separate tables are appointed for the benchers (see
BENCH), for the barristers, and for the students
and other members of the inn.

Commons, HousE or. See PARLIAMENT.

Commons and Enclosures. _ This is one of
the numerous instances in which a different mean-
ing is attached to the same term in tne legal
systems of England and Scotland. In England the
property in the common land belongs to the lord of
the manor; although rights over the common land
are possessed by certain persons who hold land in
the manor, and are known as commoners. Thus
Blackstone defines a common as ‘a profit which
a man hath in the land of another, as to feed his
beasts, to catch fish, to dig turf, to cut wood and
the like.’ But in Seotland, where the law has
adopted the divisions and followed the nomen-
clature of the civil law and of the legal systems
of continental Europe, all these profits, or rights
to derive profit, are known as Servitudes (q.v.),
whereas a common, or commonty, as it is more
frequently called, is a common right of property
existing in several individuals, frequently the
inhabitants of a whole village, im a piece of ground.
In each individual the right of course is limited,
so as in reality to amount to little more than a
servitude; but there is no over-lord, the land is
not the land of another, but the land of the com-
munity as a body.

The nature and origin of rights of common have
been the subjects of elaborate investigation, but
are still obscure. They are probably derived from
the old Germanic rights of common pasture on the
Folkland (q.v.). In England at present almost
the only land subject to common rights is waste
land; but formerly rights of joint cultivation
extended over a great part of the arable land.
These are not yet quite extinct. So long as the
lands subject to rights of common were extensive
and fertile, their enclosure was a source of wealth

both to lords of manors and to the nation as a
whole. Accordingly enclosures began to be frequent
in the 16th, and were continued on a great scale
to the end of the 18th century. Formerly the
enclosure of a common required a private act of
parliament. ‘The commoners, who were generally
poor and unable properly to represent their case,
often suffered by enclosure, obtaining inadequate.
compensation. By the Act 6 and 7 Will. IV.
chap. 115, and subsequent acts, the necessity for a.
private act of parliament is abolished. By the
Act 8 and 9 Vict. chap. 118, which has been often
amended, a Board of Commissioners is appointed
to inquire into the propriety of any proposed en-
closure or partition, and to report to parliament,,
which may then pass a public act authorising
their proceedings. This is the course generally
adopted.

In Scotland, commonties or commons were made
divisible by an action in the Court of Session, at
the instance of any person having an interest by
the Stat. 1695, chap. 38.

The lands still subject to rights of common are
for the most part such as could not be cultivated
with advantage. The increase of population, how-
ever, has made them valuable as places of exercise
and recreation, This value has been clearly stated
by Mr J. S. Mill (Dissertations and Discussions,
vol. ii. p. 213): ‘We must needs think, also, that
there is something out of joint, when so much is
said of the value of refining and humanising tastes
to the iden ALS he it is proposed to
plant parks and lay out gardens for them, that
they may enjoy more freely nature’s gift alike to
rich and poor, of sun, sky, and vegetation; and
along with this a counter-progress is constantly
going on of stopping up paths and enclosing
commons. Is not this another case of giving with
one hand and taking back more largely with the
other? We look with the utmost jealousy upon
any further enclosure of commons. In the greater
part of this island, exclusive of the mountain and
moor districts, there certainly is not more land
remaining in a state of natural wildness than is
desirable. Those who would make England
resemble many parts of the Continent, where
every foot of soil is hemmed in by fences, and
covered over with the traces of human labour,
should remember that where this is done, it is
done for the use and benefit, not of the rich, but
of the poor; and that in the countries where there
remain no commons, the rich have no parks. The
common is the peasant’s park. Every argument
for ploughing it up to raise more produce applies
a fortiori to the park, which is generally far more
fertile. The effect of either, when done in the
manner proposed, is only to make the poor more
numerous, not better oft But what ought to be
said when, as so often happens, the common is
taken from the poor, that the whole or great part
of it may be added to the enclosed pleasure-domain
of the rich? Is the miserable compensation, and
though miserable not always granted, of a small
scrap of the land to each of the cottagers who had
a goose on the common, any equivalent to the
poor generally, to the lovers of nature, or to future
generations, for this legalised spoliation ?’

Acting upon the principles expressed in this ex-
tract, the legislature in the 19th century has regu-
lated enclosures with reference to the enjoyment
of the general public, as well as to the rights of the
lord of the manor and of the commoners. Restraints
have been placed on the enclosure of commons in or
near towns, and provision has been made for laying
them out and maintaining them as places of recrea-
tion. Near London especially, many commons
have thus been secured to the public. See Miss
Octavia Hill, Our Common Land (1878); Elton,

|

_ Sir R. Hunter (1897).

COMMON SENSE

COMMUNION 387

The Law of Commons; Commons and Common
Fields (1887) ; and works by Serutton, Chambers
Cooke, Hall, Williams, Shaw-Lefevre (1894), and
Lord Thring’s act against
unlawful enclosures was passed in 1893.

In the United States ‘common’ in one sense

signifies the common or general fields set apart as
ture-land at the foundation of towns or villages ;
he idea of such common fields may probably have
been suggested by those of semi-feudal England.
Common fields also existed in the villages of
French and Spanish settlers. The title to these
lands was confirmed to the inhabitants by act of
con Soreness lands in Virginia have
similarly been confirmed as common lands by
statute, and the constitution of Illinois sets apart
certain lands as commons. Unless the statute
expressly forbids, commons in this sense may be
divided at the instance of individuals interested,
if they think fit to take legal proceedings for that
penutes. In the other sense, the term ‘common’
applied to a public park which may belong to
the municipality or to the nation—e.g. the Yellow-
stone Park—respecting which no individual or indi-
viduals can claim a division. Such parks are under
the direct control of the authorities. As applied
to a school, the epithet ‘common’ means public,
supported by taxation, and open to all children of
a certain age. It has no reference to the studies of
the school.

Common Sense, THE PHtLosopny or. There
are certain beliefs that have been current among
men in all : which by some philosophers have
been declared to be groundless illusions. Of these,
the most remarkable instance is the belief in an
external, material world, independent of any mind
to perceive it. Berkeley's doctrine (see BERKELEY )
seemed to his contemporaries to contradict this
belief, and affirm that there is no such thing asa
material world; and Hume, ing the same
principles to their full length, disintegrated the
world of spirits, and left nothing in nature but
isolated ideas and impressions.

A dead-lock in philosophy was the result of these
doctrines of Berkeley and Hume ; and the solution
offered by Reid consisted in setting up common
sense as an arbiter from which there could be no
appeal—that is to say, the universally admitted
impressions of mankind were to be taken as corre-
sponding to the fact of things without any further
scrutiny. It is only the same view otherwise
expressed, when it is declared by other philosophers
that the deliverance of consciousness must be pre-
sumed true. According to Sir W. Hamilton, in
the most elaborate vindication of the common-sense
philosophy that has ever been produced (in his
edition of Reid’s works), consciousness assures us
that, in perception, we are immediately cognisant
of an external and extended non-ego (not-self) ;
and that the testimony of consciousness must he
viewed as entitled to prompt and unconditional
assent.

The conclusiveness of this reasoning is disputed
by many, who say that it is an abnegation of the
tasks of philosophy, and may establish mere pre-
judices as dictates of consciousness. Consciousness
(q.v.) is a very wide word, comprising indeed every-
thing that we call mind. Suppose, it is argued, we
were to maintain that the veracity of each one’s
memory was beyond all question or dispute, it
would be apparent at once how the case really
stands. But there must be a standard truth. Ex-
perience is the criterion how far the memory is to be
trusted ; and possibly the same may be true of the
larger fact named consciousness. See PHILOSOPHY,
PSYCHOLOGY.

The truths of common sense, assumed to be
those of consciousness, are such as these: the

laws of Identity, Contradiction, and Exeluded
Middle; the axioms of Mathematics; the law
of Causality (q.v.); the doctrine of an innate
moral sense (see article Ernics); the doctrine of
man’s Moral Liberty (see FREE-WILL); the exist-
ence of an external world independent of ever

reipient mind. Some of these truths, whic
owever by no means stand all on the same
footing, are termed Intuitions, Intuitive Cognitions,
Instincts, Feelings, Beliefs, Principles, Ultimate or
Primordial Elements, Truths a priori. Kant’s
mission was to investigate the origin of such
of those truths as might be accounted a priori ; see
KANT, A Priort. The philosophy of common
sense, as promulgated by Reid, bore reference espe-
cially to the denial by Berkeley of the received
view of the material world ; see PERCEPTION.

Commonty. See Commons AND ENCLOSURES.

Commonwealth (practically, a translation of
Lat. respublica, ‘republic’) is used in a special
sense for the form of government established in
England after the execution of Charles I. in January
1649. Usually the Commonwealth is held to
extend till the Restoration in 1660; and in the
Calendar of State Papers this is the usage of the
word. But the Commonwealth is sometimes
limited to the a 1649-53, ending with the
establishment of Cromwell’s Protectorate. See
CROMWELL, ENGLAND. Several states of the
American Union (as Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
Virginia ) are officially called commonwealths.

Commune is the unit or lowest division in the
administration of France, corresponding in the
rural districts to the English parish or township,
and in towns to the English municipality.
France there are about 36,000 communes, with a
considerable measure of self-government, with the
power of holding property, &c. Each commune has
a council elec by universal suffrage, and the
council is presided over by a maire and one or more
adjoints or assistants. In the larger communes the
maire is selected by the central government out
of the members of the council; in others he is
appointed by the prefect of the 5 ar py The
central government through its officials exercises
generally a very large control over the affairs of the
commune. For the Russian commune, see MIR,
and RussIA.

The rising of the commune of Paris in 1871 should
not be confounded with Communism (q.v.). It was
a revolutionary assertion of the inca of Paris,
that is, of the right of self-government through its
commune or municipality. The theory of the
rising was that every commune should have a real
autonomy, the central government being merely
a federation of communes. The movement was
based on discontent at Paris, where the people
found themselves in ion of arms after the
siege by the Germans. The rising began on the
18t. arch 1871, and was only suppressed ten
weeks later after long and bloody fighting between
the forces of the commune and a large army of
the central government ; 6500 Communists having
fallen during 20-30th May, and 38,578 been taken

risoners. Bee FRANCE; and see histories of the

aris commune by Lissagaray (trans. 1886) and
Thomas March (1896).
Communion signifies, in ecclesiastical lan-
, that relation, involving mutual claims and
autlen, in which those stand who are united by
uniformity of belief in one religious body or church.
To exclude from this relation and its involved
rights is to excommunicate. The most visible
symbol of this relation being the partaking together
of the Lord’s Supper, that rite 1s often called the
Communion. See LORD’s SUPPER, PRAYER-BOOK,
Lirur@y ; and for Communion Table, see ALTAR.

388 COMMUNISM

COMO

Communism is a system of society in which
common property is the recognised form. In later
times it is an attempt to prevent or remedy the
evils arising out of the inequalities of private pro-
perty by holding property in common. But in
primitive societies, in the hunting and pastoral
stages of civilisation, communism was universal.
It was only when the transition was made to a
settled life and to agriculture that private owner-
ship in land began to appear, and even then it was
slowly introduced. Long after the private use of
land. had been established, the common ownership
of it by the tribe or clan was still recognised and
enforced, and the arable land of the community was
subject to periodical redistribution with the view
to cultivation. Survivals of this system still exist
in various countries of the world, notably in Russia
under the Mir.

In the ancient world a partial communism pre-
vailed in Crete and Sparta. Towards the decline
of Greece more systematic speculations and experi-
ments in communism appeared. The most eminent
example of the former was the republic of Plato, in
which a community of goods and also of wives was
taught, as the form of society among the ruling
and military class. These were to be supported by
the industrial classes, whose form of Tite is not
indicated. In Palestine, about the Christian era,
the Essenes were a society of recluses with celibacy
and the community of goods.

A most remarkable instance of community of
goods is that of the early Christians at Jerusalem,
recorded in Acts, iv. 32. Under the influence of
Christianity the rigorous and often merciless ideas
and rights of private property developed in the
ancient world, especially among the Romans, were
greatly modified. Denunciations of wealth tendin
to communism are not infrequent in the church
fathers. Not to mention the corporate property of
the church itself, which in medieval times embraced
about one-third of the land in the countries where
it was established, many of the monastic institu-
tions were based on the community of goods.
During the middle ages, sects holding the com-
munity both of goods and women appeared, like
the sect of the Giovannali in Corsica.

At times of social and spiritual change or fer-
mentation communistic ideas usually grow up with
special vigour. Such was the case at the Refor-
mation, when the anabaptists Miinzer and Bock-
holt set up communism in Germany, and similar
notions had a wide diffusion in other countries
(see ANABAPTISTS). The most eminent literary
form of it, combined with the noblest humani-
tarian ideals and practical suggestions for reform,
which even yet have not been realised, was the
Utopia of Sir Thomas More (1516). In that great
wie besides the institution of common property,
we have the most advanced views on toleration,
universal education, a mild criminal code, sanita-
tion, and a working-day of six hours. Cam-
panella’s Civitas Solis (1623) has a similar com-
munity of goods under the despotic rule of the
wise men, with a working-day of four hours.

At the discovery of America the Spanish con-
querors found a system of agricultural communism
under a central despotism both in Mexico and Peru.
Like the partial communism of Crete and Sparta it
may have been a survival or continuation of the
primitive communism. In the earliest English
settlements in America, both Virginia and New
England, a system of common property was
attempted, but soon abandoned. During the fer-
mentation which preceded and accompanied the
French Revolution communistic ideas om
emerged in the writings of Morelly and Mably.
They are also found vaguely expressed in the
works of Rousseau, and through him they to some

degree affected the principles of Robespierre and St
Just; but the general tendency of the Revolution
was to Chnnolidiads individual rights and private
property. The conspiracy of Babeuf was intended
to establish a systematic communism by revolution.

Socialism is a vague phenomenon which must not
be identified with communism. Yet the movement
is largely coloured with communistic conceptions,
and in some of its schools a thoroughgoing com-
munism is taught with lax notions as to the rela-
tion of the sexes. In the anarchist, as also in the
Marx school to a considerable degree, socialism takes
the form of a systematic community of property,
associated with vague theories of the emancipation
of women (see SOCIALISM). Different both from
socialism and this aggressive communism are the
communistic societies still existing in the United
States. The latter are simply quiet efforts to
realise for their members a happier state of things
by community of property, but without a revolu-
tionary propaganda and remote from the main
current of modern social development. See BRooK
FARM, PERFECTIONISTS, SHAKERS;
Communistic Societies of the United States (1875) :
and for the rising of the so-called Communists at
Paris in 1871, which was a political and not an
economical movement, see COMMUNE.

Commutation. See TITHE, PENSIONS.

Commutator, an apparatus attached to many
electric machines for reversing the currents. See
ELECTRICITY.

Comne’nus, the name of a family, originally
Italian, of which many members occupied the
throne of the Byzantine empire from 1057 to 1204,
and that of Trebizond from 1204 to 1461. See
BYZANTINE EMPIRE, TREBIZOND, ALEXIUS, ISAAC.
—ANNA COMNENA (q.v.), who lived in the first
half of the 12th century, was a high literary as
well as historical celebrity.—DAVID COMNENUS,
the last representative of the imperial race in
Trebizond, was executed at Adrianople in 1462,
with all his family, by command of Mohammed IL,
The attempt to trace the descent of the Bonaparte
family from a branch of the Comneni settled in
Corsica is not supported by valid evidence.

Como, a city of Lombardy, Northern Italy,
beautifully situated at the south-west extremity of
the Lake of Como, 30 miles N. of Milan by rail. It
lies in a valley, surrounded by hills, clad with
luxuriant gardens, olive plantations, and orange
groves, with here and there an old ruin cropping
out. The city is surrounded by old walls flank
with towers, the gateways by which the walls are
pierced being fine specimens of medieval military
architecture. Among the principal buildings of
Como are the cathedral (1396-1732), and the town-
hall, built of marble, dating from the beginning of
the 13th century. The chief articles of manu-
facture are’silk, satin, gloves, and soap. By means
of its port, Como carries on extensive trade in the
produce of the district with Switzerland. Pop. with
suburbs (1893) 32,600. Como, the ancient Comum,
was the birthplace of Cecilius Statius, the two

-Plinys, of several popes, and of the physicist Volta.

In 1107 it began to war with Milan, and in the
course of twenty years was utterly destroyed by its
antagonist. As an important headquarters of the
Ghibelline party, it was rebuilt in 1158 by
Frederick Barbarossa, and remained a republic for
two centuries, when it fell into the hands of the
Viscontis, its history since that time being bound
up with that of Milan.

Como, LAKE oF (Ital. Lago di Como, or Il.
Lario, ancient Larius Lacus), a sheet of water, in
Northern Italy, lying at the foot of the Bernine
Alps. It is chiefly formed by the river Adda, which
enters it at its north, and issues at its south-eastern

Nordhoff’s —

ail cet,

COMORIN

COMPANY 389

extremity. The total length of the lake from Como
to Riva is about 30 miles, Fifteen miles from its
northern extremity, the promontory of Seren
divides it into two branches, the shorter of which is
called the Lago di Lecco. The greatest breadth of
the lake is 24 miles, but throughout the greatest
part of its length it is much less. It is 663 feet
above sea-level, has a mean depth of 870 feet,
and is 1352 feet er at the deepest part. The
beauty of the surroun ing scenery and the salubrity
of the climate have made the Lake of Como the
most celebrated and most resorted to in Italy, its
shores being everywhere studded with noble villas.
See Lund, Como and the Italian Lakes (1887).

Comorin’, CAPE (Kumédrt), the most southerly
extremity of the peninsula of India, being, in fact,
asandy accretion to the termination of the Western
Ghats. The low headland is in the state of Travan-
core, and its lat. and long. are 8° 4’ 20” N., and
77° 35’ 35” E.

Co'moroe Isles, a group of four islands belong-
ing to France, in the Mozambique Channel, be-
tween Africa and Madagascar. 1e islands, which
are of voleanic origin, are mountainous, and have
an extremely fertile soil, are called Angaziya or
Great Comoro, Anjouan or Johanna, Mohilla, and
Mayotta. Great Comoro is 35 miles long, and has
a population of 35,000; its highest point is 8500
feet. Johanna, next in size, with 12,000. inhabit-
ants, has a British consul and a British coaling
station. Mohilla, the smallest, is 15 miles long,
and has 6000 inhabitants. These became Frenc
in 1886. Mayotta or Mayotte, 21 miles long, and
with a pop. (1885) of 10,049, has been a French
possession since 1841. At the capital, Dsaudsi
or Nzaondzi, are _ptbalggress buildings, a few
hundred French soldiers, and numerous officials.
The annual imports and exports of the island have
each a value of over 2,000,000 franes. In all the
islands the blood of the natives is partially Arab,
partially Malagasy ; the Sakalavas having occupied
ea of Mayotte after the conquest of Madagascar

y the Hovas. See MADAGASCAR.

Company, although it may be applied to every
kind of partnership, is generally used in connection
with the law of joint-stock companies. These differ
from the ordinary Partnership (q.v.) chiefly in
the fact of the shares of the capital stock being
transferable, generally apart from the consent of
the remaining partners, although power is often
reserved to object to a transferee; and also in
the fact that full powers of management are
devolved on directors and other officials to the
exclusion, more or less complete, of the share-
holders. An unincorporated joint-stock company
at common law, such for instance as the famous
Carron Iron Company, is really a partnership in
many respects, its partners being liable without
limit for the debts of the company. Under the
Letters Patent Act, 1837, however, it may obtain
several privileges of incorporation.

It is not lawful for more than ten persons to
carry on a joint-stock banking company at com-
mon law, nor for more than twenty persons to
carry on any other kind of joint-stock company
at common law: all such concerns must register
under the Companies Acts. Unincorporated com-
panies may be made bankrupt and wound up in
the ordinary way by sequestration, but it is also
competent by a liquidation petition to apply to
them the usual machinery for recovering the con-
tributions due by members of registered companies,
and adjusting the rights and liabilities of con-
tributories inter se. Of course, the constitution
of such common-law companies varies indefinitely
with the provisions of the agreement under which
they act. There is also in existence a large class

of companies created by royal charter, which have

a legal corporate existence apart from their in-
dividual members, and a perpetual suecession and
a common seal. In such cases the charter defines,
more or less clearly, the objects and the powers
of the corporation and the mode of management,
but the majority of members have within these
limits considerable powers of framing bylaws.
Where the charter is silent on the subject there
is no direct liability of the members to the public
at all, and their liability is limited to the unpaid
balance of their shares. But the crown was em-
powered by statute to express in such charters
that the hability of members is unlimited; and
such until 1882 was the position of most of the large
Scottish banks. The royal power to create corpora-
tions by charter was in certain cases delegated to
burghs in Scotland, who exercised it by granting
seals of cause. Of course, the validity of the pro-
visions even of a royal charter may be questioned
in a court of law.

Still another class of companies consists of those
incorporated by act of parliament. Here no objec-
tion can be raised to the act of an all-powerful
legislature. Such statutes, besides conferring the
ordinary privileges of incorporation, generally give
further parliamentary powers required for the
particular undertaking—e.g. a right to levy tolls.
All such particular statutes, which can be obtained
only on giving the guarantees required by the
practice of parliament in private bills, are all
now subject to the general provisions of the Com-

anies Clauses Acts of 1845, 1863, and 1869.

hese general acts deal not only with such
matters as the issue of new capital, the creation of
debenture stock, the change of name, but also with
the general administration of the company, the
powers of directors, the transference and forfeiture
of shares, &c. Such statutory companies may also
be placed in liquidation under the Companies Act
of 1862.

The great mass of joint-stock companies, how-
ever, in this country owe their incorporation not
to royal charter or statute, but to registration
under the Limited Liability Acts, which began in
1855, but which are now all merged in the great
statute of 1862, supplemented on various occasions
down to 1880. Asa general rule the provisions of
the Act of 1862 apply, without fresh registration,
to the companies formed and registe prior to
that date. The new procedure is that any seven
people, by subscribing a memorandum of association
which states the name, place of business, and
general objects, and delivering it to the registrar
(there is a separate registrar for England, Scot-
land, and Ireland), may obtain a certificate of incor-
poration with or without limited liability. The
ae majority of these companies have been
imited by shares—viz. the shareholders are liable
only for the amount uncalled upon their shares.
But cases of unlimited liability are not uncommon,
and beth banks and insurance companies have
frequently availed themselves of the facilities
afforded a registration ; in the case of banks,
the liability remaining unlimited as regards the
note issue, while the Tiability of shareholders for
other obligations of the bank is restricted in the
usual way. An insurance company requires to
make a deposit of £20,000 before registration. It
is sufficient if each of-the seven subscribers of the
memorandum of association subscribes for oneshare.
Companies not formed for commercial profit may
be registered by license of the Board of Trade.
After the memorandum come the articles of asso-
ciation, which in most cases are, slightly modified,
one of the sets of model regulations known as
Schedule A and B of the statute. The general
effect of registration is to make the applicants and

390 COMPANY

COMPASS

other members a corporate body with perpetual
succession, a common seal, power to hold lands
without intervention of trustees, and a liability of
members for the time to pay calls on the shares,
and a liability of all members, past and present, to
contribute the amount of the uncalled capital in
the event of a liquidation, excluding such members
as have been a year out of the concern before the
winding up commences. Past members only con-
tribute if present members cannot make up the
deficiency. Hence the lists A and B of contributories
so unpleasantly known in the mercantile world.
Contributories cannot ‘set off’ or deduct from their
liability debts due to them by the company. But
the constitution, so defined by the memorandum
and articles of association, is elastic. By special
resolution of the shareholders—i.e. a resolution
passed by three-fourths and afterwards confirmed,
which is also registered—capital may be increased,
the amount of shares altered, the liability of directors
made unlimited. With the consent of the Board
of Trade, the company may even change its name.

It is common to reserve to the directors power
to object to a transferee of shares, but where this is
not done, the directors are powerless to prevent the
common practice of transferring shares to persons
of no means just before a liquidation ‘arrives, at
least where such transfer is out and out. After
liquidation no change can be made on the register
of shareholders, which decides the liabilities of
parties. Mistaken entries, however, may be recti-
fied by petition to the court, even after liquidation,
but it is then too late to raise an action to set aside
a contract to take shares on the ground of fraud
or misrepresentation. The liquidation of the City
of Glasgow Bank (1878-82) called attention to the
fact that in Scotland, differing in this respect
from England, notice of trusts was taken in the
registers of companies, but this did not prevent
the trustees mae 8 executors who were so entered
from being held personally liable for the full
amount of the calls made. The necessity of keep-
ing a register of mortgages is a useful provision,
and every shareholder is entitled to obtain copies
of the annual accounts and of any special resolu-
tions passed. General meetings must be held at
least once a year. The Board of Trade have
thee to order a systematic inspection of the

ooks and accounts of a company, if they are
asked to do so by one-fifth of the shareholdezs.
The strongest security reserved to the manage-
ment of a company for payment of calls is the
_ stringent power of forfeiture which is often exer-
cised with unfairness and severity.

Upon the whole the statute of 1862 has been
beneficial in the development of trade; but it
has also produced a great mass of dishonest specu-
lation, with which the common-law doctrines of
fraud and misrepresentation have not been adequate
to deal. The law will shortly be amended so as
to take further securities for the substantial char-
acter of business and for the punishment of dis-
honesty. For further information on this subject,
see LIQUIDATION. Als#see CORPORATION, GUILD,
LIVERY, and RAILWAYS.

Company, in Military Organisation, is that
part of a Battalion (q.v.) which constitutes a
captain’s command. In the British service there
are 8 companies in an infantry battalion on the
war ataliiebnicat? each consisting of 3 officers
—Captain (q.v.), lieutenant, and sub-lieutenant—
5 sergeants, 2 drummers and buglers, 5 corporals,
108 privates, and 1 driver with 2 horses for the
company general service wagon. The men of the
Army Service Corps are also grouped in similar
companies (see COMMISSARIAT). The company is
both a tactical and administrative unit, and is
divided into two subdivisions of two sections each.

Each company has its own arm and accoutrement
chests, and keeps its own books.

In the Engineers the field company is commanded
by a major, with a captain and 4 lieutenants
under him, and a surgeon, all mounted. It also
has 2 sergeants, 1 artificer, 1 trumpeter, and 26
drivers, who are mounted, and 154 dismounted non-
commissioned officers and men. In a cavalry regi-
ment a captain’s command is a Troop (q.v.); but
the corresponding artillery unit is a Battery (q.v.).
In the United States service an infantry battalion
consists of 2 or more companies, each oflicered by
a captain, a first and a second lieutenant, 5 ser-
geants, and 4 corporals. On a war footing a full
company of infantry consists of 101 officers and
men ; in time of peace of 3 commissioned officers
and 54 men. In the German army a company
comprises 249 combatants and 3 non-combatants,
under a captain, who is a mounted officer, and 3
subalterns. There are 4 such companies in each
battalion. The French, Russian, Austrian, and.
Italian companies are similar in strength to the
German. See also BEARER COMPANY.

Company, of a ship, is considered to include
the whole of the sy ieee: engaged on board, and
paid for specific uties—exclusive, therefore, of
troops and passengers, but including naval officers
as well as crew. See CREW.

Comparative Anatomy, as distinguished
from special anatomy (see ANATOMY), is the science

which examines and compares the structure of two:

or more different kinds of animal, so as to discover
their points of resemblance and unlikeness ; and as
such it is a most important department of the science
of Biology (q.v.; see also CUVIER). In this work
the axtinion in the various groups of animals (see
BirD, MAMMALS, REPTILES, &c.) deal with the
resembling and contrasted features of these groups.
‘Comparative’ is used in an analogous sense in
connection with philology and physiology.

Comparetti, Domenico, philologist, was born
27th June 1835 at Rome. He studied the natural
sciences and mathematics, next held a post in a
library, and in 1859 was appointed to the chair of
Greek in the university of Pisa, which he exchanged
a few years later for the same chair in the Instituto
di Studii Superiori at Florence. His studies bore
fruit in frequent articles in the learned journals,
and in a series of learned works, among them one
on Greek dialects in South Italy (1866), on Virgil
the Magician (1872; trans. 1895), and on Homer
and Pisistratus (1881). With D’Ancona he edited
the Canti e Racconti del Popolo Italiano (1870-90),
and he settled in Rome. to English folklorists his
name is known from his Researches concerning the
Book of Sindibad (Folklore Society, 1882).

Compartment, a term in use in the Heraldry
of Scotland, applied generally to the panel or other
ornamental work placed below a shield on which
the supporters stand, with which is sometimes
intertwined the escrol in which the motto, or a
second motto, is placed. Great latitude is allowed
as to its form.

Compass, MARINER’s, is a magnetic instru-
ment oan by mariners to indicate the direction of
the ship, with respect to the magnetic north and
south line, or, in other words, to give the azimuth
of the ship with respect to the magnetic meridian.
That the mariner may know his direction with
respect to the geographical meridian, he must know
the angle between the magnetic and geographical
meridians (see DECLINATION ), and as this angle is
different in different years and at different places
on the surface of the globe, the mariner must be
able at any time to determine his position, when
his charts will give him the necessary data to
supplement his compass reading.

Ss

COMPASS

391

The directive property of the magnet seems to
have been unknown in Europe till the 12th century.
It appears, however, on very good authority that
it was known in China and throughout the East
generally at a ag remote period. The Chinese
annals assign its discovery to the year 2634 B.c.,
when they say an instrument for indicating the
south was constructed by the Emperor Ho-ang-ti.
The earliest reference to the making of magnets is
in a Chinese dictionary of 121 A.D., where lodestone
is defined as ‘a stone with which an attraction can

be given to the needle;’ but this property of the
lodestone could not fail to have been observed at a
very much earlier time. At first the

Chinese would appear to have used the
com exclusively for guidance in
travelling by land, and we hear of their
using it by sea only somewhere about
300 A.D. According to one account, a
knowledge of the compass was brought
to Europe by Marco Polo on his return
from his travels in Cathay ; but as against
this, the late Mr William Chappel ,ina
letter to Nature (June 15, 1876), pro-
duced evidence to show that we owe the
ee of the compass in Europe in
the 12th century to independentdiscovery,
and not to importation from China.

The ordinary mariner’s compass is made
up as follows: The needle is a magnet-
ised strip of steel, or in the better com-
passes a number of thin strips magnetised
separately and then bound together.
This is balanced so as to swing horizon-
tally on a fine pivot. Fastened to the
upper surface of the needle and swingin
with it is a cireular card marked with
the thirty-two ‘points,’ and having the
point marked N immediately over the
end of the needle that is attracted to the
north. The pivot on which the needle
swings stands up from the bottom of a
copper bowl, which has a glass coverin
to protect the contents from wind an
weather. The compass-bowl is made of
copper (a good conductor of electricity) in order to
damp the vibrations of the needle. For the needle
in moving induces currents of electricity in the

copper bowl, the electro-magnetic forces of which
tend (according to Lenz’s Law ) to oppose the motion
producing them. For the same purpose also the com-

pass-bowl is sometimes filled with spirit, but the
additional friction of the liquid interferes with the
sensitiveness of the needle. The bow] is supported
in Gimbals (q.v.) 80 as to remain horizontal in all
positions of the ship. The whole arrangement is
placed in the binnacle, situated when possible in
the fore and aft line, and having provision for the
placing of lamps to illuminate the compass-card by

“+

he compass-card is represented in fig. 1. The
four cardinal directions or ‘points’ are marked
N. E. 8. W., and there is a convenient notation for
intermediate points. Thus the point midway be-

OZ ) rr
Mirren

Fig. 2.

tween N. and E. is called NE., that again between
N. and NE. is called NNE. (read north-north-east),
and so on. The remaining sixteen points, such as
NDE. (read north by east), are named on a plan
which will be readily made out by an examination
of the figure. These thirty-two points are often
further subdivided into halves, quarters, and even
eighths, and then we have N}E., and soon. When
the ship lies in the magnetic meridian, and points
to the north, the N. point on the card is directed
towards a black line, called the lubber’s line,
marked on the inside of the compass-bowl. Boxing
the compass means reading off from memory the
thirty-two points in order going round either
way. .

Modified forms of the compass are in use on land
by surveyors and miners, and need not be further

uded to here.

By way of summarising the qualifications of
a good compass, we shall describe the best compass
in use—Sir William Thomson’s, patented in 1876:
A thin aluminium ring (fig. 2) is connected by silk
threads with an aluminium boss, which rests on an
aluminium cup having a centre piece of sapphire
poised on an iridium point (fig. 3). Ins of a
single needle there are eight thin strips of steel
fastened to the silk threads as shown in the figure.
The thin paper rim bearing the points is divided at
intervals so that the contractions and expansions
due to change of temperature may not produce
warping of the aluminium. The whole arrange-
ment weighs only 200 grains or so, and thus there
is very little tendency to flatten the point of the

292 COMPASSES

COMPETITION

supporting needle. Hence the ‘friction error’ can
be made very small—in fact, if it is found that a
card can be made to rest even half a degree out of
the magnetic meridian, the supporting point is
rejected for a sharper one.
The weight, such as it is,
being mostly in the rim,
the period of vibration of
the card is long (40 seconds,
or so), which makes the card
very steady. The bowl is
saved from violent oscilla-
tion by having in the bottom
a quantity of castor-oil. The

imbals are supperted on

nife edges, and their being
made of brass wire-rope dis-
pense with the not very

urable india-rubber pads
otherwise used. A simple
device prevents the card
from jumping off the pivot
when heavy guns are fired—
a matter of some importance

CZAR

WK
MOQ

Lea

Z

ig. é . .
Fig, 3 inanengagement. The bin-
nacle has complete provision
for stowing away the magnets, soft iron bars, and

spheres used to counteract the magnetism of the
iron of the ship.

Along with Thomson’s compass is supplied a
piece of apparatus for converting it into an azimuth
compass, which is a compass for finding the angle
subtended at the observer’s eye by the projections
of two objects on the horizontal plane.

For the earth’s action on a magnetised needle
suspended free to move horizontally and vertically,
see the articles MAGNETISM, DECLINATION.

The great difficulty connected with the use of
the compass arises from the disturbing influence
of the ship’s magnetism, of which part is con-
sidered permanent, and part—due to the soft iron
—is temporary, and varies with the position of
the ship. Various methods are in use to regulate
this difficulty, which in iron vessels is some-
times so great as to make an ordinary compass
almost useless. The principal are (1) counter-
acting the gd a nahlfalg induced magnetism by pro-
perly placed permanent bar magnets; and (2)
supplying about the compass soft iron masses in
such a way that, however the ship turns, the
transient induced magnetism on the left of the
compass shall be exactly equivalent to that on the
right. Many of the best ships carry a standard
compass placed as far as possible from the iron of
the ship, especially from vertical masses like iron
masts and funnels. When it is mentioned that an
error of one point (114°) in steering means an error
of about one mile in five, the necessity for the
various precautions will be readily recognised. For
details on this subject, see the Admiralty Manual
on the Deviations of the Compass, and the references
there given.

Compasses, instruments for transferring and
marking off distances, or for drawing circles, &c.
The common compasses are simply two rods or
. legs * joined together at one end by a pivot-joint,
and pointed at the other; when used for draw-
ing circles, the lower part of one of the legs is
replaced by a pen or pencil. Spring dividers
are much in use by workmen ; in fiaee, the legs
are united by a strong steel spring, the action
of which is to stretch them open; Sut half-way
down, a screw passing between the legs, regulates
by means of a nut, the degree of opening. The
value of these depends upon the permanency with
which they retain any : date of opening given
to them, pivot compasses being liable to slip.
more delicate variety of the spring dividers is

also made for use in mechanical and architectural
drawing.

Beam Compasses consist of points sliding on a
long bar, to which they may Bs clamped at any
distance from each other. They are used for
greater openings than pivot compasses can safely
span, and, when delicately made, for more accurate ~

ividing. See GRADUATION.

Propernons) Compasses have a point at each end
of each leg and the pivot between, thus forming a
double pair of compasses opposite to each other,
end to end. The pivot is a clamping screw moyin
in an elongated slit in the legs, by means of wick
any proportion between the ends may be attained.
They are usually provided with scales of proportions
for lines, solids, cubes, and circles. They are very
useful in making reduced or enlarged copies of
drawings, especially mechanical drawings.

Triangular Compasses have three legs, so that
the points of a triangle may be all transferred at.
once. For Calliper Compasses, see CALLIPERS.

Compensation is used in both English and
Scottish law to denote the claim which arises to the
owner or occupier of land which is taken for the
purposes of a public undertaking under statutory
powers, or which is injuriously affected by the
execution of public works. The question is gener-
ally referred to arbitration, under the Lands Clauses.
Act, and the award is final as to the amount
of damage. The claim includes such matters as
loss of profits from shop, interference with access _
and amenity, nuisance from smoke, &c. Formerly,
fifty per cent. used to be added for compulsory
purchase, but latterly awards have been more.
moderate. Compensation is also the name given
in recent statutes to the right of an outgoing tenant.
in respect of certain classes of unexhausted im-
provements which are scheduled to the acts. See’
AGRICULTURAL Hoxtpines Act. The word is
loosely applied to any claim of damages arising
in respect of injury. Thus in event of legisla-
tion interfering with the business of the publicans
(in the way of limitation or prohibition), it is.
strongly affirmed by some, and as strongly denied
by others, that the publicans are entitled to com-
pensation. In Scots law its a meaning is
that mutual creditors and debtors may set off
one debt against another. This applies, as it
did in the civil law, to most pecuniary obliga-
tions, but in order that one debt may extinguish
another, so as to stop interest, &c., compensation:
must be pleaded. ven where an unliquidated
claim of damages is opposed to an ascertained debt,
time will be given to constitute, if the claims arise
under the same contract.

Compensation of Famers in Physics, a.
method of neutralising errors which cannot be
avoided, by introducing others into the experiment
or observation,.of an opposite nature, and equal in
amount. The compensation pendulum illustrates
the principle. See PenpuLuat

Competition (Lat., ‘a seeking together’) has.
been well defined by Dr Johnson as ‘the act of
endeavouring to gain what another endeavours to

ain at the same time.’ In political economy it
is simply the form taken by the struggle for exist-
ence as applied to industry. Formerly, prices and
generally the economic relations of men to each
other were regulated by custom or authority. -
The growth of freedom has now brought it about.
that these relations are determined by individual
effort. The general rule is that each man must be
responsible for his own economic well-being. The
workman brings his labour to the market and gets
what he can for it. The capitalist engages labour
on the terms most Sevantahia to himself, and sells.
his produce at such price as it can bring. The

COMPIEGNE

COMPOSITZ 393

.

owner of land generally takes the highest rent he
ean obtain. In short, the industrial world is a
world of conflicting or competing interests.

As we have said, this system of competition is
an outcome of modern freedom, and the rise
of it may be historically traced. In medieval
times the relations of men were fixed by custom
or authority. But the restraints of custom and
authority were felt to be vexatious, oppressive,
and injurious, and in the various spheres of human
activity, in religion, politics, and economics, the
free individuality of men sought and found wider
room to develop itself. This great movement began
with the revival of learning, the discovery of
America, and the Protestant Reformation, and has
been continued through the revolutions of the
17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. In the industrial
sphere it means that whereas in former times a
man’s calling, place of residence, and the remunera-
tion of his industry were fixed for him, he is now
at liberty to decide them for himself as best he
can. Each man is free to do the best he can for
himself, but as he finds numerous individuals who
exercise the same freedom within a limited field,
there arises the prevailin nee of competition.

No one conversant with the facts will deny that
the system of free competition has been attended
with enormous progress, and that it has acted as a
powerful stimulus to human energy and the spirit
of improvement. But the development of the
system has brought with it most important limita-
tions, some of which may be noted. While such a
system must always be limited by law and justice,
and the necessities of political union, legislation
has been obliged to provide special safeguards

ainst the evils of competition, notably in the

lish Factory Acts. The English trades-unions
are an attempt to regulate competition in the
interest of labour, Employers’ combinations have
a like object in the interest of the capitalist.
In America especially the development of ‘ trusts’
tends to make competition a dead letter. These
trusts are combinations of capitalists with a view to
gy Neg The protective system of coun-
tries like France, Germany, and the United States
is intended to maintain native industries against
British competition. Lately France and Germany
have imposed duties on cereals in order to protect
their oy ony against American competition. It
should be noted also that even yet custom is largely
influential in many spheres, and that not a few of
the evils of competition are pe ogee by the
kindly feeling which prevails in all the relations of
life. Employers do not generally bring wages down
to the lowest level attainable by competition. Thus
in actual experience the competitive system is
modified by a great variety of influences. On the
other hand, the ‘sweating system,’ by which starva-
tion wages are given for long hours of hard work,
is rendered possible by the keen competition of
many, otherwise unemployed, for such unremuner-
ative labour.

Competition for tuations in the public service
is very different from the system above described.
Competition as applied to the public service is
regulated by the state. The salaries in the various
grades, and the conditions of employment, are fixed

y authority. The chief material stimulus is the
hope of promotion. See Civil SERVICE. For the
advantages and disadvantages of competitive exam-
inations in education, see EDUCATION; also the
——— Century, the Universal Review, &e., for

Compiégne, a quiet and old-fashioned but
terion jo town in the French department of
ise, on the river Oise, a little below its junction
with the Aisne, 52 miles NNE. of Paris by rail.
Of its churches three deserve notice, St Germain

(15th century), St Antoine (12th century), and St
Jacques (13th century). The hdtel-de-ville is a
late Gothic edifice with a fine central belfry.
But the chief pride of Compiétgne is its palace,
built anew by Louis XV., and splendidly fitted
up by Napoleon, who often oceupied it. Its
facade towards the forest is 624 feet long.
From the gardens an arbour walk, 1600 yards
long, leads towards the beautiful forest of Com-
piégne, which was a favourite hunting-ground of
many of the kings of France. It saiende to over
30,000 acres, and contains some fine oak timber.
The inhabitants of Compiegne manufacture canvas,
cordage, and sugar. op. (1872) 11,859; (1891)
12,353. Compiégne is mentioned in the times of
Clovis under the name of Compendium. It was at.
the siege of this town, in 1430, that the Maid of
Orleans was captured ; and here, in 1810, Napoleon
first met Maria Louisa of Austria, on occasion of
their marriage. '

Complement of an angle is what it lacks to
make up 90°; of an are, to make up a quadrant;
and hence, in Astronomy, the complement of a
star is its zenith-distance. In Music, two intervals,
which together make up an octave, are called com-
plementary (see INVERSION). In Arithmetic, if
any number is subtracted from the next higher
aA of ten, the result is its complement. Thus

and 3 are complementary; so are 63 and 37;
881 and 119; and 1°4384386 is the complement to
85615614. In Chromatics, red is the complement
of green, orange of blue, and yellow of violet.

Complexion. See SKIN.
Compline. See BREvIARY.
Complutensian Bible.
HENARES and XIMENES.
Compony, or Gopony. See BoRDURE.

Compositz. This is the richest of all natural
orders in species, these numbering about 10,000; it
is also the most widely distributed through all
regions of the globe, although most abundant in
temperate and subtropical climates ; and, further-
more, the richest in individuals, it having been
reckoned that about every tenth plant on the earth’s
surface is a composite. The rationale of this may
be broadly seen (at least if we grant an individual
constitution and structure especially well adapted
to both vegetation and reproduction), for we can
see that the consequent great number of healthy
individuals must be associated with active local
competition and survival of the fittest, and with
distribution of these over a wide area; while this
again is at least one condition of considerable
differentiation of varieties, and so ultimately of
species.

While popularly a daisy or dandelion is regarded
as a simple flower, the roughest examination suffices
to analyse this into an orderly assemblage, techni-
cally a capitulum of smal] but distinct florets ;
hence the apne is apt, without more ado, to
refer all similar aggregates, say a head of Scabious
(Dipsacacez ) or Seapink (Plumbaginacez) to the
Composite. We find, however, such aggregates
arising in all alliances, and naturally so; racemes,
spikes, or umbels of flowers wholly distinct in
structure may all be shortened down into heads or
capitula, since reproductive development is tending
everywhere to check vegetative growth. We are
thus led to inquire of what forms are the composites
to be regarded as the reduced members, and the
evidence of comparative anatomy goes to prove
their relationship to Campanulacee and _ their
irregular forms the Lobeliacez ; in a word, to view
the yellow ‘tubular’ florets of our daisy as a head
of tiny bells, while the white strap-shaped or
‘ligulate’ ones of its ray, like all those of a dande-
lion, resemble the flowers of lobelia.

See ALCALA DE

394 COMPOSITZ

COMPOSITION

In shortening down, or less figuratively, in arrest-
ing the inflorescence into a head, the bract of each
separate flower remains in place; and in a Zinnia,
or sunflower, we find each floret with its separate
bract throughout the whole capitulum; in most
cases, however, these disappear. Those of the
outermost florets, however, together with the im-
mediately lower leaves of the flower-axis (which
bear no florets, and are thus in strictness not
entitled to their common name of bracts) become
usually crowded into an énvolucre. This subserves
in bud the protective purposes of a calyx to the
whole inflorescence at once, and thus the calyx of
the separate florets becomes unnecessary. In its
pee we find at most a circle of fine downy
1airs, which may be characteristically serrated or
feathered, and which only reach full development
and usefulness when the fruit has to be distributed.
On account of its merely epidermic nature and late
appearance, its calycine nature has been denied,
and the term pappus substituted ; the evolutionist
need, however, feel little hesitation in regarding
the pappus as simply representing the epidermic
fringe of a reduced calyx, nor is verificatory evidence
wanting. Thestamens grow upon the united corolla
and themselves unite by the anthers, thus forming a
ring or rather pollen-bearing tube, up through which
the style grows, all much as in bells. The style
bears two stigmas, indicating an originally two-
ae ek arrangement, but the ovary is one-celled,
and contains only a single ascending ovule. The
ovary hardens as a nutlet, which is commonly
floated away upon the wind when ripe by help of
its pappus; it may be anchored where it descends
by its minute grappling-hooks or serrations. In
this way it is conveyed to new soil, it may be at
a great distance, an obvious advantage, alike to
the species or the individual, when germination
takes place.

The classification of so many closely related
genera and species into larger groups is one of the
most difficult problems of the systematist, and all
attempts must as yet be admitted to be largely
artificial. The method of Jussieu is to separate
(1) those in which the florets are all tubular, as in
the thistles (even though the outer be enlarged as
in corn-flowers—see CENTAURY ), as Cynarocephale ;
(2) those in which, while the inner florets are
tubular, the outer are ligulate as in daisy, sun-
flower, &c., as Corymbiferze, and (3) those in which
all the. florets are ligulate, as in dandelion or
chicory, as Cichoracese. The more recent method
of De Candolle is now more generally adopted : his
distinctions are (1) Tubuliflorse, including those
which have mainly tubular florets, although the
ray be ligulate, thus abandoning the attempt to
separate the first two divisions of Jussieu; (2)
Ligulifloree, with florets all ligulate, correspondin
to Cichoracez ; (3) Labiatifloree, with florets al
bi-labiate, a small South American group. But
while this last group has unquestionable distinct-
ness, the value of both preceding classifications in
other respects is shown to be somewhat superficial
by the familiar fact that in cultivation tubular
florets tend to become ligulate (in inaccurate
popular phrase, dowble). Thus we see the wild
daisy, dahlia, chrysanthemum, &c., alike practi-
cally passing into the ligulate group on cultiva-
tion.

Although many composites are cultivated and
useful plants, none attain the highest economic
importance: yet the artichoke, and Jerusalem
artichoke, salsafy, lettuce, endive, &c., are
familiar inmates of the kitchen-garden, while
chicory is extensively cultivated as a substitute
for coffee, and even sometimes, as well as Jerusalem
artichoke, for the purpose of feeding domestic
animals. A very few, like safflower and saw-wort,

yield dyestuffs ; from the seed of others—e.g. sun-
flower, a bland oil is expressed, while many are of
time-honoured repute for their medicinal properties
—e.g. chamomile, arnica, wormwood, elacampane,
&e. A still greater number—e.g. headed by
dahlias and sunflowers, asters and chrysanthemums
—are esteemed ornaments of our flower-gardens,
particularly in the latter part of summer and in
autumn. Being mostly herbs, or rarely shrubs,
the order is quite unimportant as regards timber ;
the Siriehout ( Tarchonanthus camphoratus), a small
tree of the Cape of Good Hope, is, however, close-
grained and beautiful. é

For detailed information, see systematic works
such as Luerssen, Med. Pharm. Botanik ; Baillon,
Histoire des Plantes ; or Engler’s Pflanzen-familien.

Composite Order. See CoLUMN.

Composition. Under the title Composition
and Resolution of Velocity and Forces, we deal
with one of the fundamental problems in mechanies
—viz. to compound two velocities (or forces) into
a single velocity (or force) which shall be their
equivalent. We shall consider it as applied to
velocities in the first place.

If a point is moving with two independent velo-
cities in any direction, it moves in some one definite
direction with a definite speed. This single velocit
(for the term includes the idea of direction as well
as speed) is equivalent to the two component velo-
cities, and is termed their resultant. A good
example is afforded by a ball thrown up in a
moving railway carriage ; it partakes of the train’s
motion horizontally, while it also simultaneously
moves vertically upwards.

When the two components are in the same
straight line, their resultant is in all cases equal
to their algebraic sum. In the case of velocities
in different directions, the magnitude and direction
of their resultant is obtained by the following
theorem. known as the Parallelogram of Velocities :
If a point A move with two velocities, represented
in magnitude and direction by AP and AQ respec-
tively, their, resultant will be similarly represented
by AR, the diagonal of the parallelogram of which
AP and AQ are
conterminous sides, P R
For, let the point
move along AQ with
velocity AQ, and let
the page bein motion
in the direction AP
with velocity AP. x >,
After a unit of time
has elapsed, the point will have moved from A to
Q along AQ, but, owing to the motion of the page,
the line AQ will have moved into the position PR,
so that the point will really be at R; hence its
motion has been in the direction AR, with a velo-
city whose magnitude is represented by AR.

imilarly, we may compound any number of
velocities in one plane into a single resultant. In
the case where three components are not coplanar,
a corresponding theorem, the Parallelepiped of
Velocities, is used to find the resultant.

The resolution of velocities is exactly the con-
verse problem ; for where a directed length such as
AR can be made the diagonal of a parallelogram,
then the conterminous sides are the components.
Of course, in this manner, an infinite number of
pairs of components can be obtained, each having
the given velocity as their resultant. But the
resolutions usually required are those in which the
components are at right angles.

Since forces can be graphically represented in the
same manner as velocities, all that has been said
of velocities applies equally well to forces; and
obvious changes in the terminology at once give

COMPOSITION

COMPRESSED-AIR MOTORS 395

the means of compounding and resolving forces.
See DyNAMICcs, KINEMATICS, STATICS.

Composition, in Bankruptey, a certain per-
centage which creditors to receive from a
bankrupt in lieu of full payment of his debts, and
the acceptance of which operates as a discharge to

the bankrupt. See BANKRUPTCY.

Compos Mentis. See INSANITY.

Compostella, See SANTIAGO DE Compo-
STELLA.

Composts are a kind of Manure (q.v.), con-
sisting of mixtures of substances adapted to the
fertilisation of the soil, which being allowed to
ferment, and undergo chemical changes for a con-
siderable time in heaps, become more valuable
than they were at first, or ever could have been if
ap lied separately. Composts were formerly made
of farm-yard manure, and earth or lime in addition,
Road-scrapings, peat-moss, leaves, and clearings of
ditches also formed materials for the purpose. By
allowing these to lie for six months in heaps of
from three to four feet in depth, food was prepared
for plants. The mass was usually applied to the
turnip-crop, and when artificial manures were
unknown, considerable benefit arose from such
dressings. The use of guano and other light
manures has superseded in a great measure the
necessity of this laborious process, and composts
for the turnips or barley-crops are now little used.
The wonderiul effects that have resulted from the
application of small doses of artificial manures
have impressed farmers in general with the truth
that the most energetic elements bear a small pro-
ipa in weight to the whole mass of farm-yard

ung or composts, and that the mixing of manures
in heaps with earth does not so much add to its
virtues as to repay the labour expended in the pro-
cess. More care is now rightly bestowed in pre-
serving manure from washings by rain. Composts
formed of leaves, ditch-scourings, road-scrapings, or
any earthy substance containing a large percentage
of vegetable matter, with the addition of lime,
may still be used with benefit for pastures that
are deteriorating, or where the soil is stiff. Indeed
there should still be a compost-heap at every farm.
Wherever tidy and careful management prevails,
there is a good deal of road-scrapings, ditch-scour-
ings, and other rubbish to be disposed of, and the
compost-heap is a handy and useful receptacle for
all such matter. The value of well-made compost
for the top-dressing of pasture-land is greater than
is generally unders or acknowledged, and it
can be carted out and spread at odd times when
there is a lull in the more urgent farm-work.
Where moss prevails, lime should enter largely as
a component. On the other hand, where the soil
is of a strong and clayey nature, earthy substances
containing vegetable matter in larger proportions
should be used. Vegetable matter has the effect
of imparting a softness to the surface that is par-
ticularly conducive to the free growth of pastures.
Compost made of turf, leaves, earth, and bone-dust
is used with great benefit by gardeners for vines
and fruit-trees which are injured by too concen-
trated manures.

Compound (corruption of Portuguese cam-

monks, ‘yard or court’) is the usual name in India

or the inclosure in which a house stands, with its
outhouses, yard, and garden.

Compound Animals, See CoLONIAL ANI-
MALS.

Compounding of Felony, in England, is
the nee of taking value for Sahonsinig to prose-
cute a felony, and is punishable with fine and
imprisonment. The offence is also known as agree-
ment not to prosecute, and is equally committed

where the agreement is only to show favour to the
person accused, It practically amounts to mis-
prision of felony. Compounding of informations
upon penal statutes, and compounding of misde-
meanours, without order or consent of the court,
are punishable in a lighter degree, and that whether
any offence has been committed or not. But in
misdemeanours affecting some private rights, the
court will often permit the prosecutor to accept
pecuniary amends, and withdraw the prosecution.
Advertising a reward for stolen property, coupled
with words implying that no questions will be
asked, or that no prosecution will be instituted,
or that a pawnbroker returning the property will
be paid what he has advanced on it, is punishable
by a fine of £50 each on the advertiser, publisher,
and printer. And any one taking money or reward
for restoring a stolen dog is liable to imprisonment
for eighteen months.

Compound Interest. See INTEREST.

Compressed-air Bath, a strong chamber of
riveted iron plates in which two or more persons
can sit, and into which air is driven by a steam-
engine to any required pressure, as notified by the
attached barometers. The inflow of fresh air and
the escape of the foul air are regulated by valves.
Patients remain in the bath from one to three
hours, and the pressure is generally increased to an
atmosphere and a half. Another appliance for
using either compressed or rarefied air consists of a
mask tightly covering mouth and nose, and con-
nected by a tube and suitable valves with some
form of air-cistern in which the pressure can be
varied as desired. By this appliance patients can
either inspire compressed or rarefied air, or can
breathe out into either of these. Practically only
the first and fourth of these possible methods are
used. Treatment by Aerotherapeutics has lon
been a favourite study, but the results have vari
much, and have lacked exactness. The general
effects of compressed air are to lessen the frequency
of the movements of the chest, and of the heart or
pulse beats, while allowing the absorption of more
oxygen, and increasing the blood-tension, Rare-
fied air produces the opposite effects. Many dis-
eased conditions therefore should benefit by this
treatment, especially asthma, chronic bronchitis,
and catarrh under compressed air, and emphysema
by rarefied air; while in the treatment generall
we have a useful system of lung gymnastics, whic
increase the power of the respiratory muscles and
the vital capacity of the lungs.

Compressed-air Motors. One mode of
employing air as a motive power has been described
under AIR-ENGINE (q.v.). Another obvious way
is to compress the air and then apply it in the
manner of high-pressure steam. ut the great
loss of power, due principally to the dissipation of
the heat which results from the high compression
of the air, will always render the employment of
such @ motive power very wasteful, There are,
however, many conditions under which the use of
compressed air is convenient and advantageous.
The air-gun, although more a toy than a useful
weapon, is one of the oldest examples of a com-
pressed-air motor. Partly by compression and
partly by exhaustion of air, pneumatic tubes are
worked in connection with central post-offices for
the transmission of letters and messages to and
from various districts in large cities. In boring in
mines, and in blasting and tunnelling operations,
compressed air is an exceedingly useful agent, the
power being easily carried by tubes into confined
areas where the air when liberated, after it performs
its primary duty, is of great value for aiding the
ventilation of the s (see BortnGc). In the
application of automatic brakes to passenger trains,

396 COMPRESSION

COMRIE

compressed air has also been found to be the most
convenient power (see BRAKES). Air compressed
and stored in a reservoir under the vehicle has also
been proposed as a motive power for tramway cars.
In .a different direction the agency of compressed
air is important in the artiicial production of
cold for chilling-houses for meat-preservation on
land, and for frozen-meat chambers for preserving
fresh meat on board vessels (see REFRIGERATION ).
Compression and Compressibility. When
a body is subjected to the action of any force which
causes it to occupy less volume, it is said to be
compressed, and the diminution of volume is termed
compression. The term compressibility is fre-
quently used to signify that property of bodies
whereby they yield to that particular form of stress
known as pressure ; but more strictly it is employed
to denote the measure of this property as possessed
by different substances. Under the same pressure
it is obvious that the same volume of various
substances will diminish by different amounts;
and, to measure this change, the compressibility
is defined to be the ratio of the amount of
compression per unit volume to the compressing
force applied. It thus may be determined by
measuring the amount of compression of a known
volume when under a certain pressure; dividing
this by the product of the original volume and the
pressure gives the average compressibility (per
unit pressure) of the substance throughout the
range of pressure employed.: The unit of pressure
enerally used is one atmosphere, which is defined
in this country as being the weight of a column of
mercury, one square inch in section, 29°905 inches
in height, at the temperature of 0° C., and weighed
at sea-level in the latitude of London. Its actual
value in pounds-weight per square inch is nearly
14°7; so that 152°3 atmospheres of pressure is
equivalent to a pressure of one ton per square inch.
In gases the relation between pressure and volume
is given by Boyle’s Law (see GASES)—viz. the
volume of a given mass of gas is inversely pro-
portional to its pressure. From this it follows that
the compressibility is inversely proportional to the
pressure—i.e. the diminution of volume due to a
given increment of pressure is correspondingly
small as the pressure is great. The behaviour of
a@ gas under pressure is closely related to the
proximity of its temperature to the critical point
(see CRITICAL TEMPERATURE); for if below this
temperature the gas can, and if above
it, cannot be liquefied by pressure
A alone. It is only since 1877 that
liquefaction has been effected in those
gases formerly termed permanent.
From the first attempts to compress
liquids it was concluded that they
My B were incompressible, but Canton in
1762, by a comparatively simple experi-
ment, showed that the compressibility
of water though small is quite appre-
ciable, and that it is less at higher
than at lower temperatures. he
measurement of the compressibility of
liquids is usually made in a glass vessel
(see fig.) termed a piezometer. A tube,
ABCD, open at one end, D, is bent
p upon itself between C and D, widened
at one end into a eylindrical bulb, AB,
c and at the other into a cistern, D. The
liquid experimented on fills the bulb
and stem to C, from which point to
D, mercury fills the tube. On the sur-
face of the mereury at C an index
floats. The instrument is placed in a larger and
much stronger vessel containing water to which
pressure (measured by an attached gange) is
applied. The contents of the piezometer being

thus compressed, the mereury column ascends in
the stem, and when the pressure is relieved the
index is left at that point to which the mereury
rose under the highest pressure applied. The
actual amount of compression, and the original
volume, as well as the pressure, being known, the
compressibility can be thereby calculated, a corree-
tion being finally added for the compression of the
glass piezometer itself. From experiments made
with such apparatus, the following conclusions (see
fteport on some of the Physical Properties of Fresh —
Water and Sea-water, by Professor P. G. Tait;
Challenger Expedition Commission Reports, Physics
and Chemistry, part iv.) seem now to be well estab-
lished regarding the compressibility of liquids, more
especially of water. The compressibility of water
decreases as both the temperature and pressure are
raised ; under moderate pressures (e.g. one or two
atmospheres) it has a point of minimum value about
60° C., while its actual value at 10° C. and at a
pressure of one ton per square inch is very nearl
zudcs- Sea-water is less compressible than fres
water; the ratio of the compressibility of the
former to the latter being ‘915. Solutions of com-
mon salt are less compressible as they are stronger ;
the compressibility falling off uniformly with in-
creased strength. Both sea-water and salt solutions
diminish in compressibility with temperature and
ressure in the same manner as fresh water. It
ats also been proved that the maximum-density
point of water is lowered by pressure ; the actual
amount of this lowering being 3°*1 C. per ton—
—i.e. water under a pressure of one ton per
sq. in. has its maximum density point at 0°:9,
instead of at 4°, as under ordinary atmospheric.
pressure.

The compressibility of solids is generally very
much smaller than that of either liquids or gases.
It is best measured by noting the shortening
of a rod or fibre of the material tested while
subjected to hydrostatic pressure; the linear com-
pressibility thus obtained is, to a sufficient degree
of approximation, one-third the cubical compres-
sibility. For glass it is ‘00000265 per atmo-
sphere.

Compulsion. The effect of compulsion on the
validity of obligations and payments, and on
criminal responsibility, is noticed under CONTRACT,
CRIME, FORCE AND FEAR, and DURESS.

Compurgators were twelve persons whom
Anglo-Saxon law permitted the accused to call in ©
proof of his innocency, and who joined their oaths.
to his.- They were persons taken from the neigh-
bourhood, or otherwise known to the accused. It
was rather in the character of witnesses than of
jurymen that they acted, though the institution has.
trea spoken of as the Anglo-Saxon jury; what
they swore to was not so much their knowledge, as.
their belief. The number of corer varied
with the rank of the parties and the nature of the
accusation, but was usually twelve. The system
of compurgators was adopted even in civil actions
for debt. Compurgation, which was a custom
common to most of the Teutonic races, fell into
disuse after the conquest; but the ceremony of
what was called canonical purgation of clerks-con-
vict, was not abolished in England till the reign of
Elizabeth. See (under Jury) JuRY TRIAL,

Comrie, a pleasant and sheltered village of
Perthshire, on the Earn, 7 miles W. of Crieff. It
has often been visited by earthquakes, roa: in
the October of 1839 and January of 1876. These
are apparently due to its geological position on the

at line of fault between the Highlands and the

owlands. Here George Gilfillan was born in 1813.
The Free church, built in 1879-81, cost over £10,000.
The railway hither was opened in 1893. Pop. 870. .

COMPRESSED AIR LOCOMOTIVE.

Vol. IIL., page 396.

'. =

COMSTOCK LODE

COMYN 397

Comstock Lode, « bey of silver, to which
ia City, Nevada, largely owes its prosperity.
Discovered in 1859, the lode has since yie ded at
times over ten million dollars annually, The shaft
is 2300 feet deep, but work is now confined to the
upper levels, the workmen having been driven from
e depths by the heat (120° F.) and by the steam
generated through the action of the air on the

_ sulphurous rock penetrated by the different

levels.

Comte, AvGusTE, the founder of Positivism
(q.v.), was born 19th January 1798, at Montpellier,
Where his father was treasurer of taxes. At the
Lycée of his native place he was distinguished
equally for his aptitude for mathematics and his
resistance to official authority, characteristics which
did not desert him on his entering the Ecole Poly-
technique at Paris in his seventeenth year. Here
he took the lead ina praee* of the students against
the manners of one of the tutors, and was expelled,
after a residence of two years had obtained recog-
nition of his abilities from the professors. A few
months were spent with his parents, and then Comte
returned to Paris, where for a time he made a scanty
living by teaching mathematics. It would seem
that, some years before, he had completely freed
himself from the influence of all existing social and
religious theories, and a reforming zeal was begin-
ning to his mind, when in 1818 he came
into contact with St Simon, by whom his inclina-
tion towards the reconstruction of thought and life
was confirmed and strengthened. A definite rela-
tion was established between them, by which Comte
remained for six years the disciple and collaborator
of the older thinker; but there gradually became
= 3 phage a di eement of aim and method, and
the necessity felt by Comte of asserting the inde-
pendence of his own conceptions led to a violent
rupture. In 1825 Comte married, but the union
proved unhappy, and after seventeen years of inter-
mittent discord, ended in a separation. In the
following year Comte began a course of lectures in
exposition of his system of philosophy, which was
attended by several eminent men of science, but
the course was soon interrupted by an attack of
insanity, which disabled the lecturer for a few
months. His labours were afterwards resumed, and
the six volumes of his Philosophie Positive was pub-
lished at intervals between 1830 and 1842, durin
which period his livelihood was chiefly obtaine
from the offices of examiner and tutor in the Ecole
Polytechnique. After these positions were taken
from him, owing to the prejudices of his colleagues,
he resumed the private teaching of mathematics,
but in his later years he was supported entirely by
a ‘subsidy’ from his friends and admirers. In 1845
Comte became acquainted with Clothilde de Vaux,
and until her death within a year afterwards, a
close intimacy was maintained between them. On
Comte’s side it was a passionate attachment, the
purity of which was happily preserved, and its
influence is clearly shown in his later works, especi-
ally in the most important of these, the Politique
Positive. Comte died in his sixtieth year on 5th
September 1857. He was buried in the cemetery of
Pere-la-Chaise. A full account of his system will
be found in the article PostrrvisM. His works are
Cours de Philosophie Positive (6 vols, Paris, 1830-42 ;
freely translated into English, and condensed by
Harriet Martineau, 2 vols. 1853), 7raité Elémentaire
de Géométrie Analytique (1843), Traité d Astronomie
Populaire (1845), Discours sur l’ Ensemble du Posi-
tivisme (1848), Systéme de Politique Positive (4 vols.
1851-54 ; ay trans. 1875 et seg., Longmans), and
Catéchisme Positiviste, ou Sommaire Exposition de
la Religion Universelle (1 vol. Paris, 1852). Comte’s

Comus, in later antiquity, a divinity of festive
mirth and joy, represented as a winged youth,
sometimes drunk and languid as after a debauch, o1
slumbering in a standing posture with legs crossed.
Comus thus became vA representative deity of
riotous merry-making, of tipsy dance and jollity,
and as such res in Milton’s noble poetic tribute
to chastity, the mask of Comus; though here the
poet, as elsewhere, has devised his own mythology,
and made him the child of Bacchus and of Ciree,
‘much like his father, but his mother more.’

Comyn, CUMMING, or CuMYN, a famil
rose to great power and eminence in England
and Scotland. It took its name from the town
of Comines, near Lille, on the frontier between
France and Belgium. While one branch remained
there, and in 1445 gave birth to the historian
Philippe de Comines (q.v.), another followed the
banners of William of Normandy to the conquest
of England. In 1069 the Conqueror sent Robert
of Comines, or Comyn, whom he created Earl
of Northumberland, with 700 horse to reduce
the yet unsubdued provinces of the north. He
seized Durham, but had not held it for 48 hours
when the people suddenly rose against him, and he
perished in the flames of the bishop’s palace, leaving
two infant sons. The younger, William, became
Chancellor of Scotland about 1133, and nine years
later. all but possessed himself of the see of Durham.
The chancellor's grandnephew, Richard, inherited
the English possessions of his family, and acquired
lands in Seotland. By his marriage with Hextilda,
the granddaughter of Donald Bane, king of the
Scots, he had a son William, who was Great Jus-
ticiary of Scotland, and about 1210 became Earl
of Buchan by marrying Marjory, daughter and
heiress of Fergus, the last Celtic Earl of Buchan.
Their son, Alexander, Earl of Buchan, married
Isabella or Elizabeth, second daughter of Roger de
Quenci, Ear] of Winchester, and with her acquired
the high office of Constable of Scotland, with great
estates in Galloway, Fife, and the Lothians. By
a previous marriage with a wife whose name has
not been ascertained, William Comyn was father
of Richard—whose son John (Red John Comyn)
became Lord of Badenoch—and of Walter, who by
marriage became Earl of Menteith, and was one of
the guardians or regents of Scotland during the
minority of Alexander III. Through other mar-
riages the family obtained, for a time, the earl-
doms of Angus and Athole, so that, by the middle
of the 13th century, there were in Scotland 4 earls,
1 lord, and 32 belted knights of the name of Comyn.
Within seventy years rwards this great house
was so utterly overthrown that, in the words of a
contemporary chronicle, ‘there was no memorial
left of it in the land, save the orisons of the monks
of Deer’ (founded as a Cistercian monastery by
William Comyn, Earl of Buchan, in 1219). The
Comyns perished in the memorable revolution
which placed Bruce on the throne of Scotland.
Their chief, Black John amy a Lord of Badenoch,

t-grandson of William, Earl of Buchan, had,
in 1291, been an unsuccessful competitor for the
crown, as a descendant of the old Celtic dynasty
through the granddaughter of King Donald Bane.
His son, also called Red John Comyn, was one of
the wardens of Scotland, and distinguished himself
by his gallant resistance to the English. Suspected
by Bruce of betraying him to Edward, Comyn fell
under Bruce’s dagger, before the altar of the Fran-
ciscan friars at Dumfries in 1306; and his kindred
went down, one after another, in the s le to
avenge him. John Comyn, Earl of Buchan, the
son of Alexander and Isabella de Quenci, was de-
feated by Bruce in a pitched battle, near Inverury,

which

Testament was published with a good many of his | in 1308, when his earldom was wasted with such

letters in 1884.

relentless severity, that—we are told by the poet

398 CONACRE

CONCH

who sang the victories of Bruce—for sixty years
afterwards men mourned the desolation of Buchan.
Such of the Comyns as escaped the sword found
refuge, with their wives and children, in England,
where, although they were so poor as to be depend-
ants on the ‘bounty of the English court, they
married into the best families, so that, in the words
of Mr Riddell, ‘their blood at this day circulates
through all that is noble in the sister kingdom.’
See M. E. Cumming-Bruce, Family Records of the
Bruces and the Comyns (Edin. 1870).

Conaere is the custom of letting land in Ireland
in small portions for a single crop, the rent being
paid either in money or in labour.

Conant, THOMAS JEFFERSON, D.D., American
biblical scholar, born in Brandon, Vermont, in 1802,
graduated at Middlebury in 1823, and afterwards
filled chairs of Languages in various colleges and
seminaries. In 1856 he published a translation of
the book of Job, and in 1857 he was appointed by
the American Bible Union to revise the Sactuiniren
On this work he was engaged until 1875, and he
was also a member of the American committee of
the Old Testament Company who prepared the
revised version. His works include translations of
Gesenius’ Hebrew grammar and critical English
versions of both Old and New Testament books.
Died April 30, 1891.

Concarneau, a village of Brittany, on the
east coast of Finistére, 15 miles by rail SE. of Quim-
per. Its inhabitants are largely engaged in the
sardine fisheries and in pisciculture. Pop. (1886)
5496.

Concealment is a technical expression in the
criminal law of both England and Scotland ; as in
concealment. of pregnancy and birth, concealing
treasure-trove, concealing ore from a mine, conceal-
ment by a seller from a purchaser of any instru-
ment material to the title with intent to defraud,
&c. The concealment of another’s crime may
expose to a charge of misprision, or it may amount
to a charge of accession after the fact—e.g. where
the body of a murdered person is concealed. In
bankruptcy, concealment of debtor’s property is a
serious offence. In civil transactions, but especially
in particular contracts, such as insurance and
suretyship, where a high measure of good faith is
expected, the concealment of a material fact may
often invalidate an obligation.

Concealment of Birth. See Brrru.

Concer em (1) a province of Chili, stretching
from the Andes to the coast north of Arauco. It is
an important agricultural and cattle-raising district,
and has valuable coal-mines. Area, 3535 sq. m. ;
pop. (1885) 182,459.—CoNCEPCION, the capital,
near the mouth of the Biobio, is one of the most
regular and handsome towns of the republic,
although it has suffered severely from earthquakes.
Its cathedral and several of the other public
buildings are noteworthy, and its port, Taleahuano,
on Concepcion Bay, is the safest and best harbour
in all Chili, and ranks next to Valparaiso as a mart
of foreign trade. Pop. 19,000.—(2) CoNcEPCION
DEL Uruauay, the former capital of the Argen-
tine province of Entre Rios, on the Uruguay, 180
miles SE. of Parand by the Entre Rios Rail-
way, with large slaughter-houses and active river-
trade. Pop. 10,000.—(3) CONCEPCION, a town of
Paraguay, on the Paraguay River, about 260
miles above Asuncion, with trade in maté. The
official pop. (1879) 10,697, includes the surround-
ing districts; the town has less than 2000 in-
habitants.—(4) The name of several places in
Bolivia, the largest being CONCEPCION DE APOLO-
BAMBA, capital of the province of Caupolican,
formerly a Franciscan mission. Its Indian popula-

tion cultivate coca and cacao, and collect medicinal
barks from the surrounding forests.—(5) Con-
CEPCION, a town of Mexico, 50 miles W. of Chi-
huahua, in the upper Yaqui valley, famous for its
apples.—(6) CONCEPCION DE LA VEGA, a town of
San Domingo, 5 miles SE. of Santiago, with 9000
inhabitants.

Conception, in Psychology. See IDEA.

Conception, IMMACULATE. See IMMACULATE —

CONCEPTION.

Conception of Our Lady, an order of nuns,
founded in Portugal in 1484 by Beatrix de Sylva,
in honour of the immaculate conception. It was
confirmed in 1489 by Pope Innocent VIII. In
1489 Cardinal Ximenes put the nuns under the
direction of the Franciscans, and imposed on them
the rule of St Clara. The order subsequently spread
into Italy and France.

Conceptualism. See NoMINALISM.

Concert. See Music. >

Concertina, a musical instrument invented in
1829 by Sir Charles Wheatstone, the sounds of
which are produced by free vibrating reeds of metal,
as in the accordion. The scale of the concertina is
very complete and extensive, beginning with the
lowest note of the violin, G, and ascending chro-
matically for four octaves. Violin, flute, and oboe
music can be performed on the concertina with good
effect, and it has an extensive repertoire of music
specially written for itself. Eve
scale is double, and can be produced either by
pulling the bellows open, or, by pressing them
together. Concertinas are now made in France and
Germany, but not so perfectly as in England. The
keys in the German concertina are constructed on
the same principle as those in the accordion, which
play one note when the bellows are expanded, and
another when contracted.

Concerto, a musical composition for a solo
instrument, with orchestral accompaniments, caleu-
lated to give the performer an opportunity to display
the highest mechanical skill, as well as intellectual
cultivation in the art. The concerto consists of
three movements, each of which, like the whole,
has a certain character, and like the symphony or
the sonata, to which it approximates in form, re-
quires a clear development and treatment of the
motives, and a strict adherence to the rules of
form. A peculiar feature, usually introduced in
the first movement, but frequently also in the last,
is the Cadenza (q.v.). When the form is in any
way abridged, it is then called a concertino, From
the beginning of the last century to the present
time, the pianoforte and the violin are the solo
instruments mostly used for the concerto. The
oldest violin concertos are those by Torelli, the
first being published in 1686. The form was de-
veloped by Corelli, Tartini, Bach, and Handel, and
reeohad its modern shape under Mozart, though
some important modifications were introduced
Beethoven, whose violin concerto and pianoforte
concertos are regarded as the highest achievements
in this form. Concertos for wind-instruments have
been less regarded, and are generally written by
the performers themselves, and seldom deserve to
be called classical works. Weber’s clarinet con-
certo may be mentioned as one of the few exceptions.
There are also concertos for various combinations of
solo instruments, such as Bach’s for two or more
pianofortes, or Beethoven’s for piano, violin, and
violoncello.

Conch (Gr. konché, ‘a shell’), a marine shell,
especially of the Strombus gigas (see STROMBID) ;
and, in art, a spiral shell used by the Tritons as a
trumpet, and still used by some African peoples in
war. The native whites of the Bahamas are called

sound in the.

ae an

d a by Lamarck to bivalve mol
rarel

CONCHIFERA

CONCORDANCE 399

‘Conchs’ from the commonness of the shells on
their coasts.

Conchifera (Lat., ‘abell- bearing}, a term

uses and
very different Brachiopoda (q.v.), but now
y used.

Conchoid (Gr., ‘shell-like,’ from the shape), a
plane curve invented to solve the problem of tri-
secting a plane angle, doubling the cube, &e.
Given any straight line and a point without it, we
can describe two companion curves which are dis-
similar, but have the straight line as their common
Asymptote (q.v.) between them. Thus _ both
branches extend in either direction to infinity, and
ean never meet though continuall we cae
each other. The conchoid is obviously symmetri
with respect to the straight line drawn a rere
to the given line from the given point. This curve
has been utilised in architecture to give a wavin
outline to tapering columns. Through A the fix

wo.
Pee
-
-
bt
ne
-
-
-
-
-
-
‘-
*.

point draw any line ADE, measure DE and DE’
each = BC, then E and E’ trace the two branches
of the conchoid. When BC = BA, there is a cusp
at A; when BC is greater than BA, the inferior
branch has a loop as in the figure.

Conchology, that branch of natural history
which deals with the shells of molluscs. From the
time of Aristotle the beauty and variety of these
structures have made them favourite objects of
study, and few zoological mubgeree have excited so
much popular enthusiasm. The study often be-
came unscientific, and sometimes a craze, as when
extravagant sums were paid for rare forms of no
particular beauty or interest. Since the shells are
only external coverings, and were seldom considered
in relation to their tenants, or in connection with
the internal and external influences to which they
owe their shapes, es) Sg has been somewhat
barren of scientific results. It is, however, possible
that with the accumulation of knowledge in regard
to the constitution and conditions of molluses, the
study of their shells may come to have fresh
scientific interest and dignity. See BIVALVEs,
MOoLLuscaA, SHELLS, &c.

Concierge is the French name for a door-
— or janitor of a house, hotel, or public
edifice. In French towns, where a large portion
of the population lives in flats, the common door
by which many households have access to their
several tenements is very usually under the charge
of a concierge, who exercises a general supervision
over all who — his conciergerie. The ancient
Paris prison, known as the Conciergerie, is still
standing; though Marie Antoinette’s cell, con-
verted in 1816 into a chapel, was destroyed by the
Communists in 1871.

Conclave (Lat.), the place where the cardinals
of the Roman Catholic Church assemble in private
for the choice of a pope, or that assembly itself.
See Pope.

Concord, capital of New ie gee U.S., on
the Merrimac River, 73 miles NNW. of Boston by

rail. It extends two miles along the river, with
wide streets, and contains a fine nite state-
house and other public buildings. Its quarries of
white granite are celebrated; and with abundant
water-power, it has manufactures of cotton, woollen,
leather, and wooden goods, machinery, carriages,

organs, &c. Pop. (1870) 12,241 ; (1890) 17,004.
Concord, a town of Massachusetts, in the

county of Middlesex, 23 miles by rail NW. of

Boston. It is the seat of a large prison and

reformatory. As early as 1767 the people of
Concord opposed the measures of the British
government, and in the revolutionary war a skir-
mish took place here, 19th April 1775. The place
is notable as having been the home of Emerson,
Hawthorne, Thoreau, and other men of letters.
Pop. (1880) 3922 ; (1885) 3727 ; (1890) 4427.

Concord, in Music, is a combination of notes
which satisfies the ear, without requiring any
others to follow—e.g. the common chord, or com-
bination of a note with its perfect fifth and major
or minor third. See Music.

Concordance ( Low Lat. concordantia), origin-
ally a system of harmonising things that differ or
appear to differ. Thus there is a concordance of
the Gregorian and Julian calendars, and: of pass-
ages in the Bible that do not seem to agree. Subse-
quently it came to be used for a book arranged so
as to form an alphabetical index of all es, Or
at least of all the more important words in any
work. For writings of universal import, from
which passages are continually being adduced to
prove or support principles affecting cur daily life
and action, such a handbook is indispensable.
The necessity of a concordance for the Bible seems
to have been felt at an early period. The first
regular concordance of the Vulgate was made about
1244 by Hugo de Sancto Caro, with the assistance
of many other Dominican monks. This work was
frequently Bo (e.g. Lyons, 1540, 1551), and led
to Hugo’s division of the Bible into chapters being
universally adopted. Amended editions were pre-
pared by Arlotto de Prato (about 1290), and (in
the 14th century ) by Konrad of Halberstadt. Con-
cordances to the Vulgate were published at Basel in
1521 and 1561, by Rob. Stephanus ( Paris, 1555), by
Fr. Lucas (Antwerp, 1617), and by the Abbé F. P.
Dutripon (Paris, 1838). Greek concordance
of the New Testament and Septuagint was a
fone by Euthalios of Rhodes about the year 1300,

ut has been lost. Concordances of the Septuagint
were compiled by Conrad Kircher ( Frankfort, 2 vols.
1607), by Abraham Fromm (2 vols. Amsterdam,
1718) and by Dr Hatch (6 parts, 1889-92). Xystus.
Betuleius premarin in 1546 the first printed con-
cordance of the Greek New Testament, which was.
republished and amended by Stephens ( Paris, 1594 ;
Geneva, 1600). A better concordance was compiled
by Erasmus Schmidt (1638), whose work, as revised
and enlarged by Bruder (1842 ; new ed. 1880), is now
of standard value. An abridgment was issued by
Schmoller (1869). The first Hebrew concordance
was drawn up by Rabbi Isaac Nathan about 1438,
and by Johann Buxtorf (edited by his son Johann
Buxtorf, Basel, 1632). On the work of Buxtorf the
later concordances of J. Fiirst (1840), Bernhard Bir
(1861 e¢ seg.), and Davidson (Lond. 1876) are based.
The chief concordances for Luther’s Bible are those
of Lankisch (1718), Biichner (1740; 17th ed. 1885),
Beck (1770), Wichmann (1782), Schott (1827), Haut
(1828), Bernhard (1850). The first concordance of
the New Testament in English was by Thomas
Gybson (Lond. 1535), and of the whole Bible in
English by John Marbek (1550). The best known of
the numerous concordances for the authorised Eng-
lish version of the Bible was compiled by Alexander
Cruden, and first published in 1737 (3d ed. with his

400 CONCORDAT

CONCRETION

corrections, 1769); Dr R. Young’s (1884) and Rev.
J. B. R. Walker’s (1894) are more recent. The
Englishman’s Hebrew and Greek Concordances
(1860) deserve mention. The first Concordance of
the Koran appeared at Calcutta in 1811, but was
superseded by that of Fliigel (1842). The Complete
Concordance to Shakespeare, compiled by Mrs Cow-
den Clarke (1845 ; new ed. Lond. 1881), and that by
John Bartlett (1894) are admirable. Concordances
have also been prepared to Pope, Milton, Cowper,
Tennyson, Dante, hander, and Shelley.

Concordat (Lat. concordatum, ‘a thing agreed
upon’), though sometimes used of secular treaties,
is generally employed to denote an agreement made
between the pope, as the head of the Roman
Catholic Church, and a secular government, on
matters which concern the interests of its Roman
Catholic subjects. Such concordats may take
either of two forms. The pope may, after con-
sultation with the government in question, issue
a bull regulating the affairs of the Roman Catholic
Church in the country, the contents of the said
bull being afterwards ratified by the government
and incorporated in the law of the land. Or again,
a formal treaty may be drawn up and signed by
oe on both sides. Various theories

ave been held on the obligation of such contracts.
Secular jurists have denied that they impose any
real obligation on the state, which may annul them
at pleasure. Extreme Ultramontanes, on the other
hand, have regarded concordats as privileges which
the pope grants for the time without entering into
any contract properly so called, while the more
moderate of Roman canonists recognise a contract
binding both sides. Asa matter of fact, no modern
government can engage that its stipulations with
the pope will be respected by its successors in
office. Thus the Austrian concordat was secured
by the clerical party in 1855 and swept away by
their opponents in 1870. The famous and more
enduring concordat by which the church in France
was re-established after the Revolution was con-
cluded by Napoleon (as first consul) and Pius VII.
in 1801.

Concordia, a town of the Argentine state of
Entre Rios, on the Uruguay, 302 miles N. of Buenos
Ayres by river. It has a custom-house, and a
river-trade exceeded only by that of Buenos Ayres
and Rosario, exporting salted meat and Paraguay
tea. It has fall way connection with Parana, Uru-
guay, and South Brazil. Pop. 12,000.

Concordiz Formula. See AucspuRG Con-
FESSION, CONFESSIONS, CHEMNITZ (MARTIN).

Concrete. There is but little difference be-
tween concrete and coarse mortar. The mortar used
in the masonry of castles and churches erected
during the middle ages is in fact a concrete with
small pebbles instead of the larger ones used in
modern concrete. Any mixture of lime, sand, and
water, with broken stones or bricks, bits of slag,
gravel, or other hard material, is called a concrete.
The hard lumps are termed the aggregate, and the
mortar in which they are embedded is called the
matrix. The mixture varies with the nature and
quality of the materials, but it often consists of 1

art of quicklime, 2 of sand, and 5 of gravel. It is
better to use such a material as broken stone rather
than water-rolled gravel, which has often too smooth
a surface. Lime concrete, as the kind above de-
scribed may be termed, is used principally for founda-
tions, that is, a thick bed of it is formed below the
lowest course of stones or bricks in walls, in cases
where the ground itself is not sufficiently firm and
solid. Not unfrequently, in some countries, walls
themselves are formed of concrete, by laying a foot
or two of it in height at a time between boards, and
giving it some time to harden. It then forms an

artificial stone. Other methods of building walls
of concrete are in use (see BUILDING).

Portland cement concrete is made either by
mixing it with gravel alone, or more generally by
using the cement along with sand and broken
stones. The concrete used at Portland Breakwater
Fort and at Cork Harbour have nearly the same
composition. The cubic yard of it at the former
place was made by using of Portland cement 5
cubic feet, of sand 10 cubic feet, and of broken
stones (not more than 33-inch gauge) 28 cubic feet,
along with 234 gallons of water. A concrete with
these materials in much the same proportion has
been used at other places, but different proportions
are also employed. Portland cement being the
binding material in this concrete, the question
arises whether there is sufficient experience of its
durability, especially where it is exposed to the
action of sea-water, to warrant its employment in
structural works of great or even of moderate size. *
See CEMENTS.

Concrete made of the hydraulic lime from Teil
in France, which contains 66 per cent. of silicate
of lime, has been employed in the construction of
breakwaters and similar works at Cherbourg,
Marseilles, and other places. The Teil hydraulic
lime is one of the strongest known, and the con-
crete made with it has resisted the action of sea-
water for many years. Ordinary lime concrete does
not set under water.

A concrete is made of broken stones and tar, about
12 gallons of the latter being used for every cubic
yard of concrete. Bitumen or asphalt is better
than gas-tar for this purpose, and either may be
hardened by the introduction of dried and pounded
lime, clay, or brick-dust. The materials should be
heated before being mixed with the tar or bitumen.
For backing armour-plates in forts a concrete of
cast-iron turnings, asphalt, and pitch has been
used. Gravel mixed with rather more than a
thirtieth part, by bulk, of iron borings, was suc-
cessfully used as a concrete at Stranraer pier.

Concrete, a term in logic opposed to abstract.
A concrete notion is the notion of an object as it
exists in nature, invested with all its qualities, as
any particular flower, leaf, or tree; an abstract
notion is the notion of any attribute of that flower,
leaf, or tree, such as its colour, form, or height;
qualities which may be thought of independently
of the objects in which they inhere, though they
cannot so exist.—The abstract method of handling
a subject is adapted to speculation and reasoning ;
the concrete, to poetic effect and impressive illus-
tration.

Concretion, in Medicine, a formation of solid
unorganised masses within the body, either by
chemical precipitation from the fluids, or by the
accidental aggregation of solids introduced into
the system from without. In the former case, a
concretion is termed a Calculus (q.v.); in the
latter, the concretion may be either wholly com-
port of solids foreign to the body, or these may

e mingled with the elements of the secretions, as
with mucus, or calculous matter. Thus beans,
peas, needles, &c., introduced into the cavities of
the body, have become the nuclei of concretions,
by attracting around them mucus, or crystalline
deposits from the urine. The most remarkable
forms of concretion, however, are perhaps those
formed in the stomach and intestines of man and
the lower animals, from the more solid and indi-
gestible parts of the food, or of substances impro-

erly swallowed. Thus, young women have been
known to acquire the habit of swallowing their
own hair to a great extent; and a large con-
cretions have been thus formed, which have proved
fatal, by obstructing the passage of food. The

4

CONCRETION

CONDE 40)

use of oatmeal in large amount has also been found
to lead to concretions, especially when eaten coarsely
ground and unboiled ; such concretions have com-
monly been found in the intestines. The excessive
domestic use of magnesia in the solid form as a
laxative has been known to have a similar effect.
In certain animals, intestinal concretions are not
uncommon, and grow to an immense size; they
used to be crently prized as antidotes, and were
used in medicine under the name of Bezoars
(q.v.). In certain forms of morbid deposits, such
as fibrous tumours (see TUMOUR), and in Tubercle
(a.v.), concretions not unfrequently form; they
Sai the most part composed of phosphate
of lime.

Concretionary Structure is a condition
in rocks produced by molecular aggregation sub-
sequent to the deposition of the strata, whereby
the material of the rock is formed into spherules or
balls, as in the concretions of magnesian limestone
and the somewhat similar structures occasionally
seen in certain tuffs and crystalline igneous rocks.
Coneretions are nodules, balls, or irregular masses
of various kinds which occur scattered through the
body of a rock, and consist of mineral matter which
was formerly diffused through the material of the
rock. Some of these concretions are crystalline, as
gypsum in clay; others may be spherical, and have
an internal radiating structure, as iron-pyrite in
shale. Fantastically shaped concretions are not
uncommon in certain fine clays; such are the ‘ fairy-
stones’ of the country people here, and the ‘liss-
puppen’ of Germany. ‘

Concubinage, the state of cohabitation of a
man and woman without the sanction of a for-
mally legal marriage. We find examples in the
Old Testament, showing that it was permissible
as a relief from a childless marriage. The Roman
concubinatus was a permanent relation afford-
ing freedom from many of the severe marriage
restrictions of the civil law. It was a perfectly
respectable arrangement, and the woman had a
footing in law, although a less dignified position
socially than a wife. The offspring, called natural
children, came to have limited rights of succession,
and could be completely legitimated by subsequent
marriage. Augustus, with a view to promote
regular marriages, and check the growing licen-
tiousness, enacted a comprehensive marriage-law
(Lex Julia et Papia Poppewa), which confined con-
ecubinage to women of low rank or who had lost
their station. Christianity required the complete
sanctity of marriage, although the civil law long
continued to tolerate separation at pleasure. In
the eastern empire concubinage was entirely pro-
hibited by the Emperor Leo. The ancient laws of
the Germans recognised, along with regular
marriage, a similar informal connection of the
‘sexes still not unknown as Morganatie Marriage
(q.v.). The barragania of medieval Spain and the
hand-fasting of our own ancestors were merely
forms of concubinage. See CELIBACY and MAR-
RIAGE,

Concurrent is a technical term for the person
who accompanies a sheriff's officer as witness or
assistant.

Concussion of the Brain, in Medicine, is
one form of Shock (q.v.)—that, namely, where the
symptoms are due to an injury which has shaken
or jarred the brain, and stunned the patient,
without producing any mechanical injury, so far
as can be ascertained, to the brain or skull. It
is B, secteis aes believed that concussion alone can
produce severe symptoms and even death, though
conclusive proof of this has not yet been given. It
is og to occur from a severe blow or fall on the
head, from railway accidents, &e. The symptoms

130

are those which characterise shock—pale and cold
skin, feeble pulse and respiration, with the
addition of unconsciousness, This condition may
last a few minutes, and be followed by rapid
recovery, or may terminate in death. But in most
cases it is succeeded by a period of reaction after
an hour or more (often ushered in by vomiting,
which is thus a favourable symptom), when the
skin becames warmer, the pulse stronger, and con-
sciousness gradually returns. During reaction,
congestion or inflammation of the brain is apt to
occur. Recovery is usually complete; but some-
times loss of memory, weakening of mental power,
undue excitability, or some other sign of impair-
ment of the nervous mechanism, remains for a long
time or even permanently.

In regard to treatment, the patient should as
quickly as possible be put to bed in a well-aired
room, with warm bottles or blankets applied to the
body and limbs, and should have injuries to other
parts attended to; but beyond this, the less he is
interfered with the better. In particular, brandy
and other stimulants should on no account be
given, except by medical direction; for though
occasionally necessary, they do much more harm
than good in the great majority of cases. During
the period of reaction the patient must be kept
very quiet; and for some days at least after
apparent recovery he must abstain from alcohol
and other causes of excitement, and from mental
exertion.

CONCUSSION OF THE SPINAL CorD is due to
similar causes acting upon the vertebral column
instead of the head. The symptoms vary much
with the site and severity of the injury. In many
cases they are altogether absent or quite trivial at
first, and only attract attention after some hours or
days have elapsed; yet, and probably for this very
reason, the injury not being treated at first, serious
after-effects are much more common than in cases
of concussion of the brain. Here also, however,
complete recovery is the rule. The treatment
must be in the first instance the same as in
concussion of the brain.

Concussion of the spinal cord has attracted
special attention in recent times owing to its
frequent occurrence as a result of railway accidents.
The slow and insidious nature of the symptoms
shrine by many such cases, and the difficulty of

eciding whether those symptoms are real, and
whether they have res from the alleged
injury, have given rise to much litigation with
respect to damages. The subject is very fully
treated by Erichsen, Concussion of the Spine, dc.
(Lond. 1875).

Condé, in the French department of Nord, situ-
ated at the confluence of the Haine and Scheldt,
7 miles NNE. of Valenciennes by rail, is a
fortress of the third rank, and gives name to the
famous family. Pop. 4067.—CONDE-SUR-NOIREAU,
a town in the department of Calvados, 23 miles
SSW. of Caen by rail. Pop. 6590.

Condé, Lovis I. DE BouRBON, PRINCE DE,
ounger brother of Antony of Bourbon, king of
Paneer; was born 7th May 1530, representative
of an ancient and famous race taking their name
from the town of Condé. During the wars between
Henry II. and Spain, Condé distinguished himself
by his gallantry, winning especial honour at the
siege of Metz, the battle of St Quentin, and
the capture of Calais from the English—the chief
military events of the time. On the accession
of Francis II. (1559), the family of the Guises
became all-powerful in the state, and Condé
and his brother “gee ly from jealousy
of the Guises, and partly from sincere religious
conviction, joined the Huguenots, who were now

402 CONDE

CONDENSER

struggling for legal recognition. To destroy the
power of the Guises, and further the interests
of the Huguenots, Condé was induced to join
the Conspiracy of Amboise (1560). The plot mis-

earried, and Condé escaped execution only by

the death of the king, which by necessitating the
regency of the queen-mother, Catharine de Médicis,
the bitter enemy of the Guises, changed the policy
of the country. Concessions were now granted to
the Huguenots, and Condé was made ae rar of
Picardy. The massacre of Huguenots at Vassy by
Guise (1562), however, led to the first civil war,
and Condé and Coligny gathered an army of
Huguenots. At the battle of Dreux, Condé was
defeated and taken prisoner, but the assassination
of Guise soon afterwards made possible the Pacifi-
cation of Amboise (1563), by which Condé was
released, and the Huguenots were granted liberty
of worship. This concession being gradually with-
drawn by Catharine de Médicis, the second
Huguenot war broke out in 1567. In the south
of France Condé had coins struck with the inserip-
tion : ‘ Louis XIIL., first Christian king of France.’
But at the battle of Jarnac (1569) Condé was
defeated and taken prisoner, and immediately after
his surrender, shot dead by his bitterest enemy, the
Baron de Montesquiou. Condé was a brave leader,
and exceedingly popular with his soldiers, but he
had neither the ofty character nor the genius of
Coligny. His great-grandson :—

Louis II. DE BouRBON, .PRINCE DE CONDE,
known as ‘the Great Condé,’ was born September
8, 1621. Carefully educated by the Jesuits in their
college at Bourges, Condé acquired a taste for litera-
ture, which he retained all through his life. In his
seventeenth year he was introduced at court, and
the year following was intrusted by his father with
his government of Burgundy. By his marriage,
much against his will, to the niece of Richelieu, he
gained the support of that minister, and for a time
of Richelieu’s successor, Mazarin. At this period
the Thirty Years’ War was still raging, and since
1635 France had been engaged in a protracted
struggle with Spain. In 1643, when he was only
twenty-two, Condé was appointed to the chief com-
mand of the French forces, and in his first cam-
paige defeated the Spaniards at Rocroi in the most

rilliant of all his victories, As for more than a
century the Spanish armies had been deemed all
but invincible, this victory placed Condé at once in
the first rank of commanders. In 1644, with his
great rival Turenne as his subordinate, in a series
of engagements he inflicted at Freibourg a severe
check on the Bavarian general, Mercy ; and in the
following year again defeated the same general at
Nordlingen. These suecesses were gained at an
immense cost of life, and in the matter of strategical
skill have been disapproved by subsequent military
authorities. By the death of his father in 1646,
Condé, who had hitherto been known as the Due
d’Enghien, became the head of the house, and was
thenceforth addressed as Monsieur le Prince. The
capture of Dunkirk in 1646, and a great victory at
Lens in 1648, in which the famous Spanish infantry
were again completely beaten, were the other
achievements of Condé during this the first period
of his career. The war of the Fronde, occasioned
by the quarrels of the court and the parliament,
had now broken out, and Condé was required to
support the power of the queen and Mazarin. With
the aid of Condé the court party came to terms
with the Fronde; but Condé himself, who after
this service expected to be chief in the state, gave
such offence to the queen and Mazarin by his
arrogant conduct, that they had himself and his
brothers arrested and imprisoned for a year at
Vincennes, a proceeding approved alike by the
fronde and the people of Paris. Popular feeling,

however, soon changed in his favour, and grew so
strong against Mazarin that he was forced to leave
Paris and set Condé at liberty. But Mazarin’s
Bowe over the queen was still absolute, and Condé,

isappointed once more in his ambition, and finding
the queen, Fronde, and people once more all against.
him, retired to Guienne, and raised an army on the
pee of rescuing the young king, Louis XI1V., from

ad advisers. Thus began what is known as the
third war of the Fronde. At Bleneau he defeated the
royal troops, but was at length forced by Turenne
to make for Paris. Here in the Faubourg St
Antoine he sustained a defeat which deprived him
of all hope of ultimate success, and a peace was
concluded in 1653, The terms of this peace,
however, were such as Condé would not accept,
and deprived of all support in France, he went.
over to Spain, and for six years served in all
the campaigns against his country. Hampered
in his action by the Spanish generals, he could
effect little against the strategy of Turenne. The
battle of the Dunes, near Dunkirk, where Turenne,
aided by 6000 of Cromwell’s Ironsides, inflicted
a severe defeat on the Spaniards, put an end to
the war. At the peace of the Pyrenees (1659)
which followed, it was said that the affairs of Condé
were more difficult to settle than those of Europe.
So formidable was he deemed, that the young king
found it advisable to restore him to all his honours
and estates, and even to his government of Bur-
gundy. Retiring to his estate at Chantilly, Condé
remained here till his services were required in
another war between France and Spain, when at his.
suggestion and by his action, Franche Comté was
overrun and conquered (1668). The next year, on
the resignation of Casimir, king of Poland, Condé
would probably have been chosen his successor but.
for the jealousy of Louis. In 1674 he fought his
last battle. This was at Seneffe in Belgium, where
he had for his opponent William, Prince of Orange.
The battle lasted seventeen hours, and both sides
claimed the victory. On the death of Turenne in
1675, Condé succeeded him in the command of the
army on the Rhine, but his health was now such as:
to render him unfit for active service. Retiring
again to Chantilly, he lived there till his death on
11th December 1686, associating much with the great.
men of letters of the period, Molitre, Racine, Boileau,
and La Bruyére. Condé had all his life been noted
as a scoffer at religion, but the year before his death
he publicly announced his conversion. He took
especial pleasure in the sdciety of Bossuet, whose
oration on his death, regarded as one of the master-
pieces of French literature, has served ever since to
throw a deceptive lustre round the name of Condé,
He had no political genius, and even as a
commander he owed his successes more to the fiery
energy of his character than to sheer military
talent. There is no ground to ja that in his.
public career he was influenced by any other
motive than selfish ambition; and in his private
character, though he could on occasion display a.
certain magnanimity, he was in intense degree
self-willed and overbearing. When all deductions
have been made, however, Condé still remains in
the first rank of the Frenchmen of his century.

See Mahon’s Life of Condé, Fitzpatrick’s The Great
Condé and the Period of the Fronde ; Histoire des Princes
de Condé, by the Due d’Aumale (7 vols. 1862-95); also:
the various Mémoires of the period, such as those of
Cardinal de Retz, Madame de Motteville, &c.

Condenser is an apparatus in which aqueous
or other water is condensed into a liquid form
either by the introduction of cold water, as in the
condensing Steam-engine (q.v.), or as in distilla-
tion, by placing the condenser in another vessel,
through which a current of cold water passes.
When the water-supply is deficient at sea or on the

CON DESCEN DENCE

CONDITION 403

- coast, salt water may be distilled and condensed.
See DisTILLATION, GAS AND GASES,

The ELectric CONDENSER is an apparatus con-
sisting essentially of two parallel conducting plates,
separated by a layer of non-conducting material or
dielectric, employed to receive and retain quantities
of electricity greater than either or both of the

lates would do alone. The simplest and typical
‘orm of condenser is that which was first used by
Franklin. It is pee a sheet of glass, C (see
fig.), both sides of which, excepting a margin at
the edges, are covered with tinfoil,
A and B. To charge such a con-
denser, one of the sheets of tinfoil,
say B, is connected with the ground,
E (either by some metallic connec-
tion or by being placed on the hand
of the experimenter), while the
sheet, A, remains insulated. If A
be now charged with electricity,
positive for example, a negative
charge is induced on that side of B
nearer A, while an equal quantity
to the ground. Increasing
the charge in A induces a corre-
sponding increase in B. This pro-
cess, although by means of it large
quantities of electricity may
accumulated, cannot go on inde-
E finitely; for on reaching a certain
limit, depending on the dimension,
&c. of the apparatus, the nature of the dielectric
used, and the difference of potential of the two con-
ducting plates, either a disruptive discharge (see
ELECTRICITY) takes place, or the charge passes off
through the insulating supports of the condenser.

All the various forms of condensers satisfy the
definition given above. One useful form is that in
which the two conducting plates are fixed on the

-ends of brass rods which pass through brass knobs
on the tops of two flass pillars, the dielectric in
this case Being air. The more common form, how-
ever, is the Leyden Jar (q.v.). Another is made
up of sheets of tinfoil and paraffined paper,
| ager alternately in layers; the first, third, fifth,
. sheets of tinfoil are connected to one terminal,
and the second, fourth, sixth, &c. to another.
The capacity of a condenser is defined to be that
pay of electricity with which one plate must
charged in order to raise its potential by one
unit. It can be shown that, in the case of con-
densers of the Leyden jar form, the capacity is
numerically equal to the product of the outer and
inner radii of the coating, divided by the difference
of the radii—i.e. is greater as that difference is
less. Hence the thinner (within certain limits)
the glass between the two coatings of such a con-
denser, the greater is its capacity.

Condescendence, in the judicial procedure
of Scotland, is an articulate statement annexed to
a summons, setting forth the allegations in fact
upon which an action is founded.

Condillac, Errenne Bonnor DE MABLY Dk,
hilosopher, was born of a noble family at Grenoble,
h September 1715. His life was uneventful. As
a child his delicate health delayed his progress in
education ; but in youth he numbered among his
friends Rousseau, Diderot, Duclos, &e. Many of
his works were composed for his pupil, the Duke
of Parma, grandson of Louis XIV. and he was
titular Abbé de Mureaux. He was chosen a
member of the French Academy of Sciences in
1768. He died on his estate of Flux, near Bean-
gency, on August 3, 1780.
A great part of the Essai sur l' Origine des Con-
naissances Humaines (1746), and nearly all the
Traité des Systémes (1749), are occupied with a

aipony against innate ideas and abstract systems.
e expounds his analytic method in the Logique
(1780) and the Art de Raisonner (part of the Cours
d’ Etudes, in 13 vols. 1755). The Langue des Cal-
culs appeared in 1798.

In the’ 7'raité des Sensations, Condillac uses his
analytic method to solve the problem of the origin
of our ideas and the formation of the mental
faculties. He divided philosophical systems into
three classes—(1) Abstract systems, (2) hypothesis,
(3) the ‘true’ system of Locke, which rests on the
facts of experience. But in confounding sensation
and perception, and endeavouring to base all
thought on sensation, he de aebot from Locke,

and me the founder of Sensationalism. To
Condillac all reasoning is only a variation of the
form of expression. e held that all ideas and

mental operations are only transformations of

sensation. So he was. compelled to put into the
primary sensation all that he sought to develop
out of it. His curious device of the statue, gradu-

ally endowed with the various senses and mental
faculties, was for the purpose of isolating sensa-
tions. He substituted for the Cartesian test of
truth his own criterion of identity. He recognised
three kinds of evidence—of fact, of feeling, and of
reason; and he affirmed that the same method of
analysis is common to all the sciences. Unlike
his scholars and followers, the encyclopedists
Diderot, D’Alembert, Holbach, Condillac was not
a materialist.

Le Commerce et le Gouvernement, published in
1776, treats economy as the science of exchanges,
and has much influenced later economists. Con-
dillae was a strong believer in Free Trade. The
first of several editions of his @uvres Completes
appeared in 1798. See monographs by Robert
(Paris, 1869) and Réthori (1864), and Lewes’s
History of Philosophy.

Condiments, or seasoning agents, are those
substances which are employed at table for the
purpose of imparting a flavour or seasoning to the
ordinary solid or liquid food. The principal condi-
ments are saline substances, such as common salt ;
acidulous bodies, such as acetic acid or vinegar ;
oily condiments, such as butter and olive-oil ;
saccharine substances, such as sugar and honey ;
and aromatic and pungent condiments, such as
cari ginger, pepper, and pickles. See

TET.

Condition means in law a declaration or pro-
vision that upon the occurrence of an uncertain
event an obligation shall come into force, or shall
cease, or that the obligation shall not come into
force until a certain event. Such conditions are
known respectively as precedent or subsequent,
resolutive, and suspensive. Physically impossible,
and unlawful conditions in matters of contract
annul the obligation to which they are annexed,
but in questions under settlements and wills the
opposite rule holds, and such conditions are ignored.

onditions in restraint of marriage are considered
unlawful only where they are absolute and imposed
on persons otherwise entitled to succeed. A potes-
tative condition is the technical name for a condi-
tion in the power of one of the parties. It is an
important doctrine of contract law that if a debtor
does anything to prevent the accomplishment of a
condition, he becomes liable as if the condition had
occurred. Many most important conditions are
merely implied—e.g. in a marine policy that the ship
is sexwrorthy, In bankruptcy, dividends are set aside
to meet conditional obligations. Again, in sales on
credit, solvency is an implied condition, and where
the buyer is declared insolvent, the seller may refuse
to proceed. A good instance of a suspensive condi-
tion is that of sale on approbation, or on sale and

404 CONDITION

CONDOR

return. The doctrine of condition in feudal grants
is in the law of Scotland very simple. Apart from
entails, which were authorised by statute, such con-
ditions must be intended to protect some valuable
interest of the superior. Such are the clauses of
pre-emption, the now obsolete clause prohibiting
subinfeudation, clauses to preserve the plan of a
town, or to prevent nuisances. Probably a condition
against public-houses is valid, as in the case of the
Grangemouth feus by Lord Zetland. If properly
inserted and recorded in the titles, such clauses may
entitle the superior not merely to refuse an entry
under the old law, but to reduce the vassal’s title.
Conditions of sale is the name used in England
for what are called articles of roup in Scotland.
These are generally printed along with the particu-
lars of sale and distributed among those: attending
the auction. They provide what sort of title the
purchaser is to accept. Similarly, conditions are
prefixed to catalogues of furniture and books.

Condition, in Logic, denotes that which must
precede the operation of acause. Itis not regarded
as that which produces an effect, but as that which
renders the production of one possible—to some
logicians, however, a distinction without a differ-
ence. For instance, when an impression is made
on wax by a seal, the seal is said to be the cause ;
the softness or fluidity of the wax, a condition.

The Philosophy of the Conditioned was a phrase
brought into use by Sir W. Hamilton to express
the inability of the human mind to conceive or
reason respecting the Absolute and the Infinite.
Our thought, according to him, can only be of the
relative and the finite, of which these terms are but
the negations ; relativity and finitude are the con-
ditions under which the human intelligence oper-
ates. In’ one of his dissertations on this, he
criticised and endeavoured to refute the opposite
position as maintained by Cousin—a modification
of the previous doctrine of Schelling—that ‘the
Unconditioned, the Absolute, the Infinite, is imme-
diately known in consciousness, and this by differ-
ence, plurality, and relation.’ Dean Mansel, in his
Bampton Lectures (1858), brought Hamilton’s doe-
trine into special prominence, and dwelt on the
relativity of knowledge as a great fundamental
law of the human mind.

Conditional Immortality is a tenet held
by a theological school which denies the inherent
immortality of the soul, and the consequent doc-
trines both of eternal misery and of Universalism
as contrary to the teachings both of nature and
of revelation. Its advocates maintain that the
Bible sets immortality before men as something to
be sought after (Rom. ii. 7), as a divine gift offered
on certain conditions (Rom. vi. 23; John, iii. 15,
16), and as a matter of hope and promise in the
present life (Titus, i. 2); that this immortality is
not a present possession (Mark, x. 30), and is to be
realised by the assumption of a spiritual body at the
resurrection of regenerate men from the dead ( Luke,
xx. 35, 36), an event synchronous with the second
coming of Christ (1 Cor. xv. 51, 52). Divine testi-
mony, no less than experience, they say, declares
Leyes ebwiagel that man has the same natural life
as all other animals ( Eccles. iii. 19), and only those
who by faith and obedience are united to Christ
have the promise of immortality. The Calvinistic
doctrine of eternal misery is untenable, the punish-
ment of sin being death or everlasting destruction,
to be inflicted subsequent to a judgment after the
Lord returns (2 Thess. i. 9, 10). The dogma of
Universalism, the only alternative to endless tor-
ment if the soul must live for ever, is also, they
maintain, unfounded, since the punishment of sin
(death) is said to be everlasting, like the life which
is the reward of the righteous (Matt. xxv. 46). It

is claimed that a succession of eminent and pious
men have upheld this doctrine from apostolic times,
among whom may be mentioned Justin Martyr,
Clement of Alexandria, Irenzeus, &e.

Conditional immortality has received considerable
impulse in recent years from many able and zealous
advocates, notably the late William Leask, D.D.,
editor of the Rainbow, and Rev. Edward White.
The Conditional Immortality Mission started im
Britain in 1878 has done much, by means of lectures,
publications, and annual conferences held in various
cities, to disseminate this view. It has an organ,
The Bible Standard, published monthly by the
secretary. Many churches have been organised
in Great Britain and its colonies, as well as in
America, having conditional immortality as part of
their doctrinal basis. The best modern works on
the subject are Life in Christ, by Edward White ;
The Life Everlasting and The linepeakatlt Gift,
by J. H. Pettingell ; Hades, by Henry Constable ;
Duration and Tatets of Future Punishment, by
the same author. .

Condom, a town in the French department
of Gers, pleasantly situated on a height above the
confluence of the Baise and the Géle, 20 miles SW.
of Agen by rail. It has one fine church, once a
cathedral; and was formerly the capital of the ex-
tensive Gascon district of Condomois, now included
in the departments of Landes and Lot-et-Garonne.
Bossuet was Bishop .of Condom for a year (1669).
Pop. 5070. ' ab

Condonation, in the legal phraseology both of
Great Britain and the United States, means for-
giveness granted by the injured party, and may be
urged by the guilty party as a defence against an
action of divorce on the ground of adultery. See
DIVORCE.

Condor (Sarcorhamphus condor or gryphus),
the great vulture of the Andes, one of the largest
and most remarkable birds. Among the wide order
of Accipitres, or Birds of Prey, the condor is the
grandest representative of the family Cathartide,

Condor.

or New-World Vultures. These may be at once
distinguished from Old-World forms by the incom-

leteness of the partition between the nostrils, b

aving, to put it more plainly, ‘a hole through
their nose.’ The beak is also constricted at
end of the ‘cere,’ and the feathers have no ‘after-
shaft.’

Among these New-World vultures, the condor is
chief. Though its size and strength have been
often exaggerated, this magnificent bird is probably

'
=
{
q

CONDORCET

CONDUCTORS 405

the largest of the vultures. The only rival which
could dispute this claim is the famous Liimmergeier
(Gypetus barbatus) of the Alps. The male condor
mi gamers tag 3h feet in length, ‘a amar
tly smaller. The expanse of each wing (sai
tobe 1s feet from tip to tip) is more than twice
the length. The general colour is black with a
steel-blue sheen, and some of the feathers verge
into gray; there is a downy white ruff round the
dull-red naked neck. The young birds are covered
with whitish down. The beak is long, hooked at
the apex, black at the root, yellow at the point and
on the sides. The head is naked, and in the male
bird bears a lar fleshy comb. The eyes look side-
ways; the ‘perforated ’ nose is characteristic of the
family. The voice is limited to a weak sort of
snorting. The feet are not well suited for grasping,
the hind-toe being very small and py reaching
the ground. The stories about condors lifting their
rey in their feet from the ground are mythical.
hese birds have their central home in the Andes,
but extend to some other mountainous parts of
South America. They breed on the heights, laying
their two eggs on bare ledges in the months of
November and December; the young are unable
to fly for a whole year. They descend to the
plains to feed on carrion, tearing carcasses with
their strong bills ; they may also attack lambs and
calves, or several together may venture on an adult
animal. Their boldness and voracity seem to have
been bic bet oa Their voracity is, however,
t: Tschudi mentions one in confinement at
Valperain, which ‘ate 18 lb. of meat in a single
day, and seemed on the morrow to have as good
an appetite as usual. The condors have great
powers of flight, and can soar to immense heights,
till, in fact, they are lost in or far above the clouds.
They are readily kept in confinement, and may be
seen in many zoological gardens.

In the same genus is the rarer King of the Vul-
tures (S. papa), inhabiting the wooded plains of
South and Central America. It is a smaller bird,
reddish-yellow above, white beneath, with bluish-
gray ruff, black quills and tail. Its head and neck
are covered with variously coloured roughnesses.
It owes its name to the way in which it bullies
other vultures. Closely allied is the Turkey Vul-
ture (Cathartes aura) of North America. This
bird, useful as a carrion destroyer, is about 24 feet
in length, black in colour with a purplish sheen,
well marked by its carmine and bluish-red head,
fleshy neck, and white feet. C. atratus is another
species from South America.

Condorcet, JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS DE CARI-
TAT, MARQUIS DE, an eminent French author, was
born, the son of a cavalry officer, in the little town
of Ribemont, near St Quentin, in the department
of Aisne, on September 17, 1743. In childhood
he breathed the closest atmosphere of clerical
and aristocratic exclusiveness, with the result of
making him in after-years the enemy of all privi-
lege and a thoroughgoing sceptic. Condoreet,
after distinguishing himself in the Jesuit school at
Rheims, began his mathematical studies at the
oge of thirteen, at the College of Navarre in Paris.

is success was rapid and brilliant; and the high
approval of Clairaut and D’Alembert determined
his future. His Essai sur le Caleul Integral
(1765) obtained for him a seat in the Academy,
and he became perpetual secretary in 1777. e
took an active part in the Encyclopédie. On
the outbreak of the Revolution he made eloquent
speeches and wrote famous pamphlets on the
popular side, was sent by Paris to the Legislative
Assembly in 1791, and in 1792 became president of
the Assembly. He voted that the king should
receive the most severe punishment except death,
and as deputy for Aisne in the National Con-

vention, he voted wenally with the Girondiste.
Accused and condemned by the extreme party, he
found refuge in the house of a generous lady,
Madame Vernet, for eight months; but driven to
change his place of concealment, he was recognised
and arrested. Imprisoned in the gaol of Bourg-la-
Reine on the 7th April 1794, he was found dead
the next morning, whether by disease or poison
was never known.

His profession of faith, in a letter to Turgot,
which was written when he left college at seven-
teen years of age, lays stress on moral sympathy
as the source of all virtue. His constancy in moral
principle was fitly associated with perfect consist-
ency in politics. He raised a great commotion by
his attempt to apply the calculus of probabilities
in the domain of jurisprudence, and of the moral
and political sciences. In his Progrés de lV’Esprit
Humain, written in hiding, he insisted on the
justice and necessity of establishing a perfect
equality of civil and political rights between the
individuals of both sexes, and proclaimed the
indefinite perfectibility of the human race. Com-
plete editions of his works have been issued in
1804 (21 vols.) and 1849 (12 vols., containing a
biography by Arago). See Morley’s Critical Mis-
cellanies, Comte’s Philosophie Positive, and Flint’s
History of the Philosophy of History.

Condottie’ri (Lat. conducti, ‘hired’), the
name given in the 14th and 15th centuries to the
leaders of certain bands of ‘free lances’ or mili-
tary adventurers who, for booty, offered their ser-
vices to any party in any contest, and often prac-
tised warfare on their own account purely for the
sake of plunder. These mercenaries were called
into action by the endless feuds of the Italian states
during the middle ages. Among the most cele-
brated of their leaders were Sir John Hawkwood at
Florence (1390, originally an Essex tailor); Francis
of Carmagnola (about 1412); and Francis Sforza,
who in 1450 became Duke of Milan. The Com-

nies Grandes in France, during the 14th century,
resembled the bands led by the Italian condottieri.
They originated in the long bloody wars between
France and England, did enormous mischief, and
became powerful enough to rout the king’s forces
in 1361; but ultimately Du Guesclin persnaded
them to seek their fortune in the Spanish service.
See O. Browning, The Age of the Condottieri (1895).

Conductivity. See Heat, ELecrriciry.

Conductor, the director of the modern or-
chestra. Though from the earliest days of the
orchestra aheoadt he has always performed his duty
by beating time with the baton, the practice was
unknown in this country till introduced by Spohr
in 1820, at a concert of the Philharmonic Society of
London. Previously the orchestra was kept together
by the leader of the violins, the conductor simply
sitting at the harpsichord or piano with the score
before him, occasionally putting in a few chords, or
accompanying ; but the result was clearly unsatis-
factory, and the conducting stick had only to be
introduced to gain general acceptance at once. The
art of conducting as now practised requires so many
qualifications that it may be considered rather as a
special gift than an acquirement to be learnt. But
few eminent composers have also distinguished -
themselves as conductors. The greatest recent
conductors are Costa, Von Biilow, and Richter.

Conductors and Non-conductors of
Electricity. When an electrified body is placed
upon a metallic stand, so that it is in metallic con-
nection with the earth, all traces of electrification
disappear ; but if placed upon supports of glass or
ebonite, its charge is still retained, the y then
being said to be exsudated. In the former case, the
electric charge having passed to the ground through

406 CONDURANGO

CONE-SHELL

the metallic support, the metal is termed a con-
ductor of electricity ; in the latter, the glass or
ebonite is termed a non-conductor or insulator,
since by its means the charge is prevented from
leaving the body. This distinction is somewhat
artificial, since no substance is known to be either
a 6 bb conductor or an absolute insulator. The
substances in frequent use as conductors and non-
conductors may be arranged in the following order
of their conductivity, beginning with the best:
Silver, copper, gold, brass, zine, platinum, iron,
tin, lead, mercury, German-silver, graphite, red
phosphorus, mineral acids, saline solutions, sea-
water, pure water, alcohol, wood, ice, vegetable
oils, lime, chalk, camphor, porcelain, wool, hair,
silk, glass, wax, sulphur, resin, amber, gutta-percha,
shellac, paraffin, ebonite, air and other gases.

It is found that the efficiency of a non-conductor,
when used as an insulator in electrostatic experi-
ments, depends very largely on the state of its
sutface. In a damp atmosphere, glass becomes
coated with a thin film of moisture which consider-
ably lessens its insulating power. Hence these
experiments succeed better in dry weather ; other-
wise the apparatus requires to be heated, or the
glass insulators employed to be coated with shellac
varnish, upon which moisture does not so readily
deposit. In metals, conducting power decreases
when the temperature is raised; on the other
hand, glass, wax, sulphur, and some other
bodies which are extremely: bad conductors at
ordinary temperatures, conduct very much better
when raised to a sufficiently high temperature.
It has been observed that a series of metals
arranged in order of their electrical conducting
powers, exhibits the same order as when similarly
arranged for their thermal conducting powers; in
other words, metals which conduct electricity well,
conduct heat well. Also, that when two specimens
of the same metal differ in electric conductivity,
they differ in thermal conductivity, and in the same
_ way. See LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR.

Condurango is the name of several South
American Asclepiadacez (q.v.), whose bark affords
a drug used as a remedy for venomous bites.

Condyle, a protuberance on the end of a
bone, serving for articulation with another bone ;
especially that by which the occipital bone of the
skull is articulated to the spine.

Condy’s Fluid. See MANGANESE.

Cone. In general, the term cone is applied to
any surface described by the motion of a straight
line which always passes through a fixed point and
also intersects some
curve in space. But
more particularly,
the work is used to
denote a right cir-
cular cone—i.e. the
solid produced by
the revolution of a
right-angled triangle
round one of the
sides containing the
right angle. hus
(see fig.), let ODC
be a triangle with a
right angle at D; if
it revolve round
OD, then in moving
through successive
positions, OC will
trace out the cone,
OABC. The point,
O, is termed the vertex; the height, OD, the
altitude ; the line, OD, the axis; and the circle,
ABC, the base of the cone. The line, OC, by whose

motion the cone is produced, is termed a generating
line, or generator. In the oblique cone, the axis is
inclined to the base at an angle other than a right
angle. A truncated cone is the lower part of a cone
cut by a plane parallel to the base.

The lateral surface of a right cireular cone is
obtained by multiplying half the circumference of
the base into the slant height of the cone; the solid
content, or volume, is equal to one-third of the area
of the base multiplied by the altitude.

In considering the different possible sections of a
cone by a plane, it is necessary to remember (as
is indicated in the figure) that a cone is really pro-
duced in duplicate; that the generators, after
passing through the fixed point, O, form another
cone, such as OEGF. Different positions of the
sectional plane produce different curves, according
as it is parallel to the base, a generator, the axis, or
parallel to none of these ; so, consequently, we have
a circle, parabola, hyperbola or ellipse, respectively.
See articles CrRCLE, ELLIPSE, HYPERBOLA, PA-
RABOLA.,

Cone is a term used in Botany, with consider-
able latitude and variety of application. The
growing point or bud of any ordinary higher plant —
is of more or less acutely conical shape, and the
young leaves at first arise in close succession upon
it. ut while in vegetative growth the axis
usually lengthens and the leaves develop and
expand, the onset of reproductive functions may
check these changes. In the simplest cases the
leaves may become partially modified for pollen or
ovule bearing, as stamens or carpels, while the leaf
apices do not wholly lose their leafy character and
arrangement ; thus we have the cone-like male and
female flowers of Cycads (q.v.). In the allied
conifers, which include the most characteristic coné-
bearing trees, the leafy character of the crowded
stamens composing the male flower may be almost
entirely lost; but in the female the structure of the
familiar cones (e.g. Scotch fir, spruce, larch) has
been the subject of enormous controversy ; since
from one point of view it is regarded as a single
flower composed of many carpellary leaves (each
bearing a biovular placenta on its upper surface) ;
while : ee the other it must be viewed as an in-
florescence of which the crowded bracts bear axil-
lary biovular branches (see GYMNOSPERMS). The
cones of Coniferee may vary greatly from their
typical shape, witness the almost spheroidal cones
of Araucarias, while the number and crowded suc-
cession of the leaves in ordinary cones may be much
reduced and simplified—e.g. cypress.

The apparent cones which occur in some orders _
of dicotyledonous plants are always due to a
crowding of the inflorescence. Thus, the so-called
cone of Casuarina (q.v.) is mage produced by the
crowding of the fruit ; that of Hop or Gale (q.v.)
by the overlapping of the leafy bracts which conceal
the small reduced flowers. But the term is with
advantage disused by most botanists outside the
limits of the Gymnosperms.

Coneglia’no, a picturesque town of Northern
Italy, 31 miles NE. of Venice by rail. It was the
birthplase about 1460 of the painter Giambattista
Cima, called often Conegliano. Pop. 4682.

-Cone-shell (Conidae), a family of aan
molluses, with substantial conical shells. The last
whorl of the spiral is much larger than those which
recede it and simply form the apex of the cone.
The aperture is vee and narrow, with a sharp-
edged outer lip. The head of the animal has a
long proboscis; the ‘foot’ is long and narrow as
the aperture suggests; the respiratory siphon is
short and thick. In the living state the shell is
covered by a yellowish epidermis, and it is only
when this is rubbed off that the great beauty

CONEY ISLAND

CONFESSION 407

of the colour and marking is disclosed. Durin
life the inner layer of the shell and the interna
partition of the second last whorl undergo more
or less absorption. The principal genus, Conus,

includes some 500 a Pe paces ranging from the
iterranean to the Cape,
but especially at home in
the eastern equatorial seas.
They creep in relatively
shallow water among the
rocks and coral reefs, and
prey upon other molluses.
Among the numerous
species, some are rare, and
have been favourite objects
of collectors’ mania. any
pounds have been paid for
single specimens, and Conus
gloria-maris is said to be
‘worth ten times its weight
in gold.’ C. cedo nulli is in
its finer varieties a much prized treasure, and C,
ammiralis is another favourite, though much com-
moner form. Numerous fossil species are known
from the chalk onwards. Some of the animals are
eaten, and the shells often form ornaments, or
are worn down into rings and the like. The augur-
shell (Terebra), the latticed shell (Cancellaria), the
tower-shell (Pleurotoma) are nearly allied genera,
often regarded as types of separate families.

Coney Island, barely separated from the
south-west angle of Long Island, at the entrance to
New York harbour, is a narrow strip of sand, 5
miles long, by 4 mile broad, with a fine beach. It
is a crowded place of summer resort, and is con-
nected with New York and Brooklyn in summer by
a number of railways and steamboat lines. On the
edge of the dunes stand a long row of enormous
wooden hotels, and farther inland is the Brooklyn
seaside home for invalid poor children. Other
structures are a tubular iron pier (1000 feet), a
look-out tower (300 feet), and a great number of
bathing eee some nearly as large as the
hotels. In winter the place is nearly deserted.

Confarreation, a peculiar mode of marriage
in use among the Romans, which consisted in the
employment of certain words in the presence of ten
witnesses, and in the performance of a religious
ceremony in which panizs farreus (‘ bread made of
spelt’) was partaken. Various priestly offices, such
as that of the Flamen Dialis, were open only to
those who were born of parents thus married.

Confederate States, the name adopted by
the confederacy formed by the eleven southern and
slaveholding states which seceded from the Ameri-
can Union in 1860-61, and established a govern-
ment which lasted till the close of the great civil
war in 1865. See UNITED STATES. The Confed-
erate States were South Carolina, Alabama,
Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas,
Virginia (without West Virginia), Arkansas,
Tennessee, and North Carolina.

Confederation, ImprRtAL. See CoLony
and CANADA.

Confederation of the Rhine. During the
war of 1805, so disastrous for Austria, several
German princes, too weak to remain neutral, were
forced to ally themselves with France. The first
to do so were the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtem-
berg, who, in recompense of their services, were
elevated to the dignity of kings by the peace of
Presburg, 26th December 1805. Finally, at Paris,
on the 12th July 1806, 16 German princes formally
signed an act of confederation, dissolving their
connection with the Germanic empire, and allying
themselves with France, under the protectorate
of Napoleon. The more important of these 16

Cone-shell.

rinces were—the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtem-

rg, the arch-chancellor, the Elector of Baden,
the new Duke of Cleves and Berg (Joachim
Murat), and the Landgraf of Hesse-Darmstadt ;
later, other princes followed their example,
including the king of Saxony, the new king
of Westphalia, and the Elector of Wiirzburg.
In 1811 the unpatriotic confederation comprised
4 kingdoms, 5 grand-duchies, 11 duchies, and 16
principalities ; covering an area of 125,000 sq. m.,
with a population of 14,608,877, and an army of
119,180 men. The utter ruin which overtook the
French army in the Russian campaign acted like
a solvent on the confederation, and the year 1813
saw it vanish like mist in the sudden outburst of
German patriotism. See GERMANY.

Conference, a meeting of the representatives
of a number of states for political or diplomatic
purposes. It is usually distinguished from a Con-
gress (q.v.) as having only the power to discuss
and prepare arrangements; while a congress has
the power of deciding and concluding. But it is
difficult to draw a precise line between the two;
thus the Congo Conference at Berlin in 1884 was
practically a congress. —Conference is also the name
of the supreme synod of the Methodists (q.v.).

Conferva, a genus of lower fresh-water Alge,
forming slimy masses or tufts in ponds and s ant
pools, easily recognised by their unbranched fila-
ments, each consisting of a simple row of cells,
which are destitute of spiral bands or other distinct
differentiation of the contained protoplasm. The
filaments do not conjugate, and multiplication
appears to take place by rejuvenescence of swarm
spores only. See ALG&, and Cooke’s Handbook of

ritish Alge.

Confession, in Roman Catholic theology, means
a declaration of sins to a priest in order to obtain
absolution. The word, however, has borne very
different meanings at different times, and the
— in sense mark important stages in the
deve wv pas of discipline and doctrine. St James
(v. 16) speaks of that spontaneous confession
which Christians make ‘one to another’ out of
humility and brotherly love; and, much in the
same spirit, Origen (Hom. in Ps. xxxvii.) recom-
mends the sinner to seek out a physician ‘learned
and merciful,’ to whom he may disclose his wounds,
and from whom he may get advice. In all this
there is no question of strict obligation on the one
hand, or of priestly power upon the other. Still,
even before Origen’s time, the word had acquired
a new signification. From the close of the 2d cen-
tury at latest the church marked out for special
reprobation those sins which were called ‘mortal ’—
viz. murder, idolatry, and adultery. The guilty
person was required to make public confession, he
was subjected to penitential exercises, and was either
excluded during life from the communion of the
church, or mitted, after long discipline, by
the bishop, who imposed his hands upon him. The
list of ‘mortal offences’ was extended during the
5th and the following centuries to all crimes which
the Roman law punished with death, exile, or
grave corporal penalty, and Leo I. (440-461 A.D.),
in a famous letter to the Bishops of Apulia (Ep.
168), substituted private confession to the priest
for public confession to the congregation. But the
essential points of difference between ancient and
modern or sacramental confession remained. In
the former, the church only required confession to
man of certain enormous offences, and left the
mass of sins which are now called mortal to the
judgment of God; and she exercised the power of
‘binding and loosing’ by excluding sinners from,
and readmitting them to, her communion. Such
power is really inherent in every society, though

408 CONFESSION

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

of course the church claimed to hold it by divine
commission (Matt. xvi. 19, xviii. 18; John, xx. 22,
23), and insisted on the serious consequences which
it involved. We can trace the faint beginnings of
the modern system in the practice which prevailed
in monasteries and nunneries of confessing breaches
of the rule to the superiors (Jerome, De Keg. Mona-
chorum ; Basil, Reg. Brev.), and in the growing habit
of seeking advice from priests by secret confession.
The thirty-third canon of the Council of Chalons,
which was held 813 A.D., throws great light on the
state of things then existing. Some, the council
says, maintain that ‘sins should be confessed to
God alone,’ others to God and to the priest. The
council finds no fault with either view, and remarks
that confession to God purges the conscience from
sin, while confession to the priest teaches the peni-
tent ‘how his sins are to be purged.” Even Peter
Lombard, the great Phddlogioal aktharity of the 12th
century (In Sentent. lib. iv.), occupies the same
ground as the Council of Chalons; and Aquinas
( Supplement to the Summa) admits that in Lombard’s
time the necessity of confessing all mortal sins to the

riest was an open question. Meantime, the fourth

ateran Council in 1215 (can. xxi.) had required
all the faithful who have come to the years of
discretion to confess their sins at least once a year
to their parish priest, or with his leave to another
en he doctrine received its final form in the

ouncil of Trent (Sess. xiv.). The council explains
‘mortal sins’ to mean all sins, ‘even sins of
thought’ which separate the soul from God. It
declares that for mortal sin after baptism, confes-
sion to an approved priest, in act if possible, in
desire if a priest cannot be had, is by divine in-
stitution the one and only remedy. This confes-
sion must embrace every mortal sin which can be
recalled after careful self-examination. Further,
it declares that the secret confession of mortal sins
has always been practised in the church, and
whereas in Peter Lombard’s time Roman Catholics
were free to hold that absolution was no more than
a declaration of forgiveness by God, the council
condemns this opinion under anathema. But it is
careful to add that confession and absolution, in
order to avail, must be accompanied by sincere
sorrow before God for sin past, and a firm purpose
of amendment. By the present canon law, Roman
Catholics a the world may choose any priest
approved by the bishop as their confessor. The
confession of slight or venial sins remains a matter
of counsel and not of precept.

Confession to a priest is prescribed by the Greek
and most of the Oriental churches, and the Church
of England recommends private confession in the
case of the sick, though it has never enforced the
use of it. In 1873, 483 Anglican clergymen pre-
sented a petition to Convocation for the education,
selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors.
That petition fell flat; but confession is regularly
orig among a considerable section of the

nglish communion. The Lutherans at first were
inclined to retain some sort of private confession,
but they were content with confession of a general
kind, and have allowed it to fall into disuse. It
is entirely rejected by Presbyterians, Methodists,
Congregationalists, Baptists, &e.

The ‘seal of confession’ is the obligation which
binds the priest to make no use whatever outside
of the confessional of the knowledge acquired there.
It is imposed under severe penalties by the fourth
Lateran Council. See CONFIDENTIALITY, and Lea’s
History of Auricular Confession (3 vols. 1896).

Confession, in civil procedure by English law,
is a formal admission or avowal of a fact, as when
a defendant alleges a ground of defence which has
arisen since the commencement of an action, and
the plaintiff confesses the defence—i.e. admits the

truth of the defendant’s allegation. In Scotland, a
party to an ordinary civil action may be called on
to confess or deny any relevant matter of fact, and
if he refuse, he will be held as confessed. Where a
statement within the opposite party’s knowledge is
averred upon one side, it is held as confessed by
the other unless specifically denied. In criminal
law, a confession is an admission of guilt. In
England, a confession by a criminal made in the
course of a judicial proceeding is sufficient, if
plenary, to found a conviction, as where a prisoner
leads guilty. An extra-judicial confession, if
reely made, may be admitted as evidence. In
Scotland, a confession made by a criminal in pres-
ence of a judge will be admitted as evidence; butj
is not held as equivalent to a confession by the
panel in presence of a jury, which is conclusive
evidence against him. In the United States also
confession is evidence, if voluntary and made
without promise of reward or threat of punish-
ment, and that whether made before or after
apprehension and commitment; generally confes-
sion without corroboration is insufficient, but in one
or two states the jury may convict without cor-
roboration. As to confession on trial, see PLEAD-
ING, TRIAL; as to confession before the examining
magistrate, see DECLARATION ; and for Judgment
by Confession, see COGNOVIT.

CONFESSION AND AVOIDANCE, in pleading at
common law, in England, is the admission of the
allegation of the opposite party, but with the
addition of some circumstance which deprives it of
legal effect, as, for instance, the admitting that an
assault was committed in self-defence. Since the
passing of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875,

leas in confession and avoidance have technically
allen into desuetude. See (under Plea) PLEADING.

Confessional, the seat or recess in which the
priest sits to hear confession in a Roman Catholic
church. It is probable that the confessionals in
English churches, previous to the Reformation, like
those still often found in Catholic use, were slight
wooden erections, because they have so entirely _
disappeared that their form is a matter of dispute
among ecclesiologists. It would seem that con-
fessionals were not always used, as in an old paint-
ing on the walls of St Mary’s Chapel, Winchester,
a woman is represented kneeling to a priest, who
is seated in his stall. The confessional commonly
has a door in front for the apes to enter by, and
an opening on one or both sides, like a small
window, with a grating of wire or zinc, for the
penitents to speak through.

Confessions of Faith are generically iden-
tical with Creeds (q.v.). If any distinction be
made, it is the merely accidental differentiation
that creeds are shorter, and that confessions of
faith are generally polemical as well as didactic
in their character and aim. Such a distinction, it
is found, actually obtains in practice, and confes-
sions of faith, as thus distinguished from creeds,
are so numerous and varied as to call for separate
attention. ;

Confessions of faith may be defined as authorised
summaries of a church’s belief, and standards of its
faith and doctrine. In all Protestant churches,
however, they are regarded as subordinate stand-
ards, ranking under the Scriptures, which are
recognised as the only supreme ‘rule of faith and
life.” Their object is to present the cardinal
truths of revelation in a connected and logical
form, especially if these be controverted; while
at the same time they afford a basis of association
and a bond of unity for Christians. As they are
the result of the conflicts of a church with error,
confessions of faith vary in their doctrinal com-
prehensiveness, are more or less gradual in their

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

CONFIDENTIALITY 409

wth, and are significant and important features
its history.

Prior to the era of the Reformation in Europe,
the public formularies of the Christian chureh
were generally termed creeds, It was the rise of
Protestantism that evoked confessions of faith as
we now understand the name. Among the first to
formulate these were the Swiss at Zurich, where,
in 1523, Zwingli wrote his Sixty-seven Articles or
Conclusions. To Luther and Philip Melanchthon,
however, is due the honour of drawing up the first
authoritative evangelical formulary, the Augsburg

ion (q.v.), by the adoption of which the
Lutheran princes, with their states, in 1530, finally
broke with Rome. It was followed by the Apolo,
the Augsburg Confession, drawn up by Melanch-
on, and recognised as a confession in 1532. Later
confessions of that church are the Articles of Smal-

cald, prepared in 1537, the Saxon Confession, and
the Wiirtemberg Confession, both published in
1551. But these were superseded in 1580 on the

adoption of the Form of Concord (Formula Con-
iw), which is the most representative symbol
of the Lutheran Church.

The German Reformed Church, which sprang up
side by side with the Lutheran, and stood midway
between it and the Calvinistie bodies, issued in
1530 the Tetrapolitan Confession, so calied because
sent forth in name of the four cities of Stras-
burg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau. It was
written chiefly by Bucer. Among other confessions
officially recognised by this church, or local portions
of it, were the Confession of Anhalt (1581); the
Confession of Nassau (1578); the Consensus of the
Ministry of Bremen (1598); the Hessian and Heidel-
berg Confessions (1607); and the Declaration of
Thorn sale

In Switzerland, the labours of Zwingli were
followed by the publication in 1534 of the First
Confession of Basel, prepared by CEcolampadius
and Myconius. To it succeeded in 1536 the
Second Confession of Basel, better known as the
First Helvetic Confession. It was superseded in
1566 by the more comprehensive Second Helvetic
Confession, which was written by Bullinger, and
obtained official sanction in Scotland, Hungary,
France, and Poland. Calvin left his mark on con-
fessional literature in, among others, the Consensus
of Zurich (1549); in the Consensus of Geneva (1552),
which is a treatise written mainly in defence of the
doctrine of predestination; and in the Gallican
Confession, which he prepared in conjunction with
his pupil, Antoine de la he Chandieu (Sadeel).
The latest Swiss confession is the Helvetic Consensus
Formula, written in 1675, by Heidegger of Zurich.
It is thoroughly Calvinistic, and was drawn up in
defence of the conclusions of the Synod of Dort.

The Gallican Confession, was adopted by the
French Reformed Church in 1559, and after revision
was ratified at the Synod of Rochelle in 1571,
whence it is sometimes called the Confession of
Mths Belgie Confession, incipally b

e Belgic Confession, drawn up principa
Guido de res in 1561, has snes thet aah aba
still is, the authoritative standard of the Dutch
and Belgian Reformed churches. The Arminian
controversy occasioned the meeting of the Synod of
Dort in 1618, and the issuing of the Canons of Dort
in the following year. These canons were adopted
as symbolical by the Dutch and French Reformed
churches.

But confessions have not been peculiar to the
Protestant Church. Influenced by the Reforma-
tion, the Greek Church adopted the Orthodox Con-
Session of Mogilas, the metropolitan of Kief (died
1647), who drew it up in a catechetical form as a
shicortag measure against both Protestant and

man Catholic churches. Recast by Syriga, the

metropolitan of Nicza, it became in 1672 the confes-
sion of the whole Greek Church. At the same time
the anti-Calvinistic Confession of Dositheus was
promulgated by the Synod of Jerusalem. Similarly,
the Roman Catholic Church published the Canons
and Decrees of, the Council of Trent in 1564, to
which were added in 1854 the decree of Pius LX.
on the Immaculate Conception, and in 1870 the
Vatican Decrees. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

In Britain the chief confessions are the Scots
Confession, consisting of twenty-five articles, drawn
= by John Knox in 1560, and adopted by the

urch and ere of Scotland ; the Thirty-nine
Articles of the Church of England, adopted in 1562 ;
the Irish Articles, one hundred and four in number,
pre ared by Archbishop Usher, and adopted by the

ish Church in convocation at Dublin in 1615,
but superseded by the Thirty-nine Articles of the
Church of England in 1635 (see ARTICLES); and
the Westminster Confession of Faith, emitted in
1647 by the Westminster Assembly of Divines (see
WESTMINSTER). This confession has become iden-
tified with Presbyterianism among all the English-
speaking populations of the globe. Its theology
was also adopted with some modifications by the
Congregationalists and a section of the Baptists.
Tt was ratified by the English parliament in 1647,
but in England its influence waned with the de-

cline of Presbyterianism during the Common-
wealth and the reign of Charles If. By Scotland,
in furtherance of the uniformity upon in

the Solemn League and Covenant, the Westmin-
ster Confession was cordially received and adopted
in place of that of 1560. It was approved by the
General Assembly in 1647, with the modification
of but one section regarding the magistrate’s
power circa sacra, was ratified by parliament in
1649 and again in 1690, and continues to be the
common symbol of the Church of Scotland and
of the churches which have seceded from her com-
munion, save in the case of the United Presby-
terian Church, which in 1879 modified its accept-
ance of the Confession by a Declaratory Statement
regarding certain of its doctrines.
he Westminster Confession consists of thirty-
three chapters, is thoroughly Calvinistic in its
teaching, and is in many parts stated in terms
designed to counteract the principal errors of the
time. Beginning with the canon of Scripture, it
surveys the entire field of theology, deals also with
the relations of the state to the church, the con-
stitution of the church itself, and concludes with
the topics of death, the resurrection, and the last
judgment. Its precise logic, its clear, dignified and
werful diction, and its constant reference to
ripture in proof of its statements, tended greatly
to beget that influence to which it attained.
Confessions of faith are now the subject of a
voluminous literature which is fully utilised in the
Hist of the Creeds of Christendom (3 vols. 1876),
by Dr Philip Schaff of New York, and his Harmony
of the Reformed Confessions (1877). A valuable
historical appendix, with special reference to the
Presbyterian Church, is given in the Report of the
Second General Council of t he Presbyterian Alliance
(1880). See also under CREEDS.

Confessor. See CANONISATION.

Confidentiality, in Law. The most common
instance of confidentiality is in the case of those
communications between a client and his legal
adviser which neither of them can be called on to

roduce in a suit, and upon which no action of
Raaneen ean be founded. The privilege applies to
letters written by the lawyer to his client relating
to a suit which is either pending or contemplated ;
but to what extent it covers other business com-
munications is a question on which there are

410 CONFIDENTIALITY

CONFLICT OF LAWS

conflicting authorities in Scotland. In England
the rule is not qualified by reference to impending
litigation. The same privilege is extended to the
communications of several parties, or of their
counsel and agents engaged on the same side of a
cause, and made with a view to their joint prose-
cution or defence. Where a party placed in such
circumstances is examined as a witness, he will be
entitled to decline answering questions as to such
communings, and even bound to do so, unless the
rivilege is waived by the other party interested.
uch confidential communications cannot, as a
rule, be made the ground of an action for libel or
slander, because there is a presumption against
malice, which may, however, be rebutted. It is on
the same principle that a master is protected who,
when called upon for the character of a servant,
charges him with a theft. With a view to pre-
serving the freedom of domestic intercourse, and
from a belief that the testimony of near relatives
in favour of each other was worthless, it was
formerly the habit to reject them as witnesses.
The practice in England for a long time, however,
has beak to admit, and even to exact their evi-
dence, making allowance, in appreciating its value,
for the circumstances in which they are placed.
The same principle has latterly been followed in
Scotland ; and the only exceptions which have been
retained by the Evidence Acts of 1853-54 are, that
neither the parties themselves, nor their husbands
or wives, shall be competent or compellable to give
evidence in criminal proceedings in which they are
accused, nor to answer questions in a civil suit
tending to criminate themselves or each other, or
to reveal matters which they have communicated
to each other during marriage. But where the issue
for trial involves the terms on which the spouses
lived, &e., they may be examined. Such com-
munications remain confidential, although the
marriage has been dissolved by death or divorce.
From the 4th and 5th centuries the ‘Seal of Con-
fession’ was held to be inviolable, and no priest
could be called upon, under any circumstances, to
reveal facts which had been confided to him under
its sanction. To this the case of treason was an
exception in England, even in Roman Catholic
times. The capitularies of the French kings and
some other continental codes of the middle ages
prohibited the attendance of clergy as witnesses in
court. In Roman Catholic countries the privi-
leges of the confessional remain unaltered, although
a priest may state that the accused has submitted
to penance. The duty of disclosure, however, is
enforced in all cases in which the confession has
reference to a future crime. In England no special
privilege whatever is extended to the Roman
Catholic confessional ; and the question as to how
far a confession made to a clergyman for the
purpose of obtaining spiritual comfort and_ con-
solation is protected was long considered doubtful.
The rule has, however, been settled for some time
that clergymen are not entitled to the same privi-
lege as legal advisers; though it has often been
advocated as advisable to extend the rule to
clergymen, including Roman Catholic priests. In
Scotland the point has never been decided, evi-
dence of the kind in question, when not indispens-
able for the ends of justice, being generally either
withheld or withdrawn. It has been decided in
England that communications to a medical man,
gsven in the strictest Beeeeire: confidence, are
not protected from disclosure ; and the same is the
case in Scotland. Factors, bankers, and intimate
friends are certainly not within the protection of
the rule. Confidentiality exists as to the great
majority of official reports and state papers.
In the United States, members of the legal pro-
fession are privileged, and, as a rule, what a client

says to them cannot be disclosed except the right
of confidentiality be waived. Interpreters stand in
the same relation as attorneys. Confessions made
to a clergyman or priest in some states are privi-
leged by statute, but generally it is otherwise. By
a statute of the state of New York, ministers of
the gospel and priests of every denomination are
forbidden to disclose confessions made to them in
their professional character; and in the course of
discipline enjoined by the church, similar statutes
exist in Missouri, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Iowa.
Communications made to a physician are not as a
rule privileged ; but in some states confidentiality
is recognised. Communications between a husband
and wife are privileged from disclosure, on the
grounds of publie policy and the good order of
society. See PRIVILEGE.

Confirmation, a Latin word which signifies
‘strengthening.’ In the ancient church, the rite so
named was administered immediately after bap-
tism, if the bishop happened to be present at the
solemnity; and in the Greek Church it is still
made part of the baptismal rite, being administered
then by the priest by means of unction with
chrism preconsecrated by a bishop. In the Roman
Catholic Church, for the last 300 or 400 years, the
bishops have interposed a delay of seven years after
infant baptism ; in the Lutheran Church, the rite
is usually delayed for from thirteen to sixteen
years ; and in the English Church, from fourteen to
eighteen. years. There is, however, in the latter
church no limitation of age, other than such as is
indirectly implied by the exaction of a specified
amount of religious knowledge as a qualification
for the rite. Confirmation may be administered at
an earlier period, if a family is about to emigrate ;
and persons are confirmed up to sixty or seventy,
if they choose. The ceremony consists in the im-

osition of hands by the bishop, accompanied by an
invocation of the Holy Ghost as the comforter and
strengthener. But both in the Lutheran and in
the English Church, the ceremony is made the
occasion of requiring from those who have been
baptised in infancy, a renewal in their own persons
of the baptismal vow made for them by their god-
fathers and godmothers, who are thereby released
from their responsibility. Properly, none can par-
take of the Lord’s Supper, in these churches, unless
they have been confirmed. In the Roman Catholic
Church, confirmation is held to be one of the seven
sacraments, and in its administration chrism and
the sign of the cross are used ; and instead of the
imposition of hands, the person confirmed receives
a dight blow on the cheek, to remind him that he
must in future suffer affronts for the name of
Christ. Catholics usually take a new name at
confirmation, which should be the name of some
saint whom they choose for their special patron.
In the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of
England, confirmation is declared not to be one
of the sacraments, and the above ceremonies have
been discontinued since the Reformation.

Confiscation, in Scottish law, has been ap-
plied to the forfeiture of lands or goods to the
crown, as part of the punishment for certain crimes,
such as murder and treason. But more commonly
the word is used in international law to signify
the appropriation of goods or ships belonging to
a hostile state, or its subjects, generally as a

unishment for an attempted breach of blockade.
See ESCHEAT.

Conflict of Laws. On the breaking up
of the Roman empire into separate kingdoms, as
many systems of jurisprudence, more or less dis-
similar, arose, and were administered side by side.
But owing to commercial intercourse and inter-
marriage many persons held property in more

CONFORMABLE STRATA

CONFUCIUS 411

countries than one; many possessed two nation-
alities by birth, and more than two—if nationality
could be acquired by residence and interest in
a foreign state. In such circumstances it often
became an object of the utmost importance to indi-
viduals to ascertain, and of the greatest difficulty
to lawyers to determine, whether the laws of one
state or of another were to govern questions of
sale, succession, status, and the like. As no state
could vindicate its jurisdiction beyond its own
boundaries without being guilty of an act of
aggression, it became absolutely indispensable that
certain general rules should be fixed upon in order
to prevent the danger of national hostilities on
trifling occasions. The elaboration of these rules
constituted a new branch of jurisprudence, to which
the title of Private International Law has been
given. Many of the classical treatises on the
subject—e.g. Huber and Story—are entitled the
Conflict of spat Other writers, such as Savigny,
Bar, and Foelix, use the term ‘Private Inter-
national Law.’ From the partially independent
character which belongs to the different states
which constitute the American Union, the labours
of the continental jurists in international juris-
prudence have been carefully adapted to the re-
quirements of that country ; and it is consequently
to America and to continental Europe, rather
than to British writers, that we must look for
systematic works on this subject. See INTER-
NATIONAL LAw.

Conformable Strata are beds which lie
parallel to each other, the accumulation of the
upper strata having followed the deposition of the
underlying beds without any break or prolonged
interruption. Conformity thus points to a con-
tinuity of the same physical conditions.

Confraternities. See BrorHERHOODS and
GUILDs.

Confronté, in Heraldry, is a term applied to
two animals facing or fronting one another.

Confucius, the name by which the great
inese sage is known, is a Latinised form of the

Chinese K'ung Fi-tsze (FL ) or ‘the

Master 8 pay 8 K’ung being his clan or family
name, and Ff-tsze the denomination applied
to him by his disciples after he had ome a
teacher, and gathered around him a school of
ardent and inquiring spirits, to whom he communi-
cated his views on the ancient literature and history
of their country, and on the principles of human
duty. Asa child, he received the postnomen Ch'it,
and when grown up he was called Chung-ni, mark-
ing his place in the household. His birth took
lace, according to the most authoritative account,
in 551 B.C., in the village of Ch’iieh, in the state
of La, a part of the present province of Shan-
tung.

The K’ung family had migrated to Lai from
the dukedom of Sung, and were a branch of
the ruling house of Sung. The lineage of Con-
fucius is thus traced through the dukes of Sun
to the kings of the Shang or Yin dynasty, an
through them again, up among the mists of
antiquity, to the sovereign Hwang Ti, whose rei
is said to have commenced in 2697 B.C. is
father, known to us by the name of Sha Liang-heh,
was commandant of Tsfiu, and a soldier distin-
guished for his strength and daring. In his old
age he contracted a second marriage with a young
lady of the Yen family, and of her was born the

in 551.
asa heh died in the child’s third year, leaving
his mother and him in straitened circumstances.
He has described his own mental growth till he
was seventy, when he ‘could do whatever his

heart prompted, without transgressing what was
right,’ and tells us that ‘at fifteen his mind was
set on learning, and at thirty he stood firm in his
convictions.’

At nineteen he married, going for his wife to the
Chien-kwan family in his ancestral state of Sung,
and in the year after, his son Li was born. Be-
sides this son Li, Confucius had two daughters.

Confucius.

(Reduced fac-simile of a rubbing from a marble slab behind his
temple at Kio-foo-hien ).

About the time of his marriage we find him in
humble offices, in charge of the public stores of

ain, and of the public herds, performing efficiently
is functions, and allowing nothing beyond or
higher than them to occupy his attention. In 531
B.C., When he was in his twenty-second year, he
commenced in Ch’iieh-li his career as a teacher.
He continued in his native state till 517 B.c.,
with the exception of a short visit to the capital
at Loh, where he is said to have met with Laéo-
tsze (q.v.). In 517 La fell into great disorder.
The Duke Chao being worsted in the struggle,
fled to the neighbouring state of Ch’'i, and thither
Confucius also for a time repaired.

Returning to Li, he remained there for sixteen
more years without being called to any official
employment, Duke Chao died in exile in 510 B.c. ;

‘and his younger brother and successor, Duke Ting,

in 501 B.c. appointed Confucius governor of the
town of Chung-tf, where a marvellous reformation
in the manners of the people speedily took Sayre
The next year saw him first minister of works for
the state, and next minister of crime. Tle govern-
ment was now conducted for three years according
to his counsel. ‘He strengthened,’ we are told,
‘the ruling house, and weakened the ministers and
chiefs. A transforming government went abroad.
Dishonesty and dissoluteness were ashamed, and
hid their heads. Loyalty and good faith became the
characteristics of the men, and chastity and docility
those of the women. Strangers flocked to Li from
other states.’ Confucius was the idol of the people.

But this success did not last long. The prosperity
of the state awakened the jealousy and fears of its
neighbours. The marquis of Ch'i cunningly sent to
Duke Ting a present of beautiful courtesans and
fine horses, and a breach was made between Con-
fucius and his ruler. His counsels were no longer
sought. He determined to leave La and visit other
states. Accordingly in 497 B.c., when he was now

412

CONFUCIUS

in his fifty-fifth year, he went forth from Lf, nor
did he return to it till 485 or 484 B.c.

During this long period he visited many states,
attended always by a company of his disciples.
His fame had gone before him, and many of the

rinces would have received and supported him,

ut he would not settle where he could not
obtain free course in carrying out his principles.
Repeatedly he and his companions were in straits,
and even in peril of their lives. Once they wére
assailed by a mob, who mistook him for an officer
by whom they had been oppressed. But while the
others were alarmed, he calmly said: ‘ After the
death of king Wan, was not the cause of the right
way lodged in me? While Heaven does not wish
this cause to perish, what can the people of K’wang
do for me?’ Another time, in somewhat similar
circumstances, he said : ‘ Heaven has produced the
virtue that is in me; what can any man do to me?’
Such was his belief concerning himself and his
mission. He never pretended to be anything more
than man, but he knew the right way, the way for
the individual to perfect himself, and the way for
the highest ruler to rule, so as to make men happy
and good. One of the princelets through whose
territory they passed asked his disciple Tsze-lt
how he would describe the Master, and the disciple
gave himnoreply. When he told the Master of the
question, Confucius said: ‘Why did you not tell
him that I am aman who in his eager pursuit of
knowledge forgets his food, and in the joy of its
attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not
perceive that old age is coming on!’ He was then
probably in his sixty-fifth year.

Duke Ting of Lf died in 495 B.c., and was suc-
ceeded by his son Duke Ai, who in his tenth year
sent a message of recall to the sage in Wei. The
ruler and his ministers received him respectfully,
but he can hardly be said to have re-entered political
life. Only a few more years remained to him,
during which he is said to have put the finishin
hand to his labours on the ancient writings, an
been specially assiduous in the study of the Yi-
king. He tells us himself that he reformed the
music to which the ancient odes were sung, and
digested the odes themselves, giving to the pieces
in the principal parts of the collection their proper
places. He must have occupied himself also with
the composition of the only classical work which is
assigned to his own pencil—the Ch'un Ch'ii, em-
bracing the events in the history of Lf from 722-481
B.c. The latest entry in the work is that in
Duke Ai’s fourteenth year (481 B.c.). He died on
the 11th day of the 4th month in 479 B.c.

In the Confucian Analects, or memorabilia com-
te soon after his death from the reminiscences of

is disciples, we have abundant information of the
Master's Sayings and Doings, and they can be
added to from the supplements to the Ch’un Ch’id,
the Narratives of the School, portions of the Books
HA Ritual Usages, and the memoir by Sze-ma
th'ien. There are other works about him, but
all containing more or less of the legendary ele-
ment, evidently introduced after the Buddhistic
literature became known to the Chinese. Of no
ancient personage do we have fuller information
than we possess of Confucius, and no other can we
fashion more completely to ourselves. One whole
book of the Analects is occupied with his personal
characteristics, his deportment, his eating, his
dress. It shows him to us at his ruler’s court, in
his intercourse with his disciples, in his carriage,
at his table, in his bed. The disciples tell us that
there were four things from which he was free—
foregone conclusions, arbitrary determinations,
obstinacy, and egoism; that there were four sub-
jects which he avoided in talking with them—
extraordinary things, feats of strength, rebellious

disorder, and spirits ; that there were four thin
which he taught them—letters, ethies, ae hesliaeale
ness, and truthfulness; that there were three
things of which he seldom eke
the appointments (of Heaven), and perfect virtue ;
and that there were three things in regard to
which he thought the greatest caution should be
exercised—fasting (as preliminary to sacrifice),
(going to) war, and (the treatment of) disease.

It is often said that Confucianism is a system of
morality without religion. That he was emphati-
cally a moral teacher is indeed true; and his
greatest achievement as such was his formulating
the golden rule, ‘What you do not wish done to
yourself, do not do to others,’ He acknowledges
in one passage that he himself failed in taking the
initiative in obeying it. But this high morality
was not without a eatiainna sanction. If it be the
requirement of man’s nature on a correct analysis,
yet that nature is the distinguishing endowment
conferred on man by Heaven or God, and obedi-
ence to its requirements is obedience to the will
of God. The first sentence of the Chung Yung,
the treatise written by Confucius’ grandson, is this :
‘What Heaven has conferred is the Nature; an
accordance with this nature is what is called the
Path ; the regulation of this path is what is called
the Teaching.

But how is it that we do not find in the utter-
ances of Confucius the expressions of a fervent
piety, and that in his many exhibitions of the
character of the Chiin-tsze, his superior, model, or
ideal man, he does not show him to us commun-
ing with God, confessing his own unworthiness,
and imploring his forgiveness? These defects in
his teaching we must admit. The explanation of
them lies probably in this, that the direct worship
of God was confined in the ancient religion of
China, as it still is, to the sovereign as the parent
and priest of the people. Speaking of the greatest _
religious services of the ancient sovereigns, Con-
fucius, as is recorded also by his grandson, delivered
the important judgment that in those services, ‘in
the ceremonies of the sacrifices to heaven and
earth, they served God.’ He probably thought
that it was not for him as a subject to be takin,
on his lips the Great Name; he was, as he said,
merely a ‘ transmitter and not a maker.’

It has been said that Confucius discountenanced
prayer ; but the passage referred to in ie
the charge is not sufficient to bear it out. Equall
reticent and enigmatic were his replies to the well-
known question of the same disciple about the ser-
vices offered to the spirits of the departed, and
about death itself. He did not rise to the acknow-
ledgment of the principle enunciated by Lao-tsze,
that kindness is to be returned for injury, and evil
overcome with good, but laid down to his disciples —
the dictum that they should ‘recompense injury
with justice, and return good for good.’ And his
own special work, the Ch’un Ch'it, is evasive and
deceptive ; according to Kung-yang it often ‘ con-
ceals (the true nature of events) out of regard to
the high in rank, to kinship, and to men of worth.’
The person in the past to whom he looked back
with the greatest reverence was the Duke of Chau,
the legislator and consolidator of the dynasty of
Chau (died 1105 B.C. ). .

He died lamenting the failure of his life; but he
was hardly gone when his merit began to be
acknowledged. Duke Ai, who had been unable
to follow his counsels, caused a temple to be built,
where sacrifices, or offerings, should be presented
to the sage from generation to generation. In one
aspect of it, the brief reign of Shih Hwang-Ti,
the first imperial sovereign of China, was a contest
between him and Confucius, in which the latter
prevailed. The first emperor of the Han dynasty,

CONGE D’'KLIRE

CONGESTION 413

in 197 B.c., in passing through LQ presented to
him ‘a great offering.” Succeeding dynasties have
done honour to him by titles and offerings; and
by none has this been done so much as by the pre-
sent Manchi-Tartar dynasty, intending thereby,
it is believed, to reconcile the Chinese people to
their sway. The Khang-hst emperor, the greatest
of its monarchs, after visiting his — and pre-
senting the offerings, prostrated himself three times
before the sage’s image, bowing his head each time
thrice to the ground. The law requires that there
shall be a temple to Confucius in every prefecture,
sub-prefecture, district, and market-town in the
empire. These temples are not to Confucius alone.
They are not pantheons, for he has never been
deified ; but the worship paid to him in them is
extended to several of his disciples and a crowd
of his most distinguished followers, amounting to
more than one hundred and fifty names in all,
selected by imperial decree from the literati and
officers in all the course of time.

Twice a year, on a certain fixed day, the
emperor goes to the imperial college in Pekin,
and does homage to Confucius. The words of the

rincipal prayer or address on the occasion are the
ollowing: ‘On this month of this year, I, the
emperor, offer sacrifice to the philosopher K’ung,
the ancient Teacher, the Perfect Sage, and say,
0 Teacher, in virtue equal to heaven and pee:
whose doctrines embrace both time past and
present, thou didst digest and transmit the six
classics, and didst hand down lessons for all gener-
ations! Now in the second month of spring (or
autumn ), in reverent observance of the old statutes,
with victims, silks, spirits, and fruits, I offer
sacrifice to thee. With thee are associated the
philosopher Yen, Continuator of thee; the philo-
sopher Tsing, Exhibitor of thy fundamental prin-
ciples; the philosopher Tsze-sze, Transmitter of
thee; and the philosopher Ming, second to thee.
Mayest thou enjoy the offerings!’ Confucius’
descendants are many. His lineal representative
has the title of kung or duke, and large landed
property—his by imperial grant—and is considered
next in rank to the members of the imperial house.
So is the Sage’s honour perpetuated.

See Alémoires concernant U Histoire et les Sciences des
Chinois (Paris, 1776-1814); Legge’s Chinese Classics,
vol. i. (1861), and Confucius’ Lifeand Teaching (6th ed.
1887); Plath’s Confucius und seine Schiiler (1867); and
Alexander's Confucius the Great Teacher (1891).

Congé délire (Norman-French), the name
given in England te the king’s warrant or permis-
sion to a dean and chapter to proceed to the election
of a bishop to a vacant see. Since the act of
Henry VIII. in 1534, the congé d’élire has always
been accompanied by a letter-missive from the
sovereign, mentioning the person to be elected by
name, so that in ity it is a nomination by the
crown. If the dean and chapter delay the election
beyond twelve days, the nomination is effected by
letters-patent from the crown; if they delay beyond
twenty days, or elect another than the person
named, they incur the penalties of a Premunire
{q.v.). See BisHop.

Conger, or CONGER-EEL, a marine bony fish in
the eel family (Murenide). The body is eel-like,
without pelvic fins, with a continuous dorsal fin
beginning very far forward, and without scales.
The length varies from 3 to 6 feet, or even more ;
the colour is dark gray or bluish above, whitish
below ; the mouth is wide; the tongue free; the
teeth in rows, one closely packed series forming a
sharp edge. Four species occur widely distributed
in temperate and tropical seas. Conger vulgaris is
common on the British coasts, especially off Corn-
wall, Giant specimens, 10 feet in length, 18 inches
in girth, over 100 lb. in weight, are recorded ; and

even ordinary specimens left aground among the
rocks, or landed unexpectedly on board a boat, are
awkward customers to deal with. They are very
muscular and voracious fishes, feeding on compara-
tively large prey, and have remarkably strong
biting powers. They often rotate rapidly on their

thd tle

eka hMlhitsllfdidisee
OT ame “e —

own axis, and have a certain degree of grasping
power with their tails. The colour seems to vary
with habitat, since those from rocks are blacker
than those from sand-banks. They occur from the
shore down to about 50 fathoms, and are extremel
prolific. The flesh is coarse, but is often enou
eaten. What is called turtle soup is believed to
often made mainly of conger-eel. See Day’s British
Fishes.

Congestion may be defined to be excess of
blood in the vessels of a part, and is to be re-
garded not as an independent disease, except in
a very small proportion of cases, but as one sta
or one manifestation of some other disease. It is,
however, of such importance and of so frequent
occurrence as to require a separate notice. Con-

estions are divided into two groups—viz. active,

ue to dilatation of the arteries of the affected
rt; and passive, due to some cause interfering
with the return of blood by the veins. In active
congestion the flow of blood is usually increased,
and the excess is chiefly in the arteries. Familiar
instances are the phenomenon of Blushing (q.v.)
and the effect of heat, especially moist heat, in
increasing the redness of any part to which it may
be applied. But the most important active con-
estions are those which occur in connection with
nflammation (q.v.), of which they constitute the
first stage. In passive congestion the flow of blood
is always diminished, and the excess is chiefly in
the veins. It may be due either to direct obstrue-
tion to the return of blood through the veins, or to
general enfeeblement of the circulation.

Congestion from venous obstruction is easily
illustrated by tying up the arm, as is done before
opening a vein, when the veins are compressed
more than the arteries. If the ligature is kept on
for a sufficient time, the veins swell, the fingers
become red, and then livid, and the whole limb is
swollen. Cold applied to the surface of the body
acts similarly on it, and contracts the veins more
rapidly than the arteries, which lie deeper ; and the
purple colour of the hands and face r wt tere
to cold shows the congested state of the capillaries.

ongestions,’ says Dr Cc. J. B. Williams, ‘are
ca in internal organs by an obstruction of
the veins leading from them. Thus, congestion of
the brain may be produced by a tight cravat or by
a tumour pressing on the jugular veins. Efforts
of straining, coughing, holding the breath, and
asthmatic paroxysms which impede the flow of

414 CONGLETON

CONGO

blood through the lungs, cause congestion in
various parts. ‘Tubercles in the lungs cause con-
gestion of that organ. Obstruction to the transit
of blood through the liver causes congestion in the
abdomen, hemorrhoids, &c.’

Congestion from weakness of the circulation in-
cludes a numerous class of cases. Here gravitation
comes into play very much more forcibly than in
the hegithy bony in determining the distribution
of the blood to different parts and organs, though
it always produces some effect. Diseases of the
valves of the heart are almost always accompanied
by congestion of other internal organs at some
stage of their progress. In extreme debility,
certain fevers, &c., there is general congestion of
the parenchymatous organs—the lungs, ‘liver, &e.
—and the blood gravitates to the lowest parts,
giving rise to what is termed hypostatic congestion
of the posterior parts of the lungs, the skin of the
back, &c. _ In other cases the effect is more local,
as when the feet swell after long standing, in con-
sequence of over-distension of the veins. Conges-
tive affections of this kind are often mistaken for
inflammation, and instead of being treated by
tonics, are treated by depletion, which, althou
soil temporary relief, usually aggravates the
evil.

Active congestion, when it requires treatment,
must be dealt with in the same manner as inflam-
mation. With regard to passive congestion, the
end to which treatment must be directed is the
removal of its cause. This can be effected in some
cases by measures having a local effect, either com-
pletely, as by the loosening of a ligature, the disuse
of too tight articles of clothing, or by the removal of
a tumour compressing veins, or partially, as by ele-
vation of the head in affected brain, and the recum-
bent position in congestion of the hemorrhoidal
or uterine vessels. niform gentle pressure, by
supporting the weak vessels, and friction, by
increasing the onward movement of the blood in
the veins, are often of great use in superficial
parts. Where the heart-power is at fault, strength-
ening remedies must be given—ammonia, cinchona
bark, digitalis, &e. The American Witch-hazel
(q.v.) when administered internally seems to have
the power of diminishing the size of dilated veins,
and is sometimes useful in varicose veins, hemor-
rhoids, &c. . Various remedies are supposed to have
a special power of removing the congestion of
certain organs ; thus, mercurials are recommended
for congestion of the liver; digitalis and cantha-
rides for congestion of the kidneys ; squills, benzoin,
and the balsams for bronchial congestion.

Congleton, an ancient municipal borough in
the east of Cheshire, picturesquely situated in a
deep valley on the banks of the Dane, an affluent
of the Weaver, 26 miles 8. of Manchester. It hasa
handsome town-hall (1864), manufactures of silk,
and neighbouring coal-mines. ' Pop. (1851) 11,505 ;
(1891) 10,744. See book by R. Head ( 1887).

Conglomerate, or PLUMPUDDING-STONE, a
rock consisting of various-sized, round, water-worn
stones cemented together, the binding material
being generally of a caleareous, siliceous, or ferru-
pace character. Now and again the stones are

eld together by simple compression without any
cement. Conglomerate is evidently gravel com-
pacted into a more or less coherent mass. Like
coarse gravel and shingle, some conglomerates are
very tumultuous in appearance, and show no lines
or planes of deposition. Generally, however, rocks
of this kind exhibit rudely alternating layers of
finer and coarser materials. The included stones
inay consist of any kind of rock or mineral, but the
harder species, such as quartz-rock and quartz, are
spt to preponderate. Conglomerates are generally

beach-deposits, either marine or lacustrine ; some-
times they are of fluviatile origin.

Congo. The earlier history of the Congo,
the great equatorial river of Central Africa, may
be briefly summed up as follows. In the year
1484-85 Diogo Cam (q.v.) discovered the mouth
of a large river in 7° 8. latitude while sailing
along the West African coast in command of an
expedition having for its object the discovery of
the East Indies. He erected a pillar on the south
bank, and gave it the name of Rio Padrao, or
Pillar River. The country in its vicinity, and for
some distance to the south, as far as Cape Negro,
was known by the name of Congo Land. During
the 15th and 16th centuries several attempts were
made by the Portuguese to penetrate into the
interior, but they never reached farther than
San Salvador. he Jesuits established a lar
missionary station at this place, and made it the
capital of the Congo. At the outset this attempt
to convert the nations met with considerable
success, but towards the end of the 17th century,
ravaged by native wars, it had almost ceased to
exist. At this time the Portuguese called the
great river the ‘Zaire,’ which is only a corrup-
tion of Nzari, Nzadi, Nyali, Niadi, all of which
mean ‘river’ in the many dialects spoken within
the limits of what was then called the kingdom
of the Congo. The native name for the river
was Moenzi Nzadi, or the ‘Receiver of all the
Waters ;’ and the European map-makers give it
the name it at present enjoys of ‘the Congo.

In 1816 an expedition under Captain Tuckey
was despatched by the British government to solve
the question which then agitated the minds
of geographers, whether the Congo was one of
the mouths of the Niger. Captain Tuckey
penetrated with his boats to the head of the
navigable portion of the lower river—a distance of
110 miles—and he then proceeded by land to a

lace called Issangila, about 52 miles farther on ;
but his expedition had a most melancholy result,
for within three months—the period which they
remained in the river—eighteen out of fifty-six
Europeans succumbed to the climate. This great
mortality gave the river a bad name, and, with the
exception of slave-traders, it was little frequented
by Europeans for some years. Valuable additions
to geographical: science, however, resulted from
Captain Tuckey’s expedition, as it proved that the
Congo was the outlet of some vast riverine system,
and it dispersed much of the fable and myth with
which the imaginations of earlier writers had sur-
rounded this region.

From 1867 to 1871 Dr Livingstone, in his re-
searches between Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika,
and from thence to Nyangwe, proved the existence
of a large river flowing to the north under the
native names of Luapula and Lualaba, which he
imagined to be the Nile, and this opinion was shared
by many men of science on receipt in England of
the maps and journals recording these explorations.
In October 1876, five years later, Mr H. M. Stanley,
despatched to Central Africa under the auspices
of the New York Herald and Daily Telegraph, to
complete Livingstone’s explorations, arrived at
Nyangwe, and he too gazed on that mighty stream
with its waters flowing ceaselessly to the north. He
determined to follow its course, and in 1877 news
was received of the successful accomplishment of his
adventurous journey, and the establishment of the
fact that the Luapula, Lualaba, and the Living-
stone (the name given by Stanley to that part of -
the river below Nyangwe) are in reality the
Congo—the great equatorial river of Central Africa,
the second largest river of the world.

The Lake of Bangweolo noticed by Lacerda in
1795, and by other earlier Portuguese explorers, of

leavin

CONGO 41%

which the Chambeze, traced by Livingstone, is the

t feeder, and into which also flow numerous

streams from the Lokinga Mountains on the south,

is the reservoir from which this great river issues
under the name of the Luapula. Flowing in a
northerly direction, it expands into Lake Moero, on
which it is called, as far as Nyangwe, the
Lualaba; from Nyangwe to perro Falls (Arab
name for which is Zingatini) Stanley christened
it the Livingstone; and from Stanley Falls to the
mouth it is known by the name of the Congo.

Its length has been calculated at over 3000
miles; it drains an area of more than 1,300,000
sq. m.; and it discharges a body of water into the
ocean second only to the Amazon. Such is the
power and force of this mighty stream that no delta
exists at its mouth. Vessels take in fresh water at
its entrance into the sea, and, during the rain
season, when the river is at its highest, vessels
nin the Congo enter discoloured water,
and pass t engi floating debris more than 300
miles from land. The two largest tributaries of
the Congo are the Kassai from the south, whose
waters were thoroughly explored (1885) by Lieu-
tenant Wissmann of the German army; and the
Mobangi, from the north, explored (1884-85) by the
Rev. Mr Grenfell, who penetrated beyond the 4th
degree of N. lat., and whose explorations were after-
wards continued by Lieutenant Vangele of the Bel-
gian army. This officer reached 21° 53’ of E. long.,
or within about 60 miles of Dr Junker’s lowest
07 on the Makua-Welle, thus proving that the

elle of Schweinfurth is the same as the Mobangi
of Grenfell. Besides these two great affluents, the
Congo has many other tributaries. The most im-
portant of these are the Kwa or Kwango, the Juapa
and Bosira, the Ikelemba, the Lulongo, and the
Lumawi rivers on the south or left bank; and the
Aruwimi, the Mbura, the Loika, the Ngala, the
ee Nkundji, &c., on the north or right

As regards commerce and navigation, the Congo
may be divided into three parts—Lower, Middle,
and Upper. The lower region extends from
Banana at the mouth to the foot of the first rapids,
a distance of 110 miles. Ocean steamers, drawing
not more than 18 feet, can safely navigate this

rtion. The middle or cataract region extends

m Vivi to Stanley Pool, a distance of about 235

miles—a portion of this part of the river—viz. from.

Issangila to Manyanga, a distance of 70 miles, is
navigable for small steamers or iron whaleboats.
The upper region from Stanley Pool to Stanley
Falls has an extent of 1068 miles of navigable
water for steamers of a draught not exceeding four
feet. The length of navigable tributaries which
enter in this section of the river has been calculated
at over 3000 miles, forming a unique system of
waterways.

These discoveries by Mr Stanley led, in 1878,
to the formation of the Association Internationale
under His Majesty the King of the Belgians, and
this oes os expanded into the Congo Free
State, which, recognised by the European powers
assembled at the conference at Berlin in the year
1885, has the following boundaries: The northern
bank from the mouth, with a strip of territory
averaging about 60 miles in width, as far as
Manyanga, situated about 240 miles from Banana,
the entrance part of the river. At Manyanga
the French territory commences and continues
along the north bank, passing Stanley Pool as
far as the Mobangi. The territory of the Con
Free State recommences at this river, and the
boundary line runs along the left bank as far as
the fourth parallel of N. latitude, which then be-
comes the northern boundary of the central portion

- of the state. :

North-east it extends to the watershed of the .
Congo basin, eastwards to 30° E. long. and Lake
Tanganyika, south-east to Lake Bangweolo and
the southern watershed of the Con in as far
as Lake Dilolo, south-west to the Saand river, to
7° 8. lat., the Kwilu, the Kwango, and the parallel
of Nokki. These boundaries were only finally
settled by the neutrality declarations of 1894 and
1895, after a series of treaties. The area is stated
at 900,000 sq. m., the pop. at 30,000,000.

The Congo Free State is governed by an admin-
istrative bureau at Brussels, consisting of three
secretariats—Control, Finance, and Foreign Aflairs,
under the direct supervision of His Majesty the
King of the Belgians ; also by an administrator on
the Congo who has his headquarters at Boma, 60
miles from the sea, on the right bank of the river.
The state has stations at Banana, Vivi, Boma, and
Matadi on the Lower Congo; at Lukungu, eps (er
Manyanga, Lutete on the Middle Congo; and at
Leopoldville, Kinshassa, Kwamouth, Lukolela,
Equator, Bangala, and Stanley Falls on the Upper
Congo. Besides these the state has erected two
stations on the Kasai, Luebo, and Luluaberg. All
imports are free, and only such export duties are
levied as are necessary to carry on the work of
administration. It has a coinage and tal
service, and has entered into the Postal Union.
A road has been surveyed between Matadi and
Leopoldville, and by the introduction of ox-wagons
the facilities for transport will be largely increased.
It is intended to follow this up by a railway. Its
present income is derived from an endowment of
£40,000 a year bestowed upon it by His Majesty
the King of the Belgians, and such other sums as
are produced by its export dues.

The inhabitants of the Congo basin belong to
what has been termed the Bantu race. They are
a happy, inoffensive people, not so dark as the Fan
or Ethiopian. Split up into numberless tribal com-
munities, they can offer but slight resistance to the
advance of civilisation; and as they are born traders,
they take very readily to commerce. The dialects
throughout the country are very numerous, but
many of them would appear to have a common
orig (see BANTU). Even the Swaheli language,
spoken by the natives of Zanzibar (who come as

orters, &c. into this region), has much in common
with the Kishi Congo, or langu spoken on the
west coast. Of this t: owes member of the Bantu
family, the Rev. W. He man Bentley has furnished
an excellent Dictionary and Grammar (Lond. 1888).
The religion is mainly fetichism; and domestic
slavery exists everywhere. The name of French
Congo is now given to what was known as the
Gaboon (q.v.) territory ; and Portuguese Congo is
the coast country to the south of the independent
state.

The climate of the Congo State is tropical, the
average temperature ranging between 78° and 82°.
Malarial fevers, eapecially on the coast, are not
infrequent; but with care and attention to diet
Europeans can remain in the country for several
years without change. The interior is more healthy
than on the coast. The principal products are
ivory, palm-oil, palm-kernels, india-rubber, various
gums, ground-nuts, camwood, beeswax, orchilla ;
also cotlee, tobacco, hill rice, maize, and sorghum.
Tropical fruits, such as bananas, pine-apples, and
mangos, abound. The total value of the special ex-

rts of the independent state proper vary in value
ae 5,000,000 to 8,000,000 franes ; the — ex-
ports from 8,000,000 to about 15,000, frances,
About 50 miles of the railway, past the rapids to
Léopoldville (250 miles), are open. In 1889 the
king of Belgium bequeathed his rights in the state
to Waleaeh, ; and in 1890 Belgium reserved the right
of annexing the state.

416 CONGO SNAKE

CONGRESS

The introduction of civilisation into new and wild
countries demands time and patience, and the pro-
ress of the State has not been so rapid as its
riends hoped. The European officers have been few
in number, and some of them not well chosen. And
enree cruelties seem to have been practised by native
unctionaries and troops, especially in forcing the
collection of caoutchouc for the government.

See map of Africa in Vol I., and the articles AFRICA,
STANLEY; also Stanley, Through the Dark Continent
(1878), and The Congo and the Founding of its Free State
(1885); H. H. Johnston, Zhe River Congo from its Mouth
to Bolobo (1884); Bentley, Life on the Congo (1887);
works in French by Wauters (1885 and 1893), Coquilhat
(1888), Alexis (1888), Dupont (1889), Jeannent (1889),
Chapaux (1893); Ward, Five Years with the Congo
Cannibals (1890); E. G. Glave, Six Years in Congoland
(1893); German works by Pechuel-Loesche (1887),
Biittner (1890), and Raab (1892); S. L. Hinde, The Fall
of the Congo Arabs (1897).

Congo Snake, See AMPHIUMA.

Congregation (Lat. con, ‘together ;’ grea, ‘a
flock’), an assembly, generally a religious assembly ;
in its most ordinary use, an assembly of Christians
met in one place for worship (see CHURCH ).—In the
Roman Catholic Church, it often designates a sort
of board of cardinals, prelates, and divines, to
which is intrusted the management of some im-
portant branch of the affairs of the church. Thus
the Congregation of the Index examines books and
decides on their fitness for general perusal (see
INDEX). The Congregation de Propaganda Fide is
instituted for the propagation of the Roman Catho-
lic faith and the government of the church in
non-Catholic countries (see PROPAGANDA). The
Congregation of Relics inquires into the genuine-
ness of supposed relics. The Congregation of the
Holy Office takes cognisance of heresies, &ec. (see
INQUISITION ). The Congregation of Rites regulates
the festivals and offices of new saints. ‘here are
numerous other congregations. The word is also
used in the Church of Rome to describe com-
munities of ecclesiastics who live together under
rule, but without being bound by vow, or at least
by solemn vow. Such are the Congregation of the
Oratory, the Congregation of the most Holy Re-
deemer, usually called Redemptorists, &c.

Congregationalists. See INDEPENDENTS.

Congress, an assembly either of sovereign.

princes, or of the delegated representatives of sove-
reign states, for the purpose of considering matters
of international interest. Even in America, though
the term has now a different meaning, it had a
similar origin, the first congress being that of the
delegates from the various British colonies, who
met on the 7th October 1765, for the purpose
of considering their grievances. Previous to sign-
ing a treaty of peace, a meeting of plenipoten-
tiaries usually takes place, to which the name of a
congress is sometimes applied, though it seems more
properly to be reserved for those more important
meetings at which extensive schemes of future
policy are determined on, and the balance of power
amongst the various European states readjusted.
To this class belonged the famous Congress of
Vienna in 1815; that of Carlsbad in 1819, for
regulating the affairs of Germany; that of Paris
at the end of the Russian war of 1854-56; and
that at Berlin after the Russo-Turkish war of
1877-78. There is scarcely any difference between
a congress and a diplomatic Conference (q.v.).
Congress of the United States. The legis-
lative department of the government of the United
States is called the Congress, and | copyright 1889, 1897, and
consists of a Senate, elected by | 1900 in the U.8. by‘
the legislatures of the several | MPPincett Company,
states, and a House of Representatives, elected by the

direct votes of the people. It is supreme within its
constitutional limits, deriving its settee: directly
from the people. By constitutional provision con-
gress has certain direct, express. powers, and such
implied powers as are necessary to carry these into
effect. It convenes on the first Monday in Decem-
ber in each year, and receives from the president of
the United States his annual message, giving in-
formation of the state of the Union, and containing
such suggestions and recommendations as he may
judge expedient and necessary.

Express Powers.—Congress has power to impose
and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay
the debts and provide for the common defence and
general welfare of the United States. This grant
of sovereign power is independent of state control,
and is limyted only by the provision in the constitu-
tion that the duties, imposts, and excises shall be
uniform throughout the United States.

Congress has power to borrow money on the
credit of the United States, to regulate commeree
with foreign nations, and among the several states
and with the Indian tribes. It has the exclusive
power to establish a uniform rule of naturalisa-
tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bank-
ruptcies throughout the United States; to coin
money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ;
to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the
securities and current coin of the United States ;
and to establish post-oflices and post-roads. Con-
gress has power to promote the progress of science
and are Ss arts, by securing for limited times to
authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries; to constitute
tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; to define
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offences against the law of nations.

Congress alone has power to declare war, grant
letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules con-
cerning captures on land and water. It can raise
and support armies, may provide and maintain a
navy, and make rules for the government of the
land and naval forces. Congress has power to pro-
vide for calling forth the militia of the several
states for the purpose of executing the United
States laws, to suppress insurrections, and repel
invasions, and to provide for organising, arming,
and disciplining the militia, and for governing sue
part of ps as may be employed in the service of
the United States; reserving to the states respec-
tively the appointment of the officers, and the
authority of training the militia, according to the
discipline prescribed by congress.

Congress exercises exclusive legislative control in
all cases whatsoever over the District of Columbia
(the seat of government of the United States), and
over all places purchased for the erection of forts,
magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful
buildings. Congress has power to dispose of and
make all needful rules and regulations respecting
the territory or other property belonging to the
United States, and to make all laws which shall be
necessary and proper for carrying into execution
all powers vested by the constitution in the govern-
ment of the United States, or in any department
or offices thereof.

Constitutional Limitations. — Congress cannot

ass a bill of attainder or any ex post facto law.
Neither ean it lay any tax or duty upon articles
exported from any state, or give preference to the
ports of one state over those of another, by any
regulation of commerce or revenue; nor can it
compel vessels bound to or from one state to enter,
clear, or pay duties in another. It cannot enact a
law taking from the citizen his private property
for public use without compensation therefor.

Congress cannot make any law respecting an

CONGRESS

417

establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech
or of the press, or denying the right of the people
bly to assemble, and to petition the govern-
ment for a redress of grievances. Congress cannot
enact any law that will render the people insecure
in their persons, houses, papers, and effects from
unreasonable searches and seizures; or authorise
any warrants to issue but upon probable cause
supported by oath or affirmation, particularly
describing the place to be searched, and the persons
or things to be seized. Congress has no power to
take from a person accused of crime his right to
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial Jury of
the state or district wherein the crime was com-
mitted ; or his right to be informed of the nature
and cause of the accusation, to be confronted with
the witnesses against him, and to have compulsory
em for obtaining witnesses in his favour; or
is right to be defended by counsel. It cannot
enact a law requiring excessive bail, imposin
excessive fines, or inflicting cruel and unusua
punishments.

Senate.—The senate is composed of two senators
from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof
for a term of six years, so arranged that one-third
of all the senators shall go out every two years.
No person is eligible for the office of senator unless
he is thirty years of age, has been a citizen of the
United States nine years, and is an inhabitant of
the state for which he is chosen. The senate is
mtg over by the vice-president of the United

tates, but in case that officer is acting president
_ of the United States, or is unable to preside, the
senate elects a presiding officer pro tempore. It
chooses all its other officers. The senate has the
sole power to try impeachments presented by the
House of Representatives, and when sitting in
that capacity the senators are sworn or affirmed.
Should the president of the United States be on
trial, the chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the
United States presides, and two-thirds of the
senate may convict, upon which judgment of
removal from office and disqualification to hold any
office of honour, trust, or profit under the United
States may be pronounced.

House of Representatives.—The House of Repre-
sentatives is composed of members chosen every
second year by the people of the several states.
It elects a Speaker to preside over its deliberations,
and all its other officers. No person can be a re-
presentative in congress who has not attained the

re of twenty-five years and been seven years a
citizen of the United States, and he must be an
inhabitant of the state in which he is chosen.

The representatives are apportioned among the
several states according to the number of their
inhabitants respectively, counting the whole num-
ber of persons in each state, excluding Indians not
taxed. But when the right to vote at any election
for the choice of electors for president and vice-
president of the United States, representatives in
congress, the executive and judicial officers of a
state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is
denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state,
being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the
United States, or is in any way abridged, except
for aaa pee in rebellion or other crime, by con-
stitutional provision the basis of representation is
reduced in the proportion which the number of
such male citizens rs to the whole number of
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such
state. The first article of the United States Con-
stitution provides that there shall not be more than
one representative to every 30,000 inhabitants ; but
the increase in population necessitated an increase
in the unit of population, to prevent the House
from ig unwieldy, and the reapportionment

after the census of 1900 gave 194,000 inhabitants as
the unit, or 386 members in all. Each organized
territory sends one delegate to the House of Repre-
sentatives ; he may debate, but cannot vote.

The House of Representatives has tne sole power
of impeachment of the executive and judicial
officers of the United States, and must present the
charges on which it rests to the senate for trial.
Each house is judge of the elections, returns, and
qualifications of its own members, and a majority
constitute a quorum to do business; but a less
number may adjourn from day to day, and may
be authorised to compel the attendance of absent
members.

Each house determines the rules of its own pro-
cedure, and may punish its members for disorderly
behaviour, and also may compel the attendance of
witnesses before its committees, and inflict punish-
ment for contempt of its authority.

Each house must keep a journal of its proceed-
ings, and must publish the same (excepting such
parts as may in their judgment require secrecy),
and at the desire of one-fifth of the members
present, the yeas and nays of the members votin
on any question must be entered on the journal.
But neither house, during the session of congress,
without the consent of the other, can adjourn for
more than three days, nor to any other place than
that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

No senator or representative may be aeere
to any civil office under the authority of the United
States which shall have been created during the
time for which he was elected, and no person hold-
ing any office under the United States can, during
his continuance in office, be a member of either
house of congress.

Members of congress are privileged from arrest,
except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace,
during their attendance upon their public duties.

Two-thirds of the senators present must concur
in any treaty which may be made, and in all
pS gate by the president of ambassadors, or
other public ministers and consuls, judges of the
Supreme Court of the United States, and such
other officers whose appointments are not other-
wise provided for.

By the amendments to the Constitution of the
United States, abolishing slavery, guaranteeing
civil rights, the validity of the public debt of the
United States, and forbidding the denial or abridg-
ment of the United States citizen’s right to vote on
account of race, colour, or previous condition of
servitude, congress is empowered to enforce these
provisions by appropriate legislation.

When any person, having taken an oath to
support the constitution of the United States, as
an executive or judicial officer of the United States
or of any state, or as a member of congress or state
legislature, is, by article xiv. of the United States
constitution, ineligible to the position of senator
or representative, or elector of president and vice-
president of the United States, or to any office,
civil or military, under the government of the
United States, from having engaged in insurrec-
tion or rebellion against the same, congress is
empowered to remove this disability by a two-
thirds vote of both houses.

Acts or CONGRESS are the legislative enactments
of the two houses of congress. Bills may originate in
either house (except bills for raising revenue, which
must originate in the House of Representatives), and
be nteideosd by any member, and may be amended
in either house. They are usually referred to the
Spe gga standing committee for examination
and report; and are read a first, second, and third
time before being put upon their final passage,
being subject to modification or amendment and
diseussion, according to the rules in each house.

418 CONGRESS

CONGREVE

After a bill has been passed by both houses, it is
Sj st to the’ president of the United States for
is approval and signature. If he approves and
signs it, it becomes a law. If he does not approve
it, the president returns it, with his objections, to
the house in which it originated ; and that house
must enter his objections at large upon its journal,
and proceed to reconsider it. If after reconsider-
ation it is passed by a two-thirds vote, it is sent to
the other house with the president’s objections, by
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if
approved by two-thirds of that house, it becomes a
law; the vote in both houses must be taken by
yeas and nays, and the names of the voters for or
against are entered upon the journal of each house
respectively. If the bill is not returned by the
Pasyncgy within ten days (Sundays excepted), it
ecomes a law-in the same manner as if he had
-signed it, unless congress by adjournment prevents
its return, in which case it does not become a law.
Every order, resolution, or vote to which the
concurrence of both houses is necessary (except
adjournment) must likewise be presented to the
president after passage, and in case of his dis-
pare (or veto) must be repassed by a two-
thirds vote in the same manner as bills, in order
to become a law notwithstanding his objections.
Congress is usually in session during severale
months, but can adjourn at any time by the con-
currence of a majority in both houses. A special
session may be called by the president of the
United States, however, in cases of emergency, or
if congress has adjourned without passing the ap-
propriation bills necessary for the expenses of gov-
ernment. Each congress ends on 4th March, ever
second year, at twelve o’clock noon. See J. W.
Moore, The American Congress (1895).

Congreve, RICHARD, Positivist, born at Leam-
ington, Sept. 4, 1818, and educated under Arnold
at Rugby, became a scholar, fellow, and tutor of
Wadham College, Oxford, but resigned after having
become definitively a disciple of Comte. He died
July 5, 1899. In 1855 he published a good edition
of Aristotle’s Politics. Later works are Lectures on
the Roman Empire of the West (1855); Elizabeth
of England (1862); The Catechism of Positivist

eligion (1858); Essays: Political, Social, and
Religious (1874); besides many propagandist ser-
mons and addresses.

Congreve, WILLIAM, the greatest master of
the English comedy of repartee, as distinguished
from the humoristic or Jonsonian comedy which
it replaced, was born at Bardsey, near Leeds, and
baptised on February 10, 1669 (1670). As a school-
boy he was educated at Kilkenny, and as an under-
essary at Trinity College, Dublin. And if this

oes really make an English gentleman an Irish
one, as certain writers learned in ‘racial mixings’
have generously assumed, Congreve’s genius may
be taken as another proof that English wit, like
English poetry, is the outcome of that mysterious
‘Celtic element,’ or breath of the ‘Celtic Titan’
discovered by the late Matthew Arnold. After the
completion of his education, Congreve returned to
England, and began life in London, where, like
Wycherley, and, indeed, like many another man of
letters, he entered upon the study of the law—an
arid study, as is generally supposed, for a wit, and
yet one which (being the study of the practical logic
of life) does more than any other, it has been
said, to solidify and strengthen the disparate forces
of the intellect in whatsoever field those forces may
afterwards come to be exercised. Entered at the
Middle Temple, but finding, as Leigh Hunt says,
that ‘having family as well as wit and scholarship,’
he could ‘make way in life without a profession,’
Congreve invaded very early the literary arena

where ‘family and wit and scholarship’ were in.
those old days of more account than would now
seem possible. His first publication was Incognita,

‘or Love and Duty Reconciled, a novel of cross-pur-

poses and disguises, based partly on reminiscences.
of the method of Shakespeare’s fancy-plays, and
partly on reminiscences of a very different dramatic
method, that of the new prose comedy which,
invented by Etheredge, had been very greatly
strengthened by Wycherley. When Dr Johnson
said of this novel that he ‘would rather praise it
than read it,” he spoke with his usual sagacity—
indeed, he may be said to have marked out a course
of criticism which has found high favour among

succeeding critics of fiction—a course which is, no,

doubt, as wise as amiable in regard to nine novels
out of any given ten. But whether the tenth, the
novel to be read as well as praised, should properly
be Rasselas or Incognita seems to depend, now as.
then, on the temper and the constitution of the
praiser. If Rasselas is the more instructive, Incog-
nita is the more amusing. For though to langh
with the author is difficult, to langh at him is easy
enough, and laughter is certainly good. Congreve’s-
coral is rich in ‘cultismo’ of that highly ornate
kind which has at intervals illuminated modern
literature from Gongora to Dr Chivers. Such a.
passage as that in which Congreve talks about his.

eroine’s employing one of Cupid’s pen-feathers ‘ to
pick her teeth’ would have satisfied even such
masters of style as the author of Polyphemus and
the author of Honchs of Ruby. :

That a story so full of that silly mock-sentiment-
then in vogue—stuff which would now make even.
school-girls langh—should have been written by the
great wit and humorist of Love for Love—that the
story should have had a very arres success among”
those same cynical beaux and brazen belles who
were in the habit of sitting out She Would if She
Could and the Country Wife would be incredible:
did we not remember the still more astonishing fact
that the love-passion—the passion which Shake-
speare and Ford and the rest of the Shakespearians.
had delineated so powerfully—was, judging from
the literature of Congreve’s. time, wiped out as.
by a sponge from the English character. It is not
enough to say that as soon as the wits of the
coffee-houses attempted to touch the love-passion

their sense of humour stretent eX fled: their —

common sense fled too; they became idiots, posi-
tive idiots. As far as date of publication goes,
Congreve’s novel was followed by his translation of
the eleventh satire of Juvenal. This appeared in
Dryden’s Juvenal and Persius, dated 1693, but.
actually published in 1692. From Dryden, to
whom he ‘had been introduced it is said by
Southerne, Congreve received unvarying kindness.
—kindness which was answered by unvarying
gratitude, or rather by that generosity of recogni-
tion among fine spirits—the sublimation of grati-
tude—which is said to be undreamed of by smaller
souls. In January 1693 appeared Congreve s comedy
the Old Bachelor, under the auspices of Dryden—
‘then as now a living and immortal witness to the
falsehood of the vulgar charge which taxes the
greater among the poets with jealousy or envy, the
natural badge and brand of the smallest that would
claim a place among their kind.’ But if Dryden
was free from envy, the disease which, according:
to the above skilful diagnosis by Mr Swinburne,
afflicts poetasters and criticasters alone, not less:
free from this literary leprosy was Congreve him-
self. This is what makes him, notwithstanding his:
rank-worship, so interesting as a personality ; this.
is what also makes the other comic dramatists.
Etheredge and Vanbrugh interesting, so interesting,
that we would fain, if we dared, condone even suc

sins against the sanctities of art as theirs; they

’ jsed to write, whether in verse or in

CONGREVE

419

were free from the disease which it seems feeds the
lower slopes of Parnassus with poisonous air. No
three writers were ever more generally beloved—
none were ever beloved more deservedly than these.
And even Wycherley—he whose literary sins were
the most grievous of all—was, on account of his fine
social qualities, called ‘Manly Wycherley.’ That
a corrupt court should have spoiled such men as
these is, among all the heavy impeachments of the
Restoration, the heaviest.

Congreve's freedom from the fussy egotism of
the literator served him in good stead in regard
to the Old Bachelor. Dryden, while declaring that
he ‘never saw such a first play in his life,’ hinted
at the same time that a great deal of skilful
manipulation was required before it could be safely
placed upon the boards. And he and Southerne
and Maynwari ng who set about manipulating it,
seem to have had from Congreve carte blanche to do
with it as they liked. The brilliant success of the
Old Bachelor—a play whose merits were of entirely
a literary kind—is evidence of the enormous change
that has come over play-goers since those days.
Congreve’s second comedy, the Double Dealer, which
appeared in the November of 1693, was more firmly
knit, and in every way stronger than the Old
Bachelor, but the satire on the morals of the time
—especially on the meanness and heartless treachery
in sexual relations which had become the fashion of
the court, was administered in too serious a temper
to please an audience composed largely of the very
people satirised.: The empty-h beaux and
callous women who went to the theatre went there
to be amused, not to be sermonised. But besides
this repellent quality, the play suffered from a want
of dramatic illusion greater in a certain sense than
even the Old Bachelor had displayed. An audience
can scarcely be interested in the doings of a villain
who every few minutes comes to the footlights in
order to assure them what a consummate villain he
is, and on what admirable psychological principles
his creator has fashioned him, nor yet in a hero
who lets a villain do what he will in order that the
dramatist’s ye: may be conveniently worked out.
In stage-craft Congreve was always weaker than
Vanbrugh and Wycherley, but the weakness made
itself specially conspicuous here.

It was to this play that was prefixed Dryden’s
famous verses ‘To my dear friend, Mr Congreve,’
verses whose generosity passes into pathos. Con-
greve’s next publication was the Mourning Muse
of Alexis, a poetic dialogue upon the subject of

ueen Mary’s death, as full of artificial conceits as
his novel. Love for Love, the finest prose comedy
in the English language, finished in 1694, was pro-
duced at the ‘theatre in Little Lincolns Inn Fields’
in 1695. It has an abandonment of humour, an
irresistible rush of sparkling merriment, such as
Congreve’s previous plays had not promi n
judging of its qualities we must not forget that
In comedy as in tragedy—in prose as in verse—
nothing is really informed by artistie vitality
which lacks the rhythmic rush born of creative
enjoyment. ‘To him who is really and truly organ-
rose, there is
always in the genuine exercise of his faculty a sense
of sport as delightful as it is deep, an exhilaration
that cannot be simulated and that cannot be sup-
plies to the nervous system of the true writing man

any other stimulant. Not all the Paradis arti-
ciels summoned up by the genii of Opium, Hash-
ish, or Alcohol, can oranee with the true paradise
which the Genius of the Inkhorn throws open to the
born literator when the impulse is really upon him.
And as surely as the hilarity of artistic creation is
seen in Aristophanes, in Lucian, in Rabelais, in
Shakespeare, in Swift, in Dickens, is it seen in
Congreve’s Love for Love. No wonder then that of

all his plays it was the last to be banished from the
sone So late as 1842 Macready revived it (modi-
fied of course) at Drury Lane, and this was followed
by still later revivals, the last of all being a version
of the play in three acts, compressed by Mr John
Hollingshead at the Gaiety Theatre in November
1871, with Miss Cavendish in Angelica and Miss
Farren in Prue. In Love for Love culminated the
prose comedy of England. Abundant and brilliant
as is the wit, the coruscations do not, as in Con-
greve’s other plays, outdazzle the sweeter and
softer light of the humour. The characterisa-
tion is true, true under the conditions which,
as he himself admirably said in his letter to
Dennis, the comedian must always work under.
‘The distance of the stage,’ says he, ‘requires the
Saute repropented to be something better than the
life ; and, sure, a picture may have features larger
in proportion and yet be very like the original. If
this exactness of quantity were to be observed in
wit, as some would have it in humour, what would
become of those characters that are designed for
men of wit? I believe, if a poet should steal a dia-
logue of any length from the extempore discourse
of the two wittiest men upon earth, he would find
the scene but coldly received by the town.’

Some of the characterisation, such as that of
Angelica, is really beautiful, while some, like that
of Sir Sampson Legend, in its genial breadth passes
from the comedy of artifice into absolute comedy,
and is almost hakenvonteni; In 1697 Congreve's
one tragedy, the Mourning Bride, appeared. The
honours it received in the 18th century were as
excessive as the contempt it met with in the next.
No doubt it is full of improbabilities, but it shows
a considerable power of invention of melodramatic
if not of tragic incident. The purely theatric and
scenic qualities of the second act are of a most
original, if not of high order, and with the scenic
appliances of our own day might be made theatric-
ally effective. Of course, however, it is cold—
cold as those ‘monumental caves of death’ which
‘shot a chillness’ to the ‘trembling hearts’ of Drs
Johnson and Blackmore—and nothing could really
warm it.

Between the date of the Mourning Bride and
that of Congreve’s last comedy, the Way of the
World, he was busily occupied, in company with
several others, in the famous Jeremy Collier con-
troversy, defending the morality of the new stage.
The t mistake of Congreve’s life was this—
of defending his plays on moral grounds. To ‘let
well alone’ is wise : to let ill alone is perhaps wiser
still. Of all sins, that of producing harmful litera-
ture is the blackest. It is the peculiar glory of
letters that stronger than king or kaiser is he who
writes strongly. Tt is so to-day: it was so when
the warrior kings of Nineveh went out to rea
glory—i.e., to slay and flay—in order to furnis
the scribe with subjects—in order that the scribe
should, in bas-relief and cuneiform character,
record their doings. Hence, in the truest and
deepest sense, to write is, as Bishop Butler has said,
to act ; and if, as he declares, ‘ endeavouring to force
upon our minds a practical sense of virtue, or to
beget in others that practical sense of it which a
man really has himself, is a virtuous act,’ what,
on the other hand, was the act of him who wrote
an scenes in the Double Dealer and Love for

ove ? i

And yet even this new stage was not without
one saving grace till Congreve defended it ; it had
a frankness in sin: that was something at least.
Its place was not alongside those filthy French
fictions of our own time which, while dering
to the bestial side of man, set up an impudent

retence of doing so for the good of his soul. But
ongreve in his lame defence condescended to

420 CONGREVE

CONIFER

the part of the hypocrite—condescended to exploit
Aristotle’s paradox about comedy being an imita-
tion of bad characters—an imitation with an ethi-
cal end; as if such comedy as his had anything
to do with ethical ends! Notwithstanding the
conventional tags at the end of Congreve’s plays
—tags which had no serious meaning, and were
meant to have none—the ‘Seventh Hell’ of the
Hypocrite could never claim the author of Love
ea Love until he set about defending that play.

etter to leave ill alone, we say.

Congreve’s last play, the Way of the World, was
_ produced in 1700. Though quite as full of intellec-
tual brilliance as Love for Love, and evidently
written with more care, not to say labour, it lacks
the humorous impulse which we have seen in Con-
greve’s masterpiece. The glitter is that of icicles
in the sunlight. The wit of the dialogue is not
sufficiently held in hand to work out the characters
and the plot. In a word, it comes more completely
than does any other of Congreve’s plays within the
scope of the Duke of Buckinghamshire’s strictures
upon the comedy of repartee :

Another fault, which often does befal,

Is when the wit of some great poet shall

So overflow, that is, be none at all,

That ev’n his fools speak sense, as if possest,
And each by inspiration breaks his jest,

If once the justness of each part be lost,
Well may we laugh, but at the poet’s cost.

This play was received with comparative coldness,
and Congreve wrote no more for the stage; but he
lived till January 1729. Socially his life was one
unbroken success. Physical suffering he had, but
most of it was the result perhaps of his own youth-
ful indiscretions. Kneller’s portrait shows him to
have been a handsome man with dark eyes. His
career shows him to have been a man of fine genius
who, smitten with the English canker of rank-
worship, succeeded in half-misprising his endow-
ments and living and dying genteel. He amassed
a fortune, and left it not to his greatest friend
Mrs Bracegirdle, a woman of genius, of surpassing
beauty, and most lovable nature, who had sacri-
ficed everything for him, but to the Duchess of
Marlborough, who, after his death, had a waxen
statue of him made—a statue which sat at her
table in his very clothes, and nodded mechanically
over the dinner at Her Grace’s smallest joke, even
as he had used to nod in the flesh.

See the Comedies, edited by W. E. Henley (1895); the
edition by Knight ; the short Life by Gosse (1888); and
essays by Hazlitt, Swinburne, and others.

Congreve, Str WILLIAM, was born 20th May
1772, the son of William Congreve, Comptroller
of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich. Young
Congreve passed through the Royal Academy
at Woolwich, and in 1808, after a long series
of experiments, contrived the Congreve rocket.
It was tried in the Basque roads in 1809, and
at Leipzig in 1813, scarcely with the success
that was expected. Honours were heaped on
Congreve ; he was elected F.R.S., and returned to
parliament in 1812. Two years later he succeeded
to the baronetey and his father’s place. He died
at Toulouse, 16th May 1828. See Rocker,

Coni, or CUNEO, capital of an Italian province,
stands in a fruitful district, 48 miles SW. of Turin
by rail. It has a fine cathedral, lately restored.
It was once strongly fortified, and a place of great
strategic importance. Its chief manufactures are
silk, cotton, and paper. Pop. 13,500.

Conic Sections. See Cons, Circe, ELLIPsE,
PARABOLA, and HYPERBOLA.

Coniferz. This important and interesting
order of dicotyledons attained its maximum import-
“nce during past geological periods; its world-wide

eographical distribution and strongly marked
iataliy and generic differences being in this way
explained—i.e. when we regard the existing forms
as the survivors of a larger and once predominant
coniferous flora, which has been in good part dis-

laced by the more recent and higher monocotyle-
lata and dicotyledonous (angiospermous) forms.
About 300 species, included in about 33 genera,
now remain. Leaving the questions of floral mor-
phology and minute structure which separate the
conifers (along with Cycads and Gnetacew) from
the remaining phanerogams or ‘angiosperms’ to
the article GYMNOSPERMS, it may be most profit-
able here to make a rapid survey of the most import-
ant groups of the order, with their principal types.
Various systems of classification have been pro-
pounded ; an old and widely adopted one recognises
three sub-orders, the pines (Abietinez), cypresses
(Cupressinee ), and yews (Taxinez). Since, how:
ever, the first two of these are much less widel

separated from each other than from the third,

later systematists are returning to the classification
of Lindley, and regard these as making up a single
sub-order ( Pinoidez) equivalent to the yew (Taxo-
ide). On account of the exceptional importance
of this order, alike in forestry and horticulture,
a brief enumeration of the families of these sub
orders, with mention of their most important species,
may now be given.

Commencing with the Abietines division of
Pinoidez, we find three families, the

roper (Abietinw), Araucarias (Araucariine), and

axodiums (Taxodiine). The genus Abies (in-
cluding Picea) consists of evergreen trees, or
sometimes shrubs, in which the linear and always
more or less completely needle-shaped leaves arise
singly, and are never clustered in branchlets, while
the scales of the cones are not thickened at the tip.
The list may be headed by the Spruce Fir, or Nor-
way Spruce (A. excel/sa), one of our commonest
trees, while A. Douglasii, A. nobilis, and other
Californian species are of special beauty as trees
and value as timber, with other species too numer-
ous to mention. The old Linnean genus Pinus
(from which the firs, larches, and cedars have been
separated off as Abies, Larix, and Cedrus respect-
ively) still includes about 100 species, easily dis-
tinguished from Abies by the grouping of the
leaves upon arrested branchlets, the thickening
of the tips of the cone-scales, and other characters.

Among the more important species, P. sylvestris

(the Scotch fir), P. austriaca (the Austrian pine), P.
Laricio (the Corsican pine), P. Pinaster (the cluster
pine and P. Pinea (the stone pine of southern

urope), may be first mentioned, alike on account
of their frequency of occurrence in forests and
plantations in Europe, and as agreeing in havin
usually only two leaves on each branchlet.
large and chiefly Californian series agrees in having
three leaves on each sheath. Of these, P. insignis
(the Oregon pitch pine), P. Benthamiana, and P.
radiata may fe mentioned ; finally a series, usually
five-leaved, includes the Weymouth Pine and White
Pine of North-east America (P. Strobus), the
Siberian Stone Pine (P. Cembra), &c. Of the allied
genus Larix (see LARCH) only L. europea (deci-
dua) need here be mentioned, while of Cedrus (see
CEDAR) C. Libanus and C. Deodara are of special
importance. The Araucariine are familiarly re-

resented by the A. imbricata of Chili, so common
in suburban gardens (see ARAUCARIA), and other
more graceful but usually less hardy species; as
also by the important Kauri pine and other species
of Dammara. See DAMMAR.

The Taxodiinze include a number of very import-
ant trees, notably the curious umbrella pine (Sciad-
opitys) of Japan, Cunninghamia sinensis of China,
and the colossal Sequoia ( IVedlingtonia gigantea)

pines.

CONINGTON

CONJURING 421

of California, with its allied species (see SEQUOTA ).
In addition to these we may mention also the
Japanese Cedar sereenene Japonica, the Vir-
ginian Bald Cypress (7axodium distichum ).

Among the Cupressinee we have first the
eypresses proper, which includes besides the well-
known genus Cupressus (see CYPRESS) the closely
allied Retinospora of Japan. Juniperus (see JUNI-
PER) alone forms another sub-family ; while Thuja
(see ARBOR Vit) with its immediate allies Thu-

opsis and Libocedrus constitute a third; and
Callitris with Actinostrobus and Fitzroya make
up the fourth,

Passing now to the sub-order of yews (Taxoidee )
we have again two main divisions, the yews proper
or Taxew, and the Podocarpee. Among the latter
we shall only mention the oriental genus Podo-

us, and the beautiful Dacrydium cupressinum
of New Zealand; but the former are of much
ped variety and importance (see YEW). Besides

e species of Taxus, we have especially the Chinese
and Japanese Cephalotaxus, the curious Ginkgo
(Salisburia) adiantifolia of the same region, to-

ther with the Chinese and Californian species of

orreya.

In addition to the general article GYMNOSPERMS,
and to those devoted to particular genera or species
of conifers, the reader should especially consult
Engler’s Pllanzenfamilien, both for a full summary
of our present knowledge and copious references.
For the Bd ee of the English horticulturist
Veitch’s Manual of Conifere is most exhaustive,
while Gordon’s Pinetum, and Hemsley’s Handbook
of Hardy Trees, &c. (Lond. 1877), will be found of
service to the amateur.

Conington, JOHN, a great classical scholar,
was born at Raton: 10th August 1825. He was
educated at Beverley, and for five years at Rugby,
obtained a demyship at Magdalen Bates, Oxtord,
in 1843, and next year carried off, in the same term,
the Hertford and Ireland scholarships. In 1846 he
betook himself to University College, where he was
elected to a fellowship two years later. Other
distinctions he won were the chancellor's prize for
Latin verse, for an English essay, and for a Latin
essay. Determining not to take orders, he tried
the study of law, but soon abandoned it in disgust.
In 1854 he was appointed to the newly-founded
chair of Latin Language and Literature at Oxford,
which he filled until his untimely death at his
native place, October 23, 1869. The impulse that
Conington’s lofty and contagious enthusiasm gave
to classical scholarship and real culture in England
was far more considerable than anything he was
able to effect in the way of performance. His
unique personality and the singular charm of his
simple but serious nature made a profound and

rmanent impression upon his friends and pupils.

is greatest work is his edition of Virgil (3 vols.
1861-68), with its singularly subtle and suggestive
essays. His edition of the Agamemnon (1848) and
Choephori (1857) of A&schylus are of less moment,
though indeed the latter is admirable. In his last
years he gave himself much to translation, the
results of which were his metrical version of the
Odes of Horace (1863); the dA?neid (1866), in
Scott’s ballad-metre; the Jiiad (1868), in the
Spenserian stanza; and the Satires and Epistles of
Horane (1869), in the couplet of Pope. Of these
the last is without doubt the most valuable. His
edition of Persius was published in 1872, and in the
same year his Miscellaneous Writings (2 vols.), with
a short Life by Professor H. J. 8. Smith.

Conirostres, a term often applied to a section
of Passerine birds, characterised by a strong conical
beak. It includes numerous families, and such
types as weaver-birds, finches, sparrows, and larks.

The character referred to is too external and adap-
tive to be of much importance, and the term is too
wide in its hs pega to be of much use, It is
better disused.

Coniston Grits and Flags, a series of sili-
ceous sandstones, grits, flags, and conglomerates,
belonging to the Silurian system of Cumberland,
&e. They take their name from Coniston in Lanca-
shire, and attain a maximum thickness of probably
not less than 7000 feet. They are characterised—
the finer pest beds (flags) especially—by the

resence of many species of graptolites and other
ossils. They are believed to be on the same

logical horizon as the Denbighshire grits and
te of Wales. See SILURIAN SYSTEM.

Coniston Lake, in the English Lake District,
lies in North Lancashire, at the east foot of the
Coniston Fells, 9 miles W. of Bowness on Winder-
mere, and 10 by rail NNE. of Foxfield Junction.
It is 5 miles long, 4 mile broad, 147 feet above the
sea, and its greatest depth is 260 feet. Its waters
abound with trout and perch. On the east shore
stand Ruskin’s home, Brantwood, and Tent House,
once Tennyson’s. The Old Man of Coniston, to the
north-west, is 2633 feet high. See LAKE DIsTRICT.

Conium, See HEMLOcK.

Conjeveram ( Kanchivaram), ‘the Benares of
South India,’ 45 miles SW. of Madras by rail, with
three old pagodas, ancient tanks, and Free Church
missions. Here Hyder Ali defeated the British in
1780. Pop. (1881) 37,275; (1891) 42,548.

Conjugal Rights. See MARRIAGE.

Conjugation of Cells, a mode of reproduc-
tion in which two apparently similar cells unite, as
in Ameeba, Diatoms, Spirogyra, &e. See ALG&,

DEsSMIDs, DIATOMS, and REPRODUCTION.

Conjunction, in Astronomy, is one of the
Aspects (q.v.) of the planets. Two heavenly bodies
are in conjunction when they have the same longi-
tude—that is, when the same gl aay weg to the
ecliptic passes through both. If they have, at the
same time, the same latitude—that is, if they are
both equally far north or south of the ecliptie—they
appear from the earth to be in the same spot of the
heavens, and to cover one another. The sun and
moon are in conjunction at the period of new moon.
In the case of the inferior planets Mercury and
Venus, there is an inferior conjunction when the
planet is between the earth and the sun, and a
superior when the sun is between the earth and the
planet. In general, a heavenly body is in conjune-
tion with the sun when it is on the same side of the
earth, and in a line with him; and it is in oppost-
tion to the sun when it is on the opposite side of
the earth, the earth being in a line between it and
the sun. Planets are invisible when in conjunction
with the sun, except in rare cases when an inferior
planet passes over the sun’s disc, and may be seen
as a speck on his surface. Conjunctions are either
geocentric or heliocentric, according as they are
actually witnessed from the earth, oras they would
be witnessed if observed from the sun. In observ-
ing a conjunction from the earth’s surface it is
usual to reduce the observation to what it would be
if made from the earth’s centre; by this means
the exact times of conjunction are more accurately
fixed, and the observations of one astronomer made
available to every other, wherever he may be on the
earth’s surface. Grand conjunctions are those where
several stars or planets are found together. Chinese
history records one in the reign of the Emperor
Tehuen-hiu (2514-2436 B.c.), which astronomers
calculate to have actually taken place.

Conjuring, as understood at the present day,
signifies the production of effects apparen
miraculous by natural means.

422 CONJURING

CONNAUGHT

The art of producing apparently supernatural
phenomena has been cultivated from remote an-
tiquity. The earlier professors of the art claimed
bond-fide supernatural powers; and in ages when
the most elementary principles of physical science
were unknown beyond a very limited circle, it was
not difficult to gain credence for such a pretension.
The modern conjurer makes no such claim, but
tells the public frankly that his marvels are illusory,
and rest either on personal dexterity or on some
ingenious BpEHoanon of natural principles. Of the
conjurers of remote antiquity we have few reliable
records; though it is a tolerably safe conjecture
that the prestige of the ancient mysteries rested in
no small degree upon effects of natural magic. It
may also be gathered that the conjurers of old were
familiar with certain forms of optical illusion, in
which the use of plane and concave mirrors, and a

artial anticipation of the principle of the magic-
antern, played prominent parts. Chaucer men-
tions illusions of his own day of which the above
seems the most probable solution. In the accounts
of very early writers, however, large deductions
must be made for the comparative ignorance of the
observer, and the desire, common to all narrators
of extraordinary occurrences, to make the marvel
as marvellous as possible. Perhaps the earliest
really trustworthy authority is Reginald Scot,
who in his Discoverie of Witcheraft (1584) has
enumerated the stock feats of the conjurers of his
day. The list includes swallowing a knife; burn-
ing a card and reproducing it from the pocket
of a spectator; passing a coin from one pocket
to another; converting money into counters, or
counters into money; conveying money into the
hand of another person; making a coin pass
through a table, or vanish from a handkerchief ;
tying a knot, and undoing it ‘by the power of
words ;’ taking beads from a string, the ends of
which are held fast by another person; making
corn to pass from one box to another; turning
wheat into flour ‘ by the power of words ;’ burning a
thread and making it whole again; pulling ribbons
from the mouth ; prone | a knife into the head
or arm; F bie 3 a ring through the cheek; and
cutting off a person’s head and restoring it to its
former position. Strange to say, many of these
feats, which were doubtless already old in the time
of Scot, are still performed, with more or less varia-
tion of detail, by conjurers at the present day.

The conjurers of Scot’s time, and even of much
later date, were accustomed, in order to facilitate
the substitutions on which a great part of their
tricks depended, to wear an apron with pockets,
known (from its resemblance to a game-bag ) as the
gibéciére. A later school suppressed this tell-tale
article of costume, and used instead a table, with
cover reaching nearly or quite to the ground. This
table concealed an assistant, who worked most of
the required transformations, &c., either handing
the needful articles to the conjurer as he passed
behind the table, or pushing them up through traps
in the table-top. Conus the elder, a French con-
jurer who flourished at the close of the 18th cen-
tury, made a further ao prevetnyas by discarding the
concealed assistant, and using an undraped table
with a secret shelf (now known as the servante)
behind it, on which his substitutions were made.
His immediate competitors did not follow his
example, a whole generation of later conjurers,
including Comte, Bosco, and Philippe, retaining
the suggestive draped table. Its death-blow, how-
ever, was struck by Robert Houdin (1805-71), with
whom about 1844 a new era began. His miniature
theatre in the Palais Royal was remarkable for the
elegant simplicity of its stage arrangements, and in
particular for the complete suppression of the boite
a conypere ( ‘wooden confederate’ ),. as Robert Houdin

sarcastically terms it. The new style took with
the public, and by degrees Robert Houdin’s con-
temporaries found themselves compelled to follow
his example.

To Robert Houdin belongs the credit of devising
some of the best-known aad most ingenious pieces
of magical apparatus, as also that of the applica-
tion of electro-magnetism, then little understood,
to the production of magical effects. The well-
known magic drum, that beats. without visible
drumsticks, the magic clock and bell, and the
chest, light or heavy at command, are all fruits of
his inventive genius.

The most modern school of conjurers, following
the lead of Wiljalba Frikell, and at present repre-
sented by Hartz, Hermann,.Buatier de Kolta, Ver-
beck, Lynn, Bertram, &c., generally aim at pro-
ducing their magical results with the minimum of
visible apparatus. There are, however, signs of a
reaction in favour of more spectacular illusions,

such as those of Messrs Maskelyne and Cooke, in»

which the resources of optical and acoustic, as well
as mechanical science, are laid under contribution
in aid of conjuring proper. See the articles MAGIC
and JUGGLERS.

For practical information as to the methods of conjurers,
see Hoffmann’s Modern Magic (6th ed. 1886) and More
Magic (1889); Sleight of Hand, by Edwin Sachs (2d
ed. 1885); Robert Houdin’s Secrets de la Prestidigita-
tion et de la Magie (1868; reprinted in: 1878 under the

title of Comment on. devient Sorcier) and Mayie @& -
Physique Amusante (1877); and an snDU yous work, ©

Recueil de Tours de Physique Amusante ( published by De
La Rue of Paris). The three last-named works have been
translated into English by Hoffmann, under the titles of

The Secrets of Conjuring and Magic, The Secrets of Stage ~

Conjuring, and Drawin,-room Conjuring respectively.
Conkling, Roscor, American politician, born
in Albany, New York, 30th October 1829, was
admitted to the bar in 1850, sat in congress as a
Republican in 1858-62 and 1864-66, and was elected

to the United States senate in 1867, 1873, and 1879. —

He was now an influential member of his party ; in
1876 he received ninety-three votes for the presiden-
tial nomination, and, in 1880, by - his i of
Grant, and his personal opposition to Blaine, divided
the Republicans into two sections. In 1881 he and
his ser eon suddenly resigned from the senate,
owing to a dispute with President Garfield on a
question of patronage, and sought re-election ; but
after a warm canvass, both were rejected, though
vigorously supported by Vice-president Arthur,
Conkling afterwards practised law in New York
city. He died 18th April 1888.

Conn, Loves, a picturesque Irish lake in the
north of County Mayo, together with Lough Cullin
(from which it is separated by a narrow neck of
land ), 13 miles long, and 1 to 3 broad. It lies in a
wild romantic region of hills, glens, rocky slopes,
precipices, broken ground, and bogs, contains many
islets, and has bold shores.

Connara’ceze, a sub-order of Terebinthacez,
including about 25 species, all tropical, of which
the most important is Omphalobium Lamberti of
Guiana, the source of the zebra-wood of cabinet-
makers.

Connaught, the most westerly and the smallest,
both in extent and population, of the four provinces
of Ireland. It is bounded N. and W..by the
Atlantic; E. by Ulster and Leinster, from the
latter of which it is separated by the Shannon ;
and S. by Munster. It contains the counties of
Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo.
Greatest length from north to south, 105 miles;
greatest breadth, not including Achil Island, 92
miles. Area, 6863 sq. m. The west coast has
many fine bays and harbours, and the surface,
especially in the western half, is mountainous and

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CONNECTICUT

CONNOISSEUR 42%

rugged, forming remarkably grand and picturesque
meenery. The ~ ee le are still almost aly Celtic.

. In ancient times the O’Connors were ings of Con-

a In 1590 the province was divided by the
English into six counties, its present five, with
In 1874 the
title Duke of Connanght was conferred on Prince
Arthur, third son of Queen Victoria. The terri-
torial regiment, the Connaught Rangers, once the
88th foot, now comprises the old 88th and 94th
regiments (with four battalions of militia). Pop.
(1841) 1,420,705 ; (1851) 1,015,479 ; (1861) 919,135 ;
et $17,197 ; (1891) 723,578, a decrease due to
amine and emigration.

Connecticut (on-net’-i-cut), a state of the
aeen gee Monn g 3 its manufacturing
industries, is bounce ‘ rad 1897, and
Massachusetts, E. by Rhode 1900, inthe UB. by J. B.
Island, S. by Long Island Sound, ! M!PP!eott Company.
W. by New York. Itis the smallest in area of all the
states, excepting Rhode Island and Delaware ; but
there were in 1880 ten states smaller in population
than Connecticut. Its area is 4845 sq. m., or nearly
two-thirds that of Wales, It is one of the most
«densely sorenee states of the Union. A great
aad of the surface is rocky and uneven, and the

reen and Taconic Mountains of the Appalachian
system occupy a considerable part of the western
extremity of the state; but the mountains here
are all insignificant in respect of height. Much of
the surface is not easily cultivated, and rather
unfertile ; but a considerable part of the valley of
the Connecticut River is very productive, tobacco
being a leading product of this section. Hay,
potatoes, maize, oats, and rye are the principal
crops. Grazing and milk farms, orchards and
market-gardens, are profitably sustained in all
parts of the state.

_ The Connecticut River, which, rising in New
Hampshire, forms the boundary between that state
and Vermont, and flows south through Massa-
chusetts, crosses Connecticut also, and after a
‘course of about 450 miles enters Long Island Sound,
30 miles east of New Haven. It is navigable for
vessels of light draught as high as Hartford. In
the east part is the River Thames, and in the west
‘the Housatonic, both of which afford some naviga-
tion. But the greatest value of the very numerous
‘streams is as a source of water-power. In 1880
over one-half the power employed in the manu-
factories of the state was water-power; and the
utilised water-power was retu by the United
States census as 12°63 horse-power per sq. m.
The surface-rocks are mostly Azoic, with the
principal exception of a strip of Triassic sandstone
or psammite running along thé Connecticut River.
This brown sandstone is largely quarried at Port-
dand and East Haven, as are excellent red and
plain granites and gneissoid building-stones at
many points; valuable serpentine and _ verde-
antique exist near New Haven. Some quarries
yield excellent flagstones of gneissoid character ;
‘the so-called ‘trap’ rock, here really a diabase of
‘Triassic date, is also wrought; and in the north-
west good limestones of Lower Silurian age are
quarried. Brown hematites are meng 3 wrought
tin the north-west section, and yield excellent iron.
Deposits of lead, copper, and cobalt have been
locally mined. Useful mineral-waters occur at
various points. The climate is very changeable, and
iis rather severe in winter, but generally healthful.
Nearly the whole surface was once richly forested ;
but no very extensive areas are now covered by
large timber; still the aggregate production of
wood for building purposes and for fuel is very
considerable. The sea-coast affords a number of
good harbours. Most of the maritime enterprise is
mow directed to’ the coast-wise trade, the whale

and seal fisheries having declined. Oyster-fishing
is engaged in largely and very systematically, as
is the taking of fish for oil and fish-guano. ‘The
manufactures of Connecticut are carried on upon
a very extensive scale, and are of A ge
varied character; and notwithstanding its smal)
area, the state stands in the first rank as re-
spects the amount and aggregate value of manu-
factured goods. Clocks, hardware, india-rubber
goods, firearms, silks and other textiles, and small-
wares in great variety, are produced on a large
scale. Life, fire, and accident insurance, and the
publication of subscription books, receive great
attention. Thestate is well supplied with railways.
Few parts of the world do more for popular educa-
tion than does this state. The public-school sys-
tem dates from 1644, and is supp emented by pri-
vate, denominational, and parochial schools of ever
grade. The public librariesarenumerous. Yale Uni-
versity at New Haven comprises collegiate and
post-graduate courses, besides medical, theological,
scientific, law, and art schools, and takes a very
high place among the seats of learning in the
country. Mention should be made of Trinity
College, Hartford, and of the Wesleyan Universit
at Middletown. There are also divinity schoo
at Hartford (Congregationalist) and Middletown
(Episcopalian). The state is divided into 8 coun-
ties: Fairfield, Hartford, Litchfield, Middlesex, New
Haven, New London, Tolland, Windham, and
among the principal cities and towns are Hartford
(the capital), New Haven, Bridgeport, Norwich,
Norwalk, New Britain, and New London.

The old stock of inhabitants were of English
Puritan origin, but of later years there has been
a large immigration of Irish, German, English,
and others, he colony of Connecticut may be
said to date from 1634, when the movement
began in which Hartford, Wethersfield, and
Windsor were settled by persons removing from
Massachusetts, and displacing a slender colony
of the Dutch. This movement was in reality
the secession of the more democratic element from
Massachusetts. Saybrook, named in honour of
Lord Say-and-Sele and Lord Brooke, was the
nucleus of a separate colony which in 1644 was
united to Connecticut, as was in 1662 the New
Haven colony, founded in 1638. The Connecticut
colony adopted a constitution in 1639, ‘the first
written democratic constitution on record.’ The
royal charter of 1662 was exceedingly liberal, it
being essentially a confirmation of the older con-
stitution ; and it continued in force even after the
independence of the American states, but in 1818
was replaced by the present state constitution. A
large part of Long Island was for a considerable

riod under the government of the colony. Prom-
inent events in Connecticut history have been the
bloody war with the Pequot Indians, 1637; the
governorship of Sir Edmund Andros, during a part
of which (1687-88) the colonial charter was in
abeyance, and according to the very doubtful but
commonly received account was only saved from
destruction by being hidden for a time in a hollow
tree, the Charter Oak at Hartford. Slavery was
abolished in 1818. Pop. (1870) 537,454; (1880)
622,700 (of whom 129,992 were foreign born) ; (1590)
746,258. See Alex. Johnston’s Connecticut (1887).

Connema’ra is the name of the wild and
icturesque district which forms the westernmost
Bivision of County Galway. Its interesting ree
its lakes, streams, and inlets abounding in a
attract many fishers and tourists. Connemara is
also called Ballynahinch.

Connoisseur, a term borrowed from the French,
to designate persons who, without being them-
selves artists, are competent to pass a critical

424 CONODONTS

CONRADIN

judgment upon the merits of works of art, especially
in painting and sculpture. The Italian equivalent
for connoisseurs is Cognoscenti.

Conedonts, minute fossils met with in
Paleozoic strata. They are variable in form, and
look very like the teeth of different kinds of fishes,
some being simple slender pointed sharp-edged
cones, while others are more complex, resembling
in form the teeth of certain sharks. Their affinities
are very uncertain—some maintaining that they are
really the minute teeth of fishes allied to the living
hag-fishes and lampreys—others suggesting that
they have more analogy with the hooklets or
denticles of annelids and naked molluscs.

Conoid, a solid formed by the revolution of a
conic section round its axis; such are the sphere,
paraboloid, ellipsoid, and hyperboloid.

Conolly, JoHN, physician, born at Market
Rasen, Lincolnshire, in 1794, graduated at Edin-
burgh in 1821, and in 1827 settled in London,
where he was for two years professor of the Practice
of Medicine in University College. In 1839 he was
appointed resident physician to the Asylum for the
Insane at Hanwell; this post he held till 1844, and
afterwards he was retained as visiting physician.
Here, under Conolly, all forms of mechanical
restraint were from the first entirely discontinued ;
and although his views were admittedly not orig-
inal, it is mainly to his earnestness and eloquence
that the revolution in asylum management in
England is due. His best works are those on the
Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums
(1847), and kindred subjects. He died 5th March
1866. See the Memoir by Sir James Clark (1869).

Conquest. In the law of succession in Scotland
heritable property acquired during the lifetime of
the deceased, by purchase, donation, or excambion,
was called Conquest, in opposition to that to which
he has succeeded, which is called Heritage. The
distinction was abolished by the Conveyancing Act,
1874. Conquest, in a marriage-contract, is property
acquired by the husband during the marriage as
distinguished from what he possessed before the
marriage. Such property. was frequently but is
now rarely settled either on the heir or on the
issue of the marriage.

Conquistado’res (Span., ‘ conquerors’) is a
collective term for the Spanish conquerors of
America, such as Cortes, Balboa, Pizarro. See the
Saas under their names; as also MEXICO, PERU,

C

Conrad, or Konrap L, king of the Germans,
was the son of the Count of Franconia, and the
nephew of the Emperor Arnulf. He was elected
king (practically emperor of Germany) on the
extinction of the direct line of the Carlovingians
in 911 A.D. He gradually re-established the im-
perial authority over most of the German princes,
carried on an unsuccessful war with France, and at
last fell mortally wounded at Quedlinburg (918),
in a battle with the Hungarians, who had repeatedly
invaded his dominions. See GERMANY.

Conrad ITI., king of the Germans, and Roman
emperor, was elected after the extinction of the
Saxon imperial family in 1024. He was the
son of Henry, Duke of Franconia, and is by many
considered as the founder of the Franconian
dynasty. Immediately after his election he com-
menced a tour through Germany to administer
justice. In 1026 he crossed the Alps, chastised the
rebellious Italians, was crowned at Milan as kin
of Italy, and he and his wife Gisela were anointe
emperor and empress of the Romans by the pope.
He was soon recalled to Germany to put down
four formidable revolts, in which he succeeded so
well that by 1033 peace was restored. In 10382 he

had succeeded to the kingdom of Burgundy, whick
he annexed to the empire. In 1036 a rebellion in
Italy again compelled him to cross the Alps; but
his efforts to restore his authority were this time
unsuccessful, and he was forced to grant various
privileges to his Italian subjects. Shortly after his
return he died at Utrecht, 4th June 1039. Conrad
was one of the most remarkable of the earlier
monarchs of Germany. He reduced the dangerous
ower of the great dukes of the empire, and de-
ended the rights of the humbler people against
oppression by the nobility.

Conrad III., king of the Germans, the founder
of the Hohenstaufen (q.v.) dynasty, was the son of
Frederick of Swabia, and was born in 1093. While
under twenty years of age, Conrad, with his elder
brother Frederick, had bravely supported Henry V.
against his numerous enemies, and in return that
monarch granted Conrad the investiture of the
duchy of Franconia. He subsequently contested
the crown of Italy with the Emperor Lothaire of
Saxony, but was compelled to resign his pre-
tensions. On the death of Lothaire, the princes of
Germany, fearing the increasing preponderance of
the Guelph party, and attracted by his brilliant
courage, moderation, and goodness, offered Conrad
the crown, and he was accordingly crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle, 2lst February 1138. He was.
immediately involved in a quarrel with Henry the
Proud, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and head of
the Guelph party in Germany ; and the struggle
was continued under Henry’s son and successor,
Henry the Lion (q.v., and see GUELPHS AND
GHIBELLINES). While Germany was thus con-
vulsed, the state of Italy was not a whit more.

eaceable. The several belligerents besought.

onrad’s assistance, but he well knew the naturak
inconstanecy of the Italians, and determined to.
stand aloof. Soon after this St Bernard of Clair-
vaux commenced to preach a new crusade, and
Conrad, seized with the general infatuation, set out-
for Palestine at the head of a large army (see
CRUSADES). A new attempt by the Duke of
Bavaria to regain his dukedom was defeated by the:
nephew of Conrad, whose health had broken
during the crusade. Conrad died at Bamberg in
1152. See GERMANY.

Conradin or Swasis, the last descendant of |
the imperial House of Hohenstaufen (q.v.), was.
the son of Conrad IV. (1237-54), and was born
in 1252, two years before his father’s death. His.
uncle Manfred (q.v.) had assumed the crown of
Sicily on a rumour of Conradin’s death, though he:
declared himself ready to give it up to the rightful
heir. But Pope Clement VI.’s hatred of the
Hohenstaufens led him to offer the crown of the
Two Sicilies to Charles of Anjou, a consummate:
warrior and able politician. Charles immediately
invaded Italy, and met his antagonist at Benevento,,
where the defeat and death of Manfred, in 1266,.

ave him undisturbed possession of the kingdom.
But the Neapolitans, detesting their new master,
sent deputies to Bavaria to invite Conradin, then in.
his 16th year, to come and assert his hereditary
rights. Conradin accordingly made his appearance:
in Italy at the head of 10,000 men, and being:
joined by the Neapolitans in large numbers, gaine
several victories over the French, but was finally
defeated near Tagliacozzo, 22d August 1268, and.
taken prisoner along with Frederick of Baden and
other comrades. The two unfortunate princes.
were, with the consent of the popes executed in the:
market-place of Naples on the 20th October. A
few minutes before his execution, Conradin, on the:
scaffold, took off his glove, and threw it into the
midst of the crowd as a gage of vengeance, request-
ing that it might be carried to his heir, Peter of

CONRAD VON WURZBURG

CONSCIENCE 425

Aragon. The tragic tale has furnished materials

for many poets, SICILIAN VESPERS; also Del

= La Condanna di Corradino (Naples,
)

Conrad von Wiirzburg, one of the most
celebrated poets of the middle ages, died at Basel
in 1287. Conrad is fertile in imagination, learned,
and—although marking the decline of Middle
econ poetry by his prolix and artificial
style—probably the most perfect master of German
versification that had appeared up to his own day.
His last poem, which he left in an unfinished con-
dition, has for its subject The Trojan War. But

rad appears to most advantage in his smaller
narrative poems, of which the best are Engelhart,
Otto, Der Welt Lohn, Silvester, Alexius, Der
Schwanritter, and Die Goldene Schmiede. His Lieder
have been edited by Bartsch (1870).

Consal ERCOLE, CARDINAL, a distinguished
reformer of abuses in the Papal States, was born at
Rome, June 8, 1757. He was made cardinal and
secretary of state by Pope Pius VII., and in this
ig pre the concordat with Napoleon in
1801. is staunch maintenance of the rights of his
own porercite inst the insidious encroachments
of France offended Napoleon. He was the papal
representative at the Congress of Vienna, and
secured the restoration of the Papal States. As
papal secretary he reformed numerous abuses, sup-
pressing all monopolies, feudal taxes, and ex-
clusive rights. He was a liberal patron of science,
but especially of the fine arts, and employed his
leisure in the study of literature and music. In
diplomacy he displayed great address, and was
geversily successful. He died in Rome, January

Co ty (Lat. con, ‘together,’ and san-
is, ‘bl ), the relationship which subsists be-
een persons who are of the same blood. It is

either direct, which is the relationship between
ascendants and descendants, or collateral, between
rsons sprung from a common ancestor. In the

t line, a son is said to stand in the first degree
to his father; a grandson, in the second degree to
his dfather ; and so on.—A ffinity (q.v.) is the
relationship brought about by marri between a
husband and the blood-relations of his wife, or
between a wife and the blood-relations of her
husband.

Consanguinity and affinity have been in all parts
of the world more or less looked on as impediments
to marriage between the ies related. Among
the ancient Persians and Egyptians, marriages
were sometimes sanctioned between brother and
sister, and even father and daughter; and in the
book of ‘Genesis we read of Abraham marrying his
half-sister.

The Roman law prohibited marriage between
ascendants and descendants, a prohibition extended
to relations by adoption. In the collateral line,
the prohibited degrees included brother and sister,
and all cases where one y stood in loco parentis
to the other, as uncle and niece. Marri tween
cousins-german, at one time prohibited, was de-
elared lawful by Arcadius and Honorius. The
degrees prohibited in consanguinity were by Con-
stantine also prohibited in ———

By the old canon law and early decretals, mar-
riages were prohibited between persons as far
removed as the seventh degree of consanguinity or
affinity. The fourth council of Lateran, 1215 A.D.,
narrowed the prohibition from the seventh to the
fourth degree; i.e. the grandchildren of cousins-
german. A marriage between persons related in
any of these ways was accounted incestuous, and
the children bastards. The — assumed the right
of granting dispensations from impediments to

marriage arising from consanguinity and aflinity, a
wer which seems to have been first exercised in
he 12th century.

In the countries which embraced the Reforma-
tion, a general relaxation took place in the pro-
hibitions to pereer from consanguinity and
affinity. In England, an act of 1547 allowed all

rsons to marry who were not prohibited by the

vitical law ; and according to the interpretation
put on this statute, the prohibitions included all
relations in the direct line, brother and sister, and
collaterals, when one party is brother or sister to
the direct ascendant or descendant of the other ;
the degrees prohibited in consanguinity being
equally prohibited in affinity. In Scotland, acts of
1567, professing to take the Levitical law as the
standard, assimilated the prohibitions from con-
sanguinity and affinity to those of England. In
France, the Code Napoléon prohibits marriage
between ascendants and descendants lawful or
natural, and persons similarly connected by affinity ;
and in the collateral line between brothers and
sisters lawful or natural, and persons similarly con-
nected by affinity. Marriage between uncle and
niece, and aunt and nephew, is also prohibited. In
various countries of Europe, as Denmark, no pro-
hibitions from affinity, except in the direct line,
are recognised. In most of the United States of
America, marriage is allowed between uncle and
niece. See AFFINITY, DECEASED WIFE’s SISTER ;
and for exogamy and curious savage methods of
counting relationship, MARRIAGE.

On the much-vexed question whether the mar-
riage of relations tends to injure the constitution
of their offspring, either by the intensification of
hereditary taint or more directly, see The Marriage
of Near Kin (2d ed. 1888), by A. H. Huth (who
takes the negative view), and the bibliography
there given of works on both sides of the question.
See also BREED, CATTLE.

Conscience. See Eruics.

Conscience, HENDRIK, a popular Flemish
novelist, was born December 3, 1812, at Antwerp.
His father, the inspector of the dockyards there,
was a native of Besancon, but his mother was of
Flemish birth. At fifteen the boy had to shift for
his living as an under-master in a school, but at.
the outbreak of the revolution in 1830 he joined
the Belgian ranks, and served till 1836. Patriotism
and poverty together impelled him to write, and
between them produced in 1837 his first volume in
Flemish, Jn’t Wonderjaer, 1566. Wappers the
painter finally got him appointed in 1841 to an
office in the Antwerp Academy, which he con-
tinued to fill until 1854. Three years later he
received a place in the local administration of Cour-
trai, and me in 1866 director of the Wiertz
Museum at Brussels. Here he died, September
10, 1883. His Phantazy (1837), a fine collection
of tales, and his most popular romance, De Leeuw
van Vlaenderen (1838), early made his name dear
to his fellow-countrymen ; but it was his series of
charming pictures of quiet Flemish life, beginning
with the little book, Hoe men schilder wordt (1843),
that, through French, German, and English trans-
lations, carried his fame over Europe. Amongst
those translated into English, besides the Lion of
Flanders, are Blind Rosa, Ricketicketack, The Poor
Gentleman, The Miser, and The Demon of Gold.
The historical accuracy of his Geschiedenis van
Belgien (1845) was somewhat impaired by his
Catholic predilections. The vast popularity of Con-
science’s novels depended mainly on the unflagging
vigour and interest of the incidents in which they
abounded, although these often enough defied all
historical consistency and verisimilitude alike. — It
should be remembered to his credit; as, indeed, it

426 CONSCIENCE

CONSCRIPTION

was his own proudest boast, that in his hundred
volumes he had never painted vice in seductive
colours. A complete collection of his works
appeared at Antwerp in 10 volumes, 1867-80; a
German translation of the same at Miinster in 75
small volumes, 1846-84. See his Life, in French,
by Cekhoud (Brussels, 1881).

Conscience, Courts or, IN ENGLAND. These
were courts for the recovery of small debts, cdn-
‘stituted by special local acts of parliament in
London, Westminster, and other trading districts.
‘The county courts have superseded them. See,
under County, County Courts, vol. iii. p. 522.

Conscience Money, money paid to relieve
‘the conscience, is a not inapt term for money sent
‘to the Chancellor of the Exchequer in payment of
a tax that had previously been evaded, and in regard
to which a tonnes conscience feels that something
remained to be done.
often sent anonymously.

Consciousness, This is the most compre-
hensive term employed in designating the mind.
In the widest ark. most unexceptionab e meaning,
consciousness is a term which includes all mental
states, operations, or processes, and, as has been
truly said, it is not strictly susceptible of definition,
‘seeing that we can have no experience of the un-
conscious. We may specify different modes or
varieties of consciousness, such as thoughts, feel-
ings, and volitions; but the quality in which they
all agree, and which constitutes them mental facts
or states of consciousness, cannot be otherwise
explained than by a mere reference to the constant
experience of every human being. Consciousness,
in this its strict sense, thus embraces the whole
field of méntal experience, and the expression
‘facts of consciousness’ is frequently used as
synonymous with psychical facts or facts of mind
to designate the subject-matter of psychology.

Popularly, therefore, when we are mentally alive,
or performing any of the recognised functions of
the mind, we are said to be conscious ; while the
total cessation of every mental energy is described
by the term ‘unconsciousness,’ among other phrases.
In dreamless sleep, in stupor, fainting, and under
‘the influence of the anesthetic drugs, we are un-
eonscious; in waking, or rallying into renewed
mental activity, we are said to become conscious,

The difficulties of the subject, however, have
‘prevented a perfectly definite and uniform usage
from being adhered to. As the mind in its waking
or active condition may be more or less excited, or
vary in the intensity of its manifestations, there are
«legrees of consciousness; and, accordingly, the name
is apt to be applied to denote the higher degrees in
opposition to the lower. Thus, in first learning to
‘write, to cast up sums, to play on an instrument,
“or to ride a bicycle, our mind is put very much on the
stretch ; in other words, we are very much excited
or highly conscious. But when years of incessant
pore have consummated the process into a full-

ormed habit, a very small amount of mental
attention is involved; and we may then be said
to perform the work all but unconsciously. Such
habitual actions are frequently designated second-
arily automatic, and Sir W. Hamilton, for example,
‘speaks in this connection of ‘unconscious mental
modifications.’ But as he has previously defined
consciousness as co-extensive with all mental
phenomena, such a phrase evidently involves a
contradiction in terms, being equivalent to uncon-
scious consciousness. It is explained, though not
justified, by the (unavowed) double use of the
term consciousness just adverted to. Later writers
have sought to escape from this inconvenient ter-
minology by speaking of the more obscure mental
processes as ‘sub-conscious.’ Stress is laid by

The conscience money is

them upon the infinite gradations of consciousness,
and some amount of consciousness, however infini-
tesimal, is postulated so long as we can speak with
propriety of mental phenomena at all. This sub-
conscious region is understood to include not only
the phenomena, of habit referred to above, but the
mass of organic or bodily feelings which, though
intellactéally unanalysed, are constantly present as
a kind of background to our more distinct con-
sciousness, and mainly determine both our habitual
temperament and our varying moods. The hypo-
thesis is also cmplored to explain the phenomena
of memory as well as that instinctive basis of
human life to which, under the name of the Uncon-
scious, Hartmann (q.v.) has of late assigned such
important philosophical functions.

onsciousness is sometimes used in a_ special
sense to denote the mind’s cognisance of itself,
as opposed to the cognisance or examination of the
outer world. Hence, in studying our own minds,
we are said to be using consciousness as the instru-
ment; but in studying minerals or plants, we
resort to external observation by the senses. A
contrast is thus instituted between consciousness
and observation, which contrast gives to the former
word a peculiarly contracted meaning; for in the
wide sense above described, observation is truly an
act of consciousness. Butsucha usage is confusin
and undesirable, and has been aneraiy abatidoal
by accurate writers. The study of our own mind
may be more appropriately expressed by such
phrases as ‘self-consciousness,’ ‘reflection,’ or ‘in-
trospection.’

Important philosophical points are involved in
the determination of the conditions of consciousness,
or the circumstances attendant on the manifesta-
tion of mental energy. The most general and
fundamental condition of our becoming conscious
is difference or change. The even continuance of
one impression tends to unconsciousness ; and there
are a number of facts that show that if an influence
were present in one unvarying degree from the
first moment of life to the last, that influence
would be to our feeling and knowledge as if it
did not exist at all. This condition of our mental
life has been formulated by Professor Bain as the
Law of Relativity. For the varieties or divisions
of our conscious staties, see PSYCHOLOGY. See also
PERSONALITY.

Conscription has been defined as the call to
military service by the drawing of lots, a certain
annual contingent of men for the army ae
selected by lot from the youths who have reache
mnilitary age, while a man with sufficient means
has the ri, ht to buy himself off, or pay for a substi-
tute. This system obtained in France, with inter-
vals, from 1798 until 1872, when substitutes were
abolished and personal military service made oblig-
atory upon every Frenchman not physically inca-
pacitated. All such must enter the army at the
age of twenty ; but those who choose to enlist may
do so at eighteen. The term, originally twenty
years, was extended by the Military Bill of 1888 to
twenty-five—viz. three in the regular army, six
and a half in the army reserve, six in the terri-
torial army (militia), and nine and a half in the
territorial reserve. At forty-five years of age
liability to service ceases. register is kept of
the number of youths in France who reach the
age of twenty in each year (about 280,000). All
under 5 feet 2 inches in height are exempt; also
any whose natural infirmities unfit them for active
service ; the eldest of a family of orphans ; the only
son of a widow, or of disabled fathers, or of fathers
above seventy years of age; and the pupils at
certain colleges. Moreover, if the younger of two
brothers is efficient, the elder is exempt; and if of
two only brothers one is already in the army, or

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CONSECRATION

CONSERVATORY 427

has retired through wounds or infirmity, the
ther is exempt. Culprits and felons are not
allowed to enlist.

A similar law of universal service has existed in
Prussia since 1813, and in 1887 it was made even

‘more severe than formerly throughout the whole

empire. Russia, Italy, and all the chief
European nations have also adopted this method
of recruiti

ng.

In the United Kingdom a form of conscription
was created by the Ballot Act of 1860 which pro-
vides for all males over 5 feet 2 inches between
the ages of eighteen and thirty being called upon
to serve in the militia, but is held in abeyance by
an annual act of parliament. In the Channel
Islands, service in the militia is always compulsory
for all natives, tradesmen, and owners of real

erty, who are physically fit, from sixteen to
forty-five years of age. reaches of discipline
are punished by the civil magistrate by fine or
imprisonment.

Consecration is the act of solemnly dedicating
4 person or thing to the service of God. In the
Jewish law, rites of this nature are frequently en-
joined, the Levites and priests, the tabernacle and
altar, &c. being specially dedicated or consecrated to

; and analogous forms occur in most
mations. Among Christians the word consecration
dlescribes—(1) the ordination of bishops. The
Nicene Council (can. 4) requires the ceremony to be
performed by not less than three bishops. This
tule is maintained by the Church of England.
Among Roman Catholics: the pope may permit
consecration by one bishop and two priests. (2)
‘The hallowing of the elements in the eucharist,
by the words of institution according to Roman

tholics and Anglicans; by the invocation of the
Holy Spirit according to the Greeks. (3) The dedi-
cation of churches; first mentioned by Eusebius,
Hist, Eccles. x. 3. The rites, originally very simple,
have become long and elaborate in the Church of
Rome, though the present form is in substance as
-old as the ramentary of St Gregory. In the
English Church the bishop chooses his own form.
“That most generally ated was drawn up by the
Anglican a ate in 1712. In the American
Episcopal Church a form was ro se be in 1799.
44) The benediction of abbots and abbesses accord-
ing to forms prescribed in the Roman Pontifical.
It is usually performed by a bishop. (5) The con-
secration of altars, chalices, and patens by the
bishop with the chrism or hallowed oil. The con-
-secration of altars is mentioned by councils of the
6th ——? that of chalices and patens in the
Gregorian Sacramentary.

Consecutive, a term in Music. In part writ-
‘ing consecutive octaves or consecutive fifths,
according to the rules of harmony, are strictly
forbidden, though there are many exceptions to
this in modern music.

Consent is the foundation of all contracts and
legal obligations. The doctrine that the free con-
‘sent of the parties bound, and not the will of any
-earthly legislator, or the form in which that will is
expressed, constitutes the binding element in con-
tracts, flows as an inevitable logical co: uence
from the doctrines of personal and political free-
dom. All that either civil or ecclesiastical author-
ity can do is to ascertain, at the instance of one

or other of the parties, whether consent has or has

not been given.
Conservation of Energy. See ENERGY.
Conservative, as applied to one of the two
: t parties in English polities, was first used by
. W. Croker in an article in the Quarterly for
-January 1830, and was by Macaulay in the Edin-
-burgh tor 1832 referred to as a ‘new cant word.’

Conservative accordingly began to supersede Tory
about the time of the Reform Bill controversies.
See Tory.

Conservatoire, or CoNsERVATORIUM (Ital.
conservatorio), forms of a name given by the
Italians to schools instituted for the purpose of
advancing the study of music and maintaining its
purity. In the earliest times these schools were

artly attached to benevolent institutions and

aus 008 others, again, were supported by
opulent private individuals, They were origin-

ly intended for foundlings, orphans, and the
children of poor parents. Some trace their origin
to St Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, in the 4th cen-
tury, or St Leo, who flourished in the 5th. They
were largely developed by Gregory the Great.
The scholars, male and female, all received free
board, lodging, and clothing, and were taught
to sing and play. Extra boarders were also
admitted on paying a fee. In Naples there
were at one time four such schools, while in
Venice there were four expressly for females. In
1808 the Neapolitan conservatoires were reduced
to one, under the name of Reale Collegio di Musica,
The Venetian conservatoires shared in the down-
fall of the Venetian “age A new grand con-
servatoire was founded at Milan in 1808, which
still exists. In France the necessity of a school
for educating singers gave rise to the Leole Royale
de Chant et de Déclamation in 1784. During the
French Revolution, in consequence of the scarcity
of instrumental musicians for the army, the govern-
ment decreed the erection of an Institut National
de Musique in 1793, which was changed into the
present establishment in 1795 under the name of
the Conservatoire de Musique. The yearly ex-

nses of this conservatoire were fixed at 240,000
ranes, the number of masters was 125, and the
pupils of both sexes amounted to 600. In 1802
the expense was reduced to 100,000 francs, with a
corresponding reduction in the number of masters
and Pie so but the original sum and number of
pupils has now been nearly reached again; the

rofessors are at present 77 in number. The tuition
1s divided over more than seventy different classes,
in which all pertaining to music and also declama-
tion is taught by the best masters. The elemen-
tary works published by this conservatoire for all
pestsdhine pa snow over the viagra hed and it
possesses a library and museum of the first import-
ance. The post of director has been held by an
illustrious suecession—Cherubini, 1822-42; Auber,
1842-71 ; and then, M. Ambroise Thomas. Other
important conservatoires are thosé of Brussels
(founded 1833), Prague, Vienna (1816), and the
great conservatorium of Leipzig, established in
842 under the auspices of Mendelssohn; also those
of Cologne, Munich, Stutt; , Berlin, &e. The
Royal College of Music in London, which received
ac r in 1882, is designed to rival the conserva-
toires of the Continent. There are several of note
in the United States, especially the Boston Con-
servatory of Music (1867), the New England
Conservatory of Music (1870), also in Boston, and
the Grand rUiduaseratory of Music of the City of
New York (a corporation); and there are reputable
schools of music, termed conservatories, in almost
all the principal cities. The name conservatoire
is used for other than musical schools in France.
There is thus a Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers
at Paris.

Conservators of the Peace, a title beprnd
applied to knights elected in each shire from the 12th
century onwards for the conservation of the
They were in fact the predecessors of the Justices
of the Peace (q.v.), by whom they were superseded.

Conservatory. See PLANT-HOUSE.

428 CONSERVES

CONSOLIDATION ACTS

Conserves. See PRESERVED PROVISIONS.

Considérant, VicTor-PRosPER, a French
Socialist, was born in 1808 at Salins, in the depart-
ment of Jura. After being educated at the Poly-
technic School of Paris, he entered the army, which,
however, he soon left to promulgate the doctrines of
the socialist Fourier. On the death of his master
(1837), Considérant became the head of his school,
and undertook the management of the Phalange,
a review devoted to the spread of their opinions.
Having gained the support of a young English-
man, Mr Young, who advanced the required sum
of money, Considérant established, on a large
estate in the department Eure et Loire, a social-
ist colony or Phalanstére; but the experiment
failed, and with it the Phalange fell to the ground.
Thereafter he continued to promote his views in
the Démocratie Pacifique. Among his numerous
writings, the chief is the Destinée Sociale, dedicated
to Louis-Philippe. In 1849 Considérant was ac-
cused of high treason, and fled from France. La
Réunion, his socialistic community in Texas, flour-
ished temporarily, but has since come to nothing.
He returned to France in 1869, wrote occasional
political pamphlets, and died 27th Dec. 1893. See
Goren SOCIALISM ; and Life by Coignet (1895).

Consideration, in Law, the thing given,
or done, or abstained from by agreement with
another, and in view of that other doing, giving, or
abstaining from something. An obligation in-
curred without consideration is, in England, termed
voluntary, in Scotland gratuitous ; if for considera-
tion, it is so styled in England, but in Scotland it
is called onerous. Considerations are divided in
England into good and valuable, the former being
affection for a near relative, the latter a pecunia:
or other tangible benefit, or marriage. But ‘ good’
as distin aidhad from ‘ valuable’ consideration has
now no legal effect in England. There is no cor-
responding division in Scotland, but the fulfilment
of a natural obligation, such as that of aliment, is
often recognised as supporting a transaction which
would otherwise be inoperative against creditors.
In Scotland, however, there is, as a general rule,
no need for consideration to make a contract valid,
while in England no action lies for breach of a
contract not under seal, unless there has been valu-
able consideration, and the courts never enforce
specific performance of a gratuitous contract,
even though it is under seal. This doctrine does
not mean that consideration must be adequate in
view of the court. But the excess of consideration
is an important fact in the setting aside of obliga-
tion obtained by means of pressure or undue in-
fluence. The English doctrine of unconscionable
bargains is not, however, recognised in Scotland.
Where the consideration for an obligation totally
fails, an action of repetition lies.

There are some circumstances which, in both
countries, warrant the setting aside of obligations
without consideration, whether made by deed or
not. In England they are void as against bond-fide
purchasers, and void as against creditors where the
grantor is indebted to such creditors at the time
to the extent of insolvency. A similar rule to the
latter, with respect to creditors generally, is estab-
lished in Scotland by the Act 1696, chap. 5, and
by 1621, chap. 18, without proof of insolvency when
the deed is granted to a near relation, or a person
in a confidential situation. As regards sales of
land in Scotland, these are made on the faith of the
records, and the first registered conveyance prevails.
And all obligations for which the consideration is
illegal or immoral are in both countries void.

In the United States, consideration in law has
the same general signification as in England, and
is subject to the same general divisions, ‘good’ or

‘meritorious’ and ‘valuable.’ A consideration is:
an essential element enforceable in law, and must
be actual and expressed, or the instrument must be.
such as to bear evidence of a consideration. By
common-law statutes re-enacted in the United
States, negotiable paper and sealed instruments are:
declared to bear this evidence ; but in some states
by usage, and in others by statute, courts of equity
are empowered to set aside these instruments for
want of, or a failure of, a valid and legal considera-
tion upon the ground that the instrument was exe-
cuted upon a promise or stipulation not fulfilled.

Consignment, in Mercantile Law, is the term
applied to goods which are placed in the hands of
an agent or factor for sale, or for some other speci- -
fied purpose. If the consigner fails, the consignee
has generally a lien on the unsold goods for
advances ; if the consigner has to pay bills granted
by consignee for advances, he may generally get.
back his consignment so far as unsold.

Consistory (Lat. consistorium), properly a
place of assembly, but in the later Latinity the
word came to signify the particular place where:
the privy-council or cabinet of the Roman emperor
met, and after the time of Diocletian and Con-
stantine, the council itself. The form of the
imperial consistory passed over into the earl
Christian church. e bishops established their
consistories ; and the highest ecclesiastical court,
composed only of cardinals (the College of Car-
dinals), which meets in the Vatican, under the:
presidency of the pope, to determine all such
matters as the appointment of cardinals, arch-
bishops, bishops, be still bears this name, as do-
also the private councils which the pope can call
at will. The Protestant Church of Germany per-
petuated the consistorial courts, chiefly because the
territorial princes who came into episcopal authority
were unfamiliar with ecclesiastical affairs. |The
Lutheran consistories (the first was established at.
Wittenberg in 1542) exercise supervision and dis-
cipline over religion and education, the clergy and
the schoolmasters, regulating divine worship, ad-
ministering church property, and examining theo-.
logical candidates on their trials for license ahd
crditiation + they had formerly a certain jurisdic-
tion in regard to marriage. In the French Prot-.
estant churches their jurisdiction is more re-
stricted. The word denotes in England the court-
Christian or spiritual court. Every archbishop or
bishop holds in his cathedral or other convenient
place a consistorial court before his chancellor or
commissary, for ecclesiastical causes. In Scotland
the consistorial courts have lapsed into the com-.
missary-courts. See COMMISSARY.

Consolacién del Sur, a city of Cuba, 13.
miles by rail ENE. of Havana. The finest of to-
bacco is grown in the
vicinity. Pop. (1899)
3062

ne eustlate «nel TS

aré. See MER- y.

CANTILE Law. SNORE
Console (Fr. ), in S

Architecture, a pro-
jection resembling a

racket, frequently in
the form of the letter
S, used to support Console.
cornices, or for plac-
ing busts, vases, or figures on. Consoles were often:
richly ornamented in the under part. The illustra-
tion, from Parker’s Glossary, is from the palace of
Diocletian at Spalatro.

Consolidation Acts, acts of parliament.

which combine or consolidate into one generak
statute the enactments of several special measures,.

CONSOLS

CONSTABLE 429

such as the Railways Clauses Consolidation Act,
1845, the Titles to Land Consolidation Act,
1868, &c.

Consols, a contraction of Consolidated Annui-
ties. In incurring the national debt, government
borrowed money at different periods on special con-
ditions, being generally the payment of an annuity
of so much per cent. on the sum borrowed. Great
confusion arose from the variety of stocks thus
«reated, and it was thought expedient to consolidate
them into one fund, kept in one account at the
Bank of England. The Consolidated Annuities
Act was passed in 1749-50, consolidation being com-

leted in 1757. For consolidation of the Funded
bt subsequent to that period, see NATIONAL
DEBT.

Consonance is a combination of notes which
ean sound together without the harshness produced
by beats. See SounD, Music.

Consonant, See LETTERs.

Consort, literally, one who throws in his lot
with another. In oe constitutional law, the
term is applied to the husband or wife of the
reigning sovereign, viewed not in a private but in
# public capacity, as participating to a certain
limited extent in the prerogatives of sovereignty.
A queen-consort is specially so named in distine-
tion from a queen-regnant, who holds the crown
in her own right, as Queen Elizabeth and Queen
Victoria, and from a queen-dowager, the widow
of a king. A queen-consort is in all legal pro-
«ceedings looked upon as a. feme-sole, independent
of her husband’s control, as if she were a single
woman. Coke gives as the reason for this that the
common law would not have the king, whose care
is for public affairs, troubled with the domestic
concerns of his wife. The queen-consort has also a
particular revenue and peculiar exemptions and
petalogee. One curious and ancient perquisite is

hat, when a whale, which is a royal fish, is taken
upon the coast, it by right should be divided be-
tween the king and the queen, the head only being
the king’s property, and the tail the GUSH Se The
consort is in all respects a subject of the sovereign ;
accordingly the husband of a queen-regnant is her
subject, and may be puilty of treason against her.
Up to the year 1857 the husband of Queen Victoria
no distinctive English title, and no place
in court ceremonial except such as was conceded to
him by courtesy. In that year the title of Prince-
Consort was conferred upon him by letters-patent.

Conspiracy, a combination between two or
more persons to perpetrate an unlawful act, or to
do a lawful act by unlawful means. A _ person
injured by conspiracy has an action at law for the
damage done, as when a man is falsely indicted of
a crime. In criminal law, conspiracy is a misde-
meanour irre by penal servitude. Few
things are left so doubtful in law as the point when
a combination for a common object becomes unlaw-
ful. Formerly, combinations by workmen to raise
the rate of wages were conspiracy, but this is no
longer so; and till lately, prevailing judicial opinion
was that a trade-union was a ‘conspiracy in re-
straint of trade.’ See COMBINATION,

pig cae was defined in the reign of Edward
I. by the Ordinance of Conspirators, which was
aimed at persons binding themselves together to
lay false indictments, and otherwise to obstruct the
course of justice. But the word came in time to
have a wider meaning, and almost every combina-
tion to do a criminal or even an unlawful act is now
an indictable conspiracy (see COMBINATION). The
vagueness of the law has placed considerable power
in the hands of juries. Almost any act, however
innocent, may be treated as a crime if the ju
choose to impute it to some motive connected wit

an unlawful combination. Again, in proving a
charge of conspiracy, the prosecution may begin by
giving evidence of the existence of a general con-
pie and such evidence may consist of acts of
third parties with which the person accused had no
connection. The judges also have exercised their
own discretion in deciding whether the objects of a
combination were ‘contrary to good morals and
= policy’ or not. But if juries and judges

ave not always exercised their discretion wisely,
it is to be remembered that such discretion must
of necessity form part of the law of conspiracy.
Acts which are comparatively harmless when done
by one or two persons may become intolerably
oppressive when they are committed by a large

number of persons acting in concert. See PLor,
SEDITION.
Conspiracy Bill. See PoLiricaAL OrrEeNnces.

Constable (Lat. constabulus), the title of an
ancient officer, originally of high military rank, but
now generally an officer of the e. The older
writers, as Coke and Selden, fancifully derive the
word from koning-stapel, ‘ staff and stay of the king.’
It represents, however, the Latin comes stabuli,
‘count of the stable,’ an officer who in the later
Roman empire was at first charged with the care
of the stables, and afterwards became captain of a
military force, and chief officer of the army. The
title was borrowed from the Romans by the Franks.
The Constable of France rose saath in import-
ance from the comparatively modest position of an
officer of the household, till at last he became ex
afeio the commander-in-chief of the army in the
absence of the monarch, the highest judge in mili-
tary offences and in all questions of chivalry and
honour, and the supreme regulator and arbitrator
in all matters connected with tilts, tournaments,
and all martial displays. The office was ef
by Louis XIII. in 1626. Under Napoleon, the con-
stable was the fifth of the great dignitaries of the
empire. The office was again abolished on the
restoration of the Bourbons. But besides the
Constable of France, almost all the great vassals
of the crown had constables who filled analogous
offices at their minor courts.

The Lord High Constable of England appears
shortly after the Conquest as the seventh great
officer of the crown, and formerly a judge in the
Court of Chivalry. The office went by inheritance
to the Earls of Hereford and Essex, and _ after-
wards in the line of Stafford. When Edward
Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, was attainted in
1521, the office became forfeit, and has never since
been granted except for a special ceremony of state,
as when it was conferred on the Duke of Welling-
ton for the coronation of Queen Victoria. The
High Constable of Scotland was an officer very
similar to the Constable of France and England.
The office, now purely honorary, in 1314 was
made hereditary in the noble family of Erroll,
and is reserved both in the Treaty of Union
and in the statute of conte II. abolishing heredi-
tary jurisdictions. The High Constable Beg
birth the first subject in Scotland after the blood-

es bg

he governor of a royal castle was often called
Constable; see TowER OF LONDON. The Con-
stables of the Hundred, and of the Vill, were the
predecessors of the high and petty constables of later
times. The statute of Winchester (1285) ordains
that in every hundred or franchise there shall be
chosen two constables, to make the view of armour,
and to see to the conservation of the peace. The
petty constable exercised similar functions within
the narrower limits of the township or parish, and
was subordinate to the high constableof the hundred.
The high constables were formerly appointed by the

430 CONSTABLE

courts leet of the franchise or hundred over which
they preside; or, in default of such appointment,
by the justices at their special sessions. An act of
1869 made provision for the abolition of the office
of high constable throughout England and Wales.
The appointment of petty constables is made by
the justices, who are directed annually to require
from the overseers of parishes a list of those within
the parish qualified and liable to serve as con-
stables. When-not specially exempted, every able-
bodied man, between twenty-five and_ fifty-five
years of age, resident in the parish, and rated to
the poor, or a tenant to the value of £4 per annum,
must be included in this list. —SPECIAL CONSTABLES
are persons sworn in by the justices to preserve the
peace, or to execute warrants on special occasions,
as in 1848 on account of the Chartists, and in 1887
on account of the ‘unemployed’ riots in Trafalgar
Square, London. Any two justices of the peace
who shall learn that a tumult, riot, or felony has
taken place, or is apprehended, may swear in as
many householders or others as they may think fit,
to act as special constables. The lord-lieutenant
may also, by direction of one of the principal secre-
taries of state, cause special constables to be
appointed for the whole county, or any part of it.
In Scotland, constables are the officers of the justices
of the peace charged with the execution of their
warrants and orders, and appointed at quarter-
sessions. In royal burghs they are appointed by
the magistrates. It is their duty, without warrant,
to apprehend rioters and breakers of the peace, and
bring them before the nearest justice. In the
United States they are menerally elected by the
people, but special constables way be appointed b
the authorities in emergencies. The title of Hi
Constable is in some American cities given to the
principal police officers. For county constabulary,
see PoLice, and for the Irish constabulary, IRE-
LAND.

Constable, ARCHIBALD, publisher, was born
at Carnbee, Fife, 24th February 1774, and became a
bookseller’s apprentice in Edinburgh (1788-95). He
then started as a bookseller at the Cross of Edin-
burgh, and speedily gathered round him the chief
book-collectors of the time. He gradually drifted
into the publishing business, secured the copyright
of the Scots Magazine in 1801, and was chosen as
the publisher of the afterwards famous Edinburgh
Review. He ra for all the leading men of
the time, and his quick appreciation of the merits of
the works of Sir Walter Scott became the envy and
wonder of the book-trade. There were several
business partners in the career of Constable & Co.,
but Archibald Constable was from first to last
the mainspring of the concern. Had painstaking
business qualities kept pace with his shrewdness
and large-minded literary transactions, business
calamities might have been averted. ‘Among all
his myriad of undertakings, I question,’ says
Lockhart, ‘if any one that really originated with
himself, and continued to be superintended by
his own care, ever did fail.’ In 1812 he purchased
for between £13,000 and £14,000 the copyright of
the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the commercial
crisis of 1826 Constable & Co. failed, the liabilities
amounting to upwards of a quarter of a million.
The only noteworthy publishing scheme of Con-
stable after this failure was the issue of his cele-
brated Miscellany. He died July 21, 1827. See
Archibald Constable and his Literary Correspond-
ents, by his son, Thomas Constable (1873).

Constable, HENRy, poet, was born in 1562,
son of Sir Robert Constable of Newark, a soldier
who was knighted by Essex in 1570. At sixteen
Henry aibered St John’s College, Cambridge, early
turned Roman Catholic, and betook himself to

Paris. He was pensioned by the French king, and
seems to have been often employed in confidential
missions to England and to Scotland. He died at-
Liége, 9th October 1613. In 1592 was published
his Diana, a collection of twenty-three sonnets ;
two years later, the second edition, containin
seventy-six, but some of these by his dawdted
friend, Sir Philip Sidney, and other poets. Con-
stable’s sonnets are quaint, and sometimes laboured,
but they are instinct with fancy and the tremor of
gente poetic feeling. Constable contributed to

ngland’s Helicon (1600), and sixteen ‘spiritual
sonnets’ to Park’s Heliconia. See editions by W.C.
Hazlitt (1859) and John Gray (1897).

Constable, JoHuN, R.A., landscape-painter, was.
born at East Bergholt, Suffolk, where his father was.
a well-to-do landowner and miller, 11th June 1776.
At the age of eighteen he assisted his father for
about a he in the mill; but his love of art was.
irrepressible, and it was encouraged by Sir George
Beaumont, who prevailed upon his family to send
him to London. Here he arrived in 1795; and,
after an interval of a year spent in his old employ-
ment, he returned in 1799, and entered the schools.
of the Royal Academy, to whose exhibition he sent
a work in 1802. Hitherto he had been carefully
studying the methods of other painters, poring over
Sir George’s great Claude, an copying Sire
seeking, as he says, ‘truth at second-hand.’ He
now turned exclusively to nature, resolving to free
himself from conventionality, to paint the very fact,
to ‘adopt a pure and unaffected manner of repre-
senting the scenes that may employ me.’ But the
public, trained to admire an artificial and pseudo-
classical adaptation of nature, cared little for his
simple renderings of common subjects, and he was
nearly forty before he sold a single landscape be-

ond the circle of his relatives and personal friends.
eanwhile he supported himself by painting like-
nesses ; he copied portraits by Reynolds for the Earl
of Dysart, and executed altar-pieces for the churches
of Brantham and Nayland in Suffolk.

In 1816 he married Mary Bicknell ; and in 1828,
on the death of her father, solicitor to the Admi-
ralty, an inheritance of £20,000 placed the family
in easy circumstances, and enabled Constable to
devote himself quite exclusively to his beloved but
unremunerative landscape work. In 1821 he had
won the best artistic triumph of his life, in the
applause which Sea the cepa? of his ‘ Hay-
wain’ (then titled ‘A Landscape—Noon’), when
it was exhibited in the Paris Salon by a French
purchaser. Not less marked was the impression

roduced by his ‘White Horse,’ at the Lille Exhi-

ition in 1825. Each work gained a gold medal,
and the former in particular won the warmest
enthusiasm of Delacroix and the other leaders of
the romantic school, and exercised a definite and
powerful influence upon the future of landscape art
in France. Appreciation of this sort was more
recious to a true artist than such formal academic
Lesoors as Constable won in England, than his.
election as Associate in 1819, and his tardy and un-
graciously awarded promotion to membership in
1829. His later years were saddened by the deaths.
of his wife and his friend Archdeacon Fisher, by ill-
health, and by great depression of spirits; but he
worked steadily at his art, though his landscapes:
still were frequently unsold, producing ‘Salisbury
Cathedral from the Meadows’ (1831); ‘ Waterloo
Bridge,’ then titled ‘Whitehall Stairs’ (1832); and
‘The Valley Farm’ (1835). He was engaged upon
‘ Arundel Mill and Castle’ at the time of his death,
which occurred suddenly, on the 30th of March
1837.

The art of Constable marks the first definite
departure in the history of English landscape from
the conventional treatment of our earlier painters,

ee EEE ee

— ee

_printing, and publishing.

CONSTANCE

CONSTANT DE REBECQUE 431

the breaking away from the traditions of Claude
and the Dutch masters, the return to direct and
personal impressions of nature, With a broad and

- rapid touch he renders all the force and variety of

ouring that full-leafed English landscape pre-
sents; catches, with singular skill, her passing

effects of rain-cloud and sunlight; suggests, wit

swift and unsur ble power, her sense of glitter
and motion. r Ruskin’s criticism has, alike in
its general scope and in most of its specifie refer-
ences, done much to disparage Constable's art in
the estimation of the public of the time that is
just passing; but al there is a recoil on the
a of both painters and critics from the detailed

tricacy of pre-Raphaelite methods; Constable's
works are assuming their true place in the sequence
of our national art; and their painter is being recog-
nised as one of the very foremost figures of Englis
landseape-painters. Three of his most important
and most powerful ce ie ‘The Valley Farm,’
‘The Cornfield,’ and ‘The Hay-wain,’ were already
in the National Gallery in 1888, when five more
were gifted by the painter’s family. His ‘Salisbury
Cathedral’ is at South Kensington, where, as also
in the British Museum, his work in water-colour
and pencil may be studied.

The most important of the engravings after
Constable are the mezzotint plates by David Lucas,
many of which were supervised with especial care
during their progress by the painter himself. See
his Life by C. R. Leslie (1843 ; new ed. 1896).

Constance, or KostniTz, a Da of Baden, once
a free imperial city, is situa on both sides
of the Rhine, at its exit from Lake Constance,
91 miles E. of Basel by rail. One of the most
ancient towns of Germany, Constance owed its
ht ag to its linen industry, for which it was
already famous in the 12th century; but five cen-
turies later this had sunk greatly, and it has only
been partially revived since the establishment of
railways. Its manufactures include linen, cotton,
jute, and waterproof fabrics, canvas, ets, and
chemicals ; and other industries are bell-founding,
Beside the picture-
gallery, library, and town-hall, with a valuable
collection of archives, the most noteworthy build-
ings are the cathedral (part of which dates from
the 11th century ), the old Dominican convent (now
an hotel), and the present market-hall, in which
three places the sessions of the great council were
held. Pop. (1890) 16,235.—The most notable event
in the history of Constance is the meeting of the
ecclesiastical council here in 1414-18 with a view
to put an end to the disorders in the popedom and
in the election of popes, and also to prevent the
spread of the doctrines of Huss. There assembled
with the Emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII.
3 codagatreg 33 cardinals, 47 archbishops, 145
bishops, 124 abbots, 750 doctors, and about 18,000
priests and monks, besides numerous princes and
counts of the empire, and representatives from all
the monarchs of Catholic Christendom; and the
retinues of these members of council swelled the
number of strangers resident in the town to
over 50,000. The three rival ee , John XXIII,
Gregory XII, and Benedict I., were deposed,
and Martin V. was elected. Huss (q.v.) and
Jerome of Prague (q.v.) were condemned and

urned, The emperor was, however, disappointed
in his hope of a thorough reform of the church
(causa reformationis), in spite of the efforts of such
advocates of reform as Peter d’Ailly and Gerson
(q.v.); and the Council of Basel (q.v.) was after-
wards called to carry on the work which the Council
of Constance had failed to accomplish.

Constance, LAKE (called by the Germans
Bodensee or Bodmansee—the Lacus Brigantinus

of the Romans), lies between Switzerland and
Germany, and on the north side of the Alps of
Switzerland, and forms a meeting-point of the five
territories—Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Vorarl-
berg (Austria), and Switzerland. It has an eleva-
tion of 1306 feet above the sea. Lake Constance
is traversed by the Rhine from east to west; its

eatest pangs is about 44 miles, and utmost

realth 9 miles, the area being 208 sq. miles; the
mean depth is 490 feet, while the greatest depth is
906 feet. The southernmost of the two western
extremities is called the lower lake, and is separated
from the main lake by a narrow channel two miles
long, and lies full a yard below the level of the
lake. The shores are formed by hilly lands, with
low tracts at the mouths of the Rhine and smaller
rivers. Cornfields, vineyards, pastures, orchards,
and wooded declivities, with here and there the
ruins of old castles interspersed, surround the lake.
The water has a dark-green hue, often rises suddenly
some ten or twelve feet during a thaw, and rolls in
high waves during the eran of a strong south,
north-west, or east wind. Without visible cause it
sometimes rises and falls to a considerable degree.
Usually the level rises from June onwards to
August, when it sinks again. It is seldom frozen,
ove 24 in very severe winters. The fisheries of
this lake are important. Since 1824 steam-naviga-
tion has added to the facilities of commerce across
the lake, and its commercial importance has been
greatly increased by the connection of the chief
towns on its shores with the railways of South
Germany and Switzerland. The chief towns are
Constance, Bregenz, Lindau, and Friedrichshafen.
See Capper’s Shores and Citiesof the Bodensee (1881).

Constans, youngest of the three sons of Con-
stantine the Great, received Illyricum, Italy, and
Africa as his share of the empire. After the defeat.
and death of his elder brother Constantine, in
340 A.D., Constans became sole ruler of the West
till his death in 350.

Constant, BENJAMIN, sabiers pela ier, was
born in Paris, 10th June 1845. e studied in the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts and under Cabanel, and
began to exhibit at the Salon in ‘1869, with his
‘Hamlet and the King,’ a work purchased by the
French government. He soon turned to those
Eastern subjects for the treatment of which he is
best known, producing ‘Prisoners in Morocco’
(1875); ‘ Mahomet IT.’ (1876); ‘ The Harem’ (1878);
‘The Favourite of the Emir’ (1879): ‘The Day
after a hhescge in the Alhambra’ (1882); and ‘ The
Vengeance of the Chérif’ (1885). His works are
characterised by direct and powerful but frequently
most repulsive realism, melodramatic feeling, bold
portearat of the nude, and vivid colouring. He is
one of the most popular of contemporary French
painters, and received medals in 1875 and 1876, and
the decoration of the Legion of Honour in 1878.

Constant de Rebecque, Henri BENJAMIN,
author and politician, was born of French Huguenot
ancestry at Lausanne, 23d October 1767. e was
educated at Oxford, Erlangen, and Edinburgh,
where he became uainted with Mackintosh
and Erskine. In 1795, settling in Paris, he
quickly gained reputation as a publicist. He
permene the Tribunate in 1799, but was banished from
France in 1802, for having denounced the despotic
acts of Napoleon. After travelling over Germany
and Italy, in company with Madame de Staél, he
lived for a number of years in Géttin On
Napoleon’s fall in 1814 he returned to Paris, and
issued several phlets advocating constitutional
liberty; during the Hundred Days he became one of
Na ae Councillors of State, though previously
he had styled Napoleon a Genghis Khan, and his
government a government of Mamelukes. After

432 CONSTANTIA

CONSTANTINE I.

the second restoration of the Bourbons, Constant
wrote and spoke consistently in favour of con-
«stitutional freedom. He was returned to the
Chamber of Deputies in 1819, and became the
leader of the Opposition. He was the ablest con-
troversialist among the Doctrinaires, the French
Whigs. The greater number of his very able politi-
al pamphlets were collected under the title of
Cours de Politique Constitutionelle (4 vols. 1817-
20); his Discours were published in 1828. He died
8th December 1830. is powerful intellect had
many sides. In De la Religion (5 vols. 1824-31)
he maintained that the spirit of religion, as it
-grows loftier and purer, casts off the various forms
in which it has been embodied, and which obstruct
its expansion. He was likewise the author of a
remarkable novel, Adolphe (1816), a short story of
ove and disillusion, in which Constant forestalls the
method of the modern school of analytic novelists.
His Correspondence appeared in 1844, his Hwvres
Politiques in 1875, his Letters to Madame Récamier
dn 1881, and his Jowrnal Intime in 1894.

Constantia, a district of Cape Colony, in South
Africa, lying on the eastern and north-eastern
slopes of Table Mountain range, and distant from
Cape Town 7 miles by rail. Constantia consists of
only three estates, High, Great, and Little Con-
stantia, which have long been famed for the quality
of the wines produced upon them. The wines
are sweet wines of delicious aroma, both red and
white. For wine-growing at the Cape, see CAPE
Cotony, Vol. IL. p. 734.

Constantina, a town of Spain, in Andalusia,
situated in a mountainous district, 40 miles NNE.
of Seville, with silver mines, and a trade in wine
cand vinegar. Pop. 10,988.

Constantine, capital of the easternmost pro-
vince of Algeria, is rery picturesquely situated
on a nearly isolated chalk rock with flat summit,
three sides of which are washed by a small stream,
flowing through a deep and narrow ravine, and the
‘fourth is connected by a narrow ridge with the ad-
joining mountains. It is 830 feet above the river,
and 2160 feet above the sea; it is connected by rail
with its port Set 40 miles NE., as also
with Algiers and with Tunis. It is surrounded by
walls constructed by the Arabs out of Roman seulp-
tured stones. There are practically two cities, the
French and the Arab, though the running of wide
streets through the Arab town has taken away
much of its primitive oriental look. Constantine
was anciently the capital of Numidia, called Carta
by the Carthaginians, Cirtaby the Romans; and near
it many notable events occurred in the wars with
Jugurtha. It was destroyed about 311 A.D., but was
‘soon rebuilt by Constantine the Great, from whom
it derives its present name. It held out against
‘the Vandals and other besiegers, but was taken by
the Arabs in 710. Subsequently, it shared in
‘general the fortunes of Algeria (q.v.). Constantine
manufactures woollen cloths, saddlery, leather
goods, and carpets ; it is a great trade centre, bein
the chief grain market of Algeria, and exports oll
and wool. Pop. (1886) 36,536; (1891) 46,581, of
whom 12,006 were French and 3321 Jews.

Constantine I., Roman emperor, 306-337 A.D.
FLAVIUS VALERIUS AURELIUS CONSTANTINUS,
‘surnamed ‘the Great,’ was born in 274, at Naissus,
in Upper Meesia. He was the eldest son of Con-
‘stantius Chlorus and Helena, and first distin-
guished himself as a soldier in Diocletian’s famous
Syren expedition (296), next under Galerius
in the Persian war. In 305, the two emperors,
Diocletian and Maximian, abdicated, and were
succeeded in the supreme rank of Augustus by
the two Cesars, Constantius Chlorus and Gal-
erius. Galerius, envious of young Constantine’s

brilliant genius and popularity among the soldiers,
took every means of exposing him to danger,
and it was now that he acquired that mix-
ture of reserve, cunning, and wisdom which was
so conspicuous in his conduct in after-years. At
last, extorting a reluctant consent from the jealous
Galerius, he made his way hastily to his father,
who ruled in the West, and joined him at Boulogne
just as he was setting out on an expedition against
the Picts in North Britain (306). Constantius died
at York in the same year, having
son Constantine his successor. The latter now
wrote a conciliatory letter to Galerius, and requested
to be acknowledged as Augustus. Galerius did
not dare to quarrel with Constantine, yet he granted
him the title of Cesar only. Political complica-
tions now increased, until in 308 there were actu-
ally no less than six emperors at once—Galerius,
Licinius, and Maximin in the East; and Maximian,
Maxentius his son, and Constantine in the West.
Maxentius having quarrelled with his father, forced
him to flee from Rome; he took refuge with Con-
stantine, who had married his daughter Fausta
at Arles in 307, but was ungrateful enough to
lot the destruction of his benefactor. This bein
iscovered, he fled to Marseilles, the inhabitants o
which were just about to give him up to the con-
queror, when he anticipated his fate by suicide
(309). Maxentius professed great anger at the
death of his father, and assembled a large army,
with which he threatened Gaul. Constantine an-
ticipated his movements by crossing the Alps by
Mont Cenis, and invading Italy. Already twice he
had defeated Maxentius, when he finally crushed
his power by the great victory of the Milvian
Bridge, near Rome, 28th October 312. Maxentius
himself was pressed by the thronging crowd of
fugitives over the bridge into the river, and
drowned. Constantine now entered the capital,
disbanded the Pretorian guards, and destroyed
their camp. During his short stay in Rome he
assumed the title of Pontifex Maximus. It was
during his final struggle with Maxentius that the
famous incident occurred that is said to have
caused Constantine’s conversion, and which Euse-
bius gives us an account of from the lips of the
emperor himself. At noon there appeared in the
sky a flaming cross inscribed ’Ev rovryw vixa (‘ By this,
conquer’). Again, the night before the final battle,
a vision appeared to Constantine in his sleep, bid-
ding him inscribe the shields of his soldiers with
the sacred monogram of the name of Christ. Hence
the well-known /abarum or standard of the cross,
which Constantine, however, did not give his army,
according to Gibbon, till 323. Whatever the story
of the conversion be worth, one satisfactory con-
sequence was the edict of Milan (March 313),
issued conjointly with Licinius, and giving civil
rights and toleration to Christians throughout the
empire.
onstantine was now sole emperor of the West.
Similarly, by the death of Galerius in 311, and of
Maximin in 313, Licinius became sole emperor of
the East. In 314 a war broke out between the two
rulers, in which Licinius had the worst, and was
fain to conclude a peace by the cession of Illyricum,
Pannonia, and Greece. Constantine gave Licinius
his sister Constantina in marriage, and for the next
nine years devoted himself vigorously to the cor-
rection of abuses in the administration of the laws,
to the strengthening of the frontiers of his empire,
and to chastising the barbarians, who learned to
fear and respect his power. In 323 he renewed
the war with Licinius, whom he defeated, and ulti-
mately put to death. Constantine was now at the
summit of his ambition, the sole governor of the
Roman world. He chose Byzantium for his capital,
and in 330 solemnly inaugurated it as the seat of |

roclaimed his —

CONSTANTINE

a

CONSTANTINOPLE 433

é
a erent under the name of Constantinople or
ity of Constantine. In 326 he committed a deed
that has thrown a dark shade over his memory.
_ His eldest son (by his first wife), Crispus, a gallant
and accomplished prince, who was very popular, he
put to death on a charge of treason; and next
be his own second wife, Fausta, mother of the
three sons amongst whom he divided his empire.
~ Tn 325 was held the great Council of Nica, in
which he ara the Arians on political ou
a8 the weaker party; but not being theologi-
«ally interested in the dissensions, refrained from
active persecution of them. In 324 Christianity
became the state religion, the pagan temples were
closed, and sacrifices forbidden. Yet it was ay
a short time before Constantine's death, whic
_ -@ecurred 22d July 337, that he would allow himself
to be baptised by the Arian bishop, Eusebius of
Nicomedia. The story of his baptism at Rome by
Pope Sylvester in 326, and of the so-called Dona-
tion of Constantine thereafter, alluded to in Dante’s
Inferno, and often in the past gravely argued as
iving an historical basis for the temporal power of
e papacy, may safely be dismissed (see CANON
LAW). For other Constantines, see BYZANTINE
EMPIRE. ;

Constantine Nikolaevitch, Grand-duke of
Russia, the second son of the emperor Nicholas L,
and the brother of Alexander II., was born 2lst
September 1827. During the Crimean war he
commanded the Russian fleet in the Baltic, and
directed the defensive preparations which held the
English and French armaments in check before
Cronstadt. The leader of the Muscovite or
national party, he strenuously opposed the con-
cessions made to the western powers, but through-
out gave, although contrary to expectation, steady

ce to his elder brother from his accession
to his unhappy death. On the outbreak of the
Polish insurrection in 1862, he held the office of
viceroy of Poland for three months, was appointed
in January 1865 and reappointed in 1878 president
of the council of the empire. In 1882 he was dis-
missed from this dignity, as well as the command
of the fleet, on the suspicion of having intrigued
with the revolutionary party, while his eldest son,
Nicholas, was banished. Died January 25, 1892.

Constantinople, 49° N. lat., 28° 59’ E. long.,
the capital of the Ottoman empire, was founded in
330 A.D. by Constantine the Geank: from whom it
derives its name, on a site 8 sacs, occupied by the
ancient Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol
or Stambol, which they pretend is a corruption of
Islambol (‘Islam abounding’), a name which was
formerly engraved upon the coinage in lieu of Kus-
‘tantiniya, the Arabic form of Constantinopolis.
European writers have fancifully derived Istambol
from the Greek ra Rap ae els Thv mod, ‘up to town,’
but a more probable derivation makes it simply
a Turkish mispronunciation of Constantinopotis.
‘The original Byzantium was a colony (about 658
B.C.) from Megara, with an Argive mixture, how-
ever, to which the worship of Hera, and the
introduction of the myth of Io, represented upon
the earliest coins, may probably be ascribed. It
was built on the apex of the triangular peninsula
which juts out towards Asia on the southern
side of the Golden Horn, where the present Eski
Serai or ‘Old Seraglio’ stands, and its command-

‘ing position made it an object of strife among
‘the nations—Persians, Gauls, and Greeks. In
the middle of the 4th century B.c., the Athenians

under Demosthenes, coreg to the assistance of

‘ the Byzantines, repelled the siege of Philip of
Macedon, aided, according to the legend, by the

‘Supernatural appearance of a crescent in the sky

which Soesnlod the presence of the invaders, and
132

was forthwith adopted as the badge or crest of the
city, as it is to this day. After its submission, the
Roman emperors long recognised its virtual inde-
pendence, and in 330 A.D., impressed by its mag-
nificent site, Constantine the Great abandoned the
old capital on the Tiber, and founded in the place
of ea a new metropolis on the Bosporus,
which he called Constantinople. Its walls and
one buildings were enlarged and beautified by

ustinian in 527-65. Since then it has undergone
many sieges by Sassanians, Persians, Avars, Sara-
cens (six times), Russians (in 9th to 11th century),
Latins, and Turks; and of its twenty-six sieges
and eight captures, that of the Latins under Bald-
win and Dandolo in 1204 was by far the most
disastrous, barbarous, and spoliating. The chief
adornments of the city, the treasures of the churches,
and even the bodies of the great dead, were not re-
spected by these vandal ‘crusaders.’ In comparison,
the Turkish sieges were humane and chivalrous :
the first took place in 1356; Murfd II. made the

Tue Bosporus

a

ner again in 1422; and Mohammed II, carried
the city against the resolute resistance of Constan-
tine Paleologus and Giustiniani in 1453. Since
then, such has been the renown of the Turks or
the jealousy of the Powers, that the imperial city
has witnessed no fresh siege (see TURKEY).
Constantinople consists of two distinct parts,
besides more distant suburbs—Constantinople
proper or Stambol, and what may be termed
hristian Constantinople ( Pera, Galata, Top-hana),
ime it is retite any the spreneoerin —
iefly congregate. e two are separa y the
Golden fon a creek about five miles | and
half a mile wide at the entrance, so called probably
from its famous fisheries, a veritable horn of plenty

434

CONSTANTINOPLE

to the ancient inhabitants; in the present day
a safe harbour, capable of accommodating 1200
sail, and so deep that the largest ironclads of the
Turkish navy, which may be seen there during a
reat part of the year, find enough water for their
raught quite close to the shore. Stambol or
Turkish Constantinople lies on the southern side of
the Golden Horn, and Christian Constantinople
lies on the north side: the two are connected by a
couple of rude but convenient bridges, from the
larger of which steamers start for various points on
‘ the Bosporus and Sea of Marmora. Stambol is
on the site of Byzantium, and the old walls, in
courses of stone and red brick, which Constantine
built and Theodosius and others restored, show that
the modern Turkish city occupies much the same
area as the capital of the first Christian emperor.
The walls run a circuit of 14 miles from the grim
but now ruined and disused castle of the Seven
Towers—where many sultans met their deaths at
the hands of their mutinous soldiery, and where
foreign ambassadors were imprisoned upon declara-
tion of war—to the Golden Horn, then along its
southern shore to Seraglio Point, and so back to
the Seven Towers close along the margin of the
Propontis. Within these walls the city rises, like
Rome, upon seven low hills, crowned by noble
mosques, with a wilderness of picturesque, tumble-
down, filthy, wooden ‘houses, and lane upon lane
of even more picturesque and scarcely less dirty
bazaars, climbing up their sides from the Golden
Horn to the Hippodrome. Years ago Stambol
was more beautiful and more filthy, but fire, the

eat purifier of the East, has so repeatedly laid
ow its thousands of dwellings, that the old streets
are becoming few, and their ro is being taken by
more sanitary but not equally pleasing thorough-
fares and brick or stone houses. In the bazaars
and some of the less reformed byways there is quite
enough of the old Mussulman leaven to make one’s
eye and one’s nose aware of the charms and the
drawbacks of an oriental city. Very few of the
goods, however, which the admiring tourist carries
away from the bazaars are made there; many
come from Vienna, and not a few from Manchester,
whither they are faithfully brought back by the
travelled citizen.

In Stambol are nearly all the monuments and
antiquities worth seeing in Constantinople. In
the row of some half-dozen mosques, whose con-
glomeration of domes, like a clustered jelly-mould,
and tall and exceedingly slender minarets, crown
the summits of the hills. we see some of the most
famous and magnificent monuments of Christian
and Saracenic art. First, next the Seraglio,
stands Agia Sophia, Saint Sophia, the church
dedicated by Constantine to ‘Eternal Wisdom,’
and rebuilt with added splendour by Theodosius
(415) and by Justinian (538-568), and now con-
verted into a cathedral mosque. Outside it is not
worth a second glance; but within, the airy grace
of its stupendous dome, and the beauty of its
marbles and mosaics, despite all the ravages of
Moslem, and, worse than Moslem, tourists’ dese-
crations, fascinate and amaze the vision (see
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE). Next, but not less
beautiful, is the Suleymantya, the mosque which
the Great Suleyman and his architect Sinan
erected in 1550-5 on the model of St Sophia,
but with Saracenic ornament and a loftier though
not quite so expansive dome. Some of the mono-
lithic columns are remarkable for their size and
beauty, and the general effect is even more im-
posing than that of St Sophia. Searcely less stately
1s the mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. in the Hippo-
drome ; distinguished without by its six minarets
(instead of the usual four), and within by the four
gigantic columns, 36 yards round, which support

the dome : here the official celebrations and formal
processions take place at the great festivals. The
mosque of the conqueror Mohammed II. is also
worth seeing, though it has been greatly altered in
restoration. There are over two hundred other
mosques in Constantinople, and an even larger
number of chapels (besides hundreds of medresés
or mosque colleges, and mektebs or elementary
schools) ; but very few of them present features of
special interest, except sometimes in the beauty of
their wall tiles, of the Rhodian style, for the manu-
facture of which the suburb of Eyyib was famous.

The remains of the Greek churches are more in-
teresting, and the Fanar, or Greek quarter of Stam-
bol, recall the memories of many distinguished
Fanariote statesmen; but among the relics of
ancient Constantinople none is more striking than
the Hippodrome (now called At-Meydan, or *‘ Horse
Manége’), originally a circus surrounded by marble
seats, long since removed, but still showing remains.
of antiquity, such as the famous column of the”
Three Serpents which once stood at the Temple of
nT and supported a gold tripod made out of the
spoils taken by the Greeks at the battle of Plataa,
but was removed to his new capital by Constantine.
The serpents’ heads are broken off; one was said
to have been struck off by the scimitar of Mohammed
the Conqueror, and one is still preserved in the
museum of antiquities. In the Hi rome also
stands an obelisk il from On (Heliopolis) in
Egypt, and re-erected by Proclus the Preetorin the —
reign of Theodosius; hard by are the Burnt Column,
the column of Theodosius, and the Seraskier’s.
Tower, whence watchmen survey the city and give
warning of conflagrations. Among the remains of
Mohammedan splendour the Old Seraglio (Eski
Serai) is the most important, though it has not
been a royal residence since the days of Mahmid
Il. Its first gate, Bab-i-Humayfin or ‘Sublime
Porte,’ has given its name to the Turkish govern-
ment in its foreign relations. Within its three
spacious courts, full of beautiful trees and pic-
turesque in their gray decay, are various stables
and offices of the court, the old council chamber,
the armoury (once the Church of St Irene), the
museum, mint, and the celebrated treasury, where
uncut jewels, gold-embroidered vestments, and
gorgeously mounted arms are preserved in fabulous
value. n the neglected gardens overlooking
Seraglio Point, whence a lovely view is gained of
the Soaports, the Asiatic shore, and the Sea of
Marmora, are various kiosks, one of which, called
that of Baghdad or Murad IV., is lined with exqui-
site tiles, another contains the imperial library,
and a third is the ominous Kafes or ‘cage’ where
the unhappy princes who menaced the peace of
sultans were immured for all their lives.

Christian Constantinople, on the north side of
the Golden Horn, comprises Galata, Pera, and
Top-hana. Galata is pre-eminently the merchant
quarter, the seat of customs, and the steam com-

anies’ agencies; it was founded by a colony of
Getibess merchants in 1216, and originally was in-
closed by walls of 4 miles’ circuit, now destroyed.
Traces of Genoese architecture may still be found
in the narrow dirty streets, and in the Tower of
Galata, a Genoese erection, which serves the same
purpose as the Seraskier’s Tower on the opposite
side in giving alarms of fires. Of late years Galata
has been considerably improved ; stone and brick
houses have superseded the dangerous wooden con-
structions of the past; a good thoroughfare pro-
vided with a tramway extends for a mile to
Beshiktash, and a tunnelled railway drags passen-
gers up the steep ascent to Pera. Pera is the
aristocratic quarter; here are all the embassies
and legations and consulates, and here every one
of position has his town-house. Two-thirds of

>see”

CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS

CONSTIPATION 435

this quarter were burned down in 1870, includin
the English embassy, and 40,000 persons were left
homeless. The result was a considerable improve-
ment in the architecture and ventilation of Pera.
The steep and badly paved Grande Rue, which
traverses the whole quarter, and is continued
along the shore of the Bosporus for many miles,
is, however, still in parts little better than a lane ;
but it is lined with fair if expensive shops, and
boasts a rude opera-house, many cafés and restau-
rants, besides most of the principal hotels, and
ely the worst morals in Europe. In Pera is
he English Memorial Church, erected in honour
of those who fell in the Crimean war. Turks pre-
ponderate at Top-hana, which is so named from
its cannon-foundry, and is chiefly famous for
its market, its Circassian slave-dealers, its caique-
building, and its beautiful marble fountain. Close
is the magnificent palace of Dolmabagché, on
the brink of the Bosporus.
aay 8 the other suburbs may be mentioned
Kasim Pasha, extending beyond Galata, alon
the north shore of the Golden Horn, the seat o
the admiralty; continued by Haskéi, inhabited
by a Jewish and Armenian colony; and at the
head of the Golden Horn the picturesque village
of Eyyftb, a green medley of gardens and grave-
yards surrounding the celebrated mosque where
every sultan must gird on the sword of Osman
ere he may ascend the throne. No Christian
is allowed to approach the holy place. Along
the European shore of the Bosporus are many
villages used as summer resorts by the Perotes,
among which Therapia, the chief summer resi-
dence of the ambassadors, and Biyukderé are the
most important. The Asiatic shore is also lined
with settlements, from Scutari, which is the
Asiatic suburb of Stambol (where is the chief
Turkish burial-place, as well as the great Crimean
cemetery), to andili, where is a large European
Sb senage chiefly of the trading classes, and
ikos (see Bosporus). Numerous palaces of
t sultans and ministers line both shores,
Ima hé on the European and_Begler-
beg on the Asiatic being the largest; but the
resent sultan resides in a new palace called
ildiz Késhki, at the top of the hill of Beshik-
tish, beyond Pera. Famous among pleasure
resorts are the Sweet Waters of Europe, at the
head of the Golden Horn; Kiahat-hina, near the
Castle of Asia; the forest of Belgrade; and the
Princes’ Islands in the Sea of Marmora, not far
from Kadikéi, the ancient Chaleedon.—The popu-
lation of Constantinople is estimated at about
875,000, of whom half are Mohammedans. The
trade, chiefly in the hands of Europeans, is much
below what it might be if properly developed.
The burden of vessels entering and clearing the
port is placed at 4,000,000 tons. The city has
at strategical importance, and is fortified on
the land side. The first through train from
Paris reached Constantinople in 1888; there are
also railways to Salonika and Uskub, and to
Bourgas.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE and TURKEY, and books there

Paspates (1893), Coufopoulos (Black’s Guides, 1895)
F. Marion Crawford 1893), E. A. Grosvenor (1895) ;
and on Santa Sophia Lethaby and Swainson (1894)
For the Councils of Constantinople, see COUNCIL.

Constantius Chlorus, nephew of the em-
peror Claudius II., became Cesar in 292 A.D.,
received Britain, Gaul, and Spain as his govern-
ment, and after re-establishing Roman power in

Britain and defeating the Alemanni, became one

who |

of the two Augustuses in 305, but died at York in
306. Constantine the Great was his son.—(2)
CONSTANTIUS, third son of Constantine, was
Roman emperor, 337-361 A.D. He fought with
the Persians; and after the death in 350 of his
brother Constans (who in 340 had defeated their
elder brother Constantine), became sole emperor
till his death in 361.

Constanza. See KUSTENDJI.

Constellation (Lat. con, ‘ together,’ and stella,
‘a star’), a group of stars. The stars which stud the
firmament have, from a time earlier than authentic
records can trace, been formed into artificial groups,
which have received names borrowed from fancy
or fable, mainly from Greek mythology. These
groups are called constellations. Though quite

evoid of anything like systematic arrangement,
this traditional grouping is found a sufficiently
convenient classification, and still remains the
basis of nomenclature for the stars among astro-
nomers. They are divided into northern, southern,
and zodiacal constellations. In old authors, ‘ con-
stellation’ is used to signify the relative positions
of the planets (see ASPECTS) at a given moment.
See Stars, ORION, URSA MAJor, ZODIAC.

Constipation, or irregular and insufficient
action of the bowels, is one of the most common
of ailments; there are few persons in fact who
have not at some time or other suffered from it.
It may be due either to deficient secretion of fluids
in the digestive organs, or to imperfect muscular
action of the bowels (see DIGESTION), or most
often to both these causes combined. The reten-
tion within the organism of matters which should
be regularly evacuated as they are formed, and
their consequent absorption into the blood and
tissues of the body, often leads to a whole train of
unpleasant symptoms: headache, or pain in other
regions, irritability, lassitude, and debility, and
many other discomforts may be due to this cause.
In prolonged and severe cases of constipation,
actual obstruction of the bowels (dleus) ma
result ; and often the bowel becomes so distend
and its muscular power so enfeebled that the
restoration of a healthy condition is impossible.
a is especially apt to occur in those

sedentary lives, or whose diet consists
too exclusively of animal food and starchy sub-
stances. It may often be avoided by judicious
regulation of habits and diet; and the hygienic
treatment is of far more importance than the
medicinal.

In perfect health, the lower bowel should be
evacuated every day, or at the furthest every
second day. This process, like many others in
the body, tends to recur at the same period every
day, and every one should do all he can to acquire
a habit of regularity in this respect. Moderate
regular exercise, especially in the open air, is
often of t importance ; where the liver is at
fault, riding is specially useful. A daily cold
bath, or in the case of those with whom this does
not , brisk rubbing with a rough towel, may
be helpful. A favourite remedy with some is the
use of a cloth wrung out of cold or tepid water
and applied to the abdomen; this, as used at
hydropathic establishments, is called an ‘abdomi-
nal compress,’ and is worn under a bandage of
macintosh cloth, to keep the moisture from escap-
ing, during the earlier part of the day.

Attention to diet is of prime importance. In
Britain very many persons live almost entirely
on animal pe white bread, and potatoes, a diet
extremely apt to lead to constipation. There are
many easily obtainable foods the habitual use of
which would in many cases correct this tendency.
Oatmeal, especially in the form of porridge, brown

436 CONSTIPATION

CONSTITUTION

or ‘ whole-meal’ bread, or gingerbread ; almost all
vegetables (except potatoes), either cooked or un-
cooked ; olive-oil, which may be used in salads;
treacle, eaten with bread or made into puddings ;
fruit of all kinds, particularly prunes and figs,
which can be obtained all the year round—all tend
to increase the activity of the bowels. If such
forms of food were more generally used, the rest
of the community would gain even more than the
many vendors of ‘liver pills,’ and other quack
medicines would lose.

The amount of fluid taken in the day is also
of importance. Many persons, especially those in
whom much fluid taken with meals interferes with
comfortable digestion, do not imbibe enough for
the needs of the body. In such cases a stated
amount of fluid should be taken at other times. A
tumbler of water, either cold or hot, slowly sipped
during the process of dressing in the morning, is
sometimes efficient in relieving constipation.

Lastly, the use of medicinal remedies must be
shortly considered. Compared with the measures
already noticed, they must be regarded as an
evil, though often a necessary one. Constipation
may be seriously aggravated by their injudicious
employment. Often a large dose of some purgative
is taken and produces very free action of the bowels
with temporary relief; but increased constipation
is almost sure to follow. The condition to be
remedied is a chronic and habitual one, and must
be combated by patient and persevering treatment.
The medicine selected should be taken every day,
but the dose must be the very smallest which will
produce the desired effect.

It is impossible to enumerate all the drugs which
may be used, or to define the conditions in which
each is most likely to be beneficial. A few of those
in most general use only must be enumerated.
Natural mineral-waters (Friedrichshall, &c.) are in
much repute at present: a dose should be taken
on rising in the morning. Epsom or Glauber’s salt,
if dissolved in plenty of water, is much cheaper and
almost as satisfactory. Etfervescing salines (seid-
litz powder, magnesia, and many much-advertised
peas medicines) are more pleasant to take, and
have a similar action. Castor-oil in small doses at
bedtime is objectionable only on account of its
flavour. Compound colocynth pills, or colocynth
and hyoseyamus pills ; opens liquorice powder
(containing senna and sulphur, one of the best pre-
parations) ; Gregory’s powder (containing rhubarb
and magnesia); podophyllin, euonymin, and other
drugs from America, are all useful aperients, and
should be taken at bedtime. Nux vomica is a
useful addition to other aperients, as it acts specially
upon the muscles of the intestines, increasing their
activity. A word of caution is necessary regarding
mercurial prep es which are most valuable in
certain cases, but most dangerous if used habitually.
The indiscriminate use of calomel and gray powder
in the nursery, where they are very popular owing
to their tastelessness, cannot too strongly be con-
demned. The most generally useful of all aperients
at present in use is Cascara Sagrada, the bark of a
North American species of buckthorn (Rhamnus
Purshiana). The liquid extract is the preparation
in most general use, of which from 15 to 40 dro

taken daily, either in one dose at bedtime or still

better in several doses after meals, is generally
sufficient. It increases the secretions, but especially
the muscular power of the intestine; and in very
many cases can be given up altogether after being
used for a few weeks (see also APERIENTS). In
some cases a Clyster (q.v.) is the most satisfactory
means of procuring an evacuation.

Constipation in the lower animals depends, as in
man, on imperfect secretion from, or motion of, the
intestinal walls. In the horse it is usually accom-

panied by Colic (q.v.), and when long continued
loads to Enteritis (q.v.). The appropriate remedies
are soap and water clysters given every two hours ;
smart friction and cloths wrung out of hot water
applied to the abdomen, with three drachms of
aloes and one of calomel given in gruel, and
repeated in sixteen hours, if no effect is produced.
Give, besides, walking exercise ; restrict the amount
of dry solid food, but allow plenty of thin gruel or
other fluids, which may be rendered more laxative
by admixture with treacle or a little salt. Similar
treatment is called for in dogs, cats, and pigs.

In cattle and sheep, digestion principally takes

lace in the large and quadrisected stomach; the
bowels, accordingly, are little liable to derangement ;
and constipation, when occurring in these animals,
generally depends upon impaction of dry hard food
between tha leree of the third stomach, fardel-bag,
or moniplies. The complaint is hence called fardel-
bound. It results from the eating of tough and
indigestible food, such as ripe vetches, ryegrass, or
clover ; it prevails in dry seasons, and on pastures
where the herbage is coarse and the water scarce.
It occurs amongst cattle eating freely of hedge-
cuttings or shoots of trees, hence its synonym
wood-evil. From continuous cramming and want
of exercise, it is frequent in stall-feeding animals ;
whilst from the drying up of the natural secretions,
it accompanies most febrile and inflammatory dis-
eases. he milder cases constitute the ordinai
form of indigestion in ruminants, are accompanied
by what the cow-man terms Joss of cud, and usually
yield to a dose of salts given with an ounce or two
of ginger. In more protracted cases, rumination is
suspended, cg ey gone, constipation and fever
are present. ‘There is a grunt noticeable, especially
when the animal is moved, different from that
accompanying chest complaints, by its occurrence
at the commencement of expiration. By pressing
the closed -fist upwards and forwards beneath the
short ribs on the right side, the round, hard, dis-
tended stomach may be felt. This state of matters
may continue for ten days or a fortnight, when the
animal, if unrelieved, becomes nauseated, and sinks.
Stupor sometimes precedes death, whilst in some
seasons and localities most of the bad cases are
accompanied by excitement and frenzy. In this,
as in other respects, the disease closely corresponds
with stomach-staggers in the horse.

Give purgatives in large doses, combining several
together, and administering them with stimulants
in plenty of fluid. For a medium-sized ox or cow, use
2 hb. each of common and Epsom salts, ten croton
beans, and a drachm of calomel, with three ounces
of turpentine ; and administer this in half a gallon
of water. If no effect is produced in twenty hours,
repeat the dose. Withhold all solid food; encoura
the animal to drink gruel, sloppy mashes, treacle
and water; and give exercise, vanes and occa-
sional fomentations to the belly.

Constitution, in Politics, signifies a system
of law established by the sovereign power of a
state for its own guidance. Its main objects are
to fix the limits and define the relations of the
legislative, the judicial, and the executive powers
of the state, both amongst themselves and with
reference to the citizens of the state, regarded as
a governed body. In continental countries, since
the formation of the federal government of the
United States of America, or, at all events, since
the first French Revolution, the idea of a constitu-
tion has been generally that of a body of written
public law, promulgated at once by the sovereign
power. In Great Britain it is the whole body of
the public law, consuetudinary as well as statutory,
which has grown up during the course of ages, and
is onntinanne being modified by the action of the
general will as interpreted and expressed by the

7 eee Oe

a

LT S:CmcrCCC

——S—
=

CONSUL 437

CONSTITUTIONS
parliam en representatives of the nation. A
constitution. anehy is one in which the

sovereign is restricted in his powers by chambers

of the representatives of the people ; the ‘ granting
Bly

of a constitution’ accordin means the trans-
forming of a monarchy more or less nearly absolute
into a constitutional state. The constitutions of
the various countries will be found under FRANCE
GERMANY, &c., and see the list of articles append
to POLITICs.

Constitutions, ApPosTo tic.
CONSTITUTIONS.

Consubstantiation, as opposed to Transub-
stantiation (q.v.), is the Lutheran doctrine that
in the eucharist the body and blood of Christ
are, in a way not to be explained, in, with, and
under the unchanged bread and wine. See LoRD’s
SUPPER.

Consuetudinary or Customary Law is an
unwritten law established by usage and derived by
immemorial custom from remote antiquity. When
universal, it is called common law; when par-
ticular, it is called custom in a narrower sense, as
the custom of a trade or of a district. See Custom,
Common Law.

Consul, the title of the two highest ordinary
magistrates in the Roman republic. The idea of
two supreme istrates or joint-presidents of the
state seems to have been interwoven with the
earliest conceptions of a organisation in
Rome. After the expulsion of Tarquin, Lucius
Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus
were chosen joint heads of the state; but the
title of consules seems first to have been introduced
about 300 B.c. At first, the consuls seem to have
differed from the kings in little else than their
limited tenure of office, and the power which their
fellow-citizens retained of calling them to account
at its termination. They never assumed the golden
crown, but their dress in almost every other respect
was regal. They made peace and negotiated foreign
alliances, had the supreme command of the army,
and appointed the public treasurers. They like-
wise exercised the judicial functions of royalty.
Dates were always determined by naming the con-
suls of the year. The symbol of their authority
was the bundle of rods (/fasces), with the axe in
the centre, which was carried before them by
twelve lictors. For a considerable period the con-
suls were chosen exclusively from the popaiss or

tricians, as ope to the plebs. t length,

owever, two P ebeian officers called tribuni plebis
were appointed as a sort of democratic rivals to the
aristocratic consuls. The result of this rivalry was
that the consulship was opened to plebeians, the
famous Lex Licinia (367 B.C.) ordaining that one
of the consuls should belong to that order. This
law was more stringently re-enacted in 342, and
from that time it was customary for one of the con-
suls to be a pee This same law prohibited any
individual from holding the same office within ten
years, but the enactment was often suspended.
The appointment of Censores (443) and of Pretores
(367) relieved the consuls of many of their judicial
functions. _In the government of the provinces, the
aid of the former consuls was called in, the consul
thus appointed having the title of pro-consul. In
sudden and critical emergencies, the consuls were
either superseded by a Dictator (q.v.), or absolute
power for the occasion was conferred on them by
the decree of the senate, which ran in the famous
formula : Videant consules ne quid respublica detri-
menti capiat—‘ Let the consuls look to it that
the state take no harm.’ The consuls were in-
augurated by a great procession to the Capitol
and a sacrifice to Jupiter Capitolinus. The shadow
of the consulate survived the downfall of liberty ;

See APOSTOLIC

but the election of the consuls was taken from
the people and conferred on the senate. Then
their number was increased; they were divided
into classes ; till at last the office became a mere
honorary appointment conferred by the emperor.

- The title of consul was revived in the French
republic after the revolution of the 18th Brumaire,
and lasted till the coronation of Napoleon as
emperor, 18th May 1804.

Consul, MERCANTILE, the name given to those
officers whom the state maintains in foreign coun-
tries for the protection of its trade and vindication
of the rights of its merchants, and to whom the
further duty is assigned of keeping the home
government informed of all facts bearing on the
commercial interests of the country. The practice
of appointing such officers ogy apg ay the
trading communities of Italy about the middle of
the 12th century, and gradually extended itself;
and in the 16th century had been adopted by all
the countries of Europe. In addition to their
commercial duties, others of a more strictl
political kind were frequently confided to consuls
in places in which there was no amb or or
political agent. In almost all civilised countries
consuls are divided into consuls-general, consuls,
vice-consuls, and consular agents. The consul’s
first duty on his arrival is to exhibit his commis-
sion to the authorities of the country to which he
is accredited, in order that he.may obtain their
sanction to his appointment. This sanction is
communicated to him in a document called an

uatur, which secures to him the enjoyment of
such ‘privileges, immunities, and exemptions as
have been vie fa by his predecessors, and as are
usually granted to consuls in the country in which
he is to reside.’

The general duties of English consuls are com-
municated to them in printed instructions. In
these the consul is ordered to make himself con-
versant with the laws and general principles which
relate to the trade of Great Britain with foreign
parts, and with the language and municipal laws
of the country wherein he resides. Further, it is
his duty to boty ea his countrymen in the lawful
exercise of their trade, to quiet their differences,
to obtain the redress of injuries done them—fail-
ing which, to report the matter to the English
ambassador at the capital of the country—and
to forward to the Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs an annual return of the trade carried on at
the different ports within his consulate, as well as
a quarterly account of the market prices of agri-
cultural produce during each week of the quarter,
the course of exchange, &c. The consul must
afford relief to British seamen or other subjects
wrecked on the coast, and endeavour to procure
them the means of returning to England. The
commanders of British war-ships touching on the
coast are entitled to call on him for intelligence,
and aid in procuring supplies of water, provisions,
and the like; and it is his duty to endeavour to
recover all wrecks and stores, &c. of queen's ships,
whether found at sea and brought into the port
at which he resides, or thrown on the coast. As
regards his ‘ privileges and immunities,’ a consul
engaged in trade is amenable to the civil jurisdic-
tion of the state to which he is accredited, but
a consul sent out from this country, and not
engaging in trade, has always been exempted from
the taxes of the country in which he resides.
A consul can perform all the acts of a notary-

ublic, all deeds executed by him being acknow-
edged as valid by our courts of law. The fiction
is, that the consulate is the territory of the country
from which the consul is sent, and, consequently,
that deeds and acts done within it, or under the
consul’s seal, are done in England. Hence the

438 CONSUL

CONSUMPTION

marriage of British subjects recorded in the books
of a British consul is a valid ceremony.

Consuls in various foreign countries have special
owers regulated by what are called ‘capitulations.’
hey act as jrdges in consular courts to whose

jurisdiction all subjects of their nation are amen-
able, to the exclusion of the native tribunals. Such
privileges are enjoyed by English consuls in Turkey
and the Levant, Morocco and other parts of Afriva,
China, Corea, Muscat, Siam, see | the Western
Pacific. In Egypt there are mixed international
courts as well as consular courts. In Japan the
capitulations were abolished in 1895, and in Mada-
gascar when the island became French.

The first care of every Levantine trader is to
obtain the protection of some foreign power, so
that he may set at defiance the local courts, and,
to some extent, the local executive authority. To
obtain letters of nationalisation as a British sub-
ject is rightly made somewhat difficult ; but this
is not the case with most other European nations.
The capitulations are especially injurious in Egypt,
where the native authorities and their English
advisers are constantly thwarted in their endeav-
ours to promote order and good government by
the ill-defined and jealously-asserted power of the
foreign consuls.

Of late years attempts have been made to estab-
lish a body of trained men from among whom the
consular service in the Levant, as well as in China
and Japan, could be recruited, and student inter-
preterships have been founded. The student inter-
preters are selected by competitive examination
in England, and are sent to Constantinople or to
the far East, as the case may be, with a salary
of £200 a year. Their advancement ‘depends
entirely on the ability which they may show after
their arrival at their destination, and on their
general steadiness and good conduct.’

Consuls who are permitted to trade are not
required to pass any examination, but members
of what may be called the regular service are
supposed to do so. The limit of age for appoint-
ments is twenty-five to fifty.

In the United States, literary and scientific men
are frequently appointed to important consulships
abroad, Hawthorne and Bret Harte having, for
example, been consuls in Britain. In the British
service the names of Charles Lever, Mr Stigand,
Gifford Palgrave, and Sir Richard Burton are
modern examples of such appointments.

The salary of British consuls varies from £2500
(chief-justice of the Supreme Court for China and
Japan), to the nominal salary of many vice-consuls.
Among the more important posts are the consul-

eneral at Shanghai, £1600; consul-general at New

ork, £2000; consul at Boston, £1200; New Orleans,
£1190; Zanzibar, £2150; Honolulu, £1100; Sofia,
£1200; Beyrout, £1250; Manila, £1100; Old
Calabar, £1200; the consul-general and judge at
Constantinople, £1600. The United States consuls
at London, Liverpool, Paris, and Rio Janeiro have
each, apart from fees, a salary of $5000; the consul
at Havana receives $6000.

Consumption, in Political Economy, is that
department of the subject which treats of the use
of wealth. It is the converse of production, which
refers to the making or creating of wealth. As
production is the first stage in economics, con-
sumption is the last. Consumption is the chief end
of industry, for everything that is produced and
exchanged is intended in some way to be con-
sumed. Consumption is usually divided into two
heads—reproductive and non-reproductive. Wealth
consumed in reproduction is simply Capital (q.v.).
Wealth consumed as capital, while it is the final
stage in one process of industry, becomes an item in
a further process of industry. A shopkeeper who,

having made a thousand pounds in his business,
afterwards uses it in farming, proposes thereby to
apply his money to a new kind of reproductive
employment. Industry is to a large degree simply
a continuation of this process. ealth which is
roduced to-day will to-morrow be consumed in
resh production.

But consumption is peraaps more properly re-
garded as non-reproductive, as that use of wealth
which has no fresh production in view, or is simply
applied to the satisfaction of human needs. The
wants of men, as well as the means of satisfying
them, have varied greatly at different periods of his-
tory, and do still greatly vary in different countries
and different states of society. As regards wealth
applied to consumption, we may recognise three
stages : (1) Necessaries ; (2) comforts ; (3) luxuries.
The commodities which were once a luxury are
now in civilised countries merely a comfort or even
a necessity. In the middle ages a linen shirt was
a luxury even at royal courts. In fact, nothing
perhaps so marks the development of comfort as
the general use of underclothing, whether woollen,
cotton, or linen, In the economics of all ages the

uestion of luxury has claimed great attention.
The extravagance of the wealthy was both in
ancient and medieval times considered so dangerous
to society, that Sumptuary Laws (q.v.) were passed
to repress it, often without the desired effect. On
the other hand, the luxury, extravagance, and even
prodigality of the rich have been justified on the
ground that such expenditure was necessary to
provide labour for the industrial classes; but this
notion is exploded among competent economists.
It should be clearly understood that consumption
should be both rational and moral, and that the
just and rational needs of men have the first
claim on society.

As all wealth is produced in order to be con-
sumed, and as there can be no consumption with-
out production, it will be obvious how the great pro-
cesses of production and consumption are, correlated
to each other. If there be insufficient production,
consumption is checked and suffering ensues through
human wants not being satisfied. On the other
hand, over-production frequently tends to bring
about commercial crises. hen the effective con-
sumption is unable to absorb the mass of com-
modities, the market becomes overstocked and the
industrial process is deranged.

Consumption, DECLINE (in medical language,
Phthisis, Tuberculosis), is a condition well recog-
nised by the laity as by the physician. Strictly
speaking, the name includes a group of affections,
but it is generally used to indicate pulmonary con-
sg net (phthisis pulmonalis)—i.e. a more or less
rapidly advancing process of lung destruction, asso-
ciated with progressive emaciation and other char-
acteristic signs and ee This is a disease
of grave importance, from its frequency and fatal
tendency. It has been estimated that consumption
is responsible for nearly one-seventh of the total
mortality of Europe. Consumption appears to
have committed its ravages from the earliest
times, and its distribution is probably universal,
though far from equal. Thus, statistics show
consumption to be less common in the Hebrides
and Shetland Islands than on the mainland of
Scotland, while the unanimous verdict of Ice-
landic physicians has been that consumption
occurs relatively seldom in their island. It is not
easy to propose any fixed rule regarding its distri-
bution. Latitude as such seems of less importance
than might be expected. The mean level of tem-
perature has little connection with its occurrence,
though apparently, in tropical countries, the course
of the disease is more rapid. The most probable
explanation of the comparative immunity of certain

.

se

CONSUMPTION 439

districts and countries is to be found rather in
the minimal amount of moisture present. Wet-
ness of the soil is a factor of the greatest im-

rtance, as was shown by the researches of

wditch in America, Buchanan in England, and
Milroy in Scotland. Their united testimony was
that the number of cases of consumption varied
directly with the degree of dampness of the soil.
Elevation also exercises an important influence ;
and, other things being equal, the more elevated
the district, the less favourable will it be to the
occurrence of consumption. The explanation of
this is probably to be found in the combined purity
and rarity of the atmosphere.

Though consumption was early recognised as a
definite disease, and its clinical course fairly well
studied, much obscurity has rested over the ques-
tion of its causation. About no disease has opinion
30 seyret fluctuated. Definition was first
rigidly attempted by Bayle and Laennec, who held
that consumption was essentially due to the pres-
ence in the lung of little granular masses of varying
size and character, which were named Tubercle
(q.v.). On the other hand, Andral, Virchow, and

iemeyer maintained that only a limited number
of cases were to be so explained, and that con-
1 aye mene was most frequently induced by a process
of chronic inflammation of the lung. This view
gave scientific basis to the popular belief in the
effects of neglected cold. edical opinion was
divided between those main lines until 1882, when
Koch announced the fact that he had discovered
an organism, which he believed to be present in all
cases of consumption proper. This organism—the
Bacillus tuberculosis—is a minute rod-like strue-
ture, capable of cultivation outside the human

y, and easy of demonstration in the expectora-
tion of consumptive patients (see BACTERIA).
Clinical and experimental evidence has since corro-
borated the truth of Koch’s assertions, and the
bacillar origin of consumption has been pretty
Seaeeell y See so that the older teaching has

n subjected to much modification. Although
this is so, considerable difference of opinion remains
as to the relation of other factors to the bacillus.
Some observers are even yet inclined to think that
certain cases of as may be satisfactoril
explained apart from the bacillus. This view is
Ly Pe cies Spon

regards the lung itself, the resultant condition

is more or less uniform, varying in degree accord-
ing to the stage of the disease. The process is one
of gradual disintegration, in which two phases may
be recognised : (1) Consolidation, when the affected
lung feels relatively solid, and the normal vesicular
structure can be but imperfectly distinguished ;
42) excavation, when the consolidated mass in

rt breaks down, leaving irregular spaces, varying
in size, presenting an uneven, secreting surface.
‘The cavities (vomicx) tend to be largest towards
‘the upper part of the lung. Associated with these
changes in the lungs, grave disturbance appears in
other organs, notably in the stomach and intestines,
the liver, and the kidneys.

While ipovttons the bacillar origin of consump-
tion, it is impossible to overlook the predisposing
influence exerted by certain conditions. The list
of such factors is a large one. Pre-eminent among
them is Heredity (q.v.). Undoubtedly there exists
in many families a tendency to weakness—i.e. a
less power of resistance—of the respiratory organs,
This may be transmitted through several genera-
tions. This want of vital balance in the respiratory
apparatus is manifested by recurring ‘colds,’ with-
out apparently sufficient cause. It is not difficult
to seadige how the bacilli take root, and flourish
more readily under such conditions. It is a Dia-
thesis (q.v.) or disposition which is inherited,

rather than the disease. Greater difficulty is ex-
perienced when the question of actual transmission
of the disease is considered. Though certain facts,
indeed, point to the conclusion, it cannot be said
that a congenital infection of child by mother has
yet been demonstrated in man. he so-called
scrofulous diathesis, in which there is a tendency
to a low form of glandular inflammation and
degeneration, has been cited in favour of this view.
The inter-dependence of scrofula and consumption
cannot be denied. Sex seems to have little bearing
in reference to consumption. Similarly of little
value is the popular belief that the disease is more
frequent in the offspring of consanguineous mar-
iages. Itis, however, to be borne in mind that such
unions necessarily double the chance of a particular
family taint being reproduced. Age is a factor of
greater moment. It may be said that consumption
makes its appearance most frequently between the
ages of fifteen and thirty. It frequently attacks
rsons beyond thirty, but in very young children
it is not common. most as part in the
causation of consumption is undoubtedly played by
improper sanitary conditions. This is evidenced
by the much greater prevalence of consumption in
towns and other crowded centres. The statistics
of mortality in England illustrate this. In the
counties whose industry is chiefly agricultural, the
death-rate from consumption is comparatively low,
while in Lancashire ante other more largely manu-
facturing counties the rate is high. Badly built,
overcrowded dwellings and workshops, with in-
sufficient ventilation and damp, afford the most
suitable conditions for the development of consump-
tion. All physicians are eed that ‘perhaps no
cause exerts such a decided - influence on the pro-
duction of consumption as the privation of fresh
air and exercise.’ No better illustration of this
can be cited than the excessive mortality from
consumption which was at one time recorded in
British and foreign prisons. Thus at Millbank
Penitentiary, during the seventeen years from 1825
to 1842, the annual mortality from consumption
was reckoned at 13 per 1000. The vicious influence
of these factors is, of course, increased enormously
when, in addition, poverty and want are present.
It must be admitted, too, that sedentary occupa-
tions generally predispose to consumption. Thus
tailors, seamstresses, and similar workers are
especially prone to the disease. More especially
is this true of occupations whose performance
necessitates the inhalation of dust particles—e.g.
stone-masonry, knife-grinding, metal-polishing,
wood-carving, &e. The dust particles act as
irritants of the fine structures which line the air
passages and vesicles, inducing chronic changes,
which, in turn, are liable to lead to consumption.
The bacillar doctrine has given fresh impetus and
scope to the important inquiry as to the contagious-
ness of consumption. On this subject the evidence
is conflicting. The large experience of consump-
tion hospital physicians, such as that of the Drs
Williams at Brompton Hospital, points decided]
towards the negative view. On the other hand,
the statements of most careful observers, who have
again and again recorded cases of infection, are
strong in the opposite direction. An unprejudiced
review of the facts seems to justify the conclusion
that, although consumption is a communicable
disease, it is so within certain limits—i.e.
the contact and intercourse which, apart from
other causes, expose to risk, must be of an ex-
tremely close nature. Probably the expectoration
of phthisical patients affords the best means of
transmission.
There remains the interesting question, whence
do the bacilli make their appearance? This is a
difficult problem. The fact that the organs of

440

CONSUMPTION

respiration are more especially affected, seems to
oint to the conclusion that the bacilli are present
in the air. But their presence there is not easily
proved. On the other hand, the expectoration of
consumptive patients is found to be loaded with
the organism. It has further been demonstrated
that the bacillus occurs abundantly in the milk of
cows suffering from tubercular disease of the udder ;
and meat obtained from the carcasses of tubercular
animals, particularly the liver, kidneys, and glands,
cannot be regarded without suspicion. The preval-
ence of abdominal consumption in young children
has been attributed to the ingestion of the bacilli
by means of milk. It has further been shown that
tubercular disease may be induced through an open
wound, to which the bacilli have obtained access.

The symptoms of consumption cannot be fully
discussed in the present article. As seen in
advanced cases, they are pretty generally appreci-
ated by the non-professional eye; but at first the
are treacherous and frequently remain undetected.
The early symptoms vary much. There may be
nothing but a gradual loss of strength, it may be of
flesh ; there may be a slight discharge of blood from
the throat or chest ; there may be a more or less
persistent, tickling cough ; there may be breathless-
ness, with or without pain in the chest ; or there
may be little save an increased tendency to take
cold easily, with but tardy power of throwing it off.
Or again, the slow beginnings may be expressed by
a gradually progressing pallor, and, in the female,
by diminution or cessation of the menstrual dis-
charge. Any of those conditions, especially when
they show themselves in the adolescent or youn
adult, are to be viewed with suspicion, an
regarded as a sure indication that medical help is
necessary. The more experience physicians have in
the treatment of consumption, the stronger becomes
the conviction that many lives might be saved, if
only an opportunity were afforded of arresting the
disease at an early stage. It is peculiarly at
this point that the greatest skill and prudence are
required from the physician. The appreciation of
the signs which celcats the presence of consump-
tion, both at this early stage and later, must be
left in his hands, and cannot, of course, be treated
of here. The later symptoms of consumption are
better defined, and are, unhappily, too well known.
They are, more particularly, cough, expectoration
of a more or less thick, opaque substance, of vary-
ing colour, from whitish-gray to green, sometimes
of blood, shortness of breath, pain in the chest,
gradually advancing emaciation and loss of weight
and strength, profuse sweating, especially in sleep,
feverishness, F phi cs As the aiacaee advances
further, there frequently occur swelling of the feet
and sores about the mouth. Accompanying these
symptoms, grave changes occur within the lungs.

hese are appreciated with ease by the trained
observer. It should be added that all the above-
mentioned symptoms must not be looked for in
every case of consumption. The type varies end-
lessly, and some cases run towards a fatal issue
with relatively few signs or symptoms, while
anatomically the disease is the same.

The duration of consumption varies greatly. In
a certain proportion of cases the destructive process
is very rapid, and, if unchecked, may lead to death
within a few weeks. To this variety the name
Galloping Consumption has been applied. The great
majority of cases are extremely acini and the
disease seems from time to time to become station-
ary. Consumption may terminate fatally only
after many years.

As to the curability of consumption opinion
has differed much. For long—and, unfortunately,
to a considerable extent at the present day—con-
sumption was regarded as incurable, and treatment

adopted in the direction of palliation. More
recently, however, the view of its curability, main-
tained both by Laennec and Niemeyer, leaders of
grees schools of pathology, has received fresh
life through Koch’s discovery. During the last few
years many cases of recovery have been recorded.
If those who have reported such have sometimes.
been affected with that peculiar hopefulness—spes
phthisica—which is a frequent attribute of the
consumptive patient, it must be regarded as a more:
leasing indication than the apathy which was
ormerly too often displayed in respect of such
patients, as evidently appointed to die. There is,
moreover, reason to hope that we are on the eve of
Hae possibilities. Never was attention so i
eenly directed to this once neglected problem. In
illustration of this may be cited the institution at
Paris in 1888 of an International Congress, which
is to meet once in two years for the consideration
and elucidation of all questions relating to con-
sumption, with a view to its prevention and.
treatment. Meanwhile, it may be affirmed that.
consumption, if suitably treated in the early stage,
is curable; that occasionally more advanced cases.
are cured, and that for all cases much may be done —
in the way of prolonging life and relieving suffering.
The popular mind must be disabused of the idea of
the hopelessness of consumption. |
The treatment of consumption is one of the most
complicated problems which the physician has toe
face. In its wide sense, it involves a consideration
of some of the largest questions relating to social
and individual hygiene. From the prophylactic:
pent of view, it includes the study of all points.
earing on the causation of consumption. Only
thus can the attempt be made to cope effectively
with the evil on the large scale. A knowledge of
the ps erg of consumption on overcrowding,
vitiated air, improper ventilation, and other insani-
tary conditions, ought to lead the responsible
authorities to adopt and enforce such regulations.
as will remedy the evil. Within recent years much
has doubtless been effected in this direction. The
legislature has taken in hand several departments
of this work; and employers, in many instances,
have shown a proper interest in the welfare of
their employees. But more remains to be done.
There is need of increased popular instruction,
so that working-people and others may them-
selves appreciate the dangers which they run by
neglect of simple precautions. Further, having
regard to the communicability of consumption from
the lower animals to man, means should be devised
whereby the milk from tubercular cows may be
excluded from the market, and the flesh of tuber-
cular animals condemned. These provisions have
been embodied in the recommendations of the
Paris congress (1888), that tuberculosis in animals.
should be included in the list of contagious diseases,
the animals seized and destroyed, and dairies and
milk-houses be subjected to strict enim) by
competent officers. The danger of phthisical ex-
pectoration as a means of transmission has been
already alluded to. It is therefore advisable that
this, whenever possible, be destroyed by burning,
or rendered innocuous by scalding or other satis-
factory method. a
In respect of the treatment of individuals, much
may be expected from prevention. Though lacunz
exist in our knowledge of the life-history of the
tubercle bacillus—more especially as regards its.
access to, and development in, the human body—
there is good ground for believing that general
depreciation of the system is a favouring factor of
much importance. Hence all measures are to be
adopted which will place the body under as good
conditions as possible, more especially when there
is suspicion of a family tendency towards consump-

——— a a

~ mended,

CONSUMPTION

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 441

tion. Open-air exercise, varied according to circum-
stances, light gymnastics, friction of the skin, and

, unless contra-indicated, are to be com-
Sufficient sleep, abundant and lar
meals of simple nourishing food, and warm light
clothing are essential. Exposure to chills or damp
must be strictly avoided, and the utmost care taken
that no ‘cold” be allowed to persist. If a cough
continue, or any other symptom of consumption
show itself, medical advice should be obtained at
once.

When consumption is distinctly present, there
are two lines open to the physician—the defensive
and the offensive—and rational treatment should
combine these. In carrying out the former, an
attempt must be made to improve the general
condition, so that effective resistance may be
offered to the invasion of the bacillus. For this
purpose all means of fattening the body should be
adopted ; and of these, par excellence, cod-liver oil,
which has come to be regarded almost as a specific
for consumption. As Dr C. J. B. Williams says:
‘The beneficial operation of cod-liver oil extends to
every function and structure of the body.’ Fatty
foods, butter, cheese, cream, milk, koumiss, glycer-
ine, &c. are similarly of service. Care must be
taken to maintain the appetite. The moderate use
of alcohol, in one form or another, is advisable.
Attention should be bestowed on the wpnden, bo

those general hygienic rules which have been
indicated. The chest should be gently expanded
by such means as reading, singing, and regulated
open-air exercise. Disadvantageous climatic and
atmospheric conditions are to be removed, where
possible. This is specially of importance in our
moisture-laden climate. Often a change of resi-
dence from seaside or city to the highlands proves
beneficial, or, where the disease is pronounced,
removal from the northern to a more temperate zone.
Where comparatively short journeys can alone be
eontemplated, Bournemouth, Hastings, Ventnor,
Torquay, Penzance, and other places on the
southern shores of England may thought of.
Where longer ones are possible, the variety is
immense, from the Mediterranean and Atlantic
stations to the slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
In many cases a sea voyage is best; but this
is contra-indicated under certain conditions, and
should never be undertaken without medical
advice. In connection with all these plans, wise
consideration will be given to the fact that appar-
ent advantages are unfortunately counterbalanced
by disadvantages which are less easily gauged.

hile much benefit is to be expec in suit-
able cases, it is unnecessarily cruel to send a
patient to die away from home. The offensive
method of treatment rests on the hypothesis of
the opposition offered by certain drugs to the
life and development of the bacillus. The first
vague feeling after such a system found expres-
sion in the various respirators, whose eflicacy
has from time to time been vaunted. There are,
however, grave objections to the use of these.
Firstly, such instruments of necessity render the
movements of respiration less easy ; and secondly,
it is questionable whether, in the diseased state of
the lungs, much of the antiseptic influence reaches
the diseased portion. More recently an attempt
has been made to introduce into the body certain
drugs, which experiment indicated as antagonistic
to the life of the bacillus. These have been admin-
istered by the mouth, by the rectum, subcutane-
ously, and by injection into the air passages
directly. Thus creosote, iodoform, terebene,
sulphurous acid, menthol, and other drugs, have
been exhibited. The method is still on_ trial.
Most encouraging reports have been published
from time to time, but it cannot be said that

certainty of result has yet been attained. For the .
relief of suffering and the palliation of distressing
symptoms, an endless number of remedies might be
named. No disease taxes more fully the patience
and resource of the physician, and, apart from the

neral lines indicated, each case must be regarded
individually.

Consumption in the Lower Animals.—The con-
sumption of the lower animals has been proved to
be essentially the same disease as that oceurring in
man. Its immediate dependence on the tubercle
bacillus has been established. It affects the bovine
species more especially. It is comparatively rare im
the sheep, and very rare in the horse and dog. Pigs,
rabbits, and poultry are extremely susceptible to the
disease. The same class of causes appears to give
rise to it. Its extreme frequency in cows is probabl
referable to the more or less confined life whic
these animals lead in comparison with the horse
and dog. The udders of the tubercular cows
frequently exhibit signs of the disease, and in those
eases the Bacillus tuberculosis has been demon-
strated in the milk. It is a question whether the
bacillus is found in the milk of tuberculous
animals apart from such local disease. But the
= communicability of the disease from the
ower animals to man makes it desirable that
consumption should be included among the con-
tagious diseases, so that tubercular cattle may be
destroyed. The symptoms presented by tuber-
cular animals are in the main similar to those seen
in man, and in the later stages are recognised
without much difficulty. At first, however, con-
sumption is less easily distinguishable—a fact
bowed renders legislation on the subject extremely
ifficult.

Con on, the communication of a disease
from the sick to the healthy, either by direct con-
tact of a part affected with the disease, or through
the medium of the excretions and exhalations of
the body. The term is sometimes used of all
methods by which disease is communicated, but
more generally of those in which direct contact has
taken place between the healthy body and the
diseased one, or some object which has touched it;
more subtle means of transference, especially
through the air, being termed ‘infection.’ This
distinction, though it cannot be considered a
fundamental one, is practically convenient; for
some diseases (e.g. syphilis, ringworm) are always,
or all but always, propagated by contact ; others
(e.g. measles, influenza) much more often through
the air; while in some (e.g. anthrax) the symptoms
and course of the disease are much modilied by the
method of communication. See INFECTION, and
GrERM THEORY OF DISEASE, in Vol. V. p. 168.

Contagious Diseases Acts were passed
in 1865, 1867, and 1868 for the seaport and
military towns, Aldershot, Canterbury, Chatham,
Colchester, Dover, Gravesend, Maidstone, Ply-
mouth and Devonport, Portsmouth, Sheerness,
Shorncliffe, Southampton, Winchester, Windsor,
and Woolwich ; and in Ireland, the Curragh, Cork,
and Queenstown. To a certain extent they also
applied in other towns, and similar acts were
largely adopted in the British colonies. The main
features of this legislation were (1) the registration
and police supervision of prostitutes; (2) the

riodical examination of these women, which might

compelled ; (3) their detention in hospital when
necessary. The acts were from the first strongly
Cp as contrary to constitutional freedom and
public morality, as giving undesirable safety to
Vicious practices, as dangerous to virtuous women,
as treating unequally the two sexes, and as en-
couraging clandestine prostitution. Their opera-
tion was inquired into by a Royal Commissiop

442 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES

CONTEMPT OF COURT

in 1870, which was generally favourable to their
- retention; and bya Sclect Committee in 1882, which
reported that the acts had diminished venereal
disease, and had increased the efficiency of the
army. The army returns, however, leave this fact
in some doubt; and while medical and sanitary
principles support the acts, and the opinion of the
clergy and the police in the garrison towns credited
‘them with good results, they were condemned by
a wave of strong public feeling in 1883, and have
since been repealed. This repeal, however, has
not yet been atopied in the colonies.

Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts.
‘This legislation was begun in 1869, but now stands
on acts passed in 1878, 1884, and 1886. These
acts, and the orders issued under them by the
Privy-council, constitute a most important code
of administrative regulations for the protection of
eattle, sheep, goats, and all other ruminating
animals, and also swine, against cattle-plague (or
rinderpest ), contagious pleuro-pneumonia, foot and
mouth disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, glanders,
farey, swine-fever, and anthrax. The Privy-
council have also issued an order relating to
rabies in dogs. Since 1888 the acts are ad-
ministered by the county councils in counties,
town councils in boroughs over 10,000, and by the
police authorities in smaller towns in England ;
and in Scotland by certain mixed boards for the
counties, and by the town councils in parlia-
mentary burghs. The method of working is that
‘on the report of a local veterinary inspector, the
Privy-council declare a place to be infected, and
direct all animals suffering from cattle-plague to
be slaughtered, compensation being given to the
owners out of money provided by parliament. As
regards pleuro-pneumonia, the local authority ma;
take the initiative in declaring a place infected,
and they provide the compensation for slaughtered
cattle out of a local assessment. The same process
is followed as regards foot and mouth disease, but
the power of slaughter does not exist in this case.
‘The place ‘declared’ is often only a field or a
-cow-shed, but may be indefinitely extended. The
Privy-council have a general power of making
orders with reference to the transit or movement
of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia or foot
and mouth disease ; and a large part of the admin-
‘istration consists in carrying out these ‘movement
orders,’ which are numerous and modified frem
time to time. It is the duty of every person hav-
‘ing a diseased animal to give immediate notice
to the police. For the purposes of these acts
the Privy-council has a large jurisdiction over
markets, exhibitions, landing wharves, the treat-
ment of cattle by railway companies and on board
ship, &c. They are responsible for the regulations
connected with the landing of foreign animals,
which is allowed only at prescribed places. In con-
nection with this the local authorities have power
to provide wharves, lairs, sheds, &c., for the landing,
reception, and slaughter of foreign animals.

The Act of 1886 transferred to the Local Govern-
ment Boards of England and Ireland and the
Board of Supervision in Scotland the power of
issuing orders relating to dairies, cow-sheds, and
einesenlgg Sg and to local sanitary authorities the
oe of making regulations under such orders.
‘These regulations may deal with the lighting,
ventilation, cleansing, drainage, and water-supply
of ‘dairies and cow-sheds in the occupation of
persons following the trade of cow-keepers or
dairymen; the cleanliness of milk-stores, milk-
pa and of milk-vessels used for containing
milk for sale by such persons ; and may prescribe
precautions to be taken by purveyors of milk
and persons selling milk by retail against infec-
tion or contamination. The result of this transfer

of powers has been to place milk-selling under
stricter supervision than hitherto, as it is unlaw-
ful for any person to carry on the trade without
being duly registered.

Contango. See Stock EXCHANGE.

Contari‘ni, the name of a noble family in
Venice, one of the twelve that elected the first
Doge. Between 1043 and 1674, eight Doges were
furnished by this family, which also counted amongst
its members four patriarchs, and a large number
of generals, statesmen, artists, poets, and scholars
(see VENiCE).—CARDINAL GASPARO CONTARINI
(1483-1542) distinguished himself as Venetian am-
bassador at the court of Charles V., and was papal
legate at the Diet of Ratisbon (1541), where he
displayed great moderation, seeking by concessions
to bring about the reunion of the Protestants with
the church.—SIMONE (1563-1633) was Venetian
ambassador at several Italian courts, in Spain, in
Constantinople, &c., and was a Latin poet.—Lupo-
VICO (1629-1653) was ambassador in Paris.

Contemporaneity, in Geology, has a some-
what more extended signification than the word
bears in ordinary language. When a geologist
speaks of the Silurian systems of America and

urope having been accumulated contemporane-
ously, he does not infer that they were precisely
synchronous, but merely implies that each occupies
the same relative position in the succession of
systems. Each was preceded by a Cambrian and
succeeded by a Devonian system; but for aught
he can tell, the Silurian period may have commenced
earlier or endured longer in one area than the other.
Professor Huxley has suggested the term homotaais
(‘similarity of order’) as a substitute for contem-
poraneity. According to this view we should apply
the term homotaxial instead of contemporaneous to
widely separated systems which contain the same
assemblages of fossils—all that the proposed term
indicates being this, that the order of organic suc-
cession was the same in both regions. All the
evidence, however, goes to show that in the earlier
ages of the world the climate of the earth was
not differentiated into zones as it is now, so that
faunas and floras were enabled to extend themselves
readily in every direction. Hence, although it is
impossible to say that any particular bed of paleeo-
zoic or mesozoic limestone in Europe is of pee
the same age as a similar limestone in America,
yet it seems in the highest degree probable that
the great system to which both these limestones
happen to belong was accumulated during one and
the same long-continued period. Geologists seem
to be justified, therefore, in describing the successive
systems of the Old and New Worlds as actually
contemporaneous.

Contempt of Court, a disregard of the
rules or an offence against the dignity of a court
which has power to punish for such _ offence.
Contempts, according to the law of England,
may be classed as (1) disobedience to the Queen’s
writ; (2) contempts in the face of the court,
as when a witness refuses to be sworn or pre-
varicates in his evidence, or where jurymen
refuse to give a verdict; (3) contemptuous words
or writings concerning a court; (4) refusing to
comply with the rules and awards of a court;
(5) abuse of the process of a court; and (6) for-
gery of writs, or any deceit tending to impose on
a court. Any act which insults or resists the
power of a court or the persons of the presidin
judges, or which plainly tends to create a disregar
of judicial authority, may be a contempt, as un-
seemly behaviour, applauding, talking boisterously
and dleteenbeonake while the business of a court is

roceeding, intimidating a suitor to discontinue

is action, kidnapping or corrupting witnesses or

CONTI

CONTINENT 443

jurors, obstructing officers of court and the like.
tempt is occasionally punished by fine (e.g.
of £500 during the Parnell Commission), but
oftener by commitment to prison for an indefinite
od. Similar powers are exercised by judges
Scotland, where contempts may be punished
arbitrarily by censure, fine, or imprisonment,
either by the court of its own instance or under a
summary complaint by the public prosecutor. In
the United States also, the courts have power to
fine and imprison all such contempt of their
authority, every court being the exclusive judge
of its own contempt, and having power to preserve
its own dignity. otions and affidavits for attach-
ments in civi
court, but as soon as the attachment issues, the
roceedings are on the criminal side. For Con-
feng of Paslintnantt, see PARLIAMENT.

Conti, House or, a younger branch of the
Bourbon House of Condé (q.v.). Its founder and
first prince was Armand de Bourbon Conti, brother
of the great Condé. He was born at Paris in 1629,
and took his title from the little town of Conti,
near Amiens. Though feeble and deformed, and
set aside for the church, he took with ardour to
the career of arms, but after 1657 retired from
the world, and died at Pézenas in 1666.—Lovuts
ARMAND, eldest son of the preceding, was born
in 1661. After a short but promising career in
arms, he died childless in 1685.—FRANCots Louts,
Prince de la Roche-sur-Yon et de Conti, brother
of the preceding, and the most remarkable of the
family, was born at Paris in 1664. Educated under
the eyes of the great Condé, he early conceived a

ion for war, and already in his first campaign
in Hungary covered himself with glory. Falling
into disgrace with the court, he was banished to
Chantilly, but niger by the intercession of the
great Condé before his death. Subsequently Conti
served under the Due de Luxembourg, who was
warmly attached to him, and took a brilliant part
in the victories of Steinkirk and Neerwinden. In
1697 he narrowly escaped being made king of
Poland. On his return to France he was still
coldly received by Louis, who, however, was at
last forced by disaster to es him. He received
the command of the army of Flanders in 1709, but
died on the 22d February of the same year. Saint-
Simon, in his Mémoires, thus speaks of him: ‘ He
was the delight of armies, the divinity of the people,
the hero of officers, the darling of parliament, and
the admiration of the most learned savants.’-—-The
last member of the House of Conti was Lovis
FRANCOIS JOSEPH, who was born 1734, and died
at Barcelona, 1807.

: Contiguity, LAw or. See ASSOCIATION OF
DEAS.
Continent. This name, originally applied to

suits are on the civil side of the |.

a great division of the earth’s surface containing a

number of countries, has latterly come to have a
more precise scientific meaning. Six continents
are ised by geographers—Asia and Europe
(which, strictly speaking, form but one continent,
the division between the two being arbitrary and
uncertain); the three great triangular peninsulas,
Africa, North America, South America; and the
vast islands Australia and Antarctica. Antarctica
has never been explored, but the evidence of the
ual shoaling of the sea on all sides within the
ntarctic circle, and the nature of the rock»
dredged in the far south, make the existence of a
continent aud not an archipelago of oceanic islands
round the south pole practically certain.

The earth's surface is divided by the 1000 fathom
(6000 feet) line of ocean soundings into two equal
parts, one a region of depression surrounding the
south pole and stretching northward in three wide
branches or ocean-basins, the other a region of
elevation surrounding the north pole and stretch-
ing southward in three great arms crowned by the
continents. All the land rising above sea-level
forms collectively the continental area, and amounts
to ys of the earth’s surface. Geological evidence
shows the extreme probability that the continental
and abysmal areas have never changed places, but
are permanent features of the earth’s surface.
Continental rocks, granite, gneiss, schist, and their
derivatives, differ entirely from those of oceanic
islands. Detached portions of the continents,
though now far from the mainland, may therefore
be readily recognised (see ISLAND). round all
continents the action of waves has carved out a
ledge or terrace, the continental shelf, of variable
width, on which the bottom slo gently from
the land to soundings of 100 fathoms, and then
abruptly plunges to the oceanic depression (see
SEA). The absolute elevation of continents or
mountains above mean sea-level cannot easily be
determined, on account of the permanent distortion
of the sea surface by the attraction of the project-
ing mass of land. This paying up of the sea has
been calculated at 300 feet for the vicinity of the
Himalayas at the Bay of Bengal, and 2000 feet
for the Chilian Andes, Sir John Murray calculates
the average height of continental land above sea-
level as 2200 feet, and gives as probable estimates
the mean heights represented in the png
Particulars of each of these continents will be
found under their respective names.

The continents occur in north and south pairs,
united by a narrow isthmus or archipelago, or separ-
ated only by a shallow strait. They are directed
south-south-eastward, tapering from the north in
all cases, and frequently ending in a series of south-
pointing peninsulas, which are often partially sub-
merged so as to form archipelagoes of small islands
on the eastern side. Each continent has an axis or
backbone of high land, usually a plateau contain-
ing an area of internal drainage, and’ serving as a

Seale of Height, 1 = fee!
8200 feet. Seale of Area, 1 on tae =2'50,000 0. miles,
WWeseienssensasssonsonncessonvonarameuall (ee8 eddenn andusnssopensnasapageee nsstasnsdytysnabeeeseisdvasneceeenenesssasussenascvepesonetesceunecucassenensenacesenoneasers 2200 feet, mean ht.
2000 feet. -™
ASIA. 1900 feet.
AFRICA. SOUTH NORTH
16,870,000 sq. m. ERICA. AMERICA. | ee eee
|— - 800
11,090,000 sq. m. ,860,000 sq. m.} 7,620,000 sq. m. EUROPE. AUSTRALIA. | ft.
8,670,000 sq. m. | 3,010,000 sq. m.

Relative Areas and Average Heights of the Continents.

watershed. for rivers flowing to all sides. This
high land is situated towards the south, and runs
east and west on the whole in Eurasia, giving the

north-flowing rivers long slopes, and the south-flow-
ing streams a short and rapid run. Africa is a
transition type, the watershed being on the whole

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM

444

CONTRABAND OF WAR

nearer the east ; Australia, more extreme, has the
main watershed lying close to the east coast. In
the two Americas there is a high western mountain-
ridge or plateau running from north-west to south-
east, and a low range on the eastern coast, leaving
| ee central low plains watered by large rivers.

he interior of a continent has usually a very low
rainfall (see DESERT), and is subject to great ex-
tremes of temperature between summer and winter,
and between day and night, hence the term con-
tinental climate. Land and sea breezes and the
monsoons of tropical coasts (see MONSOON) result
from this circumstance.

Continental System, the name given to
Napoleon’s plan for shutting England out from
all connection with the continent of Europe. This
system began with Napoleon’s famous ‘Berlin
Decree’ of November 21, 1806, which declared the
British Islands in a state of blockade, and pro-
hibited all commerce and correspondence with
them; all merchandise belonging to an English-

man became a lawful prize, and all trade in English

hag entirely prohibited. No ship coming direct
rom Britain or from a British colony was allowed
to enter any port.

Britain was not long in making reprisals. B
an ‘Order in Council,’ issued January 7, 1807, all
neutral vessels were prohibited from entering any
port aoe to France or her allies, or under her
control. Every neutral vessel violating this order
was to be confiscated with its'cargo. Still more
oppressive for neutral commerce was a second order
in council of November 11, 1807, by which all har-
bours and places of France and her allies in Europe
and the colonies, as well as of every country with
which England was at war, and from which the
English flag was excluded, were placed under the
same restrictions as if strictly blockaded. These
orders were followed by new French measures.
By the Milan Decree of December 17, 1807,
strengthened by a second of January 11, 1808, from
the Tuileries, any vessel, of whatever nation, that
had been searched by an English ship, had sub-
mitted to be sent on a voyage to England, or paid
any duty to the English government, was to be
declared denationalised, and treated as English.

Most of the countries of Europe were coerced by
Napoleon into joining the continental system. The
great war of 1812 against Russia was largely owing
to her refusal to adhere to it any longer. It was
a violent interruption of human intercourse, which
could not last long, and could only serve to
strengthen the hatred of Europe against French
tyranny. Accordingly, with the breaking up of
Napoleon’s power, the continental system fell to
the ground. The policy of England in connection
with the continental system can be justified only
on the ground that it was necessary to avert a
supreme national danger. It was not without its
mischievous results, for the measures adopted in
regard to neutral commerce led to the American
war of 1812.

Contorted Strata are beds which are highly
folded, plicated, and twisted—the folds being ex-
tremely irregular, and giving rise to rapid changes
in the direction and angle of inclination. Con-
torted strata are frequently crumpled and puckered
—the fossils and peubies which they may chance
to contain being compressed, flattened, and dis-
torted—facts which show that the beds have been
subjected to great crushing and squeezing.

Contour. When, on a map of any district or
country, a line is drawn through points on the
earth’s surface which are all at the same height
above mean sea-level, the curve so obtained is
termed a contour-line. For equidifferent altitudes
a series of such lines may be drawn. It is obvious

that they may be ideally laid down by projecting
orthographically on the map the sections of the
earth’s surface made by a series of horizontal planes.
at equal distances apart; or (what is the same
thing) were the sea-level to rise 100 feet, then to-
200 feet, and so on, above its normal level, the sea-
margins made at each successive rise would be the:
contour lines of the district for 100 feet, 200 feet,
&e. These lines, which are drawn on British Ord-
nance Survey maps for intervals of usually 50 feet,.
however they may vary in form in different cases,
have certain common properties which render them
of assistance to the surveyor, engineer, and geo-
grapher. Seno for example, the case of a
hemispherical hill be taken (see fig.), and that the
contours (which are, in this

case, concentric circles) are

drawn for each 100 feet of

altitude. It will be noticed

that where the distance be-

tween the two successive con-

tours is least, there the hill is

the steepest; for, in ascending

the hill at that part, a given

length inwards horizontally is

accompanied by the greatest

vertical ascent. In other words, the steepness of
slope or gradient at any point in any given direc-
tion is inversely as the distance between the con-
tours at that point in the given direction. The
line of steepest slope at any point is therefore the |
shortest line which can be drawn to the next con-
tour which it cuts at right angles. This is the
course which would be taken by water running:
down the hillside, and hence is termed a stream-
line. Thus in any given system of contour-lines.
the corresponding system of stream-lines can be ob-
tained by drawing a system of orthogonal curves.

The method of contours has found many applica-
tions in science besides the one already detailed.
Especially in meteorology has it been of service ;
here isothermals and isobars drawn on a map are.
simply lines drawn through points having the same.
temperature and barometric pressure respectively ;
the corresponding stream-lines being lines of flow
of heat or of atmospheric pressure. Similarly,
lines of equal magnetic dip, variation, and in-
tensity are examples of applications in terrestrial
magnetism.

The method is also applicable to other dimensions.
in space than those we have dealt with. The con-
tours of a curve are points ; of a surface (exemplified
above), curves ; while those of a solid are surfaces.
From the examples given it may be seen that a
contour is a point, line, or surface at, along, or on
which some physical property or characteristic is
constant. Generally the advantage of the method
is that by its means the mutual variations of three

uantities may be represented by lines in two
imensions.

Contraband of War (Lat. contra bannum,
‘against the proclamation’) is a name applied
to certain commodities during hostilities between
states which acknowledge what are called the
laws of nations. One such law is, that neutral
nations must not carry on, for the advantage of
either of the belligerent powers, any branches of
commerce from which they are excluded in time:
of peace. Another is, that the name of contra-
band of war shall be given to such articles as
pertain to military or naval warfare—guns, am- ~
munition, and stores of all kinds. Unless there
are special treaties, defining exactly what articles.
are contraband of war, the interpretation of this
law often leads to much embarrassment. Another
law insisted on by England during the Napo-
leonic war was, that each belligerent shall have
a right to visit and examine neutral ships, to

————— a

CONTRA-BASS

CONTRACT NOTES 445

wee whether they carry any articles which are
«ontraband of war, and which seem likely to be
intended for the enemy. A neutral state may carry
on ordinary trade with either belligerent except
when prevented by blockade (see BLOCKADE) ; but
the ships, according to the above rules, must not
eontain articles contraband of war; nor must a
«onterminous land frontier be crossed by such
«ommodities. If a merchant evades these rules, he
dloes so at his own risk; his merchandise may be
seized, and his own government will not protect
him. By the law and practice of nations, it is for
the Admiralty Court of the capturing power to
decide what is or what is not contraband of war.
Upon such questions it is the province of this
tribunal to adjudicate, and from its final judgment
there is no appeal. At various times discussions
have arisen otha corn, hay, or coal can ever be
included in the list of articles contraband of war ;
they are obviously articles of peaceful commerce,
but they are also essential to the maintenance of
an army, and sometimes a supply would give one
belligerent a great advantage over the other.

Especially is this the case in reference to coal in’

the present age of war-steamers.—Contraband in
commerce depends upon the special laws of each
country. See SMUGGLING.

Contra-bass. See DouBLeE Bass.

Contract. The law of contract occupies a
prominent place in all modern systems of juris-
prudence, and different nations are in closer agree-
ment as to its principles than in regard to any
other department of law. A contract may be
defined as the voluntary agreement of two or more
persons, by which something is to be given or done
upon the one side, for a valuable consideration,
either present or future, upon the other side.
English lawyers usually adject to this definition
the qualification that the agreement is enforceable

y law, an agreement not enforceable by law being
Sy eee as void. Every contract requires a con-
sideration, a guid pro quo, but as a general rule
any consideration, adequate or inadequate, will be
sufficient. For the making of a contract there
must be a communication between the parties of
their intention—i.e., in one shape or another, there
must be offer and acceptance of distinct terms.
An offer or proposal can be revoked at any time
before it is accepted; and in strict law, silence
«loes not give consent. When silence is taken to
constitute acceptance, it must be silence under
such circumstances as to amount to acquiescence.
An acceptance must be unqualified, otherwise there
is no contract. As the validity of a contract rests
upon the consent of parties, persons legally incap-
able of giving consent cannot be parties to a con-
tract. Contracts made by a person under the age
of twenty-one are as a general rule voidable,
unless they have been made for his benefit, or, as in
England, for his ‘ necessaries.” And persons in a
state of absolute drunkenness cannot contract,
although a lesser degree of intoxication may be
compatible with legal consent. Similarly, contracts
made by a lunatic are voidable when it can be
shown that his state was known to the other con-
tracting party. Further, the consent given must
be genuine, and a contract will be'void if there is
mistake or error in either of the parties with regard
to any essential particular. Thus, if A sell to B
a bar of brass in the belief that it is a bar of gold,
and B buy in the same belief, the contract is bad
by error. Misrepresentation, or innocent misstate-
ment of fact, and fraud, or wilful misstatement of
fact, will also vitiate a contract, as will foree or
fear or undue influence exercised to compel the con-
sent of either of the ote A contract may also
+e void by impossibility—e.g. when the thing

agreed to be done is naturally impossible, as in the
case of a pianoforte player who is prevented from
performing his agreement by dangerous illness ; or
impossible by construction of law, as when a
change in the law of the country supervenes upon
and contradicts a private agreement. Besides
these, the law refuses to recognise contracts to per-
form any illegal act, as to burn a house or steal
a horse; and such an agreement may be in itself
a crime, as conspiracy. Contracts against good
morals, as, e.g., an agreement to pay the price of
prostitution, are denied legal recognition and
enforcement, as also are agreements against the
ublie policy of the country where they are made.
xamples are agreements in fraud of the revenue,
as in smuggling transactions; or contracts in
restraint of marriage, which are held to be against
ublic policy as tending to decrease the population.
hus a contract not to marry is void.

Contracts are variously classified. The law of
Scotland adopts the old division of the civil law
into Nominate Contracts and Innominate Con-
tracts. The nominate contracts are loan, commo-
date, deposit, pledge, sale, permutation, location,
society or partnership, and mandate. The law of
England distinguishes between Contracts of Record
po Contracts under Seal—both of which are
formal, or dependent for their validity upon their
form—and simple contracts, which depend for
their validity upon the presence of consideration.
Contracts of record are the judgments of a court;
recognisances, as contracts made with the crown in
its judicial capacity ; and the obsolete acknowledg-
ments of debt known as Statutes Merchant and
Staple. Deeds and bonds may be taken as
examples of contract under seal. Of simple con-
tracts, some require no a esis of form; others
are by law required to be in writing, as, e.g., a
bill of exchange or an assignment of copyright.
Contracts are distinguished into express or ‘implied
accordingly as they are based upon formal state-
ments in words, spoken or written, or upon matter
of inference and deduction either from the conduct
of the parties or from the provisions of law. They
are also distinguishable into executed contracts,
where the transaction is completed the moment the
agreement is made, as where an article is paid for
and delivered over the counter, and executory
contracts, where some future act is to be done after
the arrangement is completed, as where an agree-
ment is made to build a house in six months. A
contract of benevolence is one made for the benefit
of only one of the contracting parties, as mandate
or deposit. See BREACH, DAMAGES.

The remedy for breach of contract is an action
for a certain sum due by the defaulter or for dam-

es, ascertained by a jury; but where the remedy
of damages is inadequate or unsuitable, the courts
will enforce a contract by decree for specific per-
formance of the thing agreed to be done, or by
injunction forbidding an act agreed not to be done.

Contractility. See MuscLe.

Contractions. See ABBREVIATIONS, PAL0-
GRAPHY.

Contract Notes, also called BouGHT AND
SoLp NoreEs, or ADVICE NOTES, are notes of Ch pot
chase or sale signed by a broker, and delivered to
his principals, by which the bargain through him is
pe es They are used by all kinds of brokers,
and the following is the form of a stockbroker’s
contract and note :

2 O_p Broap Street, Lonpon, 20th December 1888.

Boveut by order and on account of A. B., . (subject to
the rules and regulations of the London Stock Ex »

20 London Street Tramway Shares, at £16....£320 0 0

Brokerage, ......66scess0s 112 0
Cc. D. & Co., £3821 12 0
Sworn Brokers.

446 CONTRALTO

CONVEYANCING

These notes are, in fact, transcripts from books
in which it is the practice of brokers to enter or
register their transactions. The bought notes and
the sold notes are respectively delivered to the
principal ge ; and as they contain the essential
parts of the bargain, they will suffice as evidence,
in the absence of a corresponding entry in the
broker’s books ; but if they describe the particulars
differently or incorrectly, as one species of goods
for another, or erroneously state the terms, no con-
tract arises, and a variation of this nature cannot
be corrected by a reference to the broker’s book.

In England, such written notes are required by
the Statute of Frauds (29 Charles II. chap. 3) to
prove a contract ; while in Scotland, except in cer-
tain cases, any kind of evidence will be admitted in

roof (see PAROLE EVIDENCE; see also BROKER,
ALE).

Contralto is the deepest or lowest species of
musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and best of all
in women, where its beauty of tone gives it the
preference. This quality of the human_ voice
was too much neglected by the French and
German composers and singing-masters. Rossini
and the Italians have, on the other hand, abund-
antly utilised its capabilities, and it is now one of
the normal parts in the choral music of all nations.
The powers of expression which it possesses are
quite peculiar, and cannot be supplied by any other
kind of voice. Its tone-character (timbre) is serious,
spiritual, tender, and romantic. The low contralto
in particular has a fullness of tone combined with
power in the lower range. The high contralto has
generally the same range of compass as the mezzo-
soprano, but differs from it in the position of the
eantabile and in its character of tone. Contralto
voices generally consist of two registers, the lowest
beginning at F or G below middle C, and reaching
as high as the A or Babove it. The higher notes
BP to the next F or G partake more of the character
of the soprano. See VOICE.

Contrat Social (‘Social Contract’) is the
name of a famous work (1762) by J. J. Rousseau,
and of the theory maintained in it that govern-
ment is based on the consent, direct or implied, of
the governed. See ROUSSEAU.

Contravallation, LINEs or, form a chain of
works round a besieged place to resist the sorties
of the garrison. See BLOCKADE, CIRCUMVALLA-
TION, and SIEGE.

Contrayerva, a medicine once in much repute
against low fevers, and as a mild stimulant and
diaphoretic, also as efficacious against snake-bites,
whence the Spanish name, consists of the root-
stocks (rhizomes) of different species of Dorstenia,
a tropical American plant of the natural order
Artocarpacee. The genus is remarkable for the
yet receptacle in which the numerous small

owers are depressed, the female flowers more
deeply so.

Control Department. See COMMISSARIAT,

Convalescent Hospitals are institutions of
the greatest importance. Many patients die on
returning to their own unhealthy homes from our
oneinary hospitals ; the convalescent home or
hospital supplies a valuable stage in the process
of cure. Either a series of detached cottages or
one large and well-appointed house may serve to
secure pure air and wholesome treatment. Of the
latter kind, one of the first and best models was
the magnificent establishment at Vincennes, founded
in 1857. It contains more than 400 beds; permits
an average stay of from twenty to thirty days;
and in three years received 14,000 convalescent
artisans.

Convallaria. See LILY oF THE VALLEY.

the constitution.

Convection. See Heat.

Convent. See MOoNACHISM.

Conventicle (Lat. conventiculum, a diminu-
tive of conventus) originally meant a cabal among
the monks of a monastery. The word was given
as an appellation of ave to meetings of the:
English and Scottish Nonconformists in the 17th
century. Severe statutes were often passed for the:
suppression of these conventicles, especially the
Conventicle Act of 1664, which was repealed by
the Toleration Act of 1689.

Convention, in Diplomacy, is a kind of treaty
(especially military) of a temporary kind.

tH Politics, it is a branch of the royal prerogative
of Britain that no parliament shall fe convened by
its own authority, or by any other authority than.
that of the sovereign. Where the crown is in
abeyance, this prerogative cannot of course be
exercised, and the expedient of Convention Parlia-
ments has been resorted to, the enactments of
which shall afterwards be ratified by a parliament.
summoned in accordance with the provisions of
The convention parliament.
which restored Charles II. to the throne met.
five weeks before his return, and was afterwards.
declared to be a good parliament, notwithstand-
ing the absence of the king’s writs. In like

‘manner, at the Revolution of 1688, the Lords and

Commons, on the summons of the Prince of
Orange, met in convention, and disposed of the
crown and kingdom, and this convention was:
subsequently declared to be really the two Houses.
of Parliament, notwithstanding the want of writs
and other defects of form. nder the name of
Convention there also took place a meeting of
the Estates of Scotland, called by the Prince of
Orange on the same occasion. The word conven-
tion was frequently used in the United States.
during the struggles with the British authorities
which preceded the revolutionary war. For the
French National Convention, see FRANCE. For
the Convention of Royal Burghs, see BOROUGH.
Conversa’no, a town of South Italy, 18 miles.
SE. of Bari. It has a fine cathedral, and a trade:
in wine, oil, almonds, and cotton. Pop. 11,006.
Conversion, a theological term applied to the:
conscious change of heart prompting the repentant.
sinner to a new life, which is part of the process.
of regeneration. Popularly the name means the
sensible experience.of this, and obviously there:
will be as much variety in its intensity and im-
mediateness in individual cases as there was in
their temperaments and antecedent spiritual con-
ditions. .The man who really knows something of
the human heart will no more sneer at the grotesque:

_expression of his experience from the lips of an

awakened collier than he will smile at its intensity’
in the pages of a St Augustine or a Bunyan.—
The word is applied also to a change of religion
or of creed, as that of John Henry Newman from
the Anglican to the Roman Catholic Church. By
those who disapprove the change, such a conver-
sion is called perversion.

CONVERSION, in Logic, signifies that one proposi-
tion is formed from another by interchanging the:
subject and predicate. Thus, ‘No A is B’ has for
its converse, by simple conversion, ‘No B is A.”
For the rules of conversion, see any handbook of
formal logic.

Conveyancing, A conveyance may be de-
fined as the form prescribed by law or custom for
transferring property from one person to another.
In the earliest stage of society, before written titles.
and contracts were in use, property was transferred
by symbolical acts, performed in the presence of
witnesses. Thus, in Ruth, iv. 7, a person surren-
dering his rights binds himself by plucking off his:

‘
_—

eel

—EEE

— —=—-

and immovable property.

' prevail

CONVEYANCING

CON VOCATIONS 447

shoe and giving it to his neighbour ; ‘and this was
a testimony in Israel.’ Among the ancient Goths
and Swedes, the conveyance of land was made in
the pereence of witnesses, who extended the cloak
of the buyer, while the seller threw into it a clod
of land. Similar to these symbolic forms are the
old English and Scottish modes of conveyance by
solemn delivery of seisin, sasine, or ion.

Goods have always been transferred with less

ceremony than land; but the customs of ancient
markets provided in certain cases for delivery in
presence of witnesses, that frauds and disputes
might be avoided.
ritten forms of conveyance are almost as, old
as the art of writing. An early example is given
in Jer. xxxii. 9-12, where the prophet describes his
purchase of the field of Hanameel, and the book or
written evidence of the purchase subscribed by the
parties and their witnesses. The Romans carried
the art of conveyancing to high perfection. They
had a sath in which formal documents
might be recorded ; and the same legal forms were
used by notaries and lawyers throughout the em-
ire. The Roman law favoured freedom of aliena-
ion, and applied the same Pin to movable
hen the barbarians
broke into the empire; they brought their primitive
customs with them; and Sir H. Maine has shown

that barbarian custom and Roman law combined

to form the feudal system. The great aim of
feudalism was fixity of tenure; but the church-
men, who were also the lawyers and conveyancers
of the period, were led by their own interest, and
also by their superior education, to favour free
alienation, both inter vivos and by will.

In England and in Scotland feudal ideas so far
, that for some centuries the owner of land
was hampered in dealing with it by the incidents of
his tenure. He was liable for military or other
service, and his land was subject to many inci-
dental claims of a vexatious nature (see Copy-
HOLD, ESCHEAT, FEUDALISM, FINE, FREEHOLD).
The church lawyers were driven to devise a whole
system of conveyancing, the object of which was
to enable 2 gr ge and private persons to evade
the strict rules of the common law. Political
insecurity led to the invention of other forms of
secret conveyance. In England by the end of the
17th inion the art of conveyancing had become a
complica mystery, and dealings with land,
in the way of commerce or of. family settlement,
were attended with expense and difficulty. Modern
conveyancing has been rendered more simple and
reasonable, and, on the whole, less expensive, by a
series of reforms extending from the acts. prepared
on the advice of the Real Property Commissioners
in 1832-33 to the Conveyancing Act, 1881, and the
Settled Land Act, 1882.

In Britain it is not necessary to employ a
professional pee to prepare a conveyance; but
the risk run by those who trust to a deed or will
drawn by an unskilled person is considerable. Con-
veyancing is part of the ordinary work of solicitors,
and in Scotland of writers to the Signet. In
England many members of the bar devote them-
selves entirely to conveyancing; and there is also
a special class of practitioners known as convey-
ancers who are members of the Inns of Court, but
not called to the bar. Like solicitors, conveyancers
are required to take out an annual certificate. In
some of the large cities in the United States,
companies have been formed to undertake convey-
ancing, and to guarantee titles to real estate. In
learning and practising his art, the conveyancer is
much assis by collections of precedents, which
contain the styles and forms which have been
found most safe and useful. By turning over any
of the books of precedents now in use, even the

ordinary reader may obtain some notion of the
variety and the importance of modern convey-
ancers’ work. In the United States the laws of
conveyancing are not uniform ; but in general the
essentials of a conveyance of land are that it shall
be in writing, signed and sealed by the grantors,
acknowledged before the officer appointed by law,
and delivered and recorded in the office appointed.
In inost states conveyancing is done by members of
the bar, but elsewhere by skilled conveyancers wh.
are not otherwise lawyers. See DEED.

Convict. See Prisons, CriminAL Law.

Convocations (from Lat. convocare, ‘to call
together’) were originally provincial synods of the
clergy or the ancient ecclesiastical councils of the
archbishop, but became incorporated into the Eng-
lish constitution of church and state, and en-
dued with certain parliamentary privileges. Some
writers distinguish between councils and convoca-
tions—the former as being for spiritual purposes,
and summoned without authority from the crown ;
the latter as being for civil purposes, and by com-
mand of the crown. This distinction, however, has
no foundation in fact, the truth reas ¢ that the
same assemblies discharged ecclesiastical functions,
such as the enactment of canons, and civil fune-
tions, as the voting of subsidies to the crown, since
the clergy were not subject to taxation save that
levied by themselves in their provincial synods. The
circumstances attending the famous assembly at
Northampton in 1282, in the reign of Edward L,
helped to settle the form which convocations have:
since assumed. In England the provinces of Can-
terbury and York have each their convocation.
Previous to the Reformation these were sometimes
convened into a National Synod; but since then,
matters have usually been concluded in the con-
vocation of Canterbury, and transmitted to York
for concurrence.

A convocation consists of three elements—(1) the
archbishop ; (2) the oe bishops of the pro-
vince ; (3) the clergy of the second order. ey
originally met in one assembly, but since the begin-
ning of the 14th century the clergy in the province
of Cnbeetaniy have retired into a distinct chamber,

resided over by a prolocutor, with officers and
journals of their own. These two bodies are called
the Upper and Lower Houses. In the Convocation
of York the same distinction exists, but on the
occasions of their meeting, the business has been
geseenlty conducted in one assembly. The arch-

ishop has the sole power of summoning, presiding,
and proroguing; he has also a veto upon all
measures. He cannot, however, summon without:
authority from the crown. The Upper House is
the proper docus synodi, where the bishops have a.
right to sit and vote, and before the Reformation
the mitred abbots had place there also. The Lower
House consists of the lesser dignitaries, as deans
and archdeacons, and the proctors sent by capitular
bodies and by the parochial clergy. In Canterbury
the beneficed clergy only elect, and they send one
proctor for each diocese; in York all the clergy
elect, and send one proctor for each archdeaconry.
The Lower House delibetates on matters proposed
by the archbishop ; it may present petitions to the

a House and state grievances, be with it in
judicature on persons convened, and dissent from
and so hinder the passing of any synodical act.
Till 1534 the provincial synods or convocations.
could enact canons at pleasure, but in that year
was enacted the statute 25 Henry VIII. chap. 19,
making a license from the crown necessary before
any new canons could be framed or published.

he passing of subsidies in convocation ceased in
1665, and the records were destroyed in the fire of
London in the following year. Meetings of convo-

448 CONVOLVULUS

CONVULSION

cation fell into abeyance in 1717, being indefinitely
prorogued as a punishment for the synodical
condemnation of a book by Bishop Hoadly, who
was high in favour with the government. They
have been revived (in 1852 for the province of
Canterbury, in 1856 for York) with considerable
advantage to the church, but their action has been
and is greatly restricted. In Ireland the convoca-
tions of the four provinces assembled at Dublin, all
together, and were on the model of those in Eng-
land. From the Union downwards, the Irish con-
vocations never assembled. Since the disestablish-
ment the legislative assembly of the Protestant
Episcopal Church is called the General Synod.
An act of parliament was passed in 1663 for regu-
lating the meetings of convocation in Scotland ; but
‘shortly after the Revolution of 1688, the Episcopal
‘Church ceased to be the national establishment ;
and ever since the meetings of the Presbyterian
‘Church, embracing clergy and laity, have been
ealled General Assemblies. See ASSEMBLY, SYNOD.
The position of the Church of England as respects
its convocations is exceedingly anomalous, but is
incidental to certain circumstances in the constitu-
tion and polity of the country. As practically
‘interwoven with the state, the church possesses
little independent action; its articles, liturgy,
organisation as to benefices, &c., are all affected
by civil statutes ; while its discipline falls within
the scope of the ecclesiastical courts, a class of
tribunals apart from the ministering clergy. The
church, therefore, in its capacity as an institution
to teach certain doctrines of religion, is left little
to do in the way of jurisdiction. It is further
urged, as a reason for restricting the power of con-
vocation, that being purely sacerdotal, it might be
apt to run into excesses, and put forth claims
evens to the prevailing tone of sentiment on
religious matters ; that, in short, as things stand, it
is safer for the public to be under the authority of
parliament than to be subject to- the ordinances of
a body of ecclesiastics. At the same time it is
generals allowed that some kind of reform is
esirable, though how this should be effected in a
manner satisfactory to all parties it would be
difficult to say.
The convoca-
tions of Can-
terbury and
York assemble
annually at the
opening of par-
liament, each
keeping up its
own distinctive
customs. See
Trevor's Convo-
cations of the
Two Provinces;
Cardwell’s Syn-
odalia, and
Documentary
Annals ; Lath-
bury’s History
of the Convoca-
tion of the
Church of Eng-
land.
Convol’vu-
lus (Lat. con-
volvére, ‘to twine
together’), a
genus of plants, the type of the order Convol-
vulacee. This order contains about 800 known
species, herbaceous and shrubby; generally with
a twining stem and milky juice, chiefly tropi-
eal. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants,
particularly species of Convolvulus and Ipomeea.

The acrid milky juice is often strongly purga-
tive; and jalap and scammony are products of
this order. Some species, however, have large
farinaceous roots, capable of being used as food, of
which the Batatas or Sweet Potato (q.v.) is the
most important. A few are natives of Britain, and
are known by the name of Bindweed. A common
name in the United States is Morning Glory. C.
arvensis is a troublesome weed in some sandy soils
in England, and Calystegia sepium in richer soils.

The wood of C. scoparius, a shrubby species, native —

of the Canary Isles, called ‘ Rosewood,’ or Lignum
Ethodit by apothecaries, has so strong a smell of
roses that the essential oil it yields on distillation is
employed to adulterate the attar of roses.

Convoy (Fr. convoi) is the name given to one
or more ships of war appointed to protect a fleet of
merchant-vessels against the attacks of an enemy
or of pirates. If a merchant-ship parts company
with the convoy, or neglects to obey the convoy’s
instructions or signals, all claims of insurance are
forfeited. The name is sometimes applied to the
merchant-vessels so escorted. In the military ser-
vice a convoy is a train of wagons or canal boats
laden with provisions, treasure, or warlike stores,
and escorted by a detachment of troops.

Convulsion, in Medicine, is sometimes used
of any involuntary contraction of the voluntary
muscles of the body ; but especially of seizures in
which the body is thrown into violent spasmodic
contractions, the sensibility and voluntary motion
being for a time suspended. In adults convulsions
almost always indicate the presence of grave
disease, either of the brain (particularly Epilepsy,
q.v.) or of the kidneys. In children, eapactall
before the age of three years, they are of much more
common occurrence, and, though serious in them-
selves, may be due to temporary and comparatively
trifling causes. The following description applies
chiefly to the convulsions of children. A fit of
convulsions may last from a few minutes to some
hours, and may readily prove fatal, if not relieved
within a short period. The first symptom ob-
served is often a twitching of particular muscles
or groups of muscles, and a change in the habitual
expression or colour of the face, with distension of
the features, and turning of the globes of the eyes
suddenly upwards. “The fingers are sometimes
clenched in the palm, and the feet turned inwards ;
sometimes, however, convulsions occur absolutely
without warnings of this kind, and even in the
midst of perfect apparent health. Their cause is
usually to be fond in some source of irritation,
especially in the digestive organs ; as, for instance,
disordered dentition, worms in the intestine, in-
digestible or unsuitable food, &c. Most epidemic
fevers are also apt to be attended, in children, by
convulsions in their early stages, and if severe,
particularly in the case of whooping-cough, during
their progress as well; and diseases of the brain
and its membranes at every stage. Convulsions
are greatly promoted by bad ventilation and in-
judicious feeding, with deficient exercise; and a
great part of the cure consists in discovering and
removing the causes of the disease.

When a child is suddenly seized with a tend-
ency to spasm, such as twitching of the features, or
contractions of the fingers and toes, it should be

laced at once in a very free current of air, with its
poet towards the fire; the extremities should be
kept warm, and a cold lotion may be rales to
the head, especially if there is much flushing of
the face ; a little castor-oil may be given unless the
bowels are loose; and if there is flatulence, the
belly may be rubbed with a warm hand, or with some

simple stimulating liniment, such as camphorated.

oil. If an actual convulsion occur, the feet, or if

—e— ss eC

‘

CONVULSIONARIES

CONYZA 449

— the whole body, should at once be put in
ot water to which a little mustard has been added,
and cloths wrung out of cold water frequently
ap to the head. If there is any suspicion
t worms or undigested food may be the cause,
& purgative Clyster (q.v.) should be given; and
rient medicine by the mouth as well, if the
child be able to swallow. Nothing more should
be attempted without medical advice. The further
treatment generally consists in the administration
of nerve sedatives, especially bromide of sodium
or potassium and chloral, and in obstinate cases
chloroform, with careful attention of course to any
cause of irritation that may be present.
Convulsions are rare amongst horses and cattle.
In young dogs, however, they frequently occur
from intestinal worms, disordered digestion, or in
connection with distemper or other pe topariee |
i : they usually disappear when their speci
causes are removed.

Convulsionaries, the name given to a fanati-
eal sect of Jansenists who sprang up in France
about 1730. Their meeting-place was the church-
yard of St Médard, in a suburb of Paris, where
was the tomb of a certain Francis of Paris, who
died in 1727, and was reckoned very holy by the
Jansenists on account of his extravagant asceti-
cism. At this tomb a multitude of people poured

forth fanatical prayers, preachments, and prophesy-
ings. Miracles are also alleged to ‘have been per-

formed, for proof of which we are referred to a
work written by M. Montgeron, a French senator,
and entitled La Vérité Miracles opérés par
LP Intercession de Francois de Paris (Paris, 1737).
After 1731 the fanaticism of the convulsionaries
increased to utter madness. ‘They threw them-
selves into the most violent contortions of body,
rolled about on the ground, imitated birds, beasts,
and fishes, and at last, when they had completely
spent ‘themselves, went off in a swoon.’ In 1733
the king issued an order for the imprisonment of
these fanatics, but it was found impossible to put
a complete stop to the mischief. They took to
predicting the downfall of the throne and the
ehureh, which preety the French Revolution
appeared to fulfil. Hid were not much heard of
in Paris after the middle of the 18th century, but
have occurred in country-places at various times
within the present century. They brought Jan-
senism into so much disrepute, that Voltaire de-
clared the tomb of Francis to be the grave of
Jansenism. See Mathieu, Histoire des Miraculés et
des Convulsionnaires (1864).

Conway, 2 river in North Wales, famous for
the bold romantic scenery along its higher, as well
as for the richly beautiful scenery along its lower
course. It rises in a small mountain-lake round
which meet the three counties of Merioneth, Den-
bigh, and Carnarvon; and it runs 30 miles north-
ward past Llanrwst and Conway to Beaumaris
Bay. In its last ten miles, a smoothly-flowing if
winding stream, it is navigable for vessels of 100
tons. At Conway it is half a mile broad at spring-
tides, which rise here from 21 to 24 feet, ion
mussels are found at its mouth.

Conway, or ABERCONWAY, an ancient and
napa little seaport town of North Wales, in

rnarvonshife, situated on the left bank of the
river Conway at its estuary, 454 miles NW. of
Chester by rail. The river is ¢ by a fine
tubular bridge constructed by Stephenson in 1848,
as well as by a suspension bridge built by Telford
in 1826 (see BRIDGE). The town is triangular in
form, and is surrounded by a high wall 12 feet thick
and 1 mile in cireumference, pierced by four Moorish-
looking gates, and crowned by twenty-one round
towers. 2. its south-eastern corner are the magni-

1

ficent remains of Conway Castle, rising proudly
from a rock above the river. It was first built by
aq mm Earl of Chester, and rebuilt in 1284
by Edward L, to check the Welsh. Its walls are 12
to 15 feet thick, with eight vast towers, four of
which are each surmounted by a slender turret.
The Plas Mawr (‘ great mansion’) is a noble timber
house erected in 1585, its exterior and interior pro-
fusely covered with ornament. A Cistercian abbey
was founded here by Llywelyn ab Jorwerth, prince
of North Wales, in which Llywelyn the Great was
buried. The Castle Hotel now occupies its site.
Pop. (1881) 3179. Conway (a chartered borough
since 1876) is one of the six Carnarvon borouglis.
It is still visited by vast numbers of tourists, but
as a place of resort it has been left far behind by
Llandudno, 4 miles to the north.

Conway, HuGu, the pseudonym of Frederick
John Fargus, who was born in 1847, the son of a
Bristol auctioneer. He adopted that pseudonym
from the school frigate Conway, stationed on the
Mersey, which he entered when he was thirteen
for the pu of training for a seafaring life.
His father set his face against this, so young
Far entered the auctioneer business, employin
his leisure in writing clever newspaper verse an
occasional tales. Some songs of his were accepted
and published in 1878, a volume of verse in 1879;
but it was the issue and rapid sale of his melo-
dramatic story, Called Back, as vol. i. of Arrow-
smith’s Bristol Library (1884), which made him
famous. Within five years 350,000 copies of
this book had been sold. Fargus sold his share
in the auctioneer’s business in Bristol, and went
to London, where he adopted the profession of
authorship. His Dark Days followed, and just as
in A Family Affair, and other works which he now
beens in rapid succession, he had begun to show
1igher capabilities as a novelist, he died of malarial
fever at Monte Carlo, 15th May 1885.

Conway, Moncvure DANIEL, American author,
born in Virginia in 1832, entered the Methodist
ministry in 1850, but, after a course at the Cam-
bridge divinity school, settled as a Unitarian

reacher in Washington in 1854, and in Cincinnati
in 1857. He was a strong opponent of slavery, and
in 1863 came to England to iaeare on the war. In
London he became head of the South Place Insti-
tute (for advanced religious thought), and pub-

lished The ore Stone (1861), The Golden Hour
(1862), Republican Superstitions (1872), Idols and
Ideals (1877),

renga ta and Devil-lore (1879),
Thomas Carlyle (1881), Pine and Palm (1887), and
A Life of Paine (1892), whose works he also edited
(2 vols. 1892). He returned to America in 1897.

Conway, Sirk WILLIAM Marri, born at Roch-
ester in 1856, was professor of Art in Universit
College at Liverpool (1885-88), wrote on the Dute
wood-engravers, and on his own mountaineering in
the Rardharahs (1894) and his Reslgpmenrs of Spitz-
bergen (1897). He was knighted in 1895.

Cony. See Hyrax, Raspir.

Oonybear WILLIAM JOHN, joint-author with
Dean Howson of a widely known Life and Epistles
of St Paul (1851), was born Ist August 1815, son
of William Daniel Conybeare (1787-1857), the
eminent geologist, who m 1844 became dean of
Llandaff. He was educated at Westminster and
Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a
fellow. In 1842 he was appointed principal of the
newly-founded Live 1 Collegiate Institution,
which ill-health compelled him to exchange for the
vicarage of Axminster. He died at Weybridge in
1857. Essays, Ecclesiastical and Social (1856), and
a novel, were his only other works.

Cony’za, an unimportant genus of Composite
(sub-o: agg Secale ). C. squarrosa is known

450 COOCH BEHAR

COOK

as Fleabane and Ploughman’s Spikenard, and has
a strong peculiar smell, traditionally said to drive
away fleas and gnats.

Cooch Behar. See BEHAR.

Cook, DuTTON, dramatic critic and author, the
son of a solicitor, was born in London, 30th Janu-
ary 1829, spent four years in his father’s office, then
entered a railway office, which he left to follow the
full bent of his literary and artistic tastes. He
studied painting and engraving, wrote a successful
melodrama, acted as dramatic critic for the Padi
Mall Gazette, 1867-75, and then for the World
till his death, 11th September 1883. He wrote
for various newspapers and magazines, including
Temple Bar and Chambers’s Journal, and his eight
novels, and others, were always interesting and
well written, but sometimes failed in catching the
average novel-reader. He wrote the dramatic and
theatrical lives for the first two volumes of the
Dictionary of National Biography, was also author
of A Book of the Play (1876), Hours with the
Players (1881), and On the Stage (1883).

Cook, E iz, a favourite minor English poetess,
daughter of a London tradesman, was born at
Southwark in 1818. She contributed poetical

ieces to various magazines from an early age, and
issued her Melaia and Other Poems in 1838, which,
along with the issue of volumes in 1864 and 1865,
established her reputation as a meritorious verse
writer of sound morality, and clear, sensible, and
simple treatment. She conducted Eliza Cook's
Journal (1849-54) till ill-health obliged her to
relinquish it; in 1864 a pension of £100 a year
was conferred upon her by government. She also
wrote Jottings tale My Journal (1860), and La-
conics (1865). ied September 25, 1889.

Cook, JAMEs, one of England’s greatest navi-

ators and maritime explorers, was born at Marton,
in Cleveland, Yorkshire, where his father was an
agricultural labourer, on October 28 (according to
another authority, November), 1728. After a
meagre education, Cook was apprenticed at the
age of thirteen to a haberdasher at Staithes, 10
miles north of Whitby. After a short experience of
this life, he was bound apprentice to Whitby ship-
owners, and spent several years in the coastin
and Baltic trade. In 1755 he entered the roya
navy as an able seaman, and in four years rose to
the rank of master. For about ten years after this
he was mostly engaged in surveying about the
St Lawrence and the shores of Newfoundland, and
the results as embodied in his sailing directory
(1766-78), are of value even at the present day.
During this period he devoted himself to the
study of mathematics, and otherwise qualified
himself for the highest rank in the navy. In
1768 he was raised to the rank of lieutenant, and
placed in command of the Endeavour, appointed to
convey the expedition for the observation of the
transit of Venus in the Pacific. The Endeavour
sailed on August 25, and arrived at Tahiti in the
following April, the transit being successfully
observed on June 3. On the return, New Zealand
was for the first time cireumnavigated, and its
coasts charted; the east coast of Australia
was surveyed and taken possession of in the
name of Great Britain. The strait which separates
Australia from New Guinea was sailed through,
and the distinction of those two islands estab-
lished beyond doubt. Continuing his voyage by
Java (Batavia) and the Cape of Good Hope, Cook
anchored in the Downs on June 12, 1771: One
important result of the voyage was to disprove the
existence of the ‘great southern Continent,’ which
had been supposed to extend from the Antarctic as
far north as 40° S. Cook was promoted to the
rank of commander, and given the command of a

second voyage of discovery in the Resolution and
Adventure, which sailed from Plymouth, July 13,
1772. This expedition was out for three years.
The great object was to discover how far the lands
of the Antarctic stretched northwards. For this.
purpose Cook sailed round the edge of the ice, and
penetrated as far south as possible, his farthest.
south point being 71° 10’, in long. 110° 54’ W.
During the intervals between the Antarctic voy-
ages, Cook cruised in the Southern Pacific, visiting
Tahiti, exploring the New Hebrides, discovering
New Caledonia, and many of the island groups in
the Pacific. Plymouth was reached on July 29,
1775. One important feature of the second voyage
was that, owing to the precautions taken by Cook,,
there was only one death among his crews during
all the three years—a marked contrast to the fear-
dor ne ea, sustained during other voyages of this:
eriod.

: Cook, who had been promoted to captain, and
received an appointment in Greenwich Hospital,
had scarcely been home for a year before he
was appointed to the command of another ex-
pedition, the main object of which was to dis-
cover a passage round the north coast_of America.
from the Pacific. Cook sailed from Plymouth in
the Resolution, July 12, 1776, followed by Captain.
Clarke in the Discovery. Leaving the Cape on
November 30, the ited visited Tasmania and
New Zealand,-and spent the year 1777 cruisin

among the Pacific Islands. In the beginning of
1778 the Sandwich Islands were discovered, Bs
Cook made for the west coast of North America.
This he followed and surveyed from 45° N. as far as.
Icy Cape on the inside of Behring Strait, where he
was compelled to turn back, reaching Karakakoa,
Bay in Hawaii, Sandwich Islands, January 17,
1779. At first the expedition was treated in the
most friendly way by the natives. For some

reason their attitude changed, and on February

14, when Cook landed with a party to recover a.
stolen boat, the natives set upon them with sudden
fury, Cook being clubbed and stabbed to death at.
the edge of the water. Part of the body was.
recovered and buried, and in 1874 a monument was:
erected near the spot where he fell. Many varied
accounts have been given of Cook’s death, and
many reasons adduced for the changed attitude of
the Hawaiians; but the probability is that he
simply fell a victim to a sudden outbreak of
savage fury. Cook did more than any other navi-
gator to add to our knowledge of the Pacific and
the Southern Ocean; his observations have stood
the test of modern investigations ; in character he
was honest and just, both to his own men and to
the natives with whom he came into contact, and
who almost invariably became greatly attached to
him. A pension of £200 was granted to his widow
(whom he married in 1762), and £25 to each of his:
three children.

An account of the first voyage originally appeared as
vols. ii. and iii. of Hawkesworth’s Voyages (1773); the
narrative of the second was written by Cook himself, 2
vols. with 1 vol. of plates (1777); that of the third
appeared in 3 vols. and an atlas (1784), partly by Cook
and partly by Captain James King. See Kippis’s Life
and Voyages of Captain James Cook (1788; reprinted
1883); Professor Laughton’s article in the Dict. Wat.
Biog. ; Besant’s monograph (1890); and the unabridged.
reprint of Cook’s Journal of his First Voyage, by Captain
Wharton (1893).

Cook, JosEePH, lecturer and author, born at
Ticonderoga, New York, in 1838, graduated at
Harvard and Andover, and after three years’
preaching went to Europe in 1871, where he
studied in Germany, and made a tour of the Medi-
terranean countries. In 1873 he commenced a
series of ‘Monday Lectures’ in Boston, which,
endeavouring to harmonise science and religion,

COOKERY 451

COOK
and discussing social and ager questions,
became ver pular; and 1880 he began
an extend ecturing tour around the world.

Besides his lectures, he has published a number of

works on such subjects as Biology (1877), Heredity
dy rer (1878), Labor (1879), Socialism
(1880), &ec.

Cook, THomas, railway excursion and tourist
meer, was born at Melbourne, Derbyshire,
ovember 22, 1808, His educational advantages
were few, and his re days were spent in gar-
dening pursuits, and then in wood-turning and
cabinet work. In his twentieth year he became a
missionary, and whilst thus occupied his
sympathies were actively enlisted in the cause of
temperance and free trade. But from 1841 his
time and toil were engaged chiefly in the initiation
and promotion of railway excursions. His first
trip was from Leicester to Loughborough in 1841,
his aim being the furtherance of the temperance
cause. The Midland Railway was for some years
the centre of his b ardeanciony and the town of
Leicester his home. But overcoming the great diffi-
culties, he extended the business not only through
all Great Britain, but throughout the world, and
the tourist-tickets of Thomas Cook & Son are found
everywhere. In connection with the previous wars
in Egypt and the Soudan, the English and Egyptian
governments were largely aided by their enterprise;
and the firm undertake on behalf of the Indian gov-
ernment the conveyance of Mohammedan pilgrims
from India to Mecca. He retired in 1878 in favor of
his son, and died July 18, 1892.

Cooke, GrorGE FREDERICK, actor, born in
Westminster in 1756, made his first eer appear-
ance at Brentford in 1776, and in the dot be.
tween 1784 and 1800 became very popular in the
English provinces and in Ireland, attaining a front
rank in his profession, in spite of drinking habits
that increased with his P aise From 1801 to 1810
he played at Covent Garden both in comedy and in
t y, and rivalled Kemble in the public favour ;
although here, also, from 1803, when he was hissed
off the stage for drunkenness, his intemperance was
a notorious thing, and a matter for jesting apology.
His best characters were Richard, Shylock, ey
Giles Overreach, and Sir Pertinax MacSycophant.
In 1810 he visited America, and appeared before
enthusiastic audiences in the chief northern cities,
where admiration for the actor secured indulgence
and gity for the extravagances of the drunkard.
He died in New York city, 26th September 1811;
& monument marks his grave, erected in 1821 by
Edmund Kean, who Bp grace Cooke as the greatest
= — See his Life by William Dunlap (Lond.

Cooke, Str WILi1AM ForueRrGI11, electrician,
born at Ealing in 1806, served in the Indian army
from 1826 to 1831, and after studying medicine at
Paris and Heidelberg, abandoned this for tele-

phy, and in 1837 entered into partnership with

fessor Wheatstone. After experiments on vari-
ous railway lines, they patented the single needle
apparatus in 1845. In 1846 Cooke formed a com-
pany, which ees £120,000 for the partners’ earlier
patents. In 1867 Cooke and Wheatstone received
the Albert gold medal ; Wheatstone was knighted
a and Cooke in 1869. He died 25th June

Cookery. The art of cookery, like other arts
and handie ,» isone which cannot be taught in
an encyclopedia article, but the general principles
which underlie the operations of cookery may be
briefly expounded. This part of the subject—
the chemistry and physics of cookery—has been
much neglected until very lately.

The chief agent in cookery is heat, and therefore

a large part of our subject is the consideration
of the chemical and physical changes which occur
in food materials when subjected to the agency of
heat. We may apply this agent either by bringing
the food into direct contact with the source of heat,
or by exposing it to radiations from the source of
heat. Roasting, toasting, grilling, and to a partial
extent, baking, are examples of the latter; while
stewing, frying, and the so-called ‘ boiling’ of food
—i.e. immersion in hot water—are examples of
heating by contact. The term ‘boiling’ is com-
monly misapplied in a mamuner that leads to con-
fusion of ideas. Thus we speak of boiling a leg of
mutton, boiling fish, boiling potatoes, &c. quite
improperly. The food in question is not boiled,
should not be boiled; it is merely immersed in
water, which is conveniently used as a heating
agent. As will presently shown, even the
water itself should not in most cases boil. Frying,

roperly conducted, is another example. Here a
fad of fat is used to convey the heat.

What are the changes effected on the food by the
action of cookery? is the fundamental question to
be answered in treating cookery as a branch of
applied science. What is the difference between
a raw and a cooked potato? What is the difference
between a raw and a cooked leg of mutton? and
other such questions Song ionh We all know
the difference in flavour, but the chemical and
mechanical changes are but little understood. To
answer these questions we must first know some-
thing of the composition of the uncooked viands.

For this purpose the old-fashioned division of
the elements of organic substances into proximate
and ultimate is very convenient. The ultimate
elements—carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, &c.
—are not cookable, and in their uncombined state
do not concern our subject; but the proximate
elements, or more properly proximate constituents,
such as albumen, gelatin, starch, cellulose, &c., are
altered, and the whole subject will be best under-
stood by considering separately the alterations
which occur to these in the course of cookery.

Taking first the constituents of vegetable food,
the largest of these is the material of the cell walls
of the vegetable, cellulose, or woody fibre. The
next in quantity, as existing in ordinary articles of
food, is starch, or fecula, or farina. Both of these
are carbohydrates—i.e. compounds of carbon with
water, or the elements of water, and they contain
these elements in the same proportions, but their
structure and digestibility are very different.
Starch in its raw state consists of small granules
(see STARCH) which, placed in cold water, sink
to the bottom without any de of solution or
other change by union with the water. In this
condition they are practically indigestible in the
human stomach, but when cooked, starch is the
most easily digestible of all human food.

The changes that take place in the cookery of
starch are considerable. fr pure starch (arrow-
root is such) be placed in water raised to
the temperature of 140° F., the granules swell
considerably, and the mixture becomes ty or
viscous. A little stirring breaks up the distended
granules, and we obtain a glairy paste such as
used by the laundress, and seen in cooked arrow-
root. If the heat be now raised from 140° to
the boiling-point, and the boiling continued, the
on mass omes thicker and thicker; and if
there are more than 50 parts of water to 1 of
starch, a separation takes place, the starch settlin
down with its 50 parts of water, and the excess o
clear water standing above. We have here a case
of hydration or combination with water as the
result of cookery, and the probable cause of the
improved digestibility. Dry starch may be raised
to 300° without becoming thus semi-soluble

452

COOKERY

The hydrate once formed may be dried by‘eva-
poration, and still retains some water and the
same degree of solubility. Many farinaceous pre-
parations, such as corn-flour, &c., consist chiefly of
starch in this condition. This, however, is not the
limit of starch cookery. If it is heated to about
400°, it is converted into dextrin, which is com-
pletely soluble in water at all temperatures, the
solution being mucilaginous but not pasty. ‘Dex-
trin differs from starch in other properties (see
DEXTRIN), but is composed of the same elements
in the same proportions, C,H,,O;—i.e. six equiva-
lents of carbon to five of water, or its elements.
This change of starch into dextrin is of great prac-
tical importance as an operation of cookery, inas-
much as it anticipates the first stage of the digestion
of starch.

The saliva, the pancreatic juice, and. one of the
intestinal secretions contain a peculiar principle
which has received the name of animal diastase,
from its resemblance to the diastase of malt. This
converts the starch of food into the completely
soluble dextrin, a change absolutely necessary for
its assimilation as nutriment. In some animals
the supply of this is so small that starch is almost
ernie to them asfood. It passes through the
body unaltered. Such is the case with the carni-
vora. Human infants, when suddenly deprived of
their mother’s milk, have not sufficiently developed
the power of salivary, pancreatic, and intestinal
secretion of diastase to digest starch, and there-
fore demand assistance. Such assistance may be
afforded by carrying the cookery of starch to what we
venture to call the second stage—viz. its complete
or partial conversion into dextrin. Thus, ordinary
flour or oatmeal, simply heated in boiling water or
milk, is merely subjected to the first stage—viz.
hydration of the starch ; but if the flour or oatmeal
be well baked, a considerable proportion of its
starch is converted into dextrin. A knowledge of
this is of great importance to mothers, and also to
nurses preparing food for dyspeptics, as adults vary
greatly in their powers of diastatic secretion.

The reader will now understand why bread is
rendered more digestible by toasting, and why
crust of bread is more digestible than the crumb,
in spite of greater hardness. In the ordinar
baking of bread a variable amount of the stare
is converted into dextrin. Well-baked bread is
more digestible than under-baked. In the cookery
of oateakes, bannocks, scones, and all kinds of
biscuits, this should be understood. The writer
enjoys the luxury of hot rolls without their in-
digestibility, by simply moistening stale crusts of
bread and reheating them in a kitchenoven. They
thus become softened like new bread, and more
digestible than before on account of the dextrinisa-
tion of a larger proportion of the starch. Baked
and fried potatoes have a similar advantage.

The diastase of malt (see MALT) may be used
for the dextrinisation of farinaceous food by add-
ing malt flour or extract of malt to it; or the
grain itself may be malted. The temperature at
which malt diastase acts most vigorously is about
140°. At lower temperatures it acts more slowly ;
at much- higher, its curious property is destroyed.
To illustrate its action, make some oatmeal por-
ridge very thick, then add about ;;th part of dry
malt flour at about 140°, and stir. In a few
minutes tne thick pudding becomes quite sloppy
owing to the greater solubility of the dextrin into
which the starch has thus been converted.

The cellulose—i.e. the stalks and the cell walls,
such as the fleshy part of leaves, &c.—are more or
less digestible, according to their looseness of struc-
ture and their interfluidity or succulent.character.
Thus we may digest a raw lettuce more easily than
a raw cabbage, or the inner leaves of either more

readily than the outer leaves or stalks. The
action of cookery on cellulose appears to consist in
the loosening of its fibres, and rendering them
more soluble. It is therefore advantageous that the
water in which green vegetables, such as cabbages,
are cooked should boil vigorously, the agitation of
the steam bubbles assisting in the loosening of the
fibres. Cellulose, like starch, may be converted
into dextrin and sugar by the combined action of

moderate heat with moisture and an acid. This —

change is aided by a little diastase. .Sawdust and
old rags may thus be converted into digestible and
nutritious food, but not with commercial profit at
resent. An example of such conversion in
ature’s laboratory is afforded by the ripening of
a pear. Many varieties which are hard, woody,
and sour when full grown in autumn, become
gradually softer and sweeter, and finally delicious
by simple storage. The action of ensilage (see
ENSILAGE) of cattle food probably includes some
degree of such conversion of cellulose.
he nitrogenous constituent of grain, the gluten,
is not so greatly altered by cookery. The writer's
investigations of this neglected subject lead him
to the conclusion that the alteration which does
oceur is that of a partial hydration rendering the
luten more soluble, but this hydration is not so
ecided and definite as in the case of starch.
There is one constituent of vegetable food which
demands no cookery. This is pecten (otherwise
pectose and pectin )—i.e. vegetable jelly. It exists
most abundantly in fruits, and is familiar to all

in the form of currant jelly, apple jelly, &c., which —

are pecten plus sugar. The cookery of vegetable
er will be discussed with that of the casein of
milk.

Of the proximate elements of animal food the
most abundant is gelatin ; it constitutes about half
the weight of the body of most animals. It exists
in two forms—soluble and insoluble. Its cookery
consists in the hydration of the insoluble form and
rendering it soluble, as in the stewing of bones,
tendons, skin, &ec. in a stock-pot until their
gelatin becomes soluble jelly. The muscular fibre
itself, which with its envelopin membranes form

lean meat, is subjected to a similar change, but less”

completely, in the course of cookery.

The cookery of albumen differs materially from
any of the preceding. Albumen exists in raw flesh
meat as one of its juices, being a glairy liquid
which is distributed between the muscular fibres
and the joints, and around the bones, forming a
lubricant, and probably conveying material of
growth and renewal. It is typically seen in the
white of eggs. When heated to about 134°, white
fibres begin to. appear within it. If the heat is
contantued: and gradually increased, they increase,
until at about 160° the whole mass becomes white
and nearly opaque. It is now coagulated into a
tender, delicate, jelly-like substance, easily digest-
ible and highly nutritious. If the heat is further
raised, it becomes harder and harder, up to 212°.
If this heat is continued, it shrinks, and becomes
tough and horny, losing some of its water of com-
position, and its easy digestibility.

Ignorance of these particulars, and further ignor-
ance of the fact that water has the same tempera-
ture, whether ‘simmering’ or boiling violently,
causes the spoiling of vast quantities of food and
wasting of much fuel in this country. The cooking
temperature for all animal food is from 160° to
180°. When maintained for any length of time
at the temperature of boiling or ‘simmering’
water, itis spoiled. To prove this, take a beefsteak
and cut it in half. Place one half in water in a
common saucepan, and boil or ‘simmer’ it for half
an hour or more. Place the other half in water in
an open-mouthed jar (such as a gallipot), and

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operations should, therefore, be conducted at

COOKERY

COOLIES 453

lace the jar in a saucepan of water so that only
the outer water shall boil; cook it thus, and com-
pare with the first. At a continued temperature
of 212° not er 4 does the albumen become
toughened, but the — also becomes dehy-
drated, hardened, and indigestible. All erg |
or 40° below the boiling-point. When the ex-
posure to a higher temperature is but for a short
period, little or no mischief is done. This is the
ease in frying and of Paka x of animal food. These
operations should always be rapidly conducted.
Besides the above-named constituents of animal
and vegetable food, there are the saline juices
necessary for supplying the saline constituents of
the blood, and upon which the flavour of food largely
depends. These are not altered by cookery, but
are too frequently sacrificed. Potatoes, for example,
contain a certain proportion of potash salts. The
writer has examined the water in which potatoes
have been cooked and that which is condensed
when they are steamed, and finds that if the
potatoes are peeled, a large proportion of the salts
into the water. If they are cooked ‘in their
jackets,’ much less is lost; but when baked or fried,
all is retained, The complete retention of the
juices is one of the reasons why roasted and grilled
meat has more flavour than that which is cooked in
water.
The changes which cookery effects on fat appear
to consist in partial dissociation of its proximate

elements. It is composed of a fatty acid com-
bined with glycerine. These are partially separ-
ated by heat.

Another constituent of both animal and vegetable
food is casein. It does not exist in the flesh of
animals, but is an important component of milk ;
is the solid basis of the curd which is separated by
the action of rennet or acids (see CASEIN). It also
exists in , beans, and other seeds of leguminous

lants. It is highly nutritious. There are two
orms of casein—the soluble and insoluble. It is
soluble as it exists in milk, but insoluble after
precipitation by acids or rennet, as in rer 3
cheese. An infant that digests the casein of mil
cannot digest it after separation as cheese.

The writer has succeeded in permelly reconvert-
ing the insoluble to the soluble form by addin
bicarbonate of potash in the proportion of }th to 4
of an ounce to | lb. of cheese ; the potash dissolved
in about a teacupful of water, and the cheese,

ted or sliced, added to the solution, which is
iled until the cheese dissolves, forming a custard-
like result. This may be added to oatmeal
rridge and a multitude of other Pp! gyhoerrse:
he theory upon which this method of treating
cheese was founded is, that the curding of milk is
due to the combination of an acid with the natural
alkali of the soluble casein, chiefly consisting of
potash. The artificial addition in the proportion
named not only renders the cheese more digest-
ible, but restores the saline constituent of the
original milk, which in the course of cheese-
making, passed into the whey. The importance
of thus rendering cheese more digestible, and sup-
plying its saline dietetic deficiency, will be under-
stood by the fact that 20 lb. of cheese contain
as much nutriment as a sheep johns oy, more than
60 lb. Lean beef and mutton contain from 724 to
734 per cent. of water, cheese about 30
and no bone. Cheese may be stored an
almost as easily as coal.

A multitude of cookery books exist, too many to
name. These consist mainly of instructions in
the preparation of particular dishes. The philo-
sophy of cookery has a very limited literature.
In the third, sixth, and tenth essays of Benjamin
Thompson, Count Rumford (1796), Zhe Chemis-

r cent,
carried

try of Cookery, by W. Mattieu Williams (1885),
and Cantor tures on The Scientific Basis of
Cookery, by the same author, the subject is
trea as a branch of applied science. Count
Rumford’s essays also include his remarkable
achievements in economic feeding of the poor in
Munich, and his improvements of cooking appa-
ratus. Of late, much more attention has te
bestowed on cookery in Great Britain, and the
board-schools in the principal towns now make
provision for instructing their girl pupils in this
important subject. The processes of roasting,
stewing, &c. will be treated under their respective
titles. See also Diet, DIGESTION, and the articles
on BRILLAT-SAVARIN and SOYER.

Cook Islands, otherwise known as the Hervey
Archipelago, lie about midway between the Societ

and te pene groups, near 20° §. lat., and 158° W.
long., and are some volcanic, some coralline. The
principal members of the cluster are Mangaia,

Atiou, and Raratonga. The natives, mainly of the
brown Polynesian stock, are about 10,000 in all, of
whom 6000 are in Raratonga, which is mountainous
but fertile. Formerly cannibals, they are now all
Christians, and dress after the European fashion.
The islands were annexed by Britain in 1888.

Cook, Mount, the ee peak of Australasia,
is one of the Southern Alps near the centre of the
range, on the western side of the South Island of
New Zealand. It is 12,349 feet high, is covered
with perpetual snow (the snow-line being 3500 feet
lower than in Switzerland), was scaled for the
first time to near the summit by Mr. Green in 1882.
See Mannering, With Rope and Aze in the New
Zealand Alps (1891).

Cooksto a town in County Tyrone, Ireland,
53 miles W. of Belfast by rail, with manufactures
of linen, and bleach-works. Pop. 3841.

Cook Strait, discovered by Cook on his first
voyage, separates the north and south islands of
New Zealand, and is 20 to 80 miles wide.

Cooktown, a — (dating from 1873) in the
north of Queensland, on the Endeavour River, 1050
miles NNW. of Brisbane, and 122 by rail NW. of
the Palmer gold-field. There are handsome public
buildings and a monument (1889) to Captain Cook,
who beached his ship, the Endeavour, here in 1770.
Near there are gold-diggings and tin-mines, pearl-
fisheries, and fisheries of trepang. Pop. (1891) 2482;
atonetimeit was 10,000, three-fifths of them Chinese.

Cooler. See BEER, REFRIGERATION.

Coolgardie, a mining station in Western
Australia, 270 miles NE. of Perth, where, especially
since 1893, rich finds of gold have been made. In
1895 a telegraph was established, and in 1896 a
railway from Perth was opened.

Coolies (Hind. kili, ‘labourer’), Indian and
Chinese labonrers who emigrate to foreign lands,
whether at their own charge or at the expense of
the foreigner whom they bind themselves by con-
tract to serve for a fixed term of years. Labourers
who migrate from one part of India to another, as
for instance from Bengal to Assam, are also called
coolies. The European and American residents in
the treaty ports of China give the same name to the
lower class of Chinese labourers in their service.

The natives of India having a strong repugnance
to crossing the ocean, free coolie emigration is
almost entirely Chinese, Although until recent
years emigration from China was illegal, and the
strong ties of family affection, the love of country,
and ancestral worship, made it unpopular, the
Seat the of population produced a continual out-

ow during the 18th and 19th centuries, chiefly from
the southern provinces of Fuh-Kien and Kwang-
tung. The emigrants swarmed over the archi-

454 COOLIES

pelago, settled by thousands and tens of thousands
in Java and in the Straits Settlements, and
threaten eventually to displace the natives in Siam
and the Malay Peninsula. The discovery of gold
attracted large numbers of Chinese to California
and Australia. The first railway across the Rocky
Mountains was partly made by Chinese labour, and
M. Lesseps invited their help for the excavation
of the Panama Canal. In spite of his utility, the
coolie has become an intolerable offence to the
working-classes of America and Australia. He is
accused of gambling, opium-smoking, and immoral-
ity ; but the head and front of his offending is his
working for low wages, and lowering the market
value of labour. In 1881 the United States
negotiated a treaty with China, by which restric-
tion of Chinese immigration was secured to the
States in return for American prohibition of the
opium trade on the coast of China. Another treaty
between the two powers in 1888, prohibiting the
entry of Chinese labourers into the United States
for a period of twenty years, has been refused
ratification by the Peking government. In British
colonies the attempt has been made to exclude
the obnoxious coolie by the imposition of a poll-
tax. The legislature of British Columbia passed
an act in 1884, by which every Chinaman was
obliged to take out a license, and pay a fee of
$10. A Chinese, named Wing Chong, refused to
pay the fee on the ground that the act was uncon-
stitutional, and an infraction of the existing treaties
between Great Britain and China. <A judge of
the Supreme Court of the colony decided in
Wing Chong’s favour, and though the colonial
government initiated an appeal to the Privy-
council, they failed to prosecute it; so the act
became a dead letter. In Australia, similar acts,
though quietly submitted to, failed to secure the
desired end, Chinese immigrants continuing to
arrive, in spite of the heavy poll-tax of £10 a
head. In 1888 the New South Wales legislature
passed an act to prohibit the landing of Chinese
immigrants; but this case also the law-courts
decided against the legislature. At a conference
of delegates from the governments of all the
Australian colonies, it was unanimously agreed to
endeavour to secure the exclusion of the Chinese,
through the negotiation of a new treaty between
the British and Chinese governments. The exist-
ing treaties which promise protection to the Chinese
immigrant are the Treaty of Nanking (1842), the
Treaty of Tientsin (1858), and the Convention of
Peking (1860).

The coolie in the United States and in some
British colonies is an uninvited and unwelcome
visitant. At the same time his serviceS have been
eagerly sought in other colonies, the governments
and planters of which have borne all the expenses
of his passage, paid him a small advance, and in
addition paid head-money to the agent who obtained
him. To recoup this expenditure, the planter re-
quired the coolie to bind himself to serve for a term
of years at a fixed rate of wages. Coolies thus
indentured occupy a similar position to apprentices,
soldiers, and sailors. Theoretically the system is
quite justifiable, but practically it has shown
itself liable to the grossest abuse. The dark story
of coolie emigration to Peru and Cuba, carried on
from Macao (q.v.), rivals in atrocity the horrors of
the slave-trade and slavery. This branch of the
coolie traffic was brought to an end in 1873 by an
enactment of the Chinese government, requirin
that. in the contract a clause should be inserte
securing to the coolie a free passage home at the
be rome of his term. The planters were not
willing to incur this obligation ; and coolie emigra-
tion from Chinese ports ceased. During the years
between 1847 and 1873, there was a fearful loss of

life, some perishing on shipboard in vain attempts
to recover their liberty, others dying of ill-treatment
or disease, or by suicide. he only redeeming
feature in this sad business was that some time or
other it came to an end. The slave was a slave
until death: the coolie could look forward to the
end of his contract. In 1878 Consul-general Cowper
reported. to Lord Salisbury that out of 116,267
coolies actually landed in Havana, about 50,000
were then in Cuba.

Coolie emigration under contract to British and
French colonies is mainly Indian, with a small per-
centage of Chinese in its ranks. Both the Indian
and the colonial legislatures have taken great
pains to prevent abuse of the system, and with
considerable success, although there is evidence
that constant watchfulness is necessary. Every
step of the process, from the first solicitation of the
labourer, until the ship carries him out of port, is
regulated by the Indian government. The agents
who collect the coolies, the depéts where they are
lodged, the contracts they sign, the ships in which
they embark, are inspected, licensed, supervised by
government. Protectors of emigrants are appointed
in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, from which
ports only the emigration is lawful. In like man-
ner the colonial governments have enacted regula-
tions and appointed protectors, to secure to the
coolie limitation of his task, sufficient food, suitable
lodging, and medical care in sickness. The imperial

overnment has intervened by conventions entered
into with foreign governments, with France in 1861,
with the Netherlands in 1870, to secure the fair
treatment of the coolie in foreign colonies. That
all this legislation is neither unnecessary nor un-
fruitful is proved by the case of Réunion. In 1880
M. Rougon reported to the French government that
the coolies in this island ‘were badly clothed, badly
fed, badly paid, and badly cared for when sick.’
The Indian government receiving similar reports,
put in force a provision of the Emigration Act, and
prohibited emigration to Réunion. The British
consul at Cayenne reported that the coolies in
French Guiana suffered ‘barbarous and inhuman
treatment ;’ and in 1876 emigration to that colony
was stopped. According to the Indian Emigration
Act of 1883, at present in force, emigration under
contract is lawful to the following places: British
colonies—Mauritius, Jamaica, British Guiana,
Trinidad, St Lucia, Grenada, St Vincent, Natal,
St Kitts, and Fiji; French colonies—Martinique,
Guadeloupe ; also to Dutch Guiana, and the Danish
island, St Croix. In 1886 the Jamaica government
suspended immigration from China and India to
that colony. In Trinidad the coolies, about 55,000,
are one-third of the population. They are usually
well fed, not overworked, and are well treated in
sickness.
Trinidad when they are entitled to a passage back
to India; and of those who go, a large number take
sums of money with them, and not a few, acti

one back to India, return again to Trinidad.
ome coolies, too, remain on particular estates for
many years. Occasional cases of injustice or ill-
treatment no doubt occur, but on the whole the
coolie is well used (Governor Norman’s report,
1885). On the other hand, there are unfavourable
reports from Mauritius, where the Indian coolies
number in round figures 150,000. There are about
25,000 in Natal, 13,000 in Jamaica, and 70,000 in
the French colonies.

Coolie contract labour in India is regulated by
the Inland Emigration Act of 1882, which relates
to ‘emigration from other parts of India to the
labour districts of Bengal and Assam.’ Its pro-

a)

visions are similar to those of the Indian Emigration ©

Act.of 1883. Every possible precaution which a
government can take appears to have been taken ;

A large proportion elect to remain in

a

COOMASSIE

COOPER 455

nevertheless complaints of unfair and even cruel
treatment of the coolies are heard from time to
time. The coolie traffic between the southern ports
of India and Ceylon is constant and mutually
advantageous ; about 70,000 go from India every
year, of whom three-fourths return, and the rest
settle in the island.

_ The islands of the Pacific have been the scene of
a so-called labour trade, in respect to which Sir
Arthur Kennedy, governor of Queensland, wrote in
1881: ‘I have never concealed my opinion of the
traflic in Polynesian savages, and I feel assured
that scandals exist which do not reach the public.
. .. I have had many years’ experience in the West
African slave-trade and the Chinese coolie-trade,
and I cannot divest myself of grave fears that the
Polynesian labour-trade partakes of many of the
evils of both.’ A Royal Commission of Inquiry
was appointed in 1884; the existence of kidnappin

was proved; and 404 kidnap islanders (called
*Kanakas’) were restored to their homes.

The literature of this subject consists chiefly of parlia-
men papers and government reports. Besides those
refe to above, the following may be named: Corre-
Ae opeegy Papers, or Reports on the Macao Coolie Trade
(1871 to 1875); on Coolie Emigration from India (1874);
on the Coolies in Assam (1867), in Surinam (1877), in
Trinidad (1885); on Coolie Importation from India to
‘French Guiana (1878); and on Chinese Immigration into
the Australasian Colonies (1888). Zhe West Indies and
meee, Main, by A. Trollope (1860); Zhe Coolie : his

ights and Wrongs, by E. Jenkins (1871); Zn Quest o°
Coolies, by J. L. A. Hope (1872); Charles Kingsley’s At
Last (1872), and Churchyard’s Blackbirding in Southern
Seas (1888), may be consulted.

Coomassie, the capital of the kingdom of
Ashanti, Western Africa, is situated about 120
miles NNW. of Cape Coast Castle. It occupies
the side of a rocky hill, and is about four miles in
circuit. The walls of the houses are mostly formed
of stakes and wattle-work, the interstices being
filled up with clay ; the roofs are of palm-leaves.
The king’s palace was burned by Wolseley in 1874,
but has been rebuilt (see ASHANTI). Pop. stated by
natives to be 100,000; but other reports, including
observations during the war, say 20,000. See
Reade’s Coomassie (1876).

Cooper, ASHLEY. See SHAFTESBURY.

Cooper, Str ASTLEY, surgeon, was born, a
clergyman’s son, at Brooke Hall, Norfolk, 23d
~— 1768. In his seventeenth year he went
to London, and became a pupil of Mr Cline, one of
the most noted surgeons of his day. He devoted
himself with ardour to his profession, and was
a constant attender at the dissecting-rooms, and
also at the lectures of the famous John Hunter.
In 1789 he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
at St Thomas’s Hospital; and two years after he
assisted in the lectures on anatomy and aap.
In 1793 he was appointed lecturer on anatomy at t
College of Surgeons, in 1800 surgeon to Guy’s Hospi-
tal; and in 1813 a of Comparative Anatomy
in the College of Surgeons. Meanwhile, Cooper had
been enriching medical literature by various con-
tributions. An essay on the effects resulting from
the destruction of the membrana tympani gained
him, in 1802, the Copley medal of the Royal Society,
of which he was elected a fellow three years after-
wards. In 1804-7 appeared his t work on
Hernia, with life-size illustrations, a contribution
of the utmost value to medical science, though in
a@ pecuniary point of view it paren very aoe
able to himself. The practical part of his profession
was not neglected during this time. He was the
first to poles the tying of the carotid artery, an
attempt which, though unsuccessful in his hands,
has since proved effectual in the hands of other
practitioners. His annual income, which in the

fifth year of his practice only amounted to £100,
had 1813 risen to the enormous sum of £21,000.
In 1817 he tried what has been considered the
boldest experiment ever attempted in surgery, the
tying of the aorta, which did not prove successful.
In 1820 Cooper removed a tumour from the head
of George IV., who conferred a baronetey upon
him some six months after. In 1827 he was
elected President of the College of Surgeons, in
1828 became sergeant-surgeon to the king, and in
1830 was made vice-president of the Royal Society.
Other honours flowed in upon him. He was made
a member of the French Institute, and correspond-
ing member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, a
D.C.L. of Oxford, and an LL.D. of Edinburgh.
Ever busy with his pen as with his knife, he in
1822 published a great work on Dislocations and
Fractures. His treatise on the Anatomy and
Diseases of the Breast (1829-40) was characterised
by all the care, research, and originality which dis-
tinguished his previous works; so likewise was his
Anatomy of the Thymus Gland (1832). Cooper died
12th February 1841, and was buried in the chapel of
Guy’s Hospital. A colossal statue to his memory
is erected in St Paul's Cathedral, London. As a
teacher, Cooper possessed the faculty of communi-
cating knowledge in a manner at once easy and
agreeable; and he elevated medical surgery, the
operations of which before his time had been de-
scribed as a series of ‘frightful alternatives, or
hazardous compromises,’ into a science. See his
Life (2 vols. 1843).

Cooper, JAMES FENIMORE, a distinguished
American novelist of Quaker descent, was born at
Burlin ton, N. J., Sept. 15,1789. Copyright 1889, 1897, and
His father was a man of wealth | 1900 in the U-S. by J. i.
and Federalist member of con- ! “??*°"* Company:
are In 1790 the family removed to Cooperstown,

. Y., then in a wild frontier region of great natural
beauty. Cooper entered Yale College in 1802, a boy
of thirteen. After remaining there three years, he
was dismissed for some minor act of alleged mis-
conduct. In 1806 he shipped as a common sailor,
and in 1808 entered the navy as a midshipman.
He rose to the rank of a lieutenant, but in 1811
resigned his commission, and married Susan, a sister
of Bishop De Lancey of New York. His first novel,
Precaution (published os bagi in 1819), was a
failure. It was followed by thirty-two tales of
extremely unequal quality. Among those of
merit we may name’ Zhe Spy (1821), The Pilot
(1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Prairie
(1826), The Red Rover (1831), The Bravo (1831),
The Pathfinder (1840), The Deerslayer (1841), The
Two Admirals (1842), Wing-and- Wing (1842), and
Satansto® (1845). His other writings include a
meritorious Naval History of the United States
(1839; abridged edition, 1841), and Lives of Distin-
guished American Naval Officers (1846). His
works of fiction have long enjoyed great popu-
larity ; and his best productions, in nie of con-
spicuous faults, well deserve all the favour they
have received. His sea-tales and stories of frontier
life are in all respects his best. Cooper's descriptive
talents were of very high order; and some of his
characters, such as ‘Natty Bumpo,’ ‘Long Tom
Coffin,’ ‘ Birch,’ ‘The Big Serpent,’ and er
‘Leather-Stocking,’ are drawn with as much strengt
and life as almost any in the whole range of fiction.
The peace of many of the later years of his life was
much disturbed by literary and betel contro-
versies and actions for libel, in nearly all of which
he was successful. He conducted his own lawsuits,
and usually pleaded his own cases with admirable
tact and ability. One good result of these suits
was to pes upon the newspaper press of his own
time and country some degree of restraint from the
scandalously savage and virulent freedom of speech

456 COOPER

COOPERAGE

which then prevailed. On either side of the
Atlantic Cooper’s own severity of language won him
no small amount of personal unpopularity ; yet no
man loved his own country better than he; and
his high regard for the nobler side of the English
character, and his appreciation of the grand achieve-
ments of British history, found frequent expression
in his writings. These writings, other than the
best of his novels, contained much to excite
opposition, and they brought upon him, not alto-
gether undeservedly, the reputation of being a
proud, contentious, and somewhat wrong-headed
man; yet there was in his real character much
sweetness, as well as great strength, purity and
dignity, and unqualified honesty. His pride was
large, but it was not mixed with personal vanity.
It ae been well said that his faults were those of
temper and judgment, rather than of character.
He died at Cooperstown, September 14, 1851.
The best biography is by Lounsbury (1882).

Cooper, PETER, manufacturer and _philan-
thropist, born at New York, 12th February 1791,
assisted his father in his successive occupations of
hatter, brewer, and brickmaker, and served an
apprenticeship to a carriage-builder, 1808-12. He
next made independent ventures as a machinist,
cabinetmaker, and grocer, and established a glue
factory on Long Tskafid, He erected large iron-
works in Baltimore in 1828, and in 1830 constructed
there, from his own designs, the first locomotive
engine ever built in America. He afterwards
built an iron-wire factory in New York, and
large blast-furnaces in Pennsylvania; and he
was largely instrumental in bringing about the
laying of the Atlantic cable. To provide the
working-classes with educational advantages, of
which he himself had enjoyed so few, he erected
and endowed the Cooper Union (1854-59), one of
the most useful institutions in New York, where
free lectures, reading-room, art collections, and
technical schools have been provided. In 1876
he received the Independent nomination for presi-
dent. He died in New York, 4th April 1883. See
Life by Mrs Carter (1889).

Cooper, THOMAS, the Chartist poet, born at
Leicester in 1805, was apprenticed to a shoemaker
at Gainsborough, taught himself Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, and French, and became a schoolmaster
at twenty-three, and at the same time a local
Methodist preacher. After reporting for some of
the newspapers in the Midlands, he became leader
of the Leicester Chartists in 1841, and was an
active editor of tracts. He lectured in the Potteries
during the riots in August 1842, was arrested on a
charge of conspiracy and sedition, and sentenced to
two years’ imprisonment in Stafford gaol. Here he
wrote The Purgatory of Suicides, a poem,in the
Spenserian stanza, and Wise Saws and Modern
Instances, a series of tales, which were both pub-
lished in 1845. Next year appeared his Baron’s
Yule Feast, a Christmas Rhyme, and a series of
papers headed ‘ Condition of the People of England’
in Douglas Jerrold’s Newspaper. In 1848 he began
to lecture on history and politics in London, and
set up the Plain Speaker and Cooper’s Journal, two
short-lived penny weeklies. e published two
novels, Alderman Ralph (1853), and The Family
Feud (1854), and about the end of 1855 relinquished
the sceptical opinions he had held since his imprison-
ment, and became an active lecturer on Christian
evidences. In 1867 a number of his friends pur-
chased for him and his wife an annuity of £100.
Cooper published his Autobiography in 1872, and
Poetical Works in 1878. Died July 15, 1892.

_Cooperage, the art of making vessels of
pieces of wood bound together by hoops. It isa
very ancient art, such vessels having been in use

among the Romans at the period of the Christian
era. The upright pieces forming the sides of a barrel
or cask, or other cooper’s work, are called staves; and
as casks are usually larger in the middle than at the
top and bottom, this swelling, called the belly or
bulge, is formed by skilfully shaping each stave so
that it shall form part of the required double conoid,
and that, when all are built and hooped together,
their edges shall coincide perfectly ; for this purpose
each stave is made broadest in the middle, and
narrowed down in a curved line towards each end.
A skilful cooper can work this curve so accurately,
that no further fitting or alteration shall be needed
when the staves are put together. The staves are
made to meet at their inner edges, and by drivin
the hoops very hard, the inner part is compresse
until the slight gaping outside is closed, and thus
slight inaccuracies of fitting are remedied.

There are several branches of cooperage. The wet
or tight cooper makes vessels for holding liquids.

The dry cooper does inferior work, such as barrels.

for containing dry goods, where an inferior degree of
accuracy is sufficient. The white cooper makes
churns, pails, &c., which for the most part have
straight sides.

The best work is made of oak, which must be
thoroughly dried before being put together. In
warm countries, the drying of the sun is sufficient,
and casks are therefore mounted in summer only ;
but in Britain, artificial drying is commonly resorted
to. The hoops are hammered down from the narrow

to the wide part of the cask, by means of a mallet

striking a piece of wood held against the hoop.
Iron hoops are sometimes put on hot, in order that
their contraction on cooling may bind the work
together. Most ingeniously constructed machinery
is now generally used in barrel-making.
Cooperage, on the North Sea, is that de-
moralising system of selling or bartering strong
drink, tobacco, or other articles, to fishermen or
sailors, from Dutch or other foreign vessels called
copers (Ger. kaufen, Dut. kopen). They osten-
sibly cruise with the English fishing-fleets to sell
foreign tobacco on which no duty has been paid,
and what on shore would cost four shillings per
pound is sold for eighteenpence. The trade began
more than fifty years ago by foreign vessels from
Dutch ports trading with English smacksmen in
articles of clothing, which grew into the more profit-
able barter and sale of tobacco and spirits. An
English smack, until the insurance company
refused to insure her, has been known to take out
£500 worth of grog and tobacco, and clear another
£500 in two months in the traffic. To counter-
act the evils of the system, Mr E. J. Mather,
in 1882, started a mission for the deep-sea
fishermen, which in 1888 had at command eight
mission ships, stored with good literature, woollen
clothing, tobacco, and medicine, and a staff of
twelve clergymen as honorary chaplains. The
Customs Commissioners refused the necessary
concessions for the sale of tobacco at a chea
rate in 1885, but granted the same in 1887, an
now the ordinary drawings of a voyage may be
£100 for tobacco. The Queen became the patron
of the mission, and it is duly registered by the
Board of Trade. As a result of an international
conference at the Hague between the six fishing
powers, a convention was signed in 1887, one of
the provisions of which contemplated the absolute
rohibition of the sale or barter of spirits on the
orth Sea. The North Sea Fisheries Bill (1888)
gave effect (as far as Great Britain is concerned)
to the recommendation of the convention. The
sale of spirits to fishermen and others on board
fishing-vessels is prohibited; fishermen are for-
bidden to buy spirits at sea ; the exchange or barter
for spirits of any article, especially the fish caught,

.
;
J
{

———- <<

- esta

of profits among those who earn them,
Britain

CO-OPERATION

457

nets, or gear of the fishing-boat, is also pro-
hibited. Vessels trading in provisions, &e. must
be licensed, and penalties from £10 to £50 are
exigible for offences against the convention. See
E. J, Mather’s Nor’ard of the Dogger (1887).
Co-operation. In the social and economic
sense of the word, co-operation generally means the
association of work-people for the management of
their own industrial interests, in store, workshop, or
other undertaking, and the equitable distribution
In Great
it has succeeded best in distribution, that
is, in the form of co-operative stores for the
supply of the domestic wants of the workmen’s
families; in Germany and Italy it has flourished
chiefly under the form of people’s banks, for furnish-
ing mutual credit to workmen and also small trades-
men. Co-operative production has not yet made
Rene PeORrees. The co-operative movement
eeened vitality with the foundation of the Roch-
dale Society of Equitable Pioneers in 1844. Before
that date there had been instances of co-operative
industry among English miners, New England
fishermen, and the Greek sailors of the Levant. In
Great Britain there exist even yet co-operative
societies, which were founded prior to 1844; one at
Govan, said to have been established in 1777, and
another at Hull, started in 1795. The earliest in
England, however, was that founded in 1794 at
Mongewell, in Oxfordshire, by Shute Barrington,
Bishop of Durham. During the Owenite agitation
from 1820 to 1845; the movement began to assume
national importance, hundreds of societies rising up,
which for the most part rapidly disappeared. By
general consent it is agreed that the movement
took practical and permanent form with the Roch-
dale Pioneers (1844). The founders were twenty-
eight weavers, nearly all of whom were socialists
of the Owen school and Chartists ; and their original
capital was mes Pentel collected by subscriptions
of twopence, afterwards raised to threepence a
week. With this capital they opened a store for
supplying themselves with provisions, but at first
they only four articles to sell—flour, butter,
pot and oatmeal. Their success, which was steady
and rapid, was chiefly due to their device of limit-
ing interest on shares to 5 per cent. and dividing
profits among members in proportion to their pur-
chases. By 1857 they had a membership of 1850, a
eapital of £15,000, and annual sales to the amount
of £80,000. Their society, its organisation and
methods of conducting business, became a model
to the working-men in the north and centre of
England, as also in Scotland. In this way the
movement rapidly spread, and the societies are
now over 1400 in number, with nearly a million
members. In 1864 the Wholesale Society for the
supply of commodities to the various stores was
ished at Manchester, and a second at Glasgow
in 1869; but the two work in harmony, and may
be considered as one institution. In 1871 the
Co-operative News was started as the organ of
the co-operators. Since 1869 national congresses
of co-operative societies have been held every
— in one or other of the large towns of
reat Britain. These may be regarded as the
annual parliaments of co-operators. The efforts
after organisation culminated in the consolidation
of the Co-operative Union with a regular constitu-
tion drawn up in 1873. Subject to the congress,
the Union is governed by a United Board of twelve
members, representing the six sections into which
the union is divided. The sectional boards have
monthly meetings of their own. The Central Co-
operative Board. consisting of all the members
representing the six sections, comes together for
business only at meetings of congress.
Having thus sketched the general development

guidance of men of other classes, to

of English co-operation, we shall now more speci-
fieally indicate the rules and organisation of the
societies, Any one may become a member on
paying an entrance fee of one shilling, and
members may pay up their shares at the rate
of threepence a week. Shares are usually one

und each, and one or two of these shares, trans-
erable but not withdrawable, constitutes all
the capital a member is required to hold. The
other share capital that a member may hold is
withdrawable, The interest on capital is limited
to 5 per cent. Goods are sold at the prices current
among respectable shopkeepers in the neighbour-
hood, and after paying expenses the nett profits
are distributed quarterly among the members in
proportion to their purchases. These dividends
may be allowed to accumulate in the store, but
no member is permitted by law to hold more than
£200. The general rule is that payments be made
in ready money, a system to which co-operation
largely owes its success, but which is not yet uni-
versal. At the congress of 1888 complaints were
made that the credit system is to some extent per-
mitted. Irrespective of the amount of his invest-
ments, each member has only one vote. The mem-
bers elect a committee for the management of the
business. The committees have frequent meet-
ings, and control the employees of the store. The
members themselves hold quarterly and in many
cases monthly meetings. The Wholesale Society
is a federation of retail societies, which have to take
up shares, and they gpa Se in the management
in proportion to their membership. The Wholesale
is a large and growing organisation for the supply of
goods to the various societies composing it, with

urchasing and forwarding depédts not only in

ngland and Ireland, but in New York, Hamburg,
Copenhagen, Calais, and Rouen. It owns five
steamships, which ply between England and the
Continent. It has also extensive productive works,
as boot and shoe factories at Leicester, soap-works
at Durham, woollen-cloth works at Batley, &c.
Besides the productive works thus conducted by
the Wholesale Society, there are a number of
societies for production alone, societies for workin
corn-mills, and a number of retail societies whic
carry on corn-mills and various branches of domes-
tie production. The annual production by societies
adhering to the Co-operative Union may pepeny.
be estimated at about £5,000,000. In addition to
the societies already mentioned, there is a co-oper-
ative fire and life insurance society, and the Co-
operative News Society, started in 1871 for carry-
ing on the organ of the co-operators. It should
also be mentioned that the societies: spend con-
siderable sums in education.

Statistics of English Co-operation, taken from
the report o: ie Conperative Congress for 1888 :
Connected with the Co-operative Union, were (in
1887 ) 1432 societies, with a membership of 945,619,
a share capital of £10,012,048, and sales to the
amount of £34,189,715, on which profits to the
amount of £3,193,178 were made. In 1895 the
membership was 1,414,158, the share capital
£16,164,667, the sales £52,512,126 (with a net
profit of £5,397,582). Co-operative manufacturing
as well as co-operative distribution was steadily
extending—the latter type, however, much more
slowly than the other. About one-sixth of the popu-
lation of Great Britain have their wants in whole
or in part supplied through co-operative stores.

Co-operation in England is thus already one of
the established institutions of the country, the
importance of which has been recognised alike by
statesmen and economists. Though essentially a
workmen’s movement, it should said that it
owes much to the enlightened and philanthropic
bert Owen,

458 CO-OPERATION

COORG

Maurice, and Kingsley. Messrs Neale, Holyoake,
Hughes, Ludlow, and the Marquis of Ripon have
also powerfully aided in promoting it.

In the United States of America co-operation
has not made such progress as might have been
expected from the energy and spirit of initiative
prevalent among the peonte. Though co-operation
had previously existed among the fishermen of New
England, the Brook Farm (q.v.) experiment may be
regarded as the starting-point of the movement.
Co-operative business in New England may in an
average year reach the following figures: In dis-
tribution, £600,000 ; productive co-operation, exclu-
sive of dairies or creameries, £200,000 ; creameries,
£150,000; banks, £800,000—in all, about £1,750,000.
in Philadelphia, co-operative building societies have
provided the workmen with from 80,000 to 100,000

omes. The same form of co-operation flourishes
in other parts of the country. A notable and
thoroughly successful effort in productive co-
operation has been made in the coopering trade
at Minneapolis since 1874. In 1882 the students
of the university of Harvard formed a co-
operative society for supplying themselves with
books, stationery, and other articles. ‘The move-
ment has been a success, and has been imitated
by the universities of Yale and Michigan. The
general result, however, of a study of co-operation
in America is that while the experiments have
been numerous, varied, and in many cases success-
ful, its influence has been on a limited scale.
The rewards offered to every kind of exceptional
capacity in private enterprise are so enormous, the
scope for the development of individual energy in
all directions is still so great, that the workmen
have not yet widely realised the necessity for
industrial association among themselves. Many
important firms have, however, successfully intro-
duced the system of sharing profits with their
work-people. Complaints are made that the laws
of some of the states do not offer reasonable facili-
ties for the formation of co-operative societies.

In France the industrial partnership system, by
which the capitalist gives his workmen a share in
his profits, has made greater progress than the
co-operative movement properly so called. At
the revolution of 1848 the government gave some
scanty subsidies to co-operative production, but
only a few of the societies pros ae. Even yet co-
operative stores, co-operative banks, and societies
for co-operative production have only had a limited
success. See PROFIT-SHARING.

In Germany co-operation has flourished greatly
in the form of people’s banks. These originated in
1849 under the auspices of Schulze-Delitzsch, at the
little town of Delitzsch in Saxony. In 1885 there
were 3822 societies belonging to the Schulze-
Delitzsch system, of which 1965 were credit
societies, 678 for distribution, 493 for the pur-
chase of raw material, &c. The societies had an
aggregate membership of 1,500,000, a share and
reserve capital of £15,000,000, a loan capital of
£25,000,000, and did an annual business of
£150,000,000. Since 1859 they have held annual
congresses. Schulze-Delitzsch was salaried coun-
sellor (anwalt) or general manager of the
societies till his death in 1883. In 1885 there were
145 productive associations in Germany. While
there were in 1873 only 6 co-operative dairies in
Germany, there were 226 of them in 1885. In
addition to all these, in 1884 there were 800 societies
(called after Raiffeisen, their founder), whose
function it is to provide mutual credit for the small
farmers of Germany. In 1895 there were (includin
the last-named) in all Germany 11,141 societies, o
which 647 were credit societies. Austria had in
1894, 2050 associations, besides some 500 in Hungary.

In Italy co-operation is making great progress,

chiefly in the form of people’s banks. In 1883
there were 250 such banks. At the end of 1885
their number had increased to 423, with £2,500,000
of share capital and about £13,000,000 of loan
capital. In 1895 there were 950. Co-operation in
other forms also is rapidly making way—there are
co-operative dairies, and besides there are many
co-operative bakeries, established with a view to
checking the ravages of Pellagra (q.v.) by the
supply of wholesome bread. Such institutions re-
ceive the support of the Italian government.

In Belgium the co-operative movement has estab-
lished itself cn a very considerable scale at industrial
centres such as Ghent, in stores, bakeries, and in
co-operative fisheries.

In Denmark co-operative dairies have recently
been making wonderful progress (see DAIRY).

The various Professional and Civil Service stores
are simply a result of the application of the
co-operative system for the supply of the wants
of the middle classes, especially the professional
classes and clerks, begun in 1864; and these stores
now do a very large business, the largest being the
Army and Navy Stores in Victoria Street, London.

The salient difference between this middle-class co- .

operation and that of the working-men is that the
former admits of the system of privileged share-
holders, whereas all the benefits of the latter are
open to every one who pays an entrance fee of one
shilling.

From the above facts it will be apparent that the.

purpose and tendency of the co-operative move-
ment is that the workmen, through the principle of
associated industry, by means of a joint capital,
should equitably manage their own affairs so far as
they can. Such management, we have seen, has
been applied on a large scale to distribution
and to people’s banks, and has had a considerable
success also in various forms of domestic produc-
tion, as in corn-mills, bakeries, boot and shoe
factories, dairies, &c. In the large and staple
branches of manufacture it has as yet done very
little. But so far as it has gone, the move-
ment has been a real and effectual training for
the intelligence, business capacity, and moral
character of the workmen. It has taught them
thrift, foresight, self-control, and the habit of
harmonious combination for common ends; and it
has opened up an unlimited field for peaceful,
hopeful, and successful effort in the future.

See Holyoake’s History of Co-operation (2 vols.), and
his Self-help a Hundred Years Ago (1888); the reports
of the Co-operative Congress ; Working-men Co-operators,
by A. H. D. Acland and B. Jones (1884); Reports on
Co-operation in Foreign Countries, a blue-book issued in
1886; Enylish Associations of Working-men, by Dr
Baernreither (1888). See also History of Co-operation in
the United States, published under the auspices of Johns
Hopkins University (Baltimore, 1888).

Cooper’s Hill, a ridge on the borders of Berks
and Surrey, commanding a beautiful view of the
Thames valley. It was the scene of a famous
poem by Denham (q.v.), and is now known in con-
nection with the Cooper’s Hill College, an import-
ant institution established in 1870 for the education
of engineers for the Indian Works Department, to
which a forestry school (1885) is attached.

Co-ordinates. See GEOMETRY (ANALYTICAL).

Coorg (a corruption of Kodagu, ‘steep moun-
tain’), a province under the government of India,
on the eastern slope of the western Ghats, and
bordering on Mysore. Area, 1583 sq. m. ; poe
(1881) 178,302; (1891) 173,055—a decrease. The
capital is Merkara (pop. 8500). Coorg is mainly
within the basin of the Kaveri River ; Ea part
of its area is 3000 feet above the sea. The yearly
rainfall is 122 inches, and hence the temperature
is humid. Nearly the whole of this rugged

COOT

COPARCENARY 459

region is covered with forests, which form the main
natural wealth of the country, though gold and iron
are found. The natives, a branch of the Dravidian
stock, speaking a language akin to Kanarese, are
handsome and athletic mountaineers. Agriculture
is limited to the valleys. Coffee (injured recently
by disease), cardamoms, and cinchona are grown.

olyandry used to be the rule. Cairns and dolmens
are common, and the country is intersected by
earthen ramparts, which are from 15 to 25 feet in
height, with deep ditches.

Coot aes a water-bird in the same family
as the rails ( Rallidw), and in the old order Gralla.
The members of the genus are well marked by a
scalloped fringe a the long toes, which thus
show an approach to the webbed condition. The
beak is straight and short, but expands in a curious
swollen patch on the front of the forehead. The
tail is very short. The coots are essentially
aquatic, almost always afloat, and especially fre-
quent still waters. They feed on water-plants and
small animals. The European species generally
migrate southwards in winter.

he Common Coot (F. atra) is widely distributed
in Central and South Europe, and in Western
Asia. It is about 16 inches in length, and has a

Common Coot (Fulica atra).

predominantly slaty black colour, with a narrow
white band across the wings. The bill and the bald
forehead expansion are bright white, the feet more
or less green. Coots make a large rough nest of
water-plants and stems among the rushes, or on a
rock in the middle of the stream. They are not
much esteemed for eoting, but are readily and often
shot in large numbers when congregated thickly on
the mud-banks. In the north of Scotland the coot
is only a summer bird, but in the south of England
they stay all the year. The American Coot (F.
americana) is common in all parts of North
America.

Coote, Str Eyre, soldier, born in County
Limerick in 1726, entered the army at an early age,
and from 1754 to 1762 served in India. It was by
his arguments that Clive was induced to risk the
battle of Plassey, and for his services in this and
other en ments, Coote was in 1759 given the
command of the newly-raised 84th regiment. In
1760 he defeated Lally-Tollendal (q.v.) at Wandi-
wash; and his capture of Pondicherry in 1761
completed the downfall of the French in India,
Coote returned to England, and was knighted in
1771. In 1779 he assumed the command-in-chief
in India, with the rank of lieutenant-general, and
in 1781 he routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo; his

victory here, with the successes that followed, a
second time saving the presidency. He died at
Madras, 26th April 1783.

Cootehill, a town in County Cavan, Ireland,
88 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1589.

Copaiba, or Coratva, BALSAM oF, a valuable
drug, consisting chiefly of a resin (resin of copaiba)
and a volatile oil (oil of copaiba). It flows from
incisions in the stems of various species of copaifera
trees, natives of the American tropics, which belong
to the natural order Leguminose. When these trees
become old or surcharged with copaiba, it is no un-
usual thing for the stems to burst with a loud boom-
ing sound. The balsam has a peculiar, aromatic, but
not disagreeable odour, which, however, is highly
persistent, while its taste is decidedly acrid. It has
stimulant properties, is diuretic, laxative, and in
large doses often an active purgative. It is, how-
ever, mostly on account of its powerful action on
the mucous membrane that it is used, and it is
accordingly much employed in affections of the
urino-genital system, in chronic catarrhs, &e. The
resin itself has been found efficacious given in the
form of a cough-pill. Balsam of copaiba is some-
times adulterated with castor-oil or volatile oils.
The former of these is readily detected if any milki-
ness is produced when the balsam is shaken with
ten times its volume of petroleum benzin. The
volatile oils may be recognised by shaking the
balsam with a little alcohol, when, being more
soluble, they are removed first.

Copais, Lake. See Baortia.

Copal, a resinous substance used for a variety
of purposes in the arts. It appears in commerce
in smooth rounded masses, colourless or lemon-
yellow, translucent or transparent, rather brittle,
and in a cold state, almost without smell or taste.
It is readily fusible and inflammable, is insoluble
in water, and only partially soluble in alcohol and
oil of turpentine, but becomes entirely soluble in
them when it has been for a short time. melted.
Various useful pale-yellow or almost colourless
varnishes and lacquers are made by “oes aaa.
melted — in alcohol, oil of turpentine, or boil
linseed-oil. The chief sources of copal are the
East Indies, Africa, and South America, but the
varieties derived from these countries differ in their
origin. The East Indian is the exudation of a large
tree, Vateria Indica, and ibly also of different
species of Hymenea, which probably yield the
Hrasilian variety. Zanzibar supplies most of the
best copal. Gum Animé is the name applied to
copal frequently found in rounded masses embedded
in sandy soil.

Copalchi Bark, a bark resembling Casearilla
Bark (q.v.) in its properties, and produced by a
shrub of the same genus, Croton niveus, a native of
Central America (see CROTON). The bark is in
quills a foot or two in bg and has a thin corky
epidermis. Copalchi Bark is much used as a sub-
stitute for cinchona in Mexico, where it goes b
the name of Quina blanca, and is imported, althoug
not toa large extent, into ght It contains a
minute proportion of a bitter alkaloid resembling
quinine.

Copan, an Indian vill in the south-western
corner of the Central American state of Honduras,
in a mountainous region, the site of a city still
populous at the time of the conquest, and of which
magnificent ruins still remain, first described by
Stephens.

Coparcenary, an estate in England orig-
inating in descent to two or more persons, called
thence coparcenars or parcenars. It generally arises
under the rule of law which makes the daughters
of one dying without male heirs inherit equally, but
it may also arise by local custom, as in the case of
Gavelkind (q.v.). Although the property remains
undivided, yet each parcenar is entitled to a dis-

460 CO-PARTNERY

COPENHAGEN

tinct share of it, and consequently there is no
benefit of survivorship as in joint-tenancy, but the
right of each descends to his or her heirs. The rule
of descent is also per stirpes, so that the heirs of one
who has predeceased the common ancestor take
only the share which would have come to their
immediate ancestor had he or she survived, and
thus in the rare case of gavelkind a grandson of
the common ancestor will also exclude his own
sisters. Division may be carried through by
voluntary agreement, or by a suit in Chancery.
Such parts of the property as cannot be divided
(such as the manor-house, &c.) pass to the eldest
sister or her issue, but an equivalent in value
is assigned to the remaining sisters. These prin-
ciples resemble closely the law of common property
in Scotland, as to which the right of* individual
management extends only to necessary operations,
not to extraordinary use of the subject. Each pro
indiviso owner may sell his right, and, except in
the case of conjunct rights to husband and wife
(which are considered indivisible), may insist on
an action of declarator and division. Ifthe subject
is naturally indivisible, as a brewery, it may be
sold and the pte divided. In the case of heirs-
portioners in Scotland, also, such things as a peer-
age, a public office, or a mansion-house with
accessories form a precipuwm for the eldest sister.
Where the precipuum comes under a settlement,
compensation is generally due to the younger sisters.
An Advowson (q.v.) is exercised in turns, accord-
ing to seniority.
Co-partnery. See PARTNERSHIP.

Cope (Lat. cappa, pluviale), an ecclesiastical
vestment worn in the Latin Church during pro-
cessions, solemn lauds and vespers, and other
solemnities, but not by the cele-
brant at mass. The Greek form
of the cope (manduas ) is restricted
to archimandrites and bishops.
The cope of the former is plain,
that of the latter with a pattern
of wavy stripes. The Armenians
alone use the cope as the vest-
ment for mass. In the Church
of England the cope was allowed
as an alternative to the vest-
ment or chasuble by the Common
Prayer-book of 1549. Both were
forbidden by that of 1552, but
legally revived under Elizabeth
in 1559. By Canon xxiv. of 1603,
the principal minister at the Hol
Communion in cathedral or col-
legiate churches, together with
the epistoler and gospeller, is
directed to wear the cope, and
at Durham it was so worn till
Bishop Trevor's episcopate (1752-
71), when one of the prebendaries
disused it, finding it interfered
with his wig. The cope, how-
ever, has been customarily worn
by the clergy officiating at coro-
nations; while some further re-
vival of its use has taken place of late years. The
cope was originally a ook worn for ordinary pur-
poses. In form it is a semicircle, without sleeves
and with a hood. It is fastened across the breast
with a clasp or morse. Copes soon began to be
ornamented with embroidery, and even with jewels ;
and so early as the 13th century they became the
most magnificent and costly of all the vestments
of the priesthood.

Cope, CHARLES WEST, R.A., subject-painter,
was born at Leeds in 1811, the son of a landscape-
painter. He attended the schools of the Royal

Academy, and studied for two years in Italy. He
began to exhibit in the Academy in 1833, and

roduced a long series of sacred, historical, and
domestic subjects. In 1843 his cartoon, ‘ The First
Trial by Jury,’ gained a £300 prize at the West-
minster Hall competition; and in 1844 he was
selected to execute, in the House of Lords, a mural

ainting of ‘The Black Prince,’ which was followed

y ‘Prince Henry,’ and in the Peers’ Corridor a
series of eight subjects from the Civil War, com-
pleted about 1865. He was elected an A.R.A. in
1843, and an R.A. in 1848; and from 1867 to 1874
he held the professorship of Painting. He retired
in 1883. He was an original member of the Etch-
ing Club, and his plate of ‘The Life Class of the
Royal Academy’ (1865) ranks as one of the most
vigorous figure-subjects ever etched by an English-
man. Died August 21, 1890.

Cope, EpwarD DRINKER, American naturalist,
born in Philadelphia, 28th July 1840, was professor
of Natural Sciences at Haverford College, 1864-67,
and afterwards appointed paleontologist to the
United States Geological Survey. His numerous
papers and works on paleontology are highly
valued; and to the discussion of the theory of
evolution he contributed over a dozen works of im-
portance. He was a member of numerous scien-
tific societies in America and in Europe, and among
other recognitions of his services to science, he, in
1879, received the Bigsby gold medal of the Royal
Geological Society. Died April 12, 1897.

Cope, Sir JOHN, an English general, was a
cornet in 1707, and, having been made a Knight
of the Bath, in 1742 commanded the troops sent to
the assistance of Maria Theresa. On the landing of
Prince Charles Edward in 1745, Cope was com-
mander-in-chief of the government forces in Scot-
land. After a fruitless march to the Highlands, he
returned with his troops by sea to Dunbar, and on
2lst Sept. was totally defeated at Prestonpans.
His defeat is celebrated in the Jacobite song, ‘Hey,
Johnnie Cope, are ye waukin’ “has Cope died 28th
July 1760. See Life by Cadell (1899).

Copec. See Kopeck.

Copenhagen (Dan. Kjébenhavn, ‘ Merchants”
Haven’), the capital of Denmark, and headquarters.
of the national commerce, literature, and art, is
situated on the low-lying eastern shore of the island
of Zealand, in the Sound, which is here about 12
miles broad; an outlying portion, Christianshavn,
stands at the north end of the island of Amager or
Amak, which is separated from Zealand by a
narrow arm of the sea. The channel forms a fine
and capacious harbour, which is bridged over so as
to connect Christianshavn and the main part of the
city at two points. The fortifications on the land
side have been removed since 1863; so that the
city has now practically incorporated the suburbs
Osterbro, Nérrebro, Vesterbro, and Frederiksberg.
The total population in 1735 was 60,000; in 1835,
120,000; in 1880, 235,254 ; and in 1890 it was, with
suburbs, 375,215. To counterbalance the expected
injury to the city’s commerce from the opening of the
Baltic Canal, a great free port (free from customs.
dues) was constructed in 1890-94 to the north of
the harbour. The business quarter stretches from
the harbour in a north-east direction towards the
principal and central square, Kongens Nytorv,
which in itself forms the focus of the life of the city.
Farther north and east of this point lies the
aristocratic quarter, with the handsome Amalien-
borg Square and its ge and ministerial palaces ;
this district is bounded in the extreme north by the
citadel and the adjoining eaten gardens and walks.
on the shores of the Sound.

Amongst its few buildings of historical interest
or intrinsic beauty, the metropolitan cathedral

COPENHAGEN FIELDS

COPERNICUS 461

church, known as Vor Frue Kirke, rebuilt after the
bombardment of 1807, possesses statues of Christ
and the Apostles, and a baptismal font, designed
and in part executed by Thorwaldsen. Trinitatis-
kirke is remarkable for its round tower, which is
ascended by a winding causeway instead of steps ;
and Holmens’ Kirke contains interesting monu-
ments to the t naval heroes, Juel and Torden-
skjéld. An English church, built at a cost of
£10,000, was consecrated in 1887. The royal
axa called Christiansborg, was rebuilt .
ween 1794 and 1828, but was never remarkable
for architectural beauty. The principal part of
the vast building was nob es by fire in 1884,
when many precious works of art were destroyed.
Happily most of the pictures in its t art
ery were saved. he castle of enborg
1610-24), where the regalia are kept, contains
interesting collections of objects of art; and
the palace of Charlottenborg (1624) is now used
as an academy of arts. The university was
founded by Christian I. in 1479, has five faculties,
40 professors, and is attended by 1200 students.
Connected with the university are a surgical aca-
demy, an observatory, a botanical garden, a zoo-
logical museum, a polytechnic institution, and a
library of 250,000 volumes, containing also a great
collection of ancient Persian MSS., and another of
ancient northern MSS. Copenhagen is the centre,
not only of Danish, but of northern literature and
art, and is the seat of a number of societies for the
advancement of these in all their branches, amongst
which the most important are the Royal pepe
founded in 1742; and the Royal Society for North-
ern Antiquities, founded in 1825; as well as i-
cultural, geographical, and other societies. he
royal library contains 500,000 volumes, besides
t treasures of Sanskrit and other MSS. The
useum of Northern Antiquities in Prindsens
Palais, is unrivalled in its kind, having been made
what it is mainly by Worsaae. The Thorwaldsen
Museum, opened in 1846, consists of works of art
by that sculptor himself, and others left by him to
the Danish nation, for which a separate building
has been erected. Copenhagen contains also a
number of well-supported benevolent institutions,
banks, theatres, an exchange, &c. There are
statues of several of the Danish kings, of Tycho
Brahé, and of the ts. The chief exports of
Copenhagen are in, rape-seed, butter, cheese,
beef, cattle, wool, hides, bones, and grain-spirit.
Porcelain, pianos, clocks, watches, mathematical
instruments, chemicals, sugar, beer, and tobacco are
manufactured,

About the middle of the 12th century, Copen-
hagen was but a fishing-village, in the neighbour-
hood of which Bishop Axel, or Absalon, built a
castle. In 1254 the vill obtained the privileges
of a town, and in 1443 King Christopher made it
the capital of the kingdom. It was several times
attacked by the Hanseatic League; was besieged by
_ the Swedes in the 17th century ; was bombarded by
the English, Dutch, and Swedes in 1700; suffered
grievously by fires in 1728, 1794, and 1795; wit-
nessed a great sea-fight in its roads on 2d April
1801, when the English, under Sir Hyde Parker,
with Nelson as his second in command, destroyed
the Danish fleet ; and (to prevent the Danish fleet
from falling into the power of Napoleon) was bom-
barded by the English from the 2d to the 5th of
September 1807, when great destruction was
wrought, both in houses and public buildings,
and hundreds of persons lost their lives (see DEN-
MARK). In 1888 an international exhibition was
held here.

Copenhagen Fields, in North London, noted
as the meeting-place of an immense gathering of
labour unionists on 21st April 1834, with the object

of overawing the ministry. But the crowd, see-
ing the military and other preparations made to
receive them, dispersed quietly without attemptin
to carry out any of the violent designs with whic
they were credited. Since 1885 the site has been
occupied by the Metropolitan Cattle Market.

Cope'poda, an order of minute marine and
fresh-water crustaceans, belonging to the Entomos-
traca (q.v.).

Copernicus, NicouAs, founder of the modern
astronomy, was born 19th February 1473, at Thorn,
in West Prussia, lately belonging to the order of
the Teutonic Knights (q.v.), but then a part of
Poland. His father, a Polish subject, was appar-
ently a Germanised Slav, and his mother of pure
German extraction. Copernicus seems to have
spoken German as his mother-tongue ; but Poland
and Germany still dispute with each other the
honour of producing him. Brought up under the
guardianship of his uncle Lucas, prince-bishop of
the great Prussian diocese of Ermland, he matricu-
lai at Cracow 1491, and there studied mathe-
matics, optics, and perspective. Leaving without
taking-a degree, he enrolled himself in 1496 in the
‘Natio-Germanorum’ of Bologna University as a
student of canon law, and was next year appointed
canon of Frauenburg, the cathedral city of the
diocese of Ermland, standing on the shores of
the Frisches Haff. The year 1500 he spent at
Rome, where he lectured on astronomy, and (6th
November) ‘ observed an eclipse of the moon.’ The
following year he began the study of medicine at
Padua, medicine in that age being essentially
Pear aes on astronomy, and was at Ferrara, in
1503, invested with the doctorship of canon law.
In 1505 he left Italy never to return to it, and
settled in his native Prussia. ‘Scholasticus’ of
Breslau till 1538, and canon of Frauenburg, yet
Copernicus never became a priest. Appointed per-
manent medical attendant on his anola: he lived
with him from 1507 till 1512 in the princely castle
of Heilsberg, 46 miles from the town of Fane:
burg, where, besides thinking out his new astro-
nomy, he had toilsome administrative and other
duties to perform, involving him in frequent jour-
neys. After his uncle’s death in 1512, he lived at
Frauenburg with an income as canon calculated at
about £450 of present money, not merely to study
the stars in his tower Curia Copernicana, but to
execute difficult and multifarious offices as bailiff,
military governor, judge, tax-collector, vicar-
general, and physician. These offices he fulfilled
with vigour and success, even while his difficulties
were inc by the intrigues and wars which
ultimately led to the restoration of West Prussia
to the Teutonic Knights, and its incorporation with
the Protestant state of Brandenburg. The coinage
having been grossly debased by the Teutonic
Knights and the three leading commercial towns
of ssia, Copernicus set himself strenuously to
the task of its reform, and advocated the establish-
ment of a single mint for the whole of Prussia. In
1523 he was appointed administrator-general of the
diocese. The Whe Revolutionibus he completed in
1530, but could not be prevailed on to give it to
the press till just before the end of his life. In
1542 he was seized with apoplexy, accompanied
by paralysis on the right side. - On the 24th May
1543 the first printed copy of the work arrived at
Frauenburg, and was touched by his dying hands
only a few hours before he expired. His memory

ne, and his faculties all obscured, it could onl

said he seemed to know what it was he touched.

Besides the De Revolutionibus, Copernicus wrote
and published at Cracow a Latin translation of the
Epistles of the Byzantine author Theophylactus
Simocatta, and a treatise on trigonometry. His

462 COPERNICUS

COPLEY

life was written by Gassendi; more recently by
Von Hipler (1873), and Polkovski (Warsaw, 1873).
By far the most complete account of Copernicus’s
life and labours is, however, the great biography
by Dr Prowe (2 vols. Berlin, 1883 ; volume of docu-
ments, 1884). _Copernicus’s family name of Kopper-
nigk is derived from a village so called in Siteaia,
and was Latinised by himself as Coppernicus, and
indeed by him generally so spelt.

THE COPERNICAN SYSTEM is that which repre-
sents the sun to be at rest in the centre of the
universe, and the earth and planets to move round
it as a centre. It got its name from Coper-
nicus, who (although some vague general notion
of the system seems to be due to Pythagoras) first
distinctly drew the attention of philosophers to it,
and devoted his life to its demonstration. For the
rest, the glory of developing on the lines he broadly
laid down, belongs to Ke ler, Galileo, and others,
and to Newton, who finally marked out the form
of modern theoretical astronomy. Many who
reverence the name of Copernicus in connection
with this system, would be surprised to find, on
perusing his work, how much of error, unsound
reasoning, and happy conjecture combined to
secure for him in all times the association of the
system with his name; yet, with all its faults, that
work marks one of the greatest steps ever taken in
science.

Entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium, and dedi-
cated to Pope Paul III., it consists of six books.
The first contains the following
1. That the universe is spherical. is is estab-
lished by such arguments as that the sphere
is the most perfect figure, &c. 2. That the earth
is spherical, which flows from the same kind of
considerations: 3. That the earth and sea make
one globe. 4, That the motions of all the heavenly
bodies must be uniform and circular, or com-
pounded of uniform and circular motions. Here,
again, we meet with singular reasons. A simple
body must move circularly, and nothing but cir-
cular motion could give periodicity to phenomena.
5. That, supposing the distance of the stars to be
immense, there is no reason why the earth should
not have a motion round its axis as well as a
motion in its orbit. 6. That the sphere of the
stars is immensely distant. The proof is fanciful,
and shows he had no notion of a universe of stars
pervading space. 7 and 8. The ancients were
wrong in placing the earth at the centre of the
universe. The arguments under this head are as
fanciful as those which they were designed to
refute. The falling of a body to the earth he
deduces from the assumption, that it is only given
to wholes to move circularly, while it is of the
nature of parts, separated from their wholes, to
move in right lines. That there must be a centrum
mundi, an entity unknown to modern science, is
admitted, the question being as to its position. 9.
It is possible for the earth to have several motions.
10. He establishes the order of the planets, and
draws a diagram of the system much as it is now
represented. Following the old systems, such as
the Ptolemaic, he lays down a sphere for the fixed
stars. It is clear, also, that he had no idea of
the motions of the planets other than that they
were such as would be caused by their being fixed
in immense crystal spheres revolving round the
sun.

The sum of Copernicus’s astronomical achieve-
ments is, mainly, the shifting of the centre of the
solar system from the earth to the sun, and the
consequent explanation of the alternation of day
and night by the earth’s rotation round itself, and
of the vicissitude of the seasons by the earth’s
revolution round the sun. This complete trans-
formation in astronomy was due in the first

ropositions :.

instance to the sense of order in Copernicus’s.
own mind, which, ever more clearly, protested
against the inverse conception of a much smaller
body at the centre, and a far greater at the cir-
cumference, and all the repugnant notions regard-
ing the movements of the planets which such a
conception involved. Discriminating motion as an
attribute of matter, and space as the scene but
not the subject of motion, Copernicus explained
how the celestial sphere was but a limitation of
space, and its movement only apparent; and
how the ‘backward loopings’ of the paths pur-
sued by the planets were only the perspective
result of their real movements in conjunction
with the real movements of the earth. Such
was the comprehensive scheme of astronomy con-
ceived by Copernicus; but it was impossible for
him, with the instruments and ascertained facts
then at his disposal, to master all the details.
Instead of grasping the idea of elliptic orbits, he
still abode by that of uniform circular motion,
and had therefore to retain the ‘epicycles’ to
account for ‘irregularities,’ thongh he reduced
this apparatus of checks and balances to the
number of thirty-four. It was reserved for Kepler
to dispense with the epicycles (see PTOLEMAIC
System, ASTRONOMY, KEPLER). Catholic church-
men received Copernicus’s work with much favour ;
the only theological objections came from the
Protestants. Luther denounced Copernicus as an
arrogant fool who wrote in defiance of Scrip-
ture, and Melanchthon urged the suppression of
such mischievous doctrines by the mii power.
The conduct of the De Revolutionibus through the
pices having been ne yi by Copernicus’s friend,

eorge Joachim von Lauchen (Kheticus) to Osi-
ander (q.v.), the latter, by way of conciliating
existing prejudices, foisted on the work a preface
(Prefatiuncula) quite foreign from Copernicus’s
intentions, in which the doctrine of the earth’s
rotation is represented as a mere hypothesis, which
has been attributed wrongly to Copernicus himself.

Copiapo, capital of the Chilian department of
Atacama, (q.v.).

Copland, JAmeEs, physician, was born at Deer-
ness, in the Orkneys, in 1791. He graduated M.D.
at Edinburgh in 1815, and settled to practice in
London in 1820, where he soon began to make his
name known by his papers in the medical journals
on yellow-fever, Lysiophobia: cholera, and the like.
His largest work was the Dictionary of Practical
Medicine (3 vols. 1832), a monument of enormous
industry ; others were on palsy and opoplesy (1850),
and on consumption (1861). He died 12th July
1870.

Copley, JouN SINGLETON, R.A., portrait and
historical painter, was born 3d July 1737, at
Boston, U.S. His parents, both of English extrac-
tion, had emigrated from Ireland in the previous
year. It has usually been asserted that Copley
was a self-taught artist ; but Mr W. H. Whitmore
of Boston has shown that he was instructed by his
stepfather, Peter Pelham, the portrait-painter and
engraver, and probably also by John Smibert. At
the age of sixteen he was executing portraits of
considerable merit; and in 1755 Washington sat
to him. In 1766 and 1767 he sent over works for
exhibition in the rooms of the Society of Incorporated
Artists; and in June 1774 he left for Europe. In
London he was well received by Reynolds, West,
and Strange, and he was commissioned to paint the
king and queen for Governor Wentworth. Passing
to the Continent in August, he studied in Italy,
returning to London in the end of 1776. His first
important subject-picture was the ‘ Youth rescued
from a Shark,’ presented by the artist to Christ’s
Hospital School; which was followed by ‘The

COPPER

COPPER 463

Death of Chatham’ (1779-80), an impressive sub-
ect, in which the portraits of the peers were care-
ully studied from life, and the still finer ‘ Death of
Major Pierson’ (1783). Both are in the National
Galle ; the former was engraved by Bartolozzi,
the latter by Heath. In 1789-90 he executed the
immense ‘Siege and Relief of Gibraltar,’ now in
the Guildhall. Among his numerous other popular
works may be named ‘The Surrender of Admiral
de Windt to Lord Duncan ;’ ‘Charles I. demand-
ing the Surrender of the Five Members,’ now in
Boston; ‘Charles I. signing Strafford’s Death-
warrant;’ and ‘The Assassination of Bucking-
ham,’ Till the end of his life he was unwearied
in the pursuit of his art. In August 1815 he was
attacked by paralysis, and died on 9th September,
leaving a son, the future Lord Lyndhurst.

Copley’s historical subjects are more original,
spirited, and realistic than those of his friend and
countryman West, with whom he is commonly
el ; and they are distinguished by far richer
and finer colouring. His composition is simple and
effective, and his draftsmanship careful and acecu-
rate. In ee and poetical pbs he was less
successful, is portraits, full of ‘individuality,
excellent in modelling and colour, are in them-
selves enough to justify a great reputation; and
in artistic qualities the finest of them may be
said to approach the works of Reynolds and
Gainsborough. See Lives by Perkins (1873) and
Mrs Amory (1882).

Copper. This appears to have been the first
metal employed by man both in war and the peace-
ful arts. Like gold and silver, it is found native,
but, except in one or two districts, only to a small
extent. It can, however, be extracted from its
ores at a comparatively low heat, and it is not
altered by exposure to dry air; although in moist
air, in the presence of carbonic acid, it soon takes
on a coating of the green carbonate of copper.
The use of copper by ancient nations is well known,
through the weapons and other objects of Bronze
(q.v.)—that is, a mixed with a small quantity
of tin, &c.—which have been so largely collected by
archeologists. Some prehistoric implements are,
however, of unalloyed Ces i It was obtained by
the ancients from various places, but especially from
Cyprus—whence the name. Copper has a charac-
teristic fine red colour and takes a brilliant polish.
It is nearly nine times heavier than water, its
specific gravity being from 8°8 to 8°95. Next
to silver it is the t conductor of heat and
electricity, hence its many useful applications. Its
point of fusion lies between silver and: gold, but
unlike these metals, it absorbs oxygen when strongly
heated in the air, and scales of black oxide form
rapidly on its surface. Copper is moderately hard,
and is highly malleable, ductile, and tenacious,
oh i not so strong as iron. When held, in the
form of sheet or wire, in a flame, it communicates
to ita st characteristic green colour. Whereas
steel is hardened by being heated to redness and
suddenly cooled in cold water, copper is softened by
the same process. Copper forms two-important com-
pounds with oxygen—cuprous and cupric oxides.

Cuprous Oxide (red oxide, sub-oxide), Cu,0.
This is obtained by heating to redness the black
oxide with nearly its own weight of finely divided
copper in a well-covered crucible, to protect the
mixture from the oxidising action of the air. It is
got as a hydroxide by adding grape-sugar to a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper, and then caustic soda,
till a blue precipitate, which is first formed, is re-
dissolved. The solution, on being gently warmed,
deposits the hydroxide as a rich pear ek Moor

wder. On continuing the heating till the liquid

as reached the boiling-point, and maintaining the
ebullition for some time, the powder changes into

the red anhydrous oxide. This oxide is used in
colouring glass a fine ruby tint. It is not acted on
by air or moisture, and for this reason is produced
on copper surfaces as a bronze to keep the metal
itself from becoming stained. The salts of this
oxide are generally colourless, but they are liable
to absorb oxygen and pass into the blue-coloured
cupric salts. Cuprous chloride is the most im-
portant salt, being used for absorbing carbonic
oxide in gas analysis.

Cupric Oxide (copper monoxide, black oxide),
CuO, is the scale or rust of copper which peels off
the surface of the metal when heated. It is got for
chemical purposes by heating nitrate of copper to
redness in a crucible with occasional stirring, and
carefully avoiding any ible admission of coaly
matter. By the use of cupric oxide Liebig estab-
lished the method by which the composition of all
organic substances has been determined, as it
readily gives up its oxygen at a red heat to carbon
and hydrogen, converting them, respectively, into
carbonic acid and water, from the weight of which
the composition of the organic body is calculated.
This oxide is used for staining glass, to which it
im a green colour ; and its solution in ammonia
has the remarkable property of dissolving cotton
fibre. The Hydroxide, Cu(OH),, is obtained as a
blue precipitate by adding caustic soda to sulphate,
or other salt, of copper, which, as in the case of
the cuprous oxide, mes ce cae on boiling,
the blue precipitate becoming black and granular.
The salts of cupric oxide are readily obtained by
dissolving it in the n acids ; for example
in sulphuric acid for the sulphate, and in nitric acid
for the nitrate of copper.

Cupric Sulphate (sulphate of copper, blue vitriol ),
CuSO,, occurs native in veins of copper and iron
pyrites, and is manufactured on a large scale by
gently roasting native copper sulphide (copper
pyrites), when oxygen is absorbed from the air, the
anhydrous sulphate thus obtained being dissolved
in water, and from this solution the salt as found in
commerce crystallises out. The crystals are large,
transparent, and have a fine blue colour. They are
much used by the dyer and calico-printer, in electro-
plating, and in the preservation of organic materials.

Cupric Nitrate, En NO,).. The crystals of this
salt are of an intense blue colour and deliquescent.
It is much used in calico-printing as an oxidising
agent.

Cupric Cyanide, CuCy,, along with cyanide of
otassium, gives the solution from which copper is
eposited on an iron surface. It is not, however,

necessary to prepare pure cupric cyanide, as the sul-
phate in excess of potassium cyanide serves the
urpose.
3 ‘upric Arsenite, CuH AsO, (Scheele’s green), is a
well-known green pigment, got by adding an alka-
line arsenite to cupric sulphate, and washing the
| eee ahaa till free from be ae and drying.
his colour has been much used for wall-papers, but
has been supposed to have insanitary effects. See
ARSENIC. ?

Copper Acetate, Cu(C,H;0,)., is got by adding
copper hydroxide, or carbonate, to acetic acid. It
forms dark blue prisms. If acetic acid is allowed
to act on metallic copper in the presence of air and
moisture, a basic acetate is slowly formed termed
verdigris ; this has less acetic acid than the previous
compound, and is much less soluble. It has a bluish-

ncolour. Verdigris and arsenious acid boiled
gether in water form the fine colour termed
emerald green—an aceto-arsenite of copper.

Copper Stearate is obtained by adding stearate of
soda to sulphate of oupee in hot solutions. It isa
light bluish-green powder used for colouring candles.

he pigment, Brunswick green, used in the arts,
is an oxychloride of copper.

464

COPPER

Copper in any liquid is easily discovered b
pes in it a plate of polished iron, when it will

e observed coating the metal with its well-known
reddish tint, making its appearance over the part of
the plate immersed in the fluid. If the quantity of
copper is very small, the liquid should be concen-
trated till it half fills a watch-glass, and a bright
steel needle used in place of an iron plate. Solu-
tions of cupric salts have a blue or greenish-blue
colour, but this on addition of ammonia in excess
becomes an intense purplish blue.

Native Copper, although frequently met with
wherever copper ores occur, is yet rarely discovered
in sufficient quantity to admit of its being system-
atically worked. It is found crystallised in cubes
and in modifications of this form; also in arbores-
cent pieces, in thin laminze, and in irregular lumps
or masses. Sometimes it forms a nucleus with first
a layer of red oxide and then a second layer of car-
bonate of copper around it. The largest masses of
native copper are obtained from mines in Russia
and from copper-bearing strata in the neighbour-
hood of Lake Superior. One mass was mined at
Minnesota in 1859, weighing 500 tons, which
required the work of forty men for a year to extract
it. The largest yet obtained was got in 1866 at
the Central mines, Lake Superior, and weighed
800 tons.

The ores of copper are numerous. Cuprite, ruby
copper, cuprous oxide, or red oxide of copper, is the
richest ore. It contains, when pure, nearly 90 per
cent. of copper. Malachite (q.v.), or green carbonate
of copper, consists, when pure, of 57 per cent. of the
metal. This ore occurs largely in Russia, South
Australia, and in some localities in South America.
Chessylite, azurite, or blue carbonate of copper, in a
pure state contains 55 per cent. of copper. Chal-
copyrite, copper pyrites, or yellow copper ore, a sul-
phide of copper and iron, is, from its abundance,
the most important of copper ores. Although
containing, when pure, 35 per cent. of copper,

et on account of impurities, what is mined in

ngland does not yield, on an average, more than
8 per cent. of the metal. Some of the auriferous
copper pyrites of the western states of America
and elsewhere is worked as an ore of gold (see
GOLD). Erubescite, or purple copper ore, is also a
sulphide of copper in hick the proportion of the
metal varies from 60 to 70 per cent. Tetrahedrite,
or gray copper ore, is a sulph-antimonite of copper
of very variable composition, but often containing
from 30 to 40 per cent. of copper, &c. Atacamite
(q.v.) is an oxychloride of copper mined in Chili,
and found in other countries. Melaconite, or black
oxide of copper, and Chrysocolla, a silicate of
copper, are sometimes smelted as ores of the
metal.

COPPER-SMELTING.—In practice, the process of
smelting copper from ore (copper pyrites) like the
Cornish is somewhat complicated, but in theory it
is comparatively simple. The main impurities of
the ore are quartz, iron, sulphur, and very com-
monly arsenic. The process is conducted with the
view of separating the iron and quartz as a fusible
slag, and of dissipating the sulphur and arsenic, by
converting them into sulphurous and arsenious
acids, through oxidation in the furnace. At Swan-
sea, which is the chief seat of copper-smelting in
this country, 1everberatory furnaces are used, and
these are of two kinds, called respectively calciners
and melting furnaces. Gas, along with Siemens’
regenerative apparatus, is now to some extent used
in different parts of the world for supplying heat
to copper furnaces, but at some places it has been
given up, after a short trial, owing to the costly
repairs which it causes. There are never fewer
than six operations in the Welsh process of
fopper-smelting, and when so limited, a favourable

admixture of ores, such as copper pyrites and
copper carbonates, is necessary. In the first, the
ore is calcined in a furnace for at least twelve
hours, by which time the greater part of the sul-
phide of iron is decomposed, and much sulphurous
and other acids have formed and escaped in fumes
—i.e. a partial oxidation of the iron and sulphur

nn:

typ yyw@(wez@? YY) yy
Fig. 1.—Section of a Reverberatory Copper-melting
Furnace:

A, fireplace ; B, fire-bridge; C, bed of sand; D, melted copper,

takes place. In the second, the calcined ore is
melted along with siliceous slags obtained in later
stages of the process. Here a fusible slag, consisting
in great part of silicate of iron, is formed, and the
sulphides of iron and copper are run off as a regulus,
termed coarse metal, ad granulated in water. A
section of a melting furnace is given in fig. 1. In
the third, the coarse metal is calcined again for
twenty-four hours, during which time most of the
sulphide of iron is converted into oxide. In the
JSourth, the calcined coarse metal is melted with
slags rich in oxide of copper, and also with rich ores,
as oxide and carbonate. These oxidise any sulphide
of iron remaining, and a regulus called white metal
is formed, consisting almost entirely of sulphide of
copper, and containing about 75 per cent. of the
metal. In the fifth, called ‘roasting,’ the regulus
is very slowly melted, so as to allow of the gradual
and thorough reduction of the sulphide by heated
atmospheric air through the formation of oxide of
copper. When oxide and sulphide of copper are
heated together, they decompose each pis the
sulphur escapes as sulphurous acid, and impure
metallic copper, called blister copper, is produced,
while other foreign bodies are for the most part
removed in the slag. In the sixth, the copper from
the previous operation is refined. To effect this, it
is melted in a furnace, and exposed to the oxidising
influence of the air for from fifteen to twenty hours,
by which time it is full of dioxide, and this is in
turn reduced by throwing pure coal on the surface
of the molten metal, and then stirring it with a
pole of green birch-wood.

At those smelting works where the sulphurous
acid produced in the calcining or cata of copper
pyrites is saved for the manufacture of sulphuric
acid, peculiar furnaces, such as_ Gerstenhofer’s,
Hasenclever and Helbig’s, and Maletra’s, are used
for roasting the ore. Shaft or cupola furnaces,
instead of those of a reverberatory kind, are used
in some countries, for smelting copper ores where
these are highly ferruginous, or oxidised, or com-
paratively poor. Coke, anthracite, or charcoal is
used as fuel in nes fi furnaces, which require a
blast of air at a moderate pressure.

Wet Copper Extraction Process.—Soon after iron
pyrites (sulphide of iron) began to be used about
thirty years ago as the source of sulphur for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, it was thought
desirable to recover the copper, amounting to a
small per cent. of the pyrites used. The burnt
pyrites, consisting chiefly of oxide of iron, along

COPPER

COPSE 465

with 4 or 5 per cent. of copper, is mixed with from
12 to 15 per cent. of crushed rock-salt and the
mixture properly calcined, when the whole of the
copper is converted into a soluble chloride. The
roasted mass is then lixiviated, and the copper con-
tained in the solution thrown down as metal by
scrap iron. This precipitate contains about 75 per
cent. of pure copper, and is mixed with the copper
of the later stages of purification got in the dry
rocess,

APPLICATIONS OF COPPER. —The metal is used for
& great variety of pu . , [t is most largely con-
sumed along with zine in the production of Brass
(q.v.). Toa less, but still considerable extent, it
is made into brénze and gun-metal, in which it is
alloyed with tin and other metals (see BRONZE).
Alone it is employed for boilers, stills, cooking
vessels, seamless and other pipes, wire and wire-
cloth, nails, and spikes. In the form of thin plates
it has long been in demand for engraving and etch-
ing upon, and in the shape of strong rollers it is
extensively employed for a like purpose by the
ealico-printer. Copper does not cast very well, but
it is admirably adapted for ne works of art
in electro-deposit instead of casting them. This
process is Neca prithe | employed, and does even for
objects as large as life-sized statues. In this way
engravings and pages of type are also copied for the
printing-press. For its use in coating other metals,
see Bronzinc. Copper is the metal usually
chosen for lightning conductors. Writing-pens are
made of an alloy consisting for the most part of
copper, and for some purposes are better than
those made of steel, as they do not corrode nearly
sosoon. These pens are usually white in colour.
An alloy of copper, ‘yellow metal,’ is used for
sheathing the bottoms of timber ships, so as to
prevent molluses and seaweeds from encumbering
them. Copper, owing to its ductility, may be made
into pipes, tubing, &c., by high pressure alone,
without heat.

The = oat mere of the United Kingdom appear
to have first risen into importance in the early part
of the 18th century. According to Sir C. tae
(Journal of the Statistical Society, vol. i.), the pro-
duce of the Cornish mines in 1771 was 27,896 tons
of ore, yielding 3347 tons of copper. In 1856
(Hunt's Mineral Statistics for 1856) the returns
were—Cornwall, 163,245; Devon, 42,025 tons of ore;
together yielding 13,500 tons of metallic copper.
Since 1860, the year of their maximum yield, the
Pare! of copper obtained from mines of the

nited Kingdom has steadily and rapidly declined
from 236,696 tons of ore, and 15,968 of metal, to
5346 and 426 tons respectively in 1893.

The copper ore mined in other parts of the
country besides Cornwall and Devon is compara-
tively trifling. Copper is chiefly smelted at Swan-
sea and its neighbourhood, but to some extent also
in Lancashire. The English smelting works are
now most largely supplied with ore from Spain,
South Africa (see CAPE CoLony, Vol. II. p. 735),
Venezuela, the United States, and Australia (q.v.).
The entire cpreysd of metallic copper smelted
and refined in the United Kingdom annually varies
from 25,000 to 30,000 tons,

The production of copper in the United States
has increased rapidly since 1872. In that year the
quantity of this metal obtained was 12,500 tons,
while in 1897 it was as much as 212,000 (long) tons,
end the United States is now the largest producer
of copper. The richest mine in the world is said to
be that at Calumet (Mich.), on Lake Superior, in
which region copper was mined by the ancient
Indian or pre-Indian inhabitants. Arizona and
Montana (United States) are also productive ; but
copper occurs in several other parts of the Union,
A very Pia quantity of copper wire is used in

1 :

that country for electrical purposes. The enormous
increase in the output of copper between 1880 and
1884, and its fall in price, led to the formation of
a powerful syndicate to regulate the total produc-
tion and control the price; which for a time sue-
ceeded, but by 1890 collapsed. ‘Ihe price of copper,
which in 1890 was about £65 a ton, sank to
£41, 2s. 6d. in the end of 1895, but rose to £49 in
the middle of 1896.

Co ras, or sulphate of iron, is used in dye-
ing b syst in making ink, and as a dressing See
crops. See IRON, p. 214.

Copperhead (Trigonocephalus contortriz), a
venomous snake, allied to the rattlesnake, found in
eastern North America, It has a thick body from
2 to 3 feet long, and a short tail without rattles,
and is slow and clumsy in its movements; but, lurk-
ing in dark and moist places, and giving no warn-
ing, is more dreaded than the rattlesnake. The
term was given to the peace party during the
American civil war.

Coppermine River, so named, in common
with the Copper Mountains to the west of it, from
the metallic products of the vicinity, runs through
the North-west Territory of Canada, and after a
course of 250 miles, enters a bay of the Arctic
Ocean about 68° N. lat., and 116° W. long. It
was discovered by Hearne in 1771. Its course is
continually interrupted by falls and torrents.

Copperplate Printing. See ENGRAVING.

Coppet, a village of Switzerland, 8 miles N. by
E. of Geneva by rail, with a chfteau, where
Necker and his daughter, Mme. de Staél, are
buried, and where the latter spent much of her life.

Coppice. See Corpse.

Copra, or CoprpERAH, is the commercial name
for the kernel of the cocoa-nut broken into small

ieces and dried in the sun. From 500 lb. of copra
gallons of cocoa-nut oil should be obtained.
See COCOA-NUT.

Coprolites (from Gr. kopros, ‘dung,’ and lithos,
‘a stone’) are the Saaiasdonmiensanta of animals
found in Palzozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary strata.
Their true nature was first inferred by Dean Buck-
land (1829), from their occurrence in the bodies of
several species of Ichthyosaurus, in the region
where was situated the intestinal tube. It has
been since shown that they are the voidings chiefly
of saurians and of sauroid fishes. They often con-
tain portions of scales, bone, teeth, and shells, the
indigestible parts of the food on which the animals
ree as Occasionally, they may be found exhibiting
the spiral twisting and other marks produced by
the conformation of the intestinal tube, similar to
what is noticed in the excrement of some living
fishes. These peculiar markings obtained for them
the name, when their true nature was unknown,
of ‘larch-cones’ and ‘bezoar-stones.’ Coprolites
are found to contain a large quantity of phosphate
of lime; and as this forms a valuable manure, the
deposits containing them have since 1846 been
largely quarried by the manufacturers of artificial
manures.

Copse, or Coppice, a natural wood or planta-
tion, of which the trees are cut over from time to
time, without being allowed to attain the size of
timber-trees, sending up new shoots from their
roots or stools. Some kinds of trees—as the firs—
are incapable of being treated in this manner,
refusing to send up new shoots; but many—as
the , birch, chestnut, ash, elm, maple, alder,
hazel, and willow—very ily do so, at least if
they have not been allowed to attain too consider-
able a size before being cut over. Copse-woods are
sometimes planted chiefly to vary and beautify the
landscape, but more generally with a view to profit.

466 COPTIS

COPYHOLD

It often happens that, owing to scantiness of soil
or to unfavourable subsoil, oaks and other trees,
after growing vigorously for a number of years,
are arrested, and remain almost stationary in their
growth. In such circumstances, it is advantageous
to cut them over early, and to treat the plantation
as a copse. Oak is much planted as copse-wood,
in consequence of the demand for its bark : in some
parts of Herefordshire, the trees are cut over ever

twelve years; but in the Highlands of Scotland,
twenty-five or thirty years are often necessary for
sufficient growth. The largest pieces of the wood
are used for making wheats okes, and for other
purposes of timber; the smaller portions for char-
coal and firewood. Ash-coppice is serviceable for
handles of implements, hurdles, hoops. Chestnut
copses are planted in England to supply hop-poles.
Hazel is in great demand for making crates, &c.
Besides the cultivation of different kinds of willow
or osier for basket-making, in which they are cut
over annually, some of the species are cultivated
as copse, and cut every five, six, or seven years,
for hoops, crates, &c. (see WILLOW). In some
ha a copse-wood affords a valuable supply of
uel.

Coptis, a genus of Ranunculacee. C. trifoliata,
called Gold Thread on account of the appearance
and colour of its rhizomes, is a native of swamps in
the colder northern regions of both hemispheres.
It has ternate leaves and solitary white flowers,
The bitter rhizomes are used in America as a tonic,
and asa yellowdye. That of C. teeta of Assam is
used in India as a bitter tonic.

Copts, the Christian descendants of the ancient
Egyptians. The name (in Arabic, Kubt) is most
probetly derived from the same root as E-gypt.

he Copts are in number about 300,000, only one-
eighteenth of the population of the country. A large
proportion live in Cairo, but there are numerous
populous settlements of Copts in Upper Egypt,
notably at Girga, Negfida, Luksor, Asyfit, Den-
dera, and Ikhmim, where 40,000 are said to reside.
They are essentially townsmen, engaged as clerks on
account of their undoubted mathematical talents ;
or employed in the finer handicrafts, such as gold-
smithery ; and their occupations account for their

aleness as compared with their Moslem neigh-
bate. The few Copts who work in the fields do
not differ perceptibly from the Moslems, and the
resemblance to the ancient Egyptians is visible in
both, though the inbreeding of the Copt has per-
haps retained the ancestral Biceamenia more faith-
fully. They are of middle stature, have black eyes,
and black ast | hair; dress like the Moslems,
but are generally distinguished by a black or blue
turban ; the women are veiled. Their character is
in general gloomy, deceitful, and avaricious; they
are ignorant, drunken, and sensual. In religion
they are Monophysites (q.v.) of the Jacobite sect ;
but a few are united to the Greek and Roman
Catholic churches. When the Council of Chalcedon
in 451 pronounced the Jacobite opinion heretical,
some of the Copts supported the verdict, and bitter
jealousies ensued between these ‘royalists’ and
the Jacobite Copts. The latter did not scruple to
welcome the Moslem conquest in 640 in order to
expel the Greek faction. They ascribe their con-
version from heathenism to St Mark, whom the
regard as the first patriarch of Alexandria, Their
highest dignitary is the patriarch of Alexandria,
whose residence, however, isin Cairo. Their other
orders of clergy are twelve bishops, and archpriests,
priests, deacons, and monks. The patriarch is
named by his predecessor, or chosen by lot from
among the monks of the convent of St Anthony.
He is not permitted to marry, and when he sleeps
it is necessary to waken him every quarter of an

hour. He nominates the metropolitan of Abys-
sinia (see ABYSSINIA ).

The Copts are very strict in some of their
religious observances, and hate other Christian
sects even more than they hate the Moslems.
They maintain the seven sacraments—baptism by
trine immersion; confirmation; penance or con-
fession; orders; matrimony; unction; and the
eucharist, administered in both kinds to all, even
young children, and formed of leavened bread
which has been argued in wine. They keep
Wednesday and Friday with great strictness as
fast-days, and have besides an onerous fast of Nine-
veh, lasting fifty-five days, and lesser fasts of the
Nativity, the Apostles, and the Virgin. Each fast
is followed by a feast. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem is
prized highly. Priests may be married to one
virgin provided the ceremony takes place before
ordination; if the wife die, he may not marry
again, nor may the widow of a priest remarry.
The Copts seldom marry outside their own sect;
the wedding ceremonies are very peculiar, and may
be read in L. Oliphant’s Land of Khemi; the
bride is expected to remain at home until confined,
or for a year if barren (see Lane’s Modern Egyp-
tians). The Coptic ritual, liturgy, vestments, &e.
are specially interesting as preserving unchanged
very ancient Christian forms. The churches, of
which the most celebrated are those built in the
Roman fortress of Babylon at old Cairo, and those
in the Nitrian valley, are remarkable for peculiari-
ties of construction and plan, and for oxcoetee
beautiful carved ivory screens. An admirable
account of them is given by Mr Butler. They have
many schools, but only for boys, who learn the
psalms, gospels, and apostolic epistles in Arabie,
and then the gospels and epistles in Coptic. The
Coptic, however, is not grammatically taught, and
is not now a spoken language, having been every-
where supplanted by the Arabic. It has not been
spoken in Lower Egypt since the 10th conieee but
lingered for some centuries longer in Upper eypt
It is, however, still used by the Copts in their
religious services, but the lessons, after being read
in Coptic, are explained in Arabic. The Coptic
language is the descendant of the ancient Egyptian,
but the alphabet is Greek uncial, probably. intro-
duced soon after their conversion to Christianity.
‘The romance of language could go no further than
to join the speech of Pharaoh and the writing of
Homer in the service-book of an Egyptian Chris-
tian’ (Butler). There are two principal dialects
of the language—the Sahidic or Upper Egyptian,
and the Memphitic or Lower Egyptian, which is
sometimes exclusively called Coptic. A third
dialect, the Bashmuric, of whieh only a few
remains exist, was spoken in the Delta, and is
interesting from its points of resemblance to the
language of the hieroglyphics. The literature is
wholly religious. See the article Ecypr; and The
Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, by Alfred J.
Butler (2 vols. Oxford Clarendon Picas: 1884).

Copula (Lat., ‘a band’) is a term employed in
logic to designate the word which unites the two
notions of a sentence—the subject and predicate—
into one judgment or thought.

Copyhold, a species of estate or right of

property in land, in Ireland and England, nearly
resembling in many particulars the feu-rights of
Scotland. Copyhold is expressed technically as

‘tenure by copy of court-roll, at the will of the
lord, according to the custom of the manor.’ This
means that it is tenure of land, being part of a
manor, the title being evidenced by the court-
rolls of the manor, and the right of the owner being
in conformity with the immemorial customs of the
manor. The addition, ‘at the will of the lord,’

COPYHOLD

COPYING 467

serves only as a memorial of the derivation of this
species of estate from the estates granted in old
es to the bondsmen or Villeins (q.v.), which
were of course resumable at the pleasure of the
lord. But the will of the lord is now ragga y
controlled by the custom of the manor, whic
forms the law of the tenure; and as this custom
must be immemorial—i.e. etry Dips the reign of
Richard I1.—no copyhold can now be created.

The custom of each manor may vary in moat
particulars. In some the lands are held for life
only, generally, however, with a customary right
to renewal or to appoint the successor ; in some
they descend according to particular rules ; in most,
however, they descend according to the ordin
rules of succession. But the custom, whatever it
may be, cannot be altered. The tenant cannot,
for instance, entail his land unless the custom
warrants him. The freehold remaining in the lord
includes a right to minerals and timber, but in the
absence of special custom he cannot remove these
without the consent of the tenant. The tenant
also in the general case cannot lease his land for
more than one year. This tenure makes the in-
tervention of the lord necessary in every act of
alienation, which therefore resembles the Scottish
procedure of resignation of a feu, and is called
a surrender and admittance.

Various capt geet are due by the copy-
holder to the lo These are divided into the
rents, an annual payment of the nature of the
Scottish feu-duty; jines, payments on particular
occasions, such as alienation or succession, like the
Scottish composition to the inferior; and heriots,
or the best piece of personal property, to which, on
the death of the copyholder, the lord becomes
entitled. As to fines, it may be observed that the
courts of law have fixed the extreme amount that
can be exacted at two years’ rent of the land.

In the case of an heir succeeding there is no
surrender, but there is admittance only upon pay-
ment of the customary fine, and it is enforced by
a customary penalty. A mortgage is effected by a
surrender, upon condition that the money is repaid,
and the admittance takes place only in event of
failure of payment. A copyhold may, in like
manner, be devised by will, the devisee being
admitted on the death of the devisor.

The inconveniences and loss accruing through the
variety of customs to which copyright lands are
subject have led the legislature to make provision
for their gradual extinction. By the copyhold
commissioners all the services due to the lord of
the manor may be commuted fora fixed rent. The
lord is also authorised to enfranchise or convert
into freehold the lands by agreement with their
owners. Since 1853 either the lord or the tenant
so admitted may compel enfranchisement on pay-
ment, either of a fixed sum where it is at the
instance of the lord, or of an annual rent where it
is at the instance of the tenant, fixed in both cases
by the commissioners. The copyhold commis-
sioners are now incorporated with the Inclosure
Commissioners and the Tithe Commissioners, under
the name of the Land Commissioners for England,
who publish an annual blue-book. Upwards of
16,000 enfranchisements have been made, the
compensation amounting to considerably above
£2,000,000.

Copying is aterm in general use for a great
Ede f- Set processes, But may be described
generally as the reproduction, usually either on an
enlarged or edaed scale, of any drawing, map, or
other work of art. A few of the methods peg ot
- may be shortly described. If the copy is to be the
same size as the original, the easiest way is to trace
it. ‘A piece of tracing-paper (which may be bought
at any stationer’s) is put over the drawing, and the

new lines gone over with pencil. The back of
he acing is then rubbed with black lead or
ruddle, and put on the clean paper on which the
copy is to be made; the traced lines are gone over
with a hard point, and thus indicated faintly on
the paper. Guided by the traced lines, the copy
can then be drawn in. It is usual to have the
ruddle or black lead on a separate piece of thin
paper, and smog ape between the tracing and the
paper. When the copy is required of a different
size from the original, the simplest way is to sketch
it by hand and eye, but where more mechanical
accuracy is required, the method of squares is very
useful, The original is covered with squares of
any convenient size by pencil lines or threads; a
piece of paper for the copy is prepared with a cor-
responding number of squares, of a smaller or
larger size, according as the copy is wanted smaller
or larger. These squares must bear the same pro-
rtion to the squares on the original, as the copy
1s to bear to the original. It is then a compara-
tively easy matter to copy in each square the part
of the original in the corresponding square. To
avoid confusion if the squares are small, it is well
to number them along each side of the drawing.
If it is not convenient to cover the original drawin
with pencil lines, or to tie threads over the face o
it, a very good way is to draw the squares on a
piece of tracing-paper, and put that over the
original; the same tracing-paper will do any number
of drawings. A pair of pepersone compasses
(see COMPASSES) will be found very useful for fix-
ing the proportional size of the squares. Any
drawing consisting principally of straight lines,
such as a plan, can be conveniently reduced by con-
structing a scale to suit the reduced size required.
The lines of the original are measured by its scale,
and the same proportion of the smaller scale gives
the necessary measurement. The Pantograph (q.v.)
is another means of making a reduction or enlarge-
ment, but is very seldom used now. It is only
accurate in a general way. Perhaps the simplest
and most exact method is to get the original photo-
graphed to the required size ; the copy can then be
traced on to clean paper as already described.

The copying of letters and other documents for
commercial purposes is usually done by means of
the ordinary copying-press, which is so familiar in
every counting-house as to need no detailed deserip-
tion. A letter written with specially prepared in
is transferred to another piece of paper by means
of damp and pressure. Common ink thickened
with a little sugar will serve as Sy shan ona
Many modifications of this arrangement have been
devised for producing a number of copies of cir-
culars, &c. from one written copy, and are known
as ‘graphs’ (hektograph, &c.). A document
written with the ink prepared for the purpose is
transferred by pressure with the hand to a gelatin-
ous slab, from which as many as fifty or sixty
copies, more or less distinct, can be retransferred
by rubbing with the hand. A very useful method
of manifold writing is largely employed in tele-
graphic news work, and for duplicating invoices by
retail tradesmen. Carbonised paper is put between
two or three or more sheets of thin paper (‘flimsy’),
and thus, whatever is written on the top sheet by a
hardish pencil is duplicated on the others. When
an indefinite number of copies of any drawing or
other subject is required, there are many printing
processes which may be employed. tters or
circulars, if written with lithographic ink, can be
transferred to stone, and any number printed.
Engineers’ or architects’ drawings, or any other
drawing executed in /ine, can be very successfully
reproduced in my By by the photo-lithograph pro-
cess, which will described under LITHOGRAPHY.
If required for block or letterpress printing, then

468 COPYING

COPYRIGHT

any of the zincotype processes may be employed.
By this process, also, plates to reprint steel-engrav-
ings can be produced from any printed engraving
(see ENGRAVING). For reproducing drawings exe-
cuted otherwise than in line, photographs from
nature, or paintings, there are many processes
which will also be described in the same article.

Copying in photography, that is, the method of
copying pictures and other drawings by the camera,
will be described under PHOTOGRAPHY.

Drawings for wood-engravings are now seldom
made directly on the wood, but executed on paper
or cardboard, and copied by photography on to the
wood. By this means the drawing need not be so
minute as the required engraving, but may be of
any convenient size. The process employed will
also be described under PHOTOGRAPHY.

Copyright is the exclusive right to multiply
copies of a written or printed composition, or of a
work of art. Such rights were claimed by authors
even before the introduction of printing. After
the invention of the printing-press, the right to
publish books became the subject of licenses
and patents. In, Chambers’s Domestic Annals of
Scotland, under date November 9, 1699, may be
seen a warrant of the Privy-council authorising
George Mossman, stationer in Edinburgh, ‘ to print
and sell the works of the learned Mr George
Buchanan, in one volume in folio, or by parts in
lesser volumes, and forbidding all others to print,
import, or sell the whole or any part of the said
Mr George his works, in any volume or character,
for the space of nineteen years.’ Similar privileges
were granted in England ; but all such monopolies
were regarded with suspicion by common lawyers.
The common law affords a certain measure of

rotection to works unpublished, or published only
or a limited purpose. The writer of a letter, for
aaa a transfers his property in it to the receiver ;
but the receiver has no right to print it for sale or
distribution without the writer’s consent. The copy-
right in published works is the creation of statute :
the first Copyright Act was passed in 1709, and by
virtue of its provisions authors acquired the sole
liberty of printing their books during a term of
fourteen years from first publication, and, if the
author should be living at the end of that time,
during a further term of fourteen years. While
this act was in force, Thomson sold the copyright
of his poems to Millar, a London bookseller.
Millar claimed the right to prevent the issue of
reprints by Donaldson (of Edinburgh) and others,
even after the statutory term had expired, on
the ground that an author had, at common law,
the sole right of printing his works. Out of this
dispute arose the famous cases of Millar v. Taylor,
and Donaldson v. Beckett. which led to a remark-
able difference of opinion among the judges. The
House of Lords decided that, if any common-law
right existed, it had been taken away by the
statute.

At the union with Ireland, the Copyright Act
was extended to that country, and the trade in
cheap editions, printed in Dublin and secretly
imported into Great Britain, came to anend. In
1814 the term of copyright was extended to twenty-
eight years, and the residue of the author’s life
if he were living at the end of the term. The
impetus given to literature at the beginning of
the present century, and especially the popularity
attained by the works of Scott and Byron, greatly
increased the market value of co yright, and ulti-
mately led to further legislation in the interest of
authors and publishers. The basis of the existing
law is the Copyright Act of 1842, commonly known
as Talfourd’s Act or Lord Mahon’s Act. Macaulay’s
speech in the House of Commons on the second
reading of this measure is one of his most successful

arliamentary efforts. The law of copyright is still
ar from being settled; the acts which relate to
the subject are extremely ill drawn. In 1878 a
Royal Commission recommended ‘that the law on
this subject should be reduced to an intelligible
and systematic form.’ Pending the execution of
this useful design, the provisions of the existing
British law may be summarised as follows.

Books.—The term of copyright in books is forty- —
two years, or the life of the ea thor and seven years,
whichever of the two terms is the longer. No copy-
right can be enjoyed in seditious or immoral publiea-
tions, or in books first published out of the United
Kingdom. A register of proprietors of copyright is
kept at Stationers’ Hall, in which the owner of a
copyright may make an entry on payment of a fee
of 5s. Assignments may be made by entry in the
register. Non-registration does not affect the eopy-
right, but only the right to sue in respect of the
infringement thereof. In case of infringement, the
owner of copyright may obtain an injunction from
the High Court (in Scotland, an interdict from the
Court of Session ) to restrain the issue of unauthor-
ised copies ; he may also bring an action and claim
damages. In such proceedings the defendant fre-

uently pleads that a has made only a fair use of
the plaintiff's work. The question, what is a fair
use, 18 a question of common sense, rather than of
law. An author may resort to previous works for
facts and ideas; he may extract’ or abridge the
copyright composition of another, provided he does
not actually copy it, or an unreasonably large part
of it, into his own book. Authors complain that
the law as it stands does not sufficiently protect
them against unfair use of their materials and ideas.
The crown is said to have the sole right to
authorise the printing of Bibles, copies of the Book
of Common Prayer, the Westminster Confession of
Faith and Catechisms, and acts of parliament.
The universities are permitted to enjoy perpetual
copyright in works bequeathed to them. For
government publications, see BLUE-BOOKS.

Encyclopedias and Periodicals.—Articles con-
tributed to publications of this class, and books pub-
lished in parts or series, belong to the proprietor.
But the proprietor may not publish them separately
without the writer’s consent, and after twenty-
eight years the copyright reverts to the author.

Dramas and Musical Pieces.—These, if first pub-
lished in book-form, are subject to the same rules
as books. But if they are performed in public
before appearing in print, the author retains the
sole right of permitting them to be represented
during the term of copyright; and this right is dis-
tinct from the copyright he acquires if his drama or
piece is published as a book. By an Act of 1882
the proprietor of a piece of music, desiring to reserve
the right of performance, must give notice to that
effect on the cover. Verses may not be taken from
a copyright work and set to music, for sale, without
permission. A novel may be dramatised without
the author’s permission ; but if copies of the drama
are published containing passages borrowed in
substance from the novel, the author of the adapta-
tion is liable to an action. In the ‘ Little Lord
Fauntleroy Case’ (1888), the right to dramatise was
admitted, but it was held that the authoress could
restrain the publication of copies containing
passages which were taken from the novel without
alteration. Even distribution of copies to the
Lord Chamberlain and the actors was held an
infringement of her rights; so that the right to
dramatise can only be exercised with precautions
which must greatly restrict it in practice.

Lectures and Speeches.—If a person delivers an .
address to the general public, he has probably no
cause of action against any one who publishes a
report of what he says. But a person addressing a

———————— ee ll lU

OD aie alll

CT eS ee
‘ *

'

COPYRIGHT

COQUILLA NUT 469

limited audience for a limited purpose (as e.g. a
protessor instructing his class) may prevent the
publication of unauthorised reports.

s.—The copyright in a letter, as already
mentioned, is retained the writer, unless he in-
dicates his wish that it should be published.

Newspapers registered under the Copyright Acts
are copyright, and even the adoption of an exist-
Eeneswepeper title is a good cause of action.

ngravings, Maps, &c.—Copyright in these is for
twenty-eight years. Each plate and print must
bear the name of the proprietor. Copyright in
oye 4 drawings, and photographs is secured to

e artist during his life and seven years after. A

ister of ‘soy sdity of copyright in paintings, &e.
is kept i ee inte ete
onia ight.—Since 1842 the copyright o
books printed in ‘the United Kingdom pas ob
to all the colonies thereof, and in 1847 the Foreign
Reprints Act enabled the colonies to import foreign
reprints of British books, on making due provision
for the rights of authors. In 1874 the Canadian
Copyright Act enabled a British author to obtain
copyrig t in Canada for twenty-eight years, pro-
vided his work be published in the colony.

International Copyright.—Foreign authors and
artists are able to secure copyright in Britain for
their works, provided due protection has been se-
cured by the country in which such works were

roduced for the benefit of those interested in simi-
ar works published in Her Majesty’s dominions.
The term of reg ig in France is life and fifty
years ; in an ork ife and twenty years ; in Ger-
many, life and thirty years ; in Italy, life and forty
= (with a further term of eH et in Russia,

pain, and Portugal the term is life and fifty years ;
in Holland, life and twenty years.

Copyright in designs is protected in England by
the Patents Act of 1883, and in the United States
designs are patentable. See PATENTS, TRADE-
MARKS.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES.—The copy-
right law of the United States of America, in force
in pennesy 1898, provides that authors, artists, ar-
tisans, and other proprietors of copyrightable arti-
cles may secure a first copyright of the same for a
term of twenty-eight years, with a renewal on the
expiration of the term for an additional fourteen
years, the renewal to be by the author of the book or
other work if he be then living, or if he be dead, by
his widow or children. No person, however, is en-
titled to a copyright unless he shall on or before the
day of publication of his work in this or any foreign
country deliver at the office of the Librarian of Con-
gress or deposit in the mail within the United States
addressed to the Librarian of Congress at Washing-
ton, D.C., a printed copy of the title of the book or
other article on which a copyright is desired, or in
case of a painting, drawing, or other work of art, a
description of the same ; nor unless he shall also, not
later than the day of publication thereof in this orany
foreign country, deliver at the office of the Librarian
of Congress, or deposit in the mail within the United
States addressed to the Librarian of Congress at
Washington, D. C., two copies of such copyright
book or other printed product on which a copy-
right is desired, or if it be a painting or drawing,
or other work of the fine arts, or a design for a wor
of the fine arts, a photograph of the same; and to
render the copyright defendable he must insert in
the several copies of every edition of the work pub-
lished, on the title-page or the page immediately
following, if it be a book, or if any other copyright-
able work on some visible portion thereof, a copy-

ight notice, which notice may be in the following
words: ‘Copyright 18... y A....B...'3
and he must also send to the Librarian of ee
a copy of every subsequent edition of his k

wherein substantial changes have been made; and
in ease of the failure of the proprietor of any copy-
right to deliver to the Librarian of Congress the
books or other articles as herein specified for the
completion of said copyright, he shall be liable to a
penalty of twenty-five dollars, to be collected by
the Librarian of Congress in an action in the dis-

trict court of the United States,
Copies of books, photographs, chromos, and litho-
= deposited for copyright purposes must have
n printed from type set within the limits of the

' United States, or from plates (whether electrotypes,

negatives, drawings on stone, or transfers) made _
therefrom ; and in case of the renewal of the copy- .

right by the author or his widow or children as pro- ;

vided, the printed title of the book or other work, *
together with the two copies of the same, or the
photograph if it be a work of the fine arts, must be
again deposited with the Librarian of Congress as
in the case of the first copyright, the said deposit
to be made within six months aes the expiration
of the first copyright ; and the party securing the
renewal must within two months from the date of
said renewal cause a copy of the record thereof to
be published in one or more newspapers printed in
the United States for the space of four weeks, and
shall comply with all other regulations the same as
in the case of original copyrights.

The fees of the Librarian of Congress are: (1) For
recording the title or description of any copyright
book or other article, fifty cents ; or in the case of
the description of a production of a person not a citi-
zen or resident of the United States, onedollar. (2)
Every copy of such record, fifty cents. (3) Record-
ing any instrument for the assignment, one dollar.
(4) Every copy of such assignment, one dollar.

See G. H. Putnam, The Question of Copyright (New
York, 1891 ; new ed. 1896) ; works by Scrutton, Copinger,
Shortt, Bowker, and A. Birrell (1 ; and Constant’s
Code Général des Droits d Auteur (1888).

Coquelin, BENoIT ConsTANT, actor, born in
1841 at Boulogne, admitted to the Conservatoire in
1859, and made his début at the ThéAtre Francais,
7th December 1860, as Gros-René in the Dépit
Amoureux. After a quarter-century of unbroken
success, in classical pieces, in réles created by him-
self, and in the broader aspects of comedy, he left
the ThéAtre Francais in 1886, appeared in London
in 1887, and in South America and the United
States in 1888.

Coquerel, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES, an
eloquent minister of the French Reformed Church,
was born in Paris in 1795. He studied theology at
Montauban, and became in 1818 minister of the
French church in Amsterdam, but came to Paris in
1830, on the invitation of Cuvier, and preached here
until his death, 20th January 1868. In 1848 he
was elected a delegate to the National Assembl
by the department of the Seine. His writings, ¢
marked by earnestness and liberal sympathies, in-
elude a reply to Strauss (1841), six collections of
sermons (1842-56), and Christologie (1858).—His
son, ATHANASE JOSUE LAURENT, also a Protestant

tor of liberal tendencies, was born at Amster-
ata in 1820. A still more ‘advanced’ theologian
than his father, he found himself at variance with
the Protestant Consistory and the predominating
influence of Guizot in his somewhat rigidly ortho-
dox old age. He died at Fismes, in Marne, 25th
July 1875. Among his works were an edition of
Voltaire’s letters on toleration (1863), and Jean
Calas et sa Famille (1857).

Coquilla Nut, the fruit of a Brazilian palm,
Attalea funifera. On account of their large size
(3 to 4 inches long) and the hard texture and beau-
tiful mottling of their dark brown endosperm, they
are imported by button-makers and turners.

470 COQUIMBO

CORAL

Coquimbo, also called LA SERENA, capital of
a province of Chili, stands near the mouth of the
river Coquimbo, on three terraces. is a hand-
some town, with anew cathedral, seminary, lyceum,
and hospital. Pop. 14,000. The port of Coquimbo
is on a bay, 6 miles SW., and has a Le Sa epee of
5000. It exports copper, silver, and manganese
ores, wool, cattle, hay, and cobalt.—The province
of Coquimbo occupies the entire breadth of the
country from the sea to the Andes. Its area is
12,855 sq. m.; pop. (1885) 176,244. The rainfall is
small, save in the south, where some farming is
carried on. The main occupation is mining of
copper, as also silver and gold. See CHILI.

Coqui'to (Jubea ectabilis), a beautiful
Chilian palm, of which the sap is boiled down as
syrup (miél de palma).

Coracias. See ROLLER.

Coracle, CuRRACH, or CouRACH (Celt. corwg,
curach ; Lat. euruca, carrocium, carabus), the name
given in the British Islands to a canoe or boat made
of a slender frame of wood or wicker-work, and
covered with skins. Skiffs of this sort, as well as
canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oaks, were
in use among the Britons in the earliest times of
which we have record. Julius Cesar, who built
some of them after the British model, tells us that
the keel and gunwales were of light wood, and the
sides of wicker covered with
hides. The first occurrence
of the name seems to be
in Gildas, who wrote in the
6th century; he speaks of
the coracle as in use amon
the Scots and the Picts.
long voyage in the North
Sea, made in a coracle, dur-
ing the same century, by
one of the companions of
St Columba, is commemo-
rated by Adamnan, who
died in 704. In 878 three
Irish missionaries sailed in
a coracle from Ireland to
Cornwall; the voyage occu-
pied seven days; and the
size of the coracle is in-
dicated by the remark that it was one of two skins
and a half. An old Life of St Patrick speaks of a
coracle ‘of one skin, with neither helm nor oar.’
The coracle of a larger size had a mast and sail.
The coracle, often now covered with tarpaulin, is
still used. on the Severn, the Dee, and on the
Trish coast (Clare and Donegal). The last coracle
known to have been used in Scotland is in the
museum at Elgin. It was employed on the Spey
towards the end of the 18th century. Shaw’s His-
tory of Moray (1775) describes the coracle, which
had then become rare, as ‘oval in shape, near 3 feet
broad and 4long; asmall keel running from the head
to the stern; a few ribs placed across the keel, and a

Coracle.

ring of pliable wood around the lip of the machine..,

The whole is covered with the rough hide of an ox
or a horse; the seat is in the middle; it carries but
one person, or, if a second goes into it to be wafted
over a river, he stands behind the rower, leaning
on his shoulders. In floating timber, a rope is
fixed to the float, and the rower holds it in one
hand, and with the other manages the paddle. He
keeps the float in deep water, and brings it to shore
when he will. In returning home, he carries the
machine on his shoulders, or on a horse.’ One who
figures in the Dunciad—Aaron Hill the poet—by
showing the Strathspey Highlanders how to make
their timber into a navigable raft, hastened the
disappearance of the coracle from Scotland. A
boat of bison skin, essentially the same with the

British coracle, is in use among some of the Indians
of North America.

Coracoid, an important paired-bone in the
breast-girdle, forming along with the scapula the
articulation for the fore-limb, anc always lying
ventrally. In the lower fishes the entire girdle is
cartilaginous ; in the bony fishes distinct coracoids
first appear; they are well seen in Amphibia and
in all reptiles except snakes; they are very large ©
and strong in birds; but become mere processes of
the scapula in mammals. They very often exhibit
a special anterior portion known as the pre-
coracoid. See BIRD, SKELETON, Huxley’s Anatomy
of the Vertebrates, and such comparative anatomy
text-books as those of Gegenbaur and Wiedersheim
(translated by Professors Bell and Parker).

Corais (Fr. Coray), ADAMANTIOS, a learned
Hellenist, was born at Smyrna, 27th April 1748.
He early abandoned hereditary mercantile pursuits
to devote himself to letters at Paris, where he
lived till his death, 6th April 1833. He published
editions of many ancient Greek authors, as the
Aithiopica of Heliodorus, and laboured all his life
to promote Greek learning and the feeling for
Greek patriotism. His Atakta, ou Mélanges sur
la Littérature Grecque Moderne (5 vols. Paris,
1828-35) is a work of great value. His auto-
biography was published at Paris in 1829-33; his
papers and letters at Athens (8 vols. 1881-91). See
Koraés, a monograph by Thereianos (Trieste, 1891).

Coral, a term loosely applied to any animal in
the class Coelenterata which forms a hard skeleton.
The tubular organ-pipe coral, the noble or red coral
of commerce, and the reef-building madrepore corals,
are familiar examples. Presuming an acquaintance
with the general features of the class, as summed
up in the article C@LENTERATA, we may notice
at the outset the fact that the formation of hard

«supporting structures is exhibited in very varied ~

degrees, in manifold styles of architecture, and in
widely separated forms.

Different Kinds of Coral.—(1) Among _ the
Hydrozoa the skeletal investment of the polyp

Fig. 1.
A, branch of Dendrophyllia; B, part of a stock of red coral,
with ( a) fully extended polyp, and (0, b) two polyps, partly
extended.

types, when present, is usually horny. In one
subdivision, however, the supporting framework is
limy, and to these forms—Millepores (q.v.) and
Stylasterids—the title Hydrocorallina is fitly
applied, (2) It is, however, in the other sub-class

¥
.

ee a

a Se

axis of f

_ "The most

CORAL 471

of Celenterates—the Actinozoa—that the formation
of coral structure becomes emphasised and per-
fected. In many simple and in most colonial

_ forms, a skeleton is formed, as isolated spicules or

continuous. When continuous it may horny,
or limy with an organic basis, or to all appear-
ance entirely limy. (a) Among the Alcyonaria,
of which Alcyonium (q.v.) is a convenient type,
Tubipora, with the spicules united to form tu
and crossing platforms ; Corallium, with a branched
pond spicules; Isis, with a jointed axis
alternately limy and horny; Heliopora, with limy
cups inclosing the individual animals, and traversed
as they grow by successive horizontal floors at
slight intervals, are examples of different forms of
coral occurring in distinct groups. (6) Among the
Zoantharia, of which Actinia or any sea-anemone
is a familiar example, the Actiniaria have no
skeleton, and therefore include no coral forms ; the
Antipatharia have a varied non-caleareous sup-
porting skeleton, and include some forms known
as ‘black corals ;’ the third subdivision, the Madre-
raria, always have a continuous limy skeleton,
and include the best-developed corals. Most madre-
pores are colonial, and the common connecting
skeleton is either solid (apart from mere gaps) or
perforated by canals which establish community
of life between the individual members. Hence it
is usual to distinguish two sections of Madrepores
as Aporosa and Perforata. (3) The earliest corals
of Paleozoic strata—the Rugosa or Tetracoralla—
are distinguished by four primary partitions.
General Structure.—In discussing further the
general structure, it will be convenient to leave the
widely separated Hydrocorallina out of account.
neral fact that can be stated at the
outset is, that with the sible exception of the
sea-pens, the cells which form the skeleton are at
least originally epidermic. Free spicules, con-
nected lattice works, solid cups, illustrate various
degrees of lime deposition ; while supporting axes,
ensheathing tubes, and what look like tolerably
complete casts of
theentireanimal,
are the main
types of coral
architecture. In
detail, however,
those main types
vary widely, and
in the eup-corals
especially, the
structure is often
verycomplex. In
a simple madre-
pore coral, repre-
senting a single
individual, the
following struc-
tures are at once

Fig. ac arprmariie Deemer hate obvious. The
_ indivi main cup-like
mass, known as

the theca, is usually attached by its base to,

some foreign object. A terminal depression—
the calyx—contains the animal, the soft parts of
which extend more or less over the lips. Within
the cup, when the animal has died away, radial

artitions are seen, forming various systems of septa,

ome of these often meet in the middle of the cup
to form a central pillar or columella. When the
coral is colonial, as is generally the case, complica-
tions arise by the fusion of individuals. The deeper

ae of growing corals are sometimes separated off

y cross itions (tabule@), but this is rare in-the
Zoantharia. In large masses of madrepore certain
portions of the skeleton are often left behind by
the animals, and being exposed to the water,

become corroded and altered. In regard to the
development of corals, it is hardly possible yet to
make any useful general statements. For the
animals themselves, it must be enough here to
refer to the articles on ALCYONIUM and ANEMONE,
which, though not themselves ‘corals,’ are good
examples of the two sub-classes to which most
corals belong.

General Life.—Corals are predominantly passive
forms, and are much modified by their environ-
ment (currents, &c.); the great majority are

rmanently fixed, except in embryonic life.

labellum may be noted as an instance of a coral-
cup which becomes free as an adult. The limy
material which forms the skeleton seems, in many
cases at anyrate, to be derived not from the water,
but from the minute animals which constitute the
food. The great majority are colonial, yet cases of
division of labour are very rare. Many corals are
richly coloured, but the meaning of the numerous
pigments is still imperfectly known. Masses of
corals furnish browsing ground for crowds of
animals, not a few of which intrude into the
colonies, while others have become established
parasites. Some corals also include parasitic ©
Alge (see SYMBIOSIS). Semper describes some
very interesting cases of the constant association of
worms and corals, and notes how the guest has per-
manently modified the host (see COMMENSALISM ).
It is interesting to notice, apart from actual modi-
fication of form, how various worm-organisms act
upon the ‘sea-meadows of coral’ much as earth-
worms do upon land-meadows (see Huxley’s Jnverte-
brates, p. 171).

In most corals the sexes are separate, and even
the colonies may be entirely male or female. In
Corallium, hermaphrodites may occur, or different
branches be of either sex. As is common in sessile
passive organisms, asexual or vegetative reproduc-
tion is a marked feature. Semper considers the
budding of the Fungia colony as illustrating
‘alternation of generations.’

Distribution.—Of the madrepore corals, the
‘solitary’ forms, which never form great masses,
are for the most part widely distributed deep-sea
animals, while the reef-builders are as markedly
dwellers in shallow water, from the low-tide mark
to about 20 fathoms, and are limited to warm
waters. They are not found on the western coasts
of Africa and America. In the waters of the
Central Pacific reef-corals are found in greatest
) aacoere and variety ; but those of the Red Sea,

ndian Ocean, and East Indies are not far behind.
Over eighty fossil genera of the Palwozoic Rugosa
are known, and of the other Actinozoan corals,
about 1800 fossil, and as many living species. Of
these, the vast majority are madrepores, and only
a small number Aleyonarian. Both sets begin in
Silurian times, but were for long outnumbered by
the Rugosa. Most existing genera date only from
the Tertiary period. The ‘areas of past distribu-
tion of coral-reefs in no way correspond with those
distinctive of the modern seas.’ See Heilprin, Dis-
tribution of Animals (1887).

Important Forms.—The most important corals
are the reef-builders (Porites, &c.). The delicate
colour, exquisite architecture, and rae ee a
complexity make the limy skeletons utiful
objects. Yet more beautiful, however, is the
wealth of colour often exhibited by the living
forms. Caryophyllia is a simple and_ solitary
cup-coral found on the south coast of England.
Bathyactis and Deltocyathus are almost world-
wide. Antipathes—the black coral—has a valu-
able hard axis like ebony. Fungia is worth notin
on account of its flat mushroom-like shape an
Semper’s observation (see above) in regard to
alternation of generations; among Alcyonarian

472

CORAL

forms may be noted the blue coral (Heliopora
cerulea) of many Pacific coral-reefs, the horny and
beautifully coloured sea-fan Lworponta flabellum),
and the familiar organ-pipe coral ( Z'ubipora musica).

More important, however, in practical interest is
the red coral (Coralliuwm rubrum) of commerce. In
this coral the limy spicules are fused to form the
familiar solid axis. The most important banks
are those of Algiers and Tunis, and off the Sar-
dinian, Sicilian, and Balearic islands. Gredt
quantities are fished near Naples, and at Sciacca
in Sicily. The coral is roughly dredged, freed
from its rind, assorted according to colour, and
manufactured in Naples, Leghorn, Genoa, &c.
Pale rose-coloured coral, not spoilt by the boring of
worms and other intruders, has fetched £12, 10s.
per ounce. The industry is a very important one,
though in recent years it has seriously declined.
The most important markets are in Asia, Africa,
parts of Russia, Japan, and South America.

CoRAL ISLANDS is the name given to certain
low islets which are composed for the most part of
the calcareous skeletons of various kinds of corals.
An atoll or typical coral island consists of a some-
what ring-shaped reef inclosing a lagoon. Such reefs
vary in size sie less than a mile up to 90 miles
long and may be 10 miles wide—the breadth of the
annular reef being on an average about a quarter
of a mile. Barrier-reefs, which have a similar
breadth, are found surrounding islands or bordering
mainlands, from which they are separated by a
navigable channel. /ringing-reefs, on the other
hana, extend outwards from the shore, with no
separating lagoon-channel. In the case of atolls
and barrier-reefs there is generally a navigable
passage through the reef into the lagoon or lagoon-
channel, which is kept open by the scour of the tide.
It is upon atolls or barrier-reefs that islands occur.
Only very rarely, however, are these islands co-
extensive with the reef—generally they appear as
longer or shorter belts, forming a series of islets
straggling along itssurface. As reef-building corals
do not flourish in water having a lower temperature
than 68° F., they are necessarily restricted to tropi-
cal and subtropical seas—from many regions of
which, however, they are excluded by the presence
of cold currents coming from extra-tropical lati-
tudes, by the muddy character of the water oppo-
site the mouths of large rivers, and by other causes.

The rock of a coral-reef is a white limestone com-
posed chiefly of masses of corals, coral debris, and
sand, together with the hard parts of molluses,
echinoderms, bryozoans, and calcareous alge. Not
infrequently this rock has been changed by the
chemical action of percolating water into a compact
or crystalline mass, which has lost all, or nearly
all, trace of its organic structure. Chamisso (q.v.,
known also as a poet), the naturalist who accom-
panied Kotzebue the Russian navigator in his
voyage of discovery into the South Sea in 1815-18,
appears to have been the first to show how such
reefs are converted into dry land. He describes
how the polyps cease to grow when they reach
the surface of the sea, and how the reef, exposed
at low-tide, by and by becomes disintegrated,
while broken coral debris is heaped up by the
action of the breakers so as eventually to form
a high bank which can only be covered during
spring-tides. This bank of coral blocks and debris
solidifies in time, and remains exposed to the fierce
heat of the sun, so that the mass shrinks and
cracks, and flakes are detached from it, and raised
one upon another by each returning tide. ‘The
always active surf throws blocks of coral ( frequently
of a fathom in length and 3 or 4 feet thick) and
shells of marine animals between and upon the
foundation-stones; after this the caleareous sand
lies undisturbed, and offers to the seeds of trees

and perwoes cast upon it by the waves a soil upom
which they rapidly grow to overshadow its dazzling
white surface. ntire trunks of trees, which are
carried by the rivers from other countries and
islands, find here at length a resting-place after
their long wanderings: with these come small
animals, such as lizards and insects, as the first.
inhabitants. Even before the trees form a wood,
the real sea-birds nestle here; strayed land-birds.
take refuge in the bushes; and at a much later
period, when the work has been long since com-
leted, man also appears, builds his hut on the
ruitful soil formed by the corruption of the leaves
of the trees, and calls himself lord and proprietor
of this new creation.’ According to Professor L.,
Agassiz, the large blocks torn off by the breakers
are loosened not by shrinkage under the sun’s heat,
as Chamisso supposed, but by the innumerable
perforations of various boring molluses.

The origin of coral-reefs is a question which has.
at various times given rise to discussion. Accord-.
ing to Chamisso, the corals commenced to grow on
shoals in the sea—on the tops of submarine moun-
tains in short. The circular form of the atoll and
its basin-shaped lagoon he believed to be due to the
natural growth of the coral. The most vigorous.
growth took place upon the outward edges of the
reef, where the largest and most massive corals-
flourished. In the interior the coral growth was
hindered by the accumulation of shells, coral
debris, and sand swept forward by the waves. The
reef, therefore, as it approached the surface would
gradually assume a basin-shape—the outer edges,
or peripheral and actively growing portion, forming
the reef—the interior part, where growth was
retarded or prevented by sediment, &c., forming
the lagoon. Other writers attempted to account
for the annular form of atolls by supposing that the
reefs had grown upwards from the crests of sub-
marine volcanic craters. The not infrequent oecur-
rence of voleanoes and volcanic islands in the corah
regions of the Pacific Ocean was thought to favour
this supposition, but the enormous diameter of
many atolls seemed to preclude the possibility that
these larger atolls, at all events, asi be founded on
the lips of submarine craters. And when at length
it was discovered that reef-building corals flourish
only in comparatively shallow water, this hypo
thesis was rejected, since it was extremely unlikely
that so many submarine volcanic mountains should
rear their summits just to the limits within which
the corals could begin their superstructures.

Darwin, during the famous voyage of the
Beagle, was naturally fascinated by the problem of
the origin of these remarkable reefs, and while he
admitted that certain atolls might very likely have
been formed in the manner described y Chamisso,,
yet he could not believe it possible that a broad
mountain-summit lay buried at the depth of a few
fathoms beneath every atoll, and nevertheless that
throughout the immense areas occupied by many
of those reefs not one point of rock should project
above the surface. The theory of subsidence which
he subsequently advanced seemed to account for
all the phenomena, and until recently it com-
manded nearly universal assent. According to
Darwin, each atoll has passed through the succes-
sive stages of fringing-reef and barrier-reef. Since
reef-building corals do not thrive at greater depths
than 100 feet or thereabout, it is evident that the
foundations of a coral reef could not have been laid
in deeper water. And as such moderate depths
occur only round islands and off the shores of con-
tinents, the reef-builders would begin their work
by forming at first a fringing-reef. Slow subsid-
ence of the sea-bottom is supposed to have super-
vened ; but while the foundations were being carried
down, the corals continued to grow upwards, the

CORAL

CORAL FISHES 473

rising of the reef keeping pace with the sinking of
the sea-bottom. Thus by-and-by the fringing-reef
is converted into a barrier-reef. We have now only
to sup that the movement of subsidence and
the labours of the corals continue until the reef-
encircled island disa below the waves, and a
complete atoll will the final result, Darwin’s
views were illustrated and strongly supported by
Professor J. D. Dana, who accompanied the Wilkes
explorin a round the world in 1838-42,
while MM. Couthouy and Beete Jukes likewise
upheld the hypothesis of subsidence. The re-
searches of Professors L. Agassiz and Le Conte
amongst the reefs of Florida have shown that
Darwin’s views are there inapplicable. They
attribute the formation of the southern portion
of Florida, which consists of a series of concentric
barrier-reefs, to the natural growth of the coral
alone aided by the mechanical action of the sea—
a view which, stated posal. is the same as that
held by Chamisso. Professor Karl Semper like-
wise, after examining the reefs of the Pelew Islands,
came to the conclusion that the form of these reefs
had been determined by the natural growth of the
corals, modified by local conditions, which is just
Chamisso’s explanation. But Darwin had already
expressly stated that some reefs might have origin-
ated in the manner suggested by Chamisso; and
geologists apparently recognised that the conditions
of the great Florida reef were hardly analogous to
the isolated atolls which rise from profound depths
in the open ocean.

In 1880, however, Dr (afterwards Sir) John
Murray of the Challenger expedition, published
another explanation which has given rise to con-
siderable discussion. He returns to the old views
of Chamisso, maintaining that reefs have grown up
from the tops of submerged and partially sub-
merged banks and mountains. To the objection
that it is hard to believe that so many banks and
cones should occur just at the proper depth from
the surface, Dr Murray replies that it is not
necessary to suppose that all the submarine emin-
ences were of equal or nearly equal height. Some
maf have risen at first above the level of the sea,
and subsequently have been reduced by the waves
and breakers to the condition of shoals; while
others that did not reach to the limits within which
reef-builders live may have been brought up to that
zone by the accumulation upon them of the hard

rts of pelagic organisms. For these forms of life

ourish in extraordinary numbers in the surface-
waters of the tropics where reefs abound, and as
they die, their hard parts falling to the bottom will
accumulate there along with the exuvie of creatures
living at such depths, until they come to form con-
siderable deposits. This levelling-up of submarine
banks to the zone within which coral-builders
thrive is the most marked feature in Dr Murray’s
hypothesis. His further account of the mode in
which atolls and barrier-reefs have been formed is
a more particular and scientific development of
Chamisso’s explanation. The growth of a reef is
regulated by the food-supply of the corals; those

owing on the external parts of the reef are most
avourably placed in this respect, consequently
they thrive best, and have the advantage over those
that are growing in the centre of the reef; and this
difference in the rate of pawn of the outer and
inner areas will be intensified as the reef approaches
the surface. Eventually the corals of. the interior
die, and the dead coral rock is gradually removed
by the solvent action of the sea-water which
contains carbonic acid. In this manner the
reef assumes a basin-shaped form. Fringing-reefs,
according to Dr Murray, are converted into barrier-
reefs by the simple outward growth of the coral
upon a talus of its own debris, forced off from the

edge of the reef by the breakers. The lagoon-
channel that eventually separates the reef from the
land is formed in the same way as the lagoon of an
atoll—namely, by the dissolution and removal of
dead coral rock. Professor A. Agassiz published
in 1882 an account of his detailed examination of
the Tortugas and the Florida reefs, in which he
shows how the bottom of the sea in those regions
has been gradually raised by the accumulation of
the exuviz and skeletons of massive organisms
which flourish in prodigious numbers on the sea-
floor, forming the submarine plateaus known as the
Florida, Yucatan, and San Pedro banks. He thinks
it is by the gradual upward growth of such aceumu-
lations that the sea-bottom was eventually raised
to the zone in which reef-builders thrive. ite thus
arrived independently at the same general con-
clusion as Dr Murray.

As recently as 1887 Dr Guppy (q.v.) has given
the result of his investigations in the Solomon
Islands, and has vigorously supported the hypo-
thesis advocated by Murray. He shows that in
those islands we have elevated reefs which exhibit
the very structure which we should expect to
find if the new view of coral-reef structure is
correct. He found some of those islands largely
composed of earthy calcareous deposits having the
same character and origin as the various volcanic
muds and organic oozes which the Challenger
expedition dredged at depths varying from 100 to

fathoms. These deposits reached to heights
of over 1000 feet, and in some cases denudation had
exposed an underlying nucleus of voleanic rock.
The earthy calcareous beds were covered with a
comparatively thin crust of true coral rock. The
So escribed by Dr Guppy thus lead to the
lief that many other atolls may have a similar
structure. Dr Guppy thinks that the various
agencies insisted upon by Semper, Murray, and A.
Agassiz—such as currents and tidal scour, solution
and the distribution of food-supply, the repressive
influence of sediment and the action of the
breakers—have each played a part in determining
the form of coral reefs. To the objection that
some lagoons are deeper than the zone in which
reef-corals live, Dr Guppy replies that where the
submarine slope is moderate, the water clear, and
breakers of no ‘eo size, reef-corals may be found
flourishing at depths of 50 and even 60 fathoms.
Whether the explanation advocated by Murray and
Guppy is destined to lead to the total collapse of
Darwin’s hypothesis, is likely to remain for some
time an unsettled question—some writers holding
that while Murray’s view may be the true explana-
tion of the origin of many atolls and barrier-reefs,
it does not forbid the possibility or, as others would
say, the probability that many other reefs may
really have been formed, as Darwin supposed, dur-
ing slow subsidence of the bottom.

See CQ@LENTERATES, ANEMONE, ALCYONIUM; text-
books of Zoology—Huxley, Claus, &c.; Darwin, Dana,
Murray, Guppy, &c. on Coral-reefs, and Semper’s Animal
Life ; Moseley and Quelch Challenger Rep., vols. ii. and’
xvi.; for skeleton, Von Koch, Morphologisches Jahrbuch
(1879-86); for red coral, Lacaze-Duthiers, Histoire
Naturelle du Corail (1864); for fossil forms, Zittel’s
Paleontologie; systematic works—Dana, Zoophytes
(1848-49); Milne-Edwards and Haime, Hist. Nat. des
Coralliares (1857-60); Koren and Danielssen, Nye
Alcyonider, Gorgonider og Pennatulider (1883); Koch,
Monograph on Gorgonida (Naples Station, 1887).

Coral Fishes (Squamipennes), a name applied
to a family of bony fishes in the spiny-rayed or
Acanthopterous order. They are tropical forms,
abundant about coral-reefs, usually small, with
short, deep, often brightly coloured bodies. The
family includes the Archer-fish (q.v.), the ver
beautiful Chetodons, the genus Chelmo wit

474 CORAL FLOWER

CORBET

peonarly elongated snout, and other interesting
orms.

Coral Flower, or CorAu TREE (Erythrina),
a tropical and subtropical genus of papilionaceous
trees and shrubs, with long racemes of beautiful
flowers of a rich dull crimson or a scarlet colour,
resembling coral. Some species are thorny, and
are hence used for hedges, notably Z. coralloden-
dron in the West Indies, and £. indica in the East.
The wood is so light and spongy that it is used not
only for portable objects, such as ladders, but even
as a substitute for cork.—Jatropha multifida, a
totally different plant, of the order Euphorbiacee,
is also sometimes called Coral Tree.

Coralline (Corallina officinalis), a limy sea-
weed, exceedingly common on British coasts, where
it adds much to the beauty of the rocky pools. It
is a hardy perennial plant, and envelops the rocks
and almost any object between tide marks with its
beautiful branching fronds. In spring it appears
as a thin crust, with a fresh delicate pinkish or
purplish colour. With the increasing sunshine it
grows into prettily jointed and branched tufts,
spreading like brushwood over the surface of the
rock. Its purple colour increases in depth, till the
plant grows old and begins to die; then the bright-
ness pales, and the limy incrustation finally remains
as a white skeleton. The
purple colour soon fades on
exposure ; a bright white light
is produced by holding a piece
of the alga in a candle flame ;
an unpleasant smell lingers for

ears about the dried specimen.

he coralline was formerly re-
garded as an animal, ‘ since all
lime,’ Linnzeus said, ‘is most
truly a product of animals.’
But neither for this, nor for
its supposed medicinal (vermi-
fuge) virtues was there any
warrant. Technically, the com-
mon coralline, along with a few
other species, forms a genus of
alga in the family Corallines,
the section Rhodospermez, and the group Floridez.
Melobesia is an allied form of similar stony char-
acter. It is sometimes used for manuring fields,
and is said to have been one of the principal con-
stituents in the mortar of Iona cathedral. ‘The
name coralline is sometimes extended vaguely
to certain Zoophytes or Hydroids (q.v.). See
Landsborough’s British Seaweeds, Harvey’s Phyco-
logia Britannica, Johnston’s British Sponges and
Corallines.

Coralline Crag. See CRAG and PLIOCENE.
Coral Rag, or CORALLIAN, a group of the
ddle Oolite:

Portion of Branch of
Corallina officinalis
magnified,

(From Landsborough.)

Oxford or Mi s. See JURASSIC SYSTEM.

Coral Sea is that section of the Pacific which
stretches between Australia on the west and the
New Hebrides on the east. In 1874 the Challenger
expedition found parts of it to be 14,700 feet deep.
See PACIFIC.

Coral Snake (Zaps), small venomous snakes
in the same family (Elapide) as the Cobra (q.v.).
The typical species (Z. corallinus) frequents woods
and thickets in South America. Their very small
mouth makes them less dangerous. The usual
colour is rich red with black and yellow transverse
hands, and it is an interesting fact that besides the
venomous Elaps, at least two other genera occur
which are quite harmless. These, Mr Wallace
suggests, probably derive advantage from their
close resemblance to the venomous forms.

Coram, THOMAS, philanthropist, was born at
Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, in 1667 or 1668. He was

bred a seaman, and rose to be a merchant captain.
Already in 1694 we hear of him as settled at
Taunton, Massachusetts, and engaged in benevolent
work of various kinds. A few years after he seems
to have returned to sea, and to have settled in
London, after suffering shipwreck off Cuxhaven in
1719. In London he interested himself in the
settlement of Georgia, and in planting English
artisans in Nova Scotia; but he soon penne his
long epee for the foundation of a foundling
hospital. Children were first admitted in 1741.
Coram’s | gba was painted by Hogarth, a warm
patron of his scheme. More thoughtful for others
than for himself, Coram fell into poverty, from
which he was relieved in 1745, by an annuity of
£161 contributed by his friends. He died 29th
March 1751.

Cor Anglais, a wind-instrument of the reed
species, similar in construction to the Oboe (q.v.),
to which it has the same relation as the Becsct tae
(q.v.) has to the Clarinet (q.v.). It is usually made
in the key of F, a fifth lower than the ordinary
oboe, and has the same range—viz. from E in the
bass stave to Bh above the treble stave.

Cora’'to, a large town in Southern Italy, on
a fertile plain, 25 miles west of Bari. Pop. (1881)
30,428 ; (1891) 30,798.

Corban, properly an offering to God in fulfil-
ment of any vow. This might either be of some
possession devoted to God, redeemable by an equiv-
alent in money, or it might be a pledge to deprive
one’s self of something lawful in itself, as wine, for a
longer or shorter period. A man might so interdict
himself by vow, not only from enjoying anything
himself, but also from giving it to others, and thus
many of the old Jews juggle their consciences into
getting rid of natural responsibilities, as the sup-
port of decayed parents, and the like. It was this
miserable selfishness, under the thin garb of re-
ligious hypocrisy, that our Lord rebukes in the
Scribes and Pharisees (Matt. xv. 5; Mark, vii. 11).

Corbeil, a town in the French department of
Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 21 miles S. of Paris by
rail, with manufactures of clocks, cotton, and paper,
and large flour-mills and granaries for the supply of
Paris. Pop. (1881) 7541; (1891) 8047.

Corbel, in Architecture, a projection of stone
or wood from the face of a wall, used for supporting
pillars or other
superincumbent
weights. Corbels
proper were origin-
ally plain on the
sides and carved on

the front only.
Such . were the .
Romanesque cor-

bels, which are so
numerous and so
richly ornamented.
The carving at first
resembled the end
of wooden beams,
but gradually all
sorts of figures were
introduced, chiefly
heads of men and
animals. Corbels of great size were likewise used
to carry the projecting parapets of castles.

Corbet, RicHARD, poet and bishop, was born
in 1582, son of a gardener in Ewell, Surrey. From
Westminster School he passed to Broadgates Hall
(now Pembroke College), next to Christ Church,
Oxford. He took orders, and had already enjoyed

referments at Cassington, Oxfordshire, and Stewk-
ey, Bucks, as well as a prebend in Salisbury,

Corbel :
Kirkstall Abbey.

i

CORBEY

CORDOBA 475

when in 1620 he was made Dean of Christ Church
at thirty-seven. In 1624 he was appointed to the
see of Oxford, and translated to that of Norwich
in 1632. Here he died in 1635, and was buried in
his cathedral. Corbet’s poney reflects the cheer-
ful and genial temper of the man. His longest
iece is /ter B é, an account of the holiday-
ur of four students ; the best, as well as the best
known, is the Fairies’ Farewell. Corbet was famous
throughout life for his conviviality and wit.
Corbey, or Corpiz. See Corvet.
Corbie-steps, or CRow-sTEps, the stepped
slopes of gables. This is a Scottish term, derived
no doubt from
the corbelled
or projectin
character 0
the steps, and
afterwards
corrupted in-
to crow-steps
from the re-
semblance of
corbelled to
corbie or crow.
The origin of
this mode of
finishing a
gable prob-
ably arose
from the steps
used for pass-
ing from one
Corbie-steps, from a house formerly side of the
in the Gasle-wied, Edinburgh. roof to another
defending the passage bei a to poke
efending the p ing s in conformit,
with the slope of the stairs. haw-ebeps were the
almost invariable finish of Scottish gables from
the 14th to the 17th century, and they were also
much used on the Continent, especially in the Low
Countries. /
_ Cor’chorus, a genus of Tiliacew. C. olitorius
is widely diffused in tropical countries, being cul-
tivated both as a pot-herb (Jew’s Mallow) and
on account of its fibre. More important, however,
in the latter respect, is the closely allied C. capsu-
laris, which has long been cultivated for its fibre
in China (‘Chinese Hemp’); also in India for
making Gunny Bags (q.v.), and is now of great
importance in European manufactures as Jute
(q.v.). The Japanese shrub, common in gardens
on account of its pretty double yellow flowers,
and still frequently called by gardeners C. japoni-
cus, really belongs to the Spirea family ab en
ce, and is correctly known as Kerria japonica.
Coreyra is the ancient name for Corfu (q.v.).
Corday d’Armans, MARIE CHARLOTTE,
known as CHARLOTTE CORDAY, was born at St
Saturnin, near Sées (Orne), 27th July 1768. The
descendant of a noble family, with Corneille’s blood
in her veins, she yet welcomed the Revolution, for
from Voltaire she had imbibed ‘ philosophic’ theories,
from Plutarch ideas of antique heroism. But she
was horrified at the monstrosities of the Jacobins ;
and her hatred of their acts was intensified by
converse with a party of proscribed Girondists,
who had fled to Caen in Normandy. She resolved
to rid her country of one of the heads of the
Jacobins, and came with that view to Paris.
Whether to slay Robespierre or Marat was
an open. question; but while she debated the
matter with herself, a demand of the latter for
two hundred thousand more victims, marked him
out for her weapon. ‘Twice she failed to obtain an
audience, but on the evening of 13th July 1793 she
was admitted on the plea that she had important

news from Caen to communicate. She found Marat
in his bath, and her pretended denunciation of the
fugitive Girondists, some of whom were her own
friends, called forth the remark: ‘They shall re-
ceive their reward; I will have them all guillo-
tined at Paris.’ Straightway she drove her knife
to his heart ; he died with a stifled ery. Charlotte
was at once arrested, and brought before the Re-
volutionary Tribunal, where she gloried in the act.
In the Conciergerie she sat to the artist Hauer;
on the evening of 17th July she was guillotined.
The executioner held up her head to the multitude,
and slapped it; in the sunset the beautiful dead
face seemed to blush. See works on her by Vatel
(3 vols. 1872), Mrs Van Alstine (1889), and R.
Focke (1895); also Austin Dobson’s Four French-
women (1890).

Cordeliers (‘cord-wearers’), the name applied
in France to the strictest branch (see OBSERY-
ANTISTS) of the Franciscans on account of their
wearing a girdle of knotted cord. During the
Revolution the name was applied to the members
of a political club which was instituted in 1790, and
assembled in the chapel of a Franciscan monastery.
Its leaders included Danton, Hébert, Camille
Desmoulins, and Marat, and for a time it rivalled
the more famous club of the Jacobins (q. v.). The
height of its influence was the period of Camille
Desmoulins’ journal, Le Vieux Cordelier. Soon
after the fall of Danton, the Cordelier club lost its
influence, and it was insignificant when closed by
the Convention in August 1795.

Corderius, the Latinised name of Mathurin
Cordier, grammarian, born in Normandy in 1478,
who taught at Paris (where he had Calvin for a

upil), and, becoming a Protestant, settled at

eneva. There he died, famous as a skilful teacher
of youth, on the 8th September 1564. He wrote a
long series of grammatical works, of which the
best known throughout Europe was the Colloquia
Scholastica (1564).

Cordia’cez are simply drupaceous Boragin-
ace. Some species are valued for their fruit,
others for their timber.

Cordierite, Dicurorre, or IoLIrTE, a natural
silicate of magnesia, alumina, and ferric oxide. I
erystallises in stout orthorhombic prisms, and is of
various shades of blue, sometimes with a tinge of
gray or brown. It exhibits the property of dichroism
very clearly, often appearing deep blue when
viewed in the direction of the vertical axis, but red
or yellow when seen by transmitted light at right
angles to that direction. Be

Cordille’ras (lit. ‘chains’) a name applied in
America to various chains of mountains. The
Cordilleras of South America are described under
ANDES; and the Rocky Mountains are the Cor-
dilleras of North America. Those of Central
America extend from Darien to the north of
Mexico. See AMERICA, MEXICO.

Cordite, asmokeless powder (see GUN-COTTON)
invented eo sie Frederick Augustus Abel, and used
in the British Army since 1889, is made of a mix-
ture of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, and vaseline ;
and is named from its string-like or cord-like ap-
pearance. See RIFLEs.

Cordoba, in Spain. See CorDOovA.

Cor’doba, a central province of the Argentine
Republic, mostly pampa He rising to the Sierras
de Cordoba and de Pocho in the west. Area,
55,350 sy. m. ; pop. 380,000. Cattle-raising is the
chief industry. The climate is healthy, but very
dry; the temperature ranges from 18° to 107° F.—
The capital, Cordoba, lies 246 miles WNW. of
Rosario by rail. It has over 10 miles of tramways,
a cathedral, a handsome city-hall, the old university

476 CORDOBA

COREA

building, with walls from 4 to 6 feet thick, a
national observatory, and noble baths. The uni-
versity (1613) sank greatly after the expulsion of
the Jesuits (1767), until in 1870 several German
professors settled here. The town possesses also a
national college, a school of art, and an academy
of sciences, which publishes a valuable Boletin.
Founded by Cabrera in 1573, the town was
famous during the Spanish occupation as a seat
of learning and the centre of the Jesuit missions
in South America. It was afterwards falling into
decay, but the opening of the railway in 1870, with
the transit trade which this brought, has greatly
restored its prosperity. In the hot months of
December, January, and February, however, the
place is a very trying residence. Pop. (1869) about
28,500 ; (1895) 42,700. ;

Cor’doba, a town of Mexico, 66 miles WSW.
of Vera Cruz by rail, in a fruitful valley, 3045 feet
above the sea. Formerly important, it sank greatly
after the revolution; but in later years it has in
some degree recovered its trade. It is surrounded
by rich coffee-plantations. Pop. about 12,000.

Cordon, in military operations, is a line of
sentries within sight of each other inclosing or
guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent
the passage of unauthorised persons. If intended
to guard against contagious diseases, it is called a
cordon sanitaire.

Cordon Bleu, originally the ‘blue ribbon’
which in France supported the insignia of the Order
of the Holy Ghost; but playfully transferred to
good cooks, who after examination received a
medal, also suspended from a ‘ blue ribbon.’

Cor’dova, or CORDOBA, a city of Spain, capital
of the prevince of Cordova, 81 miles ENE. of
Seville by rail. It stands on the right bank of the
Guadalquivir, here crossed by the Moorish ‘ Puente
Viejo’ of sixteen arches, and occupies a slope con-
nected with the Sierra Morena. The old turreted
walls inclose gardens and vineyards; but the
interior shows narrow and dirty streets. Cordova
was from the 9th to the close of the 12th century a
Moorish town of the first rank, renowned for its rich
mosques and palaces, and still more for its uni-
versity. Among the principal buildings is the cathe-
dral, built as a mosque in the 8th century, the most
magnificent Mohammedan temple in Europe, and
converted (1236) into a Christian church. Cordova
was at one time celebrated for its manufacture of
goat leather, called cordovan, whence the term
cordwain, but that industry is now almost entirely

one from it. Cordovan, still prepared in the

evant, is used in bookbinding and for finer boots
and shoes. Cordova has a bishop’s palace, a lyceum,
a theatre, a fine casino, museum, &e. It manufac-
tures silverware, silk fabrics, paper hats, &c.
Called by the Carthaginians the ‘gem of the
south,’ Cordova was (152 B.c.) founded by the
Romans as Corduba. Taken by the Goths in the
6th century, it fell (711) to the Moors, in whose
hands it remained till 1236, when Ferdinand ITI.
of Castile struck it a blow from which it has never
recovered. In 1808 Cordova was taken and plun-
dered by the French. Cordova was the birthplace
of the poet Lucan, and the philosophers Seneca and
Averroés. Pop. (1895) 57,450.—The province of
Cordova has an area of 5190 sq. m., and a pop. of
420,000. See ANDALUSIA.

Corduroy, a ribbed kind of fustian, a cotton
stuff made after the fashion of velvet. See
FUSTIAN.

Corea (native name Chosén, ‘Morning Calm’),
a kingdom on the east coast of Asia, stretching as
a peninsula from 34° 30’ to 43° N. lat., and from 124°
30° to 130° 30’ E. long., between the Sea of Japan

and the Yellow Sea, and separated by the Strait
of Corea from the Japanese Islands. _ It has a coast-
line of about 1740 miles, and a total area of about
90,000 sq. m. The north boundary line is formed
by the river Tu-man flowing north-east, and the
Am-nok flowing south-west from the watershed of
Paik-to-san. The Tu-man, for the last 5 miles of
its course, separates Russian Asia from Corea. A
belt of land, 5600 sq. m., on the north side has for
the last three centuries been constituted a neutral
zone between Corea and Manchuria, but is now
being gradually encroached upon both from the
Chinese and Corean side. The east coast is high,
monotonous, and but slightly indented, with very
few islands and harbours. The south and west
shores are deeply and manifoldly scooped, and beset
by numberless picturesque islands. From these
island-fringed shores, especially on the west coast,
mud-banks extend out to sea beyond sight. While
the tide on the east coast is very slight—only 2 feet
at Gensan—it increases on the south and west coast ©
in a north direction, rising to 33 feet at Chemulpo.
The rapid rise and fall of tides and the vast area of
mud left bare at low-water cause frequent fogs,
and render the numerous inlets little available
except for native craft. On the west coast the
rivers are frozen in winter, but the east coast
is open the whole winter through. Quelpart, the
largest island, 40 by 17 miles, lies 60 miles S. of
the mainland. Port Hamilton, between Quelpart
and Corea, was for a time an English possession,
but in 1886 was given to China. The Russians
have been credited with a desire to possess the
magnificent harbour of Port Lazareff on the Corean
mainland. See the map of CHINA.

Occupying about the same latitude as Italy,
Corea is also like Italy hemmed in on the north b
alpine ranges, and traversed from north to sout
by a branch chain. From the north the chain runs
oleae to the coast, till, about the 37th parallel, it
trends inland. The chain rises in elevation from
the north to the centre, throwing out feelers to the
west which break up the country into a series of
narrow valleys debouching on the sea. Precipitous
on the east, the chain slopes towards the broader
west side, which is accordingly the more developed
part; though Kyéng-sang province in the south-
east is one of the richest in Cares. Corea is on the
whole very mountainous. Among the summits are
Hien-fung, measured from sea at 8114 feet high,
though later travellers deem this height an exagger-
ation; Mount Popoff, at 37th parallel; Coxcomb,
north-east of Seoul (Séul), rises to 4800 feet. The
mountains are mostly of primary rock; those of
Hwang-hai-do are, however, mesozoic, and about
the centre are lava and voleanic rocks. The chief
rivers on the west coast are Keum, navigable for
boats drawing 44 feet 30 miles up; Han, navigable
to a little above Seoul, 80 miles; Tai-dong, navi-
gable to Phyéng-yang, 75 miles; Am-nok, far the

reatest, navigable to above Wi-wén, 175 miles.

lowing through beautiful well-timbered moun-
tains, the Am-nok has many affluents, and in the
summer floods its waters rise to full 40 feet even
where a mile or more wide. Jn the south-east the
Nak-tong is navigable for boats drawing 44 feet for
140 miles up.

The climate is healthy, bracing in the north, but
colder in winter and hotter in summer than in cor-
responding European latitudes. The heat is tem-
pered by sea-breezes, but in the narrow inclosed
valleys becomes very intense. The Han is frozen
in winter so as to be available at Seoul, where it is
400 yards broad, for cart traffic three months in the

ear. The Tu-man is usually frozen five months
in the year. Various kinds of timber-trees abound,
except in the west, where wood is scarce, and is
sparingly used ; and in other parts the want of coal

COREA

CORFE CASTLE 477

has caused the wasteful denudation of many hill-
sides. _ oe > very om heap and besides
tigers, leo , deer, includes pigs, tiger-cats,
badgers, tex, beavers, otters, martens, and a
great variety of birds. Among the products are
rice, wheat, beans, cotton, hemp, maize, millet,
sesame, perilla. Ginseng grows wild -in the Kan-
mountains, and is also much cultivated about
-sing, the duties upon it, notwithstanding much
smuggling, yielding about half a million dollars
annually. The domestic animals are few. The
cattle are excellent (the bull ita! the usual beast
of burden), the ponies very small but hardy, fowls
good, pigs inferior. Iron ores of excellent quality
are mined; and there are copper-mines in several
places. The output of silver is very small; in
some years a eon deal of gold is exported. The
principal industries are the manufacture of paper,
mats woven of grass, split bamboo blinds, oil-paper,
and silk. The total value of the foreign imports in
some years has amounted to about £500,000, two-
thirds representing cotton goods ; the native exports
reached £136,666, chiefly beans and cowhides. The
foreign vessels entering the treaty ports number
between 500 and 600 in an average year, with a total
tonnage of 150,000 tons or more. Three-fourths of
the trade is with Japan, and over a fifth with
China; British goods go by way of these countries.
Business has hitherto been done chiefly by barter,
imports being exchanged largely for gold dust, and
Japanese silk piece goods being a current exchange
for trade inland; but in 1888 the mint at Seoul was
approaching completion, and a beneficial effect on
commerce is anticipated from the introduction of a
convenient and sufficient coinage. Seoul is con-
nected with Taku and Port Arthur by telegraph.

The population is variously estimated at from
eight to ten millions, of a mainly Mongolian type,
though some assume that there is a Caucasic ele-
ment ir the stock. Hair not quite black, and even
blue eyes and an almost English style of face are
- met with. The pee jae oe is intermediate between

Mongolo-Tartar and Japanese, polysyllabic and
agglutinating. It has an alphabetic system of its
own ; but Chinese characters have taken the place
of Corean in official writing and correspondence.
A grammar and dictionary by Ridel were published
at Yokohama in 1879. The philosophy of Corea is
Confucian, but in spite of great restrictions on Bud-
dhism there are numerous Buddhist monasteries.
Evidence of other religion exists in the miriok, half-
length human figures carved in stone. The govern-
ment is an hereditary and absolute monarchy, and
earried on through three ministers, besides whom
are ministers of six os pa Caste is very

werful, and no office of even only local importance
is held by others than a noble. There is strictly no
well-to-do middle class, those who are not officials
being cultivators. In some districts the lower
classes live in a very squalid condition, and mud-
hovels thatched with straw are the usual houses
everywhere; but beggars are rare, and absolute
distress is seldom met with. Corea is divided into
eight provinces or Do; three on the east and five on
the west coast. Seoul, the capital, has a pop. of
about 240,000. Phyéng-yang, 36 miles from the sea,
on the Tai-dong, has a pop. of over 20,000. It is
the centre of a silk industry, and 20 miles off, at
Keum-san, are gold-washings. Kai-sing is import-
ant as the capital of the old dynasty, and for its
cultivation of ginseng.

The earliest records of Corea carry us back to
1122 B.c., when Ki-tze with 5000 Chinese colonists
brought to Corea Chinese arts and politics. Down
to modern times Corea has remained perfectly
secluded. Almost the first knowledge of Corea
obtained by Europe was through the shipwreck of
some Dosekaien on the coast in 1653. The mis-

sionary De Cespedes had, however, entered Corea
at the end of the 16th century, and from 1777 other
missionaries followed. In 1835 M, Maubant gained
a footing in Corea, but in 1866, after thousands of
converts had been put to death, the only three
Catholic missionaries left had to flee for their lives.
To avenge the death of the Catholics the French
sent an expedition, which was, however, repulsed.
Corea was pagan! to China, though practi-
cally independent. But Japan steadily increased
its influence in the country, especially after 1876,
and in 1894 made internal dissensions in the Corean
state a reason for proposing to China a joint inter-
vention. China declining (as Japan had hoped) to
interfere with its vassal state, the Japanese there-
upon invaded and occupied Corea, defeated the
Chinese at Phéng-Yang and in a naval battle on
the Yalu, and, invading China, forced the Chinese
to submit to a humiliating peace (1895). Russian
influence is now dominant. See CHINA,

See Dallet, Histoire de VEiylise de Corée (1874);
Oppert, A Forbidden Land (1880); J. Ross, History of
Corea (1880) ; two works by Griffis (New York, 1882 and
1885); and other works on Corea by Lowell (1886),
Carles (1888), Gilmore (1893), Captain Cavendish (1894),
A. H. Savage Landor (1895), and Mrs Bishop (1898),
besides Curzon’s Problems of the Far East (1895). There
are Corean Dictionaries by Underwood (Shanghai, 1890)
and Scott (Shanghai, 1891). And see JAPAN.

Core’gonus, .2 genus of fishes in the salmon
family, including numerous species found in fresh
water and sometimes in the sea, especially near the
coast. The body is compressed, the scales are of
medium size, and the teeth are small or degenerate.
They inhabit Arctic and north temperate regions,
ranging from North America to Siberia. They
are good for eating. C. Oxyrhynchus in the Baltic
and the south-east of the North Sea, C. lavaretus in
the Baltic, C. fera in Swiss lakes, C. clupeoides in
British lakes (the ‘powan’ of Loch Lomond, or
Gwyniad, q.v.), C. pollan (the ‘pollan’) in Ire-
land, C. lucidus, &e. (the ‘herring-salmon’), and
C. sapidus or albus (the much-esteemed ‘ white
fish’) from North American lakes, are common
representatives of the genus.

Corelli, ARCANGELO (1653-1713), com r,
was born at Fusignano in the Bolognese, and died
at Rome. His pieces, especially for the violin,
mark an epoch in chamber music, and influenced
later composers, as Bach.

Corelli, MARIE, novelist, a step-daughter of
Charles Mackay (q. v.), was born in 1864, and has
written A Romance of Two Worlds (1886), Ven-
detta (1886), Thelma (1887), My Wonderful Wife
(1889), Wormwood (1891), The Soul of Lilith
(1892), Barabbas (1893), The Sorrows of Satan
(1895), The Mighty Atom (1896), The Murder of
Delicia (1896), Ziska (1897), &c.—works that have
enjoyed a most astonishing vogue.

Corentyn, 4 river of South America, flowin
northward to the Atlantic between British an
Dutch Guiana (q.v.), navigable for 150 miles.

Corfe Castle, a village-borough of Dorset-
shire, in the rise? of Purbeck, 4 miles SE. of
Wareham. Its famous castle, dating from early
Norman times, is the traditional scene of the
murder of King Edward the Martyr, by his step-
mother Elfrida (979); and more than twenty
knights, ‘most noble and valorous in arms,’ were
done to death within its walls by King John. In
1643 it was gallantly defended by Lady Bankes for
six weeks against 600 Roundheads. Taken through
treachery two years later, it was dismantled ; and
its beautiful ruins, with their ‘hanging towers,’
cover nearly 34 acres. Pop. of parish, 1777. See
histories of Corfe Castle by G. es (1853) and
T. Bond (1884).

478 CORFU

CORINTH

Corfu, the most northerly and largest of the
Ionian Islands, at the entrance to the Adriatic
Sea, separated from the coast of Albania by a
channel from 2 to 12 miles broad, is 40 miles long
from north-west to south-east by 34 to 20 miles
broad; area, 270 sq. m.; pop., mostly Greeks,
114,535. The island is traversed by mountains,
bare and rocky in their upper slopes, culminating
in Pantocrator, 2997 feet high, at the north-east
end. The surface is largely covered with luxuriant
groves of olive, cypress, and ilex. The winters are
rainy, the summers hot and dry. The principal
products are olives and wine, oranges, citrons, figs,
carob, silk, and honey. Maize is the chief cereal,
but yields only about a quarter of the consumption.
Goats are numerous, but there are no cattle and so
no butter, the substitute for which is olive-oil, the
principal export of Corfu. Wine is also exported
to Austria-Hungary and Italy. There is no proper
agriculture. Fishing, too, is left to the Albanians
and Italians. The minerals are sulphur, salt, coal,
and marble. The principal town, Corfu, having
19,025 inhabitants, is finely situated on the east
coast, and has a good harbour in direct steam com-
munication with Alexandria, Athens, Trieste, Italy,
and England. Corfu is the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop and of a Catholic bishop, and has a royal

alace, an Ionian academy, founded by Lord Guild-
ord in 1823, with a library of 35,000 volumes, a
gymnasium, theatre, &c. The ‘town underwent
erent improvements during the British protectorate,
ut there is still room for improvement. The
ancient name of the island is Corcyra, but from its
shape it was also called Drepane, or ‘sickle.’ It
has been incorrectly identified with the Homeric
Scheria. About 734 B.c. the Corinthians planted a
colony here, which, by its commerce, growing rich
and powerful, fought with the mother-country (665
B.C.) the first sea-battle on record. After many
vicissitudes, Corfu fell under the Roman dominion
(229 B.c.). For the more modern history, see
IONIAN ISLANDS.

Cori, a town of South Italy, 30 miles SE. of
Rome, with a population of 5500. It preserves
the name and occupies the site of Cora, one of the
oldest cities of Latium. The ancient remains still
existing include those of the old walls, temples of
Hercules and _ of the Dioscuri, and a fine bridge.

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), an annual
plans of the natural order Umbelliferee, with
ranching stem, 1 to 2 feet high, the lower leaves
bipinnate, the upper leaves more compound, and
globose fruit. lt is a native of the south of
Europe and of the East, and has long been cul-
tivated for the sake of its fruit; and has thus
become naturalised in some parts of England,
although its fruit (coriander seed) is much less used
in Britain than in Germany and some other Euro-
pean countries. The whole plant, when fresh, has
a very offensive smell; but the ripe and perfectly
dry fruit has an agreeable aromatic ell and a
sweetish aromatic taste. It is used in medicine as
a carminative, and as a corrective of certain purga-
tives; also in domestic economy as an aromatic,
being very often mixed with bread in the north of
Europe; spirituous liquors are flavoured with it ;
and confectioners cover it with sugar to make a
well-known kind of comfit. In the south of Eng-
land it is common to sow coriander and caraway
together, the coriander yielding a crop in the first
year, and the caraway in years following. Cori-
ander delights in a rich soil, and is much cultivated
and used in India.

Corigliano, a town in the Italian province of
Cosenza, on the slopes of a castle-crowned hill,
4 miles from the Gulf of Taranto. Pop. 12,271,
mostly employed in cultivating the vine and corn.

Coringa, a seaport in Godavari district, Madras,
stands at the northern mouth of the Godavari
River, 8 miles 8. of Cocanada. It has declined
much owing to the obstruction of its harbour by
a bar, and to its having been twice overwhelmed
by a tidal wave—in 1787 and 1832. Pop. 4397.

Corinna (surnamed Muia, ‘the fly’), a Greek
lyric poetess, a native of Tanagra, in Boeotia, who

ourished about 500 B.c. She is said to have
instructed Pindar, and to have vanquished him
in a poetic contest. Only a few fragments of
her work remain, collected by Bergk in his Lyriet
Poete Greci (Leip. 1843).—Madame de Staél’s
Corinne was an Italian improvisatrice. For her, see
Vernon Lee’s Studies of Italy in the 18th Century.

Corinth, a city of Greece, celebrated in anti-
quity, situated on the rocky isthmus of Corinth
(32 miles wide, and 262 feet high), which connects
the Peloponnesus with the mainland. The city
lay under the northern declivity of the mountain. —
(1886 feet high, and forming one of the strongest.
natural fortifications in the world) on which stood
its citadel (Acrocorinthus), and had three harbours,
Lecheum, to the west, on the Gulf of Corinth;
Cenchrez and Schcenus, to the east, on the Saronic:
Gulf. Its position, midway between the Aigean
and Adriatic Seas, was exceptionally advantageous.
for trade. It was as poe to transport goods across
the narrow isthmus—called by Pindar ‘the bridge
of the untiring sea’—as it was difficult to round |
the Peloponnesus. In its western harbour lay the
ships of Italy, Sicily, and Spain; and to Cenchrez
came Revues papyrus, Li yan ivory, Syrian per-
fumes, cnician dates, Euboan fruits, and
Phrygian slaves. The exports of Corinthian
manufacture were chiefly productions of art, such
as statues, pictures, vases, pillars, and vessels of
metal and earthenware. Syracuse, Molycria,.
Sollium in Acarnania, Ambracia, Anactorium,
Leucas, Coreyra, Epidamnus, Apollonia, and
Potideea were among the colonies of Corinth. '
At its most flourishing period it is said to have
had a population of 300,000, with more than half
a million slaves employed in the fleet and in the
colonies in the Mediterranean, It was at Corinth
that the first triremes were built, and the first
naval battle of the Greeks was fought between the
fleets of Corinth and its colony Coreyra (see CORFU). ~

According to legend, the city of Corinth (anciently
called Ephyré) was founded about 1350 B.c. by the
fEolian Sisyphus, whose descendants ruled the
country fom till conquered by the Dorians under
the Heraclid Aletes in 1074. onarchy was abol-
ished in 748, and an oligarchy of 200 families lasted
till 657, when it was overthrown by Cypselus. He:
and his son Periander (629-585) greatly extended
the city’s industry and trade. In 582 the old Dorian
constitution was restored. Corinth, which had
formerly been the ally of Athens, after the Persian -
wars became jealous of the increasing power and
commerce of the Athenians, and joined the league
of the Dorian states. It waged an unsuccessful.
war on Athens in 458, and incited the Pelopon-
nesians to begin (431) the Peloponnesian war (see
GREECE). In 395, at the instigation of Persia, it
entered into an alliance with Thebes, Athens, and
Argos against Sparta, and the ‘Corinthian War’
began, which anaed with the Peace of Antalcidas.
(387), dividing. the supremacy of Greece between
Persia and Sparta. Timophanes made himself
master of Corinth in 366, but was overthrown and
murdered by his patriotic brother Timoleon. The
assemblies of the Greeks that appointed Philip and.
Alexander of Macedon the leaders against Persia,
were held at Corinth in 338 and 336. Under the
Macedonian supremacy it was occupied by a strong
garrison. After the expulsion of the Macedonians it.

CORINTH

CORIOLANUS 479

joined the Achwean leagne (243), of which it formed
Eeedown to 146 B.c,, when it was utterly destroyed

y the Romans under Mummius. Exactly a cen-
tury afterwards Corinth was rebuilt by Julius
Cesar, new-named Colonia Julia Corinthus, and

pled with veterans and the descendants of
men; and under Augustus and his successors
it quickly became once more ‘the citadel and star
of Greece.’ It reached almost its old importance
as a trading and manufacturing town, and centred
in itself the traffic that had formerly belonged to
Athens and Delos. About sixty or seventy years
before its completion by Hadrian, it was visited
by St Paul, who, during a@ sojourn of a yearanda
half, plaated a Christian church in Corinth, to
which he addressed two of his epistles. The city
was (from 27 A.D.) the seat of the pro-consul of the
Roman province of Achaia, and the restoration of
the Isthmian Games brought to it multitudes of
Greeks from all parts of the Roman empire.

The Corinthians were devoted to the worship of
the deities of love and of the sea. Aphrodite’s
sg was the oldest and the holiest in Greece.
In her rites at Corinth, Pheenician influence is
distinctly traceable. According to Strabo, in the
most flourishing period of the city more than
1000 hierodoulot were kept there—‘a source of
much danger to strangers as of lustre and credit
to the service of the goddess.’ It was at
Corinth, where unbridled licentiousness received
such religious consecration, that the Apostle
Paul wrote his description of heathen corruption
in the Epistle to the Romans. Nowhere in the
Hellenic world was licentiousness so prevalent.
‘The vices of the Greeks were notorious in the
Roman empire, the Corinthian vices even in Greece.’
With all the artistic skill and culture of the
Corinthians, and the lavish expense at which they
adorned their wealthy city, they showed but little
creative power in art, and ‘among the illustrious
writers of Greece, not a single Corinthian appears.’
. Yet Corinth produced the painters ices, Cleo-
ha and Cleanthes ; the statesmen Periander,

hidon, Philolaus, and Timoleon; Arion, the in-
ventor of the dithyramb ; and was the abode in his
later life of the Ural aero ay, Diogenes.

Corinth was spoiled by Gothic hordes at the end
of the 3d century, by Alaric in 396, and by the
Slavs in the 8th century. In 1205 it was taken by
the Franks, and from them it’fell back into the
hands of the eastern emperors, from whom in
1459 it was wrested by the Turks. It was held by
the Venetians from 1699 to 1715, when it was
retaken by the Turks, under whom it sank to a
miserable village. After being delivered from
Turkish domination in 1822, Corinth slowly in-
creased from 1830 till the 21st February 1858, when
it was utterly destroyed by an earthquake. The
town has since been rebuilt in a more convenient

ition, 3 miles to the north-east. Its population
is now 3000. A mile and a half east-north-east
of New Corinth, on the Gulf of Lepanto (anciently
Gulf of Corinth), is the western mouth of the canal
through the isthmus. Two new towns have been
saia Out at its east and west mouths, the eastern
named Isthmia, the western Posidonia. See CANAL,
Vol. IL. p. 699.

Corinth, capital of Alcorn county, Mississippi,
on two railways, 93 miles E. by 8. of Memphis.
Here General ecrans feces a decisive victory
over the Confederates, October 3-4, 1862. Pop.
(1880) 2275 ; (1890) 2111.

Corinthians, First AnD SECOND EPIsTLES
TO THE, two bald pre 39 forming part of the New
Testament Canon, addressed by the Apostle Paul
to the Christian church which he had founded at
Corinth (q.v.) during his sojourn there, in part of

52, the whole of 53, and part of 54.4.p. Paul had
been succeeded at Corinth by Apollos, and Apollos
by certain Judaising teachers, and the church had
become divided into four parties (1 Cor. i. 12).
The First Epistle—which contains a reference to
another epistle which preceded it, but has not been
ae (1 Cor. v. 9, 10)—was written from

phesus in the spring of 57 or 58, and was occa-
sioned by the reports which Paul had received from
‘those of the household of Chloe’(1 Cor. i 11)
about these divisions. It was intended also to
correct various abuses, and answer certain ques-
tions which the Corinthian Church had asked him
by letter (1 Cor. vii. 1; viii. 1; xii. 1; &c.).

The reports brought by Titus of the condition
and disposition of the Corinthian Church, and of
the impression made on it by the previous epistle,
induced Paul to write the Second. In this he ap-
= to many scholars to refer to a second visit he

ad paid to Corinth (2 Cor. xii. 14; xiii. 1) some time
between the first visit and our First Epistle—though
by others this sup second visit is much dis-
ae a collection for the mother-church at
erusalem (2 Cor. viii. and ix.); endeavours to
remove certain scandals that still existed, and to
re-establish his apostolic authority, which had
been contested by the schismatic teachers; and
expresses his intention to pay another visit to
Corinth. The epistle was written from Macedonia —
in the autumn of the same year (57 or 58 A.D.)
The two epistles are unquestionably genuine, and
show in the clearest light the personal character of
the writer and the inner life of the primitive
Gentile Church, ‘We are here,’ says Stanley,
‘and (as far as the epistles are concerned) here
only, allowed to witness the earliest conflict of
Christianity with the culture and vices of the
ancient classical world. . . . It is the Apostle of
the Gentiles, as it were, in his own peculiar sphere
—in the midst of questions evoked by his own
peculiar mission—watching over churches of his
own creation.’

The best of the special commentaries on both
epistles are those of Meyer (6th ed. 1881), Holsten,

as Evangelium des Paulus (vol. i. 1880); Godet
(English trans. in Clark's Series, 2 vols.) ; Stanley
(5th ed. 1882); and Beet (3d ed. 1885); on the
First Epistle, those of Heinrici (1880) and Lias
(1886) ; on the Second, of Klépper (1874).

Corinto, See NIcARAGUA.

Coriola’‘nus, Carus or CN&Zus MARCIUS, a

man patrician, surnamed Coriolanus from his
heroism at the capture of the Volscian town of
Corioli (493 B.c.). Of a proud and paugney spirit, he
was strongly opposed to the plebeians, who refused
to elect him et a candidate for the consulship.
After this, during a time of famine, he argued in
the senate against a gratuitous distribution of the
corn which had arrived from Sicily, unless the
plebeians should give up their tribunes, but lately
instituted. For this he was impeached, and
banished. He took refuge among the Volscians,
whom he aided in their war with the Romans. His
victories at the head of his Volscian troops alarmed
the Romans, who, on his approach to their city,
sent a variety of deputations to plead with him.
He was deaf to every entreaty. At last, the
noblest matrons of Rome, headed by his old mother
Veturia, and his wife Volumnia, leading her two
children, came to his tent. (Shakespeare follows
Plutarch in calling the mother Volumnia, while
the wife is Virgilia.) Their tears cooled his
fierce desire to be revenged on those who had dis-
honoured him, and he led back the Volsci to their
own territories. Shakespeare’s Coriolanus is a
stately and impressive drama, its hero a magnifi-
cent creative realisation of the haughty but noble
aristocrat of Plutarch’s story.

480

CORK

Cork (Span. corcho, from Lat. cortex) is the
extraordinarily developed corky layer (see below,
and article BARK) of tie bark of the Cork-tree or
Cork-oak (Quercus suber) of the Mediterranean.
Spain and Portugal chiefly supply the world with
cork. The cork-tree is not of great size, generally
20 to 60 feet high, the trunk often 3 feet in diameter,
much branched, with ovate-oblong evergreen leaves,
entire or serrate. The acorns are edible, and re-
semble chestnuts in taste. The tree is usually
twenty or twenty-five years old before it yields a
gathering of cork, and attains an age of 150 years.
The first produced ( Virgin Cork) is of little value,
but is removed in order that the next production may
be better, for every successive formation is superior
to that which preceded it, and it is not till the third
gathering that cork of the highest quality is ob-
tained. About every eight or ten years a crop is
taken; but the improvement is being introduced of
leaving the loosened cork-layer for some months as
a protective jacket upon the tree. The cork-cam-
bium is thus protected from the sun and the attacks
of insects, and the new growth is thus both more
rapid and of finer quality. In stripping off the
cork, longitudinal and transverse incisions are made
to the proper depth, and each piece is then cut
away from the tree by a curved knife with two
handles, like that of ‘a cooper. The pieces are
soaked in water, pressed flat, dried, and super-
ficially charred, to remove decayed parts and con-
ceal blemishes, before they are packed in bales for
the market. Besides the use of cork for stopping
bottles, casks, &c., it is much used, on account of
its lightness, for floats of nets, life-belts, &c.; and
on account of its impermeability to water, and
its being a slow conductor of heat, inner soles of
shoes are made of it. All these uses are men-
tioned by Pliny; but the general employment of
corks for glass bottles appears to date only from

the 15th century.
The Spanish Black
e used y painters is
made by burnin
MS cork- ares in close
vessels, ork-waste
is also utilised for
many objects, and
most largely in the
manufacture of lino-
leum.

The cork-tree is
occasionally planted
in England; it has
been found to do well
in some parts of the
United States.

The wood of some
b trees possesses the
cellular sponginess,
lightness, and elasti-
city of cork in such a
degree as to be some-
times substituted for
it in many of its uses,
as that of the Anona
palustris (Corkwood
or Alligator Apple) in the West Indies, &c.

As.already mentioned under Bark (q.v.), cork is
by no means botanically the exceptional product it
seems from the practical or popular point of view.
The epidermis being usually only a single layer of

pr

Formation of Cork in a branch
of Black Currant, one year
old (mas. 350 diameters) :

e, epidermis ; b, bast-cells; pr, cor-
tical parenchyma; k, the cork-
cells formed from ¢, cork-cam-
bium. ( Sachs.)

definitely formed’ cells, it is insufficient either for.

covering or protection in almost all conditions of
continuous growth and exposure to climate (the
mistletoe being rather a less developed type than a
true exception among woody plants, since its deeper
ordinary epidermic cells never lose the power of
multiplication). In sections of the young shoots of

dicotyledonous trees or shrubs this provision for
replacing the epidermis can be beautifully traced ;
a layer of cells just outside the cellular envelope,
the so-called sonleccakiMiiii is seen to have already
formed an appreciable thickness of cork-cells, easily
recognised by their prismatic shape, tolerably
regular vertical series, and thin walls. As the
stem grows older the epidermis wears off and the
cork-layer thickens, while the access of air to the
living cellular envelope below is permitted by the
occurrence of spaces empty or filled only with
looser tissue, the Lenticels (q.v.), which, of course,
become represented by the deep air-channels so
obvious in the inferior quality of cork.

CoRK-CUTTING.—The bark, after being cut into
square pieces or sheets, is pressed to remove its
natural curvature and flatten it. If it is found that
simple pressure has not flattened it sufficiently, it
is heated on the convex side, and the contraction
thus produced straightens it. It is then cut into
slips, and these slips into squares, according to the
required size of the corks. These are rounded by
the cork-cutter by means of a bread sharp knife;
the cork is rested against a block of wood, and the
knife pushed forward, its edge at the same time
being made to describe a circular curve. The knife
requires continual sharpening ; the workman has a
board before him on which the knife is rubbed on
each side after every cut. But cork-cutting is now
largely done by machinery; in the United States
the process has been carried to great perfection.
Corking-machines are higensonsty contrived to
force the cork into the neck of the bottle, and, if
necessary, to wire it down. For rock cork, see
ASBESTOS.

Cork, a maritime county in Munster, the south-
most and largest of the Irish counties. Greatest
length from east to west, 110 miles; greatest
breadth, 70; average, 34. Area, 2890 sq. miles.
Cork is hilly, with great variety of surface. The
west part is rocky, mountainous, wild and boggy ;
the east and south, rich, fertile, and picturesque.
The ranges run east and west, except the Boghra
Mountains, between the Lee and Blackwater.
The coast is bold and rocky, and from its indenta-
tions, 250 miles long; the bays, which run 3 to 25
miles inland, admitting large vessels. The chief
bays are Bantry, Dunmanus, Baltimore, Glandore,
Clonakilty, Kinsale, Cork Harbour, and Youghal.
There are many isles off the coast, including
Cape Clear Island, which lies in 51° 25’ N. lat.,
and 9° 30’ W. long., and, with the exception of
a rock 4 miles to the SSW., is the southmost

oint in Ireland. In the west, Cork is divided
rom Kerry by a range of Silurian clay-slate
running north-east and north, the chief points
being 1200 to 2240 feet high. This range sends
offshoots to the east, which divide the county
into the parallel basins of the three chief rivers of
Cork, the Blackwater, Lee, and Bandon : the lower

arts of these basins are well cultivated and pro-
aaihive: The Lower Carboniferous limestone forms
the largest lowland tracts and valleys of the county.
Part of the Munster coalfield occupies 400 sq. m. in -
the north-west. Cork has many small lakes in the
west. One of these lies at the source of the Lee,
amid wild, picturesque scenery, with the ruins of
a chapel on an islet frequented by pilgrims. The
chief mineral productions are coal and iron, copper,
barytes, limestone, fine dark-gray and also red
marble rich in fossil shells, fullers’ earth, brick-
clay, marl. There is a thermal magnesian spring
at Mallow. The climate is moist, but genial. The
soils are calcareous, loamy, and moory. The dairies
are extensive, and Cork butter stands in high
estimation. The cattle are small in size, but yield
large quantities of milk. Of the total area, about
30 per cent. is under crops. The chief manufactures

CORK

CORMORANT 481

are leather, tweed, whisky, porter; and the chief
ope provisions. Pop. (1841) 854,118; (1851)

,180 ; (1871) 517,076; (1891) 436,641, of whom
90°8 per cent. are Catholics. Formerly Cork
county sent two members to parliament, besides
two tor the city, and four for minor boroughs.
Since 1885 the county returns seven members, the
city two; and Bandon, Mallow, Kinsale, and
Youghal have been absorbed in the county. The
antiquities of Cork are stone circles and altars, two
round towers, circular earthworks or raths; ruins
of abbeys and churches, chiefly built by descendants
of the English invaders under Henry IL; and
many ancient castles or square towers.

Cork, a city and parliamentary borough of
Ireland, capital of County Cork, and a county in
itself, on the Lee, 11 miles above its mouth, and
166 SW, of Dublin by rail. Standing in the centre
of a eprrereeane valley, it is built in part on an
island, or group of islands, formerly a swamp,
which the word Cork, Corcoch, or Corcaig implies ;
in part, on the north and south slopes of the
river-banks. The houses are generally of old red
sandstone. Nine bridges cross the river to the
central islands. There is a spacious public park
of about 400 acres, the chief use of which is as
a racecourse, and a walk known as the Mar-
dyke, above a mile long, lined by noble elms, on
the west of the city. There is also a beautiful
public cemetery. Cork has a pleasant picturesque-
ness from its uneven ground, irregular streets,
intersecting river, and overhanging hei hts. The
ehief buildings are St Anne Shandon’s Church,
with a tower 170 feet high; the Protestant Cathe-
dral, Early English in style, erected since 1865
at a cost of £100,000 ; several Catholic churches ; 4
monasteries ; 2 nunneries ; the bishop’s palace ; the
Queen’s College, a fine Tudor-Gothie quadrangular
building, opened in 1849; the Schools of Science
and Art, erected mainly through the munificence of
a citizen, Mr W. H. Crawford. The banks of the
Lee above and below Cork are richly planted, and
studded with villas. The Lee in both branches
is navigable to about a mile above the city, and a
large sum has been expended on the improvement
of the navigation by the harbour commissioners.
The extent of the quays is now above 4 miles, and
ships of 2000 tons reach them. Cork harbour,
noted for its size and safety, is a basin of 10
Sq. m., formed by the estuary of the Lee. It could
contain the whole British navy, and has been
the main source of the rise and progress of the
city. It is the port of call for the transatlantic
steamers plying between Liverpool and New York,
the vessels of seven different lines touching each
week to embark or discharge mails and passengers.
‘The estuary contains several large isles, rising
abruptly and high above the water, with narrow
channels between them. The entrance is by a
channel two miles by one, defended by batteries.
Carlisle Fort on the east side, and Camden Fort
on the west, while Spike Island, now called Fort
Westmoreland, commands the entrance. In these
forts some of the heaviest ordnance in the king-
dom may be found, Camden in addition possessing
4 torpedo and submarine battery of immense
destructive power. Spike Island has ceased to be
a convict establishment, and is used now as a
military depdt. Adjoining the island of Haulbow-
tine, on which are erected extensive government
‘stores, is a large government dock, where vessels of
the British fleet may be repaired. On the shores
of the estuary are the towns of Passage and
‘Queenstown, deietty Cove of Cork. Cork har-
bour is much frequented by wind-bound ships and
ships waiting orders. In the years 1894-98 inclu-
sive, an average of 2402 vessels, with a total ton-
nage of a entered the port annually, and an

1

average of 2382 vessels, with a total tonnage of
619,413, cleared. Thechief manufacturesare leather,
iron, gloves, ginghams, friezes, flour, malt liquors,
and whisky. The chief exports are grain, provisions,
butter, live-stock, leather, and tweeds, valued at
several millions sterling yearly. Pop. (1871)
78,642; (1891) 75,070; parliamentary borough,
96,891, of whom five-sixths are Roman Catholics.
Cork returns two members to parliament.—Cork
co up around an abbey founded in 600 b

t Finbar. The Danes in the 9th century built
the city walls. Dermod Maccarthy, king of Cork
or Desmond, surrendered it to Henry If. in 1172.
Cromwell besieged and took it in 1649, and Marl-
borough in 1690. James II. landed at Cork in
1688. In Cork, William Penn, the founder of
Pennsylvania, became a Quaker. There is a statue
of Father Mathew (q.v.), who laboured here many
years. See Miss Cusack’s History of the City and
County of Cork (Dublin, 1875). For the Earls of
Cork, see BOYLE.

Corkwing (Crenilabrus melops), a species of
Wrasse (q.v.).

Corleo’ne, a town of Sicily, 21 miles 8S. of
Palermo. Pop. (1881) 15,441; (1891) 16,072.

Corm (Gr. kormos, ‘a stump’ )—sometimes
called a solid bulb—the short and bulb-like subter-
ranean stem of many monocotyledonous eae
e.g. crocus, gladiolus; tuberose, and arising t chp
the annual storing of starch to be consumed by
the next year’s bud and flower. In functions, as
in general appearance, the corm resembles the
Bulb (q.v.); a vertical section, however, shows
that while in each we have indeed a stem and
leaves, the thickening is confined in the former
case to the stem, in the latter to the leaves. Tran-
sitional forms occur, indeed, in most bulbs; the
thickened leaves arise from a more or less thick-
ened and shortened—i.e. corm-like—base. While
a section of a corm shows the origin of its usually
membraneous leaves, and many corms produce
new subterranean buds in the axils of their leaves,
in either case they arise on the upper surface or
sides of the parent corm, and there thicken as new
corms. When borne on the upper surface, the
new corms then gradually approach the surface of
the ground as in crocus.

Cormorant (Gr. Phalacrocorax, ‘bald-headed
raven’), a genus of web-footed birds in the order
Steganopodes, beside pelicans, solan-geese, and
frigate-birds. They are familiar birds, frequenting
islands in most parts of the world. They vary

Cormorant.

atly in size, but have the following characters
in common. The head is relatively small, and is
naked behind the eyes and at the root of the beak.
At the breeding season some forms exhibit a crest

482 CORN

CORNEILLE

and wattles. There is a dilatable membrane
beneath the lower jaw, showing incipiently what
becomes exaggerated in the pelicans. The bill is
moderately long, straight, rounded above, and
strongly hooked at the end; the nostrils are linear
and inconspicuous. The neck is long, snake-like;
and naked on the throat. The wings are of
moderate length; the tail is rather short and
rounded, but with stiff feathers, which are used as
aids in progression. The unfeathered lower leg’is
very short; all the toes are united in a web; the
middle claw is serrated and apparently used in
trimming the plumage.

The numerous species live on the shores of islands,
or sometimes inland by rivers—e.g. the Danube
—and lakes. They feed exclusively on fishes, and
are proverbial for their voracity. They do not dive
when in flight, but from the surface of the water.
The smaller of the two British species has been
caught in a crab-pot at a depth of 120 feet. When
the prey is inconveniently seized, it is often tossed
in the air and more adroitly recaught. Eels are
said to form a favourite prey. Their haunts are
often peculiarly dirty. The nests are usually built
of seaweed, and are strong though rude; they are
sometimes found on mangrove ase other trees. The
egg is bluish-green, but the colour is much obscured
by thick incrustations of lime. When attacked,
the larger species, at anyrate, fight vigorously and
to purpose. The flesh is dark and fishy, but that
of the young birds of some species is said to be
eatable.

The Common British Cormorant (P. carbo ) is an
almost cosmopolitan bird about 3 feet long, for the
most part of a blackish-green metallic colour, with
brownish feathers on the shoulder region. When in
full breeding plumage it has a crest on the head,
white plumes on the throat, and a white patch on
the lower flanks. The bill is black, the face yellow,
the feet also black. It was formerly trained in
England, as still in China, for fishing purposes.
At first a ring is put round its neck to keep the
bird from swallowing the fish it catches, but it
soon learns to bring its prey to its master, being
afterwards allowed to fish on its own account.
The smaller species (P. cristatus or graculus) found
on our coasts has a more decided green colour.
The Dwarf Cormorant (P. pygmeus), from South-
eastern Europe, North Africa, Southern Asia, and
the Florida Shag (P. floridanus) are other well-
known species. Along with the genus Urile, the
cormorants form a family (Phalacrocoracide) in-
cluding about three dozen species.

Corn, a general term for the seeds of cereal
ee thus including all the kinds of grain which
orm the food of men or horses. But it has also a
specific sense, and denotes in any country that
grain which furnishes the prevalent bread-stuff of
the people. Thus, in England, corn generally means
wheat ; in the United States, maize ; and in Scot-
land, oats. The word not only occurs in all the
Teutonic tongues, but is seen also in Lat. granum,
and Russian zerno, See CEREALIA, and special ar-
ticle WHEAT, &c. See CorNs for a different word.

Corna’cez, the cornel or dogwood order, are
calycifloral dicotyledons, nearly allied to Umbelli-
ferxe, containing about eighty species, mostly trees
and shrubs, chiefly natives of the north temperate
zone. The fruits of some are eatable; the bark
and leaves of some.are medicinal; some are valued
as ornamental’ its. See CORNEL, DoGwoop,
AUCUBA.

Cornaro, the name of a Venetian noble family,
of which the most illustrious members were: (1)
Caterina (1454-1510), married King James II. of
Cyprus in 1472, after whose early death she was
kept in mild imprisonment by the Venetians until

1489, when she set up a kind of court for poets and
scholars at Assolo, near Bassano.—(2) Luigi, born
1467, an instructive example of temperance. Deli-
cate by constitution, at forty he found his health
so much impaired by his intemperance that am
immediate change of life was absolutely necessary.
He at once adopted strict rules of temperance both
in meat and drink, by which means he prolonged
a cheerful old age almost to a hundred years, dying
in 1566. At eighty-three he published his famous.
Discorsi della Vita Sobria (Padua, 1558), which was
translated into most European languages (Eng.
1779).

Cornbrash, a member of the Lower Oolites.
See JURASSIC SYSTEM.

Corn-cockle (Agrostemma Githago), a tall
beautiful caryophyllaceous weed, well known on
account of its large purple flowers. It is often so
common in cornfields as to be mischievous, especi-
ally on the Continent, and this not only because
of its rankness and abundance, but also because:
of the deleterious nature of its seeds, which are
injurious to man and poisonous to most domestic
animals, and which sometimes require to be separ-
ated from the grain by a special kind of sieve.

Corn-crake (Crex pratensis), one of the true
rails, in the old order of Grallatores, whose ery at
least is very familiar in Britain. The bird itself is
seldom seen ; it is about a foot in length, and has
colours varying from brownish-gray to red. The
bill is shorter than the head, and slightly bent, the
tail is very short, the legs are long and powerful.
As a summer visitor to Britain, coming in May
and leaving in autumn, the bird is well known b
the harsh ery of the male, which is sometimes imi-
tated for decoy purposes by running the thumb-
nail along the teeth of a small comb. The cry is

Corn-crake (Crex pratensis ).

mostly uttered in the evening and throughout the
night, and is much less frequent after the young
are hatched. Unlike the nearly related water-
rails, the corn-crake frequents dry corn and hay
fields. It can, however, swim well on occasion.
Its running powers are very great, but it flies
rather heavily. It is very prone to trust to con-
cealing itself rather than to flight. The females
are very faithful to the young birds, which are
covered with black down when hatched. The
species is widely distributed in Northern Europe
and Central Asia, but its headquarters are in
Africa. The flesh is very good eating. See RAIL.

Cor’néa, one of the coats of the eye ; so called
from its resemblance to horn (Lat. cornu). See
EYE.

Corneille, PreRRE, the greatest tragic drama-
tist of France, and the forerunner of Moliére in
genuine comedy, was born at Rouen on June 6,

CORNEILLE 483

1606. The son of a legal official, he was trained
for the bar, and for some time tried with but
slight success to obtain a serge in his birthplace,
In 1629 he removed to Paris, where his comedy
Mélite, which had already been performed at
Rouen, proved so successful as to be run at the
same time in two theatres, the Marais and the
Hotel de Bourgogne. It was followed by Clit-
andre, La Veuve, La Galerie du Palais, La
Suivante, and La Place Royale. In these early
pieces intricate and extravagant plots are handled
with considerable ingenuity, but the writer’s poetic
genius only flashes out in occasional verses. For
some time Corneille was numbered among Riche-
lieu’s ‘ five poets,’ the others being Rotrou, Colletet,
Bois-Robert, and L’Etoile. These writers were
engaged to compose plays on lines laid down by
the cardinal. h of the five wrote an act,
which was then criticised, altered, and paid for by
their employer; among the pieces thus produced
being Les Tuileries, L’ Aveugle de Smyrne, and La
Grande Pastorale. Corneille, however, was too
independent to retain Richelieu’s favour, and his
dismissal followed at once on his proposing to alter
a pe of the cardinal’s devising. Médée, a tragedy
which appeared in 1635, showed a marked advance
on his earlier works, both in dramatic power and in
style; and in 1636 the Cid, his most famous if not
his best play, took Paris by storm. Richelieu
ordered his literary retainers to write down the
piece, and Seudéry called on the Academy to vindi-
cate French lettérs in the eyes of Europe by passin
formal censure on Corneille. The Academy, which
had lately been founded by Richelieu, thereupon
issued a hostile examen of the play ; but adverse
criticism was powerless against the general en-
thusiasm, and the phrase beau comme le Cid passed
into the language. The result of the struggle
between the minister and the dramatist is happily
summed up in Boileau’s famous couplet :

En vain contre le Cid un ministre se ligue,
Tout Paris pour Chiméne a les yeux de Rodrigue.

The story of the glay was taken from Las Moce-
dades del Cid, a Spanish work by Guillem de
Castro (q.v.), but Corneille’s treatment of the sub-
ject was thoroughly original. With the appear-
ance of the Cid the poetic drama took possession
of a stage hitherto occupied by broad and shape-
less farces, wooden imitations of Seneca, and the
extravagant and off-hand pieces of Hardy. The
graceful and heroic figures of the lovers, Rodrigue
and Chiméne, the nobility of the sentiments, the
power and harmony of the verse, justify the enthu-
siasm which the play excited. It may not be its
author’s greatest effort, but there is a charm in the
spirit of youthful ardour and tenderness which
animates it such as is hardly to be felt again in
Corneille’s work, until we come to the exquisite
lyric love-scene which he contributed in his old
age to the opera of Psyché.

The Cid was followed in 1639 by Horace, a play
which was founded on the story of the Horatii and
Curiatii as told by Livy, and which contains, in the
tirade spoken before her death by Camille, the
most magnificent burst of invective in the French
classical drama. Cinna ap] ared in 1639; Poly-
eucte, one of Corneille’s noblest tragedies, in 1640 ;
and La Mort de Pompée in 1641. Le Menteur,
which was produced in 1642, entitles Corneille to be
called the father of French comedy as well as of
French tragedy. The play is a masterpiece. The
character of Wevante. the liar, is drawn with
admirable humour and insight, and the style, at
once easy, eful, and pointed, reaches a level
of excellence which Moliétre did not surpass in his
earier works, Zhéodore was brought out in 1645,
and Rodogune, perhaps the most impressive and

thrilling of Corneille’s tragedies, in 1646. Between
1647—when he was atte an academician—and
1653 Corneille produced Héraclius, Don Sanche
d@ Aragon (an imitation of Lope de Vega’s Palacio
Confuso), Androméde, Nicoméde, and Pertharite.
These pieces, of which the last named was damned,
show a decline in dramatic and poetic power.
After the failure of Pertharite in 1653, Corneille
ceased for a time to write plays, and occupied
himself with making a verse translation of the
Imitatio Christi. He returned to the stage in 1659
with @dipe, which had considerable success, and
which was followed by La Yoison d’Or, Sertorius,
Sophonisbe, Othon, Agésilas, Attila, and Tite et
Bérénice (1670). In 1671 he joined Molitre and
Quinault in writing the opera of Psyché, and the
loveliest verses which he ever penned are to be
found in the scene between Psyche and Cupid (act
lii. scene 3). His last works were Pulchérie (1672)
and Suréna (1674).

His work did not bring him wealth, for he never
received more than 200 louis for a piece. His
private fortune was not large, and the pension
which was granted him was not regularly paid.
After his marriage in 1640 he lived abitually in
Rouen until 1662, when he settled in Paris. His
domestic life seems to have been a happy one. He
and his brother Thomas married two sisters, and
dwelt for a long time in contiguous houses.
During his later years he had to compete with
Racine, an inferior et but a more dexterous
playwright, and one who could cater more shrewdly
or the public taste. The veteran dramatist spoke
contemptuously of his rival’s ‘sighs and flames,’
but his popularity waned before that of the
ounger writer, whose cause was espoused by

ileau and the king. Corneille died in Paris in
the Rue d’Argenteuil on October 1, 1684.

Corneille and Racine are the chief dramatists of
the classical school which held command of the
French tragic stage from the middle of the 16th
century down to the Romantic movement of 1830.
The works of this school were modelled on the
plays of Seneca—that is to say, on plays cast in
the mould of Greek tragedy, but having even less
action and more diffuse moralising. he writer
who adopts this form of drama is bound down by
a set of rigid rules which allow him to present only
a few idealised personages in certain stereotyped
situations. He cannot exhibit the development of
character and the interaction of human passions.
He is almost denied the use of incident, and the
slow progress of his play to its climax is mainly
brought about through the agency of messengers
and confidants. Before Corneille the classic school
had failed to produce a single good acting play ; its
adherents, nevertheless, succeeded in diverting him
from the path on which he had entered when he pro-
duced the Cid, and in thereby cramping his rich
and vigorous genius. ‘Corneille,’ says Mr Walter
Pollock, ‘was one of the first to make a move in
the direction of the romantic drama, and wanted
nothing but courage and self-sacrifice to carry out
his intention.’ (See his admirable articles on Victor
Hugo and Romanticism in French Poets, 1879).
Unfortunately, instead of disregarding the academic
criticism of his day, Corneille turned from Spain toa
‘Castilian Rome,’ remote from the world of romance,
and set himself to compose plays of so severe and
uneventful a type that he fai i
two cases, to invest them wi
interest. In reading ye yield alter-
nately to admiration and fatigue. he characters
have a simplicify and grandeur which recall the
work of the sculptor, but they have also something
of its immobility. We can grasp them at once ;
they are not developed in the course of the drama.
Corneille’s heroes bear their fate with an inflexible

ng sustained

484 CORNEILLE

CORNELIUS

self-reliance which seems more than human, and
therefore moves us the less. His heroines, his
‘adorable furies,’ resemble one another closely.
‘ Their love,’ says Sainte-Beuve, ‘springs from the
head rather than the heart. We feel that Corneille
knew little of women.’ Where he excels his rivals
is in the grandeur of his morality, in the eloquence
and passion of certain scenes and speeches, in the
splendid flashes of poetry with which he illumines
the pale world of classic tragedy, in the power and
music of his verse. Victor Hugo alone has made
the Alexandrine move with the same swelling har-
mony and variety of cadence. The monotony which
so often weighs on Corneille’s readers was not due
to any coldness or narrowness inherent in_ his
genius. To be convinced of this it is enough to
recall the brilliant comedy of the Menteur, the
martial stir and glowing passion of the Cid, the
lyric grace and chastened ardour of the central love-
scene in Psyché. But his powers were in a measure
misdirected. His place in literature must always
be a very high one ; but readers—other than French
readers, at least—can hardly doubt that it would
have been still higher had he been free to select
and develop his characters at will, to exercise his
humorous faculty and give full scope to his tragic
powers in the fields of romantic drama.

See Guizot’s Corneille et son Temps (1852 ; Eng. trans.
1857 ); Jules Taschereau’s Histoire de P. Corneille (1828;
new ed. 1855); Sainte-Beuve’s Portraits Littéraires (tome
i.) and Port Royal (tome i.); Bouquet, Points obscurs
de la Vie de Corneille (1888); Trollope, Corneille and
Racine (1881); and Prof. Lodge, A Study in Corneille
(Balt. 1891). The best editions are those by Lefévre (12
vols. 1854), and Marty-Laveaux (12 vols. 1862-67). See
M. E. Picot’s Bibliographie Cornélienne (1875).

Corneille, THomMAs, younger brother of the
great Corneille, was born at Rouen on August 20,
1625. He was a dramatist of considerable merit,
was made a member of the Academy in 1685, and
died at Andelys on December 17, 1709. His trage-
dies, Camma, T csadies, Pyrrhus, Bérénice, Timocrate,
Ariane, Bradamante, &c., are in general superior
to his comedies. He also wrote a verse-translation
of Ovid’s Metamorphoses.

Cornel, or CORNELIAN CHERRY (Cornus mas),
the Cornus of the ancients, a small tree of the
order Cornacee, is a native of the middle and south
of Europe, and of great part of Asia. It is not
found wild in Britain, although it is common in
shrubberies, and was formerly much cultivated as
a fruit-tree, as it still is in Germany and other parts
of Europe. It has oval leaves, and small yellow
heads of flowers, which appear before the leaves in
spring, and which are much frequented by bees.

he fruit is oblong, a little larger than a sloe,
shining, red, or rarely yellow or white. It is late
in ripening, and until quite ripe is very austere;
but when perfectly mellow has an agreeable vinous
acid taste; it is also made into a preserve, or
pees unripe and pickled like olives. It was

ormerly also fermented for a beverage. In Turkey

it is much used in making sherbet. The wood of
the cornel is extremely hard and tough, and was
used by the ancient Greeks for lance-shafts ; it is
still valued by joiners, turners, and instrument-
makers.—Dwarf Cornel (C.. suecica), a native
of mountain-pastures and bogs throughout the
north of Europe and in Britain, is a herb about 6
inches high, wjgh its umbels surrounded by four
white bracts. all sweetish red fruit is tonic,
and is said t se the appetite, whence the
Gaelic name nt of Gluttony. Dogwood (q.v.)
belongs to the same genus. °

Cornelia, motherof theGracchi. See GRACCHUS.

Cornelian. See CARNELIAN.

Cornelisz, Lucas, a Dutch subject and por-
trait-painter, was born at Leyden in 1495, the son

of Cornelis Engelbrechtsen, the master of Lucas
van Leyden. He was instructed in art by his
father, but found little patronage in his own
country, and was obliged, for the support of his
large family, to act as a cook, whence his usual
sobriquet of Kok (‘the cook’). He visited Eng-
land, probably in 1527, and was appointed by
Henry VIII. royal painter. There is ground
for believing that, after remaining some five years
in England, Cornelisz passed to Italy, and between
1535-47 was i hg by the court of Ferrara.
He is stated to have died in 1552. Several of his
works are in England.

Cornelius Nepos. See NEpos.

Cornelius, PETER VON, one of the first masters
of the modern German school of painting, was born
at Diisseldorf, 23d September 1783, and studied
in the academy of his native town. When only
nineteen years of age, he painted some remarkable
frescoes fis the old church of Neuss. Four years
later he gave still more unmistakable proofs of
a creative fancy in his illustrations of Goethe’s
Faust and the Nibelungen Lied. In 1811 he
went to Rome, and joined the group of Veit,
Schadow, and other Germans who were there
at work, Overbeck being his chosen friend.
This journey exercised a profound influence on
the whole of his future career. The great im-
portance of the early masters became ever clearer
to him as he studied their choicest productions. —
While at Rome he aided in the decoration of the
Casa Bartoldi, and gained wide reputation by two
cartoons, ‘Joseph’s Interpretation of the Dream’
and ‘ Joseph’s Recognition of his Brethren.’ From
Rome he passed to Diisseldorf, where he became
director of the academy, which he remodelled ; in
1819 he was called to Munich, and entered the
service of the then crown-prince of Bavaria. Here
he remained till 1841, and executed those grand
works on which his fame mainly rests, and which
may be divided into two classes, Pagan and
Christian, the former of which comprises the large
frescoes in the saloon of the Glyptothek, all illus-
trating stories of the Greek gods and heroes ; while
the latter, or Christian series, begun after the com-

letion of the former in 1830, consists of frescoes of

ew Testament scenes, extending from the ‘ Incar-
nation’ to the ‘Judgment,’ and decorates the ‘ Lud-
wig’s Church’ in Munich, which was built for the

urpose of affording scope for the genius of
Dorel, The ‘Judgment’ is the largest fresco
in the world, larger even than Michael Angelo’s
‘Judgment’ in the Sistine Chapel. In 1841
Cornelius was invited by the king of Prussia to
Berlin, where he was appointed director of the
Berlin Academy. Among his productions in the
Prussian capital are the frescoes for the Campo
Santo, or royal burial-place, where his ‘Four
Riders of the Apocalypse’ display an gry nt
and daring power which he had not_ hitherto
evinced. Opinion is divided regarding the merits
of Cornelius. By his own countrymen he is
much admired; and certainly the importance
of the impetus which he gave to mural decora-
tion in Germany cannot be overestimated. French
critics, on the other hand, regard him as more
a thinker than an artist. e is admitted to
have been a profoundly creative genius, but with-
out mastery in manipulation or great power as a
colourist. He formed, however, a school, from
which have gone forth many illustrious pupils ; but
he lived to see it losing hold on public sympathy.
A series of his cartoons is preserved in the National
Gallery, Berlin, and his works have been repro-
duced by Amsler, Schoefer, Eberle, and the best
German engravers. He died in Berlin, 6th March
1867. See his Life by Férster (2 vols. Berlin, 1874).

ee

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

CORNICE 485

Cornell University, named from its founder,
Ezra Cornell (1807-1874), is situated in the city of
Ithaca, N.Y., and was opened in 1868, on a thor-
oughly unsectarian basis. By the terms of its
charter it must educate, free of all fees, one stu-
dent annually from each of the 128 assembly dis-
tricts of the State of New York, besides providin
instruction in ‘agriculture and the mechanic arts,
in return for the income derived from the sale of
989,000 acres of public lands, which was transferred
toit by the State. The endowment funds now (1898)
umount to over $6,300,000. Besides the four pe
eral courses of four years each in arts, philoso-

hy, letters, and science, the university provides
instruction in many lines of graduate work, in
architecture, in civil, electrical, mechanical, and
marine engineering. There is a flourishing school
of law. here are 39 fellowships and graduate
scholarships and 36 scholarships for undergradu-
ates, all of which are awarded for excellence in
attainments. The libraries are finely equipped for
the most advanced and special work in all lines, con-
taining over 200,000 volumes and receiving over 400

current periodicals. Among its numerous well-ap-
pointed buildings is Sage College, a dormitory for
women. In 1897-98 the number of instructors was

191, and of students 2042.

Cornet (Ital. cornetto, Fr. cornet a piston), a
brass treble wind-instrument, with a cup mouth-
piece, is a comparatively modern modification of
the Trumpet (q.v.). he tube, which is more
tapered than in the trumpet, is less so than in the
Bugle (q.v.), giving the cornet a tone intermediate
between these, and more in harmony with other
brass instruments of the trombone and saxhorn
kind. It has the usual open notes, C (below the
treble stave), G, C, E (stave), G, Bb, E (above the
stave). It has also four higher notes, D, E, F, G, and
a fundamental note, C (octave below the stave),
but they are almost never used. To provide the
connecting notes and half notes of the scale, it has
three slides (1, 2, 3 in the fig.), the first, lengthening
the tube to the extent of one tone; the second, a
semitone ; the third, three semitones. In playing,
the air is diverted through these slides by means of
three valves or pistons, which are depressed by the
fingers of the performer, singly or in combination.

Ithough the cornet, from its recent invention,
has not a place in classical music, it is sometimes
used to play trumpet parts; and in modern orches-
tral music, it is an indispensable and popular solo

Cornet.

instrument. In military reed and brass bands it is
a solo and leading instrument respectively.
Originally the cornet or cornopean, as it was then
called, was provided with ‘crooks’ (pieces of tube
to insert between the instrument and the mouth-
piece), to alter the pitch, which is naturally Bp,
to A, AD, G, and others, but it is now onl og in
B? and A. Smaller cornets in ED a D? are
sometimes used in military brass bands. The
cornet-stop in the organ is named after an obsolete
wind-instrument of the oboe species.

Cornet (Ital. cornetta, ‘a small flag’) was, until
1871, the lowest grade of commissioned officer in
the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry,
one of his duties being to bear the standard, which,
however, is only carried by heavy cavalry regiments
in the British army. With the lieutenant he
assisted the captain in the daily duties connected
with the troop to which he belonged. Before the
abolition of purchase in 1871 a cornet’s commission
used to cost £450; but much larger sums were
habitually paid in celebrated or fashionable corps.
The pay was 8s. per day, with 1s. or 1s. 6d, extra
for field allowance. In 1871 cornets were abolished,
sub-lieutenants (who are merely probationary lieu-
tenants) being substituted.

Corneto, a picturesque, medieval-looking town
of Central Italy, 12 miles N. of Civita Vecchia
by rail, 3 miles from the Mediterranean. Pop.
6175. Corneto rose out of the ruins of the Etruscan
city of Tarquinii, whose remains, within a mile and
a half of Corneto, are amongst the most important
for the student of Etruscan history. The painted
tombs, of which some twenty are specially inter-
esting, were known in the 18th century; but it is
mainly since 1842 that they have been examined ;
vahiable new discoveries were made during excava-
tions in 1881-82. See ETRURIA.

Corn-flour is the name = Lee to the finely
ground flour of Maize (q.v.) or Indian corn.

Corn-flower (see CENTAUREA) is a well-known
composite weed of cornfields, universally known

Corn-flower, or Blue-bottle (Centaurea cyanus),

and admired for the beauty of its wreath-like circle
of outer barren florets, and the splendid deep azure
of their hue. It was formerly of some little medi-
cinal repute, and its blue flowers were used in
domestic dyeing ; from early times, too, it has been
used for decoration in wreaths and garlands. This
use became specially prominent in Germany after
1870, on account of its being the Emperor William’s
favourite flower.

Cornice, In classical architecture the cornice
is the uppermost member of the entablature, sur-
mounting the frieze. Each of the orders has its
peculiar cornice; but these, yi@Mtheir relation to
the other portions of the en , will be better
understood when explain njunction with
that term (see ENTABLATURE). In the Gothic
styles the form of the cornice varies greatly. In
Provence and countries where Roman work
abounded, the classic cornice was closely imitated
(see ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE). In other

486 CORNICHE

CORN INSECTS

districts a row of corbels, carved in the grotesque
Teutonic spirit, and bearing the parapet, forms the
cornice. series of small arches frequently rests
on the corbels. This is the prominent style of
cornice in all Rhenish and Lombardic structures,

Corbel Table.

In Early Gothic the small arches become orna-
mental—taking the form of trefoils with moulded
edges, and the corbels become less uncouth. The
decorated and perpendicular cornices are chiefly
horizontal mouldings, with flowers or heads inserted

q

aay
a>

yc

Cornice: _
Eynsham Church, Oxon, circa 1450.

as enrichments. The term cornice is also applied
to the plaster mouldings seen round the ceiling of
rooms at its junction with the walls.

Corniche. See Riviera.

Corniferous Period, name given in North
America to the lowest division of Devonian time.

It embraces the Corniferous epoch, the Schoharie’

epoch, and the Cauda-galli epoch. The name
corniferous (Lat. cornu, ‘horn,’ fero, ‘I bear’)
has reference to the common occurrence in the
limestones of a quartzose mineral called hornstone.

Corn Insects. While numerous insects are
of great importance in carrying the fertilising
ollen from one

ower toanother,
and others are
in themselves of
direct use to man,
there remains a
vast crowd of
more or less in-
jurious forms.
Of these some
attack man and
domestic mam-
mals, others do
damage quite as
effectively by in-
juring fruit and
forest trees, vegetables and crops. A convenient
account of these injurious insects will he found in
Miss E. A. Ormerod’s Manual of Injurious Insects
and Methods of Prevention, and fuller details may
be gathered from other works mentioned below.
It is here proposed simply to give a brief list of the
more important insects injurious to corn crops.

First then (following Leunis), we may notice some
of those which oe wide in their destruc-

Corn Aphis :
a, natural size.

tiveness : (1) Z bus (Coleoptera, Carabide ),
a dark bronzed e, abundant in Central Europe,
less common in England, ravaging wheat-fields, the
adults devouring the grain, the Sheets the leaves.
(2) Melolontha vulgaris, Cockchafer (q.v.). (3)
ERhizotrogus solstitialis, Midsummer Chafer, a beetle
nearly related to the last, of generally similar

habit, the larvee sometimes injuring the seed. (4)
Agriotes lineatus, &c. (Coleoptera, Elateride ), Skip-
jacks, Click-beetles, Wireworms (q.v.), injuring
root, grain, and fodder crops. (5) Chrysomela

cerealis, in the same genus as the Colorado Beetle

\

(q.v.), common in
Europe on grasses,
and occasionally on
cereals. (6) Cephus
pygmeus, Corn Saw-
fly (Hymenoptera,
‘wood-wasps’), a
long, thin-bodied,
minute insect, of
a brilliant black
colour, the larvee in-
jurious to wheat and
rye, feeding on the
inside of the stalk, |
and eventually cut- | j
ting it through near
the ground. (7)
Agrotis tritici, &c.,
‘cut-worms’ (Lepi-
doptera, Noctuidee),
common moths
whose caterpillars
feed upon the roots
of grasses and other
crops. Neuronia
popularis is a similar form also injurious to grasses
and the like. (8) Cecidomyia destructor, or Hessian
Fly (q.v.). (9) Diplosis tritici and aurantiaca, allied
to the last, infesting wheat, rye, &c. (10) Antho-
myia coarctata (Diptera, Muscide), a fly whose
eges are laid in seed, which the larvee devour in
spring. (11) Pachytylus or Oedipoda migratorius
and cinerascens (nshonters, Acrididz), locust-
like insects, which, like some other members of the
order, do great damage when they appear in hosts.
Acridium egyptium and Caloptenus italicus are
allied forms not infrequently ddhur great damage
to vegetation (see CRICKET and Locust).

Wheat crops are specially liable to be attacked
by the following insects: (12) Chlorops teniopus
and lineata (Diptera, Muscidee), flies which deposit
their eggs on the ears of corn. The development
of the maggots checks the growth, and causes the
ears to ek In Britain barley is oftenest
attacked by C. teniopus, which has received the

Corn-fly (Chlorops teniopus) :

a, a portion of a culm or stem of
wheat with a swollen joint, caused
by larva of corn-fly; b, B30,
pupa; d, fly, natural size; e, fly,
magnified.

Corn Ground Beetle :
1, larva, magnified ; 2, natural size of larva; 3, perfect insect,
janes. slightly magnified; 4, a cell containing pupa; 5, a
uITOW.

name of Gout-fly from the swollen distortions
which appear at the joints of infected plants.
Towards the end of summer the insects leave the
ears as two-winged flies, about the eighth of an inch
long, thick and stumpy in shape, yellow, with

CORN INSECTS

CORN LAWS 487

three black stri
wings, and the a
black cross- bands.

along the back between the
omen of a greenish-black, with
C. lineata often does great
damage to
wheat crops.
(13) Cecidomyia
tritici, the
Wheat-midge
or Red Maggot
( Diptera, i-
domyide), in
the same genus
as the Hessian

re BYD ERED PY >

sometimes does
much damage.
Lasiopteryx ob-
Juscata 1s an-
other Wheat-
midge of simi-
lar appearance

Corn Saw-fly :

@, maggot, natural size; b it, magni- 7
fied ; c, the maggot in its ear in the > el and habit. (14)
of the corn; d, female insect, magnified ; Aphis cerealis,

e, female insect, natural size. Grain Aphis
(Hemiptera,
Aphid), sucks the sap from wheat and other
cereals, and sometimes does much damage (see
Apuis). (15) Thrips cerealium, Corn-thrips (Thy-
sanoptera, Thripsidz), a very minute, hardly dis-
tinguishable insect, which sucks the sap from wheat
ears and causes the seed to shrivel. (16) Tipula
oleracea, or Daddy Long-legs (q.v.), or Crane-fly,
often does great damage to corn and other crops.

Oats, like barley, are very often damaged by some
of the above, and especially by Chlorops teniopus
and C. frit, Aphis cerealis and A. .avene, and
Thrips cerealis. Rye is also subject to these and
some other devastating insects.

Of a somewhat different habit from the above
is Tinea qranella, the Corn-moth (Lepidoptera,
Tineidez ), in the same genus as the Clothes-moths.
This form lays its very small eggs among stored
grain or on the sheaves. The larvee, or Corn-
worms, appear among the grain on the granary
floor, and when care is not taken to keep things
clean and the grain well shovelled, often does much
damage. From its voracity it is known as the
wolf. It spins a web round several grains, and
gradually devours them. Another of the granary

ts is Calandra granaria, the Corn-weevil or

rown Corn-worm (Coleoptera, Curculionide), a
small reddish-black insect, not quite two lines
long, and without wings. It seems to have come
to Europe from the East, but is now common in
the southern regions. The female lays an egg in
each of a number of grains, the larvee soon develop,
and a second brood is produced the same summer.
The most successful method of arresting the mis-
chief is said to be that of leaving a small heap of
corn undisturbed, while the t mass is well
shovelled. The weevils shift to the unstirred heap,
and may then be destroyed. See WEEVIL.

For the remedies used, Miss Ormerod’s work should be
consulted. See also Bulletins of U.S. Entomological
Commission ; Journal of Royal Agricultural Society ; John
Curtis, Farm Insects; Kaltenbach, Die Pflanzenfeinde
aus der Classe der Insekten (1874); Taschenberg, Prak-
tische Insekten-kunde (1880); Schmid-Goebel, Die Schd-
(asst und niitzlichen Insekten in Forst, Feld, und Garten

Corn Laws, the name popularly given to cer-
tain statutory enactments which had for their
object a restriction of the trade in grain. The
English corn laws date as far back as the year
1360, in the reign of Edward III. Before this

period, there seems to have been a general rule
carried into effect by the crown against the
exportation of any grain; and the Act of 1360
enacts the prohibition, but at the same time
excepts certain places which the king may appoint
by license. An Act of 1436 permitted exportation
when the price of wheat did not exceed 6s. 8d. per
quarter. itherto, there seem to have been no
prohibitions against importation; but in 1463 an
act was p: prohibiting it so long as the price
at home was below the 6s. 8d. at which there was
free exportation. The next change was in the
reign of Henry VIII., when an Act of 1534 prohibited
all exportation except by license specially granted
under the great seal. This act was not found to
work well; and twenty years later the previous
arrangement was adopted of allowing exportation
when the price stood below a certain point. In
1562 exportation was permitted when the price
was under 10s. a quarter. Export duties of
varying amounts were im from 1570 to
1689, when they were altogether abolished. The
subsequent legislation for some time merely
changed the price at which exportation might
begin, generally enlarging it. After the Restora-
tion, the pec of increasing the duties on importa-
tion, for the protection of agriculture and the landed
interest at home, begins to be perceptible. At the
same time the effect of that event on the relations
of Scotland and England towards each other forms
a curious illustration’ of such fiscal regulations.
Under the Protectorate they were one country,
with free interecommunion of trading privileges.
Scotland was increasing in wealth under this
arrangement; but the countries were separated
by the restoration of Charles II., and became the
same to each other as foreign nations. The English
duties restricted the importation of in m
Scotland ; and in 1663 the Scotch parliament, in
retaliation, laid heavy duties on the importation of
English and all other foreign grain. Had not the
union of 1707 made the two countries one again,
England and Scotland would probably have con-
tinued a corn-law contest ‘oo each other, as
was the case with the French provinces under the
old regime.

The agricultural interest continuing powerfully
to control this department of legislation, an act
was passed in 1670 for virtually prohibiting im-
portation into England until the home price had
reached 53s. 4d., and laying a heavy duty on
it above that point. This law had, however, little
effect in favour of the landed interest, from the
circumstance that then, and for long afterwards,
Britain was an exporting, not an importing country
—that is to say, it anes produced more corn
than its population required. A new device was
adopted at the Revolution of 1689, a bounty ee
awarded on exportation—i.e. a sum of 5s. was pai
for every quarter of wheat sent abroad when the

rice fell below 48s., so that if the price in the
oreign market would not induce people to export
corn, the bounty, in addition to that price, might.
For upwards of a century the numerous enactments
in this department will be found to be a mere
shifting, according to circumstances, of the inci-
dence of the bounty on the one hand, and of the
import duty on the other. In 1773 a permanent
adjustment was supposed to be reached by Burke’s
act, which snevided that the bounty should cease
when the price reached 44s., prohibited exportation
when the price was above that figure, and allowed
importation at a nominal duty ‘of 6d. at a price of
48s. In 1791, and during the wars of the French
Revolution, further alterations in the corn laws
favourable to the landed interest were effected.
The bounties, however, were abolished in 1814.
In 1815, after the conclusion of the wars, a law was

488 CORN

LAWS

passed prohibiting importation of foreign corn
when the price was below 80s. a quarter.

The principle of the sliding-scale which had been
more or less followed in previous enactments
was systematically carried out in the year subse-
quent to the great wars, in 1822, and particularly in
1828, when Wellington’s sliding-scale was passed.
The object of the device called the sliding-scale
was to reduce the import duty as the price of grain
increased, for the purpose of virtually prohibiting
the importation when the price was low, and en-
couraging it when the price was high, so that at
famine-prices grain might come in duty free. By
the Act of 1828, the price of 62s. a quarter on wheat
was taken as the turning-point. At that price the
import duty was £1, 4s. 8d. For every shilling less
in the price a shilling was added to the duty.
When the price rose above this point a different
gradation ruled, the duty decreasing by a larger
ratio than the rise. Thus, when the price was 69s.
the duty was 15s. 8d.; and when it rose to 73s. the
duty sunk to its minimum of Is. The effect of such
fluctuation in rendering the trade a gambling one
is obvious, and yet this was not acknowledged
until it had been proved by a series of ruinous
instances. Thus, an importer who, when the

rice of grain was 73s. a quarter, bought a cargo,
if the price sunk 4s. before he could accomplish a
sale, had not only to sell at that reduced price, but
with a further reduction of 14s. 8d. a quarter paid
as duty. What was still more important, the sup-
lies to this country being so capricious and irregu-
ar, foreign countries did not grow corn habitually
for the British market. In 1842 Sir Robert Peel
tried a modification of the sliding-scale, which did
not in the least degree mitigate the growing
hostility to the corn laws.

The basis of this hostility to the corn laws was
found in the population which had now grown u
in the large towns. The effect of the industria
revolution connected with mechanical invention
and the utilisation of steam had been to transform
Great Britain from an agricultural into a manu-
facturing and commercial country. The new
interests thus created were rapidly rising to
supremacy. But the nation did not, till the very
last, earnestly unite in calling for repeal. There
was a powerful see who defended the corn laws,
and represented, with great plausibility, that
these restrictive statutes were for the public
good. Their arguments might thus be summed
up: (1) Protection was necessary, in order to
keep certain poor lands in cultivation. (2) It was
desirable to cultivate as much land as possible, in
order to improve the country. (3) If improvement
by that means were to cease, we should be depend-
ent on foreigners for a large portion of the food of
the people. (4) Such dependence would be fraught
with immense danger ; in the event of war, supplies
might be stopped, or our ports might be blockaded,
the result being famine, disease, and civil war.
(5) The advantage gained by protection enabled the
landed proprietors and their tenants to encourage
manufactures and trade; so much so, that if the
corn laws were abolished, half the country shop-
keepers would be ruined; that would be followed
by the stoppage of many of the mills and factories ;
large numbers of the working-classes would be
thrown idle; disturbances would ensue; capital
would be withdrawn; and what would happen
then, the wisest could not foresee. Such argu-
ments had great weight with the labouring-
classes, the small-town shopkeepers, almost all the
members of the learned professions, and an immense
majority of both Houses of parliament. Those
who endeavoured to represent the impolicy of a
restricted trade in corn were generally set down as
little better than mischief-makers. In the House

of Lords in 1839, Lord Melbourne, a Liberal
remier, said, ‘To leave the whole agricultural
interest without protection, I declare before God
that I think it the wildest and maddest scheme
that has ever entered into the imagination of man
to. conceive.’

Meanwhile the ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE concen-
trated the efforts of the free-trade party in Britain,
and ultimately enabled them to carry the repeal
of the corn laws, and to establish in practice the
principle of free trade. In 1836 a number of philo- °
sophical radicals, among whom were Grote, Joseph
Hume, and Roebuck, had formed an association
for repealing the corn laws. In 1838 seven Man-
chester merchants formed an association of the
same kind. The latter was soon joined by Cobden,
who threw all his energy into the agitation, and
secured for it also the eloquent advocacy of
John Bright. Charles Villiers, who led their cause
in the House of Commons, moved in February 1838
that the House resolve itself into a committee of |
inquiry on the corn laws. The motion was rejected
by 342 to195; and immediately the famous League
was formed, with a central office at Manchester,
its constitution dating from the 20th March 1839.

This was the beginning of a remarkable agita-
tion, supported by lectures, verses, pamphlets, and
popular oratory, which had a great influence on
the economic and political education of the country.
Large sums of money were raised, and a vast mass
of popular literature bearing on the corn laws was
diffused. In 1843 the League raised £50,000; in
1844, £100,000; in 1845, £250,000, for continuing
the agitation. At a great meeting at Manchester
eae £60,000 were subscribed in an hour and
a half.

The opposition to the corn laws steadily increased.
Roused by the addresses of Mr Cobden, Mr Bright,
and other leaders of the League, the people poured
in petitions to parliament. The failure of the
potato crop and the famine imminent in Ireland
gave an overwhelming weight to the arguments
of the League. At length the Conservative premier,
Sir Robert Peel, became a convert to Free Trade
(q.v.), and in 1846 carried a measure to put an
end to the corn laws. By this act, the duty on
corn was at once greatly reduced, and was to cease
altogether in 1849, with the exception of a regis-
tration duty of 1s. a quarter, which terminated in.
1869.

The repeal of the corn laws did not lead to a very
great fall in the price of corn, nor did it result in
the ruin of the agricultural interest. The vast
expansion of industries, attended with a large in-
crease of population and the growing demand for
food, kept prices up to a tolerably high level. A
markedly increased consumption of butcher-meat
specially tended to enhance prices in that depart-
ment and to raise the rent of land. With the
development of American competition, about the
year 1876, however, a new period set in. English .
agriculture has suffered severely, a fact which has
largely contributed to the formation of a Fair-trade
Party demanding among other things what they
consider a moderate and reasonable protection for
our landed and cultivating classes.

The pressure of American competition has also of
late years led to the establishment of a corn-law
system for the protection of agriculture in Germany.
In 1879 protective duties on the importation of
foreign grain were passed by the imperial parliament,
and these have since been considerably increased.
In France, trade in grain has long been subject to
government regulation. During the course of the
19th century the duties on importation had been

eatly reduced, but within the last few years things
Bos followed the same course as in Germany.
Slightly raised in 1881, the duties on ‘grain were

CORNO

CORNWALL 489

increased fivefold in 1885. See BRIGHT, and COBDEN,
and works there cited.

Corno, MONTE. See GRAN SAsso D'ITALIA.

Cornouaille, a district forming part of Brit-
tany, included within the modern department of
Finistére. It is one of the most barren and desolate
sake of France; the chief town is Quimper. The

entity of the name with Cornwall is obvious,
See BRITTANY.

Corns (Lat. cornu, ‘horn,’ through the French)
are small hard growths, resulting from an increase
in the thickness of the cuticle or epidermis, which
is generally caused by the irritation of some ex-
cessive pressure or friction on the part. They occur
most commonly on the feet as a result of tight or
ill-fitting shoes. Corns are either hard or soft;
the structure of both classes is essentially the same.
A hard corn begins as an ill-defined thickening of
the epidermis at one point. As irritation con-
tinues, the excessive growth of epidermis increases,
and the papille (see SKIN) beneath also enlarge,
giving the deeper part of the growth a fibrous
appearance, popularly described as the ‘roots’ of
the corn. Pressure upon the sensitive nerves of
these papillz causes the usual pain of corns. Old
corns often have a bursa or sac developed beneath
them, which in part protects the underlying struc-
tures. Excessive irritation sometimes causes this
bursa, or in its absence the connective tissue
beneath a corn, to inflame and suppurate ; and the
little abscess thus formed, confin the hardened
epidermis, gives rise to intense suffering. In so-
called fibrous corns, more allied to warts, the en-
largement of the papilla predominates, and the pain
is greater than in ordinary hard corns. Soft corns
occur between the toes, where the warmth and
moisture promote early separation of the epidermis,
and growth of the papilla ; they are therefore more
— than the other forms, and often extremely
painful.

The treatment of corns consists in the removal of
all undue pressure or friction, either by removing
the shoe altogether, or protecting the corn by sur-
rounding it with a border of some soft material, as
Amadou (q.v.) or soft leather; or the hardened
cuticle may be pared or filed away, the central part
most deeply. Of late years a simple and convenient
remedy has been introduced, now sold everywhere
as a ‘certain and painless cure for corns.’ It con-
sists of a solution of salicylic acid in collodion, one
drachm to one ounce, with a small proportion of
extract of Indian hemp. It is pain over the
corn once or twice daily, and allowed to dry, with
the effect of so softening the epidermis that, usually
after six or eight applications, it can readily be
peeled off with the aid of hot water. Soft corns
should be freely dusted with oxide of zine powder,
and the affected toe isolated from its neighbours by
means of medicated cotton-wool. If suppuration
oceur beneath a corn, the matter must be let out
by a puncture, after the corn has been pared down.

hose subject to corns should avoid patent leather
boots, or even eschew leather altogether, and use
‘pannuscorium’ or some other more porous sub-
stitute.

Corns affect horses as well as men. In the foot
of the horse they occur in the angle between the
bars and outer crust, and consist in a bruise of
the sensitive secreting sole. Some forms of feet
are especially subject to them. Corns constitute
unsoundness; cause a short, careful, tripping
gait; are the most frequent source of lameness
amongst roadsters; abound in badly-shod horses,
and usually oceur in the inside heels of the fore-feet,
these being more especially subjected to weight,
and hence to pressure. The discoloured spot indi-
cating the recent corn must be carefully cut into

with a fine drawing-knife; any serum or blood is
thus allowed free vent. If the bruise has been
extensive, a poultice will have the twofold effect of
allaying irritation and relieving the sensitive parte
by softening the hard unyielding horn. When the
injury has n of some standing, and soft faulty
horn is secreted, a drop of diluted nitric acid may be
applied. On no account must the bars or outer
crust be removed; they are required for bearing
weight, which may be further kept off the injurec
part by the use of a bar-shoe. In horses subject to
corns, harden the feet by putting on tips or slippers
instead of full shoes, thus bringing the heels into
contact with the ground ; this will cause a rapid and
strong growth of te not liable to be bruised.
Corn Salad, or LAms’s Letruce ( Valerian-
ella), a genus of Valerianacez, humble annual
weeds, of which some are as spring salads,
especially in France and Germany. The commonest
species is V. olitoria, which is naturalised in the
United States, and often called Fetticus or Vetti-
cost. There are several native American species. ~

Cornstone, an arenaceous or siliceous lime-
stone, often mottled, and not infrequently concre-
tionary. It usually occurs in those systems which
are largely composed of reddish sandstones.

Cornucopia (Lat. cornu, ‘a horn,’ and copia,
‘plenty ’), in classical antiquities, the horn or sym-
bol of plenty. placed in the hands of emblematical

en

figures of ty, Liberality, and the like, who are
represented as pouring from it an abundance of
fruits orcorn. It is frequently used in architecture,

sculpture, and heraldry.

Cornwall, a maritime county, forming the
south-western extremity of England, and the
southernmost part of the British Isles. It is penin-

sular, tapering westward from Devonshire to the
Land’s End, bounded on the E. by Devonshire, on
the N. by the Bristol Channel, on the W. by the
Atlantic, and on the 8. by the English Channel.
No part of the county is more than 20 miles from
the sea. The total length from Welcombe to the
Land’s End is 81 miles, and the extreme breadth
from Morwenstow to the Rame Head 45 miles. The
Scilly Isles, 24 miles W. of the Land’s End, form
part of the county. The area is 1365 sq. m.,
of which 63°4 per cent. is under cultivation.
There are very extensive stretches of moorland,
much rocky and barren, but a large proportion
useful as mountain pasture. The surface of the
county is very irregular, and a ridge of rugged,
bleak, rocky hills, interspersed with moors,
stretches from the Tamar to the Land’s End, a con-
tinuation of the Dartmoor upland, and cme: the
watershed. Brown Billy (1368 feet) is the loftiest
point in the county. As this range is nearer the
north of Cornwall than the south, the ce rivers
are on the southern side, and empty themselves into
the English Channel. With the exception of afew
unimportant creeks, there are only two harbours on
the north coast—the estuary of the Camel, on
which is Padstow, and the bay of St Ives. For
nearly the whole of its length this north coast is
formed of bold and picturesque cliffs ; but at Per-
ranzabuloe and Gwithian there are hills of blown
sea-sand, which have buried much good land. The
southern coast is also for the most part bold and
rocky, but indented with many headlands and bays.
Between the Land’s End (5° 41’ 31” W.) and the
Lizard Point (49° 57’ 30” S.) is the deep indentation
named Mount’s Bay, from St Michael's Mount, with
the harbour-works of Penzance. East of the Lizard
is Falmouth Bay, into which opens Falmouth Har-
bour, one of the finest in Britain. On the eastern
boundary of the county is another of the great
havens of the kingdom, Plymouth Sound. The
estuary of the Fowey also affords a small but per-

490

CORNWALL

fectly sheltered deep-water harbour—of considerable
importance in the middle ages. The chief river is
the Tamar, which practically divides Cornwall from
Devon, rising within 3 miles of the north coast at
Wooley Barrows. It is tidal, and navigable for
19 miles (total length 59) from its embouchure in
Plymouth Sound. Its principal Cornish tributary
is the Notter, which enters it through the estuary
of the Lynhir, and is navigable for 5 miles. The
lower part of the estuary of the Tamar is called the
Hamoaze. The Fowey is 30 miles long, and navi-
gable for 6. The Fal is 20 miles long from its
source to Falmouth Harbour, into which several
smaller streams empty themselves through tidal
creeks. The Camel (also called the Alan) is 29
miles long, 10 miles being tidal. There is a tradi-
tion that a large tract of land between the Land’s
End and the Scilly Isles was submerged by the sea.
This is the fabled Lyonesse.

Cornwall is mainly composed of clay-slate, pro-
vineially called killas, which is broken along the
higher ground by the protrusion of bosses of granite,
in five larger and many smaller masses, probabl
connected beneath the surface. Associated wit
the granite are schorl and allied rocks, and there
are many dikes of quartz- and felspar-porphyry,
locally termed elvans. The slates are interspersed
with igneous rocks, interbedded and intrusive, and
there has been much alteration. The Lizard dis-
trict presents the most complex series in the king-
dom. Serpentine and gabbro are the most distine-
tive rocks here; but there are schists and gneisses
and porphyries in singular variety. The stratified
rocks of the east of the county are recognised as
Devonian ; in the central region Silurian are largely
represented ; the western may be still older; and
the Lizard are believed to be partly Archean.
Mining has been carried on in Cornwall from
prehistoric times, and the county has been regarded
as the Cassiterides (q.v.) of the Phoenicians and
Greeks. The most profitable mines are near the
junctions of the granite and killas, and the most
important mining area at the present day is
around Camborne and Redruth ; the deepest and
richest mine is Dolcoath, wrought to a depth of
about half a mile. The county yields tin, copper,
lead, iron, zinc, silver, cobalt, antimony, man-
ganese, bismuth, tungsten, and arsenic in com-
mercial quantities; and a greater variety of
minerals (some unique) than any other part cf
the United Kingdom. Gold has been found in
alluvial tin works or ‘streams,’ the largest nugget
over two ounces. Of late years mining has been
very much reduced, and almost all the mines now
existing are tin, of which Cornwall yields nearly
all that is raised in the kingdom. The output of
copper is at present small. Next to tin, the most
important mineral product is china clay (kaolin),
the decomposed felspar of granite which has under-
gone the natural process of kaolinisation. The
chief centre of this industry is the district north of
St Austell. Here also is found a peculiar kind of
granite called china-stone (petuntze).

The fisheries of Cornwall are extensive and
important, and in favourable seasons large quan-
tities of pilchards are caught by seining, cured,
and exported to the Mediterranean, where they
form a.common Lenten food. Herring and mackerel
fisheries are also extensive, and enormous quan-
tities are sent by rail to London and various
inland markets. The climate is generally mild, but
damp. In the extreme west of the county snow
seldom lies, and the winter temperature is such
that plants live and flourish in the open air that
require protection almost anywhere else in Eng-
land. t Trevarrick, near St Austell, and Lamor-
ran and Penjerrick, near Falmouth, many foreign
trees and shrubs have been successfully acclima-

tised. Camellias grow and flower in the open air
as luxuriantly as the common laurel in sheltered
localities. The gardens at Trescoe, Scilly, are
quite tropical in character, from the variety and
beauty of their tropical contents. This favourable
climate has been turned to good account in the
Scilly Isles and the Penzance district, by the
development of market-gardening for the supply of
early vegetables to the leading markets, particu-
larly broccoli and potatoes, of which double cro
are raised annually. With the exception of the
peach, nectarine, and apricot, nearly all fruit-trees
thrive and mature ; and the banks of the Tamar are
specially favourable to the growth of cherries and
strawberries, for rail supply. As a general agricul-
tural county (its moorlands excepted), Cornwall
stands high : the soil is rich ; crops are abundant,
and in some localities very early.

There are very few manufactures; and most of
the inhabitants, since the falling off in mining, are
employed in agriculture. The population in 1881.
was 329,484; in 1891, 322,589. Cornwall contains
one parliamentary borough—Falmouth and Penryn,
and six county divisions. It returned 40 members
prior to 1832, 14 till 1867, 12 till 1885, and now 7 in
all. The bishopric of Cornwall, merged in that of
Exeter since Saxon times, was restored in 1876, and
the see fixed at Truro.

Cornwall remained in the hands of its Celtic in-

habitants, and under the rule of the British Church,
with more or less completeness, until it was finally |
subjugated by Athelstan in 936. The ancient
Cornish language belonged to the Cymrie or
Brythonic group of the Celtic tongues (see CELTS),
and was akin to Welsh and Breton. It was gener-
ally spoken until the reign of Elizabeth, and it was
not until 1678 that it finally ceased to be used in
public worship. It lingered in the extreme west
of the county until the early part of the 18th cen-
tury ; ae Pentreath (?1676-1778) of Mousehole
is popularly regarded as the last who spoke
it; while words and phrases have been handed
down to the present day. The literature comprises
a vocabulary dating probably from the 13th cen-
tury, and some sacred dramas not earlier than the
14th. See Norris’s Ancient Cornish Drama (1859) ;
Whitley Stokes’s editions of The Life of St Meriasek
(1872), of The Mystery of the Creation (1864), and of
the Glossary of Cormac (1864); the glossary of
words still in use in Cornwall, published by the
English Text Society in 1880; a ee er by Lach-
Szyrma in the Journal of the Royal Institution of
Cornwall for 1883; and Jago’s English-Cornish
Dictionary (1887).

Cornwall abounds in rude stone and allied monu-
ments—circles, remains of huts, menhirs, cromlechs,
artificial caves or fogous, cairns and barrows, in-
scribed stones, and early crosses. The medieval
antiquities are less important, the most noteworthy
being the remains of the castles of the ancient
earldom, created into a duchy in 1337 for the Black
Prince. The eldest son of the reigning sovereign
is Duke of Cornwall; and the revenues derived
from the duchy by the Prince of Wales average
£61,000 a year. In the management of the affairs
of the duchy the Prince is assisted by a council,
the chief officer of which is the warden of the
Stannaries, by whose vice-warden the Court of the
Stannaries, which has the local regulation of minin
affairs, is held. See Tregellas’s Cornwall (4th ed.
1884), and other works cited there. ;

Cornwall, a port of entry of Ontario, at the
mouth of the Cornwall Canal, and separated by the
St Lawrence from New York state. It is on the
,Grand Trunk Railway, 67 miles SW. of Mon-
treal, and has, among other factories, one of the
principal woollen-mills in the Dominion. Pop.
(1881) 4468 ; (1891) 6805.

CORNWALL

CORONATION 491

Cornwall, Barry. See Procrer.

Cornwallis, CAROLINE FRANCES, was born on
the 12th July 1786, the daughter of the rector of
Wittersham and Eltham, in Kent. She acquired
a thorough knowledge of Latin and Greek, and
making herself conversant with nearly every study
which occupies thoughtful men, from an early age
she carried on a correspondence with many emi-
nent persons. Her refusal to accept the hand of
Sismondi did not forfeit his frien a and she
lived much in Italy. Her first work, PAdl hical
Theories and Philosophical Experience, by a Pariah

1842), was the first of a series of twenty ‘Small
ks on Great Subjects,’ the said subjects in-
eluding the Connection of Physiology and Intel-
lectual Science, Ragged Schools, Criminal Law,
Greek Philosophy, and the History and Influence
of Christian Opinions. Miss Cornwallis also pub-
lished in 1847, Pericles, a Tale of Athens. She
died at Lidwells, in Kent, 8th January 1858. See
her Letters and Remains (1864).

Cornwallis, CHARLES, MARQUIS, an English
general and statesman, son of the first Earl Corn-
wallis, was born in London, December 31, 1738, and
was educated at Eton and the Military Academy of
‘Turin. He served as aide-de-camp to the Marquis
of Granby during part of the Seven Years’ War;
in 1766 was made a colonel; four years later,
governor of the Tower of London; and the year
after a major-general. In 1760 he had been returned
to parliament for the family borough of Eye.
‘Though personally opposed to the policy of forcing
taxes upon the American colonists, he accepted a
command in the war, and with an inferior force

ined a victory over General Gates at Camden
in August 1780, and more than held his own
against General Greene at Guilford, March 1781.
But his operations were hampered by the incapa-
«ity of his superiors, Howe, and after him, Clinton ;
and at lenatlr be was forced to surrender with all
his troops at Yorktown, Virginia, 19th October
1781. his disaster proved the ruin of the
British cause in America, and was the occasion
of much dissatisfaction, resulting in a change of
ministers at home. Cornwallis, however, who was
high in favour with the king, escaped censure. In
1786 he was appointed governor-general of India
and commander-in-chief, and in this double capacity
distinguished himself by his victories over Tipp
Saib, and by unwearying efforts to promote the
welfare of the natives, that proved less successful
than they deserved. He returned from India in
1793, when he was raised to the rank of Marquis.
As lord-lieutenant of Ireland, with Castlereagh as
his secretary, he crushed the ’98 rebellion, and
showed a rare union of humanity and vigour in
his measures for the pacification of the country.
As plenipotentiary to France he negotiated the

e of Amiens in 1802, but showed little skill in
iplomacy. Reappointed governor-general of India
in 1804, he died at Ghazipur, in the province of
Benares, October 5, 1805, on his way to assume the
command of the army in the Upper Provinces. See
his Correspondence, ed. by Charles Ross (1859) ;
and the Life (in ‘ Rulers of India’) by Karr (1890).

Coro, a town of Venezuela, in Faleén state, lies
about 210 miles WNW. of Caracas, near the Golfete
de Coro. It has a fine aqueduct, and a college;
but it has greatly declined since the period 1527-78,
when it was the capital of the Spanish province.
Pop. 9100. There are valuable coal-mines near.
‘The port is La Vela, 7 miles NE. by rail.

Corolla, See CALyx, FLOWER.

Cor’ollary, a proposition the truth of which
appears so clearly from the proof of another pro-
oe as not to require separate demonstra-

on. .

Coromandel! Coast is a name used v guely
for the major part of the eastern coast of what is
now the province of Madras, on the west shore of
the Bay of Bengal. It has hardly a single safe
place of refuge for large vessels. The name is
probably a corruption of Cholamandalam, ‘country
of the Cholas,’ an old Dravidian people.

Corona, or CROWN, in Botany, an appendage
of the corolla in some flowers ; sometimes developed
as a crown-like circlet within the petals, as in the
common white narcissus, or prolonged like an in-
ternal united corolla, as in the daffodil. Much
discussion has taken place as to its morphological
nature, at first as to siathee it was to be regarded
as com of modified stamens or supernumerary
petals. But in many Caryopuy Den (6.6. ons)
each petal is seen to r a ligule, so cal m its
resemblance to that of a -leaf (see GRASSES).
These are regarded as of stipular origin; and in
this way we come to look at the corona of a nar-
cissus as composed neither of modified petals nor
stamens, but of the united petaline stipules. See
NARCISSUS.

Corona (Lat., ‘a crown’), in Architecture, the
drip, or lower member of the projecting or upper part
of a classical cornice
(see ENTABLATURE).
The term corona is also
applied to the apse or
semicircular termina-
tion of the choir.
Corona is also applied
in ecclesiological no-
menclature to a chandelier, in the form of a crown
or circlet, suspended from the roof of a church.

Corona. See SuN.

Corona Boréalis, a small and bright con-
stellation near Hercules.

Coronach, a name formerly used for the
funeral dirge amongst the Irish and the Scottish
highlanders. The dirge, disused in Scotland, is in
Ireland now commonly known as the keen.

Coronation. The sprigs of placing a crown
on the head of a monarch at the commencement of
his reign is very ancient, and there is probably
searcely any country in which it has not been
followed in one form or another. Generally it has
been accompanied by what was regarded as the
still more solemn rite of anointing with oil, a
ceremony which, from the times of the ancient
Hebrews to our own, has been peculiarly significant
of consecration or devotion to the service of God.
In England, before the Norman Conquest, the term
was more usually ‘ hallowing’ or consecration than
coronation ; but it would seem that the ceremony
as then performed at Kingston-on-Thames or Win-
chester was in all essentials the same as that which
now takes place in Westminster Abbey, though
now the ceremony is a mere pageant. Detailed
accounts of many English coronations, from
Richard I. downwards, have been preserved.

There have been considerable variations from time
to time in the oath. Originally the king pledged
himself to three things—peace and reverence to
God and the church, justice to a the
upholding of good and abolition of laws. In
Faward i's time it became more precise, and
assumed the form of question and answer. The

resent form was settled after the Revolution of
688. By it the sovereign, in a series of responses to
questions by the Archbishop of Canterbury, sweare
to govern the people of the United Kingdom accord-
ing to the statutes in parliament gee on; to
cause law and justice, in mercy, to executed ;
and to preserve and maintain the Protestant re-
ligion established by law. This oath was held

a, the Corona.

492 CORONATION GULF

CORONER

both by George III. and George IV. to prevent
them from granting Catholic Emancipation, and
was also by many regarded as an obstacle to the
disestablishment of the Irish Church (see Bishop
Phillpotts, The Coronation Oath, 1828). The
treaty of Union between England and Scotland
provides that the oath of the preservation of the
government, wor-
ship, and discipline
of the Church of
Scotland should be
taken not at coro-
nation but at the
accession of the
sovereign. For the
ceremonies con-
nected with corona-
tion, see CHAM-
PION ; Chapters on
Coronation (1838);
Planché, Corona-
tions of Queens of
England (1838);
Jones, Crowns and
Coronations (1883) ;
and Lives of Queen
Victoria by Holmes
(1897) and others.

The Scottish
coronation stone,
‘the Lia Fail or
‘Stone of Destiny,’ was said by tradition to have
been the stone which Jacob used for a pillow, and
to have been brought to Ireland, and from Tara to
Scotland, where it found a resting-place at Scone,
till in 1296 Edward I. carried it to Westminster.
It now forms part of the coronation chair, occupying
the space beneath the seat. Skene, in his mono-
graph (1869), asserts it to have been originally
quarried from the rocks near Scone.

Coronation Gulf, an inlet connected with
the Arctic Ocean, south of Victoria Land, in 68° 30’
N. lat., and 110° W. long.

Coronea, a small town of Boeotia, SW. of Lake
Copais, where in 447 B.c. the Bceotians defeated the
Athenians, and in 394 Agesilaus (q.v.) defeated the
allied Greeks.

Coronella, a genus of non-venomous snakes in
the family Colubride, to which the English Ringed
Snake (q.v.), Zropidonotus natrix, also belongs.
The genus is well represented in dry regions in
Europe and North Africa. C. levis or austriaca
is a very common European species between two
and three feet in length.

Coroner (Lat. coronator, corona, ‘a crown’), a
very ancient officer, in England, at the common
law. The coronator is mentioned in a charter of
King Athelstan, 905 A.D. ; and the office is said to
be of Saxon origin. But Bishop Stubbs ( Constitu-
tional History, vol. i. chap. 17) finds the origin of
the office of the modern coroner in an ordinance of
1194 A.D. for the election in every shire of officers
to keep the pleas of the crown, whence the name.
In this light, the Lord Chief-justice of the Queen’s
Bench is the principal coroner in the kingdom, and
may exercise jurisdiction in that capacity in any

Coronatiou Chair of the Kings of
England.

part of England. There are, however, particular
coroners in every county in England, and in some
counties three or four, or even more. | Every

borough having a separate court of Quarter Sessions
has a coroner ; but since 1888 boroughs have ceased
to have a separate coroner unless the population
amounts to 10,000. Coroners were formerly paid
by fees on each inquest, but now by salary out of
the county rate. The coroner is chosen for life,
and the election, which formerly lay with the free-
holders, rests, under the Local Government Act

of 1888, with the county-council, or with the
town-council of a borough having the right to
appoint one. A coroner may, however, be dis-
missed by the Lord Chancellor for inability or mis-
behaviour in his office. By the statute of West-
minster the first (38 Edw. I. chap. 10), it was
enacted that none should be chosen tas lawful and
discreet knights; and in the time of Edward III.
there is an instance of a man being removed from
the office because he was merely a merchant.
Subsequently it was thought sufficient if a man
had lands enough to entitle him to be made a
knight ; and Blackstone complains that in his time
it had come to be sought for the perquisites, and
not for the honour of serving the country. This
motive has now ceased. The coroner is now usually
a professional man, frequently a solicitor or a
medical man.

The office of coroner is to some extent the only
one in England charged with the investigation of
crime. When the coroner cannot act, there is no’
authority to examine witnesses until a suspected
person has been actually charged or accused before
a magistrate. But even the coroner's duties are
very limited. They are defined by 50 and 51 Vict.
chap. 71, which consolidates most of the previous
statutes. The coroner can inquire only into the
causes of violent or sudden death, and into these
only when the body has been found. When such a.
death happens, it is the duty of the constable to.
give notice of it to the coroner, who then summons |
a jury from the body of the ogee for the purpose
of making an inquisition into the matter. The
coroner presides over the inquisition, and the court,
thus constituted is a court of record. The jury
consists of twelve men at least, who are sworn and
charged by the coroner; and the verdict must be
found by twelve. The inquest is to be held before:
the coroner in whose district the body shall be
‘lying dead.’ If any be found guilty by such in-
quisition of murder or other homicide, the coroner
is to commit them to prison or take bail for their
appearance at the assizes, according to the gravity
of the offence, and he must certify the inquisition
under his own seal and the seals of the jurors,
together with the evidence thereon, to the court in
which the trial is to take place. The accused may
thereupon be put on his trial without other indict-
ment. The coroner is empowered to summon
medical witnesses, who are lable to a penalty for
non-attendance. He has power to pay a medical
witness one guinea for a simple examination, and
two guineas if a post-mortem examination of the:
body has been made. Coroners are empowered to
appoint deputies in case of absence from illness or
other reasonable cause. Another branch of the
coroner’s office was to inquire concerning shipwrecks.
and treasure-trove ; but this has been nearly super-
seded by the provisions of the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1854. He is a conservator of the king’s peace,
in which capacity he is mentioned in the oldest.
treatises on the common law. As such, he may
cause suspected felons to be apprehended, whether
an inquisition has found them guilty or not. The
coroner has likewise ministerial functions as the
sheriff's substitute, in making out the panel of
jurors, and in executing process in suits in which
the sheriff is related either to the plaintiff or de-
fendant. Latterly, the office of coroner has been the:
subject of consideration with a view to certain
reforms of administration.

Coroners or crowners, as they were also called.
in England, are mentioned in many old Scottish
statutes; and there is no doubt that the office,
as well as that of alderman and mayor, existed in
those parts of the country that were peopled by
persons of Teutonic race. But it was abolished
or fell into desuetude, probably in consequence of

CORONET

COROT 493

the succession war and the French connection ; and
in Scotland the duties are now chiefly performed
— officer appointed by the crown, styled the

urator-fiscal (q.v.). In Ireland the office of
coroner is regulated by 9 and 10 Vict, chap. 37.
See Jervis, Ofice and Duties of Coroner (new ed.

1880).

In the United States the coroner is general]
elected for a specified term by the voters of eac
county. He is authorised to employ deputies,
assistants or clerks, as well as a pi FF adviser, and
a physician to examine the cases which come before
him. His powers and duties relating to the inquiry
into cases of sudden or violent death are sub-
stantially the same as those of an English coroner.
But he is confined to this function. Nor does the
inquisition found before the coroner dispense with
the necessity of an indictment found by the grand
jury, as in a In cases where the sheriff is
absent or disabled, the coroner may sometimes act
as an executive officer in his stead. He must in
each term make a report under his official seal to
the Court of Common Pleas of the state.

. Coronet, an inferior sort of crown worn by
persons of princely or noble rank, as a crown
or apts so called is worn by a sovereign. In

ngland, coronets were worn by peers as far back
as the reign of Edward III. ; but the definite form
given to the coronets of the different orders of the
peerage is of later date, as is also the practice of
og within the coronet a cap of crimson velvet
ined with ermine and surmounted by a gold tassel.
The use of coronets by barons began in the reign of
Charles II. Peers wear their coronets on the
occasion of the coronation of a sovereign ; and the
are placed over representations of their arms, this
being done even in the case of peers by courtesy.
In 1665 Charles II. granted warrants to the Scot-
tish and Irish kings of arms for the peers of those
kingdoms to wear coronets similar to those of peers
of England.

The following are the distinctive forms of the
coronets in use in the United Kingdom: The
coronet of the Prince of Wales differs from the
royal crown only by the absence of one of the

VISCOUNT

Coronets.

arches. The coronets of other princes, sons of the
sovereign, are without arches. Princes, sons of
the above, have a similar coronet, with strawberry-
leaves substituted for fleurs-de-lis. The coronet of
a duke has above the rim of gold eight strawberry-
leaves, of which five are shown in pictorial represen-
tation. That of a marquis has four strawberry-
leaves, alternating with as many large pearls upon
short points. The coronet of an earl has eight

points of more considerable height, with a pearl set
on each, alternating with as many strawberry-
leaves on the rim below. A viscount’s coronet has
sixteen, and a baron’s six pearls set directly on the
rim. The so-called pearls are always made of
silver. No coronet belonging to a peer not of the
royal family should be adorned with jewels.

he term ducal coronet is sometimes applied in
heraldry to a decorative coronet like that of a
duke, but with only three leaves, and without the
cap, out of which (in place of out of a wreath) the
crest issues.

The coronets of continental nobility are without
caps, and otherwise differ somewhat from those in
use in Great Britain. They are only used in
blazonry, and are not worn on state occasions.
The coronet of a French duke is like that in use
in England, that of a marquis has three strawberry
or parsley leaves alternating with three pearls,
while a count’s coronet has nine pearls. German
dukes arch their coronets, and German counts often
elevate their pearls. The coronet of the Dauphin
of France was heightened with fleurs-de-lis, and
arched with four or sometimes eight dolphins.

Corot, JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLE, landscape-
painter, was born at Paris, 28th July 1796, the son
of a hairdresser who became a draper. Educated in
the Lycée at Rouen, he became an assistant in a
drapery establishment in Paris, and it was not till
his twenty-sixth year that he was able to yield to
his natural inclinations and begin the systematic
study of art. He was instructed by Michallon and
Victor Bertin, and in 1825 he settled in Rome, his
small view of the Coliseum in the Louvre bearing
that date. Here he studied under Aligny, ‘/’Ingres
des arbres,’ and in 1827 he returned to Paris, and
contributed his ‘ Vue prise & Narni,’ and his ‘ Cam-
pagne de Rome’ to the Salon, where he constantly
exhibited till the year of his death. His main
sketching ground was at Barbizon, in the forest of
Fontainebleau ; but he made two other visits to
Italy in 1835 and 1843. His earlier productions
are careful and precise in execution, and it was not
until about 1840 that he asserted his full individu-
ality, and developed that style, characterised by
great breadth and delicacy, and sacrificing accuracy
of detail to unity of impression and harmony of
general effect, which marks the works of his
maturity. He was not an artist of great variety
or of very extended range in subject and effect.
He was the painter of misty lakes and vaporous
rivers, of the quiet of moonlight, of the tender
moments of pure sunrise, or of softly coloured
evening ; and these he has treated in the spirit of a
true poet, introducing very appropriately his figures
of peasants, or more frequently of nymphs and
classical personages, who take their place most
fittingly in scenes like his which tend towards the
ideal and the idyllic. His works made their way
slowly with the public, but wealth and fame came
to him in the nik At the Salon he won medals in
1833, 1848, 1855, and 1867. In 1846 he received the
Cross of the Legion of Honour, and in 1867 he
became an officer of the order. He exercised a
most powerful and clearly marked influence upon
the younger French artists, with whom his genius,
his frank kindliness, and his openhanded generosity
rendered him the most popular of men and painters.
In 1874, when the medal of honour of the Salon,
which they expected to be bestowed on him, was
awarded to Géréme, they subscribed for a medal of
their own, which they presented to ‘le pére Corot,’
as they were fond of calling him, only three months
before his death, which occurred at Paris, 22d
Febru 1875. Among his masterpieces may be
dined * Danae de Nymphes,’ ‘ Macbeth,’ ‘ Homére
et les Bergers,’ ‘Onphge,’ ‘Souvenir de Monte-
fontaine,’ ‘Joueur de Flate,’‘Un Matin & Ville

494 COROZO

CORPORATION

d’Avray,’ ‘ Dante et Virgile.’ He is well represented
in public and private collections in Britain and the
United States. See Lives by Dumesnil (1875),
Robaut (1880), Rousseau (1884), and Roger-Milés
(1891); and the Monograph by D. C. Thomson
(1892, reprinted from his Barbizon School, 1891).

Corozo. See Ivory (VEGETABLE), BUTTON.

Corpora Quadrigemina. See BRAIN.
Corporal, in the British army, is the grade of
non-commissioned officer next below that of ser-

geant. When the regiment is on parade he falls
in as a private soldier, but in barracks or camp

he exercises certain disciplinary control over the

rivates, commands small guards, and does orderly

uty. The distinctive badge is two Chevrons (q.v.)
on the sleeve. The pay varies from ls. 8d..to 2s. 4d.
a day. There are 4 corporals to each troop of
cavalry, and 5 to each Company (q.v.) of infantry.
A lance-corporal is an acting corporal, who remains
on private’s pay, and wears one chevron only. In
the artillery there is a special grade of non-com-
missioned officer below that of corporal, called a
bombardier, with pay equal to the lowest rate of
corporal in the infantry. The badge is one chevron,
and there are acting bombardiers, but no lance-
corporals. In the engineers the corresponding rank
is that of second corporal. In the Household
cavalry the title of corporal of horse is given to the
non-commissioned officers corresponding to the
troop sergeant-majors of other cavalry regiments
(see COLOUR-SERGEANT). The pay is 3s. a day.
A ship’s corporal in the navy is a petty-officer
under the master-at-arms, to aid in teaching the
use of small-arms, guard against the smu gling of
spirits on board, extinguish the fires at lights,
and keep order below at night.

Corporal (Lat. corpus, ‘the body’), a name
given to the linen cloth, also called pall and chalice-
veil, with which the celebrant covers what is left of
the consecrated elements in the Holy Communion
until the service is concluded.

Corporal Punishments. See FLOGGING.

Corporation. This, in England, is either
aggregate or sole. A corporation aggregate is a
society of persons authorised by law to act as one
person, and to perpetuate its existence by the
admission of new members. Without such legal
authority the acts of the society would be regarded
only as the acts of the individuals, and the pro-
perty of the society would descend to the heirs of
the individual members. A corporation sole con-
sists of one person, the holder of a public office,
and his successors, such as the sovereign, a bishop,
the vicar of a parish, and most perpetual curates.
The only Scottish instance is the minister of the
pee A singular modern instance is the Treasury

olicitor. As regards property, however, some of
the public departments represented by their chief
—e.g. the Secretary of State for War—are also
corporations sole—i.e. property transmits without
conveyance to each holier of the office. There are
also quasi corporations aggregate, such as the
churchwardens in England, the Commissioners of
Supply in Scotland, the heritors of a Scottish parish,
who cannot hold land in succession, and have no
common seal. An intermediate class consists of

arochial boards and school boards, which ean hold
and, but havé no common seal.

A corporation could formerly be established only
by charter from the crown or act of parliament,
unless, indeed, it existed by immemorial prescrip-
tion ; but of late years the exigencies of commerce,
have led to the passing of various enactments, by
compliance with which any society of persons may
acquire for themselves the character of a corpora-
tion (see COMPANY). Many important municipal

charters were granted by ecclesiastical authority—
e.g. till 1835 rwonstls had only a charter from
the bishop of Durham. — Boroughs, too, had fre-
quently delegated from the crown, or some subject.
superior with royal rights, the power of incorpo-
rating trades or crafts within their own territory.
The freedom of the crafts or of the merchant guild

| may in general be acquired by apprenticeship or

by services in the army or navy (see GUILDS). A
corporation always receives a corporate name, by
which it sues and is sued, and it must possess a
common seal, which is the proper evidence of its.
intentions and obligations. The majority of the
members are entitled to act within the powers of the
corporation, and may, by a bylaw, even delegate
—except in the case of municipal corporations—the
powree of acting to a certain number of the mem-

ers. For these acts none of its members are
personally liable.

Corporations, whether aggregate or sole, are
divided into ecclesiastical and lay, and the lay are
subdivided into civil and eleemosynary. e
ecclesiastical are such as are composed wholly of
clergymen in their ecclesiastical capacity, and are
chiefly for the purpose of holding ecclesiastical
property. Civil corporations include municipal
corporations, the universities, the colleges of phy-
sicians and surgeons, learned societies, and many
trading companies incorporated. Eleemosynary
corporations are for the administration of funds for
charitable and pious purposes, such as hospitals,
the colleges in universities, which, unlike the
universities, the English law holds to be subject
to visitation, &c. An important consequence
of these distinctions is the effect it has on the
right of visiting a corporation, or exercising a
legal superintendence over its proceedings. The
crown is the visitor of the archbishops, each arch-
bishop is the visitor of his suffragan bishops, and
each bishop is the visitor of all the ecclesiastical -
corporations in his diocese. Civil corporations
have no visitor, but in both England and Scotland
they are of course liable to be restrained by the
courts where anything ultra vires is attempted.
Eleemosynary pelea in England are visited
by the founder and his heirs, or such persons as the
founder appointed to be visitors, and in default of
such persons, by the Court of Chancery. To some
extent similar functions have devolved on the
Charity Commissioners. See under CHARITIES.

A corporation may be dissolved by the death of
all its members, or of such number as leaves not
enough to make new elections in the way the
charter requires; by forfeiture of the charter
through breach of its conditions; by surrender of
the charter; or by act of parliament. In all such
eases the lands of the corporation revert to their
several donors; the creditors, however, if any,
being entitled in the first place to insist on a sale
and distribution of the property, whether in a
sequestration or otherwise.

orporations, as has been pointed out in the
American Civil Rights Act of Congress, are liable
to the ordinary laws and treaties of the country,
but are not citizens in the sense of exercising a
olitical or municipal franchise. The American
aw has also had occasion to emphasise the distine-
tion between public corporations which may, be
affected by legislation, while the written constitu-
tion of America prohibits any interference with the
rights of a private corporation. Further, according
to American law, the franchises of a corporation
are treated as realisable assets for creditors. The
amount of property which may be held by acorpora-
tion in the States is frequently limited in the act
or charter; and as regards charitable and religious
purposes, a general law forbids the holding of more
than $50,000, or £10,000 worth. In the States less

CORPS D’ARMEE

CORRESPONDENCE 495

ce is attached to the use of the common
of a corporation than in Britain. For trade
corporations, see the article GUILDs.

Corps d’Armée, See Army Corps.
Corpse Candle, See CANDLE.
Corpulency, See Osesiry.
sorpus Christi Festival, the most splendid

festival of the Roman Catholic Church. It was

instituted in 1264 (see BOLSENA), in honour of the

Consecrated Host and with a view to its adoration,

by Pope Urban IV., who appointed for its cele-

bration the Thursday after the festival of the

Trinity, and promised to all the penitent who took
rt in it indulgence for a period of from forty to one
undred days. The festival is chiefly distinguished

by magnificent processions. In France it is known

as the Féte Dieu; in Germany, as the Fronleich-
namsfest.

Corpuscles, BLoop. See BLoop.

Corpuscular Theory. See Licur.

ns Delicti, a criminal law term used
in Scotland to signify the body or substance of the
crime charged. ‘To make out the corpus delicti is
to prove that the crime charged has been com-
mitted ; as, when a person is charged with murder,
it must be proved that the deceased came by his
death in consequence of the injury libelled, and
not, for example, by natural causes.

Corpus Juris Civilis is the whole body of
the Roman or Civil Law, as comprised in the Insti-
tutes, the Digest (or Pandects, q.v.), the Code, and
the Novellz (see CopDE, LAw). In like manner the
juris canonici is the body of Canon Law (q.v.).

Correction, House or, a prison for the
reformation of petty offenders, See PRIsoNs, RE-
FORMATORIES,

Correction of Proofs. See PRroors.

Correggio, ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA, was so
styled from the place of his birth, a small town
20 miles E. of Parma, where he was born in 1494.
Modern research has gatos the inaccuracy of
Vasari’s highly coloured account of his struggles
and poverty. His father, a well-to-do merchant
or tradesman of Correggio, seems to have de-
signed him for a learned profession; but he
turned to art, studying under his uncle and three
other masters. He is believed to have gained some
idea of foreshortening and perspective from the
works of Mantegna at Mantua, which he visited
in 1511, and to have been influenced by the grace-
ful colouring of Lorenzo Costa. At the age of
about twenty he returned to his native town, where
in 1514 he painted an altarpiece for the Franciscan
convent, a work, now in the Dresden Gallery, dis-
tinguished by more gravity, restraint, and religious
feeling than characterise his later productions. _In
1518 # began his t series of works at Padua
by a beautiful fresco series of mythological subjects
for the decoration of the convent of San Paolo,
which are still in an excellent state of preservation.
From 1521 to 1524 he was engaged upon his subject
of ‘The Ascension’ in the cupola of the Benedictine
church of San Giovanni, a fresco in which the
master’s power is fully visible. His next great
monumental work was the decoration of the
cathedral of Parma, commissioned in 1522. The
subject chosen for the interior of the main dome
was ‘The Assumption of the Virgin.’

During the execution of these frescoes Correggio
was also much occupied with easel-pictures in oils,
ne these are his very celebrated Adoration of
the Shepherds, known as ‘La Notte’ or ‘The
a commissioned in 1522, now in the Dresden
Gallery, a work of marvellous softness and delicacy.
Five years later he painted ‘Il Giorno,’ an exquisite
picture, now in the Parma Gallery.

In 1530 Correggio removed from Parma to his
native town, where, in the same year, he purchased
an estate, and in 1533 some additional land. The

roduction of the ‘Jupiter and Antiope’ of the
uvre, ‘ The Education of Cupid’ of the National
Gallery, London, of the ‘Danae’ of the Borghese
Gallery, and of the ‘ Leda’ of the Berlin Museum,
has been assigned to the painter's later years;
and the ‘ Reading Magdalene,’ of which the picture
in the Dresden Gallery is now regarded as merely
a 17th-century copy, was completed in 1528. He
died at Correggio, at the early age of forty, on
the 5th of March 1534, and was buried in the
cloister of the Franciscan church of the 8

The art of Correggio is distinguished by its grace
and gaiety, by its sunny sensuous charm. His
figures are rendered with a bounteous sweepin
outline, and he delineates rapid motion an
momentary attitudes and expressions with singu-
lar power. His colouring the finest
delicacy and luminosity; his foreshortening is
bold and skilful, if sometimes rather extravagant ;
and, above all, he was unrivalled as a master of
subtle and refined chiar-oscuro. His works present
the strongest possible contrast to the vity and
restraint, to the reverential feeling and the accur-
ately balanced compositions, of the earlier devo-
tional painters of Italy.

His only son Pomponio, by his wife Girolama
Merlino (whom Correggio married in 1520, and
who died in 1529), was born in 1521, and was alive
in 1593. He also was a painter, and an altar-piece
from his hand is in the Academy at Parma.

See, besides Julius Meyer’s article in the Kiinstler-
Lexicon (1870; Eng. trans. 1876), and J. P. Richter’s
in Kunst und Kiinstler (1879), the fully illustrated Life
by Corrado Ricci (trans. by Simmonds, 1896).

Corregidor is the name given in Spain to
the principal magistrate of a town, appointed by
the king. Readers of Gil Blas will remember his
functions and the terror of his name to evil-doers.
The Portuguese corregidor has administrative but
not governing powers.

Correlation of Forces.
FORCE.

Correlation of Organs, the close mutual
dependence between different systems and struc-
tures within the organism. A _ three- or four-
chambered heart is correlated with the development
of lungs; animals with an allantois never have
gills; the development of a placenta is all but
co-extensive with the ipa of milk-glands. So
among plants parallel venation of the leaves is
almost constantly correlated with monocotyledon-
ous structure; and a restriction of the vegetative
leaf-organs will show itself in a counterbalancing
modification of flowers and fruit. From the time
of Aristotle such correlations have been noticed ;
but it was not till after the work of Cuvier,
Geoffroy St-Hilaire, Goethe, and their contempor-
aries, that the fact was adequately appreciated.
It was only then, in other words, that the organism

gan to c really understood as a unity of mutu-
ally dependent parts. The general proposition that
all the organs are partners in the general life, that
if one member suffer all the members are more or
less influenced, is sufficiently self-evident. But
beyond this there are the special facts which show
that certain organs are knit together by closer
physiological bonds than others, that certain struc-
tures stand or fall together, that certain characters
have a contemporaneous appearance in the his-
torical evolution. The facts are well known ; their
explanation in many cases is difficult or quite
obscure. See EVOLUTION, VARIATION.

Correspondence Classes, a method of
instruction first fully developed in the United

See ENERGY,

496 CORREZE

CORSAIR

States by the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific
Circle (1878), and since adopted in England—e.g.
under the Oxford University Extension (1889).
See CHAUTAUQUA.

Corréze, a French department, formed out of
part of the old province of Limousin, and taking
its name from a river, the Corréze, flowing 52 miles
south-westward to the Veztre. Area, 2265 sq. m. ;
pop. (1872) 302,746; (1891) 328,119. The chief
rivers of Corréze are the Dordogne, the Vezere,
and the Corréze. The surface of the department
is mountainous, especially in the north and east,
where it is broken in upon by offsets from the
Auvergne Mountains, which, in Mont Odonze,
attain a maximum altitude of 3129 feet above the
sea. The lower slopes are clad with forests, but
the district is in general sterile. Minerals, particu-
larly coal, iron, lead, alabaster, and granite of
various colours, are found. The department is
divided into the three arrondissements of Tulle,
-Brive, and Ussel. Tulle is the chief town.

Corrib, Lovuas, a lake of counties Galway and
Mayo, the second largest in Ireland. Lying only 30
feet above sea-level, it is of very irregular shape,
25 miles long from NW. to SE., and 1 to 6 broad,
with an area of 68 sq. m. From its south end,
4 miles north of Galway, it discharges its surplus
waters by Galway River into Galway Bay. It
receives the waters of Lough Mask, at its north
end, through the Pigeon Hole and other caves, as
well as those of the Clare and ‘other smaller rivers.
It contains many islets, and to the west are
mountains 3000 feet high, whilst near it are many
stone-circles.

Corrichie, a moor on the borders of Kincar-
dine and Aberdeen shires, 15 miles W. of Aberdeen.
Here on 28th October 1562 Queen Mary’s half-
brother, the Earl of Moray, defeated the Catholic
Gordon, Earl of Huntly, who himself fell in the
battle, while his two sons were taken prisoners.
There is a rather poor ballad on the subject, in
broad Aberdeenshire dialect, quite at variance with
the facts of history, and first printed in Evans’s
Old Baliads (1777).

Corrie (Gaelic cotre, ‘a caldron’ or ‘large pot’),
a term applied in Scotland and Ireland to semi-
circular recesses or cirques in mountains, generally
flanked by steep and lofty cliffs. They vary in
character according to the nature of the rocks. In
some the declivities are rounded and smooth, but
generally they are broken and rugged, the bounding
cliffs rising to heights of 1000 or even 2000 feet.
Similar features are recognised in many mountain-
regions all the world over. The origin of corries
has been a subject of some epntroversy by geologists.
There can be no doubt, however, that they are due
in the first place to denudation—to the action of
torrents and springs and frosts, aided and directed
by the natural division-planes of the rocks. Many
of the corries in Scotland and other mountainous
countries have been occupied by glaciers—the

rinding action of which has tended to modify the
orm of the ground. Not a few corries are occupied
by mountain-tarns,

Corrientes, a province of the Argentine Re-
public, between the Parand and Uruguay rivers,
extending from Entre Rios to Misiones territory,
with an area of 40,000 sq. m. The surface is gener-
ally flat, with numerous lakes and swamps, but has
undulating stretches along the Parand and in the
east, and is heavily wooded in parts. Lake Ibera, a
group of lakes and swamps covering some 1800
sq. m., is surrounded with a jungle, in which the
‘tacuara’ bamboo (30 feet) is conspicuous; and
here jaguars and alligators abound. The mean
temperature (72° F.) is the highest in the republic,
but the extremes (44°—98°) are not so excessive.

As in Paraguay, Guarani is the common language,
Spanish being employed only by the official and
educated classes. Cattle-raising is the chief oceu-
pation ; agriculture is very backward. Pop. (1895)
239,344.—The capital, Corrientes, is almost hidden
among orange-groves, 15 miles below the conflu-
ence of the Paranda and the Paraguay, and takes
its name from seven currents formed by points
of rock above the city; vessels of 9 feet draught
can reach the town at all seasons. Steamers from
Buenos Ayres (832 miles) touch here almost daily,
and in 1887-95 railway connection was made with
the south by way of Monte Caseros. Pop. 18,000.

Corrievrekin (Gael., ‘Brecan’s cauldron’), a
whirlpool or dangerous passage scarcely a mile
broad, off the west coast of Argyllshire, in the
strait between Scarba and Jura isles. It is caused
by the meeting of tides (running 13 miles an hour)
from the fae and west, in the narrow passage
into the Sound of Jura, round a pyramidal rock,
which rises with rapid slope from a depth of 160
fathoms to within 15 feet of the surface.

Corroboree is the Australian name for a
athering of aborigines, generally in large num-
ers, at which dances and other exercises are gone
through with much excitement. They usually take
place on moonlight nights, and may last the whole
night through.

Corrosive Sublimate, the popular name of
the highly poisonous bichloride of mercury (mercuric
chloride). See MERCURY.

Corrugated Metal. Iron and other metals
in sheets and plates have communicated to them
enormously increased rigidity and power to resist:
buckling and collapse by being corrugated. The
process is merely an application to metallic sub-
stances of the old contrivance of ‘goffering’ or
‘piping,’ by means of which frills are stiffened and
kept in shape. The metal to be corrugated is
passed between pairs of rollers with ridged surfaces,
the ridges of one fitting into the hollows of the other,
and the sheets or plates operated on are bent and
compressed into the wavy outline of the rolls.
Walls and roofs of light and temporary buildings
are extensively made of corrugated galvanised
iron—i.e. sheet-iron first corrugated and _ sub-
sequently coated with zine by dipping the sheets
into a bath of the liquid metal. The most import-
ant mechanical application of corrugated metal has
been for the flues of large steam-boilers. About
1878 a system of annular corrugated iron flues was
introduced, which increased the resistance of the
flue to collapse, and saved fuel because of the
greater heating surface presented by the corruga-
tions. A spiral corrugated flue gives the greatest
amount of strength.

Corruption of Blood.
TREASON.

Corrupt Practices Act. See Brisery.

Corry, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania,
situated at the junction of several railways, 37
miles SE. of Erie. It has machine-shops, saw-
mills, and oil-refineries. Pop. (1870) 6809; (1880)
5277 ; (1890) 5671.

Corsair, a pirate or sea-robber, and specially
any of those rovers who in former times cruised from
the Barbary ports, as Algiers, Tunis, or neds 2 and
became the terror of merchantmen in the Mediter-
ranean and the Atlantic Ocean, ravaging the coasts
and seizing shipping, as far north as Cornwall,
Baltimore in Cork, and even Iceland. Though
piracy on a small scale had long prevailed, the
immediate cause of the sudden development of
corsair states and fleets at the beginning of the 16th
century was the persecution of the Moors in Spain :
the exiles looked for vengeance, and their necessities

See ATTAINDER,

CORSETS

CORSO 497

‘compelled thieving; and when they were joined by
adventurers from the Levant and not a few Christian
renegades, who were attracted by the spoils of the
Indies, then coming to Spain, they soon me
a formidable power, and founded citadels and states
(see ALGiers, TUNIS, TRIPOLI, SALLEE). Their

test leaders were the brothers Urj and Kheyr-
ed-din Barbarossa, the first pashas of Algiers.
Kheyr-ed-din rose from a mere captain of a galley
to be high admiral of Sultan Suleyman (Soliman
the Magnificent), and defeated the combined
imperial, papal, and Venetian fleets under Doria
off Prevesa in 1538. Other famous corsairs were
Dragut (Torghud), a Sardinian who died at the
siege of Malta; Ochiali (U1Qj ’Ali), who fought in
the battle of Lepanto, 1571; Aidin Reis, or ‘ Drub-
devil; Sinan of Smyrna; Salih Reis; Ramadan ;
Ali Pichinin, &. Many attempts were made to
put down the corsairs, from Sir Robert Mansel’s
expedition in 1621 to the very important expedi-
tion against Algiers by the United States under
Decatur (q.v.) in 1815—the first serious attempt
to put an end to the long established evil—
followed by Lord Exmouth’s victory in 1816; but
the jealousies of the European powers conspired to
assure the pirates’ immunity, and the Deys of
Algiers levied blackmail upon Christian govern-
ments who wished to protect their trade. Noth-
ing less than the French — could have sup-
pressed so long-seated a disorder, which had
infected the Mediterranean for more than three
centuries, and even carried off captives from Ireland.
See BARBAROSSA, GALLEYS, PIRACY, SLAVERY;
and Corsairs of the Mediterranean, by Stanley
Lane-Poole (1889).

Corsets. See TIGHT-LACING.

Corsica, the fourth largest island of the Medi-
terranean and a French department, is 114 miles
long by 52 miles broad, with 300 miles of coast-line.
Area, 3378 sq. m.; pop. (1872) 258,507; (1896)
290,168. Corsica is separated from the twin island
of Sardinia, double its size, to the south, by the
Strait of Bonifacio. It is 54 miles SW. of Leg-
horn and 98 8S. from Genoa. Though now part
of France, the island belongs geographically, his-
torically, and linguistically to Italy. The pro-
montory into which the north coast projects runs
23 miles north beyond the general north coast-line,
and is 6 to9 miles broad, e interior is a labyrinth
of mountains, in which, however, a principal chain
traverses the whole island from north to south,
dividing Corsica into two regions, an eastern and a
western zone, These regions are each divided b
transverse chains into —— valleys deeply hol-
lowed by watercourses plunging from the high sum-
mits. The sp re elevations are about the middle :
Cinto (8898 feet); Rotondo (8607); Pagli-Orba
(8283). On the west side the mountains reach to
the coast, but on the east, between mountains and
sea, there extend alluvial ate edged seawards
with lagoons and swamps, highly fertile but mala-
rious, so that in summer the occupants have to
escape to the mountains. In the time of the
Romans these plains were densely pled, and
recently eucalyptus plantations are beginning to
overcome the malaria. The west zone is occupied
mostly with primary strata, granite, and schistose
rock ; on the east side the mountains are cretaceous
with serpentine and porphyry. Corsica is watered
by numerous streams, none navigable, with cascades
glittering in all directions. On the east coast are
the Tavignano, 47 miles long, from lake Nino ; and
the Golo, 52 miles long. On the west the longest
is the Taravo, 34 miles long.

With the exception of the malarious coasts in
the east the climate is highly salubrious. The soil
is bine —— and over 43 per cent. of the entire

area is returned by official statistics as arable
land; yet in 1887 over 35,000 tons of flour,
and large Earp of wheat and hay, were
im . Corsica presents a succession of climates
and vegetation zones. On the lower slopes
are olives, oranges, citrons, laurels and vines.
Higher, up to 6250 feet, are magnificent chestnut-
trees ; higher still rise virgin forests of oak, pine,
larch, &e. These again are overtopped by pastures.
The highest summits are snow-clad for half the
ear. About one-sixth of Corsica is estimated to
covered with forest, but this includes in many
places only confused thickets (macchie) of green
oak, arbutus, myrtle, and broom, often serving as
the hiding-place of bandits. Campo dell’ Oro
around Ajaccio and the country north of Bastia
are among the most fertile districts of the Mediter-
ranean. he muffilon or wild ota is found ; also
wild boars, large foxes, and small deer, but no
wolves or bears. The venomous ant, innafantato,
is peculiar to Corsica, where are also the Malmig-
nata spider and the tarantula. The minerals of
Corsica are yet little worked. Copper and silver-
lead mines near Calvi are now being worked by an
English company. Sulphide of antimony is success-
fully aed in Cape Ceri There are also iron
and manganese ores. Among the valuable stones
are red and blue granite, porphyry, jasper, alabaster,
and marble; and the Orezza mineral waters have
a high medicinal value. Agriculture is backward.
In many parts tillage is carried on almost exclu-
sively by Italian labourers (‘Lucchesi’). The chief
industries are fishing and rearing of cattle. Raw silk
is raised to the amount of about 500 ewt. of cocoons
annually. The principal ports are Bastia, Ajaccio,
and Calvi; in 1891-1900 an average of 2060 ships,
with a total tonnage of 471,800, entered, and 1642
cleared, with a tonnageof 312,000. The chief imports
are corn and other food-stutis, building materials,
coals, metal wares, salt, cattle, cheese, fodder, brandy,
pottery, glass wares, and paper ; and the chief ex-
ports, wine, wood, bark for tanning, olive-oil, chest-
nuts, and fruits fresh and preserved. There is a
railway from Ajaccio to Bastia, with branches to
Calvi and Orbo. Corsica is divided into five arron-
dissements : Ajaccio, Bastia, Calvi, Corte, Sarténe.
The capital is Ajaccio, but the most important
town is Bastia. The language is a corrupt Italian.
Though not industrious, the Corsicans are patriotic
and brave.

In early times known as Cyrnos, Corsica in the
8th century fell to the Saracens, who in the Ilth
haces it to Pisa. Thence it passed to the Genoese.

enoese towers, that defended the bays against
Saracen incursions, still add a picturesque trait to
the landscape. The Genoese, unable to subdue the
Corsicans, who had risen under General Paoli, sur-
rendered Corsica to the French, who conquered it in
1768 ; since then it has willingly united with France.

See Boswell’s Account of Corsica (1768 ); Ortoli’s Contes

Piders de Tile de Corse (1885); Paul Borde’s En Corse
1887); J. W. Barry, Studies in Corsica (1893); L. H.

Caird’s History of Corsica (1899); and for ‘the Corsican,’
BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON. For the Corsican blood-feud, see
VENDETTA, and Prosper Merimée’s powerful picture of
Corsican life, Colomba (1841).

Corsite, a variety of Diorite (q.v.), composed of
anorthite-felspar, hornblende, and a little quartz.

Corslet, a kind of cuirass, Saas the usual
body-covering of pikemen. It was made chiefly of
leather, and was pistol-proof.

Corsned, See ORDEAL.

Corso, an Italian word used to express not
only the racing of riderless horses, but also the
slow driving in procession of handsome equipages
through the principal streets of a town, such as
almost always takes place in Italy on festivals

498 CORSSEN

CORTES

This custom has given a name to many streets in
almost all the larger towns of Italy. The best
known of these is the Corso in Rome, which is the
scene of the celebrated diversions of the Carnival.

Corssen, WILHELM PAUL, a great German
philologist, was born at Bremen, January 20,
1820. After studies in philology at Berlin, especi-
ally under Boeckh and Lachmann, and two years
spent in teaching in a gymnasium at Stettin, he
was called in 1846 to lecture at Schulpforta, and
there he remained till 1866, when ill-health com-
elled him to retire to Berlin. There, however,
e continued his arduous studies until he died, a
martyr to learning, June 18, 1875. His earliest
reat work is his treatise, Ueber Aussprache,
okalismus, und Betonung der Lateinischen
Sprache (2 vols. 1858-59; 2d ed. 1868-70). It
was followed by Kritische Bettrdge zur Latein-
tschen Formenlehre (1863) and Kritische Nach-
trdge zur Lateinischen Formenlehre (1866). His
second masterpiece is Ueber die Sprache der
Etrusker (2 vols. 1874-75), in which he labours
with great ingenuity and vast learning to prove
against the world that the Etruscan language
was cognate with that of the Romans. H. Weber
edited from his papers Beitrdge zur italischen
Sprachkunde (Leip. 1876).

Cort, CoRNELIS, known in Italy as Cornelio
Fiammingo, a famous Dutch engraver, was born
at Hoorn in 1533 or 1536. He studied under
Hieronymus Cock, and his early plates bear
that master’s name. In 1572 he went to Venice,
and was hospitably received there by Titian, some
of whose finest works he engraved, as well as those
of other Italian masters. Cort next settled at
Rome, where he founded an engraving school ; and
from this school sprang the most excellent Italian
and Venetian engravers. He died at Rome in
1578.

Cortes, the name given in Spain and Portugal
to the assembly of representatives of the nation,
the origin and history of which varied greatly in
the different kingdoms out,of which modern Spain
is formed. See ARAGON, CASTILE, &c.; also
SPAIN and PORTUGAL.

Cortes, HERNANDO, the conqueror of Mexico,
was born at Medellin, in Estremadura, in 1485, of
a noble but decayed family. The longing for ad-
venture which early filled his heart was not cured
by two years’ study at Salamanca. He sailed for
San Domingo in 1504, and ere long accompanied
Velazquez in his expedition to Cuba. After the
island had been subdued he came into serious
disfavour with the governor, but was reconciled,
and became alcalde in the capital, Santiago. The
discovery by De Cérdova of Sees and of New
Spain (Mexico) by Grijalva, had already fired the
ambitious mind of Velazquez, when Pedro de
Alvarado, who had been despatched by Grijalva,
arrived at Cuba; and his glowing accounts filled
the governor with a fresh thirst for gain and glory.
He hastened to fit out a new expedition, the com-
mand of which he gave to Cortes. Cortes sailed
18th November 1518, and one of the most romantic
chapters in the history of the world began. The
armament with which he entered on the conquest
of a vast and civilised empire consisted, according
to Bernal Diaz, of five hundred and fifty Spaniards,
two or three hundred Indians, twelve or fifteen
horses, with ten brass guns and some falconets.
pearly had he touched at Trinidad when orders
from Velazquez to supersede him reached the
island. These Cortes refused to obey, and thus
cut himself off from all hope save in success. He
landed first in Yucatan, and entered New Spain at
the river of Grijalva. Proceeding inland he reached
Tabasco, and here he fought his first battle with the

natives. His victory eave him his invaluable
interpreter, the beautiful and faithful Donna
Marina. At San Juan de Ulua messengers from
Montezuma, the king of Mexico, reached him,
bringing rich presents, but objecting to his ex.
pressed desire for a visit to the king. Here when
the faction of Velazquez within his little force
began to express openly their hesitation about pro-
ceeding farther, Cortes adroitly got his men te
entreat him to change the purpose of the expedi-
tion into colonisation and conquest instead of mere
trade, and was thereupon formally appointed cap-
tain-general and justicia-mayor.

He now founded Vera Cruz, and sent messengers
to Charles V. He next united all opposing in-
terests in that of the common safety by burning his
ships behind him, and marched to Tlascala, whose
warlike inhabitants, subdued after some hard
fighting, became henceforward his ever-faithful
allies. After some delay he started on his memor-
able march to Mexico, attended by some thousands.
of his Tlascalan allies; and at Cholula a treacher-
ous attempt, by orders of Montezuma, to entra’
the Spaniards, was frustrated by his sleepless vigil-
ance. On the 8th November 1519 he reached the
capital, which Bernal Diaz says appeared when ~
they first saw it like something in a dream, or like
one of the enchanted castles in the book of Amadis.
The city was situated in a great salt lake communi-
cating with a fresh-water lake, and was approached
by three Langu of solid masonry, one two
leagues long, with wooden drawbridges at the
ip At the lowest estimate its inhabitants
exceeded 300,000. Cortes had not been a week in
the city before he had determined to seize the
august person of the king, and hold him as a host-
age; his pretext being a treacherous attack upon

era Cruz. Montezuma was paralysed at the
heroie audacity of his propessl, and was carried to
the Spanish quarters, from which he was never to
return. Seventeen of the king’s officers brought
from Vera Cruz were burned to death in his
presence, and Montezuma himself put in irons
the while. In general, however, but little apparent
restraint was put upon him, and he was allowed to

o to his temple accompanied by a apse of one
fended and fifty Spaniards. At length he was con-
strained to submit to a public act of vassalage to
Spain, and to give gold to the value of 100,000 ducats.

But Cortes was far more than an ordinary con-
quistador ; he inquired about the mines and the
methods of cultivation, and made wide explorations
into the country ; while with characteristic religious
zeal he destroyed the more hideous Mexican idols,
and sternly forbade human sacrifices. _Mean-
time, however, the Mexiean hatred for the con-

uering invaders was beginning to surmount their
fone, as they began gradually to discover that they
were merely mortal men spite of the strange wonder
of their horses and cannon, and moreover were
miserably few in numbers. In the sixth month of
his imprisonment Montezuma asked Cortes to de-
eg he conqueror craved delay, and learned a
ew days after the request that eigliteen ships had
arrived in the bay of San Juan. These ships had
been despatched by Velazquez under Pamphilo de
Narvaez, who sent a favourable message to Monte-
zuma. Cortes left Alvarado in command, and
hastened with but a handful of men to meet
Narvaez, whose force numbered 800 men; and at
Cholula, amid a blinding storm, surprised him in an
unexpected night-attack in which but three of his
own handful of heroes fell. The defeated troops
gladly embraced the cause of the conqueror.

Fourteen days after the defeat of Narvaez came
the news from Alvarado that the Spaniards were
besieged in their quarters in Mexico. Cortes at
once collected all his men, marched to his lieutenant’s

third

CORTES

CORUNA 499

relief, and reached the city, 24th June 1520. He
found himself face to face with a whole nation in
arms under Montezuma’s brother as popular leader.
A general attack was soon made upon him, and
not ee without a desperate struggle. On the
ay the unhappy Montezuma appeared on a
battlement with the view of pacifying his people,
but was wounded by a shower of stones—an in-
dignity which broke his heart. Cortes burned the
two eee idols of the city, but this did not terrify
the Mexicans, and he now saw that he must leave
the city. His dispositions were quickly made; the
start was made at midnight, Ist July 1520. The
first bridge was crossed safely by a pontoon which
he had prepared for this purpose, but at once the
lake was covered with a multitude of canoes, and
so furious an attack made that it proved impossible
to raise the pontoon to cross the second bridge.
Soon the water was choked with a crowd of strug-
gling horses and men, and the retreat became a
confused and hopeless rout. The second and third
bridgeways were both broken down, but it was at
the third that the greatest loss occurred. In the
horrors of that awful night (Ja noche triste) were
lost 450 Spaniards, forty-six horses, his artillery,
4000 Indian allies, and most of the Mexican
risoners. At Otumba, whither the miserable hand-

1 of survivors had retreated, Cortes found himself
encompassed with an innumerable host, and there
was a desperate battle, in which every individual
Spaniard performed prodigies of valour. The
exhausted victors were kindly received by their
Tlascalan allies, and Cortes at once began prepara-
tions to repair his disaster.

On the 26th December 1520 Cortes reviewed his
troops. He had still 550 foot-soldiers, with fort:
horsemen, and eight or nine cannon. Taking with
him 10,000 Tlascalans he marched to Tezcuco, and
contrived to form alliances with some of the sur-
rounding Indian tribes. At length his brigantines,
built at Tlascala, arrived, carried by a host of
Tlascalans ; and, after a perilous eeaadition round
the lake, and many ineffectual attempts to come to
terms with the Mexicans, he began the formal siege
of the city. He himself, with three hundred men,
took command of the ach paiermeg as, in his own
words, ‘the key of the whole war was in the ships.’
After defeating the Mexicans on the lakes, and
destroying innumerable canoes, he made a series of

simultaneous incursions along the causeways. The
Mexicans fought with the fury of despair, and the
triumph of the Spaniards proceeded only at the cost

of the ape destruction of the buildings in the
city. eantime the Spaniards themselves suffered
desperate hardships from the ambuscades of their
sleepless enemy, and becoming impatient, they de-
manded a general attack, in which they suffered a
severe repulse. Although famine an Y Sey
tah for the Spaniards—as many as fifty thou-
sand Mexicans ying of these during the siege—
the city had to destroyed before it could be
taken. It fell at length, 13th August 1521, after a
siege of pevensrex® dave, hardly to be surpassed
in the history of the world for obstinacy and valour.
Scarce any booty was obtained, the ruined houses
were filled with heaps of dead, and almost the
entire city had to be rebuilt.

Cortes now showed his wisdom by gg io
to restore the native institutions. He reward
his men with encomiendas or grants of Indians
for labour and assistance in colonisation. He was
formally appointed governor and captain-general of
New Spain in 1522. He next sent out Alvarado on
an expedition which led ultimately to the conquest
of Guatemala, Sandoval to the north, and Christoval
de Olid to Honduras. The last, unfaithful to his
trust, rebelled, and the indefatigable Cortes at once
set out on a perilous journey to subdue him; but

finding his rebellious lieutenant assassinated before
his arrival, he returned to New Spain (1526) to find
Ponce de Leon invested with the powers of govern-
ment. In May 1528 he arrived in Spain, was re-
ceived with marked honour by the king, and created
Marquis del Valle de Guaxaca. He returned in
July 1530 as captain-general, but to his disappoint-
ment was not appoiated also civil governor of New
Spain. He was poor and broken in health, and
henceforward had the continual mortification to see
the government muddled by envious and incom-
petent men, During ten years he was constantly
engaged in making new discoveries to the north of
Mexico, but now, says Bernal Diaz, ‘ everything
turned to thorns with him;’ and in 1540 he re-
turned to Spain. He accompanied the emperor
in his unhappy expedition to Algeria, and was
mortified by having his offer to take Algiers, if
given the command, slighted and despi Vol-
taire’s story of his proud speech to the emperor as
he stood on the step of his carriage: ‘I am a man
who has given you more provinces than your
ancestors have left you cities,’ is true in spirit,
if not in fact. Cortes wished to return to Mexico,
but was not allowed till his impending suits were
settled. His last years were darkened by neglect,
deepened by the domestic vexation of his daughter
Donna Maria’s repudiation by a prest Spanish noble
to whom she had been betrothed. He went to
meet her at Seville, fell ill, and died in a small
village near that city, 2d December 1547. His body
was first buried at Seville, afterwards at Tezcuco,
and lastly (1629) in Mexico.

The great conquest of Cortes ranks as one of the
most splendid achievements in the world’s history,
and indeed it is more like romantic fable than
sober fact. Its hero was no common adventurer or
mere courageous soldier, but a captain of admirable
sagacity and resource, a statesman of rare penetra-
tion and foresight. To the reckless audacity of a
Rupert he added the astuteness of a Hannibal—a
combination that marks only the highest order of
military genius. His whole character was con-
structed on heroic lines, and is marked with a
certain conspicuous grandeur throughout. He was
passionate, yet patient; fond of splendour, yet
simple in diet; cruel sometimes, yet sincerely
religious ; silent and reserved, rv capable of in-
spiring the most devoted as well as the tenderest

rsonal affection. In many things he resembles

zesar, and like him he possessed that rarest power
of knowing, as De Solis says of him, ‘how to bea
superior without ceasing to be a comrade.’ See
Prescott’s History, and the admirable Life by Sir
Arthur Helps (2 vols. 1871).

Cortona (Lat. Crotona), a town of Central
Italy, 69 miles SE. of Florence by rail. It stands
2130 feet above sea-level, looking down on the
Valle di Chiana and the Trasimene Lake, and is
one of the oldest cities in Europe, with mighty
cyclopean walls of Pelasgic origin, Etruscan and

man remains, numerous handsome palazzi, a
fine cathedral, and half a dozen churches, These
are rich in paintings by man old masters, includ-
ing Luca Signorelli (q.v.) and Pietro Berrettini or
da Cortona (1596-1669). The Accademia Etrusca
(1726) has its seat here; its museum contains a
multitude of Etruscan sarcophagi, vases, &c. Pop.

Coruna, LA (ordinarily in rr Corunna ;
among seamen, Groyne), a fortified seaport of
Spain, and capital of a province of the same name,
situated about midway between a Ortegal
and Finisterre, on a peninsula in the Bay (ria) of
Corufia, 263 miles NW. of Leon by rail. The
town divides itself naturally into the upper portion
and the lower, called Pescaderia, which, formerly

500 CORUNDUM

CORYMB

a haunt of fishermen, is now the centre of wealth
and trade. The harbour is commodious and pro-
tected by forts; and in 1888 a long-desired quaran-
tine harbour was completed, here are large
cavalry and infantry barracks, and a handsome
new college, preparatory for the university of
Santiago ; but few of the other buildings are strik-
ing. o Englishmen the most interesting object
is the tomb of Sir John Moore, in the centre’ of
the gardens of San Carlos. One mile north-
west of the town stands the famous Torre de
Hercules, restored by Trajan, which serves as
a lighthouse, and is nearly 100 feet high. Corufa
has still a considerable commerce, but its cattle
trade, which once employed a small fleet to carr
oxen to Portsmouth and Plymouth for the British
army and navy contracts, has fallen off. The
chief imports are sugar from the colonies, and
American raw petroleum, dried cod, hides from
Argentinia, cheap German spirits, and English
coal. The industries of the town include the manu-
facture of cigars, glass-wares, and canned meats
and fish, as well as cotton-spinning. Pop. (1885)
34,202. Corufia dates its origin from the Phceni-
cians, from whom it was taken by the Romans in
the Ist century B.c. To Englishmen Corufia has
rare historic interest. Here in 1386 John of Gaunt
landed to claim the crown of Castile in right of his
wife, daughter of Pedro the Cruel; in 1554 Philip
II. embarked here for England to marry Queen
Mary; and in 1588 the great Spanish Armada,
which had been refitted at this port, set sail for
the conquest of England. Here also fell gloriously
Sir John Moore (January 16, 1809), after having
with but 14,000 travel-worn men defeated no less
redoubtable an antagonist than Soult at the head
of 20,000 Frenchmen, fresh and flushed with the
expectation of victory. Few exploits in English
history are prouder than his memorable retreat,
closed by the brilliant victory that covered the
embarkation of the British troops.

Corundum, 4 mineral consisting essentially
of mere alumina, yet of great specific gravity—
about four times that of water—and of remarkable
hardness, being inferior in this respect only to the
diamond. Mineralogists regard the Sapphire (q.v.)
as a variety of corundum, and along with it the

ems popularly known as Oriental Ruby, Oriental

opaz, Oriental Emerald, and Oriental Amethyst ;
but the name corundum is more usually limited
to the coarser varieties. These, instead of exhibit-
ing the brilliancy of gems, are in general of a dull
and muddy appearance, and the crystals—which are
usually six-sided prisms and six-sided pyramids—
are externally dull and rough. The colour is
various, often green, blue, or red, inclining to
gray. Corundum is found in many parts of the
world, and has long been used in India for polish-
ing all gems except the diamond, which is too hard
for it. Emery (q.v.), so well known as a polishing
substance, is a variety of corundum.

Corvée is the name usually given to the
obligation on the inhabitants of districts to per-
form gratuitous labour (such as the maintenance
of roads) for the sovereign or feudal lord. The
forced labour for the aristocracy was one of the
grievances of the French peasantry, which led to
the Revolution. See FRANCE.

Corvei (Corbeia nova), a Benedictine abbey
on the Weser, near Héxter, the oldest and most
famous in early Saxony, founded in 822. It was
a colony from the monastery of Corbie in Picardy,
then part of the country of the West Franks. it
received rich endowments ; was the centre of great
agricultural improvement and prosperity during
the earlier part of the middle ages; and the seat
of a school, founded by Ansgar, the Apostle of

the North, which flourished greatly in the 9th
and 10th centuries, and was next in reputation
to Fulda. Its abbots were numbered amongst the
spiritual princes of the German empire. In 1794
it was made a bishopric by Pius VI. Its territo:
then extended to about 20 square miles, with
10,000 inhabitants. In 1803 it was annexed to
Nassau, from which it was transferred in 1807 to
Westphalia, and in 1815 to Prussia. The Gothic
church has a magnificent interior, and contains a
multitude of princely monuments. The library
and archives of the cloister, which contained most
valuable records of the early ages of German his-
tory, were mostly destroyed—the Chronicon Corbe-
jense, an alleged record of this abbey from its
foundation to the end of the 12th century (pub.
1823), being a forgery; but there are some
genuine though meagre Annales Corbeienses (648
to 1148) printed in the Monumenta Germania
Historica.

Corvette was a term pepbed to a flush-deck
vessel, ship or barque rigged, having only one tier
of guns, either on the upper or main deck. The
term is no longer used in the royal navy. This
class of vessels are now called cruisers. See NAVY.

Corvidie, a family of crow-like birds, in the
old order of Passeres, among which they are the
strongest. The family is widely distributed, and
includes towards 200 species. heir family feat-
ures may be best learned from those of the indi-
vidual members. See CHOUGH, CROW, JACKDAW,
JAY, MAGPIE.

Corvi'nus, MATTHIAS, king of Hungary (1458-
90). See MATTHIAS.

Corvo, the most northerly of the Azores (q.v.).

Corwen, a town of Merionethshire, North
Wales, on the right bank of the Dee, at the
foot of the Berwyn Mountains, 12 miles NE.
of Bala by rail. It is a great resort of anglers,
and boasts traditions of Gwen Glendower. Pop.
of parish, 2708.

Coryate, THOMAS, was born at Odcombe,
Somersetshire, about 1577, entered Gloucester
Hall, Oxford, in 1596, but left like many better
men without a degree, and after James I.’s acces-
sion lived by his wits, or rather his wit, about court.
In 1608 he set out on a rambling journey on the
Continent, passing through Paris, Lyons, Turin,
Venice, Zurich, and Strasburg, and returning five
months later with a record of 1975 miles, mostly on
foot. His entertaining journal was at last pub-
lished in 1611, with a huge collection of commend-
atory verses, as Coryat’s Crudities: Hastily gobled
up in Five Moneths’ Travells in France, &c. Next
year, after dedicating his travel-worn shoes in his
native church, he started again on his travels,
visited Constantinople, Greece, Smyrna, Alex-
andria, and the Holy Land, and found his way by
caravan to Mesopotamia, thence through Persia
and Afghanistan to Agra, where he arrived in
October 1616. In the December of the pacinss
year he died at Surat. Letters of his were printe
in 1616 and in 1618.

Corybantes, the priests of Cybele (q.v.) in

hrygia.

Corygaum, a village in the prea of
Bombay, 16 miles S. of Poona, the scene of the
last of the three battles which caused the subjuga-
tion of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. Captain
Staunton, with a native force of but 300 horse and
500 foot and 24 European artillerymen, fought with
success the whole day long against 3000 infantry
and 20,000 cavalry (January 1, 1818).

Coryla’cez. See CUPULIFERZ.

Cor’ymb, a form of Inflorescence (q.v.) which
| may be regarded as a raceme in which the main

= a ae

CORY MBIFER

COSMETICS 501

axis has been more or less arrested in development,
while the lower tlower-stalks are lengthened so as
to bring their flowers almost to the level of those of
the upper. As familiar examples may be cited
hawthorn, candytuft, &e. After flowering, the
main axis of a corymb often elongates into an

- ordinary raceme, as in many crucifers.

Corymbiferw, See Composirs.
sity phze'us (Gr. koruphé, ‘the head’), the
leader of the chorus in ancient Greece. The name
is now used to signify those of the highest distine-
tion in any art or science. The French coryphée
ently used of the principal danseuse in the
et.

Coryphene (Coryphena), a genus of bony
fishes, remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours.
They are nearly allied to mackerels, belonging to
the same family, Scombride. For some not very
evident reason they are often popularly called
‘dolphins.’ The body is somewhat elongated, and
is laterally compressed ; the scales are very small ;
the head of the adults bears a sharp crest. The
colours of silver, blue, and yellow have great
beauty and metallic brilliancy, whether the fish be
darting with extreme rapidity in the sunlit water,
or lie dying on the shore. Apart from their
marvellous beauty, the coryphenes are well known
for their habit of pursuing shoals of flying-fish.
Sailors often catch them with a glittering bit of
metal for bait. They are frequently seen in the
Mediterranean (four species), and also in the
Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. The most
familiar species is Coryphana hippurus.

Coryza. See CATARRH.

Cos (often called by the Italian name of Stanko),
an island of the Archipelago belonging to Turkey,
off the coast of Asia Minor. It is 23 miles long
and 5 broad, with a population of 20,000, most]
Greeks. Cos consists mostly of fertile and well-
tilled plains, partially of hilly country ; and exports
lemons, grain, wine, cotton, and silk to an annual
amount of about £50,000. Many ancient Greek
remains are scattered over the island. The chief
town, Cos or Co, is situated on the north-east coast.
In early times Cos was famous for its wine, its
amphore, and its fine ‘Coan garments.’ It was the
birthplace of Ptolemy Philadelphus, of the painter
Apelles, and the physician Hippocrates.

Coscinomancy, an ancient mode of divination
by means of a sieve (Gr. koskinon) and a pair of
shears. It appears to have been chiefly employed
for the discovery of thieves. The sieve was sup-
ported or suspended by means of the shears,
in some way not easily understood; a certain
mystical form of words was then used, and the
names of the suspected persons being mentioned in
succession, at the name of the thief the sieve moved
or turned round.

Cosenza, a town of Italy, capital of the es
vince of the same name, ee called Calabri
Citeriore. Itis situated 12 miles E. of the Mediter-
ranean, and 262 SE. of Naples by rail, in a moun-
tain-closed valley at the confluence of the Crati and
the Busento, and suffers in summer from malaria.
It is the seat of an archbishop, and has a cathedral,
a fine court-house, and trade in oil, wine, silk
hemp, grain, earthenware, and iron and steel
wares. Pop. 16,686. The ancient Consentia, a
city of the Bruttii, was captured by the Cartha-
ginian general, Himilco, and was forced to sur-
render (204 B.C.) to the Romans, who afterwards
colonised:it. Alaric (q.v.) died here, 410 A.D.

Coshery, or CosHERING, in Ireland, was the
ancient feudal right of a chief to 5 Saphacel himself
and his retainers on his tenantry at his own discre-
tion.

Cosin, Joun, a famous bishop of Durham, was
born in 1594 at Norwich. Educated there and at
Caius College, Cambridge, he became fellow of his
college and secretary to Bishop Overall of Liecli-
field, next in succession chaplain to Bishop Neill of
Durham, prebendary of Durham, rector of Elwick,
archdeacon of the East Riding, rector of Brance-
peth, master of Peterhouse, Cambridge (1634),
and dean of Peterborough (1640). An _ inti-
mate friend of Laud, he had already come into
collision with the Puritans about his ritualistic
reforms, and been denounced by Smart, a brother
prebendary of Durham, as ‘our young Apollo, who
repaireth the Quire, and sets it out gayly with
strange Babylonish ornaments.’ In later invectives
his antagonist did not spare his pluralism and even
his fondness for tobacco. Prynne denounced also
his chapel services at Peterhouse. Cosin was soon
deprived of his benefices by the House of Commons,
whereupon he retired to Paris, and for nineteen years
of exile kept up there a Church of England service.
At the Restoration he recovered his preferments,
and in December 1660 was consecrated Bishop of
Durham, and soon by his splendid energy, enthu-
siasm, munificence, and administrative ability,
made his a model diocese. His personal dignity
and commanding presence were perfectly in keep-
ing with his conception of the part of one who was
not only a bishop, but a prince-bishop. During his
first seven years he spent no less than £34,500 upon
his two castles, his cathedral, the library at Dur-
ham, and deeds of general benevolence. Imperious
in temper, he sternly repressed Puritan and Roman
Catholic recusancy alike ; for, however devoted to
ancient ritual and order, he hated Popery, and
never ceased to regret the perversion of his own
‘lost son’ who had ‘ forsaken his mother, the Church
of England.’ He differed too from the rest of his
party in his Puritan-like support of the strict observ-
ance of the Sabbath. During his last years Cosin
earned aoe pe aprigtd by his opposition to the
desire of the people of the Palatinate to be repre-
sented in parliament. He died in London, 15th
January 1672. All Cosin’s writings are inconsider-
able, save his Collection of Private Devotions (1627),
which was denounced by Prynne in his Brief Surve
and Censure of Mr Cozen’s Cozening Devotions.
lasting service to the church was his contribution,
invaluable from his profound liturgical learning, to
the final revision (1661) of the Book of Common
Prayer. Bishop Cosin’s works were collected in 5
vols. in the ‘ Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology’
(1843-55). His Correspondence was edited for the
Surtees Society by Canon Ornsby (2 vols. 1868-70).

Co-sine, Co-tangent, &c. See TRIGONO-
METRY.

Cosmas, surnamed Jndicopleustes, a merchant
of Alexandria, who lived in the middle of the 6th
century, and after having travelled much, returned
to Egypt, where in monastic retirement he wrote
in Greek a work of greater interest than value, in
twelve books, on Christian Topography, extending
to countries as far as India. Anannotated transla-
tion of the work was edited in 1898 for the Hakluyt
Society by Dr M‘Crindle.

Cosmas and Damian, Saryts, Arabian
brothers, who practised as physicians at Aigwa
in Cilicia in the 3rd century A.D., and who were
cast into the sea as Christians, but, according to
the legend, rescued by an angel. Thereafter, burn-
ing and stoning hes 4 proved ineffectual, they
were beheaded in 303. Their relics were translated
from Bremen to Munich in 1649, and their names
commemorated in the Canon of the Mass.

Cosmetics (Gr. kosmed, ‘I adorn’) are chemi-
eal preparations employed for improving the
appearance of the skin and hair. Several of the

502 COSMIC DUST

COSSACKS

cosmetics in use are comparatively harmless, such
as perfumed starch and chalk (see RouGE); whilst
others, such as pearl white (the subnitrate of bis-
muth, see BISMUTH), are more or less poisonous,
and dangerous to use. At all times, the employ-
ment of cosmetics is to be discouraged, as the
minute particles tend to fill up and clog the pores
of the kin, and prevent the free passage of gases
and vapours, which is so essential to the preserva-
ed ° any animal organ in a thorough state of
1ealth.

Cosmic Dust. See Dust.
Cosmo de’ Medici. See MeEpict.

Cosmog’ony, a theory of the origin of the
universe (Gr. kosmos) and its inhabitants, such as
is found in the mythologies of all peoples except
those in the very lowest stages of culture. There
is the utmost variety in the explanations given, the
only idea that is at all widely spread being that in
the beginning all things were held in solution by
water. Other prevailing conceptions are those of
the Pheenician and Egyptian generative world-egg ;
of the Hindu tortoise which supports elephants,
themselves the actual bearers of the world; of the
Polynesian air-god, Tangaloa, hovering over the
waters. A very elaborate cosmogony is given in
the Pehlevi Bundéhesh, ascribing creation to the
free-will of a personal deity, as distinct from primor-
dial matter, and this more elevated conception the
religion of Zoroaster shares with the Jewish alone.

In the Sanchoniathon we have presented in a
Greek version a fragment of an interesting Phoeni-
cian cosmogony, which explains the origin of
organic matter as due to a series of spontaneous
emanations. But the most interesting cosmogonies
we possess are the ancient Babylonian, of which
one form is preserved in the Givek of Berosus,
while another was deciphered by George Smith
from the cuneiform inscriptions. These present
startling identities with the creation story in the
first chapter of Genesis.

Modern cosmogonists arrange themselves mainly
according to their attitude to Theism (q.v.). Theists
explain the world of matter and order as having
come into existence at the omnific fiat. Pantheism
(q.v.), again, holds the universe to be the very
body and being of Deity, and as such to have
been from all eternity. Most men of science, in
modern times, stopping short of an actual cos-
iuogony or genesis of the world, have pushed their
inquiries into the order of development of its pres-
ent state. Some assume the necessary existence
of matter; with these there is no proper beginning
of things, but an eternal round, under fixed laws
of growth and decay.

In cosmogonical speculations, heat, air, atoms
with rotatory motions, numbers—have all in turn
been recognised as the fountain and causes of
things. Of hypotheses as to the formation of our
own rotating globe, of our system, and of all
similar systems in space, the most notable is that
of Laplace, founded on observation of the mutual
relations of the planets, their common direction in
rotation and revolution, their general conformit
to one plane, &c., taken in connection with such
facts as the rings of Saturn and the fundamental
unity of the asteroids. Laplace had in some
measure been anticipated by Kant. Thus arose
the Nebular Theory (see NEBULZ), the evidence for
which was carefully marshalled by Sir W. Herschel ;
and which is still regarded by some physicists as
indicated by the general tendencies of the laws of
nature. M. Faye has given his theory of the origin
of the earth from meteorites, and discussed other
cosmogonic theories in Sur l’Origine du Monde
(1880). Following up this view of a formation of
the planetary globes by natural causes, there have

been speculations as to the commencement and
progress of organic life upon them, and com-
munication of it from one planet to another (as by
Sir William Thomson ; and see Professor Tyndall’s
presidential address to the British Association in
1874). Darwin’s work has completely altered the
face of biological research and theory (see EvoLu-
TION, DARWINIAN THEORY, and SPENCER). For
the cosmogonies of the various nations, philoso-
hies, and religions, see MATERIALISM, THEOGONY,
EGEL, ADAM, CREATION; as also the articles on
the Scandinavian Mythology, on the Greek Religion,
on Spontaneous Generation, and on various aspects
of Indian speculation.
Cosmological Argument.
Cosmos. See Cosmocony.
Cosne, a town, with iron manufactures, in the
French department of Niévre, and on the right
bank of the Loire, 122 miles SSE. of Paris by rail.
Pop. 6684. ma
Cosquin, EMMANUEL, an eminent French folk-
lorist, was born at Vitry-le-Francois in Marne,
where his father was a notary, as well as mare for
nearly twenty years, 25th June 1841. He made
his studies at the college of his native town, taking
at the close of his course the diploma of licentiate

See Gop.

in law, and here he has lived ever since. He has
contributed many articles on religious questions
to the Conservative and Catholic journal, Le Fran-

¢ais (since November 1887 incorporated with Le
Moniteur Universel), as well as numerous articles on
more general questions to other newspapers and
magazines, and has translated La vraie et la fausse
Infallibilité des Papes (1873), and Le Concile du
Vatican (1877), two works by Mgr. Fessler, general
secretary of the Vatican Council. But his most
important work was a series of articles from 1876
to 1881 in the pages of Romania, which at once
arrested the attention of scientific folklorists every-
where. These were collected into two volumes,
issued in 1886 as Contes populaires de Lorraine,
perhaps the most really important contribution
made to storiology since the classical collections of
J. F. Campbell (1860-62) and Von Hahn (1864). The
stories were taken from a limited region, and were
for the most part poorer in detail than parallel
versions found elsewhere, but they possessed in
their scientific accuracy a value which bigees
unhappily to but few collections of folk-tales avail-
able to the student. The theory of the origin and
transmission of such stories that M. Cosquin sup-
orts in his admirable introduction and in his no
ess luminous than learned notes, is a development
of that put forth by Benfey in the famous introdue-
tion to his translation of the Panchatantra (1859),
that not only the bases of these stories but their
combinations have been carried from India within.
the historical period. M. Cosquin’s position has
been vigorously assailed by Mr Lang and others,
but has been as vigorously defended by himself.
See FOLKLORE.

Cossacks (Russ. Kasdk), a race whose origin
is hardly less disputed than that of their name.
The latter has been variously derived from words
meaning, in radically distinct languages, ‘an armed
man, a sabre, a rover, a goat, a promontory, a coat,
a cassock, and a district in Circassia.’ The Cos-
sacks are by some held to be Tartars, by more to be
of nearly pure Russian stock; but the most probable
view is that they are a people of very mixed origin.
Slavonic settlers seem to have mingled with Tartar
and Circassian tribes in the regions to the south of
Poland and Muscovy, in the Ukraine and on the
lower Don, and to have given to the new race,
first heard of as Cossacks in the 10th century, a
predominantly Russian character. On the con-
quest of Red Russia by Poland, numerous Russian

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:

COSSIMBAZAR

COSTA RICA 503

refu fled to the Cossack country; and more
on the Tartar conquest of Muscovy. The numbers
of the’ Cossacks were also recruited from time to
time by adventurers or fugitives from Poland,
Hungary, Wallachia, and elsewhere ; but in phys-
ique, as in language and religion, the Cossacks
have always been mainly Russian. They distin-

ished themselves in war against Turks and

artars, and were known as a powerful military
confederacy in the 15th century. The kings
of Poland and the ezars of Muscovy employed
them largely to defend their frontiers, especially
against nomadic neighbours ; but the connection
between the Cossacks and their lords paramount
was always very elastic, and was frequently repu-
diated to suit the convenience of either party.
The Cossacks are still the outposts of Russian
authority in Siberia, Central Asia, and the
Caucasus. Living near, or, as ‘free Cossacks’
amongst, hostile peoples, they developed their
peculiar military organisation—either ere a
cordon of military settlements along the confines
of occupied territory, or isolated camps in the
nomad country beyond. Agriculture they es-
chewed ; self-reliance and readiness at all times
for defence or assault were their chief character-
istics ; though such of them as inhabited the banks
of the Don and Dnieper, and their islands, became
and still are skilful boatmen and fishers. Their
political constitution was completely democratic;
all offices were elective for one year only, and
every Cossack might be chosen to any post, in-
cluding the supreme one of Attaman or Tacoma
This organisation they have in great measure re-
tained, though the office of Hetman was abolished
by the Emperor Nicholas, except as a title here-
ditary in the imperial family. There have been
two main branches of the Cossacks—the Little
Russian, or Ukraine, and the Don Cossacks. To
the first belon the Zaporogian Cossacks, those
dwelling near the Porogi or falls of the Dnieper.
From them again are descended the Tscherno-
merian Cossacks, those of the Kuban Valley and
of Azov. From the Don Cossacks spring those of
the ae or of Astrakhan, of the Tere Valley,
of Orenburg, of the Ural, and of Siberia. They
furnish a large and valuable contingent of light
cavalry to the Russian army, and are very patient
of fatigue, hunger, thirst, and cold. The Don Cos-
sacks give name to a province with an area of 61,886
sq. m., and a population of over 1,450,000 inhab-
itants, of whom 20,000 are Kalmucks. Though
the Cossacks have generally been represented in
the west of Europe as little better than fierce
savages, they have left a very favourable im-

ression on those who have dwelt amongst them.
Jonas Hanway found them in 1743 ‘a civilised, and
very gallant as well as sober people ;’ and many
more recent travellers agree in asserting that in
intelligence, cleanliness, refinement, and enterprise
they are greatly the ee of the average Rus-
sians. See Springer, Die Kosaken (Vienna, 1877);
Wallace Mackenzie’s Russia (1877); and Erckert,
Der Ursprung der Kosaken ( Berlin, 1882).

Cossimbazar (Kasimbdzir) is a decayed
city, which at the end of the 17th century was
the chief English agency in a It stood on
the Bhagirathi near Murshida (q.v.); but its
site is now a swamp.

Cossus. See Goat Morn.

Costa, IsAAc Da. See Da Costa.

Costa, Sir MICHAEL, a sat pe? musical con-
ductor and composer, was born at Naples, 4th
rita? 1810. As he early showed a decided
talent for music, he was sent to the Royal

Academy in his native city for education, where
he greatly distinguished himself and produced

various compositions (1825-29). He settled in
England, and in 1831 his ballet of Kenilworth was
3 uced with success. He was conductor at the

ing’s Theatre (1832), at Covent Garden (1846), to
the Philharmonic Concerts (1846), and to the
Sacred Harmonic Society (1848). His great work,
the oratorio Hii, produced at the Birmingham
Festival of 1855 (where he conducted till 1879),
raised him to eminence as a com r. Naaman,
which was less successful, was first sung in Bir-
mingham in 1864. From 1857 till 1877 he con-
ducted at the Handel Festival, and in 1871 he
became director of Her Majesty’s Yom He was
knighted by the Queen in 1869. Costa was the
pee ee of several ballets, and of some operas,
including Malek Adhel (1838) and Don Carlos
(1844). As a composer he holds a respectable
place in the second rank, but it is as a conductor
that he will be longest remembered, Meyerbeer, in
1862, styling him ‘the test chef d’orchestre in
the world.’ He died 29th April 1884.

Costa Rica, the most southerly of the five
republics of Central America. It is divided into
six provinces, and occupies the entire breadth
from sea to sea between Nicaragua on the one
side and Colombia on the other, with an area of
21,495 miles, or about two-thirds that of Ireland.
The population, which is mostly concentrated
in a central plateau of about 3500 sq. m., was
in 1885 officially estimated at 213,785, including
some 10,000 uncivilised Indians; but in 1886,

again, an official estimate gave only 196,270.
e whites are mostly of pure Spanish descent.
Except on the coast, the country is generally

mountainous, with many volcanoes, all under
11,500 feet; on the Atlantic slope dense forests
prevail, but wide savannahs are more frequent on
the Pacific side. The climate is mild and temper-
ate in ok Sah to the elevation, and the soil of
the valleys and uplands is very fertile. Prior to
the discovery of gold in 1823, Costa Rica was a
land of poverty, owing its title of ‘The Rich Coast’
solely to the anticipations of its first Spanish
settlers ; since then, foreign capital has opened up
much of the country, and brought its products
within reach of a market. Although rich in gold,
silver, copper, and other metals, its chief industry
is agriculture ; but the population is very scanty,
and only a twentieth part of the land is under culti-
vation. Besides valuable timber and dye-woods, it
yields tobacco, sugar, bananas, cacao, caoutchouc,
sarsaparilla, and vanilla, which, with hides, tortoise-
shell, and mother-of-pearl, are largely exported.
But the staple of trade is coffee, to which is princi-
ally due the reviving prosperity of ‘the Coffee
epublic.’ Of a total annual export of £1,131,845
(1898) coffee represents four-fifths. The imports,
chiefly manufactured goods from Great Britain, and
wheat and other products from the United States,
amounted in the same year to £851,780. The chief
ports are Punta Arenas and Limon (q.v.); the
other places of any note are San José, the capital,
and the cities of Cartago, Alajuela, and Heredia.
Discovered by Columbus in 1493, and probably
first settled on his fourth voyage, in 1502, Costa
Rica has had much the same history as its neigh-
bours: pronunciamientos have been frequent;
its present constitution is the ninth since the
declaration of independence in 1821; and for the
ten years preceding 1883 that constitution was
ractically suspended. The government is now,
owever, accounted the best and most liberal in
Central America. The president is chosen every
four years, and the members of con are elected
for the same term. There is asmall standing army
of 600 men, besides 12,000 militia, which embraces
all males between the ages of eighteen and thirty,
while those from thirty to fifty-five form the

504 COSTELLO

COSTUS

reserve ; and while the Roman Catholic is the state
church, religious liberty is guaranteed. The annual
revenue (1898-99) was £1,682,640, mainly derived
from the government monopoly of spirits and
tobacco, and just about balanced the expenditure.
The foreign debt, £2,100,000, was rearranged in
1897 on a basis of 24 and 3 per cent., and an arrange-
ment made to pay off part of the large arrears of
interest by instalments. There are in all about
170 miles of railway and 920 miles of telegraph. ‘

See Peralta, Costa Rica, its Climate, &c. (Lond. 1873) ;
Costa Rica, Nicaragua, y Panama, en el Siglo XVI.
(Madrid and Paris, 1883); and Costa Rica y Colombia
(Madrid, 1886 ) ; also Calvo, Repiblica de Costa Rica (San
Jos¢, 1887 ; English ed., Chicago, 1890).

Costello, Louisa STUART, a voluminous Eng-
lish authoress, was born in 1799. In’ Paris, and
afterwards in London, she painted miniatures, and
enjoyed the patronage of the Burdett family.
From 1852 she received a civil list pension of
£75 until her death, which took place at Boulogne,
24th April 1870. Her first production, at least of
any note, was Specimens of the Early Poetry of
France (1835), but it was her bright descriptions of
travel in Auvergne, Béarn and the Pyrenees,
North Wales, Venice, and Tyrol, that made her
really popular. Her semi-historical novels on
Catharine de’ Medici, Mary of Burgundy, and
Anne of Brittany were read in their day.

Coster, the usual name of LAURENS JANSZOON,
according to the Dutch the inventor of printing, who
was born at Haarlem about the year 1370. He is
supposed to have made his great invention between
the years 1420 and 1426, to have been sacristan
(Koster) at Haarlem, and to have died of the
plague about 1440. No question has caused more
discussion than that between Coster and Guten-
berg ; an account of this controversy is given under
PRINTING. It is unpatriotic not to argue for the
native hero, whose relics are exhibited and to
whom monuments have been raised. Yet the most
thoroughgoing assault on the claims of Coster and
of Haarlem, as being founded on local legends, was
made in 1870 by a Dutchman, Dr A. van der Linde.
See, however, Hessels, Haarlem the Birthplace of
Printing (1888 ).

Costiveness. See CONSTIPATION.

Costmary (i.e. costus or aromatic plant of the
Virgin Mary), or ALE-cosT (Balsamita vulgaris),
is a herbaceous perennial composite of southern
Europe. It was introduced from Italy in 1568, and
is cultivated in gardens (as in Britain, and in the
United States) for the fragrance of the leaves.
The leaves were formerly: put into ale and negus, and
are still occasionally used by the French in salads.

Costs, the technical name in English law for
the expenses incurred in legal proceedings. (In
Scotland they are called Expenses, q.v.). Costs are
either (1) between solicitor and client—i.e. the
charges which a solicitor is entitled to recover from
the person employing him as remuneration for pro-
fessional services ; or (2) between party and part
—i.e. those which are allowed to the party succeed-
ing in an action against his adversary. Asa general
rule, costs follow the event, and the costs of the
successful party are paid by the loser; but the rule
is subject to important exceptions. (1) A party
suing or defending in formdé pauperis does not pay
costs, though he is entitled to receive them if
successful. (2) In actions in which the plaintiff
recovers damages under 10s., he is, in certain cases,
not entitled to costs, unless the presiding judge
certifies that he ought to have them ; cae in all
other cases, he is not entitled to them, if the pre-
siding judge certifies that he ought not to have
them. (3) A plaintiff who might have brought his
action in the county court is not entitled to costs

if he sues in the higher courts, and recovers not:
more than £10 in certain actions, or £20 in others,
unless the judge who tries the case certifies that it
was proper the action should have been brought in
the higher court. (4) A party who is successful in
the main, and therefore entitled to the ‘general
costs,’ may be unsuccessful upon some minor point,
and therefore bound to pay the costs which belong
properly to it. (5) A penny who has tendered the
amount recovered, and who pays the sum into
court, and pleads the tender, is not bound to pay
costs. (6) The payment of money into court in the:
course of an action relieves the party paying from
costs of subsequent proceedings, if no greater
amount be ultimately recovered. “

In suits by and against the crown, the same rules
concerning costs apply as in the case of private
suits. In administrative proceedings, such as
actions for the execution of trusts, or proceedings.
to ascertain the construction of a will, executors,
trustees and others, who have properly or neces-
sarily taken part in. the proceedings, are allowed
their costs out of the fund or estate involved.
When any step in an action is put off at the request.
of one of the parties, that party is usually required
to pay to the other the costs of the particular step.
These are called ‘costs of the day.’ By the Judi-
cature Act, 1875, it was enacted that the costs of
all proceedings in the High Court shall be in the
discretion of the court; and that where any action
is tried by a jury the costs shall follow the event.
a for cause shown the judge shall otherwise:
order.

Costs are taxed (i.e. the items allowed or dis-
allowed) by the officer of the court appointed for
the purpose under the name of the taxing-master ;
and any party may have, if he choose, his own
attorney’s or solicitor’s bill taxed by the same:
officer.

In criminal cases, the prosecutor’s costs may be
allowed by the judge, at in that case are paid out.
of the county rates, the county being reimbursed
by the Treasury ; and on acquittal of a person in-
dicted who has not been committed or held to bail,
the court may order the eats 8 to pay costs to:
= accused if it think the prosecution unreason-
able.
The English doctrine of allowing costs to the
successful party generally prevails in the United
States. The right to costs, and the rate of costs, is.
dependent upon statutes which must be strictly con-
strued. The Federal Courts allow costs according
to the rates allowed by state law, unless contrary
to some act of congress, in which case the latter
will prevail as against the state law. By act of
congress in 1853 a Fee Bill was established regu-
lating the costs in the Federal Courts. This act,
by implication, denies costs to the losing party,
which in some cases are allowed by the state laws.
The rule of one state as to costs cannot be applied
to cases involving contracts of that state litigated
in another forum. If the cause is removed from
the state to the Federal Courts, the parties are:
entitled to costs according to the state law prior to
removal, and after removal under the act of con-

gress.

Costume. See ANTHROPOLOGY (Vol. I. p. 312),.
FASHION.

Costus, or Costus ARABICUS, an aromatic
much esteemed by the ancients, is the dried root of
Aplotaxis auriculata, a composite plant, and is not:
derived from the plant Costus Arabicus, as was at:
one time supposed. It is a native of the moist open
slopes surrounding the valley of Cashmere. The
roots are there burned as incense. They have a
strong aromatic pungent odour, and are employed
in protecting bales of shawls from moths. It is also

COSWAY

COTMAN 505

used in India as a hair-wash, as a stimulant in
cholera, and as a stimulating ointment.

Cosway, Ricnarp, R.A., miniature-painter,
was born in 1740, son of the master of Tiverton
school in Devonshire. He early displayed a taste
for painting, and studied in London under Hudson,
in Shipley’s school, and in the Royal Academy, of
which he became an associate in 1770, and a mem-
ber in 1771. He painted oil-subjects, aiming at the
sweetness and softness of Correggio ; but it was in
portraiture that he made his mark, and soon his
miniatures were ‘not only fashionable, but the
fashion itself.’ Having eee the personal friend-
ship of the Prince of Wales, he was appointed his
painter-in-ordinary, and Mrs Fitzherbert and all
the beauties of the coterie sat to him. His small
female full-lengths with the faces finished in water-
colour, though slight in execution, are full of ex-
hones grace; and his ivory miniatures are also

elicate and valuable. Personally Cosway was
vain and eccentric. He died 4th July 1821. In
1781 he married MARIA HADFIELD, a skilful
musician, also known as an artist; she executed
subjects for Boydell’s Shakespeare, and Macklin’s
Poets. She separated from her husband, and is
believed to have died in a convent at Lyons.

Céte-d’Or, a department in the east of France,
formed of part of the old province of Burgundy
with an area of 3383 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of
376,866. The surface is in general rather elevated,
and is traversed by a chain of hills forming the con-
necting link between the Cevennes and the Vosges.
A portion of that range, called the Céte-d’Or
(‘ golden slope’), receives its name, which it gives
to the department, from the excellence of the Bur-
gundy wines produced on its slopes. Much of

e surface is covered with forests. The valleys
and plains are fertile, and there is good pasture-
land, Céte-d’Or is watered by the Seine, which
rises in the north-west, and by several of its afflu-
ents ; 4s Bra Saone, and by the Arroux, a tributary
of the Loire. By means of canals it has water-
communication with the German Ocean, Mediter-
ranean, English Channel, and Bay of Biscay. The
climate is temperate ; iron, coal, marble, gypsum,
and lithographic stones are found, the first in large

uantities. Céte-d’Or is divided into four arron-
dunemaate 3 Beaune, Chitillon-sur-Seine, Dijon,
and Semur, and has Dijon for its capital.

Cotentin, THE, the peninsula projecting from
the north-west of Normandy into the English
Channel, between the Bay of St Michel and the
Gulf of Carentan, now forms the northern part of
the department of La Manche. _ It is about 55 miles
long and 25 broad. Under the dukes of Normandy,
the Cotentin became the seat of numerous power-
ful barons and rich abbeys. Many of the former
followed William the Conqueror to England in
1066, and the names of several of the aristocratic
families of England may be traced to humble
towns and villages on this peninsula (e.g. Beau-
mont, Bruce, Carteret, Neville). The Cotentin
is highly fertile, and is famous for its herds of
fine cattle. The chief town in the peninsula is
Cherbourg, though the old capital is Coutances.

Cotes, RocEr, a mathematician, whose remark-
able promise was cut short by untimely death, was
born at Bur , near Leicester, July 10, 1682. He
had his education at St Paul’s School, London, and
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow in 1705, and next year, through the influence
of Newton, Whiston, and Bentley, Plumian professor
of Astronomy and Natural Philosophy. He was
elected F.R.S. in 1711, and took orders in 1713.
His principal work is the admirable preface explain-
ing the Newtonian philosophy, and soya |
objections to gravitation, prefixed to the secon

edition (1713) of Newton’s Principia. Various
original mathematical papers, tending greatly to
the development of logarithms, were edited after
his death, which took —_— 5th June 1716. ‘Had
Cotes lived,’ said Sir Isaac Newton, ‘we might
have known something.’

Cdtes-du-Nord (‘northern coasts’), a French
department forming part of Brittany, and bounded
N. by the English Channel, in which.are several
small islands belonging to Cétes-du-Nord. Area,
2659 ui ™m. i por. (1872) 622,295; (1891) 618,652.
The Menez Mountains, 16 miles broad, and 1115
feet high, cross the department from east to west,
and chiefly consist of granite and clay-slate. There
are several short but navigable rivers. Though a
great portion of the south and the higher plains is
occupied by heath and woods, there are also fertile
tracts. The cultivation of flax and hemp, with
pasturage and iron-mining, supply employment in
the hill-districts; while in the sheltered valleys
and on the coast-levels grain, rs, apples, Xe.
are produced. _ The department is divided into the
five arrondissements of St Brieuc, Dinan, Loudéac,
oo and Guingamp. The chief town is St

rieuc.

Coteswold, or CoTswoLp HILLs, a range of
oolitic limestone hills, running through the middle
of Gloucestershire, from Chipping Campden in the
NE., by Cheltenham and Stroud, to near Bath in
the SW. The range is over 50 miles long, with an
average height of 500 or 600 feet, and separates the
Lower Severn from the sources of the Thames.
The highest point is Cleeve Hill, 1134 feet. For
the Coteswold Games, see ATHLETIC SPORTS.

Cotgrave, RANDLE, author of our earliest
French dictionary, but of whose life little is known
save that he was a native of Cheshire; was
admitted scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge,
in 1587; became secretary to William Cecil, Lord
Burghley ; and was alive as late as 1632, in which
year he carried the second edition of his dictionary
through the press. The first edition had appeared
in 1611, and editions revised by James Howell
were issued in 1650, 1660, and 1673. Cotgrave’s
dictionary was a really remarkable book for its
time, and is still invaluable to the philologist, not
only as a storehouse of older English words, but
because it fixes the actual forms of French words—
though it is inevitably crowded with mistakes.

Céthen. See KOTHEN.

Cothurnus. See Buskiy.

Cotillon (Fr., ‘ petticoat’), the name of a brisk
dance, of French origin, performed by eight persons.
ber quadrille may be regarded as a modification
of it.

Cotinga, a genus of Passerine birds, repre-
sented by six ppaciae in Central and in tropical
South America. The family (Cotingide) to which
they belong is often called the Chatterers of South
America, though the name Chatterers (q.v.) is by
others confined to the poe wpa They are fruit-
eating birds, and the males are very beautifully
adorned in blue or violet at the breeding season.
See Cock OF THE Rock.

Cotise, or Cost, in Heraldry, one of the
diminutives of the Bend (q.v.).

Cotman, JoHN SELL, an artist of the ‘ Norwich
School,’ was born 16th May 1782, and educated at
Norwich grammar-school, till, about 1798, he went
up to London to study art, and there made Turner's

uaintance. In 1807 he returned to his native
city, where he taught drawing and published
etchings and engravings of local architecture,
brasses, &c. In 1834 he obtained, through Turner,
the post of drawing-master in King’s College,
London, but his later years were clouded by much

506 COTONEASTER

COTTON

suffering. He died 24th July 1842. Cotman’s fame
as a water-colour landscapist has grown steadily ;
indeed Mr Cosmo Monkhouse opines that ‘ taken
altogether he was the most gifted of the Norwich
School, wider in range, a finer draughtsman, and
of more refined and cultivated individuality, than
‘‘Old Crome.”’ His second son, Joseph John
Cotman (1814-78), was also a landscape-painter.

Cotoneaster, a genus of Rosacex, sub-order

ome, closely allied to the hawthorn and
medlar. The species are shrubs or small trees,
some evergreen ; with simple entire leaves, more or
less woolly beneath; small flowers in lateral cymes;
and small, unpalatable, but bright-coloured fruit,
persistent in winter. C. vulgaris (said to be found
wild in a single locality in Wales} and other species
are common mountain plants of central Europe
and Asia, but have been largely introduced as
ornamental shrubs, the evergreen species (C.
rotundifolia, &e.) being especially used for cover-
ing walls and rockwork.

Cotopaxi, the loftiest active voleano in the
world, is in Ecuador, in the eastern chain of the
Andes, and about 50 miles 8. of the equator.
Humboldt gave the height at 18,880 feet; Reiss,
the first to ascend it (in 1872), at 19,500 feet;
Whymper, who ascended in 1880 to the edge of
the crater, at 19,550 feet above the sea. The
valley at its foot, however, is itself 9000 feet high.
The upper part of Cotopaxi, a perfect cone of 4400
feet, is entirely covered with snow, save that the
verge of the crater is a bare parapet of rock.
Below the snow is a well-marked barren belt
covered with lichens and shrubs, below which
again is forest. Smoke issues from the summit;
sounds as of explosions are occasionally heard ;
and above, a fiery glow is often visible ie night.
Lava rarely flows even during eruptions, but flame,
smoke, and immense volumes of ashes are then
ejected ; and when the heat melts large masses of
the snow lying on the sides, destructive floods
are occasioned in the valleys beneath. The first
eruption recorded was in 1533. Others followed
in 1698, 1743, 1744, and 1768, the most terrible of
all. On the latter occasion ashes were carried 130
miles distance, and thickly covered an extensive
area. et ery was quiet till 1851. In 1854, 1855,
and 1856 there were again eruptions of more or
less violence.

Cotroné, a fortified town of Italy, 35 miles
NE. of Catanzaro by rail, built on a point of land
projecting into the sea. Pop. 9649.

Cotswold Hills, See CorEswo.p.

Cotta, a publishing-house established at Tiibin-
gen in 1640, and still one of the most flourishing
in Germany. The family came originally from
Italy. Its most prominent members have been (1)
Johann Friedrich (1701-79), a learned writer and
theological professor at Tiibingen, Gottingen, and
Jena; (2) his grandson, Johann Friedrich, Freiherr
Cotta von Cottendorf, born at Stuttgart in 1764,
educated at Tiibingen, and for some time an advo-
cate. In 1787 he undertook the family business ;
and in 1795 established the famous Horen, a liter-
ary journal, under the editorship of Schiller, with
the friendly co-operation of Goethe and Herder.
Already in 1793 he had sketched out the plan for
the Allgemeine Zeitung, which has appeared since
1798. The Almanach fiir Damen (1798) and other
rape were no less successful. Cotta now
- began likewise to publish the works of Schiller,

Goethe, Herder, Fichte, Schelling, Jean Paul,
Tieck, Voss, the Humboldts, &c., establishing
thereby a claim to the gratitude of the wide liter-
ary world. In the seventy years ending in 1864,
the house had paid to Schiller and his heirs no less
asum than 528,966 marks, to Goethe and his heirs

in the same period, 865,554 marks. In 1810 he
changed his residence to Stuttgart, and in 1824 in-
troduced the first steam printing-press into Bavaria.
He died 29th December 1832. In the diet of
Wiirtemberg, and afterwards as president of the
Second Chamber, he was ever the fearless defender |
of constitutional rights; he was, too, the first
Wiirtemberg proprietor who abolished servitude
on his estates. He was succeeded by his son,
Georg (1796-1863); and he by his son Georg
Astolf (1833-76).

Cottage, a small dwelling-house, especially of
labourers, varying greatly in size, appearance, and
comfort. Since 1860 especially, public attention
has been called to the deplorable state of the
cottages in many parts of Great Britain, and the
desire to secure their improvement has led to the
publication of many works on Cottage Architec-
ture, including those of Birch (1872), Young (1872),
Bicknell (1877), Shand (1878), Bruce (1886), and
Menzies (1886).

Cottbus, or KotTrsus, a town of Prussia, in
the province of Brandenburg, situated on the
Spree, 71 miles SE. of Berlin by rail. It is an
important railway junction and a busy mercantile
town, with manufactures of woollen cloth, carpets,
hats, linen, jute, leather, and tobacco. Pop. (1875)
22,642 ; (1885) 28,249 ; (1890) 34,910.

Cotters. See CROFTER.

Cottin, SoputeE (née Ristaud), French author-
ess, born at Tonneins, in the department of
Lot-et-Garonne, in 1773, married at seventeen a
Parisian banker, who left her a childless widow at
twenty. For comfort she turned to letters, wrote
verses and a lengthy history, and in fiction won
unfading laurels. She had already written Claire
@ Albe (1799), Malvina (1800), Amélie Mansfield
(1803), and Mathilde (1805), when in 1806 she
wrote Elisabeth, ou les Exilés de Sibérie, a sto
stamped with such real unsought pathos that it
has been translated into most European languages.
Madame Cottin died 25th August 1807.

Cottle, JosePH, bookseller and author, born in
1770, was well read in English literature when he
started business in Bristol in 1791. He took kindly
to Coleridge and Southey, to whom he was intro-
duced by Robert Lovell, and offered them each 30

uineas for their poems ; and in addition 50 guineas
for Southey’s Joan of Arc, with 14 guineas to Cole-
ridge for every additional 100 lines of poetry he
might write. ‘The poems thus arranged for appeared
in 1796. Cottle aise became responsible in a busi-
ness, and partly in a pecuniary, sense for Coleridge’s
Watchman ; and an introduction to Wordsworth led
to his publication of the afterwards famous Lyrical
Ball (1798). Cottle was intrusted with the
delicate duty of handing over De Quincey’s gener-
ous donation of £300 to Coleridge, to whom he also
addressed some serious expostulations as to his
indulgence in opium, which drew replies from the
poet. Cottle’s injudicious and unmerciful exposure
of Coleridge in his interesting but sometimes
inaccurate Early Recollections (1837) has been
condemned. He wrote several volumes of verse;
the fourth edition of his Malvern Hills (1829) con-
tains several prose essays. He retired from busi-
ness in 1799, and died 7th June 1853.—His elder
brother, AMos SIMON COTTLE (1768-1800), edu-
cated at Bristol and Cambridge, wrote various works,
including Icelandic Poetry (1797), which contains
a poetical address to him from Southey.

Cotton, an important vegetable fibre, exten-
sively cultivated in various parts of the globe
within the 35th parallels of latitude.

(1) Botanical and Commercial Classifications.—
Cotton is the produce of all the species of the

PICKING COTTON.

Vol. IIT, page 506,

COTTON

507

genus Gossypium, which belongs to the natural
order Malvacesw, and is thus allied to Mallow,
Hollyhock, Hibiscus, &c., the general resemblance
to which is very apparent both in the foliage and
flowers. The species are partly shrubs, partly
herbaceous, and either perennial or annual; they
are natives of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa,
and America, but their cultivation has extended
far into the temperate zones. They all have leaves
with three to five lobes, which in a very young
state are often sprinkled with black points, snd
rather large flowers, which are mostly yellow, but
sometimes in whole or in part purple; the flowers
very soon fall off ; they grow singly from the axils
of the leaves, and are surrounded at the base by
three large, heart-shaped, cut or toothed, involucral
leaves or bracts, partially growing together as one.
The fruit is a 3-5-celled capsule, springing open
when ripe by 3-5 valves, and containing numerous
seeds enveloped in cotton, which is generally white,
but sometimes yellow, and issues elastically from
the capsule after it has burst open. The fibres
are long cylindrico-spiral tubes of from y}yth to
reyoth of an inch in breadth, which when platted

ere firmly together. The wool is also very sus-
Poca of dyeing. The figure shows the manner in
which the cotton escapes from the capsule. Some

Cotton ( Gossypium Barbadense) :
«, ripe capsule after dehiscence ; b, a seed; c, the same deprived
of its hairs, (From Bentley & Trimen.)

of the kinds have the flowers larger in proportion,
and the leaves divided into more numerous and
much deeper and narrower lobes, but the general
appearance of all is very similar.

Difference of opinion exists among botanists as
to the number of distinct species, and there are
very many varieties in cultivation, the number
of which, through climatic influences and other
causes, is continually increasing; but there are
certain leading peculiarities on account of which
some botanists and planters reduce all, at least
of the cultivated kinds, to four primary species—
viz. (1) Gossypium Barbadense ; (2) G. herbaceum
or indicum; (3) G. peruvianum; and (4) G.
arboreum. The produce of the first species is
the most valuable. The beautiful long-stapled
(14 to 22 inches) silky wool known as ‘Sea Island’
is a variety, and is grown exclusively upon the
islands anf! a portion of the mainland of rgia,
South Carolina, and Florida; the saline ingredients
of the soil and atmosphere being indispensable
elements of the growth. The plant, 6 to 12 feet

‘the re be market (staple 1 to 14 inch).
e

in height, bears a S (yaa flower, and the seeds
are small, black, and quite smooth, and the wool
is easily separated therefrom; but when sown
far inland, away from the saline influences of the
coast, the s increase in size, and become
covered with innumerable short hairs. A large per-
centage of the crops raised in Alabama, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Texas, &c., are also varieties of this
species, though, owing to climatic influences, the
plant is smaller (4 to 6 feet in height), and the
wool is shorter in staple (# to 14 inch), and less
easily separated from the seeds than Sea Island.
In 1888 the commercial value of the latter kind
varied from 10d. to 2ld. per lb., rare specimens
sometimes realising 2s. rf to 3s. per The
better descriptions of Egyptian cotton belong to
G. Barbadense, and bring 9d. to 18d. per ake

1e
short-sta varieties, known as New Orleans,
Mobile, Uplands, &c., sell at from 4d. to 7d.,
extra qualities sometimes bringing 9d. to 10d. per
lb. G. herbaceum is found in India, China, Africa,
&c. The principal commercial varieties are those
known as Surat, Madras, Bengal, &e. It is a
small shrubby plant (2 to 4 feet high), bears a
yellow flower, the seeds are cove with short
grayish down, and the staple produced, though not
ong (§ to 1 inch), is very fine. Its price varies
from 3d. to 53d. per lb. The cotton known as
nankeen is thought to belong to this species.
G. herbaceum can be profitably cultivated in colder
countries than any other species of cotton-plant.
The third species (G. peruvianum) is a native of
South America, and the ‘ n seed’ cotton of the
United States appears to be a variety. The stem
reaches 10 to 15 feet in height, the flowers are
yellow, and the capsules contain eight or ten black
seeds firmly attached together in a cone-like mass.
The wool is long (1 to 14 inch) and strong-stapled,
and in value stands next in order to Sea Island and
Egy tian. Pernambuco, Maranham, Bahia, Maceio,
and Peruvian are varieties which sell in Liverpool
at from 53d. to 6}d.; extra qualities of Peruvian
bring 64d. to 8d., and Sea Island Peruvian is
worth 94d. to 12d. per lb. G. arboreum is found in
India, China, &c., and, as its name imports, is a
large tree-like plant. It bears a red flower, and
roduces a fine yellowish-white wool. Varieties of
it have been long cultivated in the United States,
and with the requisite soil and climate, are said

to eecaee a wool somewhat resembling Sea

The finer kinds of yarn are spun from Sea Island
and long-stapled Egyptian, and from them are
fabricated our muslins, laces, &e. From Brazil and
the better classes of short-stapled American come
our cambrics, calicoes, shirtings, sheetings, &c.,
and from the inferior qualities of American and
Surat are spun the coarse yarns required for fustians
and other heavy fabrics. Yorkshire broadcloths
are sometimes half cotton. From warps of cotton,
and wefts of wool or worsted, are formed varieties
of Orleans cloths, Coburgs, mousselines de laine,
&e. There are also fabrics composed of silk and
cotton, linen and cotton, alpaca and cotton, &e.

(2) Cultivation.—The plant is a very delicate
organism, and requires a peculiar soil and climate
for its due development. The method of cultivation
is much the same in the various countries where the
fibre is grown ; but the most — system is that
which obtains in the United States of America.
Although the plant is not, strictly speaking, an
annual, it is found more profitable to destroy the
shrub, after the crop is gathered, and sow new seed
every year. The preparation of the land takes
sae during the winter months. After the ground

as been thoroughly ploughed, and as soon as all
symptoms of frost have disappeared, the soil is laid

508

COTTON

off into rows varying in width from 3 to 4 feet,
according to the situation and quality of the soil.
The seed is then sown along the centre of the beds
in a straight furrow made with a small pene or
opener; but in some plantations the seed is sown
in holes from 12 to 18 inches apart. The sowing
commences in March, and generally continues
through April; but sometimes, owing to late spring
frosts, the planting is prolonged to May. The young
shoot appears above ground in about eight to ten’
days, and is then and subsequently weeded and
thinned. Blooming takes place about the _be-
inning of June—in early seasons, towards the
atter end of May; the average date is about
June 5. For ploughing, the planter requires
just sufficient rain to give the soil a moist and
spongy texture. During the early stages. of its
growth, the crop flourishes best with a warm steamy.
sort of weather, with an occasional shower until
blooming ; too much rain being productive of weeds
and wood at the expense of wool, whilst a severe
drought produces a stunted plant, forced into too
early maturity, and resulting in a small and light-
stapled crop. <A great deal, however, depends upon
the position of the plantation ; lands situated in
hilly or upland districts obviously requiring more
moisture than those lying in the plains and river-
bottoms. From the date of blooming to the close
of the picking season, warm dry weather is essential.
Picking generally commences in August, occasion-
ally in July, and continues until. the occurrence of
frost—about the end of October or beginning of
November—puts a stop to the further rrowth of
the plant. Occasionally, in the absence of a killin
frost, picking extends to December or January, an
even into February, but the cotton is inferior in
grade and quality. All the available hands of the
plantation, young and old, are called into full
employment during the harvest. The cotton is
gathered into baskets or bags suspended from the
shoulders of the pickers, and when the crop has
been secured, it is spread out and dried, and then
separated from the seeds.
he latter process was formerly performed by
hand—a tedious operation, by which one hand
could clean only a pound or so a day; but since
the invention of the saw-gin by Eli Whitney in
1793, the process of cleaning has been both rapid
and effectual. This machine is composed of a
hopper, having one side formed of strong parallel
wires placed so close together as to exclude the
assage of the seeds from within. The wool is
ragged through the apertures by means of circular
saws attached to a large roller, and made to
revolve between the wires, the seeds sinking to
the bottom of the hopper. This process is adopted
only* in cleaning the short-stapled varieties of
American cotton, the wool of which adheres so
firmly to the seeds as to require a considerable
amount of force to separate them. The Sea Island
variety is cleaned by being passed through two
small rollers which revolve in opposite directions,
and easily throw off the hard smooth seeds. In
India, though the saw and other machine-gins have
been introduced in some districts (notably the
Macarthy-gin in Broach, and the saw-gin in
Dharwar), the wool is mostly cleaned by means of
the primitive roller. Prior to the American war
the roller-gin was in exclusive use in Egypt and
the Brazils, but the cotton famine led to the in-
vention of the Macarthy-gin (which in principle is
an improved roller-gin), and to its introduction
into Egypt, and to the adoption of the saw-gin by
the planters of Brazil; the effect in both cases being
a considerable extension of the culture. The cotton
cleaned by the roller-gin, being uninjured thereby in
staple, realises the better price ; but the deterioration
caused by the saw-gin is compensated for by the

greatly increased quantity cleaned : the latter turn-
ing out four or five times as much wool as the
former in an equal space of time.

In India, throughout the greater portion of the
Bombay Presidency, the North-west Provinces, the
Central Provinces, and the Berars, sowing generally
takes place between the middle of June and the
middle of July, but in Dharwar and other southern
districts of Bombay, and in the Madras Presidency,
not until August or September—in some places
later still. In the first-named districts picking
commences in November, but in some portions not
until January or February, and in Madras not
until March or April. The extension of the rail-
way system brings cotton which formerly went to
other ports to Bombay (q.v.), and 80 per cent. of
the total export from India is now from that
port, while the bulk of the shipments takes place
in the first six months of the year. In Egypt
sowing commences in March or April, and ra E08
in October—continuing until January. The busiest
export months are November to Rebragee In
Brazil planting takes place as early as January or
as late as May, according to district, and picking
six months later. The chief shipping months are
October to May.

(3) Production and Distribution.—The oldest
cotton-producing country is India, in which empire
the plant has been grown and manufactured from
time immemorial. The first notice of it in con-
nection with China dates no further back than the
llth century, but it is exceedingly probable that
the plant was cultivated there long prior to that

eriod, as cotton fabrics were known in China

fore the Christian era. Early mention is made
of it in the annals of Egypt, and it is believed to
have a high antiquity in all parts of Africa. It
has for many centuries been produced in Asia
Minor, in several of the Mediterranean islands,
in Greece, and Southern Italy. In the western
world, it was found by Columbus in the West
Indies, and in Mexico and South America by his
immediate successors, but was not so extensively
cultivated as in the East; though during the past
half-century the culture there has outstripped,
both in quantity and quality, the produce of the
Old World. Down to the commencement of the
19th century the cotton consumers of Europe
were dependent upon the East and West Indies
and the Levant for their raw material; but the
inventive genius, superior farming, and greater
energy of the planters of the southern states of
America had, prior to the civil war, almost secured
the monopoly of supplying the manufactures of
Great Britain and the European continent with
this valuable fibre. The following table gives at a
glance the movements for a century back. The
figures represent the annual imports into Great
Britain from the chief sources of supply, in bales
of the uniform weight of 400 lb. each, in quin-
eee ae averages, except that the last column is

ased on the average imports for two years only :

(. 1786-90. 1816-20. 1846-50, 1876-80. 1886-87.
RE Dis t 45,000 28,800 1,910 1,670 660
Mediterranean....13,000 1,030 31,310 402,190 435,590
Brazil............ ‘5,000 55,760 57,860 85,380 126,040
East Indies....... '500 93,710 196,140 510,800 _ 601,710
United States..... 100 166,310 1,207,230 2,589,070 3,186,790
Sundries......... .. 10,970 2870 51,710 ” 32:310

Total........ 63,600 351,580 1,587,320 3,640,770 4,383,100

At the close of the 18th century the British West
Indies supplied 70 per cent. of the cotton imported
into Great Britain, but owing to the competition
occasioned by the rapid expansion of the culture in
the southern states of the American Union, the im-
ports gradually decreased ; the planters finding it
more profitable to employ their labour and capital

.

COTTON 509

in the production of sugar and other articles. In
the thirty years ended 1820, the quantity fell off
nearly 50 per cent., while the proportion of West
Indian in the total imports from all countries fell
from 70 per cent. down to barely.7 per cent. Thirty

ears later it was only about one-tenth of 1 per cent.

uring the American war there was an increase to
about 10,000 bales, After the close of the war the
import fell rapidly away. In 1870 it was about
6080 bales; in 1886, only 150 bales; in 1887, 1160
bales.

After the West Indies, the chief sources of supply
a century ago were the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean—Asia Minor, Cyprus, &e. The
large increase in the imports from the Mediter-
ranean since 1820 is due to the development of the
cotton industry in Egypt. The cotton-plant has
been in existence in Egypt from time immemorial,
but the cotton known as E yptian is the product
of an exotic plant cteddusha y the French about
the beginning of the beg o century from the Isle
de Bourbon, into which it had been introduced from
Barbadoes. M. Jumelle, a French mechanician,
saw the plant in a garden at Cairo in 1821, and at
his suggestion Mehemet Ali gave instructions that
as much seed as could be obtained should be planted
in Lower Egypt. The first crop produced about
1000 cantars of 93 lb. net, and with the seed from
this about 35,000 cantars were raised in the
succeeding season (1822-23), say about 8000 bales
of 400 lb. In 1824-25 the crop reached 228,000
ecantars, or 53,000 bales of 400 lb. During the
subsequent ten years the culture was more or less
interrupted, owing to Arpanet disturbances, and at
times seriously reduced in consequence of the with-
drawal of a large number of labourers to carry on
the wars of the Pasha in the Soudan, Syria, &e.
From 1867 to 1879-80, with occasional fluctuations
owing to unfavourable seasons, there was a gradual
increase, until the total reached 3,168,000 cantars,

since which but little progress has been made,

partly in consequence of the fall in prices, and
artly owing to the slower increase in the demand
or long-stapled cotton, compared with that of the
shorter stapled growth of America. In 1884-85
{a good year) the area planted was 912,000 English
acres, and the product 335,000,000 lb. ; in 1887-88 (a
poor year) 1,060,000 acres produced 282,700,000 Ib.
There are several varieties of cotton produced,
but they are all from one species. ut of a
total asp of 3,000,000 cantars, about 2,500,000
consist of Asimouni and similar varieties. The
staple is good and the colour brown. About 100,000
cantars consist of Gallini, which is long and silky
in staple, and competes with Sea Island. The
remaining 400,000 cantars will consist of white
cotton similar in staple to the brown, and not
unlike extra-stapled Orleans. Gallini was (1888)
epgoam 82d. to 1ld. per lb., brown 3%d. to 8d. per

and white 57d. to 7d. per lb. ; against 114d. to
2id. per lb. for Sea Island, and 4$d. to 6d. for the
current es of Orleans.

In 1 the total import of cotton into Europe
from Turkey and other Mediterranean countries,
except Egypt, was only 21,000 bales of 400 lb. In
1865 it rose to 239,000 bales, fell to 129,000 in 1867,
and rose to 207,000 in 1869. Since 1880 it has
fluctuated between 24,000 and 50,000 bales of 400
lb. During the height of the cotton famine (1863-
$5), Italy and Greece produced 100,000 to 120,000
bales of 400 lb., a large part of which is included in
the imports of these years, but they do not now
produce more than 10,000 bales.

The first import from Brazil arrived in 1781.
In the five i 1786-90 the receipts averaged
5000 bales of 400 lb. In thirty years they were
increased tenfold ; but with a plentiful supply from
the United States there was little further progress

during the thirty years ended 1850. The cotton
famine led to an extensive expansion in production.
In 1879 there had been a reduction to 47,000 bales ;
but by 1887 there was a recovery to 207,000 bales.
From other places in Central and South America
the imports into Great Britain in the five years
(1883-87) from Peru fluctuated from 3,050,000 to
7,411,000 lb.; from Chili, 284,000 to 1,560,000 Ib.;
from Venezuela and other portions of South
America, 310,000 to 1,549,000 lb. Mexico uses
about 180,000 bales of 400 lb., of which 130,000
bales are home-grown, and 50,000 imported from
the United States (44,000 bales of 456 Ib.).

In their search for the increased supply of cotton

uisite to meet the wants of the rapidly growin

industry of a hundred years ago, the spinners o
Lancashire naturally directed their eyes towards
India, where the plant had been cultivated and the
manufacture carried on from time immemorial ;
and at their ray geo the East India Company
imported a sma arcel in 1789—about 5000 |b.,
which was followed by about 400,000 lb. in 1790.
The venture, however, was not satisfactory, and in
1791 the arrivals fell to about 3000 lb., and in 1792 to
nothing. But high prices brought renewed ee,
and in 1880 the imports reached 6,630,000 Ib., or
about 16,000 bales of 400 lb. In 1790 West India
cotton was selling at 12d. to 21d. per lb., but in
1798 the quotation ranged from 25d, to 40d. per Ib.,
in which year American was quoted at 22d. to 45d.
per lb. Thence to the end of the Napoleonic wars
there were very wide fluctuations (see next page).
These variations in prices led to considerable fluctu-
ations in the imports of cotton from India, but the

eneral tendency was in the direction of increased

gures; the arrivals in 1806-10 averaged 25,000
bales of 400 Ib. per annum ; in 1816-20 they rose to
nearly 94,000 bales, but in 1826-30 fell to 55,000
bales. The large import between 1816 and 1820 be-
came so unsaleable that 10,000 bales ( Bengals ) were
shipped from London to China! Since 1830 the
imports have been large or small, according to the
outturn of the crops in the United States. This
was especially the case prior to the American war,
but the impetus given to the industry by the
cotton famine incidental to that event, led to such
greatly poproves methods of ginning and handling
the crop, that the supply from India is no longer
merely supplementary to that from America, The
quality is greatly superior to the imports of a
quarter of a century ago, and of recent years the
consumption in Europe has averaged 1,500,000
bales, against only 500,000 in 1860, and only about
200,000 in 1850. The total crop of India is about
2,600,000 bales of 400 lb., of which 1,000,000 bales
are consumed in India, and 1,600,000 bales exported.
Considerable changes have taken place in the
distribution of the crop during the past quarter of a
century. Prior to the opening of the Suez Canal
(November 1869), the bulk of the cotton received
into Europe from India came in the first place to
England. Half the imports were also spun in
Great Britain ; but since the opening of the canal,
continental spinners have taken the bulk of their
requirements direct, while the quantity consumed
in England is only about one-sixth of the total
consumption of Europe. These changes are set
forth in the following account of the imports into
Europe, and the deliveries for consumption in the
— in 1000's of bales as imported (360 Ib,

1»

Import—direct. CoNnsUMPTION,

Great Britain. Continent. Total. ; Great Britain. Continent. Total.
1861 986 13 999 348 423 770
1868 1452 198 1645 801 859 1660
1872 1288 408 1696 687 942 1629
1882 1052 721 1778 465 1188 1598
1887 934 1602 259 1268 1527

The variations in the two totals arise from varia-

510

COTTON

tions in the stocks at the end of the year. The
consumption in India in 1887 was about 1,000,000
bales, including about 700,000 to 750,000 used by
mills containing machinery imported from England,
and built and worked as in Lancashire.

The first import of cotton from the United States
took place in 1784, and consisted of eight bags
weighing about 1200 lb. Occasional small ship-
ments had been received from the American colonies,
ied to this date, but they consisted chiefly of

est Indian produce transhipped, and as the
colonies were now independent, the eight bags just
mentioned were detained by one of the customs’
officials, on the ground that as West Indian pro-
duce it was a breach of the then existing naviga-
tion laws to import them in a foreign vessel. But
the parcel was liberated on proof being forthcoming
that the cotton was really the produce of the
United States. In 1791 about 189,000 lb. were
exported, but in 1792 only 138,000 lb. In 1793 Eli
Whitney invented the saw-gin, and the cultivation
of the plant increased so rapidly that the exports
houeded from less than 500,000 Ib. in 1793 to over
6,000,000 Ib. in 1795, to more than 9,000,000 in
1798, and to 20,000,000 Ib. in 1801, or in eight years
from about 1200 bales of 400 Ib. to 50,000 bales.
What has since taken place is shown at a glance in
the following table, shih gives the ei of the
various states, the total quantity exported, and the
balance left for consumption and stock in various
years from 1800 to 1887, in 1000’s of bales of the
uniform weight of 400 Ib. :

1800. | 1820. | 1840. | 1860. | 1870. | 1880. | 1887.
Virginia......... | 12 20 25 55 3 65 57
Tennessee.......| 3] 45 69 | 297] 182] 3872| 3828
North Carolina... {| 10 | 25 1380 | 146} 145 | 488{ 400
South Carolina.. | 40 | 110 154} 353 | 224) 587] 577
Georgia..... 25 | 100 408 | 702| 474] 916] 965
Alabama........ ue 50 293 990 429 787 873
Mississippi..... oe 25 488 | 1203 565 | 1083 | 1080
Louisiana....... | .. | 265 881 | 778 | 3851) 571] 528
Plorida i. 5 .<02; Se a 30 65 40 62 68
Arkansas = fs 15 867 248 684 791
LOKSS | occas ned 431 |} 351} 905 | 1763
Total crop...... 90 | 400 1993 | 5387 | 8012 | 6470 | 7425
Exported ...... 50 | 320 ‘| 1653 | 4419 | 2016 | 4550 | 5130
Consumed ...... | 40} 80 | 340| 968| 996 | 1920 | 2295

The Virginian figures for 1880 and 1887 include
some cotton raised in Missouri. Alabama was
admitted into the Union in 1819, Mississippi in
1817, Louisiana in 1811 (purchased from France in
1803), Florida in 1845 (ceded by Spain in 1819),
Arkansas in 1836, and Texas in 1845. The reduced
crop of 1870 shows the extent to which the agri-
cultural industry of the South had been thrown
back by the war of 1861-65. Even in 1887 the crops
of several of the states were still below those of
1860, in consequence of the transference of labour
farther west to Texas and Arkansas. Of the total
increase of 1,083,000 in 1880 over 1860, 791,000
belonged to these two states, which also figure for
1,756,000 bales out of the 2,038,000 increase in 1887
over 1860.

As the crops increased prices declined, especially
as the cost of production was gradually reduced
by improved methods of cultivation and cleaning.
The cost to consumers in Europe was also dimin-
ished by cheapened freights and carriage, and by
other economies brought about by the competition:
amongst the various middlemen who had the
handling of the crop from the plantations to the
spindles. At the opening of the century the aver-
age price of middling American was about 18d.
per lb. In 1808 it fell to 12d., but in 1814 it stood
at 30d., and during the year was as high as 36d.,
owing to the partial cessation of imports caused by

the war. Thence (with fluctuations) the tendency
was downwards until 1829, in which year the aver-
age was only 52d. Production had outrun con-
sumption, and the stock of American cotton in
Great Britain at the end of 1827 was equal to thirty-
eight weeks’ requirements. The low prices retarded
production and stimulated consumption, and by
1835 the stock of American was reduced to only
ten weeks’ requirements, while the average price
advanced to 103d. per lb. During the subse-
quent ten years, production again overtook con-
sumption, and in 1845 the stock of American in
England was equal to thirty-three weeks’ require-
ments, while the average price was only 44d., after
having in the course of the year touched 3}d. per
lb. These prices were repeated in 1848 owing to
disturbed politics. In 1850 there was a rebound to
7d., but thence to 1852 a fall to 5;4d., owing to
increased crops. Thence to 1860 the average price
fluctuated between 58d. and 7}d., ending in 64d,
The war between North and South cut off supplies,
and prices rapidly advanced, until in 1864 the
average reached 273d., while as high as 314d. had
been touched in the course of the year. In 1865,
with peace, the average fell to 19d., and it was
thought that values would rapidly decline to the
ante-war level. But the war, and the abolition of
slavery incidental to it, had so thoroughly disorgan-
ised the industrial system of the South, and so
completely impoverished the planters, that the
average price of 1860 (6}d.) was not touched until
1876, while the crop of 1860 (4,824,000 bales),
though almost repeated in 1876 (4,660,000 bales),
was not actually exceeded until 1879 (5,073,000
bales). Between 1876 and 1879 the average price
ranged from 64d. to 6d. Since then the tendency
has been downwards. In 1886 it fell to 54d., but
in 1887 rose to 5}d. The decline in prices which
has taken place within the past ten years has been
due mainly to reduced cost of production, to dimin-
ished land and ocean freights, and to lessened
intermediate charges brought about by the elimina-
tion of unnecessary middlemen, though part of
the fall is, no doubt, traceable to the currency
changes, which have affected values in general.

The variations in the outturn of the crops were
due to climatic causes. In 1881-82 the plant suffered
from severe drought ; 1882-83 was a phenomenally
perfect season; 1883-85 were drought seasons ;
1885-87 were average seasons ; 1887-88 was better
than an average, but not so good as that of 1882-83.
The 6,514,000 bales produced in 1886-87 weighed
2,970,384,000 lb. net, equal to 7,425,000 bales of
400 Ib., as hen in the table above, containing
particulars of the crops of each state separately.

Particulars of the extent of land planted, and of
the weight of cotton produced, are given in the

following table :
Area Planted, Pounds of Cotton.
Season. acres, Total. Per acre.
1881-82 16,711,000 2,424 456,000 145°0
1882-83 16,277,000 3,216,320,000 197°5
1883-84 16,778,000 2,582.728,000 153°9
1884-85 17,426,000 2,556,719,000 146°6
1885-86 18,379,000 2,980, 250,000 162°1
1886-87 18,632,000 2,970,384,000 159°4
1887-88 18,790,000 8,192,735,000 169°9

The production per acre varies considerably—from
less than 100 lb. per acre in the poorest upland
soils to 500 lb. per acre in the rich bottom lands of
the south-west. The average produetion per season,
for the entire cotton-growing region, has for the
past seven years ranged from 145 to 197% lb. per
acre. The average for the seven seasons was 162 hh, F
or about one-third of a bale. The crop of 1886-87
was worth at the plantations about £51,800,000,
according to the, annual report of the Department
of Agriculture.

The following is an account of the imports of

COTTON

511

cotton into all Europe (in bales of the uniform
weight of 400 1b.) in and since 1860 ;
alg |feldel ae it) a [A
e | ¥: “Rb
1960 | 4058 | 48/135) 21/ 23/ 552] .. || 4887] 64
1861 | 3075 | 46/124} 36| 183| 949] .. || 4248
1962 | 102| 65 | 182] 58| 20/1010} 2 || 1430] 17
1363 | 163 | 67 | 204 | 127 | 36 1179 | 81 |) 1947
1864 | 241 | 127 | 427 | 188 | 39 | 1374 | 289 || 2635 | 27
1865 | 522 | 150 | 549 | 230 | 84 | 1281 | 85 || 2860 | 19
1866 | 1555 | 222 | 279 | 161 | 77 | 1706 | 16 || 4015 | 1
1867 | 1659 | 220 | 305 | 129 | 108 | 1389 | 1 || 3806 | 1
1368 | 1946 | 309 | 355 | 145 | 85 | 1476 4316 | 1
1360 | 1583 | 281 | 353 | 207 | 92 | 1578 4004 | 12
1870 | 2845 | 217 | 379 | 136 | 79 | 1057 4218 | 949
1871 | 3409 | 281 | 396 | 119 | 180 | 1384 5719 | Sy
1872 | 2234 | 877 | 489 | 138 | 121 | 1526 4835 | 10),
1873 | 2908 | 243 | 484 | 143 | 105 | 1155 5038 | 9
1y74 | 3177 | 252 | 532 | 93 | 98 | 1317 5469 | 8
1875 | 3112 | 216 | 552 | 88 | 69 | 1420 5457 | 7
1876 | 3461 | 160 | 749 | 89| 55 | 1134 5657
1877 | 3163 | 149 | 625 | 89| 37] 930 4993
1878 | 3905 | 68 | 458 | 51] 73] 813 5318
1879 | 4329 | 47/616] 31| 42] 868 5933
1880 | 4520 | 78 | 583 | 24| 33 | 1074 6312
1381 | 4815 | 135 | 726 | 26| 38 | 1098 6843
1882 | 4457 | 166 | 597 | 38 | 32 | 1677 6967
1383 | 5104 | 154 | 620 | 24] 30 | 1520 7452
1884 | 4681 | 130 | 703 |. 62 | 30 | 1553 7159 | 6
1885 | 4871 | 99/808} 65 | 29] 943 6315 | 5
1886 | 5025 | 96] 709| 46] 30 | 1306 7212
1887 | 5320 | 208 | 734] 41| 28 | 1575 7915
Of the total quantity of cotton imported into
Europe in 1860, no less than 83°9 per cent. came

from the United States. For a number of years it
had averaged about 75 per cent. This virtual
dependence of a vast industrial system upon one
source of supply for the raw material necessary to
keep its labour and machinery fully employed, had
long been rded with considerable anxiety ; the
more so as it was known that sooner or later a
t crisis would, for a
uration, dislocate the agricultural industry of the
South ; but all attempts to escape from so undesir-
able a state of things were frustrated by the one
important fact that no other efbepined inci,
country had been able successfully to compete wit
America in either quality or price. The war, by
raising values to a famine level, led to a largely
increased production of cotton in India, Egypt,
South America, &c.; but even after the conflict
had lasted four years, scarcely half of the decrease
in the imports from the South had been made up by
increased receipts from all the world besides. the
ly import from America in the two years
1 1. was 3,566,000 bales of 400 lb., but in
1864-65 only 381,000, showing a loss of 3,185,000
bales. The average import from all other sources
in 1860-61 was 976,000, and in 1864-65, 2,366,000,
showing a gain of only 1,390,000 bales, or barely
46 per cent. of the deficit in the supply from the
States. After had been reatened and cotton-
planting at the South had been resumed, prices
rapidly declined ; but for ten years after the war
they remained considerably above the rates current
rior to 1861, and yet the ee of cotton into
urope from countries other than America never
exceeded 2,651,000 bales of 400 lb. (1872), while the
annual average for the ten years ended 1875 was
only 2,309,000 bales, inst 2,366,000 in 1864-65.
Between 1875 and 1880, with a fall to ante-war
rices, the imports from countries other than the
nited States fell to an average of only 1,767,000
bales, while those from the South rose to 3,875,000
bales, and in 188] the receipts from America repre-
sented 70 oer cent of the total imports into Europe.
In 1886 the proportion was 694 per cent., and in
1887, 67 per cent.
Prior to the Ameritan war, very ex rated
notions prevailed respecting the quantity of cotton

period of more or less.

roduced in India: the current estimates being
,000,000 to 6,000,000 bales of American weight
(450 lb.), while some computations ran as high as
10,000,000 bales. But the fact that famine prices
attracted to Europe only about a million and a
ae bales per annum in the three years ended
865, proved that the crop was much smaller than
had previously been caleulated upon, and the
investigations and inquiries made by the govern-
ment in 1867-68 showed that the annual yield
could not at any time have exceeded 2} to 2
million bales of 400 lb. The consumption o
cotton goods in India is about %4 Ib. per head per
annum, or a total of 650,000,000 lb. for a population
of 260,000,000. In the three years ended 1887, the
weight of goods and yarn imported into India
averaged 390,000,000 lb., of which about 70,000,000
lb, were re-exported, leaving 320,000,000 lb. for
consumption. The consumption of native-made
ae would therefore be about 330,000,000 Ib.
his item, added to 90,000,000 Ib. Indian yarn and
goods exported, and 550,000,000 raw cotton ex-
ported, gives a total of 970,000,000 lb. as the
robable extent of the cotton crop in 1885-87.
his calculation cannot be far astray inasmuch as
the area under cotton did not exceed 14,000,000
acres, which at 70 lb. per acre (the estimated
average yield) gives a total of 980,000,000 Ib.,
or 2,450,000 bales of 400 lb.

No cotton was received from China (except occa-
sional small samples) until prices had risen to
about 2s. per lb., and even this extravagant ip
aap, to Europe only 380,000 bales of 400 Ib. dur-
ing the four years of the famine, a proof that the
cotton crop of China is much smaller than even
that of India. Assuming the consumption of
cotton fabrics to be at the rate of 24 lb. per head,
and allowing for yarns, goods, and raw cotton
imported, the crop cannot exceed 1,500,000 bales of
400 lb. Asimilar calculation for Japan, Java, &c.,
gives a crop of 130,000 bales.

Small imports of cotton are received every year
from Africa, but they rarely exceed a few hundred
bales. The plant is cultivated throughout the
continent, and if the capita consumption
averages only half that in India and China, the
200,000,000 inhabitants will require 250,000,000 Ib.

of cotton fabrics ; but as 100,000,000 lb. of goods
are imported, the crop uired would be only
150,000,000 lb., or 375,000 bales of 400 Ib.

The crops of the various countries and districts
of the world in 1887 were, as nearly as can be ascer-
tained, as follows (in bales of the uniform weight
of 400 lb.) :

Bales, Per Cent.

United States of America........ 7,425,000 55°81
South America, West Indies, &c,. 430,000 3°24
MORO TOMO So coos avilecckass 2,500,000 18°79
PPRMOND Sa th cou cue ian bs Han sete dia ,500,000 11°27
PROMI £544 Than neadcn nv arccas 130,000 0-98
Turkey and Persia ............... 120,000 0°90
AMD MANNA. 3. davis isadeus scevs 100,000 0°75
S asoae ieespa) denbaveseaee pope 5°35
Africa (except Wiasanaseesas 375 282
Italy and Gee RA 10,000 0-07
Australia, Fiji, &c. .............. 2,000 0°02
Total for the world ........13,305,000 100-00

It will be observed that the United States produce
more than half the cotton grown in the world,
although they only commenced the business about
one hundred years since.

(4) Consumption.—Great Britain.—It is not pos-
sibie to ascertain with certainty the first beginnings
of the trade in Europe. It existed in S in the
10th century, and no doubt quite as early in Italy
and Greece. The first recorded import of cotton
into England was in the 13th century, and quite
as pe imports took place into France through
Marseilles. The first mention of the industry in
connection with Germany, Holland, and Switzer-

512

COTTON

land was in the 16th century, and in Russia in the
18th. But until the close of the last century, the
cotton used was either for candle wicks or for mix-
ture with flax or wool. The first piece of British-
made calico—i.e. a fabric all cotton—was produced
in 1783. Prior to that date cotton-yarn had been
used for weft only, the warp being supplied by flax
or wool. Hargreave’s ‘spinning-jenny’ (invented
1764, patented 1770) could not produce a yarn
strong and hard enough for warp; but this diffi-
culty was overcome by Arkwright’s ‘ water-frame’
(spinning by: rollers), brought out in 1769, and
further improved in 1775. Hargreave’s ‘spinning-
jenny > was virtually superseded by Crompton’s
‘mule’ (so called from the circumstance that it
combined the principles of both Hargreave’s and
Arkwright’s inventions), patented in 1779. . It was
also called the ‘muslin-wheel,’ because it produced
a finer and more uniform yarn than was possible by
either the ‘jenny’ or the ‘ water-frame.’ Up to the
date of Crompton’s invention, the progress of the
industry had been very slow; the import of cotton
in that year being only about 6,000,000 lb., against
nearly 4,000,000 lb. in 1764, and nearly 3,000,000
Ib. in 1751. In 1785 Arkwright’s patents, which
comprised improvements connected with carding,
drawing, roving, and spinning, were thrown open,
and the industry at once advanced by leaps and
bounds—the import of cotton reaching 18,000,000
lb. in 1785, and 31,000,000 lb. in 1790, or 45,000
bales of 400 lb., and 77,000 bales respectively.
There was now a plethora of yarn, but this was
overcome by improvements in weaving. Dr Cart-
wright invented the power-loom in 1785, and added
to its utility in 1787. These were the first improve-
ments since Kay’s ‘fly-shuttle’ (1738) and ‘ drop-
box’ (1760). _Between 1790 and 1797 the cry was
for more cotton; prices advancing from a range of
12d. to 22d. per lb. to one of 25d. to 40d. The
spinners looked to India, but the invention of the
‘saw-gin’ in 1793 brought relief from America, and
the import in 1800 reached 46,000,000 lb. In the
meantime Bell had invented ‘cylinder printing’
(1783), which enabled one man and a boy to do the
work of 100 men and 100 boys; and in the same
year oxymuriatic acid was first applied to bleach-
ing, whereby work which had previously taken up
several months could now be done in a few days.
Watt’s steam-engine was invented in 1769, ‘im-
proved in 1781, and first used in connection with
cotton-spinning and manufacturing in 1785.
improvements have been made upon the ‘original
inventions of Arkwright, Crompton, and- Cart-
wright during the present century; but the im-
provements in spinning were for many years much
more rapid than those in weaving. The ‘self-act-
ing mule’ was brought out by Messrs Sharp &
Roberts in 1825, and further improved in 1830,
about which time, too, considerable improvements
were made in the ‘ water-frame ;’ but in the last-
named year there were still only about 80,000
power-looms at work against about three times the
number of hand-looms. In 1841, however, Messrs
Kenworthy & Bullough brought out a power-loom,
which, while reducing the labour of the weaver
nearly one-half, produced a greater quantity, as
well as an improved quality of cloth. Still further
improvements have since been made, all tending
towards augmented outturn and diminished cost of
production. Hargreave’s first ‘jenny’ contained
only 8 spindles, but the number was increased by
degrees until it reached 120. At the opening of the
present century the ‘mule’ contained about 200
spindles ; it now contains from 1000 to 1200, while
within quite recent times the speed at which the
spindles run has been increased from 7000 revolu-
tions per minute to 10,000 revolutions. Fifty years
since the speed of the loom varied from 90 to 112

‘since then, the real or declared value.

Vast.

picks (throws of the shuttle) a minute; now it
ranges from 180 to 200 picks a minute, and in some
instances still more. At the Oldham Exhibition
there was shown a light calico loom capable of
running as high as 400 picks per minute.

The leading economical results of the inventions
of a century ago, and of the subsequent improve-
ments are briefly set forth in the following table,
which gives the weight of cotton consumed in
Great Britain, the weight of yarn, and the quan-
tity of ince ae exported in millions of Ibs.
and yards, and the value of all kinds of cotton pro-
ducts exported in various years, commencing with
1779, the year in which Crompton’s ‘mule’ was
brought out, followed by 1785, the year in which

Arkwright’s og were thrown open. Figures
in millions of lbs., yards, and £’s :
Value of all
ears Cotton Yarn Piece-goods |kinds Cotton
‘| Consumed. | Exported. Exported. Products
exported.
Ave: ve Average
Ib. per ied Be aie Tarte, pepe 2
a. a. a. £
1779 6| 18 Oe 03
1785 11 20 oe 0:8
1790 30 | 17 on fs ck ia 16
1800 52) 18 5 ea 77 >i 58
1820 | 120] 11} 23 293 851 “a 16°5
1840 | 459 6 118 143 790 443 24°6
1860 | 1084 6} 197 12 2776 34 52°0
1880 | 1373 | 64% | 215} 131 | 4474] 3), 75°5
1887 | 1487 54 252 10 4904 25 70°9

The complete particulars from 1779 to 1800 are not
obtainable. The average price of cotton is for West
Indian from 1779 to 1790; but for 1800 and since
it is for middling American. The value of goods,
&ec. exported from 1779 to 1800 is the ‘ official’ value ;
The aver-
age prices of yarn and goods exported are those of
the Board of Trade. The effect of the continued
improvements in machinery is shown still more
strikingly in the following statement of the cost
at various dates of producing yarn of forty hanks
to the pound. The first line of figures repreacy
the selling-price of tlie yarn, the second the cost
of the cotton used (18 oz. in weight), and the third
the balance left for labour and capital :

1779. 1784. 1799, 1812. 1880. 1860. 1887.
& & Pe en ot: eee tee ey & a.
PPICE Se canes es 160 1011 76 26 12% O11 ODF
Cotton......... 20 20 834 16 07% O 0 6}
Labour, &c.....14 0 8 11 ae | 0 0 44 #08

The cost of weaving has also been vastly reduced.
A species of calico selling at 6s. per yard towards
the close of the last century can now be had for
as many pence! The decline in the price of calicu
since 1815 is greater in proportion than the fall
in the price of yarn: 40’s yarn, for instance, is only
worth about one-third the price current in 1812,
but calico is not worth more than one-sixth or one-
seventh.

The rapid increase in consumption between 1785
and 1790 was due to the spread of Crompton’s and
Arkwright’s inventions. The great increase in
the volume of trade, and the material decline in
the prices of yarn and piece-goods, between 1820
and 1840, was owing chiefly to the invention of
the ‘self-acting mule.’ The still more important
developments between 1840 and 1860 were due
chiefly to the improvements in the power-loom, but
in a great measure also to the opening up of the
trade with China. The progress made in the
export branch of the industry is shown more fully
in the following account of the mn rhe of piece-
goods and yarn from Britain to the leading districts
of the world at various periods from 1820 onwards,
in millions of yards and lbs. :

COTTON 513
Piece-coops. -_ erat in os —_ “ws tively - eae on 1859-61 the hand-loom
y s. y j i
- : ; practically disappeared.
Turkey Gee a J... vee ras rs pod Fb The factory returns for 1885 gave the number of
Ameri b (excep U.S.) .... a0 3786 batt os oes spindles in the United Kin = ey 44,348,921
nited States............. ; ; i i i

. Oat mass . against 44,206,690 in 1878, of which 40,121,451
ite depen, Java, hc. 5 42 OD sack 6aed 7080 against 39,527,920 were spinning-spindles, but these
other Uountries........ 197 29°) 214-7) HTT 2567 a were rte: ages The number of s a -
——- ——~ ~~~ ——~ ——— | spindles actually in existence was certainly little
Total yards,......... 250°0 790° 2676°2 4496°3 4904°1 fany less than 43,000,000, as about 3,000,000 had
Yarn. 7 Bieter nt been put up in ¥ Seer ete alone snl
4 ’ ‘g | 1878 and 1 e number of looms is stated as

Europe key)... 220 919 1160 951 129°3 Pa °
Turke atepbangion Sate 0" 83 196 124 244 | 560,000, but this is also toosmall. In 1888 it was
British East Indies........ +» IL 3807 471 35°3 | said by those in the trade that about 600,000 were
15 7 ap Ser eg BPs: Sas ke SS 127 45.8 | ab work, and 580,000 is a fair estimate for 1886-87.
uu —— — —— ~_]| The capital employed in the industry may be stated

Telly .cd5s....: 23°0 1185 1973 2157 2510 | as follows:

Continental Europe was the principal outlet for
and yarn in 1820, and is so still in
respect of yarn. Next followed America. There
was a considerable increase in the exports to both
districts between 1820 and 1840, but between 1840
and 1860 the business with the Continent was
almost stationary, owing to the large increase in
domestic cotton industries of the various countries.
The trade with the United States increased con-
siderably down to 1860, but since then the highly
protective tariff introduced during the war has
reduced the business to an insignificant compass.
The low prices brought about by diminished cost
of production (1840 to 1860) led to a large increase
in the trade with Turkey, and there has since
been an almost constant, though more ual,
movement in the same direction. One hundred
years ago, about the time when Arkwright’s
perenie were thrown open, Manchester complained
oudly of the injurious competition of calico im-
poveed from India, and from time to time the
uties were increased. About fifty years later
(1831) the manufacturers and dealers of Bengal
asked for the removal of these duties, on the ground
that the native industry was being seriously in-
jured by the import of cotton fabrics from England,
although the shipments from this side had not yet
assumed important proportions. Even in 1840
they were only 145 million yards, but in 1860 they
reached §25 million elegy: thanks to the improve-
ments in the power-loom already mentioned. The
same circumstance, and the opening of the ports
in 1841-42, led to a similar expansion in the trade
with China. Since 1869 (except the temporary
interruption occasioned by the cotton famine), the
business with the East has been largely augmented,
and now more than half the piece-goods and more
than one-third of the yarn exported from Great
Britain go to India and China.

The following statement eg the weight of
yarn produced, number of spindles at work, number
of hands employed, and the production per spindle
and hand in Great Britain, at various dates :

Yarn Spindles at ands Production per
Produced, Work, Bagieres: Spindle, Hand.
lb. No, 0. Ib. Tb,

1819-21 106,500,000 7,000,000 110,000 15°2 968
1829-31 216,500,000 10,000,000 140,000 21°6 1546
1844-46 523,300,000 19,500,000 190,000 26°8 2754
1859-61 910,000,000 30,400,000 000 30°0 3671
1886-87 1,415,000,000 43,000,000 245,000 82°9 6900

A portion of the yarn produced is exported; the
balance is woven into piece-goods. The particulars
compare as follows :

Goods Loom: Prod r
Produced. at Work, Raploget Loom, Hand.
Ib. No. o. , Ib. Tb.
1819-21 80,620,000 225,000 250,000 335 842
1829-31 142,000,000 805,000 275,000 470 621
1844-46 348,110,000 282,000 210,000 1234 1681.
1859-61 870,000 400,000 000 1627 8206
1856-87 1,162,000,000 680,000 255,000 2003 4559
There were 240,000 hand-looms and 15,000 power-

looms at work in 1819-21; 225,000 and 80,000
siya Ye in 1829-31; and 60,000 and 220,000
3

OUDEE WOERM Gs a Sek ds biiebse angdecadchsee¥ab 18,000,000

Capital employed in the manufacture of cotton,
TOC MAME TUNE i's fee nabru ciddees oaraoceraete 7,000,000
COR witht eras stopdadonse se £104,800,000

According to the census tables for 1881 there
were 686,000 operatives and others employed in
the cotton industry. In 1889 there were about
700,000. The average rate of wages is about £42
per annum, or a total of £29,400,000. The amount
paid for raw cotton in 1887 was £34,460,000—
viz. 1,486,855,000 lb. at 5,%d. per lb. The value
of all kinds of cotton products exported was
£70,957,000, and the value of the products con-
sumed at home £30,440,000. These figures compare
as follows with those for 1859-61 :

1859-61. 1887.
Value of ucts exported.......... £49,029,000 . £70,957,000
Value of home consumption......... 971,000 30,440,000
Total value of products......... £77,000,000 £101,897,000
Paid Lop: Gomme, 62 hogs cvsedessceg 29,290,000 84,460,000
PRI 08 WOROR ages wages sv diece con 20,995,000 29,400,000
Balance for all other exp. and profits 26,715,000 37,537,000
ToGil BB BUOVEG: «.a8<c0tsn<.cas <p £77,000,000 £101,397,000

Taking into consideration the persons employed
in the building of the mills and making of the
machines, and in the buying nd selling of the
raw and manufactured articles, it will found
that something like 44 to 5 million individuals are
dependent upon the prosperity of the cotton trade
for their livelihood.

The earnings of the work-people have upon the
whole steadily increased from year to year. The
following table furnishes the rates current in 1839,
1849, 1859, and 1887. It will be observed that the
proportionate advance during the last-mentioned
period was on an average much greater in the lowest
than in the highest paid hands :

AVERAGE WEEKLY WAGES.

1839. 1849. 1859. 1887.
69 Hours. 60 Hours. 56} Hours.
Carding Department — sda ad ad ad a @
Scutchers (1).......... 70 76 80 120to 150
Strippers (2).......... 110 1220 WO 163 » 190
Overiookers ........... 25 0 230 280 230 » 0
Mule-Spinning—
BOTIUERD 5 nacectceccess 160 180 200 20» 400
Wiewers (9) ik oes cede 80 90 W090 110 » 200
Overlookers ........... 200 220 20 230 » 670
Throstle Spinning—
vio eae 2 ahh ears 40 46 50 90" 40
" women)..... 70 76 90 140 » 200
Overlookers ........... 180 200 20 300 » 350
eaving—
Winders (5) ........... 90 96 96 100 » 200
Sizers (men).......... 23 0 30 230 300 w 450
Three-loom weavers(6).13 0 130 150 160» 190
Four-loom st » 170 10 190 200 » 26
Six-loom " " ‘ 290 » 820
men;

ree ag pena nak pastes (6) samme ae (3) women and young
nen.

(4) girls 14 to 18 years; (5) young women; (6) women and

514

COTTON

The average rate of wages paid in 1887 was about
80 per cent. more than in 1839, 69 per cent. more
than in 1849, and 55 per cent. more than in 1859.
In the meantime, the hours of labour have been
reduced from 69 per week to 564 per week.

Continental Europe.—Up to within about fifteen
years from the close of the last century, the quan-
tity of cotton consumed on the Continent was
certainly larger than the weight spun in England ;
but at the close of the century, thanks to the
mechanical inventions to which reference has
already been made, England unquestionably stood
first. Severe penalties were inflicted upon any
one found guilty of either enticing cotton opera-
tives or of exporting cotton machinery to foreign
countries. Nevertheless, both operatives and
machinery found their way to various portions of
the Continent ; and cotton-spinning on the English

lan was introduced into Russia in 1799, Switzer-
and in 1800, Belgium in 1801, and France in 1803.
Germany, Holland, Spain, Italy, and Austria
followed later on. Between 1801 and 1821 France
increased its consumpt from 42,000 bales (of 400 Ib.)
to 80,000, and the rest of the Continent from 33,000
to 80,000.

The chief increase on the Continent between 1811
and 1821 was gained after the peace of 1815. The
consumption in France in 1816 was only about
65,000 bales. France held the lead on the Con-
tinent until the war of 1870, since which she has
been passed by Russia and Germany. The follow-
ing table shows the progress made by each country
since 1830. It gives the consumption of cotton in
the years named in 1000’s of bales of the uniform
weight of 400 lb. each.

Countries. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1869. 1880. 1886.
(Cae 10 36 119 218 243 550 660
Sweden.... 2 4 20 40 40 62 70
Germany ....... 40 66 115 350 367 715 890
PAUBETIA ae culsc 50 85 145 235 240 350 460
Switzerland.... 22 45 60 76 98 122 130
Holland 5 10 12 16 24 50 60
Belgium 20 40 55 72 88 125 130
France 170 291 850 565 550 500 600
Spain 15 35 85 130 125 220 275
2 21 pea AS 10 20 40 65 66 160 260

Total..... 344 632 1001 1767 1841 2854 3535

The large increase between 1840 and 1850, especially
in Russia, was partly due to the repeal (1843) of
the enactment which prohibited the export of cotton
machinery from this country. The figures for
1869 are given instead of those for 1870, because
the movements of trade in the last-named year
were disturbed by the Franco-German war. The
small general increase between 1860 and 1869,
compared with that in the previous decade, was
due to the cotton famine incidental to the American
war. In 1871, 1,500,000 spindles (those of Alsace)
were transferred from France to Germany. This
accounts for the decrease in the quantity of cotton
consumed in France in 1880 as compared with 1869,
and for part of the exceptionally large increase in
quantity consumed in Germany. The total number
of spindles in France in 1869 was 6,120,000; in 1870,
4,620,000. As less than 1,600,000 people had been
transferred along with the 1,500,000 spindles, the
4,620,000 remaining spindles had to supply yarn
for a population of 46,000,000. The consequence
was considerable activity in mill-building or en-
larging, and by 1872 the number of spindles had
increased to 5,011,000. During the subsequent
ten years there was very little change, except the
substitution of new for old spindles, which enabled
the spinners to turn off a greater weight of yarn.
In 1884 there were in France 5,111,000 spindles, of
which 227,000 were idle, against 5,011,000 and
885,000 respectively in 1872. The number at work
in 1884 was 4,884,000 against 4,626,000 in 1872.
The cotton industry of Switzerland has been almost

od

stationary of late years, owing to the adverse influ-
ence of foreign competition and hostile tariffs, and
there are no more spindles at work than there were
ten years ago, while the number in existence is
enediet owing to mills burned down not having been
rebuilt. The figures for Italy are exclusive of cotton
grown-in Italy itself, of the extent of which there
are no authentic records. The quantity has been
quite small, however, during the past fifteen years.
Besides the countries mentioned above, there are
about 24,000 bales of 400 lb. used in Portugal, and
about 18,000 bales spun in Greece. j

The following is a statement of the number of
spindles and the weight of cotton spun in each
country in 1886:

Number of ‘ot 3
Country. Spindles. ae OO aul.

RUBSIB ales laaceee es 4,400,000 264,000,000 60"
Swedes. . Cv te. aeeaes 20, 28,000,000 87°
Germany. 454 s<arne%s 5,159,000 356,000,000 691
AUST IA. Das pear sine es 2,085,000 184,000,000 88°2
Switzerland............ 1,850,000 52,000,000 28°1
Holanae ey ee peteat 60,000 24,000,000 923
Belgium: si inkcas gees 0,000 52,000,000 61°9
YANO: cs oniteg semsaees 4,900,000 240,000,000 48°9
Spal ens ov escent 2,035,000 110,000,060 54:0
Portugal. <0. SV setness 40, 10,000,000 714
THALY:. cities aaah es eee 1,210,000 104,000,000 85'1
Greecbss 2a: tee tae 65, 7,150,000 110:0

POtal. 35 ceanent 23,255,000 1,481,150,000 611

The Russian figures are exclusive of cotton
received from Asia, estimated at 100,000 bales of
400 lb. per annum. The variations in the average
weight of cotton per spindle are occasioned by the ©
differences in the counts of yarn spun, or in the
number of hours worked per day. Switzerland
consumes only a small weight of cotton per spindle
because she produces very fine yarns, similar to
those spun at Bolton.

America.—The first cotton-mill built in the
United States was put up in 1793. Others followed
at short intervals, but the progress was not ve
rapid until during the war of 1812-14, which 1
to such an extraordinary rise in prices, that cotton

oods similar to those which had been imported
rom England at 20 cents per yard rose to 75 cents
per yard. This stimulated mill-building to such
an extent, that when the war was over, and impor-
tations resumed, prices fell back to a lower point
than ever, and the new domestic industry suffered
so severely that an agitation was at once com:
menced in favour of increased import duties.
Hitherto the tariff on imported textiles had been
only from 74 to 10 per cent. ; but in 1816 the duties
were raised all round to 25 per cent., and henceforth
the protected industry made rapid progress: the
consumption of cotton advancing from 80,000 bales
of 400 lb. in 1820, to 340,000 in 1840, and 968,000
bales in 1860. Thence to 1870 there was only a
slight increase ; the quantity consumed in that year
being only 996,000. In 1880 it reached 1,920,000
bales ; and in 1887, 2,795,000 bales. The census re-
turns of 1880 gave the amount of capital employed in
the cotton manufacturing industry as £41,756,000,
including £3,533,000 in the South; the number of
spindles as 10,678,516, including 583,696 in the
Sotith - the number of looms as 227,156, including
12,194 in the South. In 1887 there were 13,500,000
spindles in the States, including 1,225,000 in the
South. The consumption of cotton represented
30 per cent. of the crop against about the same in
1880, but against only 18 per cent. in 1860, and 17
per cent. in 1840. The New England manufac-
turers have hitherto been unable successfully to
compete with the old country in the outside
markets of the world; the value of the entire
exports of cotton -products in 1887 being only
£2,986,000, against £1,996,000 in 1880, £757,000 in
1870, £2,187,000 in 1860, £947,000 in 1850, and
£710,000 in 1840.

COTTON

515

- The cotton industry of Canada has recently
gained in importance. The consumption in 188
was about 80,000 bales of 400 lb., against about
40,000 bales in 1881, and only about 15,000 bales in
1877. There are about 300,000 spindles at work.
The consumption of cotton in Mexico in 1887 was
about 130,000 bales of 400 lb., and there were about
500,000 spindles at work. The native consumption
of Braz/ and other parts of South America is
estimated at about 100,000 bales of 400 lb., but it
probably exceeds this figure.
Asia.—One hundred years Lancashire com-
— that her then new industry was being
jured by the competition of goods imported from
India ; fitty years later Indian manufacturers com-
pained of the injurious influence of imports from
land ; and now Lancashire is once more in fear
of the competition of India; not on account of im-
ports into England (these, so far, being only
slight), but on account of the extensive shipments
of Indian-spun yarn and Indian-made s to
China, Japan, and other markets in the East.
This competition is only of recent growth, and has
arisen from the extensive erection of cotton-mills
in Bombay and elsewhere, on the Lancashire plan.
In 1861 there were only 338,000 spindles at work in
all India, and as late as 1874 the number was only

593,000; but there are now 2,420,000 at work.
The movements for the past eleven years, as shown
ae figures for 1877, 1882, and 1887, compare as
ollows :

1877. 1882, 1887.
Cotton spun, Ib.........88,600,000 154,400,000 284,590,000
Yarn exported, lb.,..... 8,796,000 33,230,000 91,804,000
Goods WP pane yards. .15,544,000 29,900,000 53,405,000
Weight of exports, 1b. ..11,905,000 39,211,000 102,455,000

sumed at home, along with about 100,000 bales
imported from India. Japan produces about
100,000 bales, of which only trifling quantities are
exported. Japan is imitating Bombay, and there
are now about 200,000 spindles at work. Of these,
120,000 were put up in 1888,

Recapitulation.—The following statement shows
the relative importance of the cotton industries of
Great Britain, continental Europe, the United .
States, and India, as exhibited in the quantity of
cotton consumed in each of the various seasons
ree since that of 1860-61, in 1000’s of bales of
400

1860-61. 1862-63. 1870-71. 1876-77, 1882-83. 1886-87. 1837-88.

P Per Per P Pe P Per

Bales. | cont. | Bales! cent, | Bales. | cent. | PM%| cont, | Bales! cont. | Bales | cone, | Bales) one.
Great Britain. ....| 2614 | 48°3 | 1161 | 49°2 | 3013 | 48°8 | 3182} 42°8 | 8770 | 87°7 | 3691| 35°2 | 3841) 365-2
Continent ........ 1723 | 31 | 782) 31:0 | 1962 | 381°7 | 2450 | 383°0 | 3437 | 34:4 | 3640/ 3847 | 3770) 346
United States..... 1009 | 187 | 435 | 18-4 | 1116 | 181 | 1571 | 21°1 | 2360 | 23°6 | 2448] 23°3 | 2528| 23-2
MIME. oss vin wins aves 65 12 32 14 87 14 | 231 31) 431 48| 710) 68 771 70
Total.......... 5411 | 100°0 | 2360 | 1000 | 6178 100°0 | 7434 | 109°0 | 9998 | 100-0 10,489! 100°0 |10,910; 100-0

The figures for 1862-63 are inserted as showing the
effect of the American war. As respects the
neral movement, Great Britain held her own
tween 1860-61 and 1870-71; but since then her
competitors have made relatively and positively
much greater progress, but so far without encroach-
ing upon our export trade. The diminished con-
sumption in Great Britain in 1886-87 as compared
with 1882-83 was due partly to ‘ short-time’ in the
summer, and partly to the cireumstance that the
American crop was less wasty than that of 1882-83.
The increased production on the Continent is
almost entirely consumed at home, and is due
partly to the improved economical condition of the
people, and partly to the circumstance that cotton
s are overtaking linens and woollens. The
increased production in the United States is also
mostly consumed at home, Lancashire’s only
formidable competitor in the outside markets of the
world is India, but even in this respect nothing
serious has yet taken place. The increase in the
Indian mills has, so far, been chiefly at the expense
of the old native hand industry, which is rapidly
disappearing.
A recapitulation of spindles compares as follows :

1861. 1877. 1887.
Great Britain......... 30,300,000 89,500,000 48,000,000
Continent -10,000,000 19,600,000 23,750,000
United States........ 5,000,000 10,000,000 13,500,000
Mice wes dicok xe 338,000 1,280,000 ~—2, 400,000
Tons. 45,638,000 70,330,000 82,650,000

Cotton-seed Oil.—Pulp is now made from cotton
stalks, and converted into the finest bilan ay,
an enormous saving of waste being thus effected.
Cotton seed is remarkably rich in oil, now used
for a variety of a sae The crop of cotton seed
in the United States amounts to about 3,500,000
tons. The bulk of this is returned to the ground.
‘In 1887 about 500,000 tons were crushed at the

oil-mills of the United States—producing 175,000
tons of cake, 75,000 tons of oil, and 6 tons of
linters (the short fibres left on the seed after
pinning) ; the remaining 243,750 tons being waste.

he total cotton-oil product is estimated at from
15,000,000 to 17,000,000 gallons, most of which is
consumed in the manufacture of lard, which it
is said to equal for culinary purposes. Cotton-
seed cake or meal is especially rich in nutritious
matter for farm-stock, causing cattle to fatten
rapidly, and producing very rich milk (though
the butter is not improved). Boiled cotton seed
with hay or straw is admirable feeding. The
seed is worth in America about £4, 10s. per ton;
the oil, 1s. 3d. per gallon; the cake, £3, 10s. per
ton; and the linters, 24d. per Ib. About 300,000
tons of Egyptian cotton seed are crushed in Great
Britain per annum.

The Cotton Famine.—The American civil war
broke out in 1861, and in 1862 our import of cotton
fell to 524 million lb., against 1257 million in
1861, and 1391 million in 1860. Increased supplies
from India and other sources brought the arrivals
up to 669 million in 1863, 893 million in 1864, and
978 million in 1865. The war closed in 1865, trade
with America was resumed, and the imports in
1866 rose to 1377 million lb., and the cotton
industry shortly afterwards resumed its former
dimensions. At the crisis of the famine the mills
were not working more than half-time, and in
December 1862, 247,000 cotton operatives and
others connected with the trade were out of
employment, and 165,000 others only partially
employed. In the same month, 234,000 persons, or
24 per cent. of the total pt ean et of the districts
affected, were in receipt of charitable relief. In
1863 the average number of persons out of work
was 189,000, and that of those only partially em-
ployed, 129,000; in 1864 the figures were 134,000

516

COTTON

and 97,000 respectively ; and those for the first five
months of 1865, 107,000 and 68,000. During the
course of the famine the losses of the trade
amounted to between £65,000,000 and £70,000,000,
including from £28,000,000 to £30,000,000 loss of
wages to operatives.

tecent Statistics.—In the five years 1894-98 an
average of 16,334,211 ewt. of raw cotton, of the
value of £33,193,300, was imported. The imports
for 1898 were in excess of the average, amounting
to 19,004,896 ewt., of which 16,119,077 ewt. came
from the United States, 2,463,657 ewt. from Egypt,
244,194cwt. from India, 87,808 ewt. from Peru, 53,769
ewt. from Brazil, and small quantities from Canada,
British West Indies, and Australasia. Of the total
average imports for the five years mentioned,
1,884,189 ewt. were re-exported in a raw state,
leaving 14,450,022 ewt. to be manufactured for
home use and exportation. The following gives
the different forms in which it is etal with
the annual quantities and values, the figures giving
in all cases the average for the five years 1894-98 :
. Yarn and twist unbleached, and bleached and dyed,
246,752,340 lb., of the value of £9,294,910, the
principal quantities going to Holland and Belgium,
43,900,000 lb. ; Germany, 43,150,000 Ib. ; India,
42,000,000 lb. ; Japan, 20,130,000 lb. ; and Turkey,
20,000,000 1b. Piece goods, unbleached and bleached,
3,458, 208,820 yards, value £28,647,309 ; piece goods,
printed, 977,416,020 yards, value £10,455,289;
piece goods, dyed or manufactured of dyed yarn,
698,408,860 yards, value £9,181,744: the principal
quantities of, these combined items going to India,
2,118,000,000 yards; China, 387,000,000 yards;
Turkey, 371,000,000 yards; Brazil, 183,000,000
yards; Egypt, 175,000,000 yards; Australasia,
148,000,000 yards ; Java, 128,000,000 yards ; Argen-
tine Republic, 98,000,000 yards; Holland and Bel-
gium, 97,000,000 yards; Hong-kong, 92,000,000
yards ; Japan, 92,000,000 yards ; Chili, 78,500,000

ards; British West Africa, 72,000,000 yards;

ritish West Indies, 67,500,000 yards; Columbia,
62,000,000 yards ; United States, 54,000,000 pers ;
Germany, 53,000,000 yards; West Africa (foreign
possessions ), 45,000,000 yards; Mexico, 41,000,000
“Stim 3 Venezuela, 39,000,000 yards; Cape of Good

ope, 37,500,000 yards; Morocco, 35,000,000 yards; |

Persia, 26,500,000 yards; Portugal, 23,000,000
yards; the remainder going in smaller: quantities
to nearly every region in the habitable globe.
Piece goods of mixed material, cotton predomi-
nating, and other unenumerated kinds, to the value
of £2,143,416; lace and patent net, value£2,090,492;
hosiery of various kinds, value £390,570; sewin

thread, 24,060,980 Ib., value £3,209,803—the tota
value of the exports of manufactured cotton thus
amounting to £65,413,933 ; the three greatest con-
sumers being India, China, and Turkey. Besides
the imports of raw cotton, there were imported
5,710,150 lb. of cotton yarn, mostly from Germany ;
49,483,867 yards of muslin and other piece goods,
four-fifths coming from the United States and
Holland and Belgium; and hosiery, &c., to the
value of £2,284,845, of all which nearly one-half
was re-exported. In addition to the manufactured
cotton goods exported by Great Britain given above,
there were retained for home consumption manu-
factured goods to the value of nearly £40,000,000.
In 1897 the comparative amount of raw cotton con-
sumed in various countries was: Great Britain,
1,570,000,000 lb. ; United States, 1,340,000,000 Ib. ;
Germany, 640,000,000 lb. ; India, 480,000,000 Ib. ;
Russia, 430,000,000 Ib.; France, 400,000,000 Ib.
Austria, 270,000,000 Ib. ; Italy, 240,000,000 Ib.
Spain, 160,000,000 lb.; Japan, 160,000,000 Ib.
Brazil, 120,000,000 1b. ; and various, 110,000,000 Ib. ;
—representing a total estimated value of about
£130,000,000; while the estimated total value of

Nee we we

the manufactured goods amounted to £360,000,000.
The United States is still the largest pro-
ducer of the raw material, the total produce
in 1898 being 50,689,965 cwt. In the same year
the States exported raw cotton to the value of
$230,442,215, and manufactured cotton to the value
of $17,024,092. Egypt exported in 1897 raw cotton
to the value of £E8,915,640. Brazil, besides ex-
porting 319,920 ewt. of raw cotton in 1897, has 155
mills for its manufacture, employing about 200,000
persons. Peru exported 111,720 ewt. of the raw
material in 1897. In British India a large amount
of cotton is grown, 9,458,842 acres being under its
cultivation; and there are over 150 cotton-mills
in operation, containing about 38,000 looms and
4,000,000 spindles. The number of cotton factories
in Great Britain is above 2530, with about 650,000
power-looms and 4,500,000 spindles, giving employ-
ment to about 550,000 operatives. In Germany there
are in operation 7,880,000 spindles; in Austria,
2,070,000 ; in Switzerland, 1,710,000; in Belgium,
610,000 ; and in Poland, 510,000 spindles.

For the manufacture of cotton, see SPINNING, WEAV-
ING, CALICO-PRINTING, FUSTIAN, VELVET, GUN-COTTON,
CELLULOID, &c, And see for further information Ellison,
The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (new ed. 1886 );
Marsden, Cotton Manufacture (new ed. 1886); Forbes
Royle, Cotton in India (1851); and Dana, Cotton from
Seed to Loom (New York and London, 1878); Lister,
A Practical Manual of Cotton Manufacture (1894);
Taylor, Cotton Weaving and Designing (1893); French
works by Reybaud (1863) and Alcan (1875), and German |
books by Fritz (1889) and Kuhn (1892).

Cotton, CHARLES, the friend of Izaak Walton
and translator of Montaigne, was born at his
father’s estate of Beresford in Staffordshire, 28th
April 1630. His father, himself a man of great
ability, was a warm friend of Ben Jonson, Selden,
Donne, and other illustrious men. The boy travelled
on the Continent, devoted himself from youth
to a life of letters, and early wrote verses which
were handed about among his friends. In 1656 he
married his cousin Isabella, sister of the famous
Colonel Hutchinson. Though a sincere loyalist, he
seems to have lived securely enough under the
Commonwealth, and the decay of his father’s estate
was due mainly to unprosperous lawsuits. In
1664 Cotton issued anonymously his burlesque poem,
Scarronides, or the First Book of Virgil Travestie,
added to in later editions in grossness as well as in
bulk. Later books, somewhat of the same character,
are his Voyage to Ireland in Burlesque (1670) ,and
his Burlesque upon Burlesque, or the Scoffer Scoft,
being some of Lucian’s Dialogues (1675). is
Planter’s Manual (1675) testifies to his zeal and
taste for horticulture. Next year he contributed a
treatise on fly-fishing to the fifth edition of Walton’s
Compleat Angler, and here he commends his old
friend and master, its author, as ‘the best and the
truest friend ever man had.’ Further marks of
affection were his commendatory verses in the 1675
edition of Walton’s Lives; his poem, The Con-
tentation, as well as an earlier one of invitation to
Walton to visit him ; and the twisted cipher of his
own and his master’s names above the door of his
fishing-house on the Dove. In 1685 Cotton published
his translation of Montaigne’s H'ssays—a master-

iece on which his fame still rests securely. He
vied in 1687. Cotton’s verses are full of rare felici-
ties of thought and phrase, and are more really
pers than much far more plene poetry.

is prose is simple and clear, direct and vigorous.
His character was eminently lovable; his only
troubles, his debts ; his only enemies, his duns.

Cotton, GrEorGcE Epwarp Lyncu, D.D.,
bishop, born in 1813, was educated at Westminster
and Cambridge, and from 1836 to 1852 was a
master at Rugby under Arnold and Tait ; in Tom

COTTON

COUCAL 517

Brown's School Days he appears as ‘the youn
master.’ For six years he was at the head o
Marlborough College, which he raised to a position
among the first schools of England. In 1858 he
was consecrated Bishop of Calcutta, where he suc-
peenlly administe his immense diocese, and
where his schools for the children of the poorer
Anglo-Indians and Enurasians are monuments of
the services he rendered to education. He was
drowned in the Ganges, 6th October 1866,

Cotton, JouN, clergyman, born at Derby in
1585, was a tutor at Cambridge, and from about
1612 held a charge at Boston, in Lincolnshire.
Cited to appear, for his Puritan views, before Laud
at the high commission court, he in 1633 fled to
Boston, in New England, where he preached until
his death in 1652. Cotton was reputed a profound
scholar, and was the author of nearly fifty works,
including a catechism, forms of prayer, and a
defence of the interference of the civil authority in
religious matters, in a famous controversy with
Roger Williams.

Cotton, Str Rosert Bruce, an English anti-
uary, was born at Denton, Huntingdonshire, 22d
anuary 1571. From Westminster School, where
he had the famous Camden for master, he passed
to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated
B.A. in 1585. He soon settled in a house in West-
minster on the site of the present House of Lords,
and here he commenced to accumulate books,
manuscripts, coins, and other articles, and to
Sar that large hospitality that made Cotton
ouse the meeting-place of all the scholars of the
kingdom. His papers read before the Antiquarian
Society spread wide the reputation of his learning ;
King James knighted him in 1603, created him a
baronet in 1611, and frequently consulted him on
caginee matters. But he kept the scholar in prison
or eight months in connection with the Overbury
ease. He had been returned to parliament in 1604,
and soon identified himself completely with the
olicy of constitutional opposition to the crown.
is protest against the proposed debasement of
the coinage (1626), his frank criticism of kingcraft
in his History of Henry III. (1626-27), his out-
spoken review of the present political situation
in his tract, The Dangers wherein the Kingdom
now Standeth, and the Remedye (1628), and the
seneeee meeting in his house for deliberations
of Eliot, Pym, Selden, and Sir E. Coke, marked
him out to the court as an enemy to be crushed.
The occasion was soon found. An ironical tract,
entitled A Proposition for His Majesty's Service
to Bridle the Impertinency of Parliaments, havin
fallen into the hands of Wentworth, it was foun
on inquiry that the original was in Cotton’s library,
from which a copy had been made, though without
his knowledge, for the press. Cotton and others
were flung into prison, but proceedings were stayed
and the prisoners released on the occasion of the
birth of an heir to the throne (29th May 1630).
But Cotton’s library was not restored to him in
spite of his pathetic petitions, and as his heart was
bound up in his ks, he pined and died less
than a year after (6th May 1631). Fourteen of
_his tracts were collected and published as Cotton's
Posthuma in 1657. His son, Sir Thomas Cotton
(1594-1662), had the books restored to him ; and

his great-grandson, Sir John Cotton (1679-1731), ’

bestowed the library on the nation.

' The CoTroNnIAN LIBRARY was accordingly re-
moved to Ashburnham House, Westminster, in
1730. In the following year a fire occurred in the
house, in which about 114 out of the 958 volumes
of MSS. which the library contained were reported
as ‘lost, burned, or entirely spoiled ; and 98 dam-
aged so as to be defective.’ The library was

transferred’ to the British Museum (see Vol. IL
p. 462) in 1753,

Cotton-grass (Eriophorum), a genus of Cyper-
aces, in which the perigone or covering of united
bracts, which in this order inclose the ripening
ovary, is developed into
long silky or cottony
hairs, which used to be
employed for candle-
wicks, stuffing pillows,
&e. A more recent
attempt to employ these
as a substitute for cotton
has naturally failed, nor
is the herbage willingly
eaten by sheep or cattle.
Two species are common
in Britain, and give a
characteristic appearance
to bogs and wet moors.

Cotton-wooed. See
PoPLAR, SILK-COTTON.

Cotton-worm is a
common name for the
caterpillar of an owlet
moth (Aletia s«xyliria),
which is in some years
very destructive to the
cotton crop of the United
States. he caterpillar |

is green, with yellow
stripes and black dots,
and grows to a length of Common Cotton-grass(Zrio-
an inch and a half. The phorum Angustifolium).
boll-worm, the caterpillar

of an allied form ( Heliottus armigera), is also very
destructive to cotton-buds and other crops.

Cottus, a genus of acanthopterygious fishes,
comprising the Bullhead (C. gobio) of British
rivers, the marine Father Lasher (C. scorpius), and
the closely akin C. bubalis, found on the coasts
of California and Georgia. See BULLHEAD.

Cotyle’don (Gr.,‘acup or cup-shaped hollow’)
is the technical term applied by botanists to the
seed-leaves of the embryo. Their morphological
importance was formerly somewhat exaggerated, as
they were supposed to be quite unrepresented even
in the higher eryptogams (see FERNS, &c.), to which
the term acotyledonous, now disused, was therefore
applied. The number of cotyledons is, however,
usually of high systematic importance ; for although
in Gymnosperms it varies from a whorl of eight,
ten, or even more in conifers, to usually two in
cycads, it is almost constant among the higher
Angiosperms, the old division of monocotyledons
nt dicotyledons having few exceptions to its
literal accuracy. Every one is familiar with the
two cotyledons of so many seedlings of the latter
group; but a more extended study shows that
many never emerge above ground, or even leave
the seed. The form and structure of the cotyle-
dons depends largely on whether they have pre-
cociously absor and stored the nutritive con-
tents of the endosperm; in this case, of which
the leguminous seeds of pea, bean, &c. afford
the most familiar example, they become more or
less fleshy, and frequently do not appear above
ground in germination. The mode of packing
the cotyledons in the bud also presents many
differences in detail of high systematic constancy,
and therefore importance. See OVULE, SEED,
EMBRYO, and GERMINATION.

Coucal ( Centropus), or LARK-HEELED CUCKOO,
a genus of common bush-birds in Africa, India, and
through the Malayan Archipelago to Australia.
The hind-toe is prolonged into a very long spur.

518 COUCHANT

COUNCIL

Their call is loud and in some cases apparently

ventriloquistic. They build their own nests. See
Cuckoo.

Couchant. In Heraldry, a beast lying down,
with his head up, is couchant. If the head is

down, he is dormant.

Couch-grass (Triticum repens), also called
Wheat-grass, Dog-grass, Quickens, and Squitch
or Quitch, a grass which, although of the samé
genus with wheat, is a widespread and trouble-
some weed. Its perennial creeping root-stocks
render it extremely difficult of extirpation; they
are carefully gathered out of land under cultiva-
tion ; but in times of scarcity have been employed
as human food, as a source of beer, as a domestic
medicine, and more frequently as fodder... They
are sometimes useful in binding sand into pastur-
age of inferior Ten Cut early, couch-grass
makes very good hay.

Couching. See CATARACT.

Coucy, RAovuL or RENAULT, CASTELLAN DE,
was a French court poet or Trouvére (q.v.) of the
12th century, to whom twenty-three poems are

ascribed. He was named after the Chateau de
Coucy, near Laon. See Gaston Paris in Romania
(1872).

Coughing, considered physiologically, consists
(1) in a long inspiration which fills the lungs to a
greater extent than usual; (2) in the closure of
the glottis, or narrow opening in ‘the organ of voice
(see LARYNX), at the commencement of the act of
expiration ; and (3) in the sudden forcing open of
the glottis by the violence of the expiratory move-
ment. In this way, a blast of air is driven up-
wards from the lungs through the mouth, which
carries with it. any sources of irritation that may
have been present in the air-passages. Coughing
may occur from irritation in the back of the throat,
in the larynx, trachea, or bronchial tubes, and may
be excited by acrid vapours, by irritant gases, or
by articles of food or drink—such as even a drop of
water or a crumb of bread—making their way into
the air-passages instead of into the pharynx, or by
excessive or morbid secretion from the walls of the
air-tubes, or even by the entrance of cold air, when
the lining membrane of the air-passages is abnor-
mally irritable. More rarely it results from irrita-
tion of other parts, as the ear, and possibly the
stomach.

The object of coughing in the animal economy is
unquestionably to guard against the danger of the
entrance of mechanical and chemical irritants into
the air-passages; and accordingly the mucous
membrane, especially of their upper part, is en-
dowed with a most exquisite sensibility which,
when aroused by irritation or by a state of disease,
pare incessant coughing until the irritation

e allayed or removed. Cough is an exceedingly
common symptom of all diseases of the respiratory
organs. The treatment of coughing must first be
directed to the removal, if possible, of the cause
which excites it. But besides, when once begun,
coughing frequently becomes excessive, and so
irritating or exhausting to the patient, from too
great sensitiveness of the nervous mechanism which
produces it; and this tendency, when injurious,
must also be combated. The remedies suitable to
most cases of cough are therefore Expectorants
(q.v.) and nervine sedatives, especially opium,
morphia, and hydrocyanic acid ; ‘cough mixtures’
generally contain both. Such household remedies
as liquorice, jujubes, black-currant jelly, or linseed
tea are often of service.
diseases in which cough occurs.

Congh oceurs amongst the lower animals under
similar conditions. From continued breathing of
a close foul atmosphere, the bronchial mucous

See also under names of

membrane becomes unduly irritable, hence the
prevalence of chronic cough amongst the cows in
our overcrowded town-dairies. Chronic cough
also occurs in horses, usually as a sequel to an
attack of cold. It constitutes unsoundness, is
best treated by repeated doses of belladonna and
camphor, but often requires for its entire removal
a run at grass.

Cough is an accompaniment of teething, and is
also common in diseases of the digestive organs.
See PNEUMONIA, CONSUMPTION, BRONCHITIS,
CATARRH, &e, ‘

Couguar. See PuMA.

Coulmiers, a French village, some 12 miles
WNW. of Orleans, where Von der Tann and his
Bavarians were defeated by an overwhelming force
under D’Aurelle de Paladines, 9th November 1870.

Coulomb, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE, famous for
his experiments on friction, and the invention of
the Torsion Balance for measuring the force of
magnetic and electrical attraction, was born at
Anyouléme in 1736. In early life he entered the
engineers, and served some time at Martinique,
In 1777 he gained an Academy prize by a work
on magnetic needles, and again two years later
by his Théorie des Machines siumples. For speaking
the truth about a projected canal in Brittany, he
was for some time imprisoned, but earned the
hearty approval of the honest Bretons, as well
as his own conscience. Coulomb lived in retire-
ment during the Revolution, became a member of
the Institute in 1804, and died August 23, 1806.

Coulter. See PLovcu.

Coumarin (C,H,O,) is a fragrant crystalline
substance, analogous to volatile oils and camphor,
which is present in the well-known Tonka bean.
It is identical with the odorous STs of many
other pce including the Woodruff, Melilot, and
Vernal grass.

Council, or SYNopD, an assembly of ecclesiastics
met to regulate doctrine or discipline. We first
hear of such assemblies during the Montanist con-
troversy, about 150 A.D. Cicumenical councils are
convoked from all parts of Christendom, and claim
to regulate the affairs of the whole church. Other
synods have represented the East and West re-
spectively. Patriarchal, national, and primatial
councils represent a whole patriarchate, a nation,
or the several provinces subject to a primate,
while the bishops and other dignitaries of a pro-
vince constitute a provincial; the clergy of a
diocese under the presidency of the bishop, a dio-
cesan council. Mixed councils during the middle
ages dealt with civil as well as_ ecclesiastical
affairs, and were composed of secular persons as
well as churchmen. Sometimes, but not always,
the lay and _ ecclesiastical members voted in
separate chambers. .

he first eight general councils were convoke
by the emperor, all the later ones by the popes, and
the fifth Lateran Council asserts (Sess. xi.) the
modern principle that the right of convoking,
removing, and dissolving general councils belongs
to the pope. The right of voting was reserved in
early times to bishops and priests, or deacons who
acted as representatives of absent bishops. From
the 7th century onwards this right was sometimes
extended to abbots, and from the end of the medi-
eval period to cardinals who were not also bishops.
At the Vatican Council the members entitled to
vote were cardinals, bishops (even if only titular
bishops), mitred abbots, and generals of religious
orders, Priests acting as proxies of bishops were
not admitted. The presidency at the early cecu-
menical councils followed no fixed rule. In a
certain sense it belonged to the emperor, who

COUNCIL BLUFFS

COUNT 519

had convoked the bishops, and was responsible for
peace and order. ‘It was not,’ says Harnack ( Dog-
mengeschichte, ii. p. 101), ‘till the fourth general
~ council that the papal legates gained a unique

ition, and learned Catholics have admitted that

e presidency of the papal legates at Nica does
not admit of positive proof.’ This is true even
of Catholic theologians writing after the Vatican
decrees. Thus Kraus (Kirchengeschichte, p. 147)
contents himself with maintaining ‘the proba-
bility’ that the papal legates presided at Nicza,
and Hefele ( Concil. i. p. 38, 2d ed.) admits that the
> wage is ‘not without difficulty.’ The modern

eory that a council is then, and then only, to be
counted general when its acts have been ratified by
the pope, is of still later origin. Even medieval
theologians, such as Thomas of Walden, main-
tained that the decisions of general councils did not
acquire binding force till they had been accepted by
the whole church. And although it was an estab-
lished principle in the 6th and the following cen-
turies that the definitions of councils, indisput-
ably cecumenical, could not be called in ques-
tion, it is certain that St Augustine had eek
of another mind. He asserts (De Bapt. contra
Donat. ii. p. 3-4) that Scripture alone has final
and irreformable authority, but that even ‘ plenary
councils, assembled from the whole Christian
world,’ may be ‘corrected’ (emendari) by the
accession of knowledge and experience. Moreover,
the fact that the decisions even of provincial
councils are sometimes attributed, in the 4th
century, to the ‘suggestion’ of the Holy Spirit,
shows that caution is needed in interpreting the
rhetorical language of early writers.

Tks Greek Church recognises seven general
eouncils—viz.: (1) The first of Nica, 325 A.D. ;
(2) the first of Constantinople, 381; (3) Ephesus,
431; (4) Chalcedon, 451; (5) second of Constan-
tinople, 553; (6) third of Constantinople, 680;
(7) second of Nica, 787. To these Roman
Catholics add: (8) fourth of Constantinople, 869 ;
(9) first Lateran, 1123; (10) second Lateran,
1139; (11) third Lateran, 1179; (12) fourth
Lateran, 1215; (13) first of Lyons, 1245; (14)
second of Lyons, 1274; (15) Vienne, 1311; (16)
Constance, 1414-18, of which Ultramontanes
accept only the decrees passed in sessions 42d to
45th inclusive, and such decrees of earlier sessions
as were approved by Martin V.; (17) Basel, 1431
and the following years, ecumenical according to
Ultramontanes only till the end of the twenty-
fifth session, and even then only in respect of such
decrees as were approved by Eugenius IV. ; (18)
Ferrara-Florence, 1438-42, really a continuation of
Basel; (19) fifth Lateran, 1512-17; (20) Trent,
1545-63 ; (21) Vatican, December 8, 1869, to July
18, 1870, and still unfinished.

The best collections of councils are by Hardouin
(12 vols. folio, Paris, 1715), and that of Mansi
(31 vols. folio, Florence, 1759), which is by far
more complete than Hardouin’s, but inferior to
it in correctness of typography. An _ excellent
account of the councils, with the text of the most
important decrees, will be found in Bishop Hefele’s
Konziliengeschichte (7 vols. 1855-74; continued by
Hergenréther and then Knépfler, vols. viii.-ix.,
1887-90 ; Eng. trans., vols. i.-iv., 1871-95). For the
more important councils, see NICZA, BASEL, &e.

_ Council Bluffs, a city of Lowa, capital of
Pottawattamie county, 141 miles WSW. of Des
Moines by rail, on a plain backed by the high
bluffs from which it takes its name. The Missouri
River, 3 miles to the west, is crossed by a grand
railway bridge to Omaha, and five railways form
a junction at the town, which has manufactures of
paper, iron, carriages, and ayzricultural machines.
‘op. (1870) 10,020; (1880) 18,063 ; (1890) 21,474.

Council of War is a conference of military or
naval officers, to consider a plan of campaign,
determine the order of battle, or give their opinions
on some matter in which the commander wishes to
fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others,
The senior officers and heads of departments meet
him in the consultation whenever he thinks it
desirable; and their opinions are placed upon
record. Thus the commandant of a fortress gener-
ally solicits the opinion of a council of war before
surrendering to iegers. The British military
code leaves its assembly to his discretion, but the
French make a special provision for a council of
defence. In the navy, a council of war consists
usually of flag-officers only ; but officers of lower
rank occasionally assist.

Counsel. See ADVOCATE and BARRISTER.

Counsellor is the term which in the United
States most nearly corresponds to Barrister (q.v.)
in England, and Advocate (q.v.) in Scotland. . But
in the United States there is no such well-marked
distinction between counsellor and solicitor as in
the United Kingdom obtains between barrister or
advocate and solicitor. See LAWYER.

Count (Lat. comes, in Fr. comte, Span. condé,
Ital. conte), the name of a dignity in medieval
and modern Europe, to which Earl (q.v.) is in
one view su sen to be analogous, the Latin

uivalent of each being the same, and the wife
of an earl being a countess. On the various
significations of the comes of classical times it is
unnecessary to enter. Under Constantine the term
became an honorary title ; and the comites became
a sort of council of state both in the eastern and
western empire, each having his separate office in
the household. The counts under the first two
races of Frankish kings were (like those of the
lower empire) of various degrees. The count of the
palace (comes palatii nostri) was the highest digni-
tary in the state after the maire of the palace ; and
in the 11th century he had already acquired a rank
apart from that of the other counts. He presided
in the court of the sovereign in his absence, and

ssessed sovereign jurisdiction. The habit of
instituting counts-palatine (comites palatii) was
adopted by Spain and England. 10se counts,
again, who, at a later period, as rulers of provinces,
had attained to something approaching to sovereign
power, exercised also the right of appointing counts-
palatine under them—e.g. the Counts of Chartres,
of Champagne, of Blois, Toulouse, &e. ; and the
ancient houses of Chartres and of Blois continued
to claim in perpetuity the title of count-palatine as
that of their eldest sons. Counts of this sovereign
class owed their origin to the feebleness of the later
Carlovingian kings, under whom they contrived
gradually to convert the provinces and towns which

they had governetl as royal officers into prin-

cipalities hereditary in their families. It was then
that the counts came to be known by the names of
their counties. Down to the middle of the 14th cen-
tury they wielded a most formidable power, some-
what broken by the eventually successful struggle
of the towns of Northern France to throw off their
yoke. In later times there were numerous mere
titular counts, and even before the first revolution
many titles of count, believed to be pure assump-
tions, were recognised by the courtesy of society.
The German word graf, akin (like reeve, grieve,
and sherif’) to the Anglo-Saxon geréfa, ‘ gover-
nor,’ in time came to be identifi with the
comes or count, the pfalzgraf being the German
equivalent of the comes palatit, In Germany there
have been in modern times two classes of counts,
one belonging to the Dynastien-adel, or higher
nobility—i.e. those families whose head had a
seat in the diet or estates of the realm; the other

520 COUNTERFEIT

COUNTERPOINT

forming the highest class of the lower nobility. Of
the former class the larger number, as the price
of their acquiescence in the abolition of the old
German empire, received the title of prince, and
very few now exist. The merely titular counts
belonging to the lower nobility are very numerous.

Counterfeit. See Cornina.

Counterforts, the buttresses or arches behind
the revetments or retaining walls of the ditches of
permanent fortifications. They help to support the
earth above them and make it more diflicult to
form a Breach (q.v.).

Counter-guard is a low outwork designed to
cover the revetment of a bastion or ravelin from
the fire of the enemy’s breaching batteries. It is
separated from them by a narrow ditch, and lest
the enemy should establish a battery on it when
captured, the terre-plein, or flat space behind its
parapet, is made very narrow. See FORTIFICA-
TION.

Counter-irritants, agents applied to the
skin so as to redden (rubefacients), to vesicate
(vesicatories or Blisters, q.v.), or to produce pus-
tules, purulent issues, or even sloughs of skin
and of the subcutaneous textures.
counter-irritants are mustard (seé CATAPLASM),
_turpentine applied on warm cloths, and spirit or
acetic acid in lotion, The stronger are blisters of
Cantharis (q.v.) or of ammonia ; of Croton-oil (q.v.)
or Tartar Emetic (q.v.), in. ointment; setons,
caustic or pea-issues, and the moxa; and above
all, the actual Cautery (q.v.) or hot iron. None
of the stronger counter-irritants should be used
without careful consideration and medical advice ;
great mischief is often done by their careless or
improper use. Counter-irritants relieve internal
pain, check inflammations, and tend to promote
the absorption of morbid effusions. Their effect is
probably due mainly to reflex action, produced by
the impression they cause upon the nerves of the
skin to which they are applied,

Amongst horses, counter-irritants are much used
for strains and diseases of the joints, but should
never be applied, as they too sites are, in recent
cases, or whilst the part is hot or inflamed. Can-
tharidine preparations, or ointment of biniodide of
mercury, are the most convenient. For cows, use
fomentations, followed by the smart infriction of
mustard-paste; for dogs, soap-liniment, strength-
ened, if required, by ammonia or turpentine.

Countermine, a subterranean way to counter-
act besiegers’ mines. See MINES ( MILITARY), SIEGE.

Counterpoint, in Music, has been defined as

The milder |

‘the art of combining melodies.’ The name arose
from the early system of notation by points. When
another part or melody was added to one already
represented by a row of points, this was called
punctum contrapunctum. A single melody is
usually taken as the ‘subject,’ and the part or
parts added are called the ‘counterpoint.’ When
this is done according to the numerous and strin-
gent rules of the old authorities, it is called strict
counterpoint ; but in modern music these rules are
much relaxed. The devices of counterpoint are,
however, still largely relied on; Wagner, the
greatest innovator of our time, being also one of
the greatest practical contrapuntists. The aim of
Beethoven in his later works to make every part
sing, and not be a mere filling up of the harmony,
may be referred to as illustrating the object of these
devices ; and there is no doubt that as used by the
classical writers, they are the source of some of the
grandest effects in music.

In simple counterpoint the parts are written above
or below the subject without regard to their capa- —
bility of being transposed. It is divided into
different species, according as the added parts con-
tain one, two, or four notes against each note of
the subject, or are written in syncopated notes, or
have a combination of all or any of these, when it
is called ‘ florid.’ The so-called ‘ rules’ are in effect
limitations of the degrees in which the parts may
progress—e.g. the prohibition of consecutive octaves
and fifths. The general principle of them is to
secure complete independence of melodic motion in —
the parts, while at the same time the laws of har-
mony are observed. When the parts reach the
number of eight or more in vocal music, they are
sometimes divided into different choirs, which sing
alternately together and in antiphony. A famous
example of this class is Tallis’s motet ‘Spem in
alium non habui,’ for forty voices, in eight choirs,
each of five voices. In double counterpoint the
subject and counterpoint are so written that each
may form the bass to the other. When in this
transposition the upper part is taken to the octave
below, or vice versd, it is called double counter-
point at the octave; but it may also be at any
other interval, the fourth, fifth, &c., or even at two
different ones. In treble counterpoint each of three
melodies can be put as the bass to the others; and
similarly in quadruple and quintuple counterpoint ;
but counterpoint beyond double can only be at the
octave, as the other intervals are impracticable.
One or more free parts may be added to fill in the
harmony. The iene instance of quae

ozart’s

counterpoint is taken from the finale of
‘ Jupiter’ Symphony :

zs

Cs

‘my
+

Among the other devices of counterpoint may be
mentioned those of contrary motion, augmentation,
and diminution, the latter two referring to the
time-values of the notes. See IMITATION.

The history of the art of counterpoint can be
traced step by step from its beginnings in the rude
efforts at part-writing, called organum, barbarous
to modern ears, in medieval church music, of which

COUNTY 521

COUNTERSCARP
‘gp earliest known account we have is by Hucbald,
a Flemish monk, who died in 930, The earliest

existing specimen of part-music is an English one
—a rota or round, written by a monk of Reading in
1226 to words beginning ‘Sumer is icumen in,’ the
MS. of which is in the British Museum. The Poly-
mee schools of composition in Flanders, England,
ermany, and Italy, of the four sueceeding cen-
turies, reaching their culmination in Palestrina,
were pre-eminently on counterpoint. Bach
however, usually considered its greatest master,
There is an enormous number of treatises on the
subject in most European languages; it will be
sufficient to refer to that of Sir F. A. G. Ouseley,
based on Cherubini, and to the primers published
by Novello & Co.

Counterscarp is that side of the ditch of a
fort which is nearest to the besiegers; the other
side being called the escarp or scarp.

Countersign, in military affairs, is a watch-
word used to prevent unauthorised persons passing
a line of sentries whose orders are to stop any one
unable to give it. It is fixed each day by the
commanding officer, but may be changed at any
moment if necessary, and is only communicated to
those entitled to know it.

Counter-tenor, the highest adult male voice,
the same as Alto (q.v.). See also CONTRALTO,
TENOR.

Country-dance (Fr. contre-danse, of which
the English term is a corruption), a dance in which
as many couples can take part as there is space to
accommodate them; the gentlemen being ran
at the commencement on one side, and the ladies
on the other. The dancers are constantly changing
places, leading one another back and forward, up
and down, parting and uniting again. ‘Sir Roger
de Coverley’ is the best known example. See
DANCING.

County (derived from Fr. comté; Lat. comi-
tatus)is now the recognised subdivision of the three
kingdoms for judicial and local government pur-

History.—The term ‘county’ corresponds with
shire (Saxon, scir, from sciran, ‘to divide’), a
word which, however, it has now to a great extent
superseded. It means a division of a kingdom
immediately superior to the hundred, and its first
use was in connection with the assignment of juris-
diction for judicial business. Some counties, such
as Essex, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey, Sussex, were
ancient Saxon kingdoms, but other counties or
shires were formed by the subdivision of Mercia,
Wessex, Northumbria, and the other Saxon king-
doms. The shire represented in its constitutional
machinery either the national organisation of the
several divisions created by West Saxon conquest,
or that of the early settlements which united in
the Mercian kingdom as it advanced westwards, or
the rearrangement by the West Saxon dynasty of
the whole of England on the principles already at
work in its own shires. The division of England
into shires, which was begun before the time of
Alfred, was probably not completed till the Danes,
Angles, and Saxons were united into one kingdom
under Edgar. In the government of the shire there
were two officers, the ealdorman and the scir-geréfa,
or sheriff. _The ealdorman (the princeps of Tacitus,
the satrapa of Bede, the dux of the Latin chron-
iclers, and the comes of the Normans) was originally
elected by the Witan, but in course of time the office
tended to become hereditary, though in all cases
down to the Norman Conquest the consent of the
king and the Witan was necessary to each fresh
nomination. The ealdorman shared with the
sheriff and the bishop the administrative functions
of the county in the shire-moot. The sheriff was

the representative of the king alone, and was the
chief judicial officer of the shire, on whom was
imposed the duty of executing the law and acting
as steward of the royal demesne, Each county or
shire comprised a number of hundreds, and just in
the same way as the hundreds had their moot, so
each county or shire had its moot, which was
attended by the representatives of the hundreds
and townships, an a representative body of
witnesses to give validity to its proceedings.
According to the laws of ar, the shire-moot was
held twice a year, After the Conquest the shire-
moot continued to be held in each county, but its
independence was much interfered with by the
exercise of the “ip prerogative. Between the
reigns of Henry |. and Henry III. these courts
began to meet more frequently, and eventually as
county courts, or sheriff’s courts, met once a month,
and continued to be held, though under varying
conditions, until comparatively modern times.
Constitution.—The organisation of a county in
England comprises the following officers: (1) A
lord-lieutenant, who is the military representative
of the crown, and whose duty it is to select persons
for the commission of the peace; (2) a custos rotu-
lorum (keeper of the records); (3) a sheriff; (4) a
coroner; (5) justices of the peace, qualified by an
estate in possession of £100 a year, or in reversion
of £300 a year, or by two years’ assessment to the
inhabited house duty at £100. All the justices for
a county hold the general and quarter sessions as
prescribed by law. A single justice may act in
petty sessions. (6) A clerk of the peace, who is
appointed by the custos rotulorum, but may be
removed by the justices; (7) a county treasurer ;
(8) a surveyor, and other minor officers. The
duties that now belong to the county justices are
mainly of an imperial character, and relate to the
maintenance of the militia, to the local administra-
tion of the criminal law, and to the carrying out
of certain matters connected with parliamentary
representation, licensing, assessment, appeals, and
so forth.
County Councils.—By the Local Government Act,
1888, all duties purely relating to matters of local
overnment in ae and Wales that were per-
ormed by the justices in quarter sessions were
transferred to county councils which were newly
established by the act. These councils are elected by
the inhabitants of the county, who are enrolled as
‘county electors’ for the purpose. A county elector
may be a man or woman, but must be of full age
and not subject to any legal mmoapersty, and must
not have been in receipt of parochial relief. Such
a person must have been an occupier of some build-
ing or land in the county for a certain term, and
must have paid all rates due and complied with
certain conditions as to residence, &c. For the
porpoers of the establishment of county councils in
ngland and Wales what are termed administra-
tive counties are formed. Of these there are sixty,
and the number of county councillors and county
aldermen for each county council is as follows,
the aldermen forming one-fourth of the total in
each case, viz. : England—Bedford, 68 ; Berks, 68;
Bucks, 68; Cambridge (exclusive of the Isle of
Ely), 64; Cambridge (Isle of Ely Division), 56;
Chester, 76; Cornwall, 88; Cumberland, 80;
Derby, 80; Devon, 104; Dorset, 76; Durham, 96;
Essex, 84; Gloucester, 80; Hereford, 68; Herts,
72; Hunts, 52; Kent, 96; Lancaster, 140; Leices-
ter, 72; Lincoln (Holland), 56; Lincoln (Keste-
ven), 64; Lincoln (Lindsey), 76; London, 137;
Middlesex, 72; Monmouth, 64; Norfolk, 76;
Northampton (exclusive of the Soke of Peter-
borough), 68; Northampton (Soke of Peter-
borough), 40; Northumberland, 80; Notts, 68;
Oxford, 76; Rutland, 28; Salop, 68; Somerset,

§22 COUNTY

COUP

88; Southampton, 100; Stafford, 100; Suffolk
( Eastern Division ), 76 ; Suffolk (Western Division ),
64; Surrey, 76; Sussex (Eastern Division), 68;
Sussex (Western Division), 60; Warwick, 72;
Westmoreland, 56; Wilts, 80; Worcester, 76;
York (East Riding), 68; York (North Riding), 80;
York (West Riding), 120. Wales—Anglesey, 56;
Brecknock, 60; Cardigan, 64; Carmarthen, 68;
Carnarvon, 64; Denbigh, 64; Flint, 56; Glamor-
gan, 88; Merioneth, 56; Montgomery, 56; Pem-
broke, 64; and Radnor, 32. These are distinct
from the aldermen and councillors in boroughs,
who take no part in county administration.

The powers and duties which are given to the
county councils by the Local Government Act,
1888, relate to county finance, rating and assess-
ment, county buildings, bridges, lunatic asylums,
reformatories, registration and polling of parlia-
mentary electors, contagious diseases (animals),
the appointment of coroners, maintenance of high-
ways, preventing the pollution of rivers, and
numerous minor matters. The control of the police
is vested in the courts of quarter sessions and the
county councils jointly. As regards its finances,
each county council is empowered to make and levy
county and other rates, and it will also receive its
share of the income derived from certain license
duties collected by the imperial government, to-
ieee with a proportion of the probate duty col-
ected in the United Kingdom.

County Rate.—The county rate is made under
an Act 15 and 16 Vict. chap. 81, and is assessed,
not on individual properties, but on the various
parishes, and a precept is issued to the guardians
of each union requiring them to pay to the county
treasurer the aggregate amount of the sums pay-
able by the parishes in their union. It can be
expended only for ‘county purposes,’ which the
county council is required to provide funds for in
the execution of its powers as above enumerated.

County Boroughs.—By the Local Government
Act, certain boroughs are exempted from the juris-
diction of the county councils of the counties in
which they are situated, and are enabled to retain
their independence, subject to certain special regu-
lations for the adjustment of their financial rela-
tions with the counties. These boroughs are called
“county boroughs,’ and are such as either were
counties in themselves before the passing of the
Local Government Act, 1888, or on the Ist of June
1888 had a population of not less than 50,000.
They are as follows: Barrow, Bath, Birkenhead,
Birmingham, Blackburn, Bolton, Bootle-cum-Lin-
acre, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Burnley, Bury,
Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Coventry, Croydon,
Derby, Devonport, Dudley, Exeter, Gateshead,
Gloucester, Halifax, Hanley, Hastings, Hudders-
field, Hull, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester, Lincoln,
Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Neweastle-
upon-Tyne, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham,
Oldham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Reading,
Rochdale, St Helens, Salford, Sheffield, South-
ampton, South Shields, Stockport, Sunderland,
Swansea, Walsall, West Bromwich, West Ham,
Wigan, Wolverhampton, Worcester, Yarmouth,
and York.

County Courts are sixty tribunals which have
been established in the different counties of Eng-
land for the hearing of cases of a minor importance
relating to civil matters only. They are now regu-
lated by the County Courts Consolidation Act,
1888, and under that statute can exercise jurisdic-
cion in questions of law and of equity. ‘Since their
esta blishient in 1846 their powers have been
gradually enlarged, and the tendency is to transfer
cases in which the matters in dispute are not great
from the higher courts to these courts. The
registrar has power to take all undefended and

admitted cases by leave of the judge. In every
action or suit of whatever nature where more than
£5 is claimed, and in all other actions, by leave of
judge, a jury may be demanded. The number of
jurymen to try a cause in county courts is five.
There is a right of appeal in all cases where more
than £20 is claimed, and by leave of judge in all
other cases. The judge only may commit to prison
in cases where he is satisfied the debtor has the
means to pay the debt or instalment thereof. There
is no other ground of imprisonment for debt in
county courts. A debtor may be committed for
any period not exceeding forty-two days, and can
be imprisoned only once for the same default. i

In Scotland the tendency of the constitution
under the feudal system was towards. English
methods of administration, and this brought about,
among other innovations, the division into counties
or shires. Its introduction seems to have begun
early in the 12th century, and to have renee
northwards. The crown at an early period adopted
the practice of appointing Sheriffs (q.v.) in Scot-
land, and local judges for each county, and the sys-
tem of appointing justices of the peace was intro-
duced by James V1 There are now thirty-three
counties in Scotland. The county organisation
comprises a sheriff- principal (see SHERIFF), sheriff-
substitutes, and justices of the peace. A system of
local government by county councils essentially
similar to that of England was extended to Scot-
land in 1889 ; superseding comniissioners of supply,
road trustees, &e. See SCOTLAND.

In Ireland the division into counties was begun
in the time of King John, and it was not completed
till that of James I. There are now thirty-two
counties, each of which is divided into baronies.
Its county organisation comprises the sheriff, the
xrand jury, justices of the peace, and officials.

he grand jury consists of twenty-three persons,
and is appointed under the Act 6 and7 Will. IV.,
chap. 116. It is the principal county authority for
purposes of local government, and its powers end
ith each of the assizes. The system of county
government is thus seen not to be based on popular
representation, as is the case in England and, to
some extent, in Scotland. See JURY.

In the United States the county is a creation of
the legislature of each state, and is not a thing of
gradual growth, as in England. Each county is
invested with certain corporate rights and powers
to enable it to perform the duties required of it in
the machinery of government, and its affairs are
managed by a board of commissioners or super-
visors, who can levy and collect taxes and hold real
and personal property for the benefit of the inhab-
itants. In every county there is a sheriff, coroner,
treasurer, recorder of deeds, and registrar of wills.
All officers are elected by the people. New coun-
ties are created by the subdivision of the existing
counties. County courts exist in each county, but
their powers vary according to the state they are
in, some having very extensive common-law and
equity jurisdiction, while others can deal only with
small suits, and are limited to chancery jurisdiction
and matters affecting trust properties.

For authorities, see Stubbs, Constitutional History
(1874-78); Hallam, Constitutional History (1827; new
ed. 1866) ; Freeman, Worman Conquest (1867-79) ; Gneist,
English Constitution (trans, 1886); also LocaAL GOVERN-
MENT, and works there cited.

Coup is a French word signifying ‘a stroke,’
used in certain phrases that have become current
in Europe. A coup d’état (‘stroke of state’) means
an arbitrary encroachment suddenly effected by the
governing authorities upon the constitution of the
state, altering or setting aside the prerogatives of
other parts of the body politic. The term is applied
particularly to the treacherous but successful attack

COUPAR-ANGUS

COURIER 523

upon the liberties of his fellow-countrymen by
Louis Napoleon, 24 December 1851. Coup de main
(‘a stroke of the hand‘) is a sudden and successful
attack ; coup d’ail (‘a stroke of the eye’) is a
summary view of a complicated matter; coup de
thedtre is a trick of the stage; and coup de grace is
the merciful blow that puts a victim out of pain.

Coupar-Angus, « town of Perthshire (till 1891
partly in Forfarshire), near the left bank of the Isla,
-@ tri at the Tay, 13 miles NNE. of Perth,

and 15 NW. of Dundee. Here are remains of a
Roman camp, within which is the fragment of a
Cistercian abbey, founded by Malcolm IV. in 1164,
and forming the abies of a monograph by Rogers
and Allan (2 vols. 1879-80). Linen is manufac-
tured. Pop. (1841) 1868; (1881) 2154; (1891) 2106.
See also CUPAR.

Couped, or Court, in Heraldry, is used to
describe the head, or ny limb of an animal cut
off in a straight line. It is distinguished from
erased—i.e. forcibly torn off, and therefore ragged
and uneven.

Couple is the name given in statics to a pair of
equal forces acting on the same body in opposite
and parallel directions. The effect of a couple is
to rotate the body about a certain definite line (the
axis ) perpendicu ar to the plane in which the forces
constituting the couple lie.

Couplet. Any two lines which rhyme together
may be called a couplet; but the term is more fre-
quently used to denote two lines which contain the
complete expression of an idea, and are therefore
to a certain extent independent of what goes before
or what follows. The poetic wits of the age of
Queen Anne excelled in this. kind of aphoristic
versification. Pope, as has been said, reasons in
couplets. For example :

Tis with our judgments as our watches, none
Go just alike, yet each believes his own.

However effectively epigrammatic short aphorisms
may be expressed in rhymed couplets, a long poem
in this rhythm becomes wearisome to the ear.
Not all the alert genius of Pope, nor the sonorous
strength of Dryden could avert from their favourite
rhythm the damning sin of monotony.

5; Coupon (Fr., and from couper, ‘ to cut’), aterm
-Signitying any billet, cheque, or other slip of paper
cut off from its counterpart. Itis, however, applied
chiefly to a dividend or interest warrant, which is
apis for payment by holders of debentures.
oupons in Great Britain require to be stamped.
The term is also applied to one of a series of tickets
which are vouchers that certain payments will be
made or services be performed, at various times or
places, in consideration of money paid.
Courant (Fr.), the heraldic term for ‘running.’
Courbet, GUSTAVE, painter, was born at
Ornans, Franche-Comté, on the 10th of June 1819.
In 1839 he was sent by his father, a well-to-do
farmer, to study law in Paris, but all the bent of
his singularly strong and self-assertive nature was
turned towards art. He made himself acquainted
with the Flemish, Florentine, and Venetian
schools ; but amid all he was careful to preserve—
as he phrases it—his ‘own intelligent and inde-
pendent individuality.’ In 1841 he took to land-
seape work, painting in the forest of Fontainebleau.
In 1844 he began to exhibit at the Salon; and his
works created a great sensation when shown in the
Salon of 1850. Marred by frequent coarseness, and
by defects of drawing, Courbet’s works possess fine
and powerful colour, and are valuable for their
firm is in actual fact, for their truth to an
individual and personal impression of nature. His
hunting scenes and animal subjects are especi-
ally vigorous and spirited. In 1869 he scouted the

Cross of the Order of St Michael from the king of
Bavaria, and after the revolution of 1870 he was
appointed Director of the Fine Arts, In the follow-
ing year he joined the Commune, and was concerned
in the destruction of the Vendéme Column (16th
May), for which, in the following September, he
was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment, and
to be fined for its restoration, his pictures being
sold in 1877 towards that purpose. On his release
he retired to Vevey in Switzerland, where he died,
3lst December 1877. An exhibition of nearly two
enero’ of his works was brought together in the

ole des Beaux Arts, Paris, in 1882. See the
Century for February 1884.

Courbevoie, a town of France, on the left
bank of the Seine, opposite the north-western
suburbs of Paris. It has many handsome villas,
a large barrack, bleaching-fields, and a carriage
factory. Pop. (1886) 15,937 ; (1891) 16,150.

Courier, PAvut Louis, one of the most power-
ful and brilliant of French writers, was born in
Paris on January 4, 1772. His boyhood was spent
in Touraine, and he afterwards studied at the
Collége de France and. the School of Artillery at
Chalons. He then served for some eighteen years
in the army, but his interest lay wholly in study,
and specially. in the study of the Greek language.
His military experiences ended in 1809 on the field
of Wagram, from which he was carried insensible
to Vienna. Thenceforth he devoted himself to
letters. He lived for some time at Florence, where
he became embroiled with the librarian of the
Laurentian Library, in regard to a manuscript of
Longus. The quarrel led to the publication of
the Lettre &@ M. Renouard, in which Courier’s
incomparable ironic faculty was for the first time
revealed. He removed to Paris in 1812, and in
1814 settled on his estate in Touraine. In 1816
he issued the first of his famous pamphlets, the
Pétition aux Deux Chambres, a scathing exposure
of the wrongs inflicted on the peasantry by the
government of the Restoration. The Pétition was
read by high and low, and its author was thence-
forth recognised as a political power in France.
Courier continued the attack in a series of admir-
ably witty letters in the Censeur, and in 1821 there
Snpeares the inimitable Simple Discours de Paul

ouis, Vigneron de la Chavonniére. In this pam-
i, the scheme to purchase the estate of Cham-

rd for the Due de Bordeaux by a ‘national
offering,’ wrung from the peasantry, was merci-
lessly derided and laid bare. The Simple Discours
is Courier’s masterpiece. It was made the subject
of a government prosecution, and its author under-
went two months’ imprisonment in Sainte Pélagie,
where he formed the acquaintance of Béranger.
On his release he was again tried, but escaped with
a reprimand, for his Petition pour les Villageotis
qu on empéche de danser. His subsequent writings
were published anonymously at Brussels. They
comprised Réponses aux Lettres Anonymes, the
Gazette du Village, the Livret de Paul Louis, the
Piéce Diplomatique—an imaginary letter from
Louis XVIII. to the king of Spain—and the Pam-
phiet des Pamphlets, a vindication of pamphleteer-
ing, which appeared in 1824, and which Armand
Carrel call ‘the swan-song of Courier.’ On
Sunday, May 10, 1825, Courier was found shot
dead a little before sunset in the grounds of his
house at Varetz.

With the exception of Pascal, Courier is the
greatest master of irony in the ranks of French
authors. A deadly controversialist, he was at the
same time an exquisite artist, whose style is char-
acterised by austere simplicity of diction. See the
notice of Courier in the edition of his works edited
by Armand Carrel (4 vols. Paris, 1834), and an

524 COURIERS

COURSING

admirable essay by Mr H. Traill in the Fortnightly
Review of February 1877.

Couriers are persons hired to accompany
travellers abroad, whose special duty is to make
all arrangements for the journey, and relieve their
employers as far as possible of all anxiety about
passports, exchange of money, hotel negotiations,
and the like.
one of many important qualifications in a good
courier.—King’s or Queen’s Messengers are some-
times called Foreign Office couriers.

Courlan, an American wading-bird of the
genus Aramus, usually placed among the Rails
(q.v.). The North American courlan or erying-
bird (A. giganteus) is 274 inches long, with long
bill and short wings, is a rapid runner, and has a
cackling note. It inhabits Florida and the West
Indies. The nest is usually attached to reeds.
The flesh of the young is good eating. The South
American courlan (A. scolopaceus) is larger.

Courland, or KURLAND, a Russian govern-
ment, and one of what are called the Baltic
provinces. It was formerly an independent duchy
—properly, indeed, consisting of two duchies, Cour-
land and Semgallen—and_ belonged, along with
Livonia, to the Teutonic Knights. The difficulty
of resisting the Russians led to the acknowledg-

ment in 1561 of the feudal sovereignty of
Poland. The country was long distracted by the

contentions of two parties, one Russian and the
other Polish; and fies being for some time very
completely under Russian influence, it was finally
united to Russia in 1795. Biron (q.v.) was made
Duke of Courland in 1737. It contains about
10,540 sq. m., with a population in 1895 of 713,800,
mostly Protestants. It is generally a level country,
with ranges of low hills, and contains many lakes,
bogs, forests, and sand-dunes, but some parts have
a very fertile soil. Cattle-breeding is on the
increase; game abounds; and bears, boars, elks,
and wolves are met with occasionally. The pro-
prietors of land are mostly German ; the peasantry,
who constitute the bulk of the population, of Let-
tish extraction, are chiefly engaged in husbandry.
The Russians do not amount to 2 per cent. of
the population. There is little manufacturing
industry, but trade is rather increasing. The
capital is Mitau, but the most flourishing town is
Libau.

Courses. See SAIL,

Coursing is defined by Dr Johnson as ‘the
sport of hunting hares, foxes, and sometimes deer
with greyhounds.’ From the sportsman’s point of
view foxes and deer must be eliminated from the
definition, for coursing is now understood to be the
pursuit of hares by a brace of greyhounds. The
saying that ‘a gentleman was known by his hawk,
his horse, and his greyhound,’ is a very ancient
one; and King John is recorded to have accepted
greyhounds in lieu of a money fine; but in those
times it was generally deer that were coursed. In
Elizabeth’s reign the sport attained a fashion and
celebrity previously unknown, and has since that
time been followed up with undiminished zeal.

Late in the 16th century we have a record of
some laws of the leash framed by the then Duke of
Norfolk on principles which have been largel
adhered to since. To Lord Oxford, the oc
lieutenant of Norfolk, the sport of coursing is
much indebted. Indeed, by some he is called ‘ the
father of modern coursing ;’ and he it was who
founded the first society, as it was then called, in
1776 at Swaffham in Norfolk. Other clubs were
soon organised, Lord Craven founding one at
Ashdown Park in 1780, and this was followed b
the Malton Club in Yorkshire and the Bradwell
and Tillingham Club in Essex, besides many others

The speaking of several languages is.

starting soon after the opening of the 19th cen-
tury.
After the passing of the Game Laws in 1831
coursing became much more general, and the sport
was taken up by the public, meetings prior to that
time being principally supported by members of
clubs, of which there were a large number spread
over the kingdom. From that date up to 1875 the
growth of coursing was very great, and all the
chief meetings throughout England, Scotland, and
Ireland were attended not only by those. who
owned dogs, but also by many who simply went
for the love of the sport. It was feared i many
that the Ground Game Act of 1880 would greatly
interfere with public coursing, and this fear
naturally caused coursers to follow the example of
Mr Case, of Plumpton, who originated the inclosed
system, the first ground being made over his farm
in Sussex. Up to this time coursers as a body had
looked rather askance at the new method of carry-
ing on the sport ; but the Ground Game Act caused.
more inclosures to be formed, and then the fact of
their being so easy of access added greatly to their
poe
he real sport of coursing can only be obtained
at the open meetings, so called in distinction to the
inclosed, notwithstanding that these latter fixtures
have been for a time in favour with those who
prefer the ‘ease and comfort’ obtained from
commencing the day some time between eleven
and twelve and finishing at four, whilst all the.
courses run can be witnessed from a grand-stand.
At the inclosed fixtures the betting as a rule is far
higher than when the coursing takes place in some
open country where the slipper and dogs have to be
followed from one end of the day to the other, for
this would be far too much work for the ordinary
betting-man.

At a coursing-meeting two Greyhounds (q.v.)
are slipped together, and the judge who has been
appointed by the committee or by the votes of the
nominators decides which is the winner of the trial
3 ag the one uniform principle that the greyhound
which does most towards the killing—though he
may not actually kill—is to be declared the winner.
The judge has a recognised code of poe to go by,
these points being speed, for which one, two, or
three points may be allowed; the go-bye, two or
three points; the twrn—that is, bringing the hare
round at not less than a right angle—one point ;
the wrench—bringing the hare round at less than
a right angle—half a point; the kill, one or two
points or even less ; and the triy—where the hare is
thrown off his legs—one point.

Those fixtures held over the downs have always
been looked upon as amongst the very best of the
open meetings. The Amesbury meeting has always
been held over the splendid range of Wiltshire
downs belonging to the Antrobus family. The
village of Amesbury, which is the headquarters
for this fixture, is 74 miles north of Salisbury.
The Ashdown Park Club was established by the
then Eari of Craven in 1780, and the stakes up to
1850 were confined to its members; but since that
date open meetings have taken place in addition to
others held by the South of England Club. The
Berkshire village of Lambourn is the headquarters
for the Ashdown meetings. Another favourite
meeting is held over the Stockbridge Downs, a
short distance from the well-known racecourse.
The Waterloo Cup meeting takes place over the
so-called Plains of Altcar (belonging to the Earl of
Sefton) in Lancashire, and here, too, the Altcar
Club holds its fixtures. The pes Club meet-
ing is another of the large and old-established
Lancashire fixtures, but the running there is
confined to members. The Clifton Arms Hotel
at Lytham is the headquarters. Two meetings

oe —CU l—o

COURSING

a

COURTESY TITLES 525

are annually held at Southport. In Yorkshire
the best meetings take place under the North of
England Club, several estates being lent by the
owners for their fixtures; and in addition Scar-
borough and other places annually hold open meet-
ings. Lincolnshire has a well-managed fixture at
Sleaford. In the Midlands Lichfield is the best
supported meeting, the Marquis of Anglesey allow-
ing the coursing to take place over his estate at
Beaudesert. ewmarket—the turf metropolis—
annually boasts of a large and well-attended meet-
ing. Farther south the Cliffe and Hundred of Hoo
Club and the Essex Club both hold open fixtures—
the former over the Cliffe marshes beyond Graves-
end, the Essex Club at Southminster.

The Border Union ranks as the best meeting
held in the north, and this fixture, which now
takes place in November, is much looked forward
to by both northern and southern coursers. Long-
town, 94 miles north of Carlisle, is the headquarters.
The principal meetings in Scotland are Carmichael
and Corrie. In Ireland, Mourne Park may be said
to be the chief meeting (though really coming
under the head of ‘inclosed’), many English do
being sent across the Channel to compete, and the
coursing season is always opened there. Other
fixtures are held by the Northern Club and the
Leinster and Limerick clubs.

The first ground over which ‘inclosed’ coursing
took place in 1876 was at Plumpton in Sussex.
Here originally there were three fields, with planta-
tions for letting the hares out from and escape
coverts made at the farther end ; but the smallest
of these inclosures was soon done away with, and
the sport took place over the Station Field, which
was 800 yards long by 300 yards wide, and the Hill
Field, 700 yards 300 yards. Since 1886, how-
ever, the Station Field only has been used; and
this is on an incline from one end to the other,
affording good trials, and fairly well testing both
the speed and stamina of the greyhounds. In
connection with High Gosforth Park an inclosure
was inade 5 miles from Neweastle-on-Tyne. The
coursing-ground is slightly down hill from the
slipping station for about 150 yards, and from that
Sera a very easy rise to the escape covert. At

aydock Park, near Newton Bridge station, on
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, are two
fields quite distinct, which are used on alternate
days, so that the same hares are not coursed two
ag in succession.

empton Park, the nearest inclosed ground to
London, is situated in the Vale of Sunbury,
164 miles from the metropolis, Two meetings a
season are held here, and the champion meeting
which annually takes place in January holds the
highest rank in this style of coursing. All the
fastest dogs in the United Kingdom are brought
together, for, as a rule, it is to the dog with the
most speed that the chief prizes in the inclosures
fall, the working qualities of the greyhound not

being sufficiently brought into play.

At Wye, near Ashford in Kent, an inclosure has
been established, and meeting after meeting takes
place here throughout the season, with at times
a very small interval between them. Here the
ground is on the incline nearly all the way, and
this, as a rule, gives the slower greyhounds a
better chance of gaining the judge's verdict, as,
though generally led, they when once in possession
g° the better with their game. The average num-

r of points made in a course here are certainly
greater than at the other inclosures. The inclosure
at Four Oaks Park, about a mile from Sutton
Coldfield, is another that is almost all on the
incline, but the meetings here are now few and
far between. The coursing arena is 700 yards in
length, and 400 yards in width.

Court, PRESENTATION AT. Formal presenta-
tion to the sovereign of persons whose status
entitles them to that honour, takes place either
at St James’s Palace, at a levee, intended for
gentlemen only, or at Buckingham Palace, a draw-
ing-room, where both ladies and gentlemen appear.
The days when levees and drawing-rooms are to be
held are always announced some time beforehand.
It is difficult in the present day to define exactly
who may and who may not be entitled to be pre-
sented. Members of families of the nobility and
landed gentry, diplomats, members of the House
of Commons, persons holding high offices under
the crown, judges, magistrates, church dignitaries,
officers in the army and navy, persons who have
attained distinction by eminence of any kind, and
the wives and daughters of the same classes, form
the larger number of those presented at levees and
drawing-rooms. Persons are often presented on
entering on some office, or attaining some dignity.
Any one who has been once presented is entitled to
appear at any future levee or drawing-room without
a new presentation. The whole arrangements con-
nected with presentations are under the super-
vision of the lord chamberlain, in whose office in
St James’s Palace information is given to all

rsons wishing to be presented. The names of
adies and gentlemen desiring presentation, and
of the ladies, noblemen, and gentlemen who are
to present them, have to be submitted to the
sovereign for approval, and there is a strict exclu-
sion of persons of damaged reputation, whatever
their rank. Court dress or official uniform must
be worn. A British subject who has been presented
at St James’s may on any after occasion claim to
be presented by the British minister at any forei
court. As to court dress both of ladies and gentle-
men, court etiquette, court mourning, &c., reference
may be made to Old Court Customs and Modern
Court Rule, by the Hon. Mrs Arinytage (1883).

Courtallum (Kitidlam), a town of the dis-
trict of Tinnevelli, Madras, stands amongst the
Ghats near the southern end of the peninsula; and
though only 450 feet above sea-level, serves as the
sanatorium of the district, deservedly enjoying a
reputation for salubrity of air, richness of vegeta-
tion, and beauty of scenery. Pop. about 1500.

Courtesy, or CuRTEsy, in Law, is the life
interest which the surviving husband has in the
real or heritable estate of the wife. Both in
England and in Scotland this customary right
has been regarded as a_ national uliarity.
Littleton speaks of it as tenure ‘by the curtesie
of England, because this is used in no other realme
but in England onely.’ In Scotland it is called the
courtesy or curiality of Scotland. It was probably
introduced into both countries from Normandy.
The four circumstances which are requisite to
make a tenancy by courtesy in England are—
marriage, seizin of the wife, living issue, and the
wife’s death. The rule that the child must have
been heard to ery, which at one time was followed
in England, is still adhered to in Scotland. It is
not necessary, however, in either country, that the
child survive; it is enough that it was once in
existence, although it should have died imme-
diately after its birth. In both countries, the
child must be the mother’s heir, and it is con-
sequently said that courtesy is due to the surviving
husband rather as the father of an heir than as the
widower of an heiress,

Courtesy Titles are titles allowed to certain
near relations of peers by understood usage and
the courtesy of society, but to which the users
have no le right. The subject of courtesy
titles, though tolerably familiar in its general out-

line to persons resident in Britain, is complicated

526 COURTESY TITLES

COURT-MARTIAL

enough to be a frequent source of perplexity to
Americans and foreigners, and may be thus ex-
plained: Dukes, marquises, earls, and even vis-
counts are often in possession of a number of titles
belonging to an inferior grade in the peerage,
which have in many cases been gradually accumu-
lated by the ancestors of the peer in the course of
his upward progress in the peerage. Some peers
have as many as sixteen inferior titles—e.g. the
Duke of Athole, who has one marquisate, four
earldoms, three viscounties, and eight baronies.
While in ordinary parlance a peer is known by
his highest title (or titles, if he holds two of the
same degree), his eldest son bears by courtesy one
of his inferior titles. Thus the eldest son of the
Duke of Devonshire is Marquis of Hartington ; of
the Duke of Buccleuch sat Queensberry, Earl of
Dalkeith ; of the Marquis of Bute, Earl of Dum-
fries. There is no rule as to which inferior title
should be assumed, a lower one being occasionally

referred to a higher; and the courtesy title may
be different in one generation from another.
inferior title of a viscount who is also a baron is
never borne as a courtesy title by his son; but a
usage prevails among viscounts and barons (more
properly ‘ lords’) in the peerage of Scotland, of the
eldest son designing himself ‘master;’ thus the
eldest sons of Viscount Arbuthnot and Lord Lovat
are known as the Master of Arbuthnot and Master
of Lovat. Courtesy titles are allowed to the eldest
sons of courtesy marquises and earls. Thus the
eldest son of Earl Perey, himself eldest son of the
Duke of Borthamberlaad. is Lord Warkworth.
There are various instances of titles borne by heirs-
apparent or grandsons of peers which have no
existence among the family honours, or are derived
from them by some modifications. While Earl
Nelson’s inferior titles are Viscount Merton and
Baron Nelson, his eldest son is known as Viscount
Trafalgar. There are a few cases where, in con-
sequence of the inferior title being identical with
the higher one, the eldest son substitutes the
family surname for the title. The Earl of Gosford,
whose family surname is Acheson, is also Viscount
Gosford and Baron Gosford; and his son adopts
the courtesy style of Viscount Acheson. he
holders of courtesy titles, not being legally peers,
can sit in the House of Commons.

The younger sons of dukes and marquises have
the courtesy title of ‘ Lord’ prefixed to their Chris-
tian name and surname—e.g. Lord Charles William
de la Poer Beresford, second son of the late Mar-
quis of Waterford; and the daughters of dukes,
marquises, and earls, have ‘ Lady’ followed by their
Christian name and surname, the surname being
that of their husband if married, or his courtesy
title if he be a courtesy peer. But if a lady enjoy-
ing such courtesy title marry a peer (not by cour-
tesy ), she only takes her husband’s peerage title.
Thus the fifth Duke of Buccleuch’s second daughter,
by her marriage with Donald Cameron of Lochiel,
became Lady Margaret Elizabeth Cameron, while
the same duke’s eldest daughter is Marchioness
of Lothian. Lady Emily Somerset, daughter of
the Duke of Beaufort, on marrying Viscount
Dupplin, eldest son of the Earl of. Kinnoull, was
known as Lady Emily Dupplin; but on her hus-
band succeeding his father as Earl of Kinnoull,
she became simply Countess of Kinnoull, this
change of designation involving, curiously enough,
a loss of precedency, inasmuch as the rank of a
duke’s daughter is higher than that of a countess.
When, as often happens, a mayel warrant is granted
to the brothers and sisters of a peer whose father
has never been in possession, giving them the
precedence of the sons and daughters of a peer,
they enjoy the corresponding courtesy titles. The
title ‘ Hongatable,’ used by sons of earls, viscounts,

The,

and barons, and daughters of barons, belongs, not
of courtesy, but of right, to them in common with
all sons and daughters of peers.

The widow of a peer or a knight is allowed by
courtesy to retain the title she acquired from her
husband, notwithstanding a second marriage; the
widow of a baronet is legally entitled to do so.

Along with courtesy titles may be ranked the
appellations of the judges of the Court of Session
in Scotland, who prefix ‘Lord’ either to their sur-
name or to a territorial designation. These titles,
though given in general society as well as on the
bench, are not used in subscribing the judge's
name, even to official papers. Hence Lol ed-
iy bite signature, ‘J. H. Forbes,’ and Lord Mure’s,
‘David Mure.’ The wives of judges do not par-
ticipate in their husband’s titles. See ADDRESS,
FoRMS OF.

Court-fool. See JESTERS.

Court-hand, a name given in England to a
modification of the Norman handwriting, as dis-
tinguished from the modern or Italian handwriting
which was in use in the English law-courts from
the 16th century till abolished by law in the reign
of George IT. See WRITING.

Court-martial, a court for the trial of all
pe subject to military law or to the Naval

iscipline Act. In the army, before the institu-
tion of a standing army in 1660, military discipline
was maintained by articles of war issued by the
crown, to remain in force only so long as the cam-
paign continued. These ordinances were adminis-
tered by the Court of Chivalry (q.v.), of which
the judges were the Lord High Constable and
the Earl Marshal. In 1689 the first Mutiny Act
(q.v.) was passed by parliament, and, with the
articles of war, made by royal prerogative, con-
stituted the law under which eciplins in the
army was maintained. This law, which is now
embodied in the Army Act of 1881, provides for
the assembly of courts-martial for the trial of
offences which are of too grave a character to be
dealt with summarily by the regimental com-
manders. They are of five kinds— general,
district, regimental, field-general, and summary.
The sovereign issues a warrant authorising each
general officer to convene the two first named, and
every regimental commander has power, in virtue
of his office, to convene the third. The fourth can
only be convened in countries beyond. the seas,
and to try offences against the person or property
of an inhabitant when an ordinary general court-
martial cannot conveniently be assembled. The
last can only be convened on active service under
similar conditions, and, with the fourth, has the
same powers as a general court-martial.

A general court must consist of five officers
(nine in the United Kingdom, India, Malta, and
Gibraltar), including the president, who must be
the senior and a field-officer, except in special
circumstances, when a captain may preside, and
each member must have held a commission for
three years. Similarly, a district court must con-
sist of three or five officers of two years’ service,
and a regimental court of three officers of one
year’s service; if no captain is available, a lieu-
tenant may preside overeither of them. All mem-
bers must be strictly impartial, and may be chal-
lenged by the prisoner on that point. A field-
general court must consist of three officers, of any
rank, and a summary court of the same number,
if available, otherwise two are sufficient; but in
that case it cannot pass sentence of death, and,
with three members, all must concur in such a
sentence,

Any of these courts is competent to try any
offence, but not any offender; thus an officer or

|
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COURT-MARTIAL

COURT OF SESSION 527

a civilian subject to military law, and on the same
footing as an officer (og. @ hewspaper correspond-
ent) can only be tried by a general, field-general,
or summary court-martial, and a warrant-oflicer
cannot be tried by a regimental court. Their
eres of punishment vary also, from. forty-

o days’ imprisonment to death. An officer
may be sentenced to cashiering, dismissal, for-
feiture of rank, or reprimand ; a non-commissioned
officer to reduction to the ranks, and like a private
soldier, to discharge with ignominy, forfeiture of
service, medals, &c., fines and stoppages of pay ;
all ranks and civilians, if subject to military law

use accompanying a force on active service,
may be sentenced to imprisonment, penal servi-
tude, or death.

All sentences must be confirmed before they
are carried out-—those of general, field-general, and
district courts by the sovereign, or officer author-
ised to confirm by warrant from Her Majesty ;
those of regimental and summary courts by the
convening officer. The confirming authority may
commute, mitigate, or remit the whole or part of
a sentence, and may order both finding and sen-
tence to be revised (unless the prisoner is ac-

uitted ), but cannot, nor can the court on revision,
increase the sentence.

The procedure is similar to that of civil courts—
the court is public, and the same rules of evidence
are in force; but the members of a court-martial
act as both jury and judge—i.e. they find the facts
and allot the-sentence. All are sworn, and each
votes, commencing with the junior, both on the find-
ing and sentence, as well as on any question that
may arise, the majority deciding. e witnesses
are alsosworn. An officer is appointed as judge-
advocate in important trials, to assist the court on
points of law, see that the proceedings are regular,
and, with the president, take care that the prisoner
is treated with strict fairness. Counsel may appear
on both sides at general courts, and, if barristers
or officers subject to military law, may address
the court, and examine and cross-examine wit-
nesses; or before any court the prisoner may be
assisted in his defence by a ‘friend,’ who may
make expeeetions to him, but is not allowed to
address the court or the witnesses. The prosecutor
must be an oflicer and not a member of the court ;
he is sworn, and charged with the duty of eliciting
the truth, but not necessarily of obtaining a con-
viction. The proceedings are all written, except
those of summary courts, which have a necessarily
abbreviated form of procedure, like the drum-head
court-martial for which they have been substituted.

Contempt of a court-martial by persons subject to
nilitary law is punishable by the same or another
court-martial, and, in the case of civilians, by
a civil court, to which the offence is certified by
the president. Witnesses are summoned by the
convening officer or the president, and, if civilians,
their travelling expenses must be tendered. Some-
times courts of inquiry are held instead of a court-
martial, not to try or to punish, but to make an
investigation; the members not being on oath.
Such a court occasionally precedes a court-martial.

On board a man-of-war no military court-martial
may sit except a regimental court, with the sanc-
tion of the captain of the ship, for the trial of a
non-commissioned officer, and it may only sentence
him to reduction to the ranks. Marines are liable
to trial by military court-martial when not borne
on the books of a man-of-war, in which case they
come under the Naval Discipline Act. Naval
courts-martial consist of admirals, captains, and
commanders, who try offences against the Naval
Discipline Act. The chief admiral of the fleet or
squadron appoints the members; but all captains
on the station have a right to sit, if not implicated,

The court-martial is open to all the crew and
others as spectators, The sentence is final, and
needs no confirmation,

Courtney, LEONARD HENRY, was born at
Penzance, in Cornwall, the son of a banker there,
July 6, 1832. Educated at Penzance and St
John’s College, Cambridge, he graduated second
wrangler and first Smith’s prizeman in 1855, and
became fellow of his college the year after. In
1858 he was called to the bar, and from 1872 to
1876 he filled the chair of political economy at
University College, London. He early began to
write for the Zimes, and his pamphlets and
articles to monthly magazines placed him among
the ablest and most advanced doctrinaire Liberals
in England. He early became an eager advocate
for proportional representation and a wide exten-
sion of local government. He was returned for
Liskeard in 1876 and 1885; in 1886, 1892, and 1895
for South-east Cornwall. He was Under-secretary
of State first in the Home and next in the Colonial
Office, and in May 1882 succeeded the ill-fated
Lord Frederick Cavendish as Financial Secretary
to the Treasury. He was appointed chairman of
committees in both the parliaments.of 1885 and
1886-92.

Court of Session, the supreme court of
civil jurisdiction in Scotland, was constituted in
1532. The credit of its origin is generally ascribed
to the Duke of Albany, who when regent had
submitted a scheme for the establishment of such
a court to Pope Clement VII. ; and the details of
the scheme were carried out by Archbishop Dun-
bar of Glasgow, who was then Lord Chancellor.
Its constitution was principally modelled on that
of the parliament of Paris, of which body the Duke
of Albany was at that time a member. French
influence was clearly seen in many features of the
Court of Session, and to this day may be recognised
in the names of its officers—president, king’s advo-
cate, advocates, dean of faculty, procurators, Xe.
The judges of the Court of Session originally con-
sisted ot the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, and
fourteen ordinary judges or ‘ senators of the College
of Justice,’ together with an indefinite number of
extraordinary lords, who represented the peerage.
At first, half the number of the judges were laymen
appointed by the king, and half ecclesiastics ap-

ointed by the church. In 1584 all clergymen were
eclared disqualified from holding judicial office,
but so late as 1664 the Archbishop of Glasgow was
made an extraordinary lord. The extraordinary
lords themselves were abolished in 1723, and the
Court of Session then consisted of the Lord Presi-
dent and fourteen ordinary judges, the office of
Lord Chancellor having been abolished at the
Union. The Court of Session first sat in the
Tolbooth or prison of Edinburgh, but in 1639
was accommodated in the buildings of the Parlia-
ment House, which was then erected. It sat as
one chamber, one of the ordinary lords going by
rotation weekly to sit in what was called the Outer
House. Here all cases, with certain exceptions,
were in the first place heard and decided by the
Lord Ordinary, but an appeal lay from his judgment
to the whole court. Fresh changes were made in
1808 and 1810; and in 1830 the total number of
judges was reduced to thirteen, the two divisions
each consisting of four, including the Lord Presi-
dent and Lord Justice-clerk, whilst the number
of the Outer House judges remained as before :
this is the present constitution of the court. In
1830, moreover, the office of president was united
with that of Lord Justice-general or president
of the High Court of Justiciary (q.v.), the
supreme criminal court in Scotland. Prior to
1887 five of the judges were appointed Lords Com-

528 COURT-PLASTER

COUSINS

missioners of Justiciary, but by the Criminal Pro-
cedure (Scotland) Act of that year all the judges
are now members of that court. Since the Union
in 1707, several courts which had a separate exist-
ence, and in some cases an exclusive jurisdiction,
have been merged in the Court of Session. These
are the Court or Commission of Teinds (though this
still sits nominally as a separate court), in which
questions relating to the law of teinds or church
tithes were decided; the High Court of Admi-
ralty, dealing with maritime cases; the Court of
Exchequer, having jurisdiction in all matters re-
lating to crown rents, customs, &c.; and the Com-
missary Court of Edinburgh, which had to do with
wills. The judges of the Court of Session are
appointed by the crown from the bar, and hold
their offices ad vitam aut culpam. See APPEAL,
JUSTICIARY CouRT.

Court-plaster. See PLASTERS.

Courtrai (Flem. Kortrijk), a town of Belgium,
in the province of West Flanders, 54 miles
SW. of
French frontier. Courtrai, which is built on both
sides of the Lys, is surrounded with ancient
walls, and has a fine old bridge flanked with
Flemish towers, a noble town-hall (1526), belfry,
and a beautiful Gothic church, founded in 1238
by Baldwin, Count of Flanders. Table damask,
linen, and lace are the principal articles of manu-
facture, and employ 5400 hand-looms and several
large factories. There are extensive bleaching-
grounds in the vicinity, and the neighbouring

lains supply fine flax in large quantities to many
Meecaaed markets. Pop. (1875) 27,076; (1893)
31,319. In 1302 the Flemings, citizens of Ghent
and Bruges chiefly, won a splendid victory over the
chivalry of France beneath the walls of Courtrai,
called ‘ Battle of the Spurs,’ from the number of
gilt spurs afterwards gathered from the dead by
the victors. Henry VIII.’s ‘Battle of the Spurs’
was fought at Guinegate (q.v.) in 1513.

Courts of Law. See Common LAw, CHAN-
CERY, Equity, APPEAL, HIGH CouRT OF JUSTICE,
CouRT OF SEssION, COUNTY CoURTS, ADMIRALTY
Courts, Divorce, &e.

Cousin (Fr., from Low Lat. cosinus ; for Lat.
consobrinus), a kinsman; more specifically the son
or daughter of an uncle or aunt. The children
of brothers or sisters are cousins-german (german.
being the Lat. germanus, ‘ brother’). The children
of cousins-german are second cousins; and if A
and B are cousins, A is a first cousin once removed
to the children of B, as B is to the children of A.
See CONSANGUINITY.

Cousin, Victor, the founder of systematic

eclecticism in modern philosophy, was born in|

Paris, November 28, 1792. He studied with
brilliant success at the Lycée Charlemagne and the

cole Normale. He was attracted to the study of
philosophy by Laromiguieére, a disciple of Locke and
Condillae ; but appointed in 1815 assistant-professor
to Royer-Collard at the Faculty of Letters, he threw
himself heartily into the reaction against the
sensualistic philosophy and literature of the 18th
ventury. Following the path of his senior, he
became an exponent of the doctrines of the Scottish
metaphysicians, but exhibited far more brilliancy
than the original authors of these doctrines. In
1817 Cousin visited Germany, and already intro-
duced to its bolder speculative systems, he now
zealously studied Kant, Jacobi, Fichte, Schelling,
and Hegel. For his liberalism he was in 1821
deprived of his offices; and in a second visit to
Germany in 1824-1825, suspected of carbonarism,
he was arrested at Dresden, presumably at the
instigation of the French police, and sent to
Berlin, where he was detained for six months.

russels by rail, and 6 miles from the

He took advantage of his compulsory residence in
the capital of Prussia further to study the philo-
sophy of Hegel. On his return to France he took
a decided stand against the reactionary policy of
Charles X., and in 1827 was reinstated in his
chair at the Sorbonne. Meanwhile he had ap-
eared as an author. During 1820-27 he published
1is editions of Proclus and Descartes and part of
his celebrated translation of Plato. It has been
said that to find an audience as numerous and
as passionately interested as were those of Cousin,
it would be necessary to go back to the days of
Abelard. Cousin threw great moral earnestness
into his work ; his doctrines were for the most part
new to his hearers, bold, and in harmony with the
spirit of the time. The finest qualities of the
national genius appeared in his lectures, a wonder-
ful lucidity of exposition, a beauty of style such
as few philosophers have equalled, and a power
of co-ordinating the facts of history and philosophy

in such a manner as to make each illustrate the

other. At this period Cousin was one of the most
influential leaders of opinion in Paris; and conse-
uently, after the revolution of 1830, when his
riend Guizot became prime-minister, Cousin was
made a member of the Council of Public Instruction ;
in 1832 a peer of France; and later, Director of
the Ecole Normale. The great success of his efforts
for the organisation of py instruction was
largely a consequence of those valuable reports
which he drew up, from personal observation, on _
the state of public education in Germany and
Holland. In 1840 he was elected a member of the
Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in
the same year became Minister of Public Instrue-
tion in the cabinet of Thiers. The revolution of
1848 found in Cousin a friend rather than an enemy,
and he aided the government of Cavaignac. After
1849 he disappeared from public life. In his last
years he lived in a suite of rooms in the Sorbonne,
and he died at Cannes, 13th January 1867.

His philosophy is eclecticism, but not mere
syncretism. e has a definite criterion of truth,
and a definite method of observation, analysis,
and induction ; his system comprises psychology,
ontology, and an eclectic history of philosophy.
Psychological observation gives three great factors
—sensibility, activity or liberty, and reason, the
latter being impersonal. Cousin repudiates pan-
theism, with which he has often been charged ; and
criticising the opposing systems of sensationalism,
idealism, scepticism, and mysticism as incomplete
rather than false, he holds that each expresses a
real order of phenomena and ideas. Cousin’s
influence revived the study of philosophy in France,

} and especially renewed interest in the history of

eae ae Amongst his A more or less
influenced by his teaching are Jouffroy, Rémusat,
Barthélemy St Hilaire, Jules Simon, and Janet.
Cousin’s chief works (besides those already
mentioned) are Fragmens Philosophiques (1826),
Cours de l Histoire de la Philosophie (1827), Cours
@ Histoire de la Philosophie Moderne (1841), Cours
@ Histoire dela Philosophie Morale au X VIII* Siecle
(1840-41), Lecons de Philosophie sur Kant (1842),
Etudes sur les Femmes et la Société du XVII* Siéele
(1853), his famous Du Vrai, du Beau, et du Bien
(1854; 23d ed. 1881), works on Aristotle, Locke,
Kant, and Pascal, and his editions of Abelard and
Pascal’s Pensées. See Sir W. Hamilton’s critique
in the Discussions; Janet, Victor Cousin et son

| @uvre (1885); Jules Simon’s Monograph (1887;

trans. by Masson, 1888); and Barthélemy St
Hilaire, Victor Cousin, sa Vie et Correspondance
(3 vols. 1895).

Cousins, SAMUEL, engraver, was born 9th
May 1801 at Exeter, and was apprenticed to S. W.
Reynolds, the excellent mezzotinter, in many of

EE —- — S

ot es

~~ . ene

COUTANCES

COVENANT 529

whose plates he had a chief hand, while some

ab of the small mezzotints after Sir Joshua,
which bear his master’s name, were his work.
About this period he also executed portraits in
pencil. In 1826 he started on his own account
as an engraver, and produced the ‘Master Lamb-
ton’ after Lawrence, a mezzotint which at once
established his reputation. It was followed by
a long series of admirable plates after Reynolds,
Lawrence, Landseer, Leslie, Millais, Leighton,
and other eminent painters. His ‘Marie An-
toinette in the Temple,’ after E. M. Ward, he
was accustomed to rank as one of his finest
works. He was elected an Associate-engraver
of the Royal Academy in 1835, and a yal
Academician Engraver in 1855, and he retired
in 1880. To the Academy he presented a sum
of £15,000 to found annuities for poor and deserv-
ing artists. He died 7th May 1887. His works
were catalogued by Algernon Graves in 1880.

Coutances, a town in the French department
of La Manche, 5 miles from the English Channel,
and 57 8. of Cherbourg by rail. It stands on a hill
crowned by the cathedral (dating from the 13th
century), one of the finest specimens of ecclesi-
astical architecture in the Early Pointed style in
Normandy. Pop. 8108.

Couthon, GeorGEs, a fanatic of the French

volution, was born in 1756 at Orcet, near Cler-
mont, in Auvergne. An advocate at the outbreak
of the Revolution, he was sent by Puy de Dome to
the National Convention, where, spite of his crippled
limbs, he made himself conspicuous by his shrieking
hatred of the priesthood and the monarchy. He
voted for the death of the king without delay, be-
came a devoted and sapehayad ese of Robes-
pierre, and was appointed in July 1793 a member
of the Comité de Salut Public. At Lyons he
erushed the insurrection with merciless severity,
and outdid himself after his return to the Conven-
tion, with his frothy ravings against Pitt and the
English nation. The fall of Robespierre brought
down Couthon also. Accused by Fréron, he was
thrown into prison, delivered by the mob with
whom he was popular, recaptured by the soldiers of
the Convention, and executed 28th July 1794, along
with St Just and Robespierre.

Coutras, 2 town in the French department of
Gironde, on the left bank of the Dronne, 32 miles
NE. of Bordeaux by rail, with some trade in
flour and wine. Here, in 1587, need of Navarre

ined a bloody vietory over the forces of the

eague, under the Due de Joyeuse, who perished.
Pop. 2302.

Coutts, THOMAS, banker, was born in 1735 in
Edinburgh, the son of a merchant and banker, who
was lord provost in 1742-44. With his brother
James he founded the banking-house of Coutts and
Co. in London, and on the latter’s death in 1778
became sole manager. Keen and exact in matters
of business, although charitable and hospitable in

rivate, he left a fortune of some £900,000 at his

eath in 1822. By his first wife, who had been a
servant of his brother’s, he had three daughters,
who married respectively the Earl of Guilford, the
Marquis of Bute, and Sir Francis Burdett, Bart. ;
in 1815 he married Miss Mellon the actress. See
BurDEtt-Covutts.

Couvade, a singular and widespread custom
among savages in many parts of the world, and
regulating the conduct of a father in connection
with the birth of a child. In Guiana, even before
the child is born, the father abstains from some
kinds of animal food. The mother works up to a
few hours before the birth, and retires alone, or with
some women, to the forest for the birth. In a few
hours she returns and resumes her ordinary work.

138

Meanwhile the father has taken to his hammock,
and abstains from every kind of work, from meat
and all other food except weak gruel of cassava
meal, from smoking, from washing himself, and
especially from touching weapons of every kind.
During this time, which may extend for weeks,
he is fed and cared for by the women. The
explanation is unattainable; but the custom ap-
pears to imply a mysterious magical and sympa-
thetic connection between father and child, such
that if the father infringe the rules of couvade
the child. suffers. If he eat capybara flesh, the
child will have protruding teeth like those of
that animal ; if he eat an animal with spotted skin,
the child will be spotted too. In Guiana the child
is not weaned till the third or fourth year. Indians
often allege in explanation that the child descends
more directly from father than from mother. Some
recent anthropologists find the origin of the custom
in the transition from the original matriarchal
system (see TRIBE), in which descent and inherit-
ance were reckoned through the mother alone, to the
ee or system. In some places still the father
as to buy the child from the mother; among the
ancient Romans, the father had to lift the child
from the ground. The couvade may therefore be
a ceremony by which the father secures and pro-
claims his property in the new-born child. Diodo-
rus records the custom as in use among the ancient
Corsicans ; and it has been found by ancient and
modern travellers in parts of China, Borneo, Africa,
North and South America. The name, now com-
monly used by anthropologists, is French, being
from couver, ‘to hatch eggs.’ See Tylor, Early
History of Mankind (1878); Giraud-Teulon, Les
Origines de la Famille (1874).
Covenant ( Lat. convenire, ‘to come together’),
a contract or agreement; a term much used by
theologians, and in its ordinary signification, as
well as in its theological use, nearly if not always
exactly equivalent to the Hebrew berith of the
Old Testament and the Greek diathéké of the
New. Applied to relations established between
God and men, the term covenant must be under-
stood with a certain modification of the meaning
which it bears when employed concerning the rela-
tions of men to one another, when two independ-
ent parties enter into a covenant, which they have
equal right to make or to refuse to make; and is
sometimes employed as equivalent to di. tion,
and the Jewish dispensation is called the Old
Covenant (or testament, by another translation
of diathéké), in contradistinction to the Christian,
which is called the New (see BIBLE). The ‘Cove-
nant’ or ‘ Federal’ system of theology was developed
by Cocceius (q.v.). God, in his supremacy, is
regarded as appointing certain conditions for his
creatures, which they cannot but accept, yet their
willing consent to these conditions gives to the
relation established the nature of a covenant; and
thus God is commonly said to have made two
covenants with niet tho Jirst covenant, or covenant
of works, with Adam, as the representative of the
whole human race, promising life (with perfect
happiness), upon condition of perfect obedience,
whilst death was threatened as the penalty of trans-
ion ; the second covenant, or covenant of grace,
ing that on which depends the whole hope and
salvation of man since the first covenant was
broken, and in which life is freely offered to sinners,
and they are simply uired to believe in Jesus
Christ that they may saved. This covenant
God is regarded as having made with Christ, as
the representative of his people, and with them in
him. The older re often speak of the
covenant of redemption between God and Christ,
employing the term covenant of grace rather to
designate the whole dealings of God with men in

530

COVENANT

giving effect to the covenant of redemption; but
the term covenant of grace has long been almost
universally employed to include all that was com-
prehended under both terms. The Abrahamic
covenant is the covenant of grace as declared to
Abraham, in its particular relation to him and his
seed. God is represented in Scripture as sustaining
a covenant relation to his own people, to the Jews
under the Old Covenant, to believers in Christ
under the New; and doctrinal theology consists
not a little in tracing out the nature of this relation,
and the consequences which flow from it. As the
people of God collectively sustain a covenant
relation to him, so do believers individually ; and
it has not been an uncommon thing for pious
persons to endeavour to reduce to writing their
sense of this covenant obligation, under the notion
of a personal covenanting with God; and of binding
themselves by a stronger obligation to what they
believed to be good and their duty. It has also
been common for men, from the earliest ages, to
enter into covenants with one another with more or
less of religious solemnity ; and this has in par-
ticular been done among those who have suffered
persecution, or have been engaged in contests con-
cerning matters of religion, for which the authority
of certain passages of the Old Testament is strongly
leaded. Instances occur in the history of the
aldenses, and of some of the Reformed churches,
particularly in Scotland.

THE COVENANTS, known ‘in Scottish history
and tradition, originated in the Reformation move-
ment of the 16th and 17th centuries. The first
Reformation, in 1560, was preceded by several
religious bonds among the Reformers themselves ;
but the work of reformation was crowned in both
first and second periods by the whole nation en-
gaging in public religious covenanting. These

ublic national covenants are two in number—the

ational Covenant, and the Solemn League and
Covenant. .

The National Covenant, which is sometimes
called the ‘Scots Confession’ and the ‘Short Con-
fession,’ to distinguish it from the more elaborate
Confession of Faith enacted and placed on the
statute-book by parliament in 1560, was drawn up
in 1580, at the command of James VI., by one of his
chaplains, John Craig (q.v.), to counteract attempts
which were being made by the Roman Catholics to
regain their lost hold of Scotland. It contains a
profession of adherence to the ‘true Christian faith
and religion’ more particularly expressed in the
Confession of 1560, an explicit renunciation of the
tenets of popery, which are detailed at length, and
a pledge of obedience to the Presbyterian discipline
of the church as then established, and of allegiance
to the king in the defence of the gospel, all being
ratified by solemn oath. By the ordinance of the
king, the Privy-council, and the General Assembly,
this Covenant was sworn and subscribed by all
ranks and classes in 1581; renewed in 1590 in a
bond specially directed against the machinations of
the Holy League, which had in 1588 despatched the
Armada against the British Isles; again renewed
in 1596, and still again in 1638. In the Jast-men-
tioned year it was renewed in a bond directed
against the attempts of Charles I. to enforce the
Laudian service-book and Episcopacy upon Scot-
land. The swearing and subscribing of the Cove-
nant throughout the country was inaugurated in
the Greyfriars’ Churchyard at Edinburgh, on 28th
February ; numerous copies were then sent out over
the country, and of these many are still extant both
in private and public custody. In the library of
the Faculty of Advocates at Edinburgh alone, no
fewer than five parchment copies are preserved
with the original signatures of Rothes, Montrose,
Loudoun, and many others of the nobility, gentry,

commissioners of counties and burghs, and minis-
ters. Only one of these, however, is connected
with the year 1638. At the meeting of the General
Assembly in Glasgow, on 21st November of that
year, the Covenant was ratified and appointed to
be again sworn, while in pursuance of the object of
the Covenant, the assembly deposed the whole of
the Episcopal hierarchy which had been established
by James VI. The other four copies of the Cove-
nant above referred to were subscribed in 1639. The
Covenant was further ratified by the parliament of
Charles I., held at Edinburgh, June 11, 1640; and
it was subscribed by Charles II. on his landing in
Scotland, at Speymouth, on June 23, 1650, and
again at his coronation at Scone, on January 1, 1651.

The Solemn League and Covenant was in effect
an international treaty between Scotland and Eng-
land, for the object of securing the civil and
religious liberties of these kingdoms. In 1643
commissioners were sent by the parliament to Edin-
burgh to solicit the assistance of the Scots on the
basis of a treaty between the two kingdoms. To.
this the Scots Convention of Estates and also the
General Assembly cordially assented, on condition
that the treaty was drawn up in the interests of
their religious as well as their civil liberties. Com-
mittees of both were appointed to meet with the
English commissioners, and the result of their
deliberations was the Solemn League and Covenant.
It is believed to have been largely the work of
Alexander Henderson. It was hailed by both the
representative bodies of the Scots with joyful una-
nimity, and sent to England for approhation, with
their warmest recommendations and assurances that-
it would prove ‘the most powerful means, by the
blessing of God, for settling and preserving the true
Protestant religion with perfect peace in all his
majesty’s dominions, and pro ve the same to
other nations, and for establishing his majesty’s
throne to all ages.’ It was received with almost
perfect unanimity by the English parliament and
the Westminster Assembly of Divines, both of
whom forthwith swore and subscribed it, and sent
copies over the kingdom, with their ordinance that
it should be subscribed and sworn by all. Zachary
Crofton gives a list of 793 ministers in twelve only
of the counties of England, the West Riding of
Yorkshire, and the city of London who subscribed
their adherence to the Covenant. As soon as
intimation of its acceptance by England was re-
ceived in Scotland, the Solemn League and Covenant
was enjoined to be sworn there all ranks and
classes; and being sent to Ireland was embraced
by the Protestants there with like eagerness and
satisfaction.

The prime object of the Solemn League and
Covenant, as stated in the preamble thereof, was
‘the preservation of ourselves and our religion from
utter ruin and destruction,’ and the Covenanters
pledged themselves, in their games and callings, to
endeavour the preservation of the reformed religion
in the Church of Scotland, and the reformation of
religion in England and Ireland, in the way of
securing a uniformity of religion in the three king-
doms, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and govern-
ment. There can be little doubt that Presby-
terianism was intended, as prelacy, which had just
been abolished by both English and Scottish parlia-
ments, was specially marked for extirpation along
with popery. The Covenanters also pledged them-
selves to ‘preserve the rights and privileges of the
parliaments,’ to ‘defend the king’s pel we i person
and authority in the preservation and defence of
the true religion and liberties of the kingdoms,’ to
endeavour that the three kingdoms might ‘remain
conjoined in a firm peace and union to all posterity,’
and finally, to evince a thorough and real refor-
mation of life both in public and in private. The

EO a

COVENTRY 531

COVENANT
Solemn me and Covenant was rerewed: in
Scotland in mber 1648, and along with the

National Covenant was sworn to and subscribed by
Charles II. at Speymouth and Scone, In fighting
for his succession against Cromwell, the Scots in
1650 enacted that the motto on all their colours
and standards should be ‘ For Covenant, religion,
king and kingdom,’ and their watchword at the
battle of Dunbar was ‘The Covenant.’ After the
Restoration, parliament decreed that the Covenants
were not obligatory on the lieges; in 1662 they
were declared unlawful oaths, and all acts ratifying
and approving them were annulled; in 1682 an
oath was imposed specially renouncing the obliga-
tions of the Sarsaamas, and in 1685 it was declared
to be treason to take them.
. During the period, however, between the Restora-
tion and the Revolution, the Covenants were ad-
hered to by many who, upon this account, were
called COVENANTERS. They maintained that these
Covenants, notwithstanding all acts of parliament
to the contrary, were binding upon the nation, and
t numbers of them suffered and died in this
timony. Their heroic resistance was justified by
the Revolution of 1688, when the nation united in
one final effort for the restoration of civil and reli-
gious freedom. . The Covenants, however, found no
lace in the polity of the reconstructed Church of
tland, od pe far as it and the nation in general
is concerned, they remain a dead letter. They are
nevertheless printed along with the authorised
standards of the chureh—viz. the Westminster
Confession of Faith, and Catechisms, &c. But
their continued obligation upon the entire nation
remained a prominent principle of the Original
Secession and iestormed. Presbyterian churehes,
both of which have frequently renewed them from
the Revolution down to the present day. See
SCOTLAND (CHURCH OF), CAMERONIANS.

Covenant, in English Law, an agreement b
Deed (q.v.) in writing, signed, sealed and delivered.
A special action of covenant lay where a party
claimed damages for breach of a covenant; but
since the passing of the Judicature Act, 1875, this
is no longer a technical expression, A covenant
may also be tmplied. ‘Covenant running with the
land,’ is a covenant affecting the land into whose-
soever hands it comes. In the United States, the
term covenant is used with the same sense as it has
in England. The action of covenant is not there in
use, a covenant being enforced by an ordinary civil
action. The covenant running with the land is
almost universally replaced in the United States by
a covenant of warranty, by which the granter of
the deed, and not the land itself, is noted

Covent Garden, corrupted from Convent
Garden, from having been originally the garden of
the Abbot of Westminster, is a spacious square in
London, celebrated for a t market held within
it of fruit, vegetables, and flowers. The square was
formed about 1631 from the designs of Inigo Jones,
and has the arcade or piazza on the north and
north-east side, Tavistock Row on the south, and
the church of St Paul’s on the west. In the 17th
century Covent Garden was a very fashionable
quarter of the town. The scene of one of Dryden's

lays is laid here, and frequent allusions are made
the place in plays of Charles II.’s time. The
market, now so famous, appears to have originated
about 1656 in a few wooden sheds and stalls.
Covent Garden is for a stranger one of the sights
of London, and is seen to greatest advan about
three o’clock on a summer morning; Tuesday,
Thursday, and Saturday being the principal days.

Coventry, a city, parliamentary and municipal
borough, and manufacturing town in the north of
Warwickshire, on the Sherbourne, an affluent of

the Avon, 18} miles ESE. of Birmingham, and 94
NW. of London, It stands on a gentle eminence
in a valley, with a ridge of hill on the south, and
still contains some old houses, with timbered fronte
peepeeting into the streets, and which belong to the
5th and 16th centuries. Town improvements in
recent years have necessitated the removal of many
old houses and the construction of new streets, the
area of the city being greatly extended. The
modern buildings ai iow a corn exchange, market-.
hall, baths, Free Public Library, School of Art, new
precrggea and other schools, churches, chapels, and
10tels, many tricycle and bicycle works, the Cov-
entry and Warwickshire Hospital, and the Coventry
Provident Dispensary (about 20,000 members being
connected with the last-mentioned institution).
Coventry is rich in benevolent and charitable
institutions, which have been tly augmented
by the benefactions of the late David Spencer. In
1887 Mr Spencer provided a building for a technical
school; a few years earlier he had given four
thousand guineas for a public recreation ground ;
and at his death (June 9, 1888) he bequeathed
about £100,000 for benevolent papa. A beau-
tiful approach to the city from the London and
North-western Railway Station has been made by
the opening of the Coventry Park for building
pu , and the laying out and ornamentation
of Grey Friars’ Green. A statue of Sir Thomas
White has been erected, and a memorial of James
Starley, the inventor of the modern tricycle. At a
cost of many thousands of pounds the principal
streets have been widened, and a steam tramway
now runs through the city. During recent years
upwards of £70,000 has been expended in church
restoration, and during 1887-89 all of Tennyson's
‘three tall spires’ were in the restorers’ hands.
Large sums have also been expended by the various
nonconformist congregations in the erection of new,
and the restoration of existing places of worship.
The chief buildings are the ancient churches, with
imposing spires, that of St Michael’s rising to a
height of 300 feet. St Michael’s Church, built
1230-1395, is said to be the largest parish church
in England, and is one of the noblest of the lighter
Gothie structures. St Mary’s Hall, built in the
14th century, for the Guild, is one of the finest
specimens of ornamental work in England, with gro-
tesque carved oak roof, ancient tapestry, and —
painted window. The ancient walls, three miles in
circuit, round Coventry were demolished by Charles
II. Coventry returns one member to parliament.
The chief manufactures are ribbons, watches, bi-
eycles and tricycles (see CYCLING), cotton, worsted
and woollen s, and art metal works (the Albert
Memorial, Hyde Park, London, being of Coventry
manufacture). There are large silk-dyeing works.
Coventry is nearly in the centre between the four
t English ports, London, Bristol, Liverpool, and

ull, and has extensive canal communication with
other parts of the country. The city is in an
excellent sanitary state, its sewage being treated
by an improved system of precipitation, at works
erected at Whitley, about one mile from Coventry.
The gas and water works both belong to the
corporation. Under the Local Government Bill
(1888), Coventry is reconstituted a county, and
thus reverts to an ancient privilege which it en-
joyed from 1451 to 1842. The ancient ‘Coventry
Great Fair’ (formerly eight days) is now held
annually, for five days, commencing on Whit-
monday. Pop. of parliamentary borough (1841)
30,743; (1861) 41,647; (1881) 46,563. A county
borough since 1888, it had in 1891 a pop. of 54,743.
The name Coventry has usually been interpreted
‘Convent-town,’ but as the form in Domesday is
Couentrev, it is more likely ‘town on the Couen’
—Couen being the ancient British name of the

532 COVENTRY

COW-BIRD

Sherbourne, and trev being ‘town.’ It is certainly
a ge’ of high antiquity. In 1043 Earl Leofric
and his wife, Lady Godiva, founded here a mag-
nificent Benedictine monastery. In memory of the
noble deed of Godiva (q.v.), curious and splendid
processions were formerly held in Coventry. In
the 15th century religious mysteries or plays
were often acted here by the Gey? Friars before
kings. Henry VIII. demolished the beautiful
cathedral of Coventry. Here occurred the famous
meeting for the intended trial by battle between
the Dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, immortalised
in Shakespeare’s Richard II. Two memorable
arliaments were also held in the monastery of
oventry in the 15th century. The one contained
no lawyers, while the other passed attainders against
the Duke of York and others. In the 15th, 16th,
and 17th centuries, Coventry was famous for
woollens, broadcloths, caps, and blue thread
bonnets. ‘George Eliot’ lived in Foleshill Road
during 1841-42. See local histories by T. Sharp
(Birm. 1871) and M. D. Harris (1898).

Coventry, Sir JOHN, a staunch cavalier who
had sat in the Long Parliament (1640), and who
at the coronation of Charles II. was made a Knight
of the Bath. Elected for Weymouth in 1667, he
asked, during a debate on playhouses (October
1670), a question which reflected on the king’s
amours. Charles and his minions were furious,
and one December night Coventry was pulled
from his coach by Sir T. Sandys and other ruffians,
and his nose slit to the bone. Parliament took
notice of this atrocious outrage, and by its ‘Coven-
try Act’ made cutting and maiming a capital
offence; but they had not the courage to bring
Coventry died in 1682.

Coverdale, MILES, translator of the Bible, was
born in Yorkshire in 1488. He made his studies
at Cambridge, was admitted priest at Norwich in
1514, when he joined the Austin Friars at Cam-
bridge, and probably imbibed his liking for the
new doctrines from Robert Barnes, who became
prior about 1523, and whose Protestantism led
to his being tried and ultimately burned in 1540.
Before long Coverdale went abroad. According
to Foxe he was at Hamburg with Tyndale in
1529. His own translation of the Bible appeared
in 1535, with a dedication by himself to Henry
VIII., and secured the royal license in the quarto
and folio editions of 1537. The Psalms of this
translation still form the psalter in the Book of
Common Prayer, and many of the finest phrases in
our authorised version of 1611 are directly due to
Coverdale. The original issue of the book is a
folio volume, ‘faithfully and truly translated out
of Douche and Latyn into Englishe,’ printed in
German black letter, in double columns, with
woodcuts and initials, and containing the Apocry-
pha. Its place of publication is very uncertain,
and attempts have even been made to degrade
Coverdale from. its translator to a mere proof-
reader. In the prologue to his own second edition
(1550) he states that the translation was his own
work, although not at his own cost, and that it
was made ‘out of five sundry interpreters,’ most
likely the Vulgate, Luther’s version, the Ziirich or
German-Swiss Bible of 1531, and Tyndale’s Penta-
teuch and New Testament. In 1538 Coverdale
was sent by Cromwell to Paris to superintend in
Regnault’s press another English edition of the
Scriptures. Francis I. had granted a license, but
in spite of this, before the printing was finished,
an edict was issued prohibiting the work. Many
of the sheets were burned, but the presses and
types were saved and hastily carried over to
London, whither also some of the workmen soon
came. Grafton and Whitchurch, the noted printers

the king’s bravoes to trial.

of that day, were. thus.enabled to bring out in

'1539, under Coverdale’s superintendence, the ‘Great

Bible,’ which was presented to Henry VIII. by
Cromwell. The second ‘Great Bible,’ known also
as ‘Cranmer’s Bible’ (1540), was also edited by
Coverdale, who found it expedient to leave Eng-
land on the fall of his patron Cromwell. While
abroad he married, received the degree of D.D

from Tiibingen, and acted as Lutheran pastor for
some years at Bergzabern, in Rhenish Bavaria.
In March 1548 he returned to England, was
well received through Cranmer’s influence, and
in 1551 was made Bishop of Exeter, discharging
the duties with great diligence and zeal. On the
accession of Mary he was deprived of his see,
but was suffered to leave the country, at the
earnest intercession of the king of Tensile
whose chaplain, Dr Macchabzeus (MacAlpine), was
Coverdale’s brother-in-law. From Denmark he
passed to Wesel in Westphalia and to Geneva,
where he may have pth ck in the preparation of
the famous Geneva version (1560), the favourite
Bible of the Puritans. Returning to England in
1559, he did not resume his bishopric, but was
made D.D. by Cambridge in 1563, and the follow-
ing year was collated by Grindal to the living of St
Magnus, near London Bridge, which he resigned
from growing Puritan scruples about the liturgy in
1566. He continued, however, to preach, but died
early in 1568, and was buried in St Bartholomew’s
Church, and on its demolition in 1840 to make room
for the New Exchange, was reburied in the south
aisle of the church of St Magnus... The tercentenary
of his Bible—the first complete English translation
of the Seriptures—was celebrated October 4, 1835,
when medals were struck in honour of the vener-
able translator. Most of Coverdale’s works, includ-
ing his letters, were edited for the Parker Society
by Rev. George Pearson (2 vols. 1844-46). See
Memorials of Myles Coverdale (1838), H. R. Tedder’s
article in the Dictionary of National Biography
(vol. xii. 1887), and F. Fry’s The Bible by Cover-
dale (1867). .

Covered-way is a space 11 yards wide in most
parts, outside the ditch of a fortress, between the
Countersecarp (q.v.) and the Glacis (q.v.). The
latter is arranged for musketry in the usual manner,
and gives cover to soldiers standing upon the
covered-way, which, being also protected from.
enfilade fire by traverses, is convenient for sentries,
and for the passage of troops to the enlarged

ortions, cullen places of arms, where they assemble
or making sorties. See FORTIFICATION.

Covilhao, a town in the Portuguese province
of Beira, on an eastern spur of the Estrella Moun-
tains, with some manufactures of brown cloth, and
a pop. of 10,986.—Pedro de Covilham (or Covilhao),
sent by the king of Portugal in 1486 to visit Prester
John’s country, reached Calicut overland in 1487,
and Abyssinia in 1490.

Covington, a city of Kentucky, U.S., on the
Ohio River, opposite Cincinnati, with which it
is connected by a fine suspension bridge. Many
of the inhabitants transact their business in Cin-
cinnati, but Covington is itself a thriving place,
with distilleries, as well as manufactures of glass-
ware, nails, and tobacco. Pop. (1830) 715; (1850)
9408 ; (1880) 29,720; (1890) 37,371; (1900) 42,938.

Cow. See CATTLE, DAIRY.

Cowbane. See HEMLOCK.

Cowberry. See WHORTLEBERRY.

Cow-bird (Molothrus pecoris), also called Cow-
pen Bird, Cow Blackbird, &c., a native of North
America, nearly allied to the Troupials, remark-
able for its cuckoo-like habit of utilising the nests
of other birds for its own eggs. The latter are

ees

COWLEY 533

COW-BOY
hatched sooner than those of the rightful owners,
which fall victim to this lofty form of parasitism.
The cow-bird is about 7 inches in length, predom-

inantly brownish-black in colour, and has a short
but sharply pointed beak. ‘It utters a peculiarly
liquid April sound.’ The females are far more
numerous than the males, and polygamy is there-
fore in vogue. The males have deeper, glossier
coats than the females. It is said to damage the
fields of sown maize, but feeds largely on insects.
The name refers to its habit of frequenting cow-
pens for the sake of the attracted insects. Seven
other species of Molothrus are known, occurring
from La Plata to the United States.

Cow-boy. See RANCHING.

Cowbridge, a municipal borough of Glamor-
nshire, on the Ddaw, 12 miles W. of Cardiff
17 by rail), with which and Llantrissant it returns
one member to parliament. It has an old gateway
and a grammar-school (1678). Pop. (1891) 1377.

Cow-catcher, a kind of barred iron cone or
beak shaped acangement, about 6 feet long, pro-
jecting from the front of locomotives, close over
the railway track, and attached to the buffer-beam
by strong bolts. It is peed used upon Ameri-
can lines where unfenced. Sometimes it is sheathed
with iron plates in winter, when it acts as a snow-
plough. Despite its name, it catches no cows, but

nerally throws any animal struck up on the

uffer-beam, or clears the line by shoving forward
and tossing aside.

Cowdenknowes. See EARLSTON.

Cowell, Epwarp BY Es, a learned Sanskrit
scholar, was born at Ipswich, January 23, 1826.
He was educated at Ipswich grammar-school and
Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and in 1856 sailed for
Calcutta, to fill the chair of History in the newly-
established Presidency College, becoming also soon
after principal of the Sanskrit College. He re-
turned home in 1864, and was elected in 1867 pro-
fessor of Sanskrit at Cambridge, and in 1874 toa
fellowship in Corpus Christi College. He has pub-
lished a long series of Sanskrit texts and transla-
tions, alone or in collaboration with other scholars,
and edited Colebrooke’s Essays (1873). He was a
contributor to this work.

Cowen, FreDERIC HyMEN, composer, born
at Kingston, Jamaica, 29th January 1852, was
a a child to England. He early showed
decided musical talent, which was cultivated by a
course of study under Benedict and Goss, as also
at Leipzig and Berlin. Among his works are the
operas Pauline (1876), Thorgrim (1890), Signa
(1893), and Harold (1895); the cantatas The Rose
Maiden, Sleeping Beauty, The Water Lily, and
others; two oratorios (including Ruth, 1887) ;
half-a-dozen symphonies, one of which, No. 3
(Scandinavian), is esteemed throughout Europe ;
a number of overtures, pianoforte pieces, and minor
works, and over 250 songs. In 1888-92 he was
conductor to the Philharmonic Society, in 1896
succeeded Hallé at Manchester and Liverpool.

Cowes, a seaport and watering-place in the
north corner of the Isle of Wight, 114 miles SSE.
of Southampton by water, and 4 N. of Newport
by rail. It consists of West and East Cowes, lying
on opposite sides of the mouth of the estuary of the
Medina, and connected by steam-ferry, Standing
on a hill-slope, West Cowes has a striking aspect
from the sea, and is the seat of much trade, bein
the chief por of the island, and the headquarters o
the Royal Yacht Club (1815), whose regattas are
held here. Their club-house was originally a fort,
built by Henry VIII. in 1540. Yacht-building is
the great speciality of Cowes, which has a fine
promenade (1864), excellent hotels, baths, villas,

lodging-houses, &c. Slatwoods at East Cowes was
the “cry mas of Dr Arnold, and in the vicinit
are East Cowes Castle (1798), Norris Castle (1799),
and Osborne House (1845). The last, built b
Cubitt as a. marine residence for Queen Victoria, is
an Italian edifice, with a flag-tower 112 feet high,
and beautiful grounds. 7 of West Cowes
(1851) 4786; (1881) 6772; (1891) 7768; of East
Cowes (1861) 1954; (1881) 2615; (1891) 2880.

Cowhage, CowaGer, or CowITcH, consists of
short, slender, brittle hairs, which cover the nee
of species of Mucuna, a papilionaceous climber,
particularly M. pruriens of the West, Indies and M,
urens of the East. These hairs readily stick in the
skin and cause intolerable itching, and were hence
formerly used (as still in their native country) as
vermifuge. They are administered in syrup, an
of course act mechanically. The unripe pods are
eaten like kidney-beans.

Cowl. See BENEDICTINES.

Cowley, ABRAHAM, in his own day considered
the greatest of English poets, was born in London,
1618. His father was a stationer in that city, and
died before his son’s birth. By the exertions of his
mother, Cowley received a learned education. At
an early age he was sent to Westminster School,
where he displayed an almost unparalleled pre-
cocity. It was by the reading of the Faéry Queen,
a copy of which lay in his mother’s window, that
his mind was turned to poetry. He wrote excellent
verses at the age of ten, and published a volume of

ms at fifteen. In 1637 he proceeded to Cam-
ridge, and while here wrote, among many other
pieces, a large portion of his on the Davideis, on
the subject of the life of King David. On the out-
break of the Civil War, he was ejected (1644) from
Cambridge for refusing to take the oath tendered
to all the members of the university. At Oxford,
however, the headquarters of the king’s party, he
continued his studies for other two years. On the
yen flight to Paris, Cowley followed her, and
id effectual service to the royalist cause by various
missions, and by curry on the secret correspond-
ence in cipher between the queen and Charles. In
1656 he returned to England, but was arrested and
only allowed at large on a bail of £1000. To
conciliate:- the party in power, he qualified himself
as a doctor of medicine, by way of proving that he
had abandoned all political connections. On Crom-
well’s death, Cowley again went to Paris, but re-
turned to England at the Restoration. He was
disappointed in the hope of preferment, especially
of the mastership of the Savoy, which both Charles
and his father had led him to expect. By the gen-
erosity of the Duke of Buckingham and Cowley’s
lifelong friend the Earl of St Albans, he at length
received a comfortable provision. Cowley died at
Chertsey, London, 28th July 1667.

Cowley’s most ambitious works are the Davideis,
the Pindarique Odes, written in supposed imitation
of Pindar, and the Mistress, a series of love poems.
His fate as a poet is one of the most singular
in literature. Deemed unapproachable in his own
day, he has ever since sunk steadily in popular
estimation. Dr Johnson’s explanation is still
accepted as the best that can be suggested. Cowley
wrote for the court and the reigning taste, and not
for the general heart of men. What he is still
admired for is his astonishing ingenuity and agility
of mind. Moreover, though the bulk of his verse
can never again have any living interest, he has not
a few passages characterised by delicacy and power.
By his small collection of essays, Cowley takes
rank with Goldsmith and Addison as one of the
masters of simple and graceful prose style. It is
by these essays that Cowley is now best known to
modern readers. They are included in Grosart’s

B34 COWLEY

‘COWPER

complete edition (1881). See Sprat’s Life of
Cowley (1668), and Johnson’s Lives of the Poets.

Cowley, HANNAH (1743-1809), wrote thirteen
lively dramatic works, including The Belle’s Strat-
agem (1782), and several volumes of feeble verse.
She was attacked along with the other Della
Cruscans by Gifford in the Baviad and Meviad,

Cowley, Henry RICHARD CHARLES WELLES-
LEY, EARL, diplomatist, was born June 17, 1804.
His father, the first Baron sei 4 was a younger
brother of the great Duke of Wellington. e
was educated at Eton, and at twenty began a
long career as a diplomatist by becoming an
attaché at Vienna. He was in succession secre-
tary and ambassador at Constantinople, minister-

lenipotentiary to Switzerland (1848), to the
Getnanic Confederation (1851), and in 1852 suc-
ceeded the Marquis of Normanby as ambassador at
Paris, a position which he held with rare tact and
temper throughout all the difficulties that oceurred
until his resignation in 1867. With Clarendon he
represented Great Britain at the Paris Congress of
1856, and in 1860, with Cobden, he arranged the
commercial treaty between France and England,
He succeeded to his father’s title in 1847, was
created Viscount Dangan and Earl Cowley in 1857,
and made a K.G. in 1866. He died July 14, 1884.

Cow-parsnip ( Heracléum ), a genus of Umbelli-
feree, of which one species (H. gente dione’ is a
common and rank wayside weed, which, however,
when cut early in the season, affords a wholesome
fodder to pigs and cattle. H. sibiricum, a much
‘larger species, has been recommended for cultiva-
tion on account of the great quantity of herbage it
yields very early in the season, and with other
species (H. giganteum, &c.) it is also used with
much effect as a decorative plant. H. lanatum is
very common in North America.

Cowper, WILLIAM, surgeon and anatomist,
was born at Petersfield, in Sussex, in 1666, settled
as a surgeon in London, and died 8th March 1709.
He made some new anatomical observations, not-
ably discovering the glands beneath the male
urethra called ‘Cowper’s glands,’ and published
The Anatomy of Humane Bodies (1698) and other
works,

Cowper, WILLIAM, was born in 1731 at the
rectory of Great Berkhampstead, in the county of
Hertford. He was sent to Westminster School at
so early an age that all his impressions were pain-
ful, and he thus conceived a hatred of public
schools which was never modified. He complains
that there he became an adept ‘in the infernal
art of lying,’ an art which we could hardly assert
either to be extinct in our public schools at the
present time, or to be or ever to have been entirely
confined to them. Among his schoolfellows were
Churchill the poet, and ‘Warren Hastings; and
for these two at least he seems to have maintained
a lasting affection. On leaving school he was
articled to an attorney named Chapman, with
whom he idled away his time for several years.
One of his ey ee there was Thurlow, who
in a jesting mood promised to give Cowper an
appointment when he should be Lord Chancellor.

he boyish ambition was verified, as every one
knows, but not the promise. Cowper was called
to the bar in 1754, and lived for some time the
ordinary life of a young man, not uncheerful,
though with occasional fits of depression, He
belonged to the ‘Nonsense Club,’ founded by
Bonnell Thornton and George Colman, and is sup-
posed to have contributed some short articles to
the Connoisseur, a paper started by them. He also
fell in love, during this period, with Theodora, the
daughter of his uncle Ashley Cowper, a lady who
seems to have had for him a far deeper feeling

than his essentially recipient nature could return,
Certainly he appears to have made no particular
effort to overcome his uncle’s opposition to his
suit. In those days a well-connected young man
was more easily provided for than now, and a sine-
cure appointment, as ‘Commissioner of Bankrupts,’
gave Cowper a certain independence, which he
enjoyed tranquilly, relying on the influence of his
relations to promote him further, an expectation
which they on their side did all they could to fulfil,
His cousin, Major Cowper, had the right (extra-
ordinary to hear of nowadays) of appointing to
the office of Clerk to the Journals of the House
of Lords, and also to the joint offices of ‘read-
ing clerk and clerk of the committees’ to the
same august assembly. All these appointments
happened to fall vacant at the same time (1763).
Major Cowper wished his cousin to take the latter
and more valuable office, but Cowper in one of his
fits of self-depreciation, preferred the other, which
was found eventually to involve a so-called ex- ©
amination as to his fitness for the office, meaning
in fact only an appearance before the bar of the
House. The idea of this appearance unmanned
him altogether. A fixed idea, the well-known fore-
runner of madness, that every one was hostile to
him, gradually took possession of his mind; and
the horror grew by continual brooding, until suicide
seemed the only way of escape. He several times
attempted to make away with himself, and on one
occasion at least was only saved by a fortunate ~
aceident. When his friends were finally made
aware of his condition, they gave up at once a pro- —
ject so evidently impracticable ; but Cowper’s mind
was permanently unhinged. He fell into a state of
religious despair as to the consequences of the
crime he had almost committed, in the height of
which his misery found vent in the composition of
a copy of Sapphics, in which he describes himself
as ‘damned Sine Judas, more abhorred than he
was,’ and again, ‘man disavows and Deity dis-
owns me.’

It was found necessary to remove him toa private -
asylum at St Albans, where he was gradually re-
stored to health by judicious treatment, After
this, in June 1765, he drifted to the quiet town of
Huntingdon, where he made acquaintance with an
amiable and religious family to which he was at
once attracted, and in which he was soon accepted
as an inmate. The head of the family, Mr Morley
Unwin, was a clergyman, but retired from active
work, and with his wife and two children lived
a life of almost perpetual devotion, into which
Cowper plunged, spending most of his time
in religious exercises of various kinds, and corre-
spondence on religious subjects. Cowper continued
to reside with Mrs Unwin after her husband’s death
(July 1767), but they soon removed to Olney in
Buckinghamshire, where the famous John Newton
was curate. This remarkable man soon acquired
the most complete influence over the gentle invalid ;
and, under Newton, Cowper worked among the
poor of his friend’s parish, devoting his whole time
to pious exercises and good works. Owing, per-
haps, to these exertions, and to the unbroken
monotony of the atmosphere, signs of his former
madness began to reappear, and in 1773 it burst out.
He was at the time in Newton’s vicarage, and here
he remained for more than a year, refusing to
return to his own house though it was but next
door. After his recovery (which was never com-
plete) he lost—we might almost say, though it
seems cruel, he was delivered from—the companion-
ship of Newton, who was presented in 1779 to the
rectory of St Mary Woolnoth. The effect of his
departure on Cowper was miraculous; whether
Newton, in his intense enthusiasm miscalculated
his friend’s powers, or whether he was only ignorant

a iil ee i

COWPER 535

of the delicate nature of the mind on which he was
working, it is evident that the constant intercourse

with him, aided perhaps by the wearying sameness

of the life, had an oppressive and crushing effect
upon Cowper. Even after Newton’s departure, the
old gloom appears in letters addressed to him,
while in correspondence with Hill or Unwin, Cow-
per is always cheerful, full of ful playfulness,
entering into a pleasant record of his amusements
and occupations, his hares and garden and n-
house, To the quiet of this period of his life we
probably owe the tranquillised condition of mind
which makes the tone of Cowper’s poetry contrast
so strangely with the sentiments of his early
experiences, An astonishment almost amounting
to incredulity fills our mind when we find the
madman, the religious fanatic, who despaired of
salvation, and on several occasions attempted
suicide, luxuriating in the quiet of nature, which
he fully appreciated and enjoyed, and cnenees his
abject fears of God’s wrath for a tender de ight in
and love of the ordinary works of His hands.

He was, however, as yet no poet at all. Mrs
Unwin was the first who had the wisdom to per-
ceive that a variety of occupation was necessary to
Cowper, and that something to occupy his se ary. fe
ing the gloomy months of winter was of the highest
importance to his well-being. No power of initia-
tion seems to have exis in his mind, but he
followed with docility his friend’s suggestions, and
when she bade-him write poetry, did so. His first
volume (1782) was in the fashion of the time, and
consisted of several pam on abstract subjects, a
poetical dialogue called ‘Table Talk’ being added
to lighten and enliven the book. Probably Cowper
himself was not conscious at the time how much
higher he was capable of flying and was destined
to fly ; but once more a happy suggestion came to
hisaid, In 1781 he accidentally made the acquaint-
ance of Lady Austen, a woman full of intelli-
gence, and of a gay and happy disposition, bringing
sunshine with her. The acquaintance rapidly grew
into a warm friendship, and Lady Austen settled
in Newton’s deserted vicarage, next door, it will be
remembered, to Cowper’s house. The inhabitants
of the two houses soon, of course, grew intimate,
with the happiest results to the poet. It is to
Lady Austen’s playful commands to write a m
for her on any subject, ‘ this sofa for instance,’ that
we owe Cowper’s greatest work, The Task. She
has also the credit of having told him the story of
Joln Gilpin, reproduced in the immortal ballad the
next morning: and there can be no doubt that
this lady was his better angel, and made the
happiest revolution in the too-serious house. His
ominten between his old friend and his new one,

th being women, has been the subject of many,
and we think somewhat vulgar comments. That
Cowper was engaged to marry Mrs Unwin, that
this project was defeated by a dawning love be-
tween the poet and Lady Austen, and that jealousy
and passion came in to disturb their relations is
an oft-repeated tale. It surely, however, requires
but little reflection to see how unnecessary such a
theory is. Cowper was in every way calculated to
arouse a more than passing interest in the heart of
an intellectual woman, but neither in his t nor
his present was there anything that could inspire
such a woman with the desire of marrying him.
He had the gift of making friends and calling forth
sympathy in an unusual degree, and the influence
of this tender sympathy not only saved but made
him what he w to be. If y Austen had
never said to Cowper, ‘Why not try blank verse?’
that grand revolt against the smoothness and arti-
ficial perfection which had established as
essentials of poetry might have been indefinitely
postponed. Against a style which repelled him,

Cowper was the first to protest by the effectual
reproduction of a more excellent way. He took
that polished and splendid instrument from the
hand of Milton, without his grandeur of tone, yet
with a sweetness and serious power not unworthy
of it. His schoolfellow, Churchill, had struck
a rougher and more vigorous note, yet had not
been bold enough to return to the old ways. But
the timid poet in his seclusion, under the influence
of his domestic muses, with unexpected boldness,
seized on his inheritance. Wordsworth carried on
both style and subjects, but he, like Gray, put of
his own into the theme, and described less Nature
herself than the thoughts which she inspired. In
Cowper, on the contrary, we have Nature’s very
face, the calm description of a quiet scene painted
by one who loved her for herself, not peopled with
fancies by a poetical observer.

How his friendship with Lady Austen came to an
end has never been clearly known, but at the end
of 1783 she retired to Bristol, and Cowper writing to
Unwin declared the connection at an end. Itisa
commonplace to talk, of course, of jealousy between
Lady Austen and Mrs Unwin, and it is easily com-
prehensible that the latter lady may have objected
to see her place as Cowper’s friend and adviser
taken from her by a stranger. However, as regards
our poet, Lady Austen had done her work; The
Task was published in 1785, and its power and the
greatness of the old-new method very soon made
themselves apparent. Whether Cowper has re-
tained the high place which was accorded to him in
the surprise and delight of the new movement, is a
question which will be answered according to indi-
vidual tastes and opinions, but there can be no
doubt that the publication of The Task had a most
powerful effect upon the literary tastes of the
time.

It is characteristic of Cowper that on the de-
parture of Lady Austen, he fell for some time into
a little of his old melancholy, until in 1786 Lady
Hesketh appeared upon the scene, and the poet
accepted the new comforter in lieu of her who was
gone. His translation of Homer was carried on
under the influence of this new adviser, who was a
relation of his own, and consequently escaped the
imputation of wishing to marry him. She procured
the removal of the sad poet and his ailing com-
panion to Weston-Underwood, where they made
acquaintance with the Throckmorton family, and
received much comfort and consolation in their
waning days. This move, as well as the trans-
lation of Homer, Newton, with whom Cowper
still kept up a correspondence, condemned with
almost brutal violence of language, and it is an
evidence of his tempo’ recovery of strength, that
Cowper defended himself without, however, losin
his temper. Against Newton's advice he continu
his translation, which brought him in at least a
little money if not much fame: and the money
was by this time much needed. In 1787 he had
another attack of his old ailment, and again
attempted suicide. From this attack he never
seems to have completely recovered, and when he
was almost at his worst, Mrs Unwin had a stroke of

aralysis which cast a gloom over this devoted pair

m which they never emerged, In 1794 a pension
of £300 a year was assigned to him, but too late to
confer much comfort or relief. When Mrs Unwin
died in 1796 he heard the news without emotion,
and growing gradually weaker, died peacefully at
East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 25th of April 1800.
Curiously enough, out of the gloom of his last
waning a came two of his most beautiful
and touching poems, the lines ‘ Addressed to My
Mother’s Picture,’ and those entitled ‘My Mary.’

Hayley’s Life first appeared in two volumes in 1803.
The later editions (1806, 1809, 1812) were in four volames.

“536 COW-PLANT

Cox

The Life by T. Wright appeared in 1892. The standard
edition of Cowper’s works is that edited by Southey,
with a memoir (15 vols. 1834-37), and reprinted in Bohn’s
‘Standard Library’ (1853-54). Others are those of Grim-
shawe (8 vols. 1835), the Aldine edition, with a good life
by John Bruce (1865), and the Globe edition, with a
memoir by Rev. W. Benham (1870). There are selections of
the poems, by Mrs Oliphant (1883), and of the letters, by
Rev, W. Benham (1884) in the ‘Golden Treasury’ series.
For criticism, see Ste. Beuve’s Causeries du Lundi (vol.
xi. 1868); Stopford-Brooke’s’ Theology in the English
Poets (1874); Goldwin Smith’s monograph in the
‘English Men of Letters’ series (1880); Leslie Stephen,
in series iii, of ‘Hours in a Library’ (1882); and Mrs
Oliphant, in The Literary History of England (1382).

Cow-plant (Gymnema lactiferum), a perennial
Asclepiad of Ceylon, which has acquired a factitious
celebrity from the oft-repeated statement that its
milky juice is used as milk, and that its leaves are
boiled to supply the want of cream! But this,
according to Sir J. E. Tennent, arises entirely from
the appearance of the juice, which indeed probably
contains a share of the poisonous principles so
general in this order.

Cowry (Cyprea), a large genus of Gasteropods
in the Prosobranchiate section, including over a
hundred species, some of which are very familiar as
decorative objects and as furnishing a medium of
exchange with uncivilised peoples. The shed has
more or less of an oval form, and is usually thick,
polished, and beautifully coloured. The young
shells are delicate and more ‘typically snail-like,
but in the adults the large last whorl more or less
conceals the others, and has its outer lip bent in
towards the inner. The internal axis may be
wholly absorbed. The animal has a broad head, a

rotrusible proboscis, eyes associated with the long

orns, and a broad foot protruded through the
elongated aperture. The mantle or skin fold,
which forms the shell as in other molluscs, extends
over the whole or most of the surface, and thus
conceals during life what gives the dead shells half
their charm. In habit the cowries are predomin-
antly sluggish animals, creeping slowly on rocks
and coral reefs. They are mainly carnivorous in
diet. Though widely distributed, they thrive best
in the tropical seas. Fossil forms occur abundantly
(about 80 species) from the chalk onwards. The
nearest relations of the cowries are the two genera
Ovulum and Trivia. The former includes the
Poached Eggs and the Weaver's Shuttle (Ovulum
volva); two species are found on British shores.
The genus Trivia includes the little ‘cowry’
(Triva europea), not uncommonly found on
British coasts—e.g. near John o’ Groat’s House.
. The cowries proper are well known in several

practical connections. The money cowry (C.
moneta), found
especially in the
Maldive. Islands,
was long used as
currency, and is
still so used in
Africa from
Guinea to the
Central Soudan.
In Siam over 6000
cowries were re-
quired to make a
tical worth 1s. 8d.
Cowries are familiar in England as counters in

ames of chance. From prehistoric times they have
Pou used to form necklaces and other ornaments of
the person. In some cases they are worn as charms,
and their bright colours, so attractive to human
eyes, have also been utilised in catching cuttle-
fishes. Cowries have had their share in later days
in the conchological craze, and ‘small fortunes’
have been spent in gathering that wealth of varied

Money Cowry.

colour which a good cabinet displays.
shell of C. princeps has been sold for £40.

Cowslip (Primula veris; see PRIMROSE), @
common native of pastures in England and man‘
other parts of Europe, although rare in Scotland,
a delicate and modest little flower, a universal
favourite, both for its beauty and its fragrance,
It differs from the common primrose conspicuously
in having umbels of flowers on a scape; it is sup-

osed to be the original of the garden polyanthus.
cent holds the common ozlip to be a cross
between the cowslip and the common primrose.
Its bells were long se pe to be the haunt of
fairies, and the name of Fairy Cups is still given to
them in some parts of England. The flowers are
sometimes fermented with sugar to make cowslip
wine, which is not ipipalnialtle. It was once a
favourite domestic soporific. The leaves are by
some used asa salad and pot-herb, and also as food
for the silkworm before those of the mulberry have
ae The American cowslip (sometimes also
called Shooting-star) is Dodecatheon Meadia, a
very handsome spring flower. This and other
species are also well known in cultivation.

Cow-tree, a name given to a number of trees
of different natural orders, the bland milky juice
(Latex, q.v.) of which is used instead of milk. The
most famous of these is the Palo de Vaca of the
Cordilleras and Caraceas (Galactodendron (Brosi-
mum) utile), an artocarpaceous tree, with large
laurel-like leaves and very small flowers. The
milk is obtained by piercing the bark of the trunk
or branches, and flows so freely that an ordinary
bottle may be filled in half an hour, The milk has
an agreeable creamy odour and taste recalling that
of cow’s milk, but is slightly viscid and soon be-
comes yellow, gradually thickening into a some-
what cheesy consistency. Its chemical composi-
tion, of course, widely differs from that of milk,
but its nutritive value is considerable. It is much
used by the negroes and Indians.

The cow-tree or Hya-hya of Demerara is Taber-
nemontana utilis, a tree besa fe to the Asclepia-
dace. In this order the milky juice is usually
acrid and poisonous, and even that of other species
of the same genus is of sharp and burning taste.
In this case, however, the latex is agreeable and
wholesome, although somewhat sticky, owing to
the large proportion of caoutchoue.

Cow-wheat (Melampyrum), a genus of Scro-
phulariaceze, of which the deep-furrowed two-celled
capsule somewhat resembles a grain of wheat.
They are annual weeds, growing in woods, corn-
fields, and pastures, and are eaten by cattle. Being
root-parasites, they grow on the roots of other

lants. M. pratense is common in Europe and

orth America.

Cox, Davin, coopera Leary: was born at
Deritend, a suburb of Birmingham, 29th April
1793. His father was a blacksmith, and he worked
at the forge for a time; and after trying various
employments and studying drawing under Joseph
Barber, he was scene-painter in the Birmingham,
Swansea, and Wolverhampton theatres, and occa-
sionally appeared upon the boards in minor parts.
He next took lessons in London from John Varley ;
in 1805 and 1806 visited North Wales, which to
the end of his life was his favourite sketching-
ground; and taught as a drawing-master, mainly
in Hereford, publishing A Treatise on Landscape
Painting and Effect in Water-colours (1814), and
other educational works, illustrated by soft-ground
etchings by his own hand. In 1813 he joined the
Society of Painters in Water-colours, to whose
exhibitions he was a regular contributor. From
1827 till 1841 his headquarters were in London,
but he was constantly sketching in the country,

A single

a a i,

* COX

COYPU 537

~'

‘and occasionally he made brief visits to the Con-

tinent, executing water-colours of noble qnality
which slowly but steadily made their way wit

the public, and are now recognised as entitlin

their painter to a place among the very first o
Wi tish landscapista. In 1839 he turned his atten-
tion seriously to oil-painting, a medium which he
had hitherto used only for sketching, and soon he
had mastered the process. He executed in all
about a hundred works in oil. These are less widely
known than his water-colours, but they are of at
least equal quality. In 1841 he settled at Harborne,
near Birmingham, where he resided for the rest of his
life. It was during this period that he produced
his greatest works, those most rapidly synthetic in

execution, and most deeply poetic in feeling. They

mainly owe their inspiration to the scenery of
North Wales, and especially of Bettws-y-Coed (q.v.),
which he visited every autumn.- He died at
Harborne, 15th June 1859. The manliness and
simplicity of the painter’s own character is reflected
in his direct, faithful, and forcible art. His works
are distinguished by great breadth, purity of tint,
truth of tone, and brilliancy of effect, and they
are admirable in their rendering of atmosphere,
and in their suggestion of the sparkle and breezy
motion of nature. Among the more celebrated of
his oil pictures are ‘ Lancaster Castle’ (1846); ‘ Peace
and War’ (1846), a small picture 184 by 24 in., for
which Cox received £20, but which fetched £3602
in 1872 (his lifelong ambition had been ‘some day,
D.V., to get £100° for a picture); ‘The Vale of
Clwyd’ (1846 and 1848); ‘The Skylark’ (1849) ;
‘Boys Fishing’ (1849); and ‘The Church of
Bettws-y-Coed.’ Among his very numerous water-
colours are ‘ Lancaster Sands’ (1835); ‘ Ulverston
Sands’ (1835); ‘Bolton Abbey’ (1847); ‘ Welsh
Funeral’ (1850); and ‘Broom Gatherers on Chat
Moss’ (1854). His water-colour titled ‘The Hay-
field,’ fetched £2950 in 1875. His works have
been frequently brought together in exhibitions,
and he was admirably represented by forty-six
examples in the Manchester Exhibition, 1887.
See the Memoir by N. N. Solly (1875), and the
Biography by William Hall (1881).—His son,
David Cox the younger (1809-85), was also known
as a water-colour painter.

Cox, Sim GEoRGE, an eminent mythologist,
was born in 1827, and educated at Rugby and
Trinity College, Oxford. He took orders in 1850,
and after holding curacies in Devonshire, and an
assistant-mastership at Cheltenham, became vicar

‘of Bekesbourne in Kent, and afterwards rector

of Scrayingham, York. In 1877 he succeeded to
his uncle’s baronetcy. An industrious man of
letters, he has written much on ancient history
and on mythology. His Zales of Ancient Greece
(1868) was a collected edition of several admirable
earlier volumes of Greek history. His most im-
portant work, The Mythology of the Aryan Nations
(2 vols. 1870), was an uncompromising develop-
ment of the solar and nebular hypothesis as the
key to all mythologies. It is learned, lucid, and
courageous; but the extreme to which a serviceable
enough theory has been pushed in an attempt to
account for the unaccountable, and to reconcile
the irreconcilable, has exposed its real weakness.
His History of Greece (2 vols. 1874) was a work of
great learning, and his Jntroduction to the Science
of Comparative Mythology and Folklore (1881)
showed its author’s old ingenuity and erudition,
but none the less the singular limitation of his
knowledge. Other works are Latin and Teutonic
Christianity (1870), The Crusades (1874), Py
of British Rule in India (1881), and Lives of
tatesmen (2 vols. 1886), and concise History of
England (1887). With W. T. Brande he edited
the useful Dictionary of Science, Literature, and

Art (3 vols. 1865-67). His Life of Bis Colenso
appeared in 1888, “ mp

Coxe, Henry Octavius, librarian, was born
at Bucklebury vicarage in Berkshire, September
20, 1811. He had his education at Westminster
and Worcester College, Oxford, and entered the
manuscript department of the British Museum in
1833, soon after taking orders. In 1838 he be-
came attached to the Bodleian Library, in 1860
its head, and here his marvellous knowledge and
patient kindliness made him the very ideal of
the librarian. Already in 1857 he had been sent
by Sir G. C. Lewis to the East on a tour of
discovery, which resulted indeed in his finding
many codices, though the grasping greed of the
ignorant monks, at last awakened to their value,
made it impossible to buy them. Coxe held in
succession several curacies near Oxford, and in 1868
became rector of Wytham. He was Select preacher
in 1842, Whitehall preacher in 1868, and in 1878
presided at the first annual meeting of the Library
Association at Oxford. Coxe died July 8, 1881.
Although himself an excellent paleographer and
ripe scholar, Coxe did much more for others’
reputations than his own. The most important
of his own works were an edition of Roger of
Wendover’s Chronicle (5 vols. 1841-44), and of
Gower'’s Vox Clamantis for the Roxburghe Club
(1850), and his Catalogues of MSS. in the col-
leges and halls of Oxford (1852), and of the Bod-
leian MSS. (1853-54). See Dean Burgon’s Lives of
Twelve Good Men (1888).

Coxe, WILLIAM, historical writer, was born in
London, 7th March 1747, and from Eton to
King’s College, Cambridge, of which he me &
fellow in 1768. As tutor to the sons of four persons
of quality, he ee much of twenty years on
the Continent, where he neglected no opportun-
ity of eae | information about the countries
which: he visited. The result appeared in fourteen
works of travel and history, careful but dull, the
best known being his History of the House of
Austria (1807). e died, a prebendary of Salis-
bury and Archdeacon of ilts, at Bemerton
rectory, 16th June 1828,

Coxswain, or CocKSWAIN (pronounced coxn,
and often abbreviated to cox), on board ship, is
the steersman of a boat, and commander of the
boat’s crew. In boat-racing, the coxswain should
always by preference be a very light weight. See
RowIne.

Coxwell, Henry TRACEY, aéronaut, born in
1819, at Wouldham, near Rochester, was educated
for the army, but settled as a surgeon-dentist in
London. From boyhood he had taken a keen
interest in ballooning; in 1844 he became a pro-
fessional aéronaut, and in 1845 established the
Aérostatic Magazine. Since then he made some 700
ascents, the most remarkable being that of 1862,
when he reached, with Mr Glaisher, a height of
seven miles. He published My Lie and Ballooning
Adventures (2 Sole. 1887-88), and died in January
1900. See BALLOON.

Coyote. See WoLr. .

Coypu (Myopotamus coypu), a large rodent in
the porcupine section of the order. It is the onl
known species of its genus, is common in South
America on both sides of the Andes, lives (in
pairs) in burrows near water, and feeds on aquatic
plants. The animal measures from one to two feet
in length, not including the long scaly tail; the
general colour is brown varying towards yellow;
the hind-feet are webbed and enable the coypus to
swim well. The mother-animal swims with her
young on her back, and this habit may have some-
thing to do, it is suggested, with the peculiar
position of the teats, which are high up on the

538 COZENS

CRAB

flanks. The coypu is much hunted for its flesh
and fur. The latter is best known under the

A a)
fr
or

Coypu (Myopotamus coypu),

Spanish name of Nutria, and forms an important
article of commerce.

Cozens, JOHN RoBERT, water-colour painter,
was born in England in 1752. He was instructed
by his father, Alexander Cozens, also known as an
artist in water-colours, who was one of the two
natural sons of Peter the Great, by a woman from
Deptford who accompanied the Czar to Russia. In

1776 he visited Switzerland, with R. Payne Knight, °
and in 1783 returned from an extended tour in Italy |

with William Beckford, who commissioned man
of the washed drawings which he then executed.
Among his English subjects are some fine studies
of trees made in Windsor Forest. In 1794 the
artist’s mind gave way, and in his later days he
was befriended by Sir George Beaumont and Dr
Munro. The date of his death has been usually
stated as 1799, but there is reason to believe that
he was alive after 1801. The great qualities of his
art have commanded the enthusiasm of brother-
painters. Turner and Girtin copied his drawings,
and Constable pronounced that ‘his works were all
poetry,’ that he was ‘the greatest genius that ever
touched landscape.’ He to some extent extended
the very limited colour-scheme of previous painters
in the medium, introducing greater force and
variety of tinting; and he substituted for their
topographical treatment of landscape a rendering
more imaginative and more perceptive of the
delicacies of atmospheric effect. In composition,
his works are singularly large and harmonious, and
they evince an especial sympathy for nature in her
moods of ea sublimity. There is a fine series
of his works in the British Museum Print Room.
Crab, a popular name legitimately applied to
any of the short-tailed (Brachyura) division of
decapod Crustaceans (q.v.). The body is usually
short and compressed ; the abdomen is short and
is tucked up beneath the relatively large cephalo-
thorax; there are 1 to 4 reduced abdominal
appendages, but seldom any tail-paddles; the
antennz are short. In the common Shore-crab
(Carcinus menas) the carapace is a wide shield,
broader than long, and bent inwards at the sides ;
the eyes are stalked, and lie as usual above and in
front of the antennules, though apparently rather
external to them; the cetempiloeave the ear-sac
lodged in their dilated base; the bases of the
antenne are immovable, and the opening of the
excretory organ at their base has a curious movable
‘plate. The hindmost of the foot-jaws or maxilli-
pedes is in part expanded into a broad plate which
covers the neighbouring appendages. The great
claws are generally larger in the male than in the
female, and thus the market value of the male
Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus) is said to be five
times as great as that of the female. The reduced

abdominal appendages of crabs are solely used for
reproductive purposes. The two anterior pairs are
copulatory in the males ; those that persist in the
females have the eggs attached to them. The
abdomen is always larger and broader in the
females. ‘The nervous system is peculiar in the
centralisation of the thoracic ganglia into a single
mass. The alimentary, circulatory, and exeretorv
systems do not present any sar lig peculiarities,
The gills are ate fewer than in the crayfish,
never exceeding nine on each side. The gill-cavity
is large, especially in the land-crabs, In the
common shore-crab, the larva leaves the egg as a
zowa, after repeated moults becomes a sort of
hermit-crab-like form known as a Megalopa, and
gradually with broadening shield, loss of abdominal

Great Crab (Cancer pagurus).

appendages, bending up of the abdomen, and modi-
fication of the anterior limbs becomes a miniature
adult.

General Life.—Crabs feed chiefly on other animals
both alive and dead. The Swimming Crabs
(Portunus )—e.g. P. pelagicus, attack fishes. Cardi-
soma carnifex, found in the mangrove swamps
of the West Indies, is fond of the fruit of a species
of Anona, but is also notorious for burrowin
in the cemeteries. The well-known Land-cra
(Gecarcinus ruricola) damages sugar-canes. Many
crabs are very rapid runners, especially the sand
and land forms; others are powerful burrowers—
e.g. the Calling Crab (Gelasimus), which has one
of its great claws much exaggerated, and carried
during locomotion over its head in such a way that
it looks as if it were beckoning; others again are
expert swimmers—e.g. our British pelagic Polybius
henslowii, which has a light shell, and four of its
thoracic appendages flattened for swimming. In
regard to respiration it is worth noticing that the
land-crabs are so far terrestrial that they are
liable to be drowned in water. The male crabs
are usually sa and sometimes fight with one
another as well as with other species. In some
eases (Gelasimus) the bright colour is only
acquired at the period of reproductive maturity.
The sexes of the common Shore-crab (Carcinus
menas ) are said’to unite just after the female has
moulted her hard shell. In all but the land-crabs
the female carries about the eggs till they are
hatched.

Habitat.—Almost all crabs are strictly marine
forms, and the majority frequent shallow water.
Among the terrestrial forms the best known are
the species of Gecarcinus, swiftly moving nocturnal
crabs in tropical regions of both hemispheres,
chiefly vegetarian in their diet, migrating in
companies to the sea for egg-laying purposes.
The genus Ocypoda includes some land forms,
and. some which produce a shrill-noise by rubbin

the ridged surface of the second-last joint 0

-

CRAB

539

‘the right great claw nst a wt! edge of
the second joint. The Calling Crab ( Salastaine)
makes la burrows, and the male closes the

mouth of the hole with its exaggerated t claw,
The Pea-crabs (Pinnotheres) live inside bivalves
Pinna, Mytilus, Mactra, &c.). One species
P. veterum) was said by the ancients to nip the
molluse when danger threatened, and to receive its
share of food in return. There is no doubt as to
the share of food, but no evidence that the crab
rewards its host. In the genus Telphusa all the
species live in fresh water in the warm parts of the
hoa The European species (7. fluviatilis) is

lerably common in southern Europe, was known
to the ancients both in its habit and edibility, and
is often figured on Sicilian coins, As regards
geological distribution, the Brachyura do not
certainly appear before the upper Jurassic, and
become ually more numerous in Cretaceous

and Tertiary strata.

Moulting and Amputation.—Like other crusta-
ceans, crabs periodically cast their chitinous and
limy shells. The moults are most frequent in
youth, when the rapid growth of the body conflicts
with the rigidity of the armature. Extra feeding
may accelerate the process. Before moulting the
old shell becomes virtually dead, reserve stores are
used in fresh growth, a new shell begins to form
within the old, and finally with considerable, and
sometimes fatal effort, the shell is cast. It is left

in apparent intactness, a very image of its

lost tenant. The new suit, which is at first
soft, requires several hours or days to acquire
firmness. The loss of internal linings, of stomach
mill, of the outer covering of the eyes, &ec., as

well as of the entire outer armature, leaves the

erab very much hors de combat. The period is
one of great disadvantage to the crabs, not

‘only from the fatigue and often fatality of

‘inflicted amputation or ‘autotomy.’

the process, but from the state of defenceless

helplessness in which they are temporarily left.

In many cases crabs lose their limbs in fighting,
and they may voluntarily resign them (as in
Porcellana platychelys ) to save their bodies. Sudden

ic or injury is said to lead to similar self-
Like many
animals lower in the scale, crabs are able to make
good their injuries, though several moults are

; ars to regenerate a limb.

asking. —A common habit among crabs is that
of masking themselves with a objects. Thus
both the European species of Maia (M. squinado
and M, verrucosa) are usually overgrown by Algie,
Hydroids, and Polyzoa; the same is true of Pisa ;
in Inachus the long feet are especially well con-
cealed by seaweeds; our common Stenorhynchus is
often covered by a sponge growth; the Mediter-
ranean Dorippe lanata uses its hind-legs to carry
some living or dead object upon its back, and thus
very emphatically asserts its innocence ; the common
Dromia (D. vulgaris) holds sponges on its back in
similar fashion. See COMMENSALISM,
Intelligence.—As in several features of their
structure, so in their intelligence, crabs appear to

_ hold the highest place among crustaceans, Mose-

ley observed how a sand-crab (Ocypoda ippeus),
which dreads the sea, dug itself into the cnt and
held on against the undertide of each t wave.
Romanes refers to the alleged habit of the common
crab in stationing a hard-shelled individual as
sentinel during the moulting season, There seems
to be not a little of the intelligent in some cases
of crab-commensalism. Darwin has, however, given
a crowning instance of intelligence which is worth
many less emphatic. Some shells were thrown
towards the hole of a burrowing shore-crab (Gela-
simus). One rolled in, three remained a few inches

. from the mouth. Ina few minutes the crab came

out, bearing the shell which had fallen in, and re-
moved it to the distance of a foot. ‘It then saw
the three other shells lying near, and evidently
thinking that they might likewise roll in, carried
them to the spot where it had laid the first.’
Common British Forms.—The Common Shore-
crab ( Carcinus menas); the Great Crab (Cancer

pagurus), so much eaten; the Slender Spider-crab

or Slender-beaked Crab gag ga tenuiros-
tris), with very long spider-like legs and bright

Slender Spider-crab (Stenorhynchus tenuirostrig),

pink triangular body; the large Thorny Spider-
crab (Maia squinado); the Common Swimmin
Crab (Portunus variegatus), common on Scote
coasts, with the last pair of legs flattened like oar-
blades; the Velvet Fiddler-crab or Devil-crab ( Por-
tunus puber), with a brown hairy shell; the
Masked Crab (Corystes cassivelaunus), with a cara-

ace marked so as to suggest a mask, often found
pond in the sand of English and Welsh coasts ;
the small Four-horned Spider-crab ( Pisa tetraodon ) ;
the little Pea-crab ( Pinnotheres pisum, &c.), inside
bivalves, are familiar British species.

Classification.—Crabs are generally classified ac-
cording to the shape of their cephalothorax into five
families : (1) Catometopa, usually quadrangular—
e.g. Ocypoda, Grapsus, Pinnotheres, Gecarcinus ;
(2) Cyclometopa, usually broad, narrowed behind,
bow-shaped in front—e.g. Telphusa, Cancer,
Portunus, Carcinus; (3) Oxyrhyncha, triangular,
pointed in front—e.g. Maia, Pisa, Hyas, Steno-
rhynchus, Inachus ; (4) Oxystomata, usually round
—e.g. Calappa, Ilia; (5) Notopoda, with the last
or last two pairs of limbs more or less turned back
—e.g. Dorippe, Porcellana, Lithodes, Dromia.

See CrusTacEA, CRAYFISH, HERMIT-CRAB, LOBSTER.
Besides general works mentioned under Crustacea, see
Balfour's Embryology ; W. K. Brooks, Handbook of In-
vertebrate Zoology (Boston, 1882); Frédericg, Archiv.
Zoologie Expér. (1883); Huxley’s Invertebrates ; Romanes,
Animal Intelligence (Inter. Sc. Series, 1886); Carus
Sterne, Werden und Vergehen (1886); Woodward, in
Cassell’s Natural History.

Crab, Rocer, hermit, was born about 1621 in
Buckinghamshire, and served for seven years
(1642-49) in the Parliamentary army. He then
set up in business as ‘a haberdasher of hats’ at
Chesham, in his native county. He had imbibed
the idea that it was sinful to eat any kind of
animal food, or to drink anything stronger than
water; and in 1651, determined to follow literally
the injunction given to the young man in the
gospel, he sold off his stock-in-trade, distributing
the proceeds among the r, and took sp. his
residence in a hut. His food consisted of bran,
turnip-tops, dock-leaves, and The persecu-
tions the poor man inflicted on himself caused him
to be persecuted by others, cudgelled, and put in
the stocks. He was four times imprisoned for
sabbath-breaking and other offences, yet still he
eeriisice in his course of life. He published The

nglish Hermite, Dagon’s Downfall, and a tract

540) CRAB-APPLE

CRACOW

against Quakerism ; and he died at Bethnal Green,
llth September 1680.

Crab-apple is a term applied somewhat vaguely
to any sour and uncultivated variety or species of
apple. Thus Pyrus spectabilis of shrubberies is
known as the Chinese Crab, P. prunifolia as the
Siberian Crab, P. coronaria as the American Crab,
and P. baccata of North Asia (including cerasifera)
as the Cherry Crab, More strictly, however, the
term is applied to the wild varieties of the true apple
(P. Malus, var. sylvestris). Of this, again, two
main varieties are distinguished, one smooth-leaved
and sour (var. austera), the other more or less
woolly-leaved and sweeter (var. mitis). The former
of these may therefore be considered as the crab-
apple proper. ,

Crabbe, GEORGE, poet, was born on Christmas
Eve of 1754, at Aldeburgh, on the Suffolk sea-
board. His father, ‘salt-master’ and warehouse-
keeper, was a clever, strong, violent man; the
mother, a meek, religious woman; and of three
brothers, one perished captain of a slaver, another
was lost sight of in Honduras. George, the eldest,
got some schooling at Bungay and Stowmarket,
then *from 1768 to 1774 was surgeon’s apprentice
at Wickham-Brook and at Woodbridge. In his first

lace he had to help the ploughboy ; in his second
e fell in love with Sarah Elmy (‘Mira’), who
lived with her uncle, a wealthy yeoman, at the old
moated hall of Parham. A spell of drudgery in
his father’s warehouse—nine months in London,
picking up surgery cheaply—some three years’
struggling practice at Aldeburgh—at last in April
1780, with £3 in his pocket, le sailed again for
London, resolved to try his fortune in literature.
Eight years before he had written verses for
Wheble's Magazine ; he had published Inebriety, a
Poem (Ipswich, 1775); and now his Candidate soon
found a publisher, unluckily a bankrupt one. A
season of penury, dire as Chatterton’s, was borne
by Crabbe with pious bravery; he had to pawn
clothes and instruments; appeals to Lords Thurlow,
North, Shelburne, met no response; and early in
1781 he saw himself threatened with arrest for
debt, when he made his case known to Burke.
Forty-one years later he told Lockhart at Edin-
burgh, how, having delivered the letter at Burke’s
door, he paced Westminster Bridge all night long
until cy fa Burke proved a generous patron ;
from the hour of their meeting Crabbe was a
‘made man.’ He stayed at Beaconsfield ; he met
Fox, Johnson, and Reynolds; Thurlow gave him
a bank-note for £100; Dodsley brought out his
Library ; and the very next winter he was ordained
to the curacy of his native town. He resided
as domestic chaplain to the Duke of Rutland at
Belvoir Castle (1782-85) ; married Miss Elmy (1783);
held four livings in Dorset, Leicester, and Lincoln
shires, but spent thirteen happy years in Suffolk,
at Parham, Great Glemham, and Rendham (1792-
1805); returned to Muston, his Leicestershire
rectory ; and his wife having died there in 1813,
exchanged it the next year for Trowbridge in Wilt-
shire. His gentle, kindly life, in which botanising
had given place to fossil-hunting, was broken now
and again by visits to London and its best society ;
he witnessed the Bristol riots (1831), as fifty-one
years before he had witnessed those of Lord George
Gordon; and on 3d February 1832 he died at
Trowbridge.

Three novels, a treatise on botany, and poems
untold all perished in grand yearly ‘incremations ;’
but still, Crabbe published The Village (1783), The
Newspaper (1785), The Parish Register (1807), The
Borough (1810), Tales (1812), and Tales of the Hall
(1819), for which last and the earlier copyrights
Murray paid him £3000. Of these poems Words-

worth wrote in 1832, ‘They will last full as long as
anything expressed in verse since first they made
their appearance ;’ and Jane Austen said Crabbe
was the only man whom she would care to marry.
Byron, too, Scott, Jeffrey, Wilson, Lord Tennyson,
Swinburne, Cardinal Newman, ana, above all,
Edward Fitzgerald, must be reckoned among his few
votaries. ‘Though nature’s sternest painter, yet the
best,’ Byron’s verdict upon him, is truer than Horace
Smith’s, ‘a Pope in worsted stockings,’ for this
refers but to the accident of metre—the rhyming
heroics, which, thirty per diem, Crabbe ground out
anywhere. Their subject-matter, though, is all
Crabbe’s own. He is as much the poet of East
Anglia as Scott of the Borderland or Wordsworth
of the Lake Country. Its scenery and the life
of. its fisher-folk and peasantry he described
with a realism greater is Zola’s, if sometimes
almost as tedious. Zola! nay, Crabbe has closer
kinship to Balzac; and his strong, sombre pictures
of sin and suffering are ever and age in lit up with
homely pathos and shrewd, Dutch-like humour.
‘The tragic power of Crabbe,’ Mr Swinburne says,
‘is as much above the reach of Byron, as his singu-
larly vivid, though curiously limited, insight into
certain shades of character.’ And in old John
Murray’s words, ‘Crabbe said uncommon things in |
so common a way as to escape notice ;’ surely he
claims notice from such as rank thought higher
than expression.

An admirable Life by his son, the Rev. George Crabbe
(1785-1857 ), for twenty-three years vicar of Bredfield,
Suffolk, is prefixed to Crabbe’s Works (8 vols. 1834). See
also Mr Leslie Stephen’s ‘ Hours in a Library’ (2d series,
1876); Mr Fitzzerald’s Readings in ‘ Tales of the Hall’
(1882); the essay on Crabbe by Mr W. J. Courthope in
vol. iii, of Ward’s English Poets (1884); and I. E.
Kebbel’s Crabbe (1888). :

Crab-stones, or CRrAb’s EyEs.
FISH.

Cracked Heels. From careless grooming,
washing horses’ legs and imperfectly drying them,
permitting them to stand in accumulations of filth
or exposed to draughts, the skin becomes inflamed,
tender, itchy, thickened, and by-and-by cracked.
An ichorous and fetid discharge exudes, and lame-
ness often results. In animals with round gummy
legs it is sometimes constitutional ; underbred horses
with rough hairy fetlocks present the majority of
CASES ; white hee s, being more delicate, are especi-
ally affected; whilst the hind limbs, exposed as
they are to filth and cold, suffer most frequently.
Cleanse carefully with tepid water; wash with a
diluted solution of Goulard’s Extract, or any other
mild astringent ; or dress occasionally with oxide
of zine ointment. Give, besides, a half-dose of
physic, and a few mashes, afterwards carrots,
swedes, or such laxative food, and where the ail-
ment is persistent, use Diuretics (q.v.). When
the skin is dry and irritable, poultice and apply
glycerine before proceeding with astringents. In
ae weather, and especially when the horse is
heated, interdict washing the legs; but allow them
to dry, and then brush off the dirt.

Cracovienne (krakoviak), the national dance
of the Polish poeaeniey around Cracow. It has a
very marked rhythm in 3 time, and is often accom-

anied by singing. The Poles have a multitude of
Fittle ditties of two lines each, adapted to this
music and dance,

Cracow (Pol. Krakov, Ger. Krakau), a city
of the Austrian crown-land of Galicia, 259 miles
NE. of Vienna by rail. It stands 672 feet above
sea-level, in a wide, hill-girt plain on the left bank
of the Vistula, which here becomes navigable, and
is spanned by a bridge (1850) leading to Podgorze.
The old walls have been converted into promenades,

See CRAY-

CRADDOCK

CRAIG 541

and a line of detached forts now defends the city.
Its older portion is a labyrinth of narrow, dark, and
deserted streets, but contains many fine specimens
of Gothic architecture in its churches and other
edifices ; and some handsome buildings are also to
be seen in the more modern suburbs. On the
Wawel rock, in the midst of the houses, rises the
old castle of the Polish kings, degraded now to a
barrack. The neighbouring cathedral (1320-59) is
a splendid pile, containing the graves of John
Sobieski, Poniatowski, Kosciusko, and many more
heroes, with Thorwaldsen’s statue of Christ. The
university was founded in 1364, by Casimir the
Great, and reconstituted under the Jagellons in 1394.
Long the centre of light for Poland, it had decayed
under Jesuit influence, but was reorganised and
reopened in 1817, and now is attended by more than
800 students. It possesses a library of 150,000
volumes, and many MSS. of great value in con-
nection with Polish history. Cracow has important
fairs, and its trade and manufactures (chemicals,
tobacco, beer, agricultural implements, &c.) have
of late years greatly revived. Three miles west
of the city is a grassy mound, 150 feet high, reared
in 1820-23 to the memory of Kosciusko. It is
or ie of earth taken from all the patriotic
battle-fields of Poland. The population has varied
much at different periods, from 80,000 in the 16th
century to 10,000 at the end of the 18th, 49,835 in
1869, 66,095 in 1880, and 76,025 in 1890, of whom
20,600 were Jews..

Cracow was founded -by Krak, Prince of Poland,
from whom it derives its name, about the year 700,
became the capital of Poland in 1320, and continued
such till 1609, when that honour was transferred to
Warsaw. It was taken by the Bohemians in 1039,
by the Tartars in 1241, by the Swedes in 1655 and
1702, and by the Russians in 1768. On the third
partition of Poland, in 1795, it was assigned to
Austria. From 1809 to 1815 it formed part of the
ay of Warsaw. The congress of Vienna estab-
lished it as a republic, with a territory of 425 sq. m.,
and containing about 140,000 inhabitants, under
the protectorate of Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Internal dissensions between the nobles and the
common people afforded a pretence for interference,
and the sympathy shown for the cause of Polish
independence was made the ground of the annexa-
tion of Cracow to the Austrian dominions (1846).
See POLAND.

Craddock, CHAR es EcBert, is the pen-name
of Miss Mary Noailles Murfree, born near Mur-
freesborough, in Texas, about 1851, and early dis-
abled by paralysis. She is known as author of Zn
the Tennessee Mountains (1884), Where the Battle
was Fought (1884), Down the Ravine (1885), The
Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains (1885), The

Despot of Bromsedge Cove (1888), and other stories,

Crag and Tail, a term used to designate a
peculiar hill conformation, in which a bold and
precipitous front exists on one aspect of a_ hill,
while the opposite is formed of a sloping declivity.

Fine examples of this structure occur in and around
Edinburgh, where the bold ‘crag’ faces the west
and the ‘tail’ ber? 2m ap the east; as, for
example, the Castle rock, precipitous and unap-
ptoachable on every side except to the east. The

structure owes its origin to the juxtaposition of
rocks of variable de of durability—the harder
and more durable rocks Ponte. resisted denudation,
and so protected the more readily eroded rocks that
occur on the lee side of the former. The crag and
tail phenomena of central Scotland and other
regions which have been subjected to extreme
glaciation (see GLACIAL PERIOD) is due to glacial
erosion and accumulation. The crag faces the
direction from which the ice came, and thus by
opposing its advance induced excessive erosion
upon the ground immediately in front. A hollow
has thus usually been scooped ont in this place,
and continued along either side of the obstruction
for some little distance. This somewhat crescent-
shaped hollow is well seen on the west side of
Edinburgh Castle rock, sweeping round on the
north by Princes Street Gardens (the old Nor’
Loch), and on the south by the valley of the
Cowgate. The morainic material dragged along
underneath the ice accumulated in the rear of the
crag, so that the strata in that position are usually
covered to a greater or less — with boulder-
clay, &c. The High Street of Edinburgh is thus
built upon morainic materials.

Craig, JOHN, Scottish Reformer, was born in
1512, next year lost his father at Flodden, and was
educated at St Andrews. He joined the Domini-
cans there, but fell under suspicion of heresy, and
after a brief imprisonment (1536) went to Rome.
Through Cardinal Pole he gained admission to the
Dominican convent of Bologna, where be became
the master of novices; next a copy of Calvin’s
Institutes fell in his way, and converted him to
Protestantism. On 18th August 1559 he was lying
in the dungeon of the Inquisition, condemned to
suffer next morning at the stake, when Pope Paul
IV. died, and the mob broke open the prisons, and
set the prisoners at liberty. A bandit befriended
him ; a dog brought him a purse of gold as he was
wandering helpless through a forest; he escaped
to Vienna, and there preached in his friar’s habit,
one of his hearers being the Archduke Maximilian.
Presently the new pope, learning his whereabouts,
demanded his surrender ; but Maximilian gave him
a safe-conduct, and in 1560 he returned to Scot-
land. In 1563 he was appointed ecoadjutor to Knox,
and with him was accused by the Earl of Bedford
of having been privy to Rizzio’s murder; in 1567
he incurred some censure for proclaiming, under
sous. i the banns between Queen Mary
and Bothwell; and in 1572 he was sent to ‘ illumin-
ate the dark places’ in Angus and Aberdeenshire,
He came back to Edinburgh in 1579 as a chaplain
to James VI., took a leading part in the church’s
affairs, and had a share with Melville in the Second
Book of Discipline. He was the author of the
‘Confession of Faith’ or first National Covenant,
‘subscribed by the king’s majesty and his household
and sundry others’ at Edinburgh, 28th January
1580. He withstood the restoration of prelacy ;
but his comparative moderation was not seldom
displeasing to the ‘popes of Edinburgh.’ He died
12th December 1600. His Short Summe of the
whole Catechisme (1581) has been reprinted in
fac-simile, with a valuable introductory Memoir by
T. G. Law (Edin. 1883).

Craig, THOMAS, writer on feudal law, was born
in 1538, either at Craigfintray ( Aberdeenshire) or in
Edinburgh. From St Andrews he passed in 1555
to the university of Paris, and in 1563 was admitted
an advocate at the Scottish bar, being next year
pte = justice-depute of Scotland, and in 1573
sheriff-depute of Edinburgh. Whilst head of the
criminal judicature, he did not neglect the muses,
as was evidenced by an epithalamium on Queen
Mary’s marriage with Darnley and a poem on the

542 CRAIG-FLUKE

CRAMP

birth of James VI. Besides several more Latin
poems, and the masterly Jus Feudale (1608 ; 3d ed.

1732), by which he is chiefly remembered, he wrote [

three other Latin treatises—on James VI.’s right
to sueceed to the English throne; on the advisability
of a union between the two kingdoms, and on the
homage controversy between Scotland and England.
He stood high in favour with James, who wanted
to knight him in 1603, and, on his declining, dis-
Ronee with the ceremony, but gave him the title.

e died 26th February 1608. See his Life by P. F.
Tytler (1823).

Craig-fluke (Pleuronectes cynoglossus), a flat
fish in the same genus as Dab, Plaice, and
Flounder (q.v.).

Craigleith Stone, a siliceous sandstone be-
longing to the lower carboniferous series, quarried
at Craigleith, 2 miles W. of Edinburgh, and largely
used for building in that city, for which it is
admirably adapted by its purity and durability.

Craik, GeorGce LIL.ik, a versatile and indus-
trious author, born at Kennoway, Fife, in 1798,
was educated for the church at St Andrews
University, but, preferring a literary career, came
to London in 1826, and formed a _ connection
with Charles Knight. His first work of importance
was the Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties
(1831). He also contributed largely to the Penny
Magazine and Cyclopedia, and in 1839 became
editor of the Pictorial Histary of England, some
of the most valiable chapters of which were
written by himself. From these his Sketches of
the History of Literature and Learning in Eng-
land (6 vols. 1844) and his History of British
Commerce (3 vols. 1844) were reprinted. In 1849
Craik was appointed to the chair of History and
English Literature in Queen’s College, Belfast,
a situation which he occupied till his death on
25th June 1866. His other works include Spenser
(1845), Bacon (1846-47), Romance of the Peerage
(1848-50), The English of Shakespeare (1856), His-
tory of English Language and Literature (1861;
9th abridged ed. 1883).—His youngest daughter,
Georgina “Marion (Mrs May), born in 1831, began
to write at nineteen, and had at her death in 1895
published some thirty novels and stories.

Craik, Mrs. Dinah Maria Mulock, well known
as the author of John Halifax, Gentleman, was
born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. She early
took the burden of supporting an ailing mother
and two younger brothers, and wrote stories for
fashion-books, as well as for graver publications.
Her first serious appearance as a novelist was in
1849, with her story The Ogilvies, which was
followed by Olive, The Head of the Family, and
Agatha’s Husband. But she never surpassed or even
equalled her domestic novel John Halifax (1857),
which has had, and still continues to have an
extraordinary popularity, and has been translated
into French, German, Italian, Greek, and Russian.
The scene is laid at Tewkesbury, where a marble
medallion has been placed to her memory in the
abbey. A pension of £60 a year, awarded to her
in 1864, she set aside for authors less fortunate
than herself. In 1865 she married Mr George Lillie
Craik, a partner in the publishing house of Mac-
millan & Co. (nephew of the subject of the pre-
ceding article), and spent a period of quiet happi-
ness and successful literary industry at her home,
Corner House, Shortlands, Kent, where she died
12th October 1887. Much of Mrs Craik’s verse
is collected in Thirty Years’ Poems (1881). She
wrote a good deal for the magazines, and produced
in all forty-six works, viz.—fourteen more novels,
and several. volumes of prose essays, including A
Woman’s Thoughts about Women (1858), and Con-
cerning Men, and other Papers (1888). See

Mrs Oliphant’s sketch in Macmillan’s Magazine
(1887).

Crail, an antique little coast-town in the ‘ East
Neuk’ of Fife, 24 miles WSW. of Fife Ness, 10
SE. of St Andrews, and 43 NE. of Edinburgh by
rail. There is a fragment of a castle of David I. ;
and the church, which was made collegiate in 1517,
is an interesting Second Pointed structure. John
Knox here preached his ‘idolatrous sermon,’ 9th
June 1559; and in 1648, James Sharp was ap-
pointed minister. The fishing is not what it once
was, and the harbour has little trade; but Crail
is a pleasant summer-resort. It was made a royal
burgh in 1306, and unites with the other six St
Andrews burghs to return one member to parlia-
ment. Pop. (1861) 1238; (1881) 1148 ; (1891) 1115.

Crake. See CoRN-CRAKE.

Crambé, a genus of Cruciferze, having a pod
(silicula) of two unequal joints, of which the

upper is globose and one-seeded, the lower
abortive. C. maritima is well known as Sea-
kale (q.v.). OC. tartarica, of Eastern Europe,

with much divided leaves and a great fleshy
root, is cultivated in Roumania as cauliflower,
and its root is eaten either boiled or in salads.

Cramer, JOHANN BAPTIST, pianist, was born
at Mannheim in 1771, the son of Wilhelm Cramer
(1745-99), a musician of repute, who settled in
London in 1772. From 1788 the son undertook
concert tours on the Continent, and gained a high
reputation as a facile and expressive performer.
He founded the musical publishing firm which
hears his name in 1828, and after some years’
residence in Paris, died in London, 16th April
1858. Most of his compositions are now forgotten,
but his series of Studies is a work of importance,

Cramp is a word applied to muscular contrac-
tions of an irregular kind, in a somewhat variable
way.

(1) In its common use, it denotes an involuntary
and painful contraction of a voluntary muscle or
group of muscles. It is most apt to occur when a
muscle has been fatigued ; though any muscle may
be affected, those of the calves most often suffer.
It is especially common in pregnant women and

ersons of a gouty diathesis, and is a prominent
eature in some diseases, especially cholera. There
is no specific for preventing it; each case must be
treated on its merits. The contraction and accom-
panying pain is usually cut short if the affected
muscle be stretched—-e.g. in the case of the calf-
muscles, the knee must be straightened and the
foot bent up as far as possible towards the front of
the leg, to lengthen the affected muscles to the
utmost, and similarly with other cases.

(2) Writer’s Cramp is the commonest and best
known of a group of diseases called trade spasms.
The person affected can use his fingers for any

urpose, even the most delicate manipulations, so
ong as he does not attempt to write; but when-
ever he does so, the muscles refuse to obey his
will, and the pen either drops from his hand
or executes spasmodic purposeless movements.
Similar conditions may occur in telegraphists and
pianists—in fact, in any case where frequent and
continued use of particular muscular actions is
necessary. These distressing and troublesome
affections have recently been cured in some cases
by means of Massage (q.v.) and systematic gym-
nastic exercises of the affected parts.

(3) Bather’s Cramp.—A good swimmer, while
bathing, is seen to throw up his arms, perhaps is
heard to cry out once, and then sinks to rise no
more. It is said that ‘bather’s cramp’ has been
the cause of his death. This phrase, however,
is merely an apology for ignorance: what has
happened, and whether it is the same in all

—_— ~~ 2 ea

CRAMP RINGS

CRANBERRY 543

Spparentiy similar cases is as yet quite uncertain.
mp, in the ordin sense, of one or more
limbs, though very embarrassing and alarming;
would not be so disastrous to a practised swimmer
as to make him sink without a struggle; and,
though common in bathers, cannot be accepted as
the cause of all the fatal accidents like that
deseribed above. Of other theories advanced, the
most probable is that sudden failure of the heart's
action, a partial or total faint, is the cause of the
calamity, at least in very many cases, A sudden
plunge into cold water by itself causes some strain
upon the heart; and swimming, about the most
severe of all forms of exercise, increases its work
very atly—sometimes, it is easy to believe,
beyond safe limits. The recorded experience of
some who have narrowly escaped death from this
cause makes it appear extremely probable that it
is the real explanation of at least some of these
sad accidents. No one when out of practice should
attempt a long swim in cold water; and persons
with weak hearts should be especially careful to
avoid fatiguing themselves when bathing.

Cramp Rings were rings which were sup-
1 to cure cramp and the ‘falling-sickness.’
hey are said to have originated as far back as
the middle of the 11th century, in a ring presented
by a pilgrim to Edward the Confessor, which,
atter that ruler’s death, was preserved as a relic
in Westminster Abbey, and was applied for the
cure of endlsney and cramp. Hence appears to
have arisen the belief that rings blessed by English
sovereigns were efficacious in such cases; and the
custom of blessing for distribution large numbers
of cramp rings on Good Friday continued to exist
down to the time of Queen Mary. The accom-
gn Lord Berners, ambassador to Spain in
enry VIII.’s time, writes from Saragossa to
Cardinal Wolsey: ‘If your grace remember me
with some crampe ryngs ye shall doo a thing
muche looked for; and I trust to bestow thaym
well with Goddes grace.’ The metal the rings
were composed of was what formed the king’s
offering to the cross on Good Friday, usually
either gold or silver. The superstitious belief in
the curative property of cramp rings made out of
certain pieces of silver obtained in particular ways
still lingers in some districts of Ralind,

Cran (Gaelic), a measure of eapacity in Scot-
land for rage 5 when just taken out of the net.
It amounts to 374 imperial gallons, and comprises
about 750 herrings on an average.

Cranach, Lucas, a celebrated German painter,
so named from Kronach in the bishopric of Bam-
berg, Upper Franconia, where he was born, 4th
October 1472. Little is known of his early life, but
he seems to have been instructed by his father, and,

ibly, by Matthew Grundewald; to have resided
in Gotha, where he married Barbara Brengbier ;
and to have accompanied Frederick the Wise,
Elector of Saxony, to the Holy Land in 1493,
Certainly he was befriended by that prince, and
was his court-painter at Wittenberg, an appoint-
ment which he received in 1508, along with a

patent of nobility, and the ‘motto,’ or kleinod, of

a crowned and winged serpent, with which he
marked his subsequent works, instead of (some-
times in combination with) the initials which he
had previously used. Monopolies for printing and
the sale of medicine were also bestowed upon him.
The house in which he carried on his manifold
occupations was — at Wittenberg till 1871,
and his importance in the town may be gathered
from the fact that in 1537, and again in 1540, he
was elected a burgomaster. In 1509 he accom-
panied an embassy to the Emperor Maximilian,

_ and while in the Netherlands he portrayed the

prince, afterwards Charles V., then a boy of nine.
After the death of the Elector Frederick in 15%5,
he was continued in his official position by his
brother, and also by his successor, John Frederick
the Magnanimous, whose captivity at Augsbu
the artist shared, and whose release he is believec
to have procured from the emperor in 1552. He
returned with his master to Weimar, and died
there on 16th October of the following year. The
superiority of his earlier works, both in painting
and engraving, is doubtless to be accounted for by
the fact that in later life the pressure of numerous
commissions necessitated the assistance of his
sons, and of many other pupils. His paintings,
executed in oils on panel, include sacred and a few
classical subjects, hunting-scenes, and portraits.
His drawing is commonly hard and defective, but
his colouring is rich, warm, and effective, and a
certain hemely earnestness, sometimes mingled
with humour, characterises his productions. A
uaint portrait of a girl in an elaborate costume
rom his hand is in the National Gallery, London.
He was closely associated with the German Re-
formers, many of whom were portrayed by himself
and his pupils. Figures of Luther and Melanchthon,
and the painter himself, are introduced in his
‘Crucifixion’ in the Stadtkirche, Weimar, a work
engraved in Waagen’s Handbook of Painting (ed.
of 1874), and usually regarded as the artist’s most
important composition. Three of his copper en-
ravings, dated 1519, 1520, and 1521, represent
Tather! and among his other principal works with
the burin are ‘The Penitence of St John Chrysos-
tom’ (1509), and a portrait of the Elector Frederick.
His wood-engravings are more numerous, including
‘The Passion,’ 15 cuts; ‘The Martyrdom of the
Apostles,’ 12 cuts; and ‘The Wittenberg Hagi-
ology,’ 119 cuts. He had three sons, all o whdrn
were painters.—The second of them, Lucas, the
younger, born 1515, was a burgomaster of Witten-
verg. He painted in the manner of his father, and
their works are difficult to distinguish, especially
as both artists used a similar mark. According to
Schuchardt, however, in the productions of the son
the crowned serpent appears with the wings folded,
instead of erect as in those of the father. His
‘ Crucifixion,’ or ‘ Nativity,’ and a picture of ‘The
Lord’s Vineyard,’ symbolical of the progress of the
Reformation, are in the Stadtkirche at Witten-
berg, and his works may also be studied in Berlin,
Munich, and at Dresden, where are his portraits
of the Electors Maurice and Augustus, and a
‘Crucifixion.’ He died at Wittenberg in 1586.
Cranberry (Oxycoccus), a north temperate
and arctic genus of small evergreen shrubs of the
order Ericaceze (sub-order Vaccine). The only
British species (0. palustris, formerly Vaccinium
Oxycoccus) grows in peaty bogs and marshy
unds, and is a small wiry shrub with creepin
thread-like branches, and small oval leaves roll
back at the edges. Large quantities of the fruit,
which is chiefly used for making tarts, are collected
in some parts of Britain, as also in Germany and
other European countries, although the draining of
bogs has now made it scarce where it was once
lentiful. The berries are an excellent antiscor-
utic, and hence furnish an excellent addition to
sea stores. Wine is made from them in Siberia,
and a beverage made from them is sold in the
streets of St Petersburg.—The American Cran-
be (O. macrocarpa) is of similar distribution,
but is a larger and more hy we plant, with bigger
leaves and berries. The berries are not now col-
lected by means of a rake, but by hand, as the
former method bruises them. Large quantities are
exported to Europe, and the berries are also im-

ported into Britain from Russia and other parts of
‘northern Europe. Both kinds may be cultivated in

544 CRANBORNE

CRANE

gardens, in a peat-soil kept very moist or round the
margin of a pond.—The berries of the Red Whortle-
berry or Cowberry (Vaccinium Vitis-Idea) are sold
under the name of cranberries in Aberdeen and

Cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris) :
a, flower; 0, fruit.

other places, and are used in the same way.—The
Tasmanian Cranberry is the fruit of <Astroloma
humifusum, a pretty little trailing Epacridaceous
shrub; while in Australia the same name is given
to other plants of the same order, notably Styphelia
ascendens and Lissanthe sapida.

Cranborne, Viscount, the courtesy title of
the eldest son of the Marquis of Salisbury.

Cranbrook, a pleasant little market-town in
the Weald of Kent, 46 miles SE. of London. It
has a fine Perpendicular church, and a large trade
in hops.. From the 14th to the 17th century it was
the centre of the broadcloth manufacture intro-
duced by the Flemings. Pop. of parish about 5000.
See Tarbutt’s Annals of Cranbrook (1875).

Cranbrook, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY,
EARL (1892), was born Ist Octoher 1814, at Bradford,
the son of John Hardy, Esq., of Dunstall Hall, Staf-
fordshire. Educated at Shrewsbury and at Oriel
College, Oxford, where he took his B.A. in 1837, he
was called to the bar in 1840, and in 1856, after un-
successfully contesting Bradford nine years earlier,
was returned as a Conservative by Leominster. In
1865 he defeated Mr Gladstone in the celebrated
Oxford University election ; in 1878 he was raised to
the peerage as Viscount Cranbrook. He was Under-
secretary of State for the Home Department (1858-
59), President of the Poor-law Board (1866-67),
Home Secretary (1867-68), War Secretary (1874-
78), Secretary of State for India (1878-80), and
Lord President of the Council (1885-92).

Crane (Grus), a genus of birds in the order
Grallatores, the type of the family Gruide. This
family differs from herons, storks, &ec., in having
the hind-toe placed higher on the leg than the front
ones, and in certain characters of bill and skull.
The members are also less addicted to marshy
places, and feed not only on animal, but, to a con-
siderable extent, on vegetable food. The cranes
are all large birds, long legged, long necked, long
billed, and of powerful wing. Some of them per-
form great migrations, and fly at a great height in
the air. Some twelve species are known, mostly
=n the paleearctic region, but also in Asia, Australia,
and America. Unlike other Grallatores, the young
cranes are helpless and require to be fed. Only
two eggs are laid.—The Common Crane (G. cinerea)
breeds in the northern parts of Europe and Asia,
retiring in winter to tropical or subtropical regions.
Flocks of cranes periodically pass over the southern
and central countries of Europe, uttering their loud

harsh cries in the air, and occasionally alighting to
seek food in fields or marshes, The crane, whes
standing, is about four feet in height; the prevail-
ing colour is ash-gray; the head bears bristly
feathers, and has a naked crown, reddish in the
male; the bill, which is longer than the head, is
reddish at the root, dark green at the apex; the
feet are blackish; the tail is short and straight,
They are very stately birds, though their habit of
bowing and dancing is often grotesque. The cover-
ing feathers of the wings are elongated, reaching
beyond the ends of the primaries, and their webs
are unconnected ; they are varied and tipped with
bluish-black, and are the well-known plumes once
much used in ornamental head-dresses. The visits
of the crane to Britain are now very rare, although
in former times they were comparatively frequent.
It feeds on roots, seeds, &c., as well as on worms,
insects, reptiles, and even some of the smallest

Crane ( Girus cinerea).

quadrupeds. The flesh is much esteemed. Cranes
use their bill as a dagger, and when wounded are
dangerous to the eyes of a rash assailant. They
may be readily tamed in captivity and exhibit great
sagacity.—The Whooping Crane (G. americana) is
considerably larger than the common crane, which
it otherwise much resembles except in colour ; its
plumage, in its adult state, is pure white, the tips
of the wings black. It spends the winter in the
southern parts of North America. In summer it
migrates far northwards, but rather in the interior
than the eastern parts of the continent.—To the
crane family belong also the Demoiselles—e.g.
Anthropoides virgo, from southern Europe to central
Asia, and the Ethiopian Balearic Cranes—e.g.
Balearica pavonina. See Blyth, Natural History
of the Cranes (1881).

Crane, a machine for lifting weights, worked
either by hand, or by steam, or by hydraulic power.
The most common hand form consists of an upright
revolving post and a projecting arm (usually at an
angle of about 45°), the jib with a fixed pulley at
its extremity. The lifting chain or rope is secured
to the weight, passes over the fixed pulley, and then
round a drum or cylinder; suitable toothed-wheel
gearing worked bya handle revolves this drum, and
thus winds up or unwinds the rope or chain, and so
raises or lowers the weight, while at the same time
the effort applied by the men at the handles is

reatly magnified—namely, disregarding frictional
ince, in the same proportion that the peripheral
speed of the handles is reduced by the gearing in-
terposed between handle axis and drum axis. The
revolving motion of the upright post enables the
load to be deposited at any point within the —
of the jib. Ts is often arranged that the jib sha
be hollow ; the chain then passes down it, and there

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545

the ordinary crane the form of the jib or the tie
interferes with the usual height of lift.

Whenever much hoisting or heavy work has to be
done, steam or hydraulic power is always used ; the
eranes are then either stationary or portable, the
latter type being used whenever it is more con-
venient to move the crane to its work than the con-
verse. The stationary power cranes differ from the
hand ones mainly in their vastly greater power, and
consequently greater size and complexity of gear-
ing; where steam is used there are generally two
direct-acting steam-cylinders, which replace the
two handles worked by hand. The very powerful
stationary cranes used in docks sega of lifting
50 to 75 tons are examples of this kind; they are
always mounted on massive foundations, and so
arranged as to sweep a whole circle. Hydraulic
power is very largely used in cranes for these

laces and in great steel-works; they are simpler
in construction, a good deal of gearing bein
away with; the water in the i pee cylinder
is always under great pressure, usually 700 lb.
on the square inch. In the hydraulic cranes
originally introduced by Sir William Armstrong

Co., the power given out by the hydraulic
eylinder is reduced by using systems of pulleys in
the inverse order, the lifting chain being attached
to the cylinder, then passing over a pulley fixed to
the head of the ram, then round other fixed pulleys,
and so up to the fixed pulley at jib end, the effect
being to increase the motion of the ram, and so
secure very 95 lifts at the expense of using
more power. In one very ingenious steam-crane
{Morrison’s) the post of the crane is hollow, and
forms the steam-cylinder, in which works a piston
with flexible piston-rod—namely, the lifting chain ;
this form is very steady and very readily slewed.

Portable cranes are mounted on plain railway
trucks, either of wood oriron. This truck carries
firmly attached to it a central post, the whole of
the rest of the crane being carried on a strong base-
plate capable of revolving round this post as a
pivot, the boiler being so placed (often standing on
its own feed-water tank) on this base-plate that it
forms a counterbalance to the weight to be lifted.
The boiler is always of the vertical type, and
very simple in its internal arrangements of tubes
{see fig.), because it often has to work with very
dirty feed-water. The ring is usually carried
by A frames bolted to the base-plate; the engine,
elas’ generally two small direct-acting steam-

39

one.

is no fear of fouling ; if also the jib is of a curved | cylinders, is easily reversed; by means of gearing
form, we obtain the full benefit of the lift, while in

and clutches, which are operated by the man in
charge of the crane by hand or foot levers, the
engine can perform the following operations :
(1) Lower or raise the outer end of the jib; (2)
slew the crane—i.e, the base-plate and all it
carries ; (3) propel the truck along the rails ;
(4) hoist the loads. For the last three opera-
tions the gearing is generally so arranged that
there are two speeds, a quick; and a slow, either
of which can be used, depending on the work to
be done. The figure shows a very common type
of this kind, which will lift from 5 to 7 tons,
according to the position of the jib. For the
maximum load the chain end is tite attached
to end of jib, and then round a hanging-block,
and so up to fixed pulley at jib end, thus doub-
ling pull on chain. For the same purpose as the
ordinary crane are used contrivances known as
derricks, which consist essentially of a mast or
tripod with a long cross-boom at the top, tied to
the mast by guys ; pulley-blocks attached to one
arm of the ant form the means of lifting.
They are a good deal used in America for
very heavy work, such as raising wrecks, was,
buildin , &e. They readily lend themselves for
use as floating-cranes, since by making the vessel
car ing them in watertight compartments which
can lled, it is easy to counterbalance the load.
Electric cranes are also now in use.

Crane, THOMAS FREDERICK, a learned folk-
lorist, was born in New York city, July 12, 1844.
He was educated at the public school and aca-
demy of Ithaca, New York; and graduated at the
college of New Jersey (Princeton) in 1864; A.M.
in 1867; and Ph.D., causa honoris, in 1874. He
was appointed assistant-professor of Modern Lan-
guages in Cornell University in 1868, professor of

panish and Italian there in 1872, and professor of
Romance Lanes in 1881. Professor Crane has
contributed a large number of articles to the North
American Review, International Review, Harper’s
Magazine, Lippincott’s Magazine, and The Nation
on folklore and the literary history and philology
of the Romance languages, especially during the

riod of the middle ages. Since his article on

talian folk-tales in the North American Review

for July 1876, he has devoted much attention to
the subject of the origin and diffusion of popular
tales, and was one of the founders of the American
Folklore Society (1888). Among his books are
Italian Popular Tales ( Boston, 1885); Le Roman-
tisme Francais (New York, 1887); and an edition
(1890), for the English Folklore Society, of the
Exempla or illustrative stories contained in the
sermones vulgares of Jacques de Vitré, Bishop of
Acre (died 1240), containing the Latin text, trans-
lation into English, elaborate notes on the origin
and diffusion of the individual stories, and an in-
troduction on the life of the author, and the use
of illustrative stories in medieval sermons, Xc.
Professor Crane’s Italian Popular Tales forms,
from its extent, its scientific accuracy, and the
wide learning of its notes, one of the most im-
portant of recent contributions to storiology.

Crane, WALTER, painter and socialist, was
born at Liverpool, 15th August 1845, the son of an
artist, Thomas Crane (1808-59). He himself was
trained as an artist, and his earlier as well as much
of his later work consists of book-illustrations.
Among these may be named his series of ‘ Toy-
books’ (1869-75), ‘The Baby’s Opera’ (1877), and
‘The Sirens Three,’ in which last the poem as well
as the designs was his work. In 1862 he began to
exhibit paintings at the Royal Academy, showing
in that year ‘The Lady of Shalott ;’ and he was a
constant contributor to the Grosvenor Gallery from

546 CRANE-FLY

CRANMER

its foundation in 1877 till 1888. His pictures nearly
always deal, in a somewhat decorative and archaic
fashion, with subjects of an imaginative nature,
such as ‘The Riddle of the Sphinx’ (1887). He
has also produced many very delicate landscape
subjects in water-colours; has designed wall-papers;
and has published poems, illustrated by himself,
Queen’s Summer (1891), and The Claims of Decora-
tive Art (1892). Since 1888 a member of the Reyal
Society of Painters in Water-colours, he was in
1893 appointed art director to the city of Man-
chester.
Crane-fly. See DADDY-LONG-LEGS.
Crane’s-bill, See GERANIUM.
Cranganore (properly Kodungalir), a town
in Cochin state, on one of the openings of the great
Cochin backwater, 18 miles NX. of Cochin town;
op. about 10,000. It is the traditional scene of St
homas’s labours. The Syrian Christians were
established here before the 9th century, and the
Jews’ settlement was probably still earlier. It was
taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch in 1661 ;
was seized by Tippoo in 1776, retaken, sold, and
destroyed and abandoned by Tippoo in 1789.

Craniology. See SKULL, ETHNOLOGY.

Crank, in Machinery, is a lever or arm ona
shaft, driven by hand (e.g. a winch-handle), or by
a connecting-rod, its object being to convert recip-
rocating motion into rotary motion. Engine-cranks
which convert the to and fro motion of the piston
into continuous rotation of crank-shaft are con-
nected to the piston-rod end by the connecting-rod.
They are, when single, of steel, wrought-iron, or
cast-iron, the crank in this case being either a
woh i arm, enlarged at one end to fit over the
shaft, and with a pin at the other end embraced by
the rod end (fig. 1); or else a dise centred on the
shaft, with crank-pin as before (fig. 2). This last
form is well balanced. When donbhes as is usual in
large engines (fig. 3), they are now often built up

of steel, the two arms being shrunk on to the shaft,
and pin on to them. In two positions during each
turn, a connecting-rod exerts no power of rotation.
These are when rod A and crank-arms B are par-
allel (as in fig. 3 and opposite position), and are the
dead centres ; all the push or pull of the rod only
causes pressure on shaft-bearings. To a the
erank over these points either a heavy wheel (fly-
wheel) is attached to the shaft, which stores up
energy during other parts of the revolution, and
gives it out at these points, or else two or more
cranks are so placed on the shaft that when one is
on its dead centre, the others are exerting nearl
their maximum effort, which is when rod and cran
are at right angles.

Cranmer, THOMAS, Archbishop of Canterbury,
was born of a good old family at Aslacton, Not-
tinghamshire, 2d July 1489. He learned _ his
grammar of ‘a rude parish clerk,’ a ‘marvellous
severe and cruel schoolmaster,’ who seems to have
permanently cowed his spirit; still, his father
trained him in all manly exercises, so that even

as primate he feared not to ride the roughest horse,
an was ever a keen hunter. By his widowed
mother he was sent in 1503 to Jesus College,
Cambridge, where in 1510 he obtained a fellowship.
He forfeited it by his marriage with ‘ black Joan’
of the Dolphin tavern, but regained it on her death
in childbed before the year’s eras was up; and
taking orders in 1523, proceeded D.D., and became:
a divinity tutor. During the quarter of a century
that he resided at Cambridge he did not greatly
distinguish himself; Erasmus never so much as
mentions him; he was just a clever, hard-reading
college don.

But in the summer of 1529 the plague was raging
in Cambridge, and Cranmer removed with two
pupils to Waltham. Here he met Fox and Gardi-*
ner, the king’s almoner and secretary ; and their
talk turning on the divorce, Cranmer suggested
that Henry might satisfy his conscience of the
nullity of his first marriage by an appeal to
the universities of Chiistentoin The sugpeeney
pleased Henry; he exclaimed, ‘Who is this Dr
Cranmer? I will speak 'to him. Marry! I trow
he has got the oa sow by the ear.’ "So Cranmer
became a counsel in the suit. He was appointed a.
royal chaplain and arehdeacon of Taunton; was.
attached to the household of Anne Boleyn’s father
(Anne at the time being Henry’s paramour) ¢
penned a treatise to promulgate his view; and
was sent on two embassies, to Italy in 1530, and
to Germany in the middle of 1532. At Rome the
pope made him grand penitentiary of England ;
at Nuremberg he had married a niece of the Re-
former Osiander—a marriage uncanonical but not:
then illegal—-when a royal summons reached him
to return as Warham’s successor in the see of
Canterbury. He sent his wife secretly over, and
himself following slowly, was consecrated on 30th
March 1533, four days after the arrival of the
eleven customary bulls from Rome. He took the
oath of allegiance to the pope, with a protest that
he took it ‘for form sake,’ and with, as was usual,
a contradictory oath of allegiance to the king.

That Henry looked for a pliable judge in Cranmer
no man could doubt, least of all Cranmer himself,
who in May pronounced Catharine’s marriage null
and void ab initio, and Anne’s, four months earlier,
valid; and who in September stood godfather to
Anne’s daughter Elizabeth. Itwasthe samethrough-
out the entire reign. Cranmer annulled Henry’s.
marriage with Anne Boleyn( 1536), divorced himfrom
Anne of Cleves (1540), informed him of Catharine
Howard's prenuptial frailty, and strove to coax her
into confessing it (1541). Sometimes he raised a
voice of timid entreaty, on Anne Boleyn’s behalf,
on Cromwell’s; still, if Henry said_they were
guilty, guilty they needs must be. He did what

e dared to oppose the Six Articles (1539), natur-
ally, since by one of them the marriage of priests
was rendered felony, punishable with death ; but
he failed to stick to his opposition, and sent away
his own wife to Germany, whence he did not reca.
her till 1548.

A kindly, humane soul, yet he was not ahead of
his compeers—More, for instance, or Calvin—in the
matter of religious toleration. We cannot acquit
him of complicity in the burning of Frith and
Lambert for denying the doctrine of Transubstan-
tiation (1533-38), of Friar Forest for upholding
the papal supremacy (1538), of two Anabaptists,
a man and a woman (1538), of Joan Bocher for
denying Christ’s humanity (1550), and of a Dutch
Arian (1551). In the death, however, of Anne
Askew (q.v.) he seems to have borne no part; nor
is there one word of truth in Foxe’s legend that he
coerced Edward VI. into si ing the warrant for
Joan Bocher’s execution. Wit the dissolution
of the monasteries he had little to do; but he

CRANMER

CRASHAW 547

bestirred himself in promoting the translation of
the Bible { -Y.) and a service-book, in curtailing the
number of holy days, in the suppression of the cult
of St Thomas of Canterbury, and in negotiating an
eirenicon with foreign Reformers. On the path,
, towards Protestantism, he was ever in
advance of Henry VIII, though to Henry he
surrendered his right of private judgment as com-
;pletely as ever Ultramontane to Pope. Thus
writing in 1540 on the sacraments, he could win
up a thesis with ‘This is mine opinion and
sentence at this present, which nevertheless I do
not temerariously define, but remit the judgment
thereof wholly unto your majesty.’ Henry (ares
him with implicit confidence, and twice saved hi
from the plots of his enemies (1543-45).
On 28th January 1547 Henry died, and Cranmer
Al sang mass of requiem for his soul. He had been
- slowly drifting into Protestantism; but now the
xt eteshing tide swept him onward through all those
religious changes by which the mass was converted
into a communion—changes stereotyped in the
Second Prayer-book of 1552. See ENGLAND
kata OF), PRAYER-BOOK, ARTICLES, HOMILY,
ATECHISM. Dering this as during the preening
reign he meddled little with affairs of state, thou
he was one of the council of regency. What he
did do was not too creditable. In gross violation
of the canon law he signed Seymour’s death-
n. warrant; he had a chief hand in the deposition
and imprisonment of Bishops Bonner, Gardiner,
and Day ; and won over by the dying boy-king’s
needing, he reluctantly subscribed the instrument
iverting the succession from Mary to Lady Jane
Grey (1553). Herein he was guilty of conscious
perjury, yet, the twelve ee reign over, he
made no attempt to flee. On the contrary, he was
roused to an outburst of indignation, rare with
him, by a report that he had offered to restore the
mass, had indeed restored it at Canterbury. In
the heat of the moment he dashed off pg Ho
denouncing that report as a lie of the devil, which
letter, unrevised, being prematurely circulated, on
14th September Cranmer was sent to the Tower, on
13th November was arraigned for treason, and,
leading guilty, was condemned to die. If he had
nm execu on that sentence, little could have
been urged against his executioners, but he was
reserved to be tried as a heretic, and, perchance, to
recant his heresy. In March 1554 he was removed
with Ridley and Latimer, to Bocardo, the common
gaol at Oxford. He bore himself bravely and dis-
creetly in a scholastic disputation, as also upon
his trial before the commissioner, whose
jurisdiction he refused to recogni In October
om the gaol he witnessed Latimer’s and Ridley’s
martyrdom; in December judgment was_pro-
nounced against him; and on 14th February 1556
he was formally degraded, stripped of the mock
vestments in which they had arrayed him. And
now in rapid succession he signed es after form
of recantation, seven in all, each more submissive
than its predecessor. The last he transcribed on
the morning of 2Ilst March, and forthwith they
brought him to St Mary’s Church. If not before,
he learned at least now from the sermon that he
must burn; anyhow, when they looked for him to
u read his recantation, instead he retracted all that
‘for fear of death’ his hand had written ‘ contrary
to the truth.’ With a cheerful countenance he
then hastened to the stake, and, fire being put to
him, thrust his right hand into the flame, an kept
it there, crying: ‘This hath offended! Oh this
unworthy hand!’ Very soon he was dead.
Among Cranmer’s forty-two writings, the chief
of which have been edited by the Rev. H. Jenkyns
4 vols. 1833) and the Rev. J. E. Cox (2 vols.
arker Society, 1844-46), may be noticed his

=_——

qeetnees to the Bible (1540) and the First Prayer-
k (1549); the Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasti-
carum—his revision, happily abortive, of the
Canon Law {2 )—first published in 1571; and A
Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the
Sacrament (1550).

See Narratives of the Reformation, edited by J. G.
Nichols (Camden Society, 1859), with a sketch of Cran-
mer by Ralph Morice, his secretary; Foxe’s Acts and
Monuments ; Cooper's Athene Cantabrigienses (1858) ;
Mr Gairdner’s article in the Dictionary of National Bio-
graphy (vol, xiii. 1888); Strype’s Ecclesiastical Memoriale
(1721 f Shakespeare’s Henry VIII. and Tennyson's Queen
Mary ; and Lives of Cranmer by Strype (1694), Gilpin

1784), Todd (2 vols. 1831, with fine portrait), Le Bas
2 vols. 1833), Dean Hook, Lives of the Archbishops (vols. -
vi.—vii. 1868), Collette (1887), and Mason (1898).

Crannog, from the Gaelic crann, ‘a tree,’ a
modern term employed to designate a species of
lake-dwelling common in Scotland and Ireland,
which consisted of an islet wholly or partially built
up from the bottom of the loch by masses of brush-
wood, steadied by piling, and consolidated by stones
and gravel, the whole being surmounted above the
level of the water by a platform of timber, earth
and stones, on which were wooden huts, often sur-
rounded by palisades for better security. The
earliest occurrence of the word in historical docu-
ments is in the Register of the Privy-council of
Scotland in 1608, when the ‘ Crannokis of the Ylis’
are classed with ‘houssis of defence and strong-
holds’ to be given up to the king. See LAKE-
DWELLINGS.

Crape, a thin fabric made of silk, which has
been tightly twisted, without removing the natural
gum with which it is covered when spun by the
worm. It is woven as a thin gauze, then boiled
to extract the gum, which causes the threads
partially to untwist, and thus gives a waved and
rough appearance to the fabric. It is usually
dyed black, and used for mourning apparel. The
nature of the finishing processes in the making
of crape is kept secret by European manufacturers.
In Japan, crape is manufactured by using alter-
nately weft threads twisted in opposite directions,
and these are of a much closer twist than ordinary
threads. When the piece is woven it is dipped in
cold, then in hot, and again in cold water in ne
succession, and afterwards rolled and dried. The
effect of these operations on the weft threads pro-
duces the crisp surface. Chinese and Japanese
crapes are often white, with coloured designs, or
in single colours, and used for shawls, scarfs, &e.

Crashaw, RicHARD (circa 1613-49), an English
religious t, was the son of a clergyman in the
English Church, and was born in London about
1613. He was educated at the Charterhouse, and
at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship at
Peterhouse in 1637. His leanings towards Roman
Catholicism prevented him from a Anglican
orders, and in 1644 he was ejected from his fellow-
ship by the parliament for refusing to take the
Covenant. te went to Paris, adopted the Roman
Catholic faith, and suffered great niary distress,
until about 1648, through Cowley’s influence, he was
introduced to Queen Henrietta Maria, who recom-
mended him to certain dignitaries of the church
in Italy. He obtained a humble office in the house-
hold of Cardinal Palotta, but in April 1649, a few
months before his death, he became sub-canon
of the church of Our Lady of Loretto. In 1634
Crashaw published a volume of Latin ms, Epi-
grammatum Sacrorum Liber (2d ed. 1670), in which
appeared the famous line on the miracle at Cana:

‘Nympha pudica Dewm vidit et erubwit’
(The modest water saw its God and blushed ).
In 1646 appeared his Steps to the Temple ; Sacred
Poems, with other Delights of the Muses—in which

548 CRASSULACEA

CRATINUS

there is much fervid poetry. The title of this col-
lection, which is due to the editor, not the author,
refers to its aflinity with George Herbert’s Temple.
An edition (the third) was published at Paris in
1652, under the title Carmen Deo Nostro, with 12
vignette engravings designed by Crashaw. A col-
lective edition of Crashaw’s works was published in
1858, at London, by W. D. Turnbull, and a fuller
edition in 1872 by Dr A. B. Grosart. Crashaw
greatly resembles George Herbert in his cast of
thought, and is not inferior to him in richness of
fancy, though his conceits are more strained, and
less under the control of taste. His devotional
strains are nobly worded. Tutin’s selections (2 vols.
1887 and 1900) are almost a complete edition.

Crassulacez, an order of calycifloral dicoty-
ledons, allied to the Saxifrages, are herbaceous or
sometimes shrubby plants, always more or less
succulent. About 400 species are known in the
genera, chiefly from warm and temperate countries
and in dry, sunny situations, South Africa and
Mexico are peculiarly rich in species. Sedum
(stone-crop) and Sempervivum (house-leek) are the
most familiar genera. These and allied forms, such
as Echeveria, are largely used for bedding-out pur-
poses, grown on rockwork, or cultivated in the
*succulent-house.’ Crassula coccinea, which, like
nearly all its very numerous (150) congeners comes
from the Cape, is in general cultivation on account
of the beauty of its flowers. See SUCCULENT
PLANTS.

Crassus, the surname of several old Roman
families, among which that of the Licinii was most
remarkable.—(1) Lucius LicINrus, born in 140
B.C., was the best orator of his age, and was as
distinguished for his wit as for his rectitude in
the capacity of proconsul of Gaul. In 95 he was
aet consul, along with Quintus Seczevola, who
had been his colleague in all his previous offices,
During their consulship was enacted a rigorous
law banishing from Rome all who had not the full
rights of citizens, which imbittered the feelings of
foreigners toward Rome, and was one of the chief
causes of the Social War. As censor in 92 Crassus
closed all the schools of the rhetoricians, believing
that they exercised a bad influence on the minds of
young men. He died in 91 B.c., a few days after
vigorously opposing in the senate the democratic
consul L. Philippus. Crassus is one of the speakers
in Cicero’s De Oratore, and indeed is the represent-
ative of the writer’s own opinions.—(2) MARCUS
LICINIUS, surnamed Dives, the triumvir, was born

sometime before 115 B.c. His father was a partisan
of Sulla, and on the return of Marius and Cinna to
Rome in 87 made away with himself. Cinna

spared the boy’s life, but subjected him to a jealous
and dangerous surveillance, to escape which he
went to Spain. He afterwards joined Sulla (83),
and distinguished himself in the battle against the
Samnites at the gates of Rome. As pretor he
crushed the Servile revolt by the conquest of
Spartacus at the battle of Lucania (71), and in the
following year was made consul with Pompey, a
colleague whom he hated. On the other hand,
Cesar valued the friendship of Crassus, the most
wealthy of Roman citizens. He was a keen and
far-seeing speculator, and devoted his entire energies
to the accumulation of money. We are told that
he even bought clever slaves, and had them taught
lucrative arts that he might enjoy the profits.
During his consulate, Crassus gave a feast to the
people, which was spread on 10,000 tables, and dis-
tributed to every citizen a provision of corn for
three months. Plutarch estimates his wealth at
more than 7000 talents, and Pliny states that his
lands were worth 8000 talents (say £2,000,000).
About 60, Ceesar, Pompey, and Crassus entered into

a private arrangement for their common benefit,
which paction is known as the first triwmvirate.
In 55, as consul with Pompey, Crassus had Syria
assigned him for his province, and began to make
oi mae of war against the Parthians, hoping
oth for glory and for gain. The latter end he
effected in the meantime by plundering the towns
and temples in Syria. At length, however, he set
out, but was misled by a treacherous guide, and
utterly defeated in the plains of Mesopotamia by the
Parthians. Crassus now retreated to the town of
Carrhee, intending to pass into Armenia; but was_
beguiled into a conference with the Parthian
general, Surenas, and was slain at the appointed
place of meeting. His head was cut off and sent
to Orodes, who is said to have poured melted gold
into the dead lips, saying : ‘Sate thyself now with
that of which in life thou wert so greedy.’ His
ueestor, Cassius, with 500 cavalry, escaped into
yria; but the remaining Romans were scattered
and made prisoners, or put to death.

Cratzgus, a genus of Rosacew, sub-order
Pomez, very nearly allied to Mespilus (Medlar)
and Pyrus (Pear, Apple, &c.), but distinguished by
the acute calycine segments, and by the round or
oval fruit, closed at the apex, and concealing the
upper end of the bony cells. The species are pretty
numerous, natives of the temperate parts of the
northern hemisphere, and in general have flowers
in beautiful terminal corymbs. They are all large
shrubs or small trees, more or less spiny, whence
the name Thorn has been very generate applied to
them. The only native of Britain is the common
Hawthorn (q.v.), (Crategus Oxyacantha). Most of
the species resemble it considerably in habit, size, —
form of leaf, &e. A number of’them are now fre-
quent in econ n and shrubberies in Britain, of |
which perhaps the most common is the Cock’s-spur
Thorn (C. crus-galli), a native of North America
from Canada to Carolina. Its leaves are not lobed ;
its fruit rather larger than that of the hawthorn.
The Azarole (C. Azarolus), a native of the south
of Europe, and the Aronia (C. Aronia), a native of
the Levant, are occasionally cultivated for their
fruit, which is about the size of the Siberian crab,
and is used either for dessert or for pies.
orientalis (or odoratissima) and C. tanacetifolia
have also fruit of considerable size. The latter is
much eaten in Armenia. C. mexicana has a large
fruit, like a small apple, but not eatable. It is,
however, very ornamental. The wood of most of
the species much resembles that of the hawthorn.
It is common to graft the rarer species on the haw-
thorn.—C. Pyracantha differs much in appearance
from most of the genus; being a pretty evergreen
shrub, with lanceolate crenate leaves, and rich
clusters of red berries, which remain on it all
winter; a native of rocky places in the south of
Europe and the Caucasus. It is often employed in
Britain as an ornamental covering for walls, and is
known as the Pyracantha.

Crater. See VOLCANOES.

Cratinus, a Greek comic poet, born about 519
B.c., who did not begin to exhibit till sixty-five, .
and who died in 424. Next to his younger con-
temporaries, Eupolis and Aristophanes, he best
represents the Old Attic comedy. He changed its
outward form considerably, limiting the number of
actors to three, and he was the first to add to
comedy the interest of pungent and personal attack.
The habits, manners, and institutions of his fellow-
citizens he considered a legitimate mark for
censorious satire. Even the great Pericles did not
escape. Aristophanes repaid him in kind, but his
allegation of habitual intemperance Cratinus him-
self admitted and defended humorously in his
Pytine. His style was very metaphysical and

CRATIPPUS

CRAYFISH 549

a. Of his twenty-one comedies, nine of
which obtained the first prize in the public com-
titions, we only some fragments, collected

Meineke in his Fragmenta Comicorum Gre-
corum (Berlin, 1840).—There was also a younger
CRATINUS, an Athenian pr prey oer ot Plato,
who belonged to the school of the Middle Comedy.

Cratippus, a Peripatetic philosopher, a native
of Mitylene, and a contemporary of Cicero, whose
son Marcus he instructed at Athens in 44 B.C,
Pompey visited him after Pharsalia, and Brutus
turned aside to Athens to hear him, even while
making preparations to meet Octavian and Antony.
Nothing that Cratippus wrote has survived.

Crawford, THOMAS, sculptor, born in New
York city in 1814, in 1834 went abroad for his
studies, and settled in Rome, where he at first
worked under the guidance of Thorwaldsen. Many
of his earlier groups have found a place in Boston
collections ; his later works include the fine group
known as the Washington monument, in the
“per park at Richmond, and the bronze figure of
Liberty, surmounting the dome of the capitol at
Washington. Stricken with blindness in 1856,
Crawford died in London, 10th October 1857.

FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD, novelist, son of
the ig ag , was born in Tuscany, August 2,
1853. e had his education at Concord, New
Hampshire; Trinity College, Cambridge; Karls-
ruhe, and Heidelberg. At Rome he devoted him-
self to the study of Sanskrit, and during 1879-80
was engi in press work at Allahabad, where he
was admitted to the Catholic Church. He was
selected by the government committee to write
the national ode at the centennial of the Ameri-
ean Constitution, September 17, 1887. His first
} novel, Mr Isaacs (1882), was a book of striking
q and quite unusual merit, securing a new romantic
element in certain of the aspects and contrasts of

modern oriental life. Among its successors have
been Dr Claudius, and To Leeward (1883); A
Roman Singer, and An American Politician (1884) ;
Zoroaster (1885); The Story of a Lonely Parish, and
Saracinesca (1886); Marzio’s Crucifix, and Paul
Patoff (1887); With the Immortals (1888); Sant’
Ilario (1889); A Cigarette Maker's Romance, Khaled,
and The Witch of Prague (1891); Don Orsino
(1892); Pietro Ghisleri, Marion Darche, and The
Children of the King (1893); Katherine Lauderdale,
Love in Idleness (1894); The Ralstons (1895); Taqui-
sara (1896); Corleone (1897); Constantinople (1898),
a description of the city ; and Via Crucis (1899).
Crawford, WILLIAM HArRIs, born in Virginia
in 1772, practised law, and was elected to the United
States senate in 1807 and 1811. Appointed minister
to France in 1813, and secretary of the treas
in 1816, he was a Democratic candidate for the
; presidency in 1824; but none of the candidates
securing a majority, the House of Representatives
chose John Gas Adams. Crawford returned
to Georgia, where he was thrice elected circuit
judge, and died 15th September 1834.

Crawford and Balearres, ALEXANDER
WILLIAM CRAWFORD LINDSAY, EARL OF, born in
1812, was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and
succeeded his father in 1869. He gained a high
reputation for his works on religion, philosophy,
and art; and his researches into the annals of his
own house enabled him in 1848 to prepare the case
for his father’s (Lord Balearres) claims to the
es Gea earldom of Scotland, as 24th Earl (cre.

398). Besides Lives of the Lindsays (1849), and
the Zarldom of Mar (1882), he wrote Letters from
the Holy Land (1838), be dare by Antagonism
(1846), and Sketches of the History of Christian
Art (1847), by which he is best remembered. His
dominant idea, however, was the formation of a

OE EEE

ge library, to which for nearly half a century
e devoted great industry and learning; and the *
library at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, is probably
unrivalled among private collections, He died in
Florence, 13th December 1880; his body, which
for over seven months had been missing from the
mausoleum at Dunecht, near Aberdeen, was found
in a wood close by in July 1882.—His son and
successor, JAMES LUDOVIC Liwnsay, born in 1847,
was elected president of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1878-80, and F.R.S. in 1878, and received
the degree of LL.D from Edinburgh University in
1882. In 1888 he presented to the nation the
admirably equipped observatory at his seat of
Dunecht, 12 miles W. of Aberdeen; and the ap-
aratus, with the magnificent astronomical library,
ave been transferred to a new observatory (1895)
on Blackford Hill, near Edinburgh.

Crayer, CASPAR DE, a Flemish historical and

rtrait painter, was born at Antwerp in 1584. He
ived first at Brussels, and afterwards at Ghent,
where he died in 1669. The churches at Ghent
contain many of his paintings, which are also
common all over Flanders.

Crayfish (Astacus, Fr. écrevisse), a large fresh-
water crustacean, in the long-tailed (Macrura)
division of the order Decapoda. The body con-
sists of two great divisions, the head and thorax
protected by a rigid shield, and the abdomen or
tail of six separate rings. The integument exhibits
the characteristic
Arthropod com-
bination of lime
and Chitin (q.v.).
There are alto-
gether twenty
segments and
nineteen pairs of
appendages, not
including the
eyes. The sensi-
tive antennules
and antenne, the
six appendages
crowde round
the mouth, the
gross claws, the
our walking legs,
the little swim-
merets under the
tail, and the pair
of large terminal
paddles make up
the ae. These
appendages, so
different: in form
and function, are
all homologous.

The muscles are well developed for working the
tail, the appendages, and the stomach mill. The
nervous system consists of brain and ventral chain
of ganglia. The eyes are stalked and compound ;
the ear-sacs with their fringes of auditory hairs
and inclosed foreign particles floating in a gelatin-
ous fluid lie at the bases of the antennules, which
also bear olfactory bristles. The most remarkable
feature in the alimentary system is the gastric mill,
a complex masticating pion in the fore-gut,
the essential mechanism of which consists in the
rapid clashing of three teeth—one dorsal and two
lateral. On the walls of the stomach there are two
limy concretions (gastroliths) which store lime
preliminary to moulting. There is a large diges-
tive gland opening into the small mid-gut; the
hind-gut is long and straight. The circulato
system consists of a dorsal heart, whence the bl
passes by arteries and capillaries to the body, thence

Crayfish ( Astacus fluviatilis).

550 CRAYFISH

by venous channels to the gills, and thence back
again to the heart. The respiratory system includes
twenty pairs of feathery gills lying under the
shelter ot the sides of the great shield. The cease-
less baling movement of one of the mouth append-
ages secures a current of water. The excretory
system is represented by a ‘ green-gland’ or kidney,
lying behind the base of the antenne, on which
its opening, shielded by a prominent knob, may be
readily seen. The reproductive system consists of
three-lobed essential organs with paired ducts
opening on the thoracic. legs.

The eggs are laid in November or December, and
are glued by a secretion to the abdominal legs of
the mother. The young are hatched in May to
July. They do not differ in any important features
from the adults, and the crayfish has thus very
much abbreviated the typical life-history. The
young escape from the inclosing egg-cases, to
which they, tnreven adhere for a while by means
of the strongly incurved claw-tips. The female
with its crowd of attached young presents a curious
and interesting appearance. The young crayfish
moults eight times during its first year of life, five
times in the second, twice in the third. The male
is adult in its third year, and continues for some
time at anyrate to moult twice ayear. The female
is mature in the fourth year, and has only one
annual moult. The moulting is in part the result
of the fact that the inclosing armature does not

row with the growth of the body. Reserve pro-
ucts of lime and glycogen accumulate before

moulting; the old shell virtually dies; a new
armature (at first soft) begins to be formed; the
animal grows; the old husk, including the hard
structures of the stomach, is cast ; and the crayfish
is left perfectly limp and helpless. The fatigue
of the process is shown in the great mortality.

The crayfish is exclusively a fresh-water form,
barring the fact that some related genera ( Engzeus,
Cambarus, Parastacus) appear to ‘be for the most
part terrestrial. They usually make burrows by
the’ sides of streams, and often lie at the mouths
of their holes in wait for passing prey. They are
chiefly nocturnal. In their diet they are strikingly
oinnivorous, eating most things available, from
worms to water-voles. Dead animals, molluscs,
worms, and insect larvee form their chief sources
of supply. In captivity they may be kept for a
while on bread crumbs. In certain cases they do
not refrain from eating one another. Their chief
enemies are said to be eels and otters.

Crayfishes, though fresh-water forms, have a
eculiarly wide distribution. The English and
rish crayfish is a variety of A. fluviatilis, and is

by authorities designated A. torrentium. It occurs
all over Europe, except in Scandinavia and Scot-
land, but is locally limited by the presence of suffi-
cient lime in the water for shell-forming purposes.
Another variety of A. fluviatilis, A. nobilis, is also
widely distributed on the Continent. This variety
is much cultivated in France and elsewhere for
the sake of its dainty though not abundant flesh.
They are in best condition from May to August.
In ponds for artificial breeding, the animals often
fall victims to disease, probably of a fungoid char-
acter. In rivers they are sometimes netted, some-
‘times lured by a light in the darkness. Numerous
other species occur both in the Old and New
World, and along with the southern forms (Par-
astacide) may be fairly called cosmopolitan. In
the United States, where they are very common,
their burrows sometimes cause crevasses or ruptures
in the artificial dykes of rivers. The largest species
measures over a foot in length. Crayfish-like forms
appear in the Middle Mesozoic times, and a some-
what doubtful Astacus (.4. philippi) has been found
in the carboniferous limestone of Ireland. It is

CREAM
probable that they were eh arg! marine. The
term crayfish is often extended to the nearly re-

lated marine form, the Norway Lobster or Nep 5

norvegicus (see LOBSTER). See Huxley’s Crayjis

ie ntroduction to Zoology (Inter. Sc. Series,
877).

Crayon (Fr., ‘a earege Though used in
French, and occasionally in English, to designate
pencils generally, including those made of lead, the
word crayon is more frequently applied in England
to those small cylinders of charcoal, or of pipe-
clay or chalk coloured with various pigments,
which are used for drawing. _Cohesiveness is given
to the paste of which the cylinders are formed by
means of gum, wax, soap, &c. Crayon drawings
are often remarkable for the delicacy and softness
with which objects are represented, but they are
deficient in power. See PENCIL, CHALK.

Cream is the fat of Milk (ay: ). It exists in
minute globules throughout the bulk of milk
as it comes from the cow. In virtue of being
lighter than the watery portion of milk, cream
gradually rises and forms a thin yellowish greasy
ayer on the surface. Devonshire cream, or clouted
(i.e. clotted) cream, is obtained by heating milk
in a shallow wide pan on a hot plate or over a slow
charcoal-fire. The milk should stand in the pan for
twenty-four hours before heating. It usually takes
from half an hour to three-quarters of an hour to heat
the milk completely ; but it must not boil. It then
stands for twenty-four hours, when the cream is
skimmed off, and a little sugar thrown on the top.
Whipped cream is cream or milk beat up wit
white of egg by means of a whisk. Lemon cream,
Vanilla cream, &c. are made with milk, white of
egg, and sugar, and flavoured. Cream cheese may
be made of rich cream, or cream, milk, and rennet,
tied up in a clean wet cloth, and kept for some
days in a cool place, then put in a finer cloth, and
placed for a day or two in a mould, with a weight
upon it. The term cream is used frequently for
anything superior in quality ; thus the French, in
referring to persons in the height of fashion, speak
of La créme de la créme, ‘the cream of cream,’
CREAM SEPARATORS (Centrifugal).—The best-
known forms are the ‘ Laval,’ the ‘ Danish,’ and
the ‘ Victoria ’—the latter a recent invention of a
Glasgow firm. Though they differ in form and in
detadl, the principle involved in the work of separ-
ating the putter is common to all. Advantage
is taken of the difference existing between the
specific gravity of cream and the watery part of
milk. hile yet warm the milk coming from the
cow is run into a strong, spherical, steel vessel
revolving at high speed. As the milk is carried
round within the vessel (whether revolving hori-
zontally or vertically) it rises up the sides and
stands as a wall, thus forming a lining of milk
while the speed is maintained. The heavier part
inclines outwards, and the light cream is forced
inwards and forms an inner layer. From the
positions indicated the separated cream and milk
are conducted into different channels, and finally
into different vessel receptacles. The advantages,
as compared with the old method of flat setting
(see MILK), are that the cream is got off im-
mediately ; no time is allowed for the development
of acidity in either the skim milk or cream, and
more of the cream present can be removed—the
roportion being as 13 is to 11. Small machines
aiifen by hand, costing £13, and separating 12
gallons of milk an hour, do not give quite so good
results as those driven by steam. rices range,
for those of sizes capable of separating 45 to 150
gallons of milk an hour, from £24 to £45. A
steam turbine has recently been adopted as the
means by which power is communicated. The

+ =

‘that it may

CREAM OF TARTAR

CREATION 551

cost of a turbine separator, capable of doing 90

gallons per hour, is £46. See BuTrer, Datry.

Cream of Tartar exists naturally a
* satta but being insoluble in alcohol, it is gradually

eposited, in the form of argol, as the sugar of the
juice becomes converted into alcohol by ferment-
ation, In the preparation of cream of tartar
the argol is dissolved in hot water, to which
charcoal or fine clay is added, to take up the
colouring matter; by boiling and filtering a
clear colourless solution is obtained, from which,
on cooling, the cream of tartar separates as
crystals, Sinese crystals, after being exposed on
linen for several days, become whiter and con-
stitute the crystals of tartar, or, when ground
to powder, the cream of tartar. Although cream
of tartar is, Boyt speaking, the bitartrate of
potash, KHC,H,O, (see TarTARIC AcID), yet it
usually contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of tartrate

of lime, while adulterants, properly speaking, may

also be present. The tartrate of lime is derived
from the clay added to purify it, and is more or
less present in all commercial samples. In 1888,
however, cream of tartar was offered in the market
containing 99 oa cent. of bitartrate of potash, so

assumed that in future a purer
article will be forthcoming. Cream of tartur is
readily soluble in hot water, though it takes 60
parts of cold water to dissolve one part of it.

Soluble cream of tartar is prepared by dissolvin

together 2 parts of Borax (q.v.) and 5 parts o
cream of tartar, evaporating to dryness and powder-
ing. Cream of tartar has an acid taste and gritty
feel. When taken repeatedly in small doses of a

‘seruple to a drachm, it acts as a refrigerant and

diuretic; in doses of one to two drachms, it is
useful as an aperient; and in larger doses of from
two to three drachms it acts as a purging agent,
accompanied by flatulence and griping. Jmperial
liquid is prepared by dissolving about a drachm of
cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, and
adding a little lemon-peel and sugar to flavour it ;
when an agreeable refrigerant drink is obtained,
which is highly serviceable in allaying thirst in

feverish cases. Cream of tartar whey is obtained

by ee two drachins of the salt to a pint of

‘mil

Crease, a Malay weapon. See Kris.

Creasote (Gr. kreas, ‘flesh;’ s6zd, ‘I pre-
serve’) is an oily substance obtained from the tar
Reodaned by the destructive distillation of wood.

hen Coal-tar (q.v.) is distilled, a certain portion
called creasote oils passes over, and from this
much of the creasote of ecommerce is obtained.
This, although similar in some respects to wood
creasote, is quite distinct chemi The coal
product consists largely of carbolic acid, along with
creasol and xylenol, while the wood product, to
which alone the name creasote rightly belongs, con-

sists of guaiacol, creasol, and phlorol. As it con-
tains several substances, so its boiling-point ranges
from 392° to 428° (200°-220° C.). The leading char-

acter of wood creasote is that it instantly lates
albumen, but does not coagulate Collodion (q.v.),
in this respect differing from carbolic acid. It has

‘a very remarkable power of arresting the decay of

meat or wood, and when meat is treated with so
small a proportion as one-hundredth of its weight
of creasote, and exposed to the air, it does not
putrefy, but becomes hard and dry, assuming the
taste and odour of smoked meat. Indeed, there
ean be no doubt that hams cured by means of
wood smoke owe their preservation and flavour to
some extent to the volatile creasote in the smoke.
Railway sleepers and wood liable to be frequently
wet are often saturated with the coal-tar creasote ;
or, where economy is not so essential, with the

wood creasote, and are thereby preserved in-
definitely. In toothache, where the cause of pain
is a carious tooth with an exposed, inflamed nerve,
a drop of creasote, carefully inserted, after previ-
ously cleansing the cavity, will often give relief.
In this case it acts by coagulating the albumen
and destroying the nerves. Creasote acts power-
fully on the skin, producing a white stain when
applied to it. A few drops added to a pint of ink
preserve it from mouldiness. Medicinally, it is
oe in doses of one or two drops, and has been
ound efficacious where there is a tendency to
fermentation of the contents of the stomach and
bowels. Owing to its action on the skin it acts as
an energetic poison when taken in large doses,—
The Creasote Plant (Larrwa mexicana), growing
abundantly on the borders of the Colorado Desert,
emits a strong odour of creasote. The odour arises
from an exudation similar to Indian gum-lac, and
is caused by the punctures of an insect, Carteria
Larrea.

Creasy, Str Epwarp SHEPHERD, born at
Bexley in Kent, in 1812, from Eton passed to
King’s College, Cambridge, in 1832, and in 1834
was elected a fellow. Called to the bar in 1837, he
went on the home circuit for upwards of twenty
years, and presided for three or four years as assist-
ant-judge at the Westminster Sessions Court. In
1860 he was appointed chief-justice of Ceylon, and
knighted. Ten years later he came home invalided
on a year’s leave of absence, after which he went
out again, but was obliged to return home finally
after struggling with his malady for two years
more. He died at London, January 27, 1878. In
1840 he was appointed professor of History in Uni-
versity College. Creasy was the author of The
Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (1851), Inva-
sions of England (1852), History of the Ottoman
Turks (1854-56), &e.

Creat or KREATIN (Gr. kreas, ‘flesh’), a
constant and characteristic constituent of the striped
muscle of vertebrates. It was discovered by Chevreul
in 1835, but little was known about it till Liebi
published his researches on the Chemistry of F
in 1847. Its chemical formula is CjH,N,O,. Except
in one doubtful case, it has always been found as
above indicated ; it is very uncertain if it ever occurs
in unstriped muscles, and it has never been demon-
strated in invertebrates. A dehydrated form, known
as Creatinin, C,H,N,O, occurs as a constant con-
stituent of urine, and has also been demonstrated in
fish muscles. Under the influence of acids, creatin
becomes creatinin, and by hydration the transfor-
mation may be reversed. As these changes may
readily occur during extraction, there is often
doubt whether creatin or creatinin is pans ina

iven case. See Appendix to Foster’s Physiology ;
rukenberg, Unters. Physiol. Inst. (vols, iii-1v.
1880-81).

Creation. For the scientific discussion of the
method by which creation has been effected, refer-
ence must be made to the articles DARWINIAN
THEORY, EVOLUTION, MAN, SPECIES, &c. ; but it
may be desirable to make a brief statement here
regarding the controversy between Genesis and
science. In reality, so far as modern scientific
theology is concerned, this controversy is now prac-
tically at an end, so that only the briefest historical
sketch will be necessary to show the nature of the

roblem and the steps by which the final conclusion
as been reached.

To theology, Genesis had for centuries seemed to
affirm that the world was created in six days by
successive divine commands. To modern science,
on the other hand, the rocks disclosed accumu-
lating evidence that the earth and its forms of
life were not ‘created’ in this sense at all, but

552 CREATION

CREBILLON

slowly built up or evolved by secondary causes
under the control of natural laws. The new
scientific position did not traverse the biblical view
of the origin of matter or of life; nor did it deny
that the ae of nature might be ‘the hands of
the Living God.’ But it claimed that the creation
of the world was an ordinary problem for scientific
investigation, and that so far as that had gone,
some form of development was probably the means
by which creation had been brought about. Frankly
recognising the right of science to deal with this
question, and accepting on certain points the over-
whelming evidence of geology, theologians found
themselves compelled to reconsider their ground.
The first difficulty was that of time. And here
they yielded at once by substituting ‘ periods’ for
the ‘days’ of Genesis—an expedient which, what-
ever literary objection may be taken to it, was
certainly allowed by the original Hebrew. Efforts
were next made to reconcile these ‘ periods’ with
the formations of geology and with the succession
of life as revealed oy paleontology. Devout men
of science worked out these harmonies with great
learning and ingenuity, and as new discoveries of
science threw their labours aside, fresh workers by
further manipulation of the data on either side con-
tinued the attempt to bring the apparently rival
records once more into line. Prominent among
these attempts were the Universal Pre-Adamite
Chaos theory of Dr Chalmers; the Partial Chaos
theory of Dr Pye Smith; the Vision theory of
Hugh Miller; and the cognate though not identical
theories of Kurtz and Guyot. Such attempts were
at that time perfectly admissible, and even inevi-
table—inevitable because the true direction from
which the solution was to come was not yet sus-
pected. But one by one these efforts failed. An
attempt by Mr Gladstone, so recently as 1885,
elicited a reply from Mr Huxley, who, in the
name of modern science, not only repudiated the
immediate theory but made it obvious that no
reconstruction along that line was ever likely to
square with acknowledged facts of science. It is
of course always possible to challenge the current
reading of a growing science, and the harmonist
may still take refuge if he chooses in the fallibility
of contemporary interpretations of nature. But on
the general question of gradual development versus
specific creation, the consensus of mature scientific
A doy is now so pronounced that any one still
clinging to the latter would find it impossible to
impress his views upon his age. In some other
way, then, the educated mind will seek to reconcile
to itself the apparent want of reconciliation between
the teaching of nature and the teaching of Scrip-
ture.

Stated in a word, the explanation is to be sought
for in the fact—recently brought into prominence
by the young science of biblical criticism—that the
Scriptures really contain no teaching at all upon
matters of science. It is an elementary canon of

literary criticism that any interpretation of a part
of a book or of a literature must be controlled by
the dominant purpose or motif of the whole. And

when one investigates that dominant purpose in
the case of the Bible, it is found to reduce itself to
one thing—religion. The books of the Bible, re-
spectively, can only be read aright in the spirit in
which each was written, with its original purpose
in view, and its original audience. Bearing that in
view in the case of Genesis it soon becomes evident
that a scientific theory of the universe formed no
part of the original writer’s intention. Could any
one with any historical imagination for a moment
expect that it would have been? There was no
science then. Scientific questions were not even
asked then. And to have given men science would
not only have been an anachronism, but a source of

mystification and confusion. If the Bible had
really aimed at science-teaching, geology would
have been one of the last things upon which it
would have enlightened mis 25 hy was not
physiology taught to physicians, or the use of
chloroform to surgeons, or of the stars to navi-
gators—matters which would have affected the
well-being and actual life of man? In fact it
is a first principle of revelation—involved in the
very meaning of the word and proved by its whole
expression—that matters which are discoverable
by human reasoning and observation should find
no place in it, that its subject matter is that alone
which men could not find out for themselves.
Men could find out for themselves the order in
which the world was made. What they could not
find out was, that God made it. That therefore
was the object of Genesis—theology, not geology.
Genesis is a presentation of one or two great
elementary religious truths to the childhood of the
world. ating from the infancy of the world,
written for children, and for that child-spirit in
man which remains unchanged by time, its literary
form takes colour and shape accordingly. It is not
dedicated to the reason a to the soul. It isa
sublime theology, clothed in the most memorable
and impressive dress, utilising, purifying, and trans-
fusing with the religious spirit some material at
least which was common to the cosmogonies of all
nations. Now from this point of view the problem
of the reconciliation of Genesis with geology simply
disappears. The question becomes as irrelevant as
when it is asked what the Paradise Lost is meant
to prove. Science and Genesis are no longer in
competition as to which shall be the accepted
authority regarding the process of the creation of
the world. Genesis does not even enter the field.
And in ceding this position it is only to assume,
with even greater authority, its legitimate and
much higher function.

The strength of this attitude is that it is quite
independent of all conclusions of science. Evolu-
tion may be true or false, science may change its
ground, new discoveries may arise; but these can-
not affect the literary and theological province
within which wholly this question is now seen to
lie. Hence the attack of science is for ever dis-
armed. And those who assent to evolution, and
the many who in its present form do not yet see
their way to accept it, may hold an equal truce
with Genesis.

As regards the material utilised by the writer in
Genesis, it is sufficient to remark that most of it is
a common property of the older cosmogonies. The
mythology of Persia describes six creative periods
of a thousand years; the cosmogony of the Chal-
deans is similar ; while that of the Etruscans agrees
still more closely with the order of Genesis. Thus
the Bible did not create this material, nor reveal it.
It incorporated it, inspired it, and so made it the
vehicle of a revelation.

Crébillon, Prosper JoLyoT DE, a French
dramatist, was born at Dijon, on January 13, 1674.
His parents belonged to the middle class, and he
was educated in Paris for the law. He soon
abandoned a legal for a literary career, and his
tragedy of Idoménée was ornate | produced in
1703. It was followed by Atrée et Thyeste (1707),
Electre (1709), and Rhadamiste et Zénobie (1711).
The last is his best play, the character of Zenobia
being drawn with remarkable power. After writ-
ing several other pieces, Crébillon fell into neglect.
and produced nothing for more than twenty years.
He was then pushed forward as a dramatic rival
to Voltaire by Madame de Pompadour and other
enemies of the great writer, elected to the
Academy, awarded a pension of 1000 frances, and
appointed royal censor, and one of the royal

—- ee ee os
. ° al

—————

_ PROSPER JOLYOT DE CREBILLON, the youn

CRECHE

OREDIT FONCIER 553

librarians. His tragedy of Catilina, for which the
king furnished the properties, was brought out
with great success in 1748. Among his other
works were Xerxes, Semiramis, Pyrrhus, and Le
Triumvirat, the last of which was written when
he was eighty-one years old. He died on June 17,
1762. He was a very unequal writer. An oppres-
sive gloom pervades the t ies which he founded
on Greek legend ; but occasionally he writes natur-
ally and powerfully. ‘Not a few of his verses have
a grandeur which has been said to be hardly dis-
coverable elsewhere in French tragedy between
Corneille and Hugo’ (Saintsbury). Next to Vol-
taire, he was the best tragic dramatist of his age
in France. There are editions of his works by
Perelle (2 vols. 1828) and Vitu (1885).—CLAUDE
r son
of the dramatist, was born in Paris on February
14, 1707. He was educated at the Jesuit College
sf — le = Somes Nets after writing a number of
slight pieces for the stage, acqui great popu-
larity as an author of prose fiction. In 1740 he
married an Englishwoman, Lady Stafford. One of
his books, Le Sopha, conte moral, having given
offence to Madame de Pompadour by its indecency,
he was banished from Paris for five years, but on
his return in 1755 was appointed to the censorship.
He was believed by his friends to be dead long
before he died on April 12, 1777.

Créche (Fr., ‘manger’), a sort of "tyes nursery
where, for a small payment, the children of women
who have to go out to work are fed, nursed, and
taken care of during the work hours of the day.

Crécy-en-Ponthieu, or Cressy, a village
in the French department of Somme, on the Maye,
12 miles N. of Abbeville. Crécy is celebrated on
account of the brilliant victory obtained here, 26th
August 1346, by Edward III., with 40,000 English
soldiers, over a French army amounting, accordin
to Froissart, to 100,000 men under the command o
the Count of Alencon. In this great battle, one of
the most honourable to English prowess recorded in
pga! perished the flower of the French chivalry,
as well as the blind king of Bohemia, who was
fighting on the side of France. Altogether about
30,000 of the French soldiers bit the dust. In
this battle the Black Prince distinguished himself

tly, and gained his spurs (see the article IcH
Brew}. Pop. 1382.

Credence, a small table placed near the altar
or communion-table, at its south side, on which
the bread and wine intended for consecration are
placed in readiness. In the Greek Church this is
called the trapez otheseds, or simply prothesis,
but is always placed north of the altar, usually ina
structural side-chapel. Archbishop Laud was a
great stickler for the credence, and pleaded the
authority of Bishop Andrewes and other bishops for
its use. There are ancient credences in various
Anglican churches ; among others, in the Collegiate
ne St John’s churches, Manchester, and in the
parish church at Ludlow, where they have been in
use from time immemorial. Sometimes the place
of the credence was supplied by a mere shelf across
the Fenestella, or a niche in the south wall of the
chancel. The term was also used for a buffet, or
sideboard, at which the meats were tasted in early
times before being presented to the guests, as a
precaution against poison. Hence the origin of the
word, which is derived from the Ital. credenzare, to
taste meats and drinks before they were offered
to another, an ancient court practice, which was
performed by the cup-bearers and carvers, who for
this reason were called in Ger. credenzer. The
usage is still observed at Rome when the pope cele-
brates mass, some of the wafers and of the wine to
be offered being tasted by the assistant ministers

before they are brought to him as oblation. The
introduction or restoration of credences is one of
those restitutions of old usages which marked
the Oxford movement in England; and they have
been judicially pronounced legal ornaments of the
church, as subsidiary or auxiliary to the a

1

of ope Communion, in order to compliance wit
oe rics in that part of the Common Prayer-

Credentials, papers or letters given to an
am or, or other public minister, to a foreign
court, in order to enable him to claim the confi-
dence of the court to which he is sent.

Credit, in Political Economy, may be defined
as the power to make use of another man’s wealth.
It rests on the simple fact that when one man has
more wealth than he proposes to use himself, he is
ready, for a consideration, to lend it to another.
The wealth thus lent may be used for purposes
either of production or consumption, though the

t function of credit in modern industry is to
rnish the means of production to those who are in
need of them. Credit of course is not capital, but.
it enables one man to utilise the capital of another.
The credit system is an elaborate system of appli-
ances and institutions, by which facilities for lending
and borrowing are provided. Bills and bank-notes
are well-known instruments of credit. Banks are the
most notable institutions of credit, which is further
facilitated by companies of every kind, designed to
transmit superabundant capital to the most distant
colonies and to all the ends of the earth. Credit.
is thus a mighty organ of industry, whose opera-
tions are co-extensive with the world, but it has
attained to this far-reaching and cosmopolitan
position only in comparatively recent times. Yet
it is also one of the oldest phenomena in the his-
tory of society, marked by and laws, which
are of the highest interest and importance. Credit
is found in the earliest communities, one of its
most striking forms being in the relations of the
primitive farming class to the money-lender. It
was considerably developed in ancient Greece and
Rome, as also in the commercial Phcenician states.
on the Mediterranean. During the middle ages it
w up in the Italian republics, and afterwards.
in the cities of Germany and the Netherlands.
But its vast extension dates from the great develop-
ment of commerce and industry connected with
the United States, India, and the colonies, com-
bined with the utilisation of ste m and the electric
telegraph. In short the development of the credit
system has gone hand in hand with the develop-
ment of modern industry. While the credit system
has thus so powerfully aided the development of
industry by supplying capital to those who have
ability and opportunity to utilise it, it is needless
to say that it has led to many abuses. In early
communities the creditor had power to enslave,
maim, or even to slay the debtor. In modem
times, by rendering capital accessible to adventurers
of every class, it has occasionally given scope for the
wildest and most dishonest speculation.

Credit, Casu. See CasH Account.

Crédit Foncier (‘landed credit’), a system of
lending money on the security of landed property,
established in France by an edict of 28th February
1852. Its peculiarity is that the loan is repayable
- a terminable annuity, the amount and currency
of the annuity being so calculated that when the
last payment is made, the loan and the interest on
it will a Or it may be described as
a loan repayable by instalments. The borrower,
however, has the right of anticipating res nebo
The system is precisely regulated by the edict,
which prohibits an advance to more than one-half
of the value of the property pledged or hypothecated.

554 CREDIT

CREEDS

Three companies were established by the French
overnment in Paris, Marseilles, and Nevers.
hey were all formed in 1852, and on 10th

December of the same year were amalgamated as

the Crédit Foncier de France, with the privilege of

making such advances. The Crédit Foncier stands
relatively to real estate as the Crédit Mobilier
to personal property. The companies formed in

Britain to advance money for improvements on

landed properties are of a similar character. The

Crédit Foncier ( Limited ), formed in London in 1864,

was a general finance company. It speculated

largely in the promotion of public works at home
and abroad, met with heavy losses, and was several
times reorganised.

Credit, LETTER oF. This is the term applied
to a letter addressed to a correspondent at a
distance, requesting him to pay a sum therein
specified to the person named, or to hold the money
at his disposal, and authorising the correspondent
‘to reimburse himself for such payment, either by
debiting it in account between the parties, or by
drawing on the first party for the amount. This
arrangement may take place between merchants
or others, but in general it occurs between
bankers residing in different places—e.g. between
a banker in London and his correspondent in
New York; and it is designed to enable any one
who has money lodged at one place to obtain
the use of it at another for-a small charge, or
commission, without the risk or trouble of actu-
ally carrying money between the two cities.
It is thus a sort of primitive or informal Bil/
of Exchange (q.v.), though not, like a bill, a
negotiable instrument. Sometimes the letter is
addressed to all or several of the correspond-
ents of the bank issuing it, in which case it is
termed a Circular Credit; ard any of them may
pay the sum mentioned, or sums to account as

esired, taking the holder’s receipt, or his draft on
the granter, in exchange; and the sums so paid
are indorsed on the letter, to show how far the
credit has been used. Even where the granter
has no correspondent, the holder of an authentic
letter will usually have little difficulty in obtaining
money upon it; and the system is thus productive
of much convenience to all who have occasion to
travel.

Some bankers, having an extensive correspond-
ence abroad, issue what are called Circular Notes,
usually of the value of £10 or £20 each, which any
of the granter’s correspondents, or indeed any one
else, may cash to the holder, on his indorsation and
production of a letter of indication. In this kind
of credit, the notes are bought outright; whereas
for the ordinary letter of credit, the banker debits
the drafts under it only when they are advised to
him. The introduction (about 1770) of these notes,
which have proved of great convenience to travellers,
though of little direct profit to the banks, is due to
Mr Herries, the looker of the eminent banking-
house of Herries, Farquhar, & Co., London.

A marginal credit is one in which the due pay-
ment of the bills or drafts under it are guaranteed
by a third party interested in the transaction ; the
guarantee being usually expressed in a marginal
note on the bill. See CiRcULAR NOTEs.

Crédit Mobilier. See Mosier. |

Crediton, or KirKToN, a borough in the
middle of Devonshire, on the Creedy, a tributary
of the Exe, 7 miles NW. of Exeter. It lies in a
narrow vaie between two steep hills, and, having
suffered much by fire in 1743 and 1769, is mostly
modern. Its church, however, is a fine old cruci-
form structure. The birthplace of St Boniface
(q.v.), the apostle of Germany, Crediton was the
seat of a bishopric from 910 to 1050, when it was

transferred to Exeter, and from 1897 has a bishop

suffragan under Exeter. Its woollen manufactures
belong to the past. Pop. (1851) 3924 ; (1891) 4207.
Creditor. See Desror, BANKRUPTCY.
Creech, WILLIAM, Edinburgh bookseller, born
21st April 1745, learned his trade in Edinburgh and
London, and spent some time on the Continent
before beginning business in 1771. For more than
forty years he issued the chief literary productions
of that period in Edinburgh, including the first
Edinburgh edition of Burns, and the works of Blair,
Beattie, and Dugald Stewart, and Mackenzie’s
Mirror and Lounger. He was Lord Provost (1811-
13), and died 14th January 1815. His newspaper
letters and odd writings collected in Edinburgh
Fugitive Pieces (1791; new ed. with memoir, 1815),
contain much curious information about old Edin-
burgh, and the way of life of a past generation.

Creedmoor, a village of Long Island, 12 miles
E. of New York by rail, with an extensive rifle-
range.

Creeds, the authorised expressions of the
doctrine of the church at large, or of the several
main sections into which it is divided. Such
statements of doctrine sprang up naturally in the
course of the church’s progress. As the doctrines
taught by Christ became the subjects of thought,
of argument, of controversy, they could not fail to
receive a more defined intellectual expression, and
to be drawn out into more precise dogmatic state-
ments ; and the great creeds, as they rise in suc-
cession, and mark the climax of successive con-
troversial epochs in the church, are nothing else
than the varying expressions of the Christian con-
sciousness and reason, in their efforts more com-
pletely to realise, comprehend, and express the
originally simple elements of truth as they are
recorded in Scripture. Accordingly, the creeds of
Christendom grow in megs ppd in elaborate
analysis and inventiveness of doctrinal statement,
as they succeed one another.

What has been called the Apostles’ Creed is
probably the earliest form of Christian creed that

exists, unless we give the precedence to the bap-

tismal formula at the close of St Matthew’s Gospel,
out of which many suppose the Apostles’ C to
have grown. ‘There were in the early church differ-
ing forms of this primitive creed: that which is

received and repeated in the service of the Church —

of England has come to us through the Latin
Church ; and some of its clauses, as, for instance,
‘He descended into hell,’ and again, ‘The com-
munion of saints,’ are at anyrate additions to the
earliest known forms, even if they are not develop-
ments of doctrine. A great variety of opinions has
been held as to the origin of this creed. It has not
only been attributed to the apostles directly, but a
legend has professed to settle the clauses respec-
tively contributed by the several apostles. The
earliest account of its origin we have from Rufinus,
an historical compiler of the 4th century. His state-
ment is, that the apostles, ‘when met together,
and filled with the Holy Ghost, composed this
compend of what they were to preach, each one
contributing his share to the one composition,
which they resolved to give as a rule of faith to
those who should believe.’ But Rufinus is no great
historical authority, and even learned Roman
Catholics (as Wetzer and Welte) regard the story
as a legend. It is not improbable in itself, how-
ever, that even in the age of the apostles some
formula of belief existed. The exact form of the
resent creed cannot pretend to be so ancient by
our hundred years, but Irenzeus repeats a creed
not much unlike the present; and Tertullian also
affirms that a similar creed had been ‘ prevalent as
a rule of faith in the church from the beginning of

the 1.” proved by
pea ministered to the candidates for baptism

CREEDS

CREEPER 555

The same thing is the
in the 2d and 3d centuries. They correspond, with
slight variations, to the Apostles’ Creed. The true
view of this formula of church belief, therefore,
seems to be that which regards it as the Roman or
Latin form of the creed which prevailed in all the
early churches. It is not strictly apostolic ; but it
is substantially apostolic—fairly representative of
the different elements of Christian faith as handed
down from the apostles.

The Nicene, or rather the Niceno-Constantino-
politan Creed is the next great expression of doc-
trinal truth that we meet with in the history of the
church, It sprang out of the conflict, which had
— even in the 2d century, as to the dignity
and character of Christ. (For the various Christo-
— doctrines, see CHrist, CHURCH HISTORY.)
These debates continued more or less throughout
the 3d century ; and early in the 4th Arius denied
that Christ was ‘of the substance of God,’ or
‘without beginning;’ he was only the highest
of created beings, in a sense divine, but not the
same in substance with the Father, nor equal
with him in power and glory. Athanasius came
forward as the opponent of Arius, and the contest

throughout the church. The Council of
Nica was summoned in 325 by Constantine
with the view of settling this controversy, and
the Nicene Creed was the result. There were
these three parties in the council—the Atha-
nasians, or extreme orthodox party; the Eusebians,
or middle party; and the Arians, or heretical party.
The heretics were few in number, and ssed
but little influence; but the Eusebians were a
strong party, and for some time resisted certain
expressions of the orthodox or Athanasians, which
seemed to them extreme and unwarranted. At
— the Homiousians, as the Athanasians were
called, prevailed; and Christ was declared not
merely to be of like substance (homoiousios), but of
the same substance (homoousios) with the Father.
At the later Council of Constantinople (381), the
additional tenet of the divinity of the Holy Spirit
was added, and the creed completed in the form
in which it is familiar in the mass and in the
communion service in the Book of Common Prayer,
except the memorable phrase ‘and from the Son’
(filioque). This phrase, teaching the procession
of the Holy Spirit from the Son, which was des-
tined to be the subject of controversy between
the Eastern and Western Churches (see Greek
Church ), seems to have been added by the Western
Churches in the 5th and 6th centuries.

The next remarkable monument of doctrinal
truth in the church is what is called the Atha-
nasian Creed, a product probably of the 5th century,
much later than Athanasius himself, but “gg shee
ing, with great formal minuteness and fidelity,
his doctrine of the Trinity, as apprehended and
elaborated by the Western Church. See ATHA-
NASIAN CREED.

The Apostles’, the Nicene, the Athanasian, may
be said to form the great catholic creeds of the
church. After the time of the last-mentioned
formula, there is no general symbol of faith that
claims our attention till the period of the Reforma-
tion. When the eye of free criticism and argument
was turned upon Boripture, new creeds, or rather
confessions, began to spring up; these are treated
at CONFESSIONS. The Professio Fidei Tridentina,
commonly known as the Creed of Pope Pius, arose
out of the Decrees of Trent, and is practically the
Confession of Faith of the Roman Catholic Church
(q.v., and see TRENT). This was published in
1564, but some important additions to it were
made in 1870, in consequence of the decision of
the Vatican Council.

It is remarkable that the oriental churches have
never formally accepted any creed except the
Nicene, without the insertion of the word filioque
in connection with the Procession of the Holy
Spirit (q.v.).

See Smith’s Dictionary of Christian Antiquities ; the
oe of the j me Catholics Wetzer and
Welte; the works of Dr Heurtley of Oxford; of the
Lutheran Dr Caspari; and the three volumes of the

sbyterian Dr Schaft (Lond. 1877). Among patris-
tic treatises may be specially named the Catechetical
Lectures of St Cyril of Jerusalem, in the 4th century,
and somewhat later the tractates of St Augustine, De
Fide et Symbolo ; De Symbolo ad Catechumenos. In the
17th century an English prelate, Bishop Bull, received
the thanks of the Gallican Church, led by Bossuet, for
his Defensio Fidei Nicene, and Bishop Pearson and Dean
Jackson won lasting fame by their respective volumes on
the Apostles’ Creed. On the Roman Catholic side the
learned Jesuit Petau (Petavius) is conspicuous, and in
1832 Mohler published two volumes entitled Symbolik,
which treated of the Reformed and Roman Confessions,
See ARTICLES, ATHANASIAN COREED, CONFESSIONS,
THEOLOGY,

Creek, in Geography, is a small inlet on a low
coast, and in rivers formed by the mouths of small
streams. In America and also in Australia, the
term creek is applied to small rivers.

Creeks, or MuscoGcees, a formerly powerful
tribe of American Indians, of the Appalachian
stock, who, reduced by war to some 25,000, were in
1836 removed from Georgia and Alabama to Indian
Territory. In 1895 their number was estimated at
10,000.

Creeper (Certhia), a genus of Passerine birds,
the type of the family Certhiade. The bill is long,
much curved, laterally compressed, and pointed ;
the tongue is long, narrow, sharp-pointed, and
jagged near its tip ; the tail is rather long, and the
tips of the tail-feathers are firm and pointed,
extending beyond the webs. The feet are rather
slender ; the ace Bice about as long as the others.
The feet are well adapted for tree-c rate and the
stiff feathers of the tail are also employed for sup-
port. There is probably more than one species, but
this is doubtful, and the distribution is somewhat
wide. The Common Creeper (C. /familiaris) is

PY
'
Common Creeper ( Certhia familiaris).

found in all temperate parts of the northern hemi-
sphere, wherever woods abound. It is a permanent
resident, but is never numerous or gregarious,
It is not so well known as many other birds, in
consequence of its restless habits, its rapid move-
ments, and prompt retirement to the farther side
of the tree from the spectator. The Scotch name,
Bark-speeler (‘climber’), describes its almost con-

556 CREEPER

CREMONA

stant habit, as it searches for insects and their larvee
in the crevices of the bark. The nest is usually in
a hole of a decayed tree. The creeper is one of the
smallest of British birds, although larger than the
wren. Its prevalent colour is dark gray above, with
spots of yellow and white ; the under parts are white.
—The Wall Creeper ( Tichodroma muraria) of the
south of Europe frequents walls and the faces of
rocks.—The Nuthatch (q.v.) is a closely allied
genus,

Creeper. See CLIMBING PLANTs.

Creighton, MANDELL, historian, born at Car-
lisle, 5th July 1843, from Durham School gained
a postmastership at Merton College, Oxford, in
1862, and was elected a fellow in 1866. He became
vicar of Embleton, Northumberland, in ‘1875, first

rofessor of Ecclesiastical History at Cambridge
in 1884, Bishop of Peterborough in 1891, and of
London (1896). His chief works are Simon de
Montfort (1876). History of the Papacy during the
Reformation Period (5 vols. 1882-94), and the
sumptuous Queen Elizabeth (1897).

Crema, a town of Lombardy, 27 miles NW. of
Cremona, with a cathedral (1341). Pop. 8500.

Cremation, the reduction of the dead human
body to ashes by fire, was a very early and wide-
spread usage of antiquity. The early Aryans—as
opposed to the non-Aryan aborigines of India—the
Greeks, Romans, Slavs, Celts, and Germans, burned
their dead, so that cremation may be regarded as
the universal custom of the Indo-European races.
The graves of North Europe throughout the ‘bronze
age’ contain only jars with ashes. It was Chris-
tianity that gradually suppressed the practice of
cremation. In India it is still a usual method for
disposing of corpses, and is also practised by numer-
ous uncivilised peoples of Asia and America (see
BuRIAL). A return to the practice has been
strongly insisted on by many in modern Europe.
This is opposed mainly on grounds of kindly feelin
for the dead, and for religious reasons peter
with the belief in the resurrection of the dead.
Advocates of cremation assert that these are pre-
judices founded on misapprehension, and allege
that the question is solely a sanitary one. The
damage to the health of such as live near church-
yards and cemeteries, from the exhalations of
noxious gases and the poisoning of water supplies,
is an indisputable fact, and is in many cases quite
inevitable. By burning, the body is reduced more
swiftly to its constituent elements, without disre-
spect to the dead or hurt to the living. The ashes
of the body of an adult after due incineration weigh
from 5 to 7 lb. Others allege as the juridico-
criminal difficulty that cremation might be made
to destroy the evidence of murder (as by poison-
ing); but advocates of cremation answer that a
properly organised system of medical inspection
would obviate this objection. In Italy cremation
has been legal since 1877, and is not unusual at
Milan, Lodi, Cremona, Brescia, Padua, Varese, and
Rome, and at these places crematory furnaces, on
the Gorini system, have been erected. About 1000
cremations have taken place in these and other
Italian towns. In Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzig
there has been strong agitation in favour of crema-
tion; and at Gotha there is a large mortuary and
crematorium, where between 1878 and 1888 more
than 550 bodies had been cremated and lodged in
the Columbaria of the crematory temple. Societies
for securing the legalisation of the process exist in
nearly every country in Europe, and in some the
rite of cremation is permissible. At present this
is not so in Belgium, Russia, or Austria. Two
crematory furnaces were erected in 1888 by the
municipality of Paris at Pére-la-Chaise. The move-
ment found for long but little favour in the United

States; there were but 20 cremations in 1875-82,
but in 1885-93, 1282 bodies were cremated. Interest
in this movement was awakened in England in
1874 by Sir Henry Thompson: the council of the
society established in that year purchased ground
at Woking, and in 1885 erected a crematory,
which by 1893 had cremated 458 bodies. The
number of cremations in England is now 130
annually. There are crematories at Manchester,
Glasgow, and elsewhere. For each cremation about
seven shillings’ worth of wood fagots and coal are
needed. The time occupied in the reduction of an
adult varies from 14 to 12 hours, and the ashes
weigh, as before stated, from 5 to 7 1b. Cremation
having been declared legal in England, it is expected
that some of the large cities will very shortly possess
these media for destruction of the body by fire.
The human body consists of 60 per cent. of water
and 40 per cent. of solid matter; and quickly to
reduce this to ashes requires a strong furnace. A
special form of Siemens’ regenerator furnace is that
which has found most favour in Germany, but
elsewhere only the Gorini form of apparatus is used.
The Gorini crematory furnace consists of a receiver,
a furnace, anda chimney. The receiver is a flat-
bottomed chamber open at each end, one of which
communicates with the upper part of the furnace,
and the other with the lower part of the chimney.
The furnace, which discharges its heat into the
receiver, is somewhat spacious, sufficiently so to
produce the necessary heat by means of wood fuel
only if found requisite. The chimney is also of
sufficient sectional area to remove the products of
combustion from the receiver as well as the fur-
nace, and high enough to permit the draught to
keep above the gases pervading the receiver, and
prevent any dispersion of heat or smoke through
the apertures around the receiver or cremation
chamber. In order to perfectly overcome the idea
as to any organic molecules escaping from the
shaft, a grating is placed near the base of the
chimney, and upon this a portion of coke is kept
burning. The products of animal combustion which
issue still highly heated from the receiver, are sub-
jected to higher temperature in passing through the

uring coke, and any organic matter which may
have resisted or escaped the first combustion is
destroyed by the second, and mixes harmlessly with
the atmosphere. The literature of the subject.
began with Thompson’s Treatment of the Body
after Death (1874); Erichsen’s Cremation of the Dead
(1887); Ullersperger’s Urne oder Grab (1874); and
some works by Italian doctors. The Transactions
(annual) of the Cremation Society of England con-
tain a complete bibliography on the subject u
to date. Since 1874 upwards of 3000 works an
pamphlets have been published on this subject in
various countries.

[While this volume was passing through the press,
the author of the above article died, and his body was.
cremated at Woking.—ED. ]

Crémieux, IsAAc ADOLPHE, jurist and _poli-
tician, was born of Jewish parents at Nimes, 30th
April 1796, and became an advocate in Paris in
1830. In 1842 he entered the Chamber, and in
1848 was a member of the provisional government.
Imprisoned at the coup d état, he subsequently
confined himself to professional work, till 1870,
when he was a member of the government of
national defence. He was made a senator in 1876,
and died 10th February 1880. He was the founder
of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.

Cremona, a decayed city, of Northern Italy,
on the north bank of the Po, 60 miles SE. of
Milan by rail, and 46 E. of Pavia. Cremona has
some fine buildings—the principal the cathedral
(1107-1606), with gorgeous interior; the neigh-

CREMORNE GARDENS

CRESS 557

bouring octagonal Baptistery ; the Palazzo Publico
gaat): the so-called Campo Santo; and the famous
‘orrazzo (1288) or belfry—the loftiest campanile in
Italy, being 396 feet high, and commanding ss
cent views over the fertile plains of Milan. By
means of the Po, Cremona carries on a considerable
trade in the produce of the district; and it has
manufactures of silk, cotton, earthenware, and
chemicals. In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries
it was greatly celebrated for its manufacture of
violins, the most famous makers being the Amatis,
the Guarneris, and Stradivari (see VIOLIN). Pop.
31,930. Cremona is the capital of a province of the
same name; area, 632 sq. m.; pop. (1886) 314,755.

Cremorne Gardens, near Battersea Bridge,
on the north side of the Thames, a very popular
place of amusement for Londoners down to 1877,
when they were closed.

Crenelle, a Battlement (q.v.), or an embrasure
in a battlement.—CRENELLE, in Heraldry, em-
battled, signifies that any ordinary is drawn like
the battlements of a wall.

Creole (Span. criollo), in general an indi-
vidual born in the country but not of indigenous
blood, a term applied, especially in the former
Spanish, French, and Portuguese colonies of
America, Africa, and the East Indies, to natives
of pure European blood (sangre azul), in opposition
to immigrants themselves born in Europe, or to the
offspring of mixed blood, as mulattoes, quadroons,
Eurasians, and the like. In Brazil the native whites
call themselves Brasileiros. Creole dialects are
corruptions of French, Spanish, pusteguces, Eng-
lish, or Dutch, arising in various colonies, and
may be studied in such formal treatises as Thomas,
The and Practice of Creole Grammar ( Port
of a gh 1869), and Quentin, LZ’ Histoire de Cayenne
et la Grammaire Créole (Paris, 1872). Mr
Cable’s stories revealed to English readers the
singularly quaint charm of the phraseology and
manners of the Creole population of Louisiana.

Creosote. See CREASOTE.
Crescendo, in Music, means a gradual increas-

ing of sound, or changing from piano to forte and
fortissimo. It is marked thus Seadg ae ed with
the abbreviation cresc. The converse is escendo.
The — of a good organ produces a most perfect
crescendo.

Crescent. A representation of the half-moon
with the horns turned upwards, ed a crescent,
is often used as an emblem of p is and suc-
cess. It was the emblem of the Greek before it
became that of the Turkish rule (see CONSTANTI-
NOPLE, p. 433); but it was not adopted by the
Turks from the Greeks—it had been used by them
hundreds of years before in Central Asia. Genghiz
Khan’s Tartars had the crescent on their banners,
and so had the Janissaries of Sultan Orchan.

Crescent, a decoration, sometimes called
order of, in Turkey. In 1799, after the battle of
Aboukir, the Sultan Selim IIT. testified his grati-
tude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly
adorned with diamonds. It was not intended as
an order, but Nelson wore it on his coat; and
Selim, flattered by the value attached to his gift,
resolved that a similar decoration should be con-
ferred on foreigners who have done service to the
state. There was an old Order of the Crescent,
instituted by René, Duke of Anjou, in 1464.

Crescentia. See CALABASH TREE.

Cress, a name given to many plants belongin
to the ander Cruciferee, which ral in common, if
greater or less degree, a pungent mustard-like taste,
and antiscorbutic, diaphoretic, and other medi-
cinal ‘qualities. They are very generally distrib-
uted abundantly over the temperate and northern

countries of the earth, and much used as salads
and medicinally by the peoples of those countries.
In Britain the most commonly used is the Common
Cress ( Lepidium sativum ), of which there are several

Commen Cress r
(Lepidium sativum): (Cardamine amara):
a, silicule. a, silique, opening.

varieties, the most favoured being that known as
the Curled Cress. Sown thickly in soil in moderate
heat under glass, this may be raised during winter
in a few days ; and the seeds spread out thickly on
flannel, which is kept saturated with warm vapour,
as from a boiler or tank of boiling water, will
vegetate and yield a crop within 48 hours after
sowing. In this way it has been found invaluable
during arctic voyages as an antiscorbutic. The
Poor Man’s Pepper is the Broad-leaved Cress (L.
latifolium), a native of Britain, and formerly used
as a condiment by the poor. The Virginian Cress
(L. virginicum) has
similar properties to
the Common Cress, and
is cultivated in Britain
in North America, and
in the West Indies for
use asasalad. L. pis-
cidium, a native of the
South Sea Islands, is
there used to stupefy
fish, and by sailors as
an antiscorbutic. The
allied genus Barbarea
supplies the Winter
Cress or Yellow Rocket
of gardens (B. vul-
garis), a native of

ritain, and the Ameri-
can Cress (B. precox),
by some regarded as
merely a variety of
the preceding, is also a
native of Britain, the
European _ continent,

i Water Cress
both are weed’ for the (Nasturtium oficinate),
pu al ready de-

scribed. The Bitter Cress (Cardamine amara), the
Lady’s Smock or Cuckoo-flower (C. pratensis), and
the Hairy Cress (C. hirsuta), are all natives of
Britain and of other temperate and northern
countries of the globe, but being more bitter than

‘BBS CRESSET

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

pungent, are less used in salads in this country
than on the Continent and in America. Water
Cress (Nasturtium officinale) is an aquatic peren-
nial species of the same natural order, largely
cultivated in England and on the Continent
in slowly running brooks and ditches, where the
water is pure and the bottom gravelly. In stagnant
water and a muddy bottom the plant soon perishes.
For the so-called Indian Cress, see NASTURTIUM.

Cressida. See TROILUS.
Cressy. See CREGY.
Cresylite. See SHELL, Vol. IX. p. 386.

Crest (Lat. crista, ‘a comb or tuft’), a heraldic
figure or ornament, which in its original use sur-
mounted the helmet. Though often popularly
regarded as the most important part of the heraldic
insignia of a family, it is, in the eyes of heralds,
an accessory without which the bearing is com-
plete. The practice of ornamenting the helmet
with a capriciously assumed figure existed in
classical times ; but no such usage is found in the
early middle ages, or at the time when heraldry
had its rise. Crests first appear occasionally
on the helmets of knights in the 13th century,
and were a mark of dignity and estate beyond
what was implied by the use of arms. Edward
Ill. was the first English king who assumed
a crest ; and crests are found in use by the early
Knights of the Garter. The practice gradually
spread, particularly in England, till the crest
became the almost indispensable adjunct of a shield
of arms, as it now is. On the Continent there are
still many families of distinction who have never
used a crest. The crest is generally placed on a
Wreath (q.v.) of the wHineipal metal and colour of
the shield ; sometimes, however, it is (by permis-
sion of the sovereign or king-at-arms) allowed to
issue out of a ducal coronet, mural crown, or
cap of maintenance. Different crests are, in
modern times, often assigned to separate branches
of the same family, and there are many crests
which so many families have in common that they
are hardly distinctive. No ladies except sovereign
princesses can, with any propriety, attach a crest
to their arms. The assumption of crests by church-
men is equally objectionable. Corporations occa-
sionally use them, a practice for which precedent
may be shown from the 15th century. Crests are
not to be confounded with family badges, which
were never placed on a helmet, and ought not to be
borne on a wreath. See BADGE; Fairbairn’s Crests
(2 vols. new ed. 1893), and Knight and Butters’
Crests (2 vols. 1885).

- Creste, in Architecture, an ornamental finish-
ing, either in stone, or of tiles or metal, running

Creste, 13th century (from Viollet le Duc).

along the top of a wall or the ridge of a roof. Such
crestings were adopted by the Romanesque archi-
tects from the East, but the designs were soon
made after their own style. Elaborate ornaments
of this kind were frequently used in Gothic build-
ings. In modern times cast-iron has been greatly

used for such ornaments, many roofs being covered
with gilded iron rails or crests.

Cresswell, SiR CRESSWELL, judge, born in
Newcastle in 1794, was educated at Charterhouse:
and Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1819. Be-
tween 1822 and 1830 he issued, with Barnewall,
a valuable series of Reports; in 1830 he was ap-
pointed recorder of Hull, and in 1834 a king’s.
counsel. He was returned to Parliament by Liver-
pool in 1837 and 1841, and in 1842 Peel made him
a puisne judge. He sat in the Court of Common
Pleas till 1858, when he was appointed first judge:
of the newly-created Probate and Divorce Court,
the success of which was mainly due to him. He
was especially distinguished in will cases and cases.
in mercantile and navigation law. He died shortly
after a carriage accident, 29th July 1863.

Crestien de Troyes, See CHRESTIEN,

Creston, a town of Union county, Iowa, 115
miles W. of Ottumwa. It is connected by railway
with Burlington, Chicago, and St Joseph, and has
large machine-shops and railway-carriage works.
Pop. (1870) 411; (1890) 7200.—There is a smaller
town of Creston in Wyoming, and a third in Illinois.

Creswick, THomas, R.A., a popular landscape-

ainter, was born at Sheffield, 5th February 1811.
ie early exhibited a taste for drawing, and removed
to London in 1828, where two of his pictures during
that year found a ae in the Royal Ache
exhibition. Creswick loved to paint the beautiful
streams, and glens, and wooded dells of his native
land; and these, which, along with some coast
scenes, form the subject of his best paintings, are
represented on his canvas with pie delicacy of
finished detail and truth of aerial perspective, the
figures introduced being frequently from the brush
of Ansdell, Cooper, Frith, and other artists. He
was well known as a book-illustrator by his draw-
ings for the wood-engravers, and he contributed to
the publications of the English Etching Club. He
was elected an A.R.A. in 1842, an R.A. in 1851.
He died 28th December 1869. More than a hundred
of his works were collected in the London Inter-
national Exhibition of 1873.

Cretaceous System, the highest division of
the Mesozoic or Secondary strata, rests conformably
upon the Jurassic System (q.v.), and is overlaid
unconformably by the oldest deposits of the Eocene
System (q.v.). The cretaceous strata of Britain
are confined chiefly to the east and south-east of
England. They form the Yorkshire Wolds, extend
over large parts of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Hertford,
and compose the Chiltern Hills, Salisbury Plain, the
Downs, and the south part of the Isle of Wight.
On the Continent the cretaceous rocks have a con-
siderable development. They form a broad basin
in the north of France, and stretch eastward from
Belgium, Holland, Denmark, and the south of
Sweden, through the great plains of northern
Europe to the south end of the Ural Mountains.
But over extensive regions within that wide area
they lie more or less concealed under younger
formations. There is another extensive develop-
ment of cretaceous strata in southern Europe,
where they enter largely into the composition of
many of the Mediterranean coast-lands. The chief
petrological feature of the cretaceous strata of
western and northern Europe is the great develop-
ment of white chalk in the Anglo-French area,
and its gradual replacement, when followed east-
wards into Germany, &c., by earthy limestones,
shales, sandstones, &c. The most marked charac-
teristic of the cretaceous system in southern Europe
is the great development in that region of massive
marine limestone (hippurite limestone).

In North America cretaceous strata likewise occur
in force, especially in the western states and

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

559

territories. They also occupy wide tracts in the
Gulf states, whence they extend up the Mississippi
valley to the Ohio; they put in an appearance at
intervals on the Atlantic borders between South
Carolina and New Jersey ; and we meet with them
‘pgain on the Pacific border and in the coast-range.
Strata of the same age occur also in the far west of

America, at the mouth of the Mackenzie
River, and in Greenland. In India the system is
marked in the Deccan by a massive series of basalt-
rocks, 4000 to 6000 feet thick, and corer
area of 200,000 sq. m. In Australia and New
Zealand there is a considerable development of
eretaceous rocks, such as the ‘desert sandstones’
of Queensland, and a small coal-bearing group of

In New Zealand the system likewise contains
eoals, some of which are lignites, while others are
bituminous coals of fair quality. The following is
the succession of cretaceous strata in England :

1 U Cretaceous —
Upper RMU TL UG ose inde awheua ch anatetweveds 600 feet.
TA NSS Pe ser rire eet Cees 200 w
Lower Chalk and Chalk Marl................. 450
Chloritic Marl and Upper Greensand.......... 250 w
SUES LL ASG ATR PEE Cidade hist owenav anes 200
Lower Cretaceous—
DUE MEROONORIEE ce coddvacachvccceucbepsbea® 550 w
EOD G TR Gueuteat ca ces cua eee ceegae 1850

The Wealden Beds consist largely of clay and
‘ sand, and are almost entirely of fresh-water origin.
In Yorkshire, however, the strata which occur on
the same horizon‘as the Wealden beds of the south
are of marine origin, as seen in the Speeton clay
near Bridlington. The Lower Greensand, consisting
of sand, clay, &c., are marine. The Gault (q.v.), a
tough blue clay, is likewise marine, and so also are
the shallow-water sands of the Upper Greensand,
and the thin layer of chalky marl called Chloritic
Marl (q.v.), which is characterised by the presence
of glauconitic grains and phosphatic nodules. The
most characteristic rocks of the system, however,
are the chalk beds. The basement of these beds
is the argillaceous chalk known as Chalk Marl.
The lower chalk is a grayish-white chalk, while
the middle chalk is a pure white chalk, containin
in its upper portions layers of flint nodules.
hard layer of yellowish limestone called Chalk-rock
lies at the top of this division. The upper white
chalk is a thick massive white chalk, containing
numerous layers of nodules and occasional tabular
sheets of flint. All these chalks are of marine

origin. The following are the divisions adopted by
continental logists, and now largely used by
geologists in Britain :
Continental Cretaceous, Equivalent English Strata,
PN. cca tewes cis Rae eae wanting ).
ROMAN .. sped snveesye cues r Ik.
RUBY S255 year evs Sakews Middle Chalk.
Lower Chalk and Chalk Marl.
Cenomanian............++ { Ghioritic Marl.
Upper Greensand.
URMONE 5's 5.0.5 906 dath ogee eis bien Gault.
Neocomian ......++0++0++ Lower Greenenad

The cretaceous strata of Britain being almost
exclusively of marine origin, it is not surprising
that land-plants seldom occur, and that they are
met with chiefly in the fresh-water beds near the

\ base of the system. They consist chiefly of ferns,
cycads, and conifers—a flora resembling that of the
preceding Jurassic peri The ee cretaceous
rocks of Germany, however, have furnished many

lant remains. Amongst those are the oldest

own dicotyledons, such as extinct species of
maple, oak, walnut, beach, laurel, magnolia, &c.,
also several proteaceous plants. A similar admix-
ture of forms occurs in the cretaceous strata of
North America. Amongst animals the Protozoa
played a very important part—the white chalks

and earthy limestones being poet largely com
of the minute shells of foraminifera, such as Globi-
rina, Rotalia, and Textularia, which still swarm
in the ooze of the Atlantic. Sponges, such as
Ventriculites, Siphonia, &c., were very abundant,
and sea-urchins also occurred in great numbers.
Star-fishes and bryozoans were fairly common,
as were also, amongst pig ing (ee. Terebratula
and Rhynchonella. But the brachiopods as a
class were feebly represented as compared with
their abundance in the earlier stages of the
world’s history. Ordinary bivalves, however, were
very numerous, such as Inoceramus, Hippurites,
Spondylus, Lima, Pecten, &c. In the Danian
beds carnivorous gasteropods begin to abound,
and they include a number of existing genera.
Cephalopods are not only the most abundant,
but also the most characteristic fossils of the
eretaceous rocks. Amongst them are a great
variety of Ammonites, and many forms of Belem-
nitide. Amongst the fishes were ganoids, and
various kinds of the shark tribe, together with the
earliest representatives of the Teleostei—which
include most living genera of fishes. The waters of
the period seem also to have swarmed with ae
such as Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, in
reptiles were also present, such as Pterodactylus.
Amongst dinosaurs were Cetiosaurus, Megalo-
saurus, and Iguanodon. Another remarkable
reptile was the serpent-like Mosasaurus. Besides
these, there were lizards, chelonians, and croco-
diles. The American cretaceous system is likewise
characterised by the presence of huge dinosaurs
and other reptiles—some of them being European
types, while others are peculiar. One of the most
remarkable features of the American rocks, how-
ever, is the occurrence in them of the toothed
birds—Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. (Separate
articles deal with most of these various forms. )

No break separates the Jurassic from the creta-
ceous system—there is a ual eee om the
upper beds of the former into the lower of the
latter. At the beginning of cretaceous times most
of the British and Irish area existed as dry land.
Over the south-east of England lay the estuary of a
large river, flowing probably from the north. The
Wealden beds are the delta-deposits of that river ;
the English and French beds of this division cover-
ing an area of 20,000 sq.m. The sea into which
that river flowed occupied a considerable area in
the north of France, spread over the Low Countries
into Hanover, filled the basin of the North Sea,
and overflowed a portion of eastern England.
Wealden beds occur in north-west Germany, and
indicate the delta of a river, like that of the British
area, flowing from the north, While land-condi-
tions predominated in northern and middle Europe,
an open sea covered vast areas in southern Europe.
Gradual subsidence of the sea-bottom took place
during the deposition of the Wealden series, and
eventually the great deltas became submerged, and
a wide sea covered most of what are now the low
grounds of the British area, and passing eastwards,
submerged vast regions of middle Europe up to the
slopes of the Ural Mountains. The depression was

test in the western areas, where in the dee
clear waters there gradually accumulated the cal-
eareous matter which subsequently formed our
white chalk. There is no deposit forming at
resent which is quite analogous to white chalk.
he calcareous oozes of existing seas which most
resemble it are of abyssal origin, but the sea in
which the chalk accumulated probably did not
exceed 1000 or 2000 feet in depth. The extreme
pouty of the chalk, consisting as that rock does of
5 per cent. and more of carbonate of lime, is diffi-
cult to account for on the supposition that the sea
in which it formed was comparatively shallow.

560 CRETE

CRETINISM

The sea of western Europe may have been dotted
with small islands—from none of which large
rivers descended ; and possibly the formation of the
chalk was not so slow a process as many geologists
suppose. Professor Prestwich even suggests that
it may to some extent be of the nature of a
chemical precipitate thrown down under special
and peculiar conditions prevailing at the time.
However that may be, the shells of foraminifera
and other organic remains certainly enter very
largely into its composition. In the Mediterranean
basin, a deep open sea would seem to have persisted
all through the cretaceous period. It was in this
sea that the massive hippurite limestone was
formed. Open water appears at this time to have
extended through the Mediterranean area into
Asia, covering there also vast tracts of what is
now dry land, and communicating with the Indian
Ocean. The conditions of climate seem to have
been remarkably uniform over vast regions of the
earth’s surface. Ferns, cycads, and conifers flour-
ished in the lands within the Arctic Circle, and the
waters of the same region were tenanted by cuttle-
fish, ammonites, and huge reptiles.

Crete (Ital. Candia, Turk. Kirit, Gr. Krété),
a Turkish island in the Mediterranean, is the most
southerly portion of Europe. It is 60 miles S. of
Cape Malea in Greece, 110 SW. of Cape Krio in
Asia Minor, 100 SSW. of Rhodes, and 300 W. of
Cyprus. Its length is 156. miles; its breadth
varies from 30 to as little as 7 miles; and its area
is 3326 sq. m., or twice the size of Hampshire.
The climate, inferior only to that of Rhodes, is
excellent, and has always been celebrated for its
salubrity. The air is pure, fresh, and bracing ;
the rainfall about 27 inches. In July, August, and
September it is hot in the plains, but the sea-
breezes temper the heat, especially at night, and
during the rest of the year the climate is delightful.

Crete is for the most part mountainous, espe-
cially in the west, where the White Mountains
form the most important range. In the centre
Mount Ida, now called Upsiloriti, the loftiest in
Crete, rises to a height of 8055 feet. The east
is less mountainous, and everywhere numerous
small valleys are exceedingly fertile. The rivers
are unimportant, being almost invariably dry in
summer, and in winter and spring rushing down
to the sea as torrents. The country is, however,
fairly well watered, even in the dry.season, as
springs abound all over the island.

The coast-line, deeply indented on the north,
includes some good harbours: Suda Bay, on the
north, is one of the finest anchorages in the
Mediterranean, and now well known by name as
the resort of the British fleet at interesting political
crises; and on the south is the small Bat well-
sheltered Kaloi Limenes, or the Fair Havens, by
which name it is spoken of in Acts, xxvii. 8. In
the immediate neighbourhood of Crete are three
islands: Clauda, the modern Gavdo, off the south-
west coast, with an area of about 15 sq. m., also
spoken of in Acts, has a lighthouse. Dia, north
of Candia, and Grabusa, at the north-west, were
fortified by the Venetians. In Homer, Crete had
‘a hundred cities ;) now there are but three of
importance—Canea (q.v.), the chief town ; Candia
(q.v.); and Retimo (q.v.).

Wheat and fruit are the most important pro-
ducts ; oranges and lemons flourish. The grapes
are good, but the wine, though abundant, is of
inferior quality. In the middle ages the wine made
at Malevesi, near Canea, was celebrated under the
well-known name of Malmsey (Fr. Malvoisie). The
forests, as usual in the Levant, have almost entirely
epi tite ee But on the hills the cypress grows ;
on the plains the olive is cultivated ; and chestnuts,
valonia oak, and carobs also grow. The principal

exports are. olive-oil, soap, carobs, wool, cheese,
valonia acorns, and fruits. Sheep are largely bred,
but the wool is not of fine quality. Sponges are
found upon the coast. The most important wild
animal is the Cretan ibex. The population, num-
bering about 295,000, are, with the exception of a
few Turks in the larger towns, almost wholly of pure
Greek descent; though about 90,000 of them are
Mohammedans, descendants of renegades, but they
too speak Greek as their mother tongue.

The early Cretans were seafaring Greeks, rivals
of the Pheenicians. The island was the favourite
resort of colonists from every part of Greece, and
was celebrated at once for its climate, its laws,
and its great lawgiver, judge, and king, Minos.
Crete was subdued by the Romans in 67 B.c., and
was held by the Greek emperors (with an interval
of Saracen rule in 823-961), until the capture of
Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204). A year
or two afterwards the Venetians established them-
selves here, and kept possession till—after the ter-
rible siege of the then capital, Candia, which lasted
three years—the Turks conquered the island. 'The
Cretans are a turbulent race, of proved and pro-
verbial mendacity, bold, independent, and hard to
govern ; and, except after defeated rebellions, their
subjeetion to the Porte was more nominal than real.
They shared in the Greek rising of 1821, but were
subdued by Ibrahim Pasha in 1824; and from 1830
till 1841 ‘ the Powers’ left it under the administra-
tion of the Viceroy of Egypt. A really serious
rebellion against Turkish male took place in 1866,
suppressed with difficulty by Omar Pasha in 1867,
Greek assistance and European sympathy prolong-
ing the native resistance; and in 1869 a convention
at Halepa, a suburb of Canea, made important con-
cessions to the islanders, never fully carried into
effect. After repeated risings and nominal conces-
sions, a very resolute rebellion broke out in 1896,
which brought the whole Eastern Question into an
acute phase. The Greek intervention here led to
the short but disastrous war of the Greeks with
the Turks in April and May of 1897, when the
Turkish victory made it difficult for the ‘Concert
of Europe,’ hampered by international jealousy, to
secure for the Cretans the promised autonomy, with
a Christian prince of their own. Prodigious diffi-
culty was experienced in keeping the peace on the
island by means of a large body of men and ships
belonging to the various Powers. A serious and
fatai Moslem attack on a British force in Candia
led to an ultimatum by Britain, Russia, France,
and Italy, which was accepted by the Sultan in
October 1898, and the Turkish troops were with-
drawn; and in December, Prince George of Greece
reached Crete as High Commissioner for Europe.

See books on Crete by Spratt (1865), Raulin (Paris,
1869), Stillman (New York, 1874), and Edwardes (1887 ) ;
H. F. Tozer, The Islands of the Afgean (1890); and
R. A. H. Bickford-Smith, Cretan Sketches (1898).

Cretinism (Fr. crétin, ‘an idiot ;’ probably
from chrétien, ‘a Christian,’ an ‘innocent’). Idi
or defective mental development, associated wit
bodily deformity or arrested growth, occurring along
with Goitre (q.v.) or enlargement of the thyroid
gland, in the lower mountain valleys of the
Swiss and Italian Alps, of the Pyrenees, of
Syria, India, and China. In Europe it is rarely
found above 3000 feet, and_ haunts chiefly
valleys surrounded by high and steep walls of
rock, which exclude the light, and limit the free
circulation of air. In some such localities it is
extremely prevalent. Cretins are always pitiable
and frequently repulsive objects; they are gener-
ally dirty, shameless, and obscene; their appetite 1s _
commonly voracious ; the mouth is large and open,
the tongue often protruded, the eyes small, the
nose flat and bros, the skull flattened above and

CRETONNE

CREWE 561

expanded at the sides, the forehead retreating, the
complexion cadaverous ; in addition to which, the
whole body is dwarfish, the skin thick and coarse,
the hands and feet large, the limbs often rickety,
belly protuberant. ent investigations have
shown that the connection between cretinism and
goitre is an extremely close one, The disease
called yp heavens (q.v.) closely resembles cretinism,
cept that it comes on during adult life; and it
has n proved to be always associated with
destructive change of the thyroid gland. A similar
condition has also been found to follow the removal
of the thyroid gland by surgical operation in a
large proportion of cases. It is, therefore, probable
that loss of the function of the thyroid gland is the
essential factor in the production of cretinism,
while goitre consists in its enlargement. It is as
yet quite uncertain, however, why the inhabit-
ants of particular districts are so liable to disease
of this organ. Many attempts have been made to
improve the condition of the cretin in childhood,
by removing him from the locality of his birth,
and by careful training; the institution founded
by Dr og arreator on the Abendberg, near Inter-
laken in Switzerland, having been the prototype
of many others on the Continent, and of some
- England and Scotland, for the education of
ots.

Cretonne, originally a white cloth of French
manufacture, is a name now applied to a printed
cotton fabric used for curtains or for covering furni-
ture, which was introduced about 1860. Chintz
(q.v.), so much employed for the same purpose in
former years, is a comparatively thin printed cloth
usually highly glazed. Cretonne, on the other
hand, is generally thick and strong for a cotton
fabric, and with a twilled, crape, basket, wave, or
other fi produced on the loom. When a
pattern is printed on this uneven surface (it is
sometimes plain), it has a rich, soft appearance.
A eretonne is rarely calendered or glazed. The
thick weft threads of inferior qualities are com-
monly formed of waste cotton, and the patterns
upon these, though often bright and showy, are as
a rule printed in more or less fugitive colours.
Some cretonne:; are now printed on both sides with
different patterns.

Creuse, a river and a department in the centre
of France. The river rises near Féniers, on the
northern slope of Mont Odouze, and flows 146 miles
north-westward till it falls into the Vienne, a
tributary of the Loire, 12 miles N. of Chatellerault.
—The department, with an area of 2150 sq. m.,
had a population of (1872) 274,663 ; (1891) 284,660.
Low mountains and chains of hills, 2000 to 3000
feet high, occupy the greater of the land.
The climate is moist and variable, and the soil
thin and.light, interspersed with stretches of heath
and pasture in the southern hilly district, but
better in the lowlands of the north-east. The
rearing of cattle forms the chief industry, and
large quantities of chestnuts and fruit are grown.
Coal is mined at Ahun. Creuse is divided into the
arrondissements of Aubusson, rs ti Boussae,
and Guéret, with Guéret for capital.

Creusot, or Creuzot, LE, a town in the
French department of Sadéne-et-Loire, 14 miles
SSE. of Autun, and 236 SSE. of Paris. Situated
in the midst of a district rich in coal and iron, it
owes its importance to the establishment here in
1837 of the great ironworks of Schneider & Co.,
which rank amongst the largest in Europe. They
have their own collieries and coke furnaces, have
large smelting furnaces and rolling-mills for armour-

lates, execute military engineering work of all

inds, especially cannon, and employ over 13,000
facial gai (1846) 4012; (1891) 18,467. See

1

Vadot, Le Creusot, son Histoire, son Industrie (1875),
and works by Hennebert (1890) and Weyl (1889).

Creuzer, Friepricu, a learned German philo-
logist, was born at Marburg, March 10, 1771, and
studied there and at Jena. In 1802 he was called
to a chair at Marburg, and in 1804 to that of Philo-
logy and Ancient History at Heidelberg, which
he filled till his retirement in 1845. Here he died,
15th February 1858. Creuzer's first and greatest
work was his perversely ingenious and learned
Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders
der Griechen (4 vols. Leip. 1810-12). His symboli-
cal explanation of ancient mythologies was assailed
by Hermann, Voss, Lobeck, and Pott. His next
work in importance was a complete edition of the
works of Plotinus (3 vols. Oxford, 1835). With
G. H. Moser, Creuzer edited several of the philo-
sophical works of Cicero. Most of his writings
are collected in the series of Deutsche Schriften
(1837-54), which contains also his autobiography,
under the title Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors,
subsequently divided and arranged into Deutsche
Lehr- und Wanderjahre and Paralipomena. In
1854 appeared his Opuscula Selecta.

Crevasse. See GLACIER.

Crevecceur (Fr., ‘heart-breaker’), a once
famous Dutch fort in the province of North
Brabant, at the confluence of the Meuse and the
Dieze, 4 miles NNW. of Bois-le-Duc. It figures in
history from 1587 to 1794.

Crevillenté, a town of Spain, 20 miles WSW.
of Alicante. Pop. 8683.

Crew, of a ship, is a collective name for all the
pense employed therein, but usually limited to

esignate petty-officers and seamen only. In
men-of-war, the entire crew are divided into five
groups : (1) Commissioned and warrant officers ; (2)
chie pln (i nosigal (3) first-class petty-officers ;
(4) second-class petty-officers; (5) able seamen,
ordinary seamen, non-combatants, and boys. In
the royal navy there are upwards of 180 different
ranks, grades, or offices among the crew, excluding
officers and marines.

In the case of a merchant-ship about to proceed
on a foreign-going voyage from‘a British port, the
crew sign the agreement between the shipowner
and themselves (usually called ‘the articles’) in
the Mercantile Marine fice in the presence of the
officers of the Board of Trade; and on returning to
the United a the master must lodge the
articles at the Mercantile Marine Office within
forty-eight hours of his arrival, and the crew are
discharged there. Seamen leaving the vessel
abroad must be discharged before the British
consul, and new engagements abroad must be
made before the same official. In the case of vessels
in the coasting trade, the crew sign articles on
board the vessel, but the agreements are handed
over to the Mercantile Marine Offices every June
and December. Vessels under 80 tons hand over
their crew-lists only, in the same manner. There
is no statutory scale for ocean British ships,
but the Passengers Act requires that a ship carry-
ing emigrants shall be manned with an ‘eflicient’
crew to the satisfaction of the emigration officer
clearing her. Owing to improvements in masting
and rigging, the use of better mechanical appliances,
and the necessity for economical working, mer-
chant-ships’ crews are now smaller than in former
years, except in the best class of passenger vessels.

Crewe, a town of Cheshire, with a great railway
unction and the huge works of the London and
orth-Western Railway, to which it owes its
prenss importance. It is 158 miles NW. of

ndon, 43 SE. of Liverpool, 31 SSW. of Man-
chester, and 53 NW. of Birmingham. About 1840

562 CREWEL-WORK

CRICHTON

there were only two or three houses where Crewe
now stands; but since then its population has
grown to 4491 in 1851, 8159 in 1861, 17,810 in 1871,
and 24,385 in 1881—chiefly employed in the railway
stations, and in the world-famous locomotive and
carriage works, which were commenced in 1843.
Naturally, Crewe is not an attractive place, though
the London and North-Western Company have
erected a good many handsome buildings, done
much in the way of sanitation, and in 1887-88
presented the town with a beautifully laid-out park
of 40 acres. Crewe was incorporated in 1877. Lord
Crewe’s seat, Crewe Hall, by Inigo Jones, was
destroyed by fire in 1866, but has been since
rebuilt. Pop. of Crewe in 1891, 28,761.

Crewel-work is a kind of embroidery in fine
worsted or silk. See EMBROIDERY.

Crewkerne, a market-town of Somersetshire,
in the fertile valley of the Parret, 15 miles SE. of
Taunton. It has a cruciform Perpendicular church,
with a splendid west front; a grammar-school
(1499), occupying commodious new buildings; a
railway station (1860); and manufactures of sail-
cloth, girth-web, hair-seating, &c. Pop. of parish
(1891) 4946; of town, 3500. See Pulman’s Book
of the Axe (4th ed, 1875).

Cribbage, a game at cards, probably of English
origin. It does not appear in foreign treatises on

ames, and in the Academy of Play (1768), trans-
ated from the French, cribbage is called an English
game. Cribbage is played with a pack of fifty-two
cards ; the scores accrue in consequence of certain
combinations in play, hand, and crib (for an
account of which see any treatise on the game).
The scores are marked on a cribbage board pierced
with holes. Cribbage was formerly called noddy.
It is mentioned under that name in an epigram by
Sir John Harrington (1615). Nares (Glossary)
says noddy was not played with a board ; but Gayton
(Festivous Notes upon Don Quixot, 1654) speaks of
noddy-boards. The earliest description of the game
is in Lhe Compleat Gamester (1674). Under cribbage
it is stated that the game was sixty-one, ‘set up
with counters ;’ and that knave-noddy is one in
hand and two to the dealer—i.e. if turned up. In
1791 Anthony Pasquin (pseudonym) published a
treatise on the game of cribbage; and in 1800
cribbage was added to revised editions of Hoyle’s
Games. The most comprehensive work on the
game is Walker’s Cribbage Player's Handbook,
long out of print, but republished in great part
in Bohn’s Handbook of Games.

Crib-biting is a bad habit and an unsoundness
met with especially in the lighter breeds of horses,
and those spending a considerable amount of leisure
in the stable. The act consists in the animal
seizing with his teeth the manger, rack, or any
other such object, and taking in at the same
time a deep inspiration, technically called wind-
sucking. Grib- biting springs often from idle
play, may be first indulged in during grooming,
especially if the operation is conducted in the
stall, and the animal be needlessly teased or
tickled ; is occasionally learned, apparently, by
imitation from a neighbour; and in the first
instance is frequently a symptom of some form of
indigestion. Its indulgence may be suspected
where the outer margins of the front teeth are
worn and rugged, and will soon be proved by turn-
ing the animal loose where he can find suitable
objects to lay hold of. It usually interferes with
thriving and condition, and leads to attacks of
indigestion. It can be prevented only by the use
of a muzzle or throat-strap; but in those newly-
acquired cases resulting from gastric derangement,
means must further be taken to remove the acidity
or other such disorder.

Crichton, JAMES, surnamed the ‘ Admirable,’
son of Robert Crichton of Eliock, Dumfriesshire,
Lord Advocate of Scotland, was born on 19th August
1560. He was educated at St Salvator’s College,
St Andrews, where George Buchanan was his
tutor, and where he graduated M.A. in 1575. In
1577 Crichton left Scotland. He was for two years
in France, where he seems to have served in the
French army. There is no trustworthy evidence
that he distinguished himself as a disputant at the
university of Paris. In July 1579 he was at
Genoa, and addressed the senate in a Latin eration,
which was printed. Next year he reached Venice,
and printed a Latin poem addressed to the scholar
Aldus Manutius, grandson of the founder of the
Aldine press. Aldus took the youth under his
patronage, and issued a printed handbill announe-
ing a great scholastic disputation in which Crichton
was to take part. The young Scotchman was there
described as a skilled athlete, scholar, poet, linguist,
with unparalleled powers of memory. In 1581
(according to Aldus) Crichton went to Padua and
overcame all the scholars there in public disputa-
tions. At the end of 1583 Aldus issued an edition
of Cicero’s De Universitate, dedicated to Crichton’s
memory, and asserted there that his versatile
protége died on 3d November 1583. No details
are given, and although Aldus’s date has been
widely adopted, it is clearly an error. In 1584
Crichton visited Milan. There late in that year
he published an elegy on the death of the
archbishop, Cardinal Borromeo, and two gratula-
tory odes—one addressed to the cardinal’s suc-
cessor, Gasper Visconti, and the other to Charles
Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, on his marriage. Early
next year (March 1585) he issued a collection
of scattered Latin poems dedicated to the chief-
magistrate of Milan. This is the latest date at
which he is known to have been alive. In 1591
Crichton’s younger brother Robert had become
owner of his father’s property in Scotland. Hence
Crichton died between 1585 and 1591. In 1601 one
Thomas Wright, in Passions of the Mind, related
that when in Italy he heard that a young (un-
named) Scotchman, ‘of most rare and singular
parts,’ was attacked by an (unspecified) Italian
prince in disguise; that the prince, running some
risk from the Scotchman’s sword, announced his
name; that the Scotchman, who was rere
acquainted with the prince, handed him his sword,
ana the prince thereupon basely ran his opponent
through the body. John Johnston, in Heroes Scott
(1603), states that Crichton was killed at Mantua
by a son of the duke in a nocturnal brawl, and
that he was buried at Mantua. Crichton’s early
17th-century biographers combine Wright’s and
Johnston’s stories, alaime such doubtful details as
that Crichton was tutor to his assailant, the Duke
of Mantua’s son, on the recommendation of Pope
Clement VIII. Wright and Johnston were prac-
tically contemporaries of Crichton, and the outline
of their story is doubtless true. But the fatal
encounter at Mantua must be dated at least two
years later than the date of Crichton’s death
supplied by Aldus. John Johnston in 1603 first
used the epithet ‘admirable’ in describing Crichton

(‘omnibus in studiis admirabilis’ ), and it was again

employed in David Leitch’s Philosophia tllacry-
mans (1637). But Crichton chiefly owes his popu-
lar reputation, as well as his designation of ‘the
Admirable,’ to Sir Thomas Eh dot of Cromarty,
who wrote an extravagantly fantastic account of
the scholastic and athletic prowess which he dis-
played at Paris and Mantua in his Discovery of a
most exquisite Jewel (1652). There is little that is
historical in Urquhart’s fables, although they have
been largely accepted by later biographers, includin

P. F. Tytler, the first edition of whose biography o

CRICHTON

CRICKET 563

Crichton appeared in 1819, and the second in 1825.
Aldus’s testimony to Crichton’s versatility is alone
worthy of serious consideration. Aldus was in the
habit of praising extravagantly promising young
peengers at the Italian universities, and ascribes
to a Polish contemporary of Crichton, Stanislaus
Ni uski, almost the identical accomplishments
with which he credits Crichton. That Crichton’s
power of memory was extraordinary, is, however,
dependently corroborated by a physician of Treviso
near Venice, named Bartolomeo Burchelati, in his
Epitaphiorum Dialogi Septem (1583). And there is
no reason to doubt his linguistic facility or his
skill as afencer. But the numerous Latin verses
and prose essays which Crichton printed indicate
no special capacity. Harrison Ainsworth wrote
a novel on Crichton’s apocryphal career in 1837.
For a critical and bibliographical account, see
articles in Dictionary of National Biography, and
in Gentleman’s Magazine for March 1888 = by
Sidney L. Lee). A genealogical paper by John
Stuart in orth of Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland (1855), ii. 103-18, is also useful. Unique
copies of most of Crichton’s publications are in the
Grenville Library of the British Museum.
Cricket. Like that of most games pared with
a ball, the origin of cricket may be said to be lost
in obscurity. Numerous researches have been
made in the hope of fixing a date, but no seally
satisfactory conclusion has n arrived at, thoug
it is tolerably certain that the game, in some
shape or form, existed at a very remote period of
antiquity. Various attempts have been made to
rove that the birthplace of cricket was outside the
imits of Great Britain ; but the weight of evidence
favours the popular view that to England alone the
world is indebted for this manly and universally
liked game. It is considered highly probable that
the word cricket is a corruption of creag, a variation
of an old Saxon word signifying a game played
with a crooked bat; if so, it would appear that
cricket was known amongst us nearl
ago, as the word is found to have Be in use
during the reign of Edward I. (1300). This, how-
ever, is supported only by material of slender
character. Strutt, one of our best authorities on
ancient sport, adduces some evidence to show that
‘club-ball,’ played in the 14th century, may have
been the parent of cricket, but both ‘cat-and-dog’
(mention of which occurs in the 16th century) and
‘stool-ball’ (frequently referred to in the 17th
century) have a closer affinity. It is stated in
Russell’s History of Guildford that cricket was
sas fe in that well-known Surrey town in the
middle of the 16th century, but for fifty years sub-
sequently no trace has been found; and indeed
history tells us really little or nothing of the game
that is not speculative until the opening of the 18th
century, from which period its growth may be
readily followed, though scarcely anything of a
definite character is to be gleaned even at that
time as to the mode of playing the game. While
it was then generally admitted to be healthful, it
was condemned on account of the amount of
gambling associated with it.
There is some evidence of a match having been
or pe between Kent and All England previously ;
ut the earliest matches of which copies of the
scores have been preserved were those of Kent
v. All England, decided on the Artillery Ground,
Finsbury, in 1746, and of Hambledon (a club started
about 1750, and which held a somewhat similar
conecn to that afterwards taken up by the
arylebone Club, inasmuch as the Hambledonians
played matches in different parts of England, and
generally promoted the interests of the game)
against Kent, which took place at Bishopsbourne
Paddock, near Canterbury, August 19, 1772.

years

Nearly two years after the latter match—viz.
February 25, 1774—a committee of noblemen and
entlemen met at the Star and Garter, in Pall Mall,
ndon, and formally drew up a set of laws for the
began of the game, and these are believed to
ave been the first written laws. They have from
time to time undergone extensive alteration and
addition. In those days the runs scored were
recorded by means of notches made on the edge of
a strip of wood ; the wickets were placed, as now, 22
yards apart, with a popping-crease, 3 feet 10 inches
(now 4 feet) in front of each; the stumps, two in
number, were 22 inches long, and the bail 6 inches
(a “cae ety wicket having n 2 feet wide, with a
hole dug out of the ground in the centre, and
1 foot high); the ball weighed from 5 to 6
ounces. Towards the end of the 18th century a
third stump was added to the wicket, which then
became 2 inches higher and 1 inch broader, and the
only change made since has been a further increase
both in height and width. There was at first no
limit to the size of the bat, and the early instru-
ments were curved at the end, so that little else
than hitting could have been attempted; but as
the character of the bowling changed and became
more destructive, alterations were made in the in-
strument of defence, which even at the beginnin
of the 19th century was inelegant compared wit
that now used. The later portion of the 18th
century was remarkable for the formation of the

‘Marylebone Club, which took place in 1787 on the

dissolution of the White Conduit Club, which had
had an existence of several years, and had played
matches in the fields from which the club took its
name. The new club, destined to become the con-
troller of cricket, located itself in Dorset Square,
in the parish of Marylebone, for about a quarter of
a century; then went to North Bank, Regent’s
Park, but after a brief period had in to make
a move, and finally in 1814 settled down in the
St John’s Wood Road, its arrest quarters.
‘Lord’s,’ as the home of the M.C.C. has always
been known, is the best-appointed cricket ground
in the kingdom.

To John Nyren (born in 1764) and Lambert (born
in 1779) we are indebted for the earliest printed
instructions as to how to play the game ; but these
cricketers of vast experience had many imitators,
and the comparatively large amount of cricket
literature that sprung up at this period furthered
the interests of the game in a marked de
Round-arm bowling was introduced during the life-
times of these two famous cricketers, and both
viewed it with disfavour, Lambert declaring that
if continued it would have a degenerating effect.
Two counties claimed to have introduced the new
style, Kent averring that Wills was the discoverer,
and Sussex that the honour rested with Broad-
bridge. Wills was crelage the first to really put
into practice the style of bowling identical with
that now so universally adopted, though the
delivery then was not nearly so high as it sub-
sequently became. Round-arm bowling was not
allowed to have an uninterrupted career. The
delivery increased in height as the advantage of
so doing was observed, and so suspiciously like
throwing was some of this bowling thought, that
after it had been practised for eight or ten years
the Marylebone Club discarded it altogether.. It
was revived, however, about 1825, and on the hard
and uneven surfaces upon which cricket was then
frequently played, it e so dangerous that
recourse was had to leg-guards and batting-gloves,
articles which had had no previous existence.
During the second quarter of the 19th century the
game made rapid strides, and grew in popularit
with the middle and upper classes. The celebra

Zingari, consisting entirely of gentlemen, was

564

CRICKET

formed in 1845, and cricket began to be taken up
by other countries in a slight degree.

County cricket, too, which is at the present time
the mainstay of the game, was becoming general,
though the interest in many of the matches was
discounted by some of the players being found in
the ranks of two or three counties in one season.
Several of the counties played matches early in
the 19th century and even before; but properly
organised county clubs did not exist for many years
afterwards, as the following dates of formation
show: Surrey, 1845; Sussex, 1857 (having been
conducted by a committee from 1842); Kent, 1859
(re-formed in 1879); Notts, 1859; Yorkshire, 1863;
Lancashire, 1864; Middlesex, 1868; Gloucester-
shire and Derbyshire, 1870. In June 1873 rules
were passed respecting the qualification of count

layers, and since then county cricket has left

ittle room for the elevens which were wont to
perambulate the country under the respective titles
of All England, United All England, and later still
the United South. Even the matches between
the Gentlemen and Players, and North v. South,
which at one time were the most attractive of the
season, have in a measure had to take a secondary

osition, for the increased demands of the counties

ave made it almost impossible for such contests to
be of a thoroughly representative character. Inter-
national cricket dates back as far as 1859, when
George Parr took a teanr out to America. This
was followed two years later by the visit of a team
to Australia under the captaincy of H. H. Stephen-
son, and up to 1876 three teams had visited
America, and four Australia, while in 1868 England
welcomed a party of aborigines. Then 1878 was
signalised by the arrival in England of Conway’s
Australian eleven, the first of its kind, but destined
to be followed by many others. The latest develop-
ment in the game was the two new M.C.C. rules
(1889), increasing the number of balls in an over
from four to five, and allowing a captain to declare
an innings closed.

So much for its history and the variety of opinions
held by its historians. As to the merits of the
game as now played but one opinion exists. By
general assent cricket stands pre-eminent amongst
the many outdoor pastimes pursued during the
summer months. All classes play it, and at im-
portant matches the company of lookers-on includes
representatives of all grades of society. The keenest
interest, too, is shown in connection with the lead-
ing fixtures of the season, and the results of man
matches are telegraphed to all parts of the world.
One of the great reasons of the remarkable popu-
larity of this game is its uncertainty. Cricket is
not solely an affair of skill; chance is also a factor
to a very large extent. Conditions of ground and
weather exert such a remarkable influence on the
game that in many cases a side which apparently
possessed little hope of success has come out of a
match victorious. A mistake in the field, an act of
carelessness on the part of a batsman, may change
the character of the whole game, and indeed ‘ never
lost till won’ may with greater reason be applied to
cricket than any other pastime. Within the reach
of almost every one, cricket is, as a most enthusi-
astic lover of the game has put it, a health-giving,
glorious amusement, calculated to bring out all good
| papennen trying alike temper, patience, and courage.

‘o excel at cricket it is necessary that the study of
the game should be commenced at an early age,
as a great deal of patience and practice is requisite.
At nearly all, if not all, of our public schools, a
cricket ‘coach’ or tutor is engaged, and as many of
the masters are capable and only too willing to give
good advice, the yom of the middle and upper
classes have splendid opportunities of cultivating a
good style, a most essential element towards success.

Instruction from old cricketers given at practice
time is the best of all instruction, and this should
always be remembered by those less fortunately
laced than public-school boys and university men,
rom whose ranks the best amateur talent is drawn.
In speaking of practice, Dr W. G. Grace, the most
famous cricketer of this age, says, ‘that the
more nearly the practice-game approaches to a
match, and the more steady and peineials the
player is, the better. One of the best methods of
practice I know of is for sixteen people to pla
amongst themselves ; eleven to go into the field,
two to go to the wickets, two to the umpiring, and
one scoring. An afternoon’s practice, to last for
four hours, will thus give a quarter of an hour in
each position to every player, and each player will
gain experience in every department of the game,
getting half an hour’s batting (fifteen minutes at
each wicket, no matter how often out), half an hour’s
bowling (fifteen minutes at each wicket), half an
hour’s umpiring (fifteen minutes at each end), a
quarter of an hour’s scoring, and two and a quarter
hour’s fielding, being fifteen minutes at each place ;
overs of four balls being bowled, and discipline
kept up paren ga 4 as ina match... . Theadvan-
tage of having eleven in the field when you are
practising is that you thereby best learn how to
judge the runs, and there is nothing so important
to a cricketer as to be able to do this well.’

The game of cricket can be played either at
single-wicket or double-wicket, but matches at the
former have become very rare. For the latter, two
wickets must be pitched opposite and parallel to
each other at a distance of 22 yards, each wicket to
be 8 inches in width, and to consist of three Py
(of equal and sufficient size to prevent the ball
from passing through, 27 inches out of the ground)
with two bails (4 inches in length, and when in
position not to project more than half an inch above
the stumps) upon the top. In a line with the
wicket and extending three feet on either side of it,
is the bowling-crease, beyond the limits of which
the bowler must not go. He uses a ball measuring
in circumference not less than 9 inches, nor more
than 9} inches, and weighing not less than 5%
ounces, nor more than 52 ounces; and he bowls
either round-arm or underhand, and at what pace
he pleases. Four feet in front of the wicket and

‘parallel with it is the popping-crease, which defines

the batsman’s territory. nyWhere behind the
opping-crease the batsman is in his own ground.
he bat used must not exceed 4} inches in Re
widest part, and must not be more than 38 ine
in length. A match is played between two sides of
eleven players each, unless otherwise agreed to;
each side has two innings, taken alternate y; unless
the side which goes in second scores eighty runs
(sixty in a one-day match) less than the opposing
side, in which case it follows its innings (i.e.
has to play again). The choice of innings is
decided by tossing. Two members of one side go
in to bat, and the rival eleven take up various
positions in the field, the ball being bowled in
overs from each wicket alternately. The score is
reckoned by runs, and a run is obtained each time
the batsmen, after a hit, or at any time while the
ball is in play, cross and make good their ground
from end to end; also by means of a no-ball (the
penalty for delivering the ball unfairly or from the
wrong position), wide ball (a ball that in the
opinion of the umpire is not within reach of the
batsman), and in the event of the fieldsman stop-
ping the ball otherwise than with any part of his
person. The side which scores the greatest number
of runs wins the match. The batsman may be
bowled, caught, stumped, or run out; he may be
out leg before wicket, for obstructing the field,
for hitting the ball twice (except for the pur-

A CRICKET MATCH.

Vol. ITI, page 564.

‘Ts. oe
P oo :

CRICKET

565

of guarding his wicket), or for handling the

ll while in play, unless requested to do so by the

opposite side. It is the ok as of the fieldsmen to
save as many runs as ible, and to do this the

should not = ¥'6 watch every ball that is bowled,
but they should endeavour, if possible, to anticipate
tong Leg
ones Slip
Short Sil
Sip
Third Man
&
Wicket Keeper
e.g
UrPire
Bat nas
Cover Point ,
: Wid On
z
Mid
or
flo Batsman
Bowler
O Umpire
Long Field
eo

The Cricket Field for Fast Bowling.

where the batsman intends to hit the ball. The
os of the fieldsmen vary with the bowling,

ut for fast bowling may be given as wicket-
keeper, point, cover-point, short-slip, long-slip,
third man, long-field, mid-on, mid-off, long-leg,
bowler. The bowler as a rule takes slip at the
end he bowls from, for the simple reason that little
running about is required of him. For point
and cover-point great smartness is n , and
both long-slip and long-leg are places which are
not easy to fill satisfactorily ; while the long-fields
should be good at throwing, and able to judge a
catch well. It is necessary to have two umpires
and a scorer.

See C. Box, The English Game of Cricket (1877), and
Chronicles of Cricket (1888); Lillywhite’s Cricket Scores
and Biographies (1862); Daft’s Kings of Cricket (1893);
books on the game by Gale (1888), ar (1889), W. G.
Grace (1891), and Nyren (1893); the ‘Badminton’
manual, by Steel, Lyttleton, and others (1889); and
The Jubilee Book of Cricket, by the ‘Black Prince of
Cricketers,’ Prince Ranjitsinhji (1897 ).

Cricket (Gryllus), a genus of orthopterous
insects akin to grasshoppers. Long feelers, a
rasping organ on the wing-covers of the maies,
wings closely folded lengthwise, but often alon
with the wing-covers degenerate, great powers 0
leaping, and a retiring, more or less subterranean
habit of life, are some of the more important char-
acteristics of the family (Gryllide) of which the
cricket is a type. The females are fertilised by
means of peculiar spermatophores, and as in allied
Orthoptera there is no marked metamorphosis in
the life-history. In the genus Gryllus the head is
blunt, the antenne are long and thin, the wings
are always present, the hind-legs are very broad and

strong, and the females have a straight protruding
egg-laying organ. — The Field Cricket (G. campestris )
is very common throughout Europe in fields and
meadows (local in England), and is very well
known from the sound, by means of which the
male captivates his mate. The body is compressed,
the head is black and shining, the wing-covers are
brown and yor at the roots. As in other crickets,
the noise of the males is made by rubbing the wing-
covers against one another. The under side of one of
the nervures bears over a hundred sharp transverse
ridges or teeth. These insects hide in burrows in
the ground, and sometimes do much damage to
vegetables. The female lays numerous eggs in the
burrow, and the larve remain as such through the
winter.—The House Cricket (G. domesticus) has a
lanker, yellowish-brown body an inch long.

recent arrival in the United States, it is common
throughout Europe in houses, is said to occur in
the open air in Madeira, and even in Britain occa-
sionally wanders out of doors in summer. It
hides in nooks and crevices, and loves the neigh-
bourhood of the fire, especially in winter. Its
merry note has become associated with ideas of
domesticity (as in Dickens’s Cricket on the Hearth).

House Cricket ( Gryllus domesticus) :
a, full-grown larva; b, pupa; ¢, perfect insect.

Without the heat of the fire, it becomes more
or less dormant in winter. It remains quiet dur-
ing the day, but hunts about actively at night

Mole Cricket and eggs (Gryllotalpa vulgaris).

for crumbs and other scraps both animal and

vegetable. For the sake of both food and warmth
it often uents bakehouses. The larve are
wingless, and the pupe have only rudimenta

wings. The loudest noise made by a cricket is
probably that of a Sicilian species (G. megalo-

566 CRICKLADE

CRIME

cephalus), which is said to make itself heard ‘at a
distance of a mile.’ Closely allied to the above
genus is Myrmecophila, a wingless cricket with
extremely strong hind-legs. Onl: the females are
known, and these live parasitically in ants’ nests.
The Mole Cricket ( Gryllotalpa) belongs to the same
family, and is distinguished by the enormous bur-
rowing fore-legs, by the large size of the anterior
ring of the thorax, and by the absence of an ovi-
positor in the females. The only European species
(G. vulgaris) is a large and formidable insect, some-
times attaining a length of two inches. It is of a
grayish-brown colour, with a silken sheen. It bur-
rows like a mole in fields and meadows, but is
sometimes seen in flight in the evenings. Numerous
eggs, inclosed in a cocoon, are laid underground.
The larve are long in becoming adult. The mole
cricket often does damage by biting at the roots of
vegetable ee Like the field cricket, however,
it feeds very largely on ground insects and the like.
A South American and West Indian species (G.
didactyla) damages the sugar-canes.

Cricklade, a town in Wiltshire, on the Isis or

hames, 7 miles NNW. of Swindon. Enfranchised
under Edward I., it returned two members to
parliament till its disfranchisement in 1885, the
‘borough’ since 1782 having included forty-four
parishes and parts of six others, with a population
of 51,956. Pop. of town, 1680.

Crieff, a town of Perthshire, on the Earn’s left
bank, 26 miles NNE. of Stirling, and 18 W. of
Perth by two branch lines opened in 1856-66. It
is situated in the midst of exquisite scenery,
enjoys a pure dry climate, has a large hydropathic
(1867), two old market-crosses, some handsome
new churches, and Morison’s Academy (1859). Its
famous cattle fair was transferred about 1770 to
Falkirk ; the manufacture of woollens was intro-
duced in 1812. Of many seats in the neighbour-
hood, Drummond Castle (1491), Lord Willoughby
de Eresby’s, is famous for the beauty of its gardens.
Pop. (1851) 3824; (1881) 4469 ; (1891) 4901.

Crillon, Louis DES BALBES DE BERTON DE,
surnamed ‘Le Brave,’ was born at Murs in Pro-
vence in 1541. Under Francis of Lorraine, Duke
of Guise, then the model of military chivalry,
he was trained for war, and, still a boy, covered
himself with glory at the siege of Calais, and at
the capture of Guines. His heroism was rewarded
with a number of church benefices, which he
intrusted to the care of learned clerks. He
distinguished himself further at Dreux, Jarnac,
and Moncontour. Wounded at Lepanto (1571), he
was yet sent to carry the news of the victory to
the pope and the French king. His noble heart
abhorred the treachery and horrors of St Bartho-
lomew, but he took part in the siege of La Rochelle
in 1573. Faithful to his king in his struggle with
the Catholic League, after his death he gave heart
allegiance to Henry IV. When the peace faith
Savoy was concluded, Crillon retired to Avignon,
and, after the fashion of a true Catholic warrior,
ended his days ‘in the exercise of piety and pen-
ance,’ December 2, 1615. A somewhat melodra-
matic story is told how once when listening at
church to an account of the crucifixion, the old
hero, brandishing his sword, cried out: ‘ Where
wert thou, Crillon ?’

Crime, in its legal, as opposed to its moral or
ethical sense, is an act done in violation of those
duties for the breach of which the law has provided
that the offender, in addition to repairing, if it be
possible, the injury done to the individual, shall
make satisfaction to the community. A private
wrong, or civil injury, on the other hand, is an
infringement on the rights of an individual merely,
for which compensation to him is held to be suffi-

cient. Legal criminality is not a permanent char-
acteristic of actions as such, but one decided by
considerations of expediency. Without changing
its absolute moral character, the same action may,
and very often is, criminal in one country or genera-
tion, and no crime in another country or generation.
It cannot, however, be supposed that the crimin-
ality or non-criminality of an action does not
exercise an important reflex influence on the moral
judgment of the community with respect to the
particular action. Malice or evil intention is
essential to the character of most crimes, for
though there may be an immoral act which it is
inexpedient to punish, it can rarely be expedient to
punish what is not an immoral act. But it is not
necessary that the evil intention shall have had
reference to the party injured. If the offender
acted in defiance of social duty, a crime has been
committed, though not the particular crime in-
tended. For example, it is murder if A kill B by
mistake for C, unless the killing of C would have
been justifiable, or excusable. But the absurd
doctrine of versans in illicito, according to which
A shooting at his neighbour’s poultry, and kill-
ing his neighbour, is guilt of murder, is now
generally abandoned. The law can take no cog-
nisance of a bare intention which has not ripened
into any:sort of act. How far Attempts (q.v.)
are punishable is always a question of difficulty.
The general rule seems to be that if such acts
can be unequivocally connected with the criminal
intention, they are Rp though not to
the same extent as the ey eted crime—e.g. if
the act is one of a series which, if not interrupted,
would result in the commission of the crime,
even though the accused voluntarily desisted from
further attempts. Pupils under seven years of
age, and insane persons, as being incapable of
design or intention, are regarded in the eye of the
law as incapable of crime; as regards children
between seven and fourteen it must be shown that
they had capacity to know their act was wrong. In
the case of persons under sixteen, otherwise known
as juvenile offenders, magistrates have a large dis-
cretion to substitute for ordinary punishment con-
finement in a reformatory school. The legal defini-
tion of insanity is well settled in England and
Scotland, but is totally inadequate from the medico-
af Saab ae point of view. The law of responsi-

ility in drunkenness and delirium tremens also re-
quires amendment. Ignorance of law is no defence
—e.g. a foreigner, killing his opponent in a duel
in England, is guilty of murder. In some cases
ignorance of fact is important—e.g. where bigamy
is charged against a woman who had reason to
believe her husband dead. The defence of com-
pulsion, if completely established in fact, is gener-
ally sufficient in law. The subjection of a servant
to a master, or of a wife or child to a husband -
or parent, will be no defence, but in the latter
ease few juries would convict, except in extra-
ordinary circumstances. Magistrates acting bond
Jide, and soldiers and policemen acting under their
officers in the ordinary line of duty, are not liable
to a criminal charge. Extreme want is no excuse
in law, though it furnishes a ground for an appli
cation for mercy, as in cannibalism at sea. :

In the technical language of the law of England,
the term offence has a wider signification than crime,
the latter including only such of the former as are

unishable by Indictment (q.v.). Crimes are divided
into Misdemeanours (q.v.) and Felonies (q.v.), the
latter being a higher species of offence than the
former. The Criminal and Judicial Statistics give
annual data as to the number of trials and con-
victions, as to police, prisons, and prisoners, the
number of the criminal classes (29,226 in England
and Wales in 1886), &c. See CRIMINAL LAw.

_ ing five of t

CRIMEA

CRIMEAN WAR 567

Crime’a (Tartar Krym, anciently the Tauric
Chersonese ), a peninsula of South Russia, compris-

he eight districts of the government of
‘Taurida, between the Black Sea and Sea of Azov,

; — to the continent of Russia by the Isthmus of

kop, 184 miles long by 54 miles broad at its
roposed canal across the
isthmus, see CANAL). The peninsula is about 200
miles from east to west, by 1 miles from north to
south, with about 625 miles of coast-line, and an
area of about 10,000 sq. m. In shape it is an
irregular quadrilateral, projecting eastwards into
the insula of Kertch, which terminates at the
Strait of Yenikalé. Along the Siwash or Putrid
Sea on the north, and the Sea of Azoy, the coasts
are flat and open. To the west of the wide bay of
Katla or Theodosia the south coast becomes rocky
and elevated, and forms a succession of ca
and small gulfs. Balaklava, and more especially
Sebastopol, have fine harbours.

In the character of its surface, the north, and
much the larger part of the Crimea, is only a con-
tinuation of the South Russian steppe. The south-
ern part, from Cape Chersonese to the Strait of
Yenikalé, only about one-fifth of the whole penin-
sula, is highland, traversed by a mountain-chain,
the continuation of the Caucasus—a region pecker
cally, climatically, and botanically distinct from the
rest of Russia. The limestone mountains from
Cape Chersonese to Baffa Bay show deep erosion,
presenting the ruins of a vast tableland, sloping
gently northwards into the steppe, but hanging in
abrupt precipicee southwards. Chatir Dagh or
Tent Mount (anciently Mons Trapezus or Table
Mount), 5450 feet, is a quadrilateral mass of over
$ sq. m., isolated on all sides, and seems to be
exceeded in height by Roman Kosh. In the hilly
district about Kerte » are thermal and naphtha
springs, and mud volcanoes. There are some
fifty small rivers and rivulets, all fordable except
after the melting of the snows and heavy rains.
There are about four hundred salt lakes, rich in
salt. The climate is healthy, and generally mild.
But in winter the steppe is exposed to cold winds,
frost, and snowstorms, while the south coast is

narrowest part (for a

‘sheltered and warm. The steppe, though not fer-

tile, yet grazes innumerable herds of cattle, and
— porphyries and various coloured marbles.

he northern mountain-slopes are laid out in pas-
tures, thickets, orchards, and gardens watered from
the rivers. In the uplands are still magnificent
forests of oak, beech, elm, ash, willow, &c. On the
southern slopes grow sea-pine; lower down is an
Italian vegetation of laurel, pomegranate, fig,
arbutus, and vine. Here are famous health-resorts,
with Livadia and other imperial residences. Good
wine is largely produced, and some exported.
‘Though the Crimea was once famous for its corn,
it has suffered much from drought, and much
good land is now uncultivated. The fauna is not
rich. Of wild quadrupeds are the hare, fox, and

small rodents. All the domestic animals of the

Russian steppe have been introduced, as also the
Teatumped camel. The Crimea has a highly
prized oyster. The limestone mountains contain
porphyry, diorites, and nstone. Good coal is
mined ; an extensive field was opened in 1888.

The population numbers about 250,000, of whom
80,000 are Tartars, 130,000 Russians, and 40,000
Greeks, Jews, Bulgarians, Germans, &c. The
capital is Simferopol (q.v.), the old Tartar capital
being Bakchiserai (q.v.). The Crimea is con-
nected by railway with Russia, the main line
running from Alexiejevea to Sebastopol. In the
Black Sea, between Europe and Asia, of fine
climate and rich in products, the Crimea has from
earliest times been a bone of contention for succes-
sive nations, and the double or more manifold

names of many places, Greek, Tartar, Turk, Rus-
sian, record the dominations they have succes-
sively undergone. For the early history of the
Crimea, see Bosporus. In the 13th century

came the Tartars, the last of the Ghiret dynast
See J. B

abdicating in favour of Russia, 1787.
Telfer, The Crimea and Transcaucasia (1876).
Crimean War. For close upon forty years

Britain had been at with all the great powers
of Europe, but in 1853 a war-cloud arose on the
eastern horizon. Russia had long cast a covetous
eye upon Constantinople and the Sultan's

sions, and had contrived in various treaties to lay
the foundation of a claim to something like a pro-
tectorate over the Christians of the Greek Church
in Turkey, amounting to three-fourths of the
Sultan’s subjects in Europe. As early as 1844 the
Emperor Nicholas had pro to divide with
Britain the inheritance of the ‘sick man,’ so he
called Turkey ; and in 1853 he began to urge his
claims in a form which Turkey could not accept
without ceasing to remain an independent state.
The other great powers intervened as mediators,
but in vain; and meanwhile a Russian army took
possession of Moldavia and Wallachia. After
nearly a year of fruitless diplomacy, negotiations
Rear in a off, and Britain and France eed to
support Turkey by armed intervention. ar was
proclaimed against Russia on 28th March 1854.

The war thus undertaken lasted two years. At
first, England and France stood alone in their red

rt of rkey ; but early in 1855 Sardinia boldly
joined the alliance, and sent a contingent to the
seat of war. The other powers remained neutral
throughout the contest. The chief scenes of opera-
tion were the Black Sea and the Baltic. In the
spring of 1854 a powerful British and French fleet
appeared in the Gulf of Finland; but the Russian
fleet declined the combat, and kept safe behind
the granite fortresses of Cronstadt and Sveaborg,
which, owing to shallow water and difficult naviga-
tion, could not be attacked by the large vessels
composing the allied fleets. The only thing of im-
portance effected, besides imprisoning the enemy’s
navy and ruining his commerce, was the destruc-
tion of the fortress of Bomarsund, and the capture
of the Aland Islands, on which it was situated.
The second Baltic campaign, in 1855, was a repeti-
tion of the first. Sveaborg was bombarded and
partially destroyed, but again the want of gun-

ats confined the real services of the fleet to a
strict blockade of the Russian coasts.

In the Black Sea the Russian fleet followed the
same tactics as in the Baltic, and took refuge in
the fortified harbour of Sebastopol, sinking vessels
across the entrance to keep out the enemy. On
land, the Turkish forces, under Omar Pasha, had
sustained during the winter of 1853-54 an heroic
contest on the Danube against the Russian in-
vaders. The French and British troops sent to the
aid of the Sultan were landed at first in European
Turkey, chiefly at Varna (April and May 1854).
But the valiant defence of Silistria by the Turks
themselves rendered our advance in that direction
unnecessary ; after using every effort for six weeks,
the Russians had to retire baffled from before the
place. The allies having suffered great loss from
cholera at Varna, it was resolved to carry the war
into the Crimea; and on 14th September an army
of 25,000 British under Lord lan, as many
French under Marshal St Arnaud, and 8000 Turks,
landed on the west coast, 30 miles north of Sebas-
pa ey On the 20th they attacked and completely
defeated a Russian army strongly posted on the
steep heights above the river Alma; then taking
up position near Balaklava, to the south of Sebas-
topol, they commenced the siege of that vast
fortress. "The Russians made repeated attempts,

568 CRIMINAL CONVERSATION

CRIMINAL LAW

with overwhelming masses of troops, to force the
allied position, which led to the sanguinary battles
of Balaklava (25th October) and Inkermann (5th
November).

Balaklava was mainly a cavalry action, and did
far more credit to our soldiers’ gallantry than to
their commanders’ generalship. It will ever be
memorable for the glorious charge of the Light
Brigade, who, in pbédisnee to a bungled order, ‘rode
a mile and a half beneath a murderous fire against
the Russian army in position. Faster and faster
grew the pace, until with a cheer that was many
a hero’s death-ery, they broke right into the
battery, sabred the gunners, and burst through a
column of infantry. Then they paused, and cut
their way back ; but out of the six hundred who
had ridden forth, not two hundred returned. ‘It
is magnificent, but it is not war,’ was the comment
of a French general. Inkermann, known as the
Soldiers’ Battle, was fought on a dark and drizzly
morning of autumn. Taken unawares, and short of
cartridges, 8000 British sustained for several hours
a hand-to-hand fight against six times that number
of Russians, till 6000 French came to their aid,
and completed the rout of the enemy.

Throughout the ensuing winter, the allies,
especially the British, suffered terrible hardships,
owing partly to the rigour of the climate, but more
to the shameful breakdown of the system for pro-
visioning the army. The supplies of food, clothing,
and other necessaries were often sent where they
were not wanted. The hospitals, too, were fright-
fully mismanaged ; barely 12 per cent. of our total
loss in the war (20,656) dying in battle, the rest in
hospital. To Florence Nightingale, a lady of gentle
birth, was due the establishment of proper nursing
in the military hospitals, not merely then, but
thereafter.

The prodigious extent and strength of the fortifi-
cations of Sebastopol (q.v.), together with the skill
and obstinacy of its defence, protracted the siege
for nearly a twelvemonth, and rendered it well-nigh
the greatest in history. In March 1855 died the
Czar Nicholas, whose ambition was the cause of the
contest ; but under his son and successor, Alexander
II., Russia continued to sustain the enormous drain
on her population and resources. The trenches, or
lines of attack, had drawn closer and closer to the
Russian works, till at one point the foes were well
within speaking distance; at last, on 8th Septem-
ber 1855, after a three days’ tremendous cannonade
by the allies, the French stormed and carried the

alakoff fort, the key of Sebastopol. That night
the Russians evacuated the city, or rather its blaz-
ing ruins. Except for the surrender of Kars in
Circassia, after its gallant defence by the Turks
under Colonel Williams, a British officer, the war
ended with the fall of Sebastopol. Im March 1856
a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by which
Russia lost all she had gained or attempted to
gain ; but the article prohibiting Russia from build-
ing arsenals or having war-ships on the Black Sea
(q.v.) was abrogated in 1871. See Kinglake’s
Invasion of the Crimea (8 vols. 1863-87), and books
on the war by Sir E. Hamley (1891), Sir D.
Lysons (1895), Sterling (1895), and Sir W. H.
Russell (1855 and 1895).

Criminal Conversation. See ADULTERY.

Criminal Law is that branch of law which deals
with crimes and their punishment, and is in use in
one site or another wherever human society exists.
The earliest form of penal law seems to have rested
on a principle of private vengeance, and to have
taken shape in the lex talionis, the law of retalia-
tion formulated in the familiar passage in Exodus
which lays down as a fit punishment an eye for an
eye and a tooth for a tooth. The severity of this

doctrine was mitigated when the right of persona
vengeance was satisfied by a money payment, a
custom which can be traced in the early laws of the
Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, and which is par- _
ticularly characteristic of early Teutonic systems:
of penal law. According to these a family is.
iiaide pecuniarily responsible for the offences of its.
members, or accepts a fine as a compensation for
the life of a lost kinsman (see WEREGILD). When
a man was killed, a part of this fine was paid to
the king or head of the community to compen-
sate the clan’s loss of a fighting member; and
in the distinction established between injuries.
done to the individual and injuries done to
the community, the foundation of a system of
criminal law was laid. The sovereign power im
a community or state took up the wrongs of private

ersons, and exercised a right of public vengeance.

egislation upon this principle had for its. object
the intimidation of the wrong-doer, and was
specially characterised by the great variety and
severity of its punishments. It was not until the
18th century that a more enlightened jurisprudence:
prevailed. Beccaria’s work, On Crimes and Punish-
ments, published in 1764, has exercised a strong
influence on the criminal ee ee of Europe by
urging the claims of criminals to humane considera-
tion, and examining the basis in morals upon which
criminal law rests. The principle which Beccaria.
opposed to the older theory ot public vengeance
was that of a legitimate defence restrained within
the limit of the common interest. The true object:
of criminal law was set down as the amendment of
the criminal, and the restoration to him of the
rights of a free man. From this point of view
many jurists have opposed Capital Punishment.
(q.v.), and some go so far as to oppose all forms of
corporal punishment on the ground that they de-
grade the criminal. The modern view gains ground
that crime is to be looked upon as a disease of the
social body, and that the remedy is to be looked for
rather in improved education and social well-being
than in a repressive system of arbitrary punish-
ments. The criminal law of a particular state is.
the body of legal rules affecting the commission and
prosecution of crimes. See CRIME, and the several
articles on MURDER, THEFT, PERJURY, &c., also
JUDGE, WARRANT, &c.; and for the criminal
courts, see COMMON LAW (CoURTS OF), ASSIZE,
JUSTICE (HIGH CouRT OF), JUSTICIARY COURT,,
JURY, JUSTICE OF THE PEACE.

The procedure in criminal cases differs in England
and Scotland. In England the prosecution is at.
the instance of the private person injured, and
the trial resembles an ordinary civil litigation to
a greater degree than is usual in other countries.
The proceedings begin before justices by an ‘infor-
mation,’ upon which the justices issue a summons.
directed to the party eherned: or grant a warrant
for apprehending him. When the person charged
appears, the witnesses for the prosecution are:
examined in his presence, and he is at liberty
to put questions to them, either personally or by
counsel, After the examination the accused may
say anything he desires in answer to the charge,
but what he says is taken down, and may be given
in evidence against him at his trial. After the:
statement of the accused, he may call witnesses,
and the justices are bound to take the statement.
of these. Thereafter the justices may, according
to their opinion of the evidence, either discharge
the accused, or commit him to gaol, or admit him
to bail. The commitment is for trial, either at.
quarter sessions or at the assizes. The first step in
the trial is the presentment of an indictment to the
grand-jury, who are chosen from gentlemen of
standing in the district. The grand-jury having
been charged by the judge, and having heard the: .

CRIMINAL LAW

CRINOIDEA 569

witnesses, find a ‘ true bill’ if they are satisfied that
there is a prima facie case. The case then goes to
trial in open court before a judge and jury. The
prisoner is entitled to be represented by counsel,
tea there is no provision of law in England, as
in Scotland, to find counsel for prisoners who cannot
afford the customary fee. The order of proceeding
at trial is as follows: When a jury has been sworn,
and the defendant has pleaded not guilty, the
counsel for the prosecution opens the case, and then
examines the witnesses for the prosecution, who are
afterwards cross-examined and re-examined accord-
ing to the rules of evidence. Counsel for the
prisoner then states the defence, and examines
witnesses, and may sum up the evidence to the jury
if there are no witnesses for the defence; counsel for
the prosecution sums up the evidence against the
prisoner. When evidence is given for the prisoner,
the counsel for the prosecution has the right to
reply ; but in practice it is hardly ever exercised.
r the reply, the judge sums up the case, and
the jury consider their verdict, which must be
unanimous. If the verdict be not guilty, the
— is discharged ; if guilty, he is sentenced.
he prisoner has a right to be present throughout
the trial, though the court may probably proceed
in his absence if he so misconducts himself as to
make it impossible to try him with decency. See
Sir J. F. Stephen’s yong of the Law of Criminal
ttl (1883), and his History of that law
The procedure in Scotland has been altered
and simplified by the Criminal Procedure (Scot-
land) Act, 1887. The first step is a petition for
warrant to arrest and commit, which may be granted
by any magistrate. A person arrested is entitled
at once to have intimation sent to any law-agent he
may name that his services are required ; and to
have a private interview with his legal adviser
before the examination, and the legal adviser may
be present at the examination. The declaration of
the accused is then taken by the magistrate, whose
duty it is to warn him that the déclaration may be
waa against him. The next step is the precogni-
tion or inquiry into the facts of the crime, which is
conducted as a rule by the procurator-fiscal. The
accused is then committed for trial on a warrant
specifying the offence charged. He is then served
with an indictment. Where the trial is by j
all public prosecution is conducted on indictment
in name of the Lord Advocate. The old form of
indictment was a lengthy and cumbrous document,
and the strictness of the rules as to its form laid
it often easily open to technical objections. A
simpler and shorter form was introduced by the
Criminal Procedure Act. On the day fixed, the
trial proceeds in the presence of the prosecutor,
who may appear by deputy and that of the prisoner,
which is indispensable. The panel is first called on
to state objections to the jaloaaiss of the libel ;
these being disposed of, to plead. If he pleads not
guilty he is remitted to the knowledge of an assize
—i.e. his case is laid before a jury of fifteen.
Evidence is led, first for the prosecution, and then
for the defence, and counsel for the parties address
the jury, the accused’s counsel having the last word.
The presiding judge then sums up the evidence,
and directs the jury in law. The jury then return
their verdict, which need not be unanimous, if a
majority agree. If the verdict be not guilty, or
not proven, the accused is dismissed from the bar.
If it be guilty, the prosecutor moves the court for
sentence, which is pronounced; and can only be
reviewed by way of pardon. See Macdonald’s
Criminal Law of Scotland (1877) and N. Mac-
donald’s Manual of the Criminal Procedure (Scot-
land) Act (1887).
The criminal law of the United States has closely

ury,

followed that of England. But in the United States
there are public prosecutors—the district-attorneys.
In some states there may also be private prosecu-
tion.

Criminology is a recently invented term
denoting a new science—the branch of anthropol-
ogy which deals with crime and criminals, some-
times called ‘criminal anthropology.’ The science
is largely based on the researches and views of Dr
Cesare iatace, born of Jewish stock at Verona
in 1836, who, after serving as an army surgeon and
holding posts as professor of mental diseases at
Pavia and director of a lunatic asylum at Pesaro,
was appointed professor of forensic medicine and
psychiatry at Turin. He has written numerous
works on insanity, criminal insanity, the anthro-
pometry of criminals, and the close connection be-
tween insanity and genius (The Man of Genius,
trans. 1891); but his great work is L’Uomo Delin-
quente (1875; 4th ed. 1889), in which his theory of
criminology is expounded. The criminologist holds
that the congenital habitual criminal is marked by
conspicuous physical and mental defects. Arrested
cranial development and deformity, heavy jaws,
ugly features, and many other minor abnormal
physical characters, are associated with moral
insensibility, low intelligence, vanity, and irregular
emotional peculiarities verging on insanity. The
occasional criminal who yields to severe or special
temptations is treated as belonging to a wholly
distinct category. The acceptance of these anthro-
pological views would naturally lead to somewhat
sweeping changes in the treatment of criminals,
with a view to their reclamation somewhat on the
lines of the treatment in use at Elmira.

See, besides the works of Lombroso, the Archives de
CAnth ie Criminelle, and The Criminal by Have-
lock Ellis (‘Contemp. Science’ series, 1890); also the
articles PRISONS, REFORMATORIES AND INDUSTRIAL
ScHoots, INSANITY, CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.

Crimp, a person who usually keeps a sailors’
boarding-house, and who professedly occupies him-
self in finding employment for seamen. Crimps,
or ‘runners’ as they are often called, and the dis-
reputable persons who are associated with them,
live by pandering to the follies and vices of the
lower ‘and less provident class of seamen. Their
object is to get hold of the sailor and his effects,
keep him by means of drink or drugs in their power
until his wages are paid ; and fleece him of his
money, and even of his clothes.

Crinan Canal, an artificial waterway, 9 miles
long, in the west of Argyllshire, between Loch
Gilp, a branch of Loch Fyne, and Loch Crinan, in
the Sound of Jura, at the head of the peninsula of
Kintyre. Constructed in 1793-1801 at a cost of
£183,000, to avoid the circuitous passage of 70
miles round the Mull of Kintyre, it is 24 feet
broad and 10 deep, has 15 locks, and admits
vessels of 200 tons. In 1859 the three reservoirs
feeding it burst, and government had to repair the
damage at a cost of £12,000. The receipts seldom
cover the year’s expenditure.

Crinoidea (Gr., ‘lily-like’), a class of Echino-
dermata, sometimes called feather-stars or sea-
lilies, and well known in fossil form as encrinites
or stone-lilies. While agreeing in general structure
with starfishes and other Echinoderms, the Crinoids
present many peculiarities. They are fixed_per-
manently or temporarily, mouth upwards, by @
stalk, which is usually jointed. The visceral mass
is inclosed in a cup at the apex of the stalk. As
in most other Echinoderms, there are numerous
limy plates, forming the stalk, the supporting cup,
the framework of the arms, &e. The anus lies
near the mouth. The ‘arms,’ though typically five
in number, may be very much multiplied (towards

570

CRINOIDEA

200) by branching; they usually bear lateral pin-
nules, which produce a feathered appearance. The
water-vascular ring ‘does not communicate directly
with the ex-
terior, but is
in connection
with the
body-cavity.

The radial

water - vessels

give off lateral
groups of

“tube - feet,’

which have

the form of
tentacles, and
are respira-
tory in_fune-
tion. There
is a double
_ nervous sys-
tem, the
upper system
accompany-
ing the water-
vessel being
wholly motor;
the lower
system, with
a central mass and radial extensions, being both
sensory and motor. The sexes are separate and
similar. The ciliated larval form (known in the
case of Antedon) is not as divergent as that of the
other classes of Echinoderms.

Mode of Life.—The Crinoids are typically stalked
and more or less fixed, but the modern family of
Comatulide break off from their stem at a certain
stage. The stem of
the stalked forms is
usually anchored to a
rock or other foreign
object, but in some
cases the animal grows
more loosely on a
muddy bottom. Like
the extinct forms, the
modern stalked Crin-
oids grow in masses,
forming beds of sea-
lilies on the ocean
floor. Over a hundred
7g nn have been

redged in a single
haul. When they
move about, as in
the Comatulidz, they
do so by alternately
bending and straight-
ening the arms. The
food, which consists of
minute organisms ( pro-
tozoa, diatoms, small
crustacea, &c.), is
wafted down ciliated
grooves on the pin-
nules and arms to the
mouth.

Fig. 1.—Pentacrinus.

Fig. 2,

A, free-swimming larva,
skeleton of adult forming in-
side; B, fixed stalked young
(Pentacrinus-like) stage.

with

The known
Save larvee are actively free-
swimming by means of cilia. Comatula and some
others are the hosts of curious parasitic Chetopod
worms (Myzostomide), which cause deformities on
the arms. Like many other Echinoderms, the
Crinoids have the power of regenerating lost parts.
Broken-off arms may be replaced, and even the
renewal of the visceral mass has been observed.
Important Forms and Classification.—The best-
known genus is the cosmopolitan Antedon or Coma-
tula, of which A. rosacea is the most abundant

species, frequently dredged off British coasts.

long with the large genus Actinometra and some
others less important, Antedon represents the family
of Comatulids, which differ from other Crinoids in
being stalked only in their youth. Professor J.
Vaughan Thompson has the credit of having dis-
covered the young stalked stage of A. rosacea, and
thus revealing the existence of a most interesting
habit. The free Antedon swims gracefully by bend-
ing its ten arms, and then settles down again for

Fig. 3.—Free Adult, showing wreath of anchoring hooks,

a while, anchoring itself by means of an inferior
wreath of pe attaching processes. Amon,
permanently stalked Crinoids may be mention
the genus Pentacrinus (e.g. P..asterius), from the
Atlantic and Pacific, often at great depths ; Rhizo-
crinus (e.g. &. lofotensis), from the Atlantic,
usually abyssal ; Holopus, from the Caribbean Sea,
with very massive arms, and only a single extant
species. These and others, being of more recent
origin, are distinguished as Neocrinoidea, from the
wholly extinct Palzeozoic forms, the Paleeocrinoidea
or Tesselata. In the latter the cup does not in-
variably show that fivefold symmetry which is
constant in the former.

Distribution.—Though recent deep-sea explora-
tions have greatly increased the catalogue of living
forms to a total of over 400 species, distributed in
twelve genera, these nevertheless represent but a
small fraction of the extinct Crinoid fauna. Over
200 genera and 1500 species are known from fossil-
iferous strata. These begin to appear in the Cam-
brian, and attain maximum deve opment in Silu-
rian, Devonian, and Carboniferous times. Recent
Crinoids never attain the size exhibited by some of
the fossil forms. Extinct species have been found
with stems 50 and 70 feet in length.

Many of the stalked Crinoids are found at great
depths, and some of the Challenger dredgings
revealed the continuance in the deep sea of types
which had previously been eourind as extinct,
Thus the pear-encrinites (Apiocrinide) are con-
tinued in the abyssal genera Rhizocrinus, Bathy-
crinus, and Hyocrinus. Bathycrinus gracilis has
been dredged from a depth of 2435 fathoms, an
Antedon from 2900 fathoms, Holopus and Hyocrinus
from 1200 to 2500 fathoms. The majority, how-
ever, and especially the free forms, uent
shallower water. Antedon is a cosmopolitan
genus; Holopus is confined to the Caribbean Sea;
stalked Crinoids are found between the parallels of
68° N. and 46° S. lat. ; Comatulidze between 81°
N. and 52°S. lat.

Relations.—There seems little doubt that the
Crinoids, Ophiuroids, and Asteroids are more closely
linked to one another than to Echinoids and Holo-
thurians. In some ways the Crinoid type is struc:

CRINOLINE

CROATIA 571

turally the lowest, and probably ap first.
With the primitive Crinoids two entirely extinct
classes must be associated—the Cystoids and Blas-
toids. The former were sessile or shortly stalked,
with oval or globular bodies, and very limy. The
Blastoids had a short stalk and ovate body, and
were also heavily weighted with lime.

See ci tiseay an’ ? z nt mn aoe
Challenger rts, xi. |, &e. ; rio)
loyie Wraaseie (Paris, x. 1882-84); H. Ludwig, Anat.
der Crinoiden (Leip. 1877); E. Perrier, La Comatula
rosacea (Archiv. Zool. Expér., ii, 1872) ; C. Wachsmuth
and F. Springer, Revision of Palwocrinoidea (Phila. 1879-
85); Zittel, Handbuch der Paltiontologie (1876-80).

Crinoline, the name originally given by the
French modistes to a fabric of horse-hair (Fr. erin
‘hair’), capable of great stiffness, and em loyed
to distend women’s attire. It was applied in a

neral way to those structures of steel wire or

oops, by means of which women between 1855
and 1866 attained enormous dimensions—12, even
15 feet in circumference. The fardingale of Queen
Elizabeth consisted of a cuirass of whalebone for
the upper part of the body, uniting at the waist
with an equally stiff fardingale of the same mate-
rial, which descended to the feet in the shape of a

t drum. The hoop petticoat, differing from the
fardingale in being gathered at the waist, was a
novelty in 1711 ; by 1744 hoops were so extravagant
z that a woman occupied the space of six men. An
| elongated oval form, raised at each side to show the
3 high-heeled shoes, also came into fashion. Dis-

carded in private life by about 1796, hoops were
still the mode at court until abolished by royal
| command during the reign of George IV.
Crinum, « genus of bulbous-rooted amaryllids
! (sometimes included under Sternbergia), chiefly
| tropical, and frequently cultivated in hothouses—
| e.g. C. amabile of India, C. seabrum of Brazil, &e.
C. capense of South Africa is a fine hardy species,
| with large, fragrant, rosy-white flowers, remarkable

for the depth and slenderness of their tube. The

bulbs of C. asiaticum are powerfully emetic.

Cripple Creek,» city, capital of Teller county,
Colorado, 40 miles by rail N. by. W. of Florence.
Itis a gold-mining centre, and has a stock exchange.
Pop. (1899) 20,000; or, within 36 sq. m., 45,000.

Cris-cross Row. See HorRNBOOK.

Crispi, FRANCESCO, statesman, was born 4th
October 1819 at Ribera in Sicily, and was called to
the bar in Palermo, but joining in the revolutionary
movement of 1848, had to flee to France. He
organised the successful movement of 1859-60, and
re-entered Sicily with Garibaldi. He has been
conspicuous in the history of the restored kingdom
of. Italy as deputy, president of the chamber,
minister, and in 1887-90, and again in 1894-96,
premier. Herepresented the Left, was strongly anti-
clerical, and maintained the alliance with Germany
even at the cost of the alienation of France. In
1895 strenuous efforts were made by his enemies to
discredit him by connecting him with a series of
bank scandals. See Life by W. J. Stillman (1899).
Orispin, saint and martyr, about the middle of
the 3d century, under the reign of Diocletian, fled,
along with his brother Crispian, from Rome into

i Gaul, where he worked as a shoemaker in the
town which is now called Svissons, and dis-
tinguished himself by his exertions for the spread
of Christianity, as well as by his works of charity.
In A.D. 287 he and his brother suffered martyrdom
by being thrown into a caldron of molten lead.
Both are commemorated on the 25th October.
Crispin is the universally recognised patron saint of
shoemakers.

Cristo'fori, or CRIsToFALI, BARTOLOMMEO,
harpsichord-maker, was born at Padua in 1653, and

died at Florence in 1731.
inventor of the pianoforte.

Critchett, GeoRrGE, ophthalmic surgeon, born
in London in 1817, became F.R.C.S. in 1844, and
was assistant-surgeon and (1861-63) surgeon to the
London Hospital. He early devoted his attention
to ophthalmology, and was attached to the hospi-
tal at Moorfields from 1846; in 1854 he published
a course of lectures on Diseases of the Eye, and
from 1876 he was ophthalmic surgeon and lecturer
at the Middlesex Hospital, where his operations
or ng a European fame. He died Ist November

He is regarded as the

Critias, one of the pupils of Socrates, but un-
fortunately one who was rather a hearer than a
doer of his word. On his return to Athens from
banishment, he put himself at the head of the
oligarchical party, and was afterwards the most
rapacious and cruel among the thirty tyrants set
up by the Spartans (404 B.c.). In the same year
he fell at Munychia, resisting Thrasybulus and the
exiles. Critias had a high reputation as an orator,
and besides wrote poetry.

Critical Temperature is that temperature
below which a substance may, and above which it
cannot, be liquefied by pressure alone. This tem-

rature for carbonic acid gas, for example, is

‘9° C.—i.e. below that temperature, the liquefac-
tion of the substance may be easily effected if
sufficient pressure be applied; but above it the
substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how great
be the pressure to which it is subjected. The dis-
covery of the critical temperature by Dr Andrews
in 1869 first gave the means of distinguishing
between a true and a true vapour; for the
former is a substance above, the latter one below,
its critical temperature. When any substance is at
this temperature it is in the critical state—i.e. its
passage from liquid to gas, or vice versd, is one in
which the two parts, liquid and gaseous, so merge
into one another as to render them optically indis-
tinguishable. The critical temperatures of oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen (formerly termed ‘ perman-
ent’ gases) are all extremely low, and hence lique-
faction can only be effected (as it has already been)
by the PS Ape aa of intense cold as well as
considerable pressure. On the other hand, such
vaporous bodies as sulphurous anhydride, alcohol
vapour, ether vapour, Ke. can, provided the pres-
sure be sufficiently great, be liquefied at ordin
air temperatures, since these are much below their
critical temperatures. See GAS AND GASES, VA-
POUR, and (under Matter) STATES OF MATTER.

Croaghpatrick, a celebrated Irish mountain
where St Patrick is said to have begun his mis-
sionary work. It stands about 4 miles SW. of
fey only in the south of County Mayo, and is
2510 teet high.

Croiitia and Slavonia (Hung. Horvat-
Szlavonorszdg) form, together with their former
‘Military Frontier,’ a crown-land belonging to the
Hungarian section of Austria (q.v.), lying be-
tween the Adriatic Sea on the SW., where
Croatia has a seaboard of about 84 miles, and
Hungary on the NE. Area, 16,352 sq. m., of
which 5246 is Croatian, 3707 Slavonian, and 7399
belongs to the district of the military frontier.
Pop. (1881) 1,892,499, Croatia having 816,802,
Slavonia 377,613, and the former Frontier 698,084
inhabitants ; in 1890 the total population had in-
creased to 2,184,414. The surface of Croatia falls
mainly into the wooded mountain district to the
north of the Kulpa, with offshoots from the south-
east Alps, and a calcareous plateau, belonging to
the Karst region, to the south. To the Alpine
system belong the Matzel, Ivincica, and Kalnik
groups in the north; to the Karst system belong

572 CROATIA

CROCODILE

the Liburnian Karst (5007 feet), along the coast
from Fiume to Novi, and the Velebit Mountains
to the south-east, with the peak of Sveto Brdo
(5751 feet) near the Dalmatian frontier. The
province belongs to the basin of the Danube, its
most important rivers being the Drave and Save,
with their affluents; the Gatschka, Likka, and
others belong to the Karst, and the Zermanja, in
the south-west, flows into Dalmatia. In Slavonia
extensive marshes are found along the main rivers.
Warm mineral springs are numerous, and earth-

uakes, especially about Agram (q.v.), are frequent.

he Adriatic coast is poorly te with harbours,
and exposed to the blasts of the Bora (q.v.). The
climate along the coast and in the north is mild,
Fiume and Agram having respectively a mean
temperature of 60° and 52° F.; in the Karst the
yearly mean is from 43° to 46° F.

The soil is in general very productive. Corn,
maize, pulse, millet, flax, hemp, tobacco, and
grapes are cultivated; large quantities of wood
are exported, the rich forests being for this industry
recklessly despoiled; and horses and cattle are
successfully raised, while the oak-forests of Slavonia
support great droves of swine. Silk-culture is

rogressing, and bees are largely kept in the heath

istricts. Only in ores and minerals is the pre

vince poor ; iron, silver, copper, lead, zinc, sulphur,
and coal are all worked, Pit in small quantities.
Much of the weaving is done at home, and the
other manufactures are not important. The trade
is chiefly in land products, Slavonia exporting also
a brandy made from plums. The bulk of the
people are Slavs; both Croats (originally Chorvats,
‘mountaineers,’ from chora or gora, ‘a mountain’)
and Slovenes are tall and strong, honest, and good-
natured, holding much of their land in common,
and dwelling for the most part in scattered hamlets.
In the west the religion is Roman Catholic, em-
bracing 71 per cent. of the entire population; in
the east, that of the Greek Ohutel: Education
is very backward; in 1890, 40 per cent. of the
male inhabitants could neither read nor write.
A number of railways, however, now penetrate
the country, and the interest in education and in
the national language and literature is visibly
increasing.

Croatia and Slavonia were for the most part
included in the Roman province of Pannonia; in
the 7th century the territory was taken possession
of by the Slavonic races. The Croats shook off the
Byzantine yoke about 900, and in the following
century extended their rule over Dalmatia, built
a strong fleet, which they employed first for piracy,
and afterwards for trade, and had their king,
Dirzislav, recognised by the Eastern court in 994,
His son, Crescimir Peter, one of the greatest
national heroes, was acknowledged as king of
Dalmatia, as were also his successors until 1091,
when the kingdom was taken over by Hungary.
Slavonia was made a province of Hungary about
the same date, but in the 17th century a great part
of the land was held by the Turks, who only in
1699 resigned all territory north of the Unna.
Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia were united as
the kingdom of Illyria from 1767 to 1777. After-
wards Croatia and Slavonia were regarded as part
of the kingdom of Hungary; but among the
Croatians a feeling of hostility to the Magyars grew
up, which asserted itself in 1848-49. In reward
for Croatia’s services during the Magyar revolt,
it was declared independent of Hungary, and
practically so rolinine until 1868, when the con-
nection with Hungary was restored, Croatia send-
ing deputies to the Hungarian diet. There must
be a Croatian in the Hungarian ministry ; there is
a national diet at Agram, and the official language
is Croatian. In 1883 there was a popular move-

ment, with riots, directed against the subordina-
tion to Hungary. The Military Frontier, estab-
lished along the Turkish border in the 16th
century, arose out of the necessity of perpetual
defence. It was inhabited by military colonists
who enjoyed special privileges, maintained regular
armed posts, and were able to raise a force of
100,000-men on the briefest notice. This region
was in 1881 finally incorporated with Croatia and
Slavonia. See BAN; and for language, SERVIA.

Crochet (Fr., ‘a hook’), a species of faney
work in worsted, cotton, or silk, which may be
described as an extensive system of looping, by
means of a small hook made for the purpose.

Crocidolite, a mineral consisting of silicate
of iron and sodium, in asbestos-like fibres, and
sometimes called ‘blue asbestos.’ See CAPE
CoLony, Vol. II. p. 735.

_Crockets are ornaments used in Gothie archi-
tecture since the 12th century, when they were
introduced on capitals of columns in the shape of
incurved bunches of leaves springing from stems in
pass of the classic volutes employed before that

ate. Similar projecting crockets were soon
applied to cornices, gables, spires, &c. In the
Early English style they stand up in a detached
manner, with the foliage at the point; but in the
Decorated and Perpendicular styles the leaves are
more developed and cling to the copes or ramps,
to which they are applied as ornaments. Animal
forms, specially modified, are sometimes utilised
for crockets. See the articles on the various
styles.

Crockett, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD, novelist,
was born of farmer stock near New Galloway in
Kirkeudbright in 1859, and educated at Castle-
Douglas and Edinburgh University, becoming in
1886 Free Church minister at Penicuik, near Edin-
burgh. He resigned his charge for a purely literary
career in 1895. From his collage years, and during
a residence abroad as tutor, he contributed to the
pasotent, especially verse. A volume of poems,

ulce Cor, appeared in 1886, and in 1893 their
author attained,to fame by the sketches collected
under the title of The Stickit Minister (illustrated
ed. 1894). The Galloway story of moors, mountains,
outlaws, kidnapping, and adventure, The Raiders,
achieved great success in 1894, and was followed by
Mad Sir Ughtred, The Lilac Sunbonnet, The Play
Actress, Bog Myrtle and Peat, The Men of the Moss
Hags (1895), Sweetheart Travellers, Cleg Kelly, The
Grey Man, Lad’s Love, Lochinvar (1897), &e. He
is a copious contributor to the magazines.

Crocodile (Crocodilus), a large saurian reptile,
the name being originally applied to the crocodile
of tle Nile only. The term is now used for a whole
genus of reptiles, as well as for the small order

(Crocodilia) to which it belongs. The order in
cludes the largest living reptiles—viz. the crocodile —

CROCODILE

573

proper, the Alligator (q.v.), and the Gavial (q.v.).
e most distinctive characters are as follows :
Externals.—The body, which is provided with a
, laterally compressed, crested tail, is covered
an armature of scales and dorsal bony ‘ scutes.’
The latter exhibit a sculptured a nee. There
are four short, strong limbs, with five fingers and
four toes, which are webbed in various degrees of
completeness. The three inner digits bear claws.
Glands with a musk-like secretion are found on the
—— of the lower jaw, at the side of the cloacal
aperture, and on the posterior margin of the dorsal
ields. The musky odour is strongest during the
season of love. The nostrils lie close together at the
point of the snout, and can be closed by valves; the
a possess third eyelids, and the pupil is a vertical
slit in nocturnal species ; the tympanum of the ear
is overhung by a fold of skin which closes during
diving ; the cloaca has a longitudinal aperture.

Skeleton.—Between the skull and the hip-girdle
there are always twenty-four vertebr, and behind
the sacrum a large and variable number of caudal

ieces. The rarteuee are proccelous—that is to say,

ollow in front—and bear ribs in the neck as well
as in the thoracic region. The ribs are provided
with two heads for articulation with the vertebre,
and those in the middle of the thorax give off
hook-like, backward-turned (uncinate) processes
which also occur in Birds (q.v.). A breast-bone,
with which the thoracic vertebre are connected,
is always present,. and behind this a number of
posterior rib-like processes (‘abdominal ribs’) form
a further support. These arise from ossification of
septa between the muscles. In the breast-girdle
the clavicle is absent ; the hip-girdle is normal. In
the large skull the chief peculiarity is the forma-
tion of a closed bony palate. By the internal union
of premaxill, maxillee, palatines, and pterygoids,
the roof of the mouth is complete, and the posterior
aperture of the nostrils is thus shunted back to the
very as pa of the glottis. The development of
the skull has been studied by Parker. The mouth-
opening is v large, and the jaws bear numerous,
usually conical, hollow teeth, implanted in distinct
sockets, with reserve germs, at first on the inner
side, and afterwards within the pulp cavities of the
old ones.

The nervous system calls for no special remark.
The uliarities of nose, eye, and ear have been
noted above. The animals have large lachrymal
glands, and their ‘ tears’ are proverbial. The tym-
pana communicate with the mouth by three Eusta-
chian tubes, one median and two lateral. As
regards the alimentary system, the flat tongue is
fixed to the floor of the mouth, the mouth-cavity is
bounded behind by two soft transverse membranes.
These meet when the crocodile is drowning a
victim, and pret water rushing down the throat.
The stomach is in several respects like that of
birds. The circulatory system is of importance,
since in crocodiles for the first time the heart is
four-chambered (see CIRCULATION). The partition
between the ventricles is here complete, but as two
aortic arches remain, mixed blood still goes to the
posterior body. The left aortic arch carries only
venous blood to the viscera, whereas in other
reptiles it carries mixed arterial and venous. The
pulmonary arch carries purely venous, the right
aortic arch purely arterial blood. The right and
left aortic arches communicate at their roots just
outside the heart by a small aperture—the foramen
Panizze. The respiratory system presents no
special peculiarity except in the backward shunt-
ing of the internal opening of the nostrils. When
drowning its prey, and with its half-shut mouth in

. consequence open to the water, the crocodile keeps

the tip of its snout on the surface, the glottis is
pushed a little forward to meet the posterior open-

ing of the nostrils, a complete air channel is thus
made, and respiration can go on unimpeded. The
air is drawn into the lungs when the ribs expand,
and an incipient diaphragm is also of use. The
lungs are inclosed in pleural sacs. There is no
uri bladder.

M of 12 etiam ep are predominantly
aquatic animals, and move rapidly by means of
their powerful tail strokes. They are clums
when ashore, and suffer from being stiff-necked.
The body drags somewhat on the ground. They
feed on fishes, especially in their youth, and on

quadrupeds, which they catch by the river-side,
and kill by drowning. If the prey cannot be
readily torn, it is often buried till it begins to rot.

For their shore work they prefer the darkness, but
they also like to bask in the sun. They very often
float in the water with their snout and upper back
above the surface. The eggs, which are firm,
though not thick-shelled, are laid in layers in
holes on the banks. They are about the size’ of
goose eggs, and the disproportion between the
newly-hatched young and the adults is very strik-
ing. The females of some species are said to guard
their young. Crocodiles are on the whole sluggish
animals, and are very remarkable in the long con-
tinuance of the slow growth, which hardly seems to
reach a limit as in vA ae animals.

The crocodile has acquired in literature a char-
acter for deceitfulness which is largely undeserved.
The conceit of ‘ crocodile’s tears ’ (the animals have
large lachrymal glands) was common in Shake-
speare’s time. Spenser describes ( Faerie Queene, I.

v. 18) the
Cruell craftie crocodile,
Which, in false griefe hyding his harmefull guile,
Doth weepe full sore, and sheddeth tender teares.

Another quotation given by Richardson (see
Kitchin’s edition of the Faerie Queene, Clarendon
Press) is still more libellous, ‘as cursed crocodile
most a can tole with truthlesse teares unto
his death the silly pitieing soule.’ Kitchin refers
also to the invention of the adjective ‘ crocodilian’
to express a depth of deceitfulness.

Diferent Forms.—The order of crocodiles includes
twenty-five living species, distributed in three
families and a doubtful number of genera. They
are all found in tropical and warm regions. The
three types may be thus contrasted :

Alligator. Crocodile. Gavial.
Nasal bones form| As in alligator. Do not.
rt of nasal aper-
ure,
Head short and) Longer. Very long.
broad.
Teeth very unequal. | Unequal. Almost equal.
First and fourth| First into a pit, | First and fourth
a apd Lage bite} fourth into a} bite into
nto u pits. groove. grooves.
Union oo hiner jaws | Not beyond eighth. |At least to
does not extend fourteenth. |

beyond fifth tooth.
Neck scutes distinct | Sometimes distinct, | Continuous.
from back. sometimes united.
South America and | Africa, India, North | Ganges, Borneo,
south of North} Australia, Cuba,| North Austra-
America. South America. lia.

1

There are altogether a dozen different forms of
Crocodile proper, some of which have been
dignified as separate genera. The crocodile of
the Nile (C. Wag! sare is a well-known species,
not now found farther north than Thebes, but
occurring abundantly farther south and east.
Several varieties are known. It is said sometimes
to attain a length of 30 feet, though half that is
considered large. It often fatally attacks man, and
feeds very largely on smaller mammals. It grows
very slowly and continuously, and, with the excep-
tion of man, has few formidable antagonists after

574 CROCUS

CROFTER

it has survived its youth. Some two or three score
of eggs, with delicate rough limy shells, about the
size of those of geese, are laid in sandy cavities in
the bank. The young crocodiles are often happily
destroyed by the ichneumon, and by a species of
‘lizard. The adult crocodile lives in amiable partner-
ship with a little bird (Pluvianus egyptius). As
Herodotus relates, this watcher warns the crocodile
by its ery when danger threatens, and it also cleans
its body of small animals which fix themselves there.
The crocodile was worshipped and even mummified
by the ancient Egyptians, and it occasionally bore
a part in the Roman gladiatorial combats. It 1s now
hunted for the perfume of its musk-glands, and
also for its skin and fat. Crocodile-hide has lately
increased in value as an article of commerce. The
eges are esteemed as dainty morsels. The most
widely distributed species is C. biporcatus, or por-
osus. It occurs from the Mascarene to the Fiji
Islands, from Farther India to Corea, and also on
the north coast of Australia. It lives not only in
fresh water, but ventures sometimes into the sea.
A very large specimen in the British Museum mea-
sures 174 feetinlength. C. frontatus, in equatorial
West Africa; C. acutus, in the north-west of South
America, in Central America, and in the West
Indies; C. cataphractus (often placed in a special
genus, Mecistops), from the west coast of Africa,
are other important species.

History.—These giant reptiles, like other large
forms, have in recent ages been continuously on
the wane. They date from the Triassic period
(Belodon, Parasuchus, and Stagonolepis—the last
from the Elgin sandstones). In the Jurassic age
they are very numerous, forty species having been
recorded from British strata alone. In the Chalk,
the first Crocodilia with anteriorly concave verte-
bree appear in contrast to the Triassic, the Jurassic,
and in part the Cretaceous forms, which had bicon-
cave vertebre. Among these Cretaceous forms
are true Crocodiles and Gavials, which are also
abundant in Tertiary strata. Professor Huxley has
worked out the ‘ almost unbroken’ series of grada-
tions from the ancient Triassic forms down to the
modern crocodiles, but where this series takes
origin among the ancient reptiles is still obscure.

See ALLIGATOR, GAVIAL, REPTILES; also Duméril et
Bibron, Erpétologie Générale ( Paris, 1834-54); J. E. Gray,
; Synopsis of Recent Croco-
dilians (Trans. Zool. Soc.
Lond. vi. 1867); A. Heil-
prin, Distribution of Ani-
mals (Inter. Sc. Series,
1887, pp. 327-30); C. K.
Hoffman, Bronn’s Z'hier-
reich, vi.; Huxley, Ana-
tomy of Vertebrates (1879) ;
Journ. Linn. Soe. iv. (1860)
&e.; Nature, xxxiii. (1885-
86), p. 331; A. Strauch,
Synopsis der lebenden
Krokodiliden (Mém. Acad.
St Petersburg, x. 1866).

Crocus, a ve
beautiful genus of, In-
daceze, all palzearctic,
and particularly abun-
dant in the Mediter-
ranean countries and
Asia Minor. Crocuses
have long been culti-
vated in flower-gardens,
particularly C. vernus,
/ the purple a —

; its many violet, white,
Spring Crocus (Crocus vernus). or striped varieties ;

and C, luteus, and other
yellow species ; all so welcome in early spring. The
safizon crocus (C. sativus, see SAFFRON) and other

species flower in autumn.

These must not be con-
fused with the meadow saffron, often called autumn.
crocus (Colchicum, q.v.), which is a liliaceous plant,
from which the true crocuses can at once be distin-
guished by their inferior ovary, and three instead of
six stamens. Bulbocodium vernum is a pretty spring
flower, also much resembling crocus, but closely
akin to colehicum. 'Two species of crocus oceur wild
in England, C. nudifiorus and C. vernus, but the
latter at least is merely naturalised. The flowers
of one or two species are fragrant. Owing to the
shortening and thickening of the stem, the ovary
is subterranean, hidden among the leaf-bores, but
in ripening it grows out upon a long thin pro-
cumbent pedicel, and thus deposits its seed at a
sufficient distance from the parent plant. The
thickened axis is a Corm (q.v.). It is necessary
frequently to take up crocuses and plant them
anew, on account of the manner in which the
corms multiply. See Corm; and Mard, Mono-
graph of the Genus Crocus (1887).

Crocus OF ANTIMONY is the oxysulphide of
Antimony (q.v.). Crocus of Mars is the finely
divided red oxide of iron.

Croesus, the last king of Lydia, succeeded his.
father, Alyattes, in 560 %.c. e made the Greeks
of Asia Minor his tributaries, and extended his.
kingdom eastward from the Atgean to the Halys.
From his Vagina his mines, and the coer
sand of the Pactolus, he accumulated so much
treasure that his wealth has become a proverb.
He ae himself up in his court at Sardis to a life
of pleasure and sumptuous extravagance, deemed
himself the happiest man in the world, and was.
displeased when Solon, on a visit to his court, told
him that no man should be called happy till his
death. He soon found how uncertain was a happi-
ness such as his ; for his beloved son Atys was killed
while hunting, and there was left to him only one
son, who was dumb; whilst in his war with Cyrus
he was totally defeated, his kingdom conquered,
and himself made prisoner ‘and condemned to be
burned (546). At the funeral pyre, his repeated
exclamation of ‘O Solon!’ struck the conqueror,
who, when told the reason of it, spared his life and
treated him with great kindness. As to his death,
nothing is known.

Croft, WILLIAM, musician, born in Warwick-
shire in 1677, was a chorister in the Chapel Royal,
of which he became joint-organist in 1704, and sole.
organist in 1707. i 1708 he succeeded his old
teacher, Dr Blow (q.v.), as organist of West-
minster Abbey and choirmaster of the Chapel
Royal; and in 1713 he took the degree of Mus.
Doc. at Oxford. From 1704 Croft wrote a number
of anthems for state ceremonies and public thanks-
givings, thirty of which appeared in two folio ©
volumes in 1724; and it is by these that he is now
chiefly remembered. He died in 1727.

Crofter. The term crofter is commonly used
in Scotland to designate a small tenant of land who
derives a substantial portion of his livelihood from
cultivation or the raising of live-stock. By the
Crofters’ Holdings Act of 1886, it is defined to
mean the tenant of a er ge who resides on his
holding, the annual rent of which does not exceed
£30 - money, and which is situated in a crofting

arish.
: Crofters may be broadly divided into two classes :
(1) Those who occupy arable land in separate:
tenancy, and mountain pasture in joint tenancy ;
(2) those who occupy acon in separate tenancy
only. The first class may be denominated ‘town-
ship crofters,’ the second ‘independent crofters.’
The township crofters are by far the more numerous. ,
class, so much so that the joint tenancy of pasture
is a characteristic feature of crofting life. They

Pee - fue ee SS << -—

a

CROFTER

575

are scattered over the whole surface of the Western
Highlands and Islands, and over the whole of
Ss rland. They are found in Caithness, Orkney
Shetland, and in the interior of Ross-shire an

Inverness-shire, but less frequently on the eastern
seaboard. The township crofters hold directly from
the landlord, pay money rents, have had a prepon-
derant share in the construction and maintenance
of the buildings on the holding, and have been the
authors of the poste part of the simple improve-
ments on the holding and the township. They
have preserved some marks of a primitive com-
munity in common rights and common obligations,
and in the election of township officers who, by the
custom of the estate, exert some authority in regu-
lating the relations of the occupiers among them-
selves, and the relations between the occupiers and
the landlord. The crofting township of the High-
lands is a partial survival of a system of land-
tenure once common to the whole of Scotland and
prevalent in other countries. It has in all times
existed in direct relations with the chief or land-
lord, yet the greater number of extant township
crofters are the descendants of sub-tenants to the
tacksman of a former period, and were brought into
immediate dependency from the proprietor in the
18th century. The township crofter has always
been in the eyes of the law a tenant at will, whether
holding under the landlord or the tacksman, except
in the case of a specific covenant to the contrary,
but it is probable that during the prevalence of the
clan system the mutual interests and affections
of chief, tacksmen, and — procured for the
crofters the actual status of permanent tenure.
While the crofters derive a material share of their
livelihood and even of their food from the holding,
their existence would be impossible without other
sources of mapper Among these fishing holds the
first place and often affords the chief means of sub-
sistence; but other local employments, domestic
crafts, itinerant rural labour in the south, the
earnings of a seafaring life, and remittances from
relatives at home and abroad, all contribute to the
crofters’ maintenance.

The grievances from which the great mass of the
township crofters have suffered may be enumerated
as follows: The restricted area of holdings, and
especially the reduction of common pasture land ;
high rents in exceptional cases ; disturbance without
due compensation; the molestation of deer and
other game; the imposition of excessive local rates ;
the increasing burden of cottar dependents ; want
of harbours and defective means of transport to the
centres of consumption. To these may now be
added an unexampled depression in the value of
ee produce, and a disastrous change in
the methods previously used in the management of
the fishing trade. The causes which have brought
about such unhappy results are not far to seek.
They exist in the covetous or mistaken policy of
proprietors in the beginning of the present century,
manifested by eviction and excessive consolidation
of land; in the necessities of their successors; in
the potato disease; in the too great subdivision
of crofts; in the failure of the kelp manufacture ;
in the precipitate application of the Education
Act in districts to which it was unsuited; in the
apathy and improvidence which prevail among
the crofters themselves; and, finally, in foreign
competition in every Copereneys of industry. Such
are the errors and neglects of the past; such the
misfortunes of the present, which conspire to de-
press the crofting people. These hostile influences
are intensified by the stormy climate, ungrateful
soil, dangerous sea, and rugged irregular configura-
tion of the Western Highlands. It remains to be
proved in what degree such obstacles can be sur-
mounted by legislative provisions conceived in the

interests of a class who with serious defects of
character attractive and estimable qualities.

The independent crofters, who may be recognised
as a distinct order among the crofting population, are
found in all the Highland counties. They appear
in considerable numbers in Argylishire, in Caith-
ness, in Orkney, in Shetland, and in the eastern
parts of Inverness-shire and Ross-shire. They are
more rare in Sutherland, on the western seaboard,
and in the Hebrides. These laborious tenants have
been recruited from the working-classes in adjacent
districts, and from the members of broken town-
ships dispersed by the formation of sheep farms.
Established, for the most part, on waste lands under
improving leases or stringent estate regulations,
favoured in the eastern districts by a drier climate
and soil, surrounded by the examples of a superior
husbandry, and encouraged by assistance from the
landlord, they have attained a higher condition
than the crofting communities, both in regard to
dwellings and tillage. The csr grievances of
the independent crofters have reference mainly to
high rents, insecurity of tenure, and confiscation of
improvements. Against such abuses they are now

rotected by the Act of 1886, from which they will
erive substantial benefit.

In recording the diversities of crofting tenure it
is n to mention the exceptional examples of
freehold crofts with common pasture in the united
parishes of gen 4 and Birsay in Orkney. These
minute estates exhibit a marked superiority over
yearly tenancies elsewhere. Belonging to a vigorous
race of cultivators whose families prosecuted their
fortunes in the colonies and on the sea, the Orkney
freeholds have not suffered from excessive sul)-
division, and illustrate the advantages attached to
stability and possession. It would be rash, how-
ever, to affirm that the institution of similar tenures
would succeed equally well among the Celtic in-
habitants of the western coast.

The comparative condition of the crofting
people in the present and the past has been the
pe of angry controversy. It seems not im-
probable that their state is now, in some re-
spects, inferior to what it was in the age immedi-
— following the fall of the clan system in 1746,
while in others it is certain that the contemporary
crofter possesses immunities and advantages of
which his forefathers never dreamed. In favour of
the older time may be alleged a larger share of the
land, with a corresponding abundance of the neces-
saries of life in seasons of plenty, more unrestricted
access to the use of fish and game, freedom from
local taxation, the existence of a graduated social
order more harmonious and more congenial to the
greatest number, the enjoyment of recreations
native to the race, and that spirit of contentment
or resignation which is associated with ignorance
and isolation. It may, on the other hand, be con-
tended, on behalf of the present, that the crofter is
exonerated from personal services of an oppressive
nature, that he obtains relief in scarcity, remedies

-in sickness, public support in infirmity and old age,

elementary instruction, access to external labour
markets, facilities for emigration, and that he
parecners those aspirations and opportunities which

long to an expanded horizon of intelligence.
When to the humane innovations of modern civilisa-
tion are added reduced rents and enlarged holdings,
the crofting people will have little to envy in the
precarious advantages claimed for their ancestors a
century ago.

Moved alike by the recent sufferings, former
wrongs, and threatening agitation of the crofters,
the government of Mr Gladstone in 1883 nominated
a Royal Commission to inquire into their condition.
The commission conducted its investigations in the
course of that year, and submitted its report in the

576 CROISIC

CROLL

beginning of 1884. In May 1885 a remedial mea-
sure was introduced into the House of Commons
which proved abortive, owing to the political inci-
dents of the time; but the question was resumed.
in a more liberal spirit in 1886, when the Crofters’
Holdings Act received the sanction of parliament
and the crown. This statute embodies in substance
the following provisions: The recognition of the
‘crofting parish’ as the area within which the,act
is applicable ; security of tenure ; fair rents ; faculty
to renounce tenancy; compensation for improve-
ments ; right to claim the enlargement of holdings ;
concession of testamentary powers in relation to the
holding. And under this statute, three Commis-
sioners were nominated to determine the areas
within which the act shall be applicable, and to
carry its provisions into effect. ;

In addition to these legislative enactments, the
government has, in the appropriate administrative
departments, initiated measures for the emigration
of families from congested districts, the supply of
fishing-boats and gear, the development of tele-
graphic communication, and the mitigation of the
school-rate by increased grants.

The measures referred to, whether legislative or
administrative, have been formed with an equitable
consideration of the interests and rights of all
parties concerned, and with a genuine desire to do
good. The conditions by which they are surrounded
are so complex, and the financial advances hitherto
contemplated so restricted,’ that no immediate
results of importance can be expected. A still
graver sapere unhappily exists in the extreme
poverty of the class whom it is desired to benefit.

Closely associated with the crofters by origin,
avocations, and distresses, are the cottars. These
people are occupiers of dwellings and small patches
of ground, holaing rarely from the landlord, more
frequently from the farmer, the township, or the
individual crofter, sometimes mere squatters, pay-
ing no rent and owning no allegiance. They exist
by fishing, by casual employments on the land, and
by public charity. Cottars are intermingled with
their better-endowed kindred in all quarters of the
crofting country, but they are most numerous and
most miserable in the Long Island. Their claims
are recognised by the Act of 1886, which grants
them compensation for improvements in the case of
arbitrary and voluntary removal.

The crofter and cottar population in the six
counties to which the Act of 1886 applies were
roughly computed by the Royal Commission of 1883
to comprise about 40,000 families, or 200,000 souls.

The Crofters Act of 1886 is applicable in crofting
parishes only within the counties of Argyll, Inver-
ness, Ross and Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness,
and Orkney and Shetland. Crofters’ tenancies are
diffused in other counties, especially in Aberdeen-
shire and Perthshire, but as they are subject to
more favourable economic conditions, it was not
considered necessary to admit them to the benefits
of special legislation. Further legislation has been

repeatedly proposed, but a government bill of 1894:

was withdrawn.

Croisic, LE, a small port on the Atlantic, in the
French department of Loire-Inférieure, 20 miles W.
of St Nazaire by rail. It has a sardine-fishery, and
is a popular watering-place. The name is familiar
from Browning’s Two Poets of Croisic. Pop. 2291.

Croker, Joun WI1sov, politician and man of
letters, was born at Galway, 20th December 1780,
the son of the surveyor-general of customs and
excise in Ireland. After four years at Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1800 he entered Lincoln’s Inn,
but in 1802 was called to the Irish bar. Two
satires on the Irish stage and on Dublin society
(1804-5) proved brilliant hits; so did his Sketch

of Ireland Past and Present (1807), a pamphlet
advocating Catholic emancipation. In 1809 he
ublished a poem on the battle of Talavera, which
Wellington pronounced ‘entertaining,’ and during
the same year helped to found the Quarterly, to
which up to 1854 he contributed 260 articles. He
had entered parliament for Downpatrick in 1807 ;
and now in 1809 he was rewarded with the lucrative
gre of Secretary of the Admiralty for his warm
efence of the Duke of York, who was charged
with conniving at and sharing in the sale of army
commissions by his mistress. That post he held
till 1830, and then retired with a pension of £1500
a year. On the passing of the Reform Bill (1832),
he refused to re-enter parliament, unable ‘spon-
taneously to take an active share in a system
which must subvert the church, the peerage, and
the throne—in one word, the constitution of Eng-
land.’ He would not even take office under Peel,
his old friend (1834); and with Peel he broke
utterly on the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846),
He died 10th August 1857. Among the seventeen
works that he wrote or edited were his Stories
for Children from English History (1817), which
suggested to Scott the Tales of a Grandfather ;
the Suffolk Papers (1823); his Boswell’s Johnson
(1831); and Essays on the Early Period of the
French Revolution (1857). By some Croker is
chiefly remembered for his onslaught on Keats,
and Macaulay’s onslaught on him (Macaulay
‘detested him more than cold boiled veal’); or
as the originator of the term Conservative (q.v.) ;
a founder of the Atheneum Club, and the ‘ Rigby’
of Disraeli’s Coningsby—the jackal of ‘ Lord Mon-
mouth’ (the Marquis of Hertford). But in Sir
Theodore Martin’s nine-page eulogy in the Diction-
ary of National Biography (vol. xiii. 1888), he
figures as a ‘debater of the first rank,’ a master
of ‘rhetoric that eclipsed Macaulay’s,’ the ‘friend
and confidant of many of the best and ablest men
of his time,’ a pattern of ‘sincerity,’ ‘ consistency,’
‘devoted loyalty and unselfishness.’ See also his
Memoirs, Diaries, and Correspondence, edited by
Louis J. Jennings (3 vols. 1884).

Croker, THomaAs Crorron, Irish folklorist,
was born at Cork, 15th January 1798, and in 1814
was apprenticed to a Quaker merchant, but four
years later got a clerkship in the Admiralty through
John Wilson Croker, a friend, though no relation,
of his father’s. He retained this post till 1850, and
died at Old Brompton, 8th August 1854. As a boy
of fourteen he had begun to collect songs and
legends of the Irish poets in 1818 he sent
Moore nearly forty old Irish melodies; and in
1825 published anonymously his Fairy Legends and
Traditions of the South of Ireland, a work which
charmed Scott, and was translated into German b:
the brothers Grimm (1826). A second series fol-
lowed in 1827, and the whole reached a 6th edition
in 1882. Of nearly twenty more works of which
Croker was either the author or editor, the best
were Researches in the South of Ireland (1824);
Legends of the Lakes (1829), illustrated by his
friend Maclise, and re-issued as Killarney Legends
(1876); The Adventures of Barney Mahoney (1832);
A Memoir of Joseph Holt, General of the Irish Rebels
(1837); and Popular Songs of Ireland (1839 ; new
ed. by Professor H. Morley, 1885). Croker was a
zealous antiquary, a member of many learned
societies. See the Life by his son, prefixed to the
1859 edition of the Fairy Legends.

Croll, JAMEs, physicist, was born in 182] near
Coupar-Angus, in Perthshire. He received an ele-
mentary school-education, but in science was wholly
self-traimed. Successively millwright, insurance-
agent, and keeper of the museum of Anderson’s
College, Glasgow, in 1867 he joined the staff of the

3
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CROLY

CROMPTON 577

ee Survey of Scotland, but retired in 1881.
An F.R.S. and LL.D. since 1876, he died 16th
December 1890 (see his Life by J. C. Irons,
1896). Besides many rs in the scientific jour-
nals, he wrote The Philosophy of Theism (1857),
Climate and Time (1875), Discussions on Climate
and Cosmology (1886), and Stellar Evolution
(1889). Climate and Time, one of the most im-
portant contributions to geological climatology,
worked out in detail the view with which Croll’s
name is identified, that, contrary to the opinion of
most physicists, changes of the earth’s climate,
such as the glacial periods, are due to the secular
variations in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit,
together with consequences arising out of them,
such as the deflection of ocean currents.
OLIMATE, GLACIAL PERIOD, PRECESSION.

Croly, GrorGE, poet, romance-writer, bio-
grepher, and preacher, was born at Dublin in
780, and educated at Trinity College there. He
took orders in 1804, and in 1810 came to London,
where, after twenty-four years of literary labour, he
in 1835 became rector of. St Stephen’s, Walbrook.
He died 24th November 1860. tween 1817 and
1858 Dr Croly published some forty works—the best
known being the romance of Salathiel. See the
Memoir prefixed to his Book of Job (1863).

Crom/‘arty, the county town of Cromartyshire,
on the southern shore of the Cromarty Firth, 2
miles from its entrance, and 19 NNE. of Inver-
ness. Nothing remains of the old stronghold of the
Urquharts, the most famous of whom was Rabelais’
translator, Sir Thomas. From him the estate
came to the second son of that Sir George Mac-
kenzie who in 1685 was created Viscount Tarbat,
and in 1703 Earl of Cromarty—a title forfeited by
the third earl for his share in the ’45, but revived
in 1861 in favour of his descendant, the Duchess of
Sutherland, who, dying in 1888, was succeeded
therein by her oat | surviving son, Francis.
In 1859 a statue was erected of Hugh Miller
(q.v.). The population has dwindled from 2215
in 1831 to 1308 in 1891, though with Wick
and four other burghs Cromarty still returns
a member to parliament.—CROMARTY FIRTH, a
land-locked inlet on the north-east coast of
Scotland, extends 194 miles north-eastward and
eastward to the Moray Firth, and is inclosed by
the counties of Ross and Cromarty. It forms a
noble harbour, 1 mile to 7? miles beiid. and 5 to
35 fathoms deep ; receives at its head the Conon;
and narrows at its entrance to 7 furlongs, between
the beetling North and South Sutors, and 463
feet high, On its shores are the towns of Dingwall,
Invergordon, and Cromarty (the last has declined
with the rise of the second); the old red sandstone
near its mouth is classie as Hugh Miller’s hunting-
ground.—CROM’ARTYSHIRE, once a Scottish county,
369 sq. m. in area, consisting of ten detached por-
tions scattered up and down Ross-shire (q.v.),
with which it was incorporated by the Local
Government Act of 1889. It comprised the ancient
sherifflom of Cromarty, and outlying bits annexed
thereto towards the close of the 17th century at the
instigation of Viscount Tarbat, who wished thus to
hold jurisdiction over every part of his estates, —
Pop., with Ross-shire (1891), 77,810. See Sir W.
Fraser’s Larls of Cromarty (2 vols. 1876).

Cromdale, a place in Elginshire, on the right
bank of the Spey, 5 miles NE. of Grantown. Here,
on Ist May 1690, 800 Jacobite Highlanders were
surprised and routed by a body of King William’s
dragoons. This encounter is celebrated in a song
called The Haughs of Cromdale.

Crome, JOHN (known as ‘Old Crome’), land-
peepee painter, the chief member of the ‘ Norwich
School’ of artists, was born in that city, the son

141

of a poor weaver, 22d December 1768, After
serving as an errand-boy to a physician, he was
apprenticed to a house-painter; but, showing a
rong predilection for art, he was befriended by
Mr T. Harvey, of Catton, who procured him em-
loyment as a drawing-master, and permitted him
study works by Gainsborough and the Dutch
masters in his collection. He also received some
instruction from Beechey and Opie. He was mainly
influential in founding, in 1803, the Norwich Society
of Artists, which held exhibitions from 1805, and
of which he was president in 1808. He ocea-
sionally visited London, where he exhibited in
the Academy and the British Institution; and a
tour through Belgium and France in 1814 resulted
in ‘The Fishmarket on the Beach, Boulogne,’
and ‘The Boulevard des Italiens, Paris.’ But
his subjects were nearly always derived from the
scenery of his native county, which, though found-
ing his practice upon that of the Dutch land-
seapists, he trea in a singularly direct and
individual fashion, painting trees, and especially
the oak, with exceptional fidelity and uty.
His works realised only most moderate prices
during the artist’s life; but he is now recognised
as one of the t names among English land-
scapists, and fine examples of his art fetch ve
large sums. Several of his oil-paintings, includ-
ing the great ‘Mousehold Heath,’ are in the
National Gallery ; and among his other master-
pieces may be mentioned ‘Carrow Abbey,’ ‘ View
of Chapel Fields, Norwich,’ ‘Oak at Poringland,’
‘The Willow,’ and in the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge, the ‘Clump of Trees, Hautbois Com-
mon.’ He also practised as a water-colour painter,
but his works in this medium are rare; and a series
of his etchings of ‘ Norfolk Picturesque Scenery’
was published in 1834, and has been repeatedly
re-issued, The earlier impressions are fine and
valuable. He died, 22d April 1821, at Norwich,
where, in the following year, a collected exhibition
of his works was brought together, and he was
fully represented in the Royal Academy Old
Masters Exhibition, 1878. His eldest son, John
Bernay Crome (1794-1842), painted landscapes in
a style similar to those of his father, as whose
productions they are frequently sold.

Cromer, a pleasant watering-place on the
coast of Norfolk, 23 miles N. of Norwich by a
railway opened in 1877. The sea has here made
great encroachments on the cliffs since 1350,
though the town itself is now protected by a sea-
wall, formed in 1877, with an esplanade and a
jetty, at a cost of nearly £10,000. There are
capital sands and golf-links (1887), and the church
has a noble flint-work tower of 160 feet. Pop.
of parish (1891) 2197. It gives a peer’s title to Sir
Evelyn Baring (q.v.). See Rye’s Cromer (1889).

Cromlech (from the Gaelic crom, ‘curved,’
and /Jeac, ‘a stone’) is a modern term, formerly
applied by British archaeologists to a class of
megalithic monuments, consisting of one flat
stone supported on two or more upright stones,
and forming a kind of open chamber with a roof.
It is now generally recognised, however, that these
are merely the denuded or uncovered chambers of
chambered cairns (see CATRN) or barrows (see BAR-
ROW), for which another modern term, Dolmen
(q.v.), is now generally substituted. The French
archeologists retain the use of the word cromlech,
but they have always applied it to those grou
of standing stones which in Britain and Scandi.
navia are called Stone Circles (q.v.).

Crompton, SAMUEL, whose invention of the
spinning-mule entitles him to rank as one of man-
kind’s_ greatest benefactors, was born, the son of
a small farmer, at Firwood, near Bolton, Lanca-

578 CROMPTON

CROMWELL

shire, December 3, 1753. Like his father, Cromp-
ton was brought up to the loom and the farm.
His mother, a woman of great energy, persever-
ance, and stern independence, when left. a widow
struggled hard to give him and her two daughters
the best education the district afforded. Then
he was old enough, he assisted her in the farm,
‘and wove, and earned a little money by playing
the violin at Bolton theatre. At the age of
twenty-one, he was so much annoyed at the
breaking ends of yarn and the difficulties in get-
ting it to weave that he set to work to invent a
spinning-machine which should produce better
yarn than Hargreaves’, one of which his mother
layer For five years he laboured to realise
us idea, sitting up late at night to overcome the
successive difficulties, and resuming his labour
for daily bread early in the morning. In 1779
he succeeded in framing a machine which pro-
duced yarn of such astonishing fineness that the
house was beset by persons eager to know the
secret. He was rendered miserable. All kinds
of devices were tried to gain admission; even
ladders were placed against the windows. His
machine was such that if a mechanic saw it, he
could carry away the leading features of it. He
could not leave the house for fear of his discovery
being stolen from him. He had spent every
farthing he had in the world upon its comple-
tion; he had no funds wherewith to obtain a
patent, and his shy and unbusiness-like tempera-
ment prevented him profiting as he should have
done by his invention. A Bolton manufacturer
persuaded him to disclose the invention to the
trade, under the promise of a liberal subscription,
but all that he got was £67, 6s. 6d. Soured by
this treatment, in the course of time he saved
money enough to begin manufacturing on a small
scale at Oldhams, near Bolton, and _ latterly
at Bolton, but not till his rivals had a hopeless
start of him in the business. After the use of the
mule had told distinctly on British manufacturing
prosperity, a sum of between £400 and £500 was
raised for him by subscription, through Mr John
Kennedy, his earliest biographer. fforts were
made to procure for him a national reward. Five
thousand pounds was all he obtained in 1812,
and he returned to Bolton almost broken-hearted.
He began the bleaching trade at Over Darwen,
then became a partner in a cotton firm, but was
unsuccessful in both. Some friends latterly pur-
chased an annuity of £63 for him. He died June 26,
1827. Crompton’s was soon by far the most used of
all spinning-machines, and in 1811 the number of
spindles on his principle was 4,600,000, while there
were only 310,516 of Arkwright’s, and 155,880 of
Hargreaves’. A monument was placed over his
grave, and in 1862 a bronze statue of him erected
at Bolton. See Kennedy’s Memoir in vol. v. of
Memoirs of Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, and French’s Life of Crompton (1860).
Cromwell, OLIvER, Protector of the Common-
wealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, was
born at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599. He was the
son of Robert Cromwell, younger son of Sir Hen
Cromwell, descendant of a nephew of Cromwell,
Earl of Essex, and was a younger brother of Sir
Henry Cromwell of Hinchinbrook. His mother
was Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Steward of
Ely, afterwards knighted by James I., who, when
she married Robert Cromwell, was the widow of
William Lynne. He was first-cousin to John
Hampden. He was educated at Huntingdon
grammar-school, the master of which was the
Puritan Dr Beard, and at Sidney-Sussex College,
Cambridge, and seems to have carried away a
modest share of classical and general culture.
He went to London to study law, but never

entered an Inn of Court. In June 1617 his father
died, leaving him a moderate estate at Hunting-
don. In August 1620 he married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir James Bourchier, a London
merchant. Of the wildness of his youth there is
no proof beyond his own remorseful confession
after his conversion that before he knew God he
had been the chief of sinners. He was, however,
under medical treatment for hypochondria. He
embraced Puritanism in its most enthusiastic
form, attended and supported the ministry of its”

roscribed preachers, and became a zealous ad-
Eient of the cause, and opponent of its arch-
enemy and persecutor Laud.

In 1628 he sat as member for Huntingdon in the
stormy third parliament of Charles, and raised
his voice against Romanising ecclesiastics. The

arliament dissolved, he returned to farming at

untingdon, whence he removed to St Ives and
afterwards to Ely, where property had been left
him by his uncle. He appears to have come into
collision as a local patriot with the king’s com-
mnissioners for the drainage of the Fens. He sat
for Cambridge in the Short Parliament and in the
Long Parliament (1640). In the Long Parliament,
though no speaker, he was active and vehement on
the Puritan side. Sir Philip Warwick describes
him at this period in ‘a plain cloth suit, which
seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor ;
his linen was plain, and not very clean; and f
remember a speck or two of blood upon his little
band, which was not much larger than his collar.
His hat was without a hat-band; his stature was
of a good size; his sword stuck close to his side ;
his countenance swollen and reddish; his voice
sharp and untunable; and his eloquence full of
fervour.’ Sir Philip adds: ‘It lessened much my
reverence unto that great council, for this gentle-
man was very much hearkened unto.’

When war broke out (1642) he was sent down to
organise his district for the parliament, which he did
with the greatest vigour and success. He also sub-
scribed £500 to the cause. Becoming captain of a
troop of parliamentary horse, he fought at Edge-
hill. After Edgehill, he warned his friends that
the parliament must have soldiers of a better stamp,
and that to the spirit of a chivalrous gentry must
be opposed that of a God-fearing yeomanry. On
this principle he formed his unconquerable Iron-
sides. With strict morality and organised enthu-
siasm he combined in the famous corps a rigid
discipline, which enabled him always to keep his
troopers well in hand, and thus to turn the waver-
ing tide of more than one battle. While the cause
of the parliament was depressed elsewhere, his
constancy, capacity, and courage upheld it in the
eastern counties, which had formed themselves
into an association, of which he was the soul. A
brilliant action near Gainsborough marked him
for high command. In the summer of 1644 he.
under Manchester, led the forces of the associated
counties to join the Scots and the troops of the
Fairfaxes before York, and in the battle of
Marston Moor the charges of his cavalry decided
the day. He now stood forth as the leader of the
Independent and thoroughgoing party against the
Praceytavans and moderates. fter the second
battle of Newbury he impeached the conduct of
Manchester in parliament. While the Presbyterian
and aristocratic generals were set aside by the
Self-denying Ordinance, Cromwell was retained in
command. Under Fairfax he led the new model
army, of which he no doubt was the chief
organiser, to decisive victory at Naseby, June 14,
1645. Fairfax being no | eeu Cromwell be-
came the representative of the army in its contest
with the Presbyterian parliament, which desired to
disband it. The Presbyterians proving intractable, _

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CROMWELL 579

he resorted as usual to strong measures, marched
on London, and coerced the parliament, He was
never revolutionary, but he cared not for forms
when they stood in the way of what he thought
t. It was no doubt under his directions that
Joyce carried off the king from Holmby. It seems
that Cromwell desired, had it been peeelhie, to
make terms with the king; but Charles was in-
curably with the idea of recovering his
wer by playing off one party against the other.
Whether it was by Cromwell or by the Scotch
enyoys that Charles was induced to fly from
(ahem Court is a question on which authorities
er.

As a prisoner in the Isle of Wight, the king,
while he was negotiating with the parliament, was
carrying on intrigues with his partisans in England
and Scotland, which brought on the second Civil
War and the invasion of England by Hamilton.
Again Cromwell was called to take the field for his
cause, which was once more in extreme peril. After
swiftly quelling the insurrection in Wales, he
marched northwards, attacked the invading army
of Hamilton at Preston and totally destroyed it.
The soldiery now clamoured for justice on the king ;
and Cromwell, probably sharing their wrath and
despairing of any arrangement with the faithless
Charles, complied with their demand, brought the
king to trial, sat in the High Court of Justice,
and signed the death-warrant (January 1649),
Had ambition been his motive for this deed we
should hardly have found him at the same time

treating for the marriage of Richard, his heir, with

the daughter of Mr Mayor, a private gentleman.
The Commonwealth having been established, the
first service rendered by Cromwell to it was the
suppression of the formidable meeting of the
Levellers, which he accomplished by a characteristic
union of vigour with merey. He was next sent to
Treland to end the civil war still raging there.
This he did effectually, and on the whole humanely,
though it cost some strokes of sanguinary severity,
the necessity for which he himself deplored.

On his return from Ireland he (Fairfax having
declined) took the command against the Scots,
who had declared against the regicide republic and
called in Charles I], With his usual daring he
assumed the offensive and invaded Scotland. But
he was out-generalled by Leslie, and was in extreme
ag when a false move of the Scots, by affording

im battle, enabled him once more to display the
superiority of the soldiery which he had trained
and to win the decisive victory of Dunbar. The
image of militant Puritanism was never more
vividly presented than by Cromwell’s bearing on
that scene. With the defeated Covenanters he
dealt as with paseeniee friends. The royalists
proper, who still held the field in Scotland, having
eluded his strategy and marched into England, he
followed, and on September 3, 1651, at Worcester,
gained the victory which he called his crowning
mercy and which ended the Civil War. Returning
to London in triumph, he declared for a constitu-
tional settlement and an amnesty. The parlia-
ment, now reduced by revolutionary expulsions to
the acy <2 was bent on perpetuating its own
power. fter fruitless negotiations Cromwell
turned it out with unwise violence and contumely.
Supreme power being now in his hands and those of
the other chiefs of the army, he called the con-
vention of Puritan notables, nicknamed the Bare-
bones Parliament, for the settlement of the nation.
The Barebones Parliament proving too visionary
and revolutionary, was dismissed, and supreme
power reverted to Cromwell and his officers.

Cromwell was now declared Protector under the
instrument of government, which provided for a
government by a single person with one House of

parliament elected on a reformed basis of repre-
sentation, and a Council of State, in the appoint-
ment of which nomination by the Protector was
combined with election by the parliament (Decem-
ber 16, 1653). A power of legislating by ordinance
till parliament should meet was reserved to the
Protector, and was largely used by Cromwell for the
pu of reorganisation and reform. His aim
evidently was to restore in substance the ancient
constitution of the realm, with a Protestant pro-
tectorate or monarchy, and full securities for
liberty, especially for the religious liberty which
had been in his mind at least the main object of
the Civil War. But when parliament met, though
elected under his writs, it fell to questioning his
authority, and he was compelled to exclude the
disaffected by a test. His second parliament, from
which the recalcitrants were excluded at the outset,
offered him the title of king. Cromwell wavered ;
but the stubborn resistance of the republican
soldiers decided him to decline the offer. The
Upper House of parliament was, however, restored,
and the Protector was empowered to name his
successor. A fixed revenue was also voted to him.
He was now installed as Protector with a cere-
monial resembling a coronation. When the parlia-
ment met again, its two Houses fell into a collision
which compelled Cromwell to dissolve it; and his

wer thenceforth rested upon the army, though
it was his constant desire to revert to constitutional
government, and he was preparing to call a new
parliament when he died.

His protectorate was a perpetual conflict with
republican resistance on the one hand and with
bps plots and risings on the other, while bis
life was queptestly threatened by royalist assassins.
To keep down the royalists he for a time put
the country under major-generals, supplying his
treasury at the same time by an impost on the
property of the cavaliers. He was, nevertheless,
able to inaugurate a great policy, home and
foreign. He reorganised the national church on
the principle of comprehension, including all but
Papists, Prelatists, and Antitrinitarians, while the
ministry was weeded by commission, the result
being, as Baxter, an opponent of the government,
testifies, a ministry very acceptable to the people.
Personally tolerant, Cocenwall upheld toleration as
far as he could, especially in the case of the See-
taries, and curbed the rsecuting tendencies of
parliament. For law reform he did his best, but
professional interests were too strong for him. He
united Scotland and Ireland to England, giving them
both representation in parliament. Scotland, hav-
ing free trade with England, enjoyed t pros-
perity under his rule. Ireland he sought to make
a second England in order and industry, and if his
measures were high-handed it must be remembered
that the native Irish were then in an almost savage
state. It was his aim to enlist ability, without
distinction of party, and youths of promise from
the universities into the service of the state. He
saved the universities from the fanatics, put good
men at their head, and encouraged letters.

But it is his foreign policy that has brought him
most renown. Under him the Commonwealth be-
came the head and protectress of Protestant
Europe. He made peace with Holland and tried
to form a | e of all the Protestant states. He
protected the Waldenses of Piedmont a, their

rsecutors, using the pen of Milton in his protest.
n the interest at once of religious liberty and
commerce he allied himself with France, as the
more liberal power, against Spain, the power of
persecuting Roman Catholicism and the tyrant of
the Western waters. He failed in an attempt on
Hispaniola, but took Jamaica, and thus “ve
British enterprise a foothold in those seas. The

580

CROMWELL

victories gained by his fleet under Blake over the
Spaniards brought him at once glory and treasure.

is troops, with those of France, won the battle of
the Dunes, and he obtained Dunkirk as his share
of the spoil. He sedulously fostered British com-
merce, and by the hand of Blake chastised the
pirate-states of Barbary. His boast that he would
make the name of Englishman as respected as that
of Roman had been, was, so long as he reigried,
fulfilled ; and his bitterest enemies could not deny
the impression which he had made on the world, or
the height to which he had raised his country.
His court was simple and frugal, yet dignified ; and
though there was a strain of coarseness in his
character (as illustrated in occasional horseplay ),
his bearing in public upheld the majesty of the
state.

Cromwell had always been a most loving husband
and father, and the palace of the Protector was a
virtuous English home. His speeches are very
rough and unmethodical as compositions, but they
are marked by sense, force, and intensity of pur-
pose. He was fond of music, and not without
regard for art. It seems that his government was
striking root, since people of rank were beginnin
‘to ally themselves with it, and his heir succeede
without the slightest opposition. But disease and
care, together with grief at the death of his
favourite daughter, Lady Claypole, cut short his
life. He died September 3, 1658, and the fabric of
ae ala rk which his mighty arm had sustained

ell speedily to the ground.

The records of Cromwell’s life are very imper-
fect. Of his greatness as a soldier and states-
man there can be no question, but it is difficult
across two centuries and a half to see into his
heart and pronounce how far ambition mingled
with higher motives. That the religious enthusiasm
which sent him out to expose his life in war at the
age of forty-three was sincere cannot be doubted ;
but religious enthusiasm is often associated with
fanaticism and self-deception. One who knew
Cromwell well has deseribed him as ‘in body com-
pact and strong, about five feet ten in height, with
a head which you might see was a vast treasury
of natural parts, with a temper exceeding fiery but
under strong moral restraint, and compassionate
even to an effeminate measure.’ ‘A larger soul, I
think, hath seldom dweit in a house of clay than
his was.’ He was laid with great pomp in
the tomb of the kings at Westminster, but after
the Restoration his body was exposed on the gibbet
at Tyburn and afterwards buried under it.

See Noble, Memoirs of the Protectoral House of
Cromwell (1787); Cromwell, Life of O. Cromwell and his
Sons (1820); Carlyle, Cromzell’s Letters and Speeches
(1846); Sanford, Studies of the Great Rebellion (1853);
Goldwin Smith, Three English Statesmen (1867); Jas.
Waylen, The House of Cromwell (1892); books on the
Protector by F. Harrison (1888), R. F. D. Palgrave
(1890), S. H. Church (1894), Horton (1897), S. R.
Gardiner (1897 and 1899), Baldock (1899), and Paterson
(1899) 5 and works cited at CHARLEs I. and II.

Cromwell, RicHArD, third son of Oliver, was
born October 4, 1626. By the deaths of his two
elder brothers, Robert and Oliver, he became his
father’s heir. He was an amiable and popular but
weak man, devoted to field-sports and fond of
pleasure. He lived for some time in com-
parative privacy, but when the Protector had been
empowered to nominate his successor, Richard was
brought to the front, and an effort was made to
train him to the work of government, but in vain.
Searcely had he entered on his office, when the
forces of anarchy, both parliamentary and military,
broke loose, and he found himself utterly unable to
restrain them. It was probably with little reluc-
tance that he quitted Whitehall and retired into

private life. After the Restoration he lived for a
time abroad under a feigned name; but he returned
to England about 1680, and passed the remainder
of his life at Cheshunt, where he died July 12,
1712, and was buried in the church at Hursley,
Hampshire.

Cromwell, THomas (malleus monachorum,
‘the hammer of the monks’), was born about
1485, the son of a Putney blacksmith, cloth-
shearer, brewer, and innkeeper. His youth was
turbulent and adventurous. During eight or nine
years passed on the Continent (1504-12), he seems
to have served as a common soldier, to have been
befriended at Florence by Frescobaldi the banker,
to have acted as clerk at Antwerp and to a Vene-
tian merchant, to have visited Rome, and to have
traded on his own account at Middelburg. a
how, by 1513 he was back in England and married ;
there, step by step, he rose to wealth and import-~
ance as a wool-stapler and a scrivener, half usurer,
half lawyer, having originally been bred to the law.
Wolsey em ae him as early as 1514; through
Wolsey, re ly, he got into parliament (1523) ;
he was Wolsey’s chief agent in the unpopular work
of suppressing certain smaller monasteries for the
endowment of his colleges at Ipswich and Oxford
(1525); and finally he became his factotum and
secretary. He stepped to creatness over his fallen
master. Cavendish tells how on All-Hallows Day,
1529, he found ‘Master Cromwell saying of Our .
Lady matins—which had been since a very strange
sight in him’—and bewailing his own misadven-
ture, but intending to ride from Esher to the court,
‘where,’ quoth he, ‘I will either make or mar.’
And Pole tells how, a few months earlier, Cromwell :
bade him take Machiavelli for his guide. Both
stories illustrate the very man.

He was cheaply faithful to the cardinal, a
him not only by quick-witted advice, and by plead-
ing his cause in parliament, but even with £5 out
of his own savings. Withal, he made himself friends
of Wolsey’s enemies; and his fidelity ingratiated
him with Henry VIII. Him Cromwell promised
to make the richest king ever in England, and coun-
selled him to cut the knot of the divorce by declar-
ing himself supreme head of the church. Counsel
and promise were carried into effect by the Act of
Supremacy (1534) and by the dissolution of the
monasteries (1536-39). To abolish papal authority,
break the power of the church, itable the nobility,
and make the king absolute, were Cromwell’s aims ;
in their accomplishment he stuck at piens ' At
heart, it would seem, still a Catholic—for so late as
1535 he bequeathed £46 for a priest to sing mass for
his soul—he yet did his utmost to Protestantise the
English Church, whose ‘polity,’ in the words of
Mr Froude, Cromwell’s admirer, ‘ remains as it was
left by its creator.’ It is often hard to determine
whether he was tool or instigator, to dissever his
actions from those of Henry ; both must be treated
under Henry’s reign. But here may be noticed his
ote manners and ungraceful person, his venal-
ity and profusion, his purposeful ruthlessness and
ubiquitous industry, his army of spies and vast
correspondence —above all, the fact that that
English ‘Terror,’ in which perished More and
Fisher and hundreds of lowlier victims, set in with
Cromwell’s rise, and ebbed with Cromwell’s fall.
Among the posts and honours showered on him
were thine of privy-councillor (1531), chancellor of
the exchequer (1533), secretary of state and master
of the st (1534), vicar-general (1535), lord privy
seal and Baron Cromwell of Oakham (1536), knight
of the Garter and dean of Wells (1537), lord great
chamberlain (1839), and finally, on 17th April 1540,
Earl of Essex. ‘He had,’ says Professor Brewer,
‘engrossed in his own hands powers such as no
subject and no sovereign in this country had ever

CRONJE

CROSS 581

ge sae before or will ever possess again.’ But
e hand that had so exalted could equally abase
him. The hatred all men bore him, the Catholic
reaction, and Henry’s aversion to Anne of Cleves,
the coarse Lutheran consort of Cromwell's choosing,
combined to effect his ruin; less than eight weeks
after his elevation to the earldom he was arres
and lodged in the Tower. His abject entreaties
for ‘Mercy, mercy !’ availed him nothing ; as little
did his filthy revelations of Henry’s discourse with
him touching Anne of Cleves. Condemned under
a bill of attainder, his own favourite engine of
tyranny, he was bunglingly beheaded on Tower
Hill, 28th July 1540. See Mr Gairdner’s article
in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol, xiii.
1888); Dean Hook’s Lives of the Archbishops of
Canterbury (vol. vi. chap. 1, 1868); Professor
Brewer’s article on ‘The Royal Supremacy’ in
lish Studies (1881); works cited under HENRY

VIII. ; and two articles in the Antiquarian Maga-
gine for 1882 by Mr Jolin Phillips of Putney.

Cronje, Pret, a Transvaal general, born in 1835,
took a leading part in the wars with Britain in 1881
and in 1899-1900. After a skilful and determined
resistance to Lord Methuen at Magersfontein,
he surrendered with 4000 of his army to Lord
Roberts on the Modder River on 27th February
1900. He was sent with other Boer prisoners to
St Helena.

Cronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian sea-
port, 20 miles W. of St Petersburg, on a narrow

and 7 miles long, at the mouth of the Neva.
Cronstadt is at once the greatest naval station and
the most flourishing commercial port of Russia. It
was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, after taking
the island from the Swedes (1703). Its fortifications
command every approach to St Petersburg. They
are all built of granite, and armed with the
heaviest ordnance. The place, indeed, was con-
sidered by Sir Charles Napier, who reconnoitred
it during the Russian war of 1854-55, so impreg-
hable that it would have been utter madness to
make any eteupt upon it. Cronstadt, which is
the seat of the Russian Admiralty, has three har-
bours : the east, intended for vessels of war, and
capable of accommodating thirty ships of the line ;
the middle harbour, where vessels are fitted up and
repaired, and which is connected with the former
by a broad canal; and the west or Merchant's

arbour, for the merchant-shipping, with capacity
for 1000 vessels. Since 1884 St Petersburg is con-
nected with Cronstadt by a ship-canal 200 feet wide
and 22 feet deep. Cronstadt contains a cathedral,
a statue of Peter the Great, and a British seamen’s
hospital (1867). In 1891 a 135-ton Krupp gun was
put in position. Pop. 42,683.

_ Cronstadt, in Hungary. See Kronsrapr.
Cronus. See SATURN.

Crook, GEorGE, American soldier, born in
Ohio in 1828, clea at West Point in 1852,
served in California till 1861, and was actively
engaged throughout the civil war, in which he rose
to the rank of major-general. He served against
the Indians in Idaho ( 1866-72), in Arizona (1872-75),
and crushed the great rising in Wyoming and
Montana in 1875-77. In 1882 he returned to
Arizona, where he controlled the Indians on the
southern frontier, and induced them to take u
farms and become peaceable. Died March 21, 1890.

Crooked Island. See BAHAMAs.

- Crookes, Sir WILLIAM, a great physicist and
chemist, born in London in 1832, was a pupil and
assistant of Hofmann at the Royal College of
Chemistry, next superintended the meteorological
department of the Radeliffe Observatory, and
lectured on chemistry at the Science College,

Chester. In 1859 he founded the Chemical News,
and in 1864 became also editor of the Quarterly
Journal of Science. He was elected F.R.S. in
1863, vice-president of the Chemical Society in
1876, member of council of the Royal Society the
ear after, and in 1880 was awarded by the
rench Académie des Sciences an extraordinary
prize of 3000 francs and a gold medal. He is an
authority of the first rank on sanitary questions,
especially the disposal of the sewage of towns, and
his method of producing extreme vacua gave a
eat impulse to incandescent electric lighting.
fis original researches in chemistry and physica
led to the discovery of the metal thallium in 1861,
of the sodium amalgamation process for separatin
ld and silver from their ores in 1865, and o
important discoveries in molecular physics and
iant matter, besides the invention of the
Radiometer (q.v.). He is the author of Select
Methods of Chemical Analysis (1871), and of works
on beetroot sugar manufacture, dyeing, calico-print-
ing, and sewage, and has translated books on
Semieaey. and metallurgy. ‘Crookes Tubes’ are
Vacuum Tubes (q.v.); and see RUNTGEN, GAs. For
Crookes’s spiritualistic views, see SPIRITUALISM.
Crookes was made a K.C.B. in 1897, and was Pres-
ident of the British Association in 1898.

Crookhaven, « fishing village of County Cork,
30 miles SW. of Skibbereen, on a fine bay.

Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, gives name
to a royalist success (29th June 1644).

Croquet, an open-air game, in which two or
more players endeavour to drive wooden balls, by
means of long-handled mallets, through a series of
arches set in the ground according to
some pattern. The object of each
player is to make the complete circle §
of six to ten hoops or arches; but dur-
ing the course of the game he may
have the progress of his ball retarded
by his opponents, or assisted by his

artners; and these friendly aids and

ostile attacks constitute the chief in-
terest of croquet. The game seems to
be substantially a revival of the old
game of Pall Mall, which gave its name
to what is now the well-known London
street, and to other places in England.
Pall Mall, played with ball (Ital. pad/a)
and mailet (Ital. maglia), came from
France into England early in the 17th
century, and died out in the 18th.
Croquet (Fr. eroguer, ‘to crack’) be-
came a popular game about 1850, was
the great summer social game during
1860-70, but was after about 1875 super-
seded by lawn-tennis, to revive about
1897. <A croquet-ground should be a
well-rolled level grass plat or lawn, not
less than 30 yards long be 20 yards wide ;
a full-sized croquet-ground measures 40
yards by 30 yards.

Crosier, a staff 5 feet long, sur-
mounted by a cross, and borne by or
before an archbishop on solemn occa-
sions. It is generally hollow, gilt, and
richly ornamented. The crosier differs
entirely from the Pastoral Staff (q.v.),
with which it is often nevertheless con-
founded—the latter having a circular
head, in the form of a crook. The illus-
tration is of re cg Warham’s
crosier, from Canterbury Cathedral.

Cross. The cross was a common
instrument of capital punishment among
the ancients; and the death of the cross was
esteemed so dishonourable that only slaves and

Crosier,

582

CROSS

malefactors of the lowest class were subjected to
it by the Romans. Among the Carthaginians,
and probably also among the Pheenicians and
allied races, it was employed as an instrument
of sacrifice to Baal. Thus the Carthaginian
general, Malcus, invested his son, Cartalo, in royal
raiment, with a crown on his head, and crucified
him to obtain a special favour from Baal. It has
been suggested that there may be some allusion, to
these crucifixions to the sun in Num. xxv. 4; Josh.
viii. 29; x. 26. Among the Gauls, as shall be noted
later, a cross of equal arms was a solar symbol.
It was customary among the Romans to proclaim
the name and offence of the person crucified, or
to affix a tablet (adbum) to the cross, on which
they were inscribed. Malefactors were sometimes
fastened on a simple upright stake, and so left to
die, or they were impaled upon it, and to this up-
right stake the Latin name crux was originally and
more strictly applicable ; but very generally a cross-
piece (patibulum) was added to the stake, to which
the arms of the criminal were tied, or to which his
hands were nailed. When the cross-piece was
fastened at right angles below the summit of the
upright stake, the cross was called crux immissa ;
when the cross-piece was fastened at right angles
across the top of the upright stake, the cross was
crux commissa; and when it was formed of two
beams crossing one another obliquely, it was crux
decussata. ‘There was often a projection, on which
the body rested, as onaseat. The cross was erected
without the gates of towns, but in places of frequent
resort. The person crucified often lived for days
upon the cross.

The death of Christ by crucifixion led Christians to
regard the cross with peculiar feelings of reverence,
and to make use of the sign of the cross as a holy and
distinguishing sign. The custom of crossing one’s
self in honour and commemoration of Christ, can be
traced back to the 3d century. It was customary,
probably from apostolic times, for the Christians to
pray with extended arms; and Justin Martyr and

rigen explain this attitude as representing that of
Christ on the cross. In this manner Christians are
represented in the early paintings in the catacombs
as praying. The Emperor Constantine, after obtain-
ing the victory over Maxentius, through the influ-
ence, as he believed, of the sign of the cross, caused
crosses to be set up in public places and upon public
buildings ; but the so-called cross of Constantine,
or Labarum, was not really a cross, but a circle
containing the XPI, the first three letters of the
name of Christ in Greek, and was merely an
adaptation of a symbol of a Gaulish solar deity
(see Gaidoz, Le Diew Gaulois du Soleil), which con-
sisted of a wheel of six spokes, or sometimes of
four. After the Invention of the Cross, or finding
of the alleged true cross of Christ in Jerusalem,
which was supposed to have taken place in a search
made on Calvary by the Empress Helena (q.v.) in
326 A.D., a surprising quantity of the relics
of the cross were distributed through all parts of
Christendom. When a portion of the cross was
given to St Radegund by Justin II., emperor of the
East, and she desired to have the relic received
with honour into the city of Poitiers, the Bishop
Maroveus peremptorily refused to allow it. She
was Sbliged to appeal to King Sigebert, and he
ordered the Aroha of Tours to receive the
relic. Maroveus left the town rather than coun-
tenance what he regarded as a superstitious act.
For this occasion Venantius Fortunatus wrote the
famous hymn ‘ Vexilla regis,’ and it was first sung
on the introduction of the relic processionally into
Poitiers, circa 580. Various other protests were

made against the extension of the worship of the |

relics, but in vain. The sign of the cross is made
not only by Roman Catholics, but by the members

of the Eastern churches also; by the Westerns from
left to right, by the Easterns from right to left.
It is admitted by the Lutherans. as a commemora-
tive sign of the atoning death of Christ, but by
many Protestants is rejected as a human invention
in worship, and as tending to superstition. It was
very generally used during the middle ages, and
still is among the less enlightened peasantry in
some Roman Catholic countries as a sort of charm,
or as affording some security, like an amulet, against
all evil, and particularly against evil spirits and
witchcraft. The festival of the Invention of the
Cross is celebrated on the 3d of May; that of the
Elevation of the Cross commemorates the re-erect-
ing of the cross at Jerusalem by the Emperor
Heraclius in 628, after it had been carried awa
by. the Persians. See. Legends of the Holy Rood,
edited by Richard Morris for the Early English
Text Society (1871); and the Legendary History
of the Cross, by Ashton and Baring-Gould (1887).

The earliest mention of representations of the ~
crucifixion are by two writers in the 6th century.
Gregory of Tours relates that such a picture was
in one of the churches of Narbonne, and gave offence
because it was nude; and the rhetorician Choricius
says that in a church at Gaza was a representa-
tion of Christ crucified between two thieves, See
Crucirix. _As neither of these writers remarks
on the novelty of such representations, it may be
suppoees that they were not infrequent in the
6th century. Early crucifixes were, in contradis-
tinction to that mentioned by Gregory, clothed to
the feet. In the treasury of Monza are two such,
one given by Gregory the Great in 599 to Adalwald,
son of Queen Theodolinda, and another of the
6th century with a Greek inscription. The use
of the cross without a figure of Christ is much
earlier. As already mentioned, it was employed
as a sign made with the hand, or by extension
of the arms, at an extremely early Christian
epoch ; but no crosses are found represented in the
catacombs of Rome before the 5th century, except-
ing the so-called cross of
Constantine, a, which is
not a cross but a mono- ¥K - -$. re
ram. This symbol is @ db: e¢ d
ound first in the begin-
ning of the 4th century. It also took the form 6.
Then it became a plain cross, e. A very complete
list of all the representations of the cross in its
various forms in the Roman catacombs and other
Christian monuments of the first five centuries
will be found under the heading ‘Kreuz,’ in
Kraus, Realencyclopddie d. Christlichen Alterthumer
(1886).

It appears that the sign of the cross was in use

as an emblem, having certain religious and mystic
meanings attached to it, long before the Christian
era; the crux ansata, or cross with a handle to it,
c, is common on Egyptian monuments. It was
the symbol of immortality, The cross with equal
arms, and the cross with re-

turned arms or fylfot, d, is a

symbol found on_ prehistoric 5 + x
relics in Italy and elsewhere ¢ f g
(see Mortillet, Le Signe de la

Croix avant le Christianisme, 1866). The Spanish
conquerors were astonished to find it an object of
religious veneration among the natives of Central
and South America, where it was a symbol of the
god of rains.

The forms given to crosses in art are endless; but
the two Icading types are the Latin cross, ¢, or
crux immissa, supposed to be that on which Christ
suffered, and the Greek cross, f, both of which are
subject to many fantastic variations. The Greek
cross forms the well-known cross of St George,
which was the national ensign of the English.

a ee

CROSS

583

us to the union with Scotland. The cross of

t Andrew, g, differed entirely in form from the Latin
or Greek cross. is cross, or crux decussata, eon-
sisted of two shafts of equal length crossed diagon-
ally at the middle, as in the annexed cut. Accord-

to the legend, this was the form of cross on
which St Andrew, the national saint of Scotland,
suffered martyrdom (see ANDREW). As the Scottish
e , itis now blended with the cross of St George
in the Union Jack.

The Cross of the Resurrection is a floriated cross ;
and is usually represented as heading a lance, to
which is fastened a banner upon which a cross is
depicted. The earliest and finest floriated cross
is that in the mosaic of San Ponziano, where, how-
ever, the flowers spring from the shaft, and on the
arms stand two lighted candles. The idea of the
floriated cross seems to have been to connect it
with Aaron’s rod that budded, and so to signify the
eternal priesthood of Christ.

In medieval times a cross, the Rood, stood over
the screen between the nave of a church and the
chancel. This was always veiled in Lent. The
erutched cross, like the letter JT, was the symbol
of St Anthony the Hermit. Processional crosses
are those carried in processions (see CROSIER) ;

toral crosses, those worn on the breast by
ecclesiastics of rank. Many orders have distine-
tive crosses. See LEGION OF HONOUR.

The Order of the Cross, originally a spiritual
order of knighthood, sprang up in Palestine in the
time of the Crusades, and was then called the
Bethlehemite Order. Pope Gregory LX. confirmed
the order in 1238. Its principal seat was in Bohemia.
There is also a Brazilian Order of the Cross.

Sanctuary, Boundary, or Monumental Crosses, as
they are called, consist of an be flat pillar
or obelisk, covered with sculptural devices, and set

St Martin’s Cross, Iona.

in a socket level with the ground. Occasionally,
they appear to have marked boundaries, but more
frequently were monuments over the ves of
heroes, kings, bishops, &c. A vast number of ex-
tremely rude and early crosses of nite occur in
Cornwall and Devon : some of these have apparently
been fashioned out of pau monoliths. In
some instances, they probably marked the verge of
asanctuary. A characteristic type of cross is the

Celtic Cross, most frequently found in Ireland and
in the north and west of Scotland. Such crosses
pose’ hase from a cross incised on a flat slab to an
elaborate cruciform monument. The majority of
the latter seem to belong to the period between the
12th and 15th centuries. One of the best known is
that at Iona called St Martin’s Cross, standing in
the grounds of the cathedral. It is a column of
compact mica schist, 14 feet high, 18 inches broad,
and 6 inches thick, and is fixed in a pedestal formed
out of a massive block of red granite, about 3 feet
high. In connection with certain ancient religious
houses in Ireland, there were very fine Celtic
crosses. Some crosses of this type show Scandi-
navian workmanship; hence they are often called
Runic crosses. The cross of Ruthwell (q.v.) in
Dumfriesshire, and that at Bewcastle (q.v.) in
Cumberland are interesting samples.

Churchyard Crosses seem to have existed in all
churchyards before the Reformation: some still
exist, and the remains of others are numerous. In
France, in connection with the cemetery cross, in
some parts, a perpetual lamp was kept burning,
and the contrivance for the lamp remains in some
of them.

Many very beautiful crosses exist in England,
upon the pone of gables of churches, or grave-
stones, and in other situations, as also in heraldry.
Among these, the cross most commonly seen is
called the cross crosslet (see below).

Memorial Crosses are such as are erected in
memory of a beloved object, or in commemoration
of some event of local importance. In England
there are some superb crosses of this kind;
they are pracindy called Norman Crosses. This
species of cross resembled a Gothic turret set on
the ground, or on a base of a few ste
decorated with niches for figures an
The best-
known ex-
amples are
those erected
by Edward
I. (1290) in
memory of his
queen, Elea-
nor; being
placed on the
spots where
the body jf
rested in its |
funereal pro- {
gress to West-
minster. The &
crosses at
Waltham,
Cheapside,
and Charing
were of the
number. That
at Charin
was remov
by the parlia-
ment in 1647;
a modern re-
production
now occupies
its site. The
Waltham
Cross, repaired in 1890, remains as a testimonial of
the affection and piety of the greatest of the
Plantagenets.

Village Crosses stood in the centre of most vil-
lages in ancient times. In the west of England a
good many remain.

Town or Market Crosses were erected as stands to
preach from, or in commemoration of events re-
garding which it was deemed proper to evoke pious

, and was
pinnacles.

Waltham Cross, restored.

584 CROSS

CROSSBILL

feelings. As these structures were incorporated
with or surmounted by a crucifix, the term cross
was so indelibly associated with them'that it sur-
vived the religious character of the fabrics. The
earliest examples of this kind consisted, probably,
of tall crucifixes of wood, such as are still seen by
the waysides in some continental countries. After-
wards, stone shafts would be substituted; and
according to the increase of market revenues, or
progress of taste, these town-crosses assumed that
imposing character which they latterly possessed.
The crosses at Cheddar in Somersetshire and at
Malmesbury in Wiltshire, are open vaulted struc-
tures, with a commodious space beneath as a
refuge for market-folks during rain, and sur-
mounted with a kind of Gothic turret. At Chi-
chester, Bristol, and Winchester, the market-
crosses, while similar in form, are of a higher
architectural quality. Adjoining St Paul’s in
London stood Paul’s Cross, a structure which we
read of as early as 1259, in the reign of Henry III.
At this preaching-cross, by order of Henry VIIL.,
reachers delivered sermons in favour of the Re-
ormation, and here Queen Elizabeth attended to
hear a thanksgiving sermon for the defeat of the
Spanish Armada; but in 1643 the cross incurred
the displeasure of the Puritans, and was demolished
by order of parliament. See Zhe Ancient Stone
Jrosses of England, by Alfred Rimmer (1875).

Scotland offers no specimens of memorial or
Norman crosses, unless it be the modern Scott
Monument, at Edinburgh, which is essentially a
Norman cross of a gigantic order. The simpler
kind of Scottish market-cross consisted of a shaft of
stone, standing on a flight of circular or octangular
steps—the grander market-cross consisted of a tall
stone shaft, on an imposing circular, hexagonal, or
octagonal-substructure, 10 to 16 feet high. The top
formed a platform, which was surrounded with an
ornamented stone parapet, and was reached by a
stair inside. Losing their religious character, the

Scottish market-

crosses were em-

ployed for royal

and civic pro-

clamations, and

as places where

certain judicial

writs were ex-

ecuted. The

oldest cross of

Edinburgh stood

in the centre of

the High Street,

but was removed

in 1617. A new

te market-cross

was then erected

farther down the

street, on the

south side, which

consisted of an

octangular base,

Alea Be witha stone shaft

: i : of about 20 feet

— , == in height; its

inburgh Market-cross, 1617-1886, yn?" chvig

authorities, is in-

dignantly referred to by Scott in Marmion. The

shaft, which had been preserved, was re-erected

on a similar substructure near the same site in
1885, at the expense of Mr Gladstone.

Cross, in Heraldry, is one of ‘the ordinaries,
and is represented with four equal arms, and con-
sidered to occupy one-fifth of the field if not
charged, and one-third if charged. Argent, a
cross gules, is the cross of St George. . Like

other ordinaries, the cross may be engrailed, in-
vecked, &c. When its central square is removed,
it is said to be quarter-pierced ; and when it does
not extend to the margin of the
shield, it is called humettée. But
the cross of heraldry is often found
varied in other ways, the varieties
having each separate names.
Thirty-nine varieties are enumer-
ated by Guillim, and 109 by ~
Edmonson. Those most frequently
occurring are here mentioned ; and
it may be remarked that they
have rather the character of com-
mon charges than ordinaries not extending to
the margin of the shield, and being often borne
in numbers as well.as singly. The cross moline
(fig. 1) has the ends turned round both ways; the
cross fleury (fig. 2) has each end terminating in a

GISID
PIGS
OO

fleur-de-lis ; the cross botonnée (fig. 3) has each
end terminating in a trefoil; the cross patonce
(fig. 4) has three points to each limb; the cross
patée (fig. 5) is small in the centre, but widens
towards the ends; the cross crosslet (fig. 6) is
crossed at each end; and the cross potent (fig. 7)
is crutch-shaped at each end. The Maltese cross
(fig. 8), which converges to a point in the centre,
and has two points to each limb, though not fre-
quent as a heraldic charge, derives importance from
being the badge of the Knights of Malta and other
orders. Any of these crosses is said to be jitchée
when the lower limb terminates in a point, as in
fig. 9, representing a cross patée fitchée. Besides
these and other crosses with equal limbs, there
is the cross Calvary (fig. 10), being the cross of
crucifixion elevated on ee steps, and the patri-
archal cross (fig. 11) with two horizontal bars.

Cross, Mary ANN. See ELIoT, GEORGE.

Cross, SOUTHERN. See SOUTHERN Cross.

Cross Bill, a bill of exchange or promissory
note given in consideration of another bill or
note.

Crossbill (Zozia), a Passerine bird in the
finch family (Fringillide), well known for the
curious way in which the points of the upper and
lower bill-halves cross one another. There seems
to be no constancy in the direction of crossing, for
in different individuals, even of the same species,
the upper and lower portions are found variously
aiveotel to right or left. This peculiarity is prob-
ably for the most part a directly mechanical adap-
tation to the food-habit of the bird, which consists
in tearing up the cones of firs and pines for the
sake of the seeds. Bringing the two points
together, the crossbill inserts its beak into the
cone, then opens it with a strong lateral move-
ment, and with its. scoop-like tongue detaches and

IM

St George’s Cross.

CROSSBOW

CROTALARIA 585

captures the seed from the loosened cone. In a
similar way, the crossbill can soon tear an ordinary
cage to bits; or, which is more important, may
rapidly do great damage by cutting up the a

in an orchard.
It is interest-
- ing to compare
two common
species, L,.
pityopsitta-
cus and L. cur-
virostra, since
in the former
the crossing of
the bill is seen
in a much less
emphasised de-
gree. The last-
named species
is of uent,
though incon-
stant occur-
rence in Britain, and two other species have been
recorded as visitors. Altogether, seven species are
known, from the northern regions of both hemi-
spheres, and abreys found gregariously in conifer
forests. The crossbill has become associated with a
sacred legend, familiar to many from Longfellow’s
translation of a German poem on the subject. The
bird was fabled to have sought, by pecking at the
nails, to free Christ from the cross.

Crossbow, or ARBALEST, a weapon used in
war and sport in medieval times. It consisted
of a wooden stock, with a bow made of wood,
iron, or steel, crossing it at right angles to
the end; the bowstring was pulled down towards
the other end of the stock by a lever (which
in the simpler
kinds was
worked by
hand or foot),
and retained
in position
sometimes in
a notch by a
catch or trig-
ger. The bolt
or ‘quarrel’
was then laid
in a groove on
the top of the
stock, and the
trigger being
valle, it was
shot with a
considerable
amount of

ower. The

atter, of
course, de-
pended on the
os ze of or

w, some o
A, Hand Crossbow ; B, Rolling-purchase the weapons

Crossbow. being com-

paratively
small and easily handled, while others were of large
dimensions, and required a machine of the nature of
a windlass, called a ‘moulinet’ or ‘ gaffle,’ to enable
the bow to be properly bent. The crossbows of the
14th century were almost all thus equipped. The
‘quarrels’ sansa i varied with the size of the
bow, but generally they were short stout shafts
about 18 inches long, winged with horn or leather,
and having a metal point, which was sometimes
sharp, but often lozenge-shaped, obtuse, and in-
dented at the sides. Some crossbows had a tube
or barrel, with a slit for the bowstring, and dis-

charged balls of clay, marble, or lead with such
force that they were more formidable weapons than
the earliest firearms. The larger crossbows were
really military engines, which required several
men to work them, and threw proportionally
heavy missiles (see BALLISTA). The crossbow was
used in England chiefly during the 13th century ;
after that it gave place to the longbow, which
was found to be the more convenient and easily
handled weapon of the two. Its use, however,
was general among the continental nations of
Europe after the 12th century ; though the Lateran
Council of 1139 forbade its use as being too murder-
ous . weapon for Christians to employ against one
another.

Cross-breeding. See Breep.

Cross-buns, a small cake specially prepared
for Good-Friday, and in many towns of England
eried about the streets on the morning of that day
as ‘hot cross-buns.’ Bun is, according to Skeat,
ultimately of Scandinavian origin. here is an
Old Fr. word bugne, ‘a swelling,’ which may be
the immediate source of the English word. Good-
Friday buns were appropriately marked with the
cross, and hence the name. The origin of the
practice is obscure. Most pega it is a relic
of some heathen observance, to which the early
church gave a Christian significance. At Chelsea,
there were formerly two celebrated bun-houses,
besieged on Good-Friday from morning until night
by hundreds of eager purchasers, but they have
long since disappeared.

Crosse, ANDREW, electrician, born at Fyne
Court, Somersetshire, 17th June 1784, was edu-
cated at Bristol and at Brasenose College, Oxford.
His principal researches in science were as to the
artificial formation of minerals by processes of
electrical deposition and the application of elec-
tricity as a means of improving wines, cider, &e.
in 1837 he announced that under certain cireum-
stances, organisms (of the genus Acarus) appeared
in solutions of inorganic substances; a discovery
which attracted much attention, but which ex-
posed him to the ridicule of opponents. He died
6th July 1855. See Memoir (1857) by his second
wife ; and her Red Letter Days of my Life (1893).

Cross-examination., See EvIDENCE.

Crossley, Str FRANcIs, manufacturer and
philanthropist, was born at Halifax, October 26,
1817. His father was the founder of the Dean
Clough Carpet Mills, Sir Francis encouraged the
inventor George Collier to produce a greatly im-
poe carpet-loom ; the mills increased till 6000

ands were employed; while carpets were much
cheapened in price, and their use greatly extended
at home and abroad. Amongst Sir Francis’s bene-
factions to Halifax were a public park (1857)
at a cost of £40,000, almshouses, and orphan
homes, besides large donations to the London
Missionary Society and to the Congregationalists.
A baronetcy was conferred on him in 1863, and
from 1852 till his death on 5th Jan. 1872 he repre-
sented Halifax and the West Riding as a Liberal.

Crossraguel (‘Cross of St Regulus’), a ruined
abbey in Ayrshire, 2 miles SW. of Maybole. It
was a Clugniac foundation, a daughter of the
Paisley abbey, and dates from 1244. A notable
‘disputation’ took place in 1562 between John
Knox and the abbot, Quentin Kennedy; and in
1570 the commendator was ‘roasted’ or severely
tortured by fire by the Earl of Cassilis, to force
him to resign certain lands. The charters of the
abbey have been edited by F. C. Hunter Blair
(2 vols. 1886).

Crotalaria (Gr. frotalon, ‘a rattle’), a tropical
genus of papilionaceous Leguminose, deriving its

586 CROTALIDA

CROUP

name from the inflated pods in which the seeds
rattle when ripe. The species are annual, perennial,
and shrubby plants, some of which yield valu-
able fibre, particularly C. yuncea, the Sunn, or Hemp
Sana, or Janupa Hemp of India, an annual species.
The perennial C. tenuifolia (Jubbulpore Hemp) is
grown in Southern India, and other species or
varieties are in cultivation. Several species are
North American.

Crotalidz. See RATTLESNAKE.

Crotch, WILLIAM, composer, was born at Nor-
wich in 1775. His musical genius was quite as

recocious as that of the great Mozart. When
ittle more than two years old he could play God
save the King with chords, and in 1779 he was
performing in London as a musical prodigy. When
only twenty-two he was appointed professor of
Music in Oxford University, and in 1822 he ob-
tained the principalship of the Royal Academy of
Music. Crotch composed a large number of pieces
for the organ and piano, two oratorios, ten anthems,
&e.; and he was author of Elements of Musical
Composition (1812) and Styles of Music of all
Ages (1807-18). He died at Taunton, December
29, 1847.

Crotchet. See Music.

Croton, a genus of plants of the natural order
Euphorbiaceze, with numerous species, which are
mostly tropical or subtropical trees or shrubs, a
few herbaceous. The most important is the
Purging Croton (C. Tiglium), a small tree, a native

’

Croton.

of India and the more easterly tropical parts of
Asia. The leaves are extremely acrid; the wood
in a fresh state is a drastic, and in a dried state, a
more mild purgative ; and the seeds (Croton Seeds,
or Tilly Seeds) are a very powerful drastic pur-
gative, formerly much employed in Europe, but
latterly disused on account of violence and uncer-
tainty of action, although still valuable as yield-
ing croton-oil. They are oval or oval-oblong,
about the size of field-beans. So great is their
acridity, that dangerous effects have ensued from
working for some hours with packages of them.
The oil is obtained mostly by expression, and partly
by treating the cake with alcohol. The wood and
seeds of C. Pavane are employed in some parts of
the East in the same way as those of C. Tiglium.
Other species possess similar properties. Very
different are the properties of the species which
yield ‘Cascarilla (q.v.) and Copalchi (q.v.) barks.
Other species are still more aromatic, and some

——— ms
delightfully fragrant, containing in great abund-
ance a thickish balsamic sap. The sap of C.
gratissimus is employed as a perfume and cosmetic
at the Cape of Good Hope; that of C. origanifolium
is used in the West Indies as a substitute for
Balsam of Copaiva; that of C. balsamiferum, also
West Indian, furnishes Hau de Mantes by distilla-
tion; and the balsamic sap of some South American
species is dried and used asincense. The C. Draco
and other species yield a blood-red juice, which,
when dried, forms the finest kindof dragon’s-blood,
and is possessed of astringent properties.
CROTON-OIL is the oil expressed from the seeds
of the C. Tiglium, and is a sherry-coloured, viscid
liquid, with an acrid taste, a somewhat rancid
smell, and a fluorescent appearance. It contains
a number of oily bodies, none of which have as
yet been definitely shown to be the cause of its
purgative and vesicating properties. Croton-oil
is a violent purgative, in most cases a single drop
being sufficient to remove constipation. When
rubbed upon the skin it produces rubefaction and
pustular eruption, and thereby tends to relieve some
affections of the internal organs. It is used either
by itself in the unmixed state, or diluted with olive-
oil, soap liniment, alcohol, &e. It is not to be
employed except under the advice of a doctor.

Crotona, a city of Lucania in ancient Italy,
owed its origin to a colony of Achzans, as far back
as 710 B.c. It soon became one of the most prosper-
ous, wealthy, and powerful cities of Magna Grecia,
Its walls measured 12 miles in circumference, and
the territory over which it extended its sway was
considerable. Its inhabitants were celebrated for
athletic exercises, and they carried off most of the
Benge at the Olympic games. Pythagoras settled
1ere about the middle of the 6th century B.C., and
became a very important member of the body politic
[see PYTHAGORAS). About 510 B.c. Crotona sent
orth an army of above 100,000 men, under Milo,
its most renowned athlete, to fight the Sybarites ;
the latter, though three times as numerous, were
utterly defeated, and their city destroyed. The
war with Pyrrhus completely ruined the import-
ance of Crotona, and in the 2d century B.c. it had
sunk so low that a colony of Romans had to be
sent to recruit its well-nigh exhausted population.
It never afterwards recovered its prosperity. Some
ruins belonging to the old exist in the vicinity
of the modern city (called Cotrone, q.v.); and very
fine Greek coins have been found. Cortona (q.v.)
was also.anciently called Crotona.

Croton River. See AQUEDUCT.

Crotophaga (Gr., ‘tick-eater’), a genus of birds
in the cuckoo family and order Coccygomorphee.
They are also known by the names Ani and’ Keel-
bird, the former referring to the cry, the latter to
the blade-like ridge on the compressed arched beak.
The best known of the three species (C. anz) frequents
South America to the east of the Andes, and is
often called the Savanna Blackbird. They are dis-
tinguished from other cuckoo-like birds by the tail,
which has only eight steering feathers. The beak
is as long as the head, and the keel is said to be
used in unearthing their insect prey ; the wings are
long and pointed; the tail is long, broad, and
rounded. They are social birds, and several
females lay their eggs in a common nest. They
are fond of keeping about herds of horses and
cattle for the ike of the insect larvee which they
find on their skin. In this connection they are
obviously of some importance.

Croup, a term used in Scotland from an early
period to describe a certain train of laryngeal symp-
toms, was first applied by Dr Francis Home, in
1765, to an acute inflammatory and non-contagious
affection of the Larynx (q.v.), in which there is the

—

- Catarrh (q.v.), and may be ve

- second stage

relieved b

' characters of these familiar birds.

CROUP

CROW 587

formation of a false membrane or fibrinous deposit

on the mucous surface of the windpipe. The. in-
vasion of the disease resembles that of simple
insidious, he
child is languid, feverish, and thirsty, and a dry,
cough is gradually developed, but these
symptoms sooner or later give way to those of the
Here the respiration becomes diffi-
eult, the drawing of each breath having a hissing
and ‘eroupy’ sound; the voice is almost inaudible
or greatly modified, and accompanied by a harsh,
y, or may be stifled cough; the face is red and
swollen, and covered with sweat; and the nostrils
are rapidly working. If the little patient is not
coughing or vomiting up some mem-
braneous shreds and glairy mucus, a state of greater
dyspnoea ensues; the lips become livid and the
nails blue; the fever is higher, the pulse quicker
but weaker; and the child’s efforts to relieve the
increasing obstruction to the breathing are most
distressing to witness.. A period of extreme rest-
lessness and suffering is (unless relieved by imme-
diate treatment—see below) soon followed by death
from increasing coma, x Sarg te or exhaustion,
Croup seems to be caused by a damp atinosphere
of low temperature, and is got in exposed situations.
It is most frequently met with between the years
of two and ten, although all ages and classes are
liable to suffer from it. It is commoner in boys
than girls. creed uires to be distinguished
from simple catarrh of the windpipe; from so-called,
false croup, a spasmodic affection of the larynx—

the Laryngismus Stridulus of Dr Mason Good; and |

from Diphtheria (q.v.), an infectious disease in
which a false membrane is usually found on the
pharynx or palate, as well as in the larynx. As
croup is an acute and very fatal disease, the treat-
ment requires to be active and decided. If the
case-is seen early, apply an ice-bag to the throat
and give ice to suck, but if you suspect the pres-
ence of false membrane, give a full dose of an
emetic, such as ipecacuanha, sulphate of copper,
or sulphate of zinc, which should be repeated in
three or four hours if necessary and effectual in
ern Se breathing. The child should at in-
tervals be placed in the hot bath, and inhalations
of steam or medicated vapours administered. An
inhalation of lactic acid is often of great use in the
first stage. If these means fail, Tracheotomy (q.v.)
must be at once resorted to, to save the life of the
patient, as recommended by Trousseau.

Crow (Corvus), a genus of Passerine birds, and
type of a family Corvidee, which also includes Mag-
ep (Pica), Nutcrackers (Nucifraga), Jays (Garru-

us), Choughs (Fregilus), and other genera. The
crow family is included in that division of Passeres
known as Acromyodi, from peculiarities in the
vocal organs, and its members share the following
characters : the bill is moderately long, strong Sor
thick ; bristles at the base cover the nostrils; the
wings are of medium size and rounded ; the tail is
not prominent ; the feet are strong. On the whole
they outdo the other Passeres in size and strength,
and are represented by towards* two hundred
species,

Keeping first to the crow genus proper (Corvus),
we need give little description of the general

The long black
bill, the large gape, the tail all but een by the

~ wings, the black feet, &c. are well-known charac-

teristics. The genus is distributed in most parts of
the world except South America and New Zealand.
They are essentially tree birds, and almost always
build their nests there. In diet they are pre-
dominantly vegetarian. It is important to dis-
tinguish the four British species of crow. (1) The
Raven (Corvus corax) is a well-known species in
Europe and North Asia. Its black plumage has a

bluish sheen ; the upper portion of the bill is bent
over the lower; the wings reach the point of the
tail. It is a hungry bird, devouring inter alia field-
mice and small birds ; it is not unfrequently tamed,
and can be readily taught to ejaculate and play
tricks. See RAVEN.

(2) The Rook (C. frugilegus) is a commoner
smaller species of gregarious habit. There is the
same metallic shimmer, the wings again reach the
tail, but the upper bill is not elongated over the
lower. The face becomes seponsly bare during
the first winter, and so remains. It is of use in
destroying injurious insects, but its omnivorous
appetite includes eggs, young birds, fish, walnuts,
corn, &c. See Rook. The accompanying figure

shows the heads of the raven, A, and the rook, B,
and illustrates well the prevalent characters of the
bill in this genus. It shows also in the raven the
bristles which, as in most of the species, surround
its base, but which are wanting in the rook.
Noteworthy, too, is the greater strength of neck,
head, and bill of the more carnivorous as compared
with the more frugivorous species,

(3) The Hooded Crow ( C. corniz) derives its name
from the fact that while the general colour is ashen
gray, the head is black. he under throat, the
wings, and the tail are also, however, black.
Like the next species, the hooded crow is fond of
carrion, and both are often shot by gamekeepers
on account of the damage they do to young
game-birds, &e.

(4) The Carrion Crow (C. corone, or Corone
hiemalis), which is of the same size as the rook,
has black plumage, with a steel-blue shimmer on
back and head, and wings which do not reach the
tip of the tail. The bases of the feathers are gray
in the rook, white in the carrion crow. It is useful
in destroying mice and insects. It is said to inter-
breed with the preceding species. The name is
given in America to a Vulture (q.v.). In some
parts of Scotland the carrion crow is called the
Hoody. There is considerable dispute as to the
specific dignity of some of the crows. A few other
forms in addition to the above four may be noticed.
The crow of North America (C. americanus) is very
similar to the carrion crow, but rather smaller,
and, after the breeding season is over, congregates
into great flocks; it is also partially migratory,

t numbers from the more northerly parts mov-
ing to the south on the Spee of winter. Its
habits are otherwise intermediate between those of
the carrion crow and the rook.—The Fish Crow
(C. ossifraqus) frequents the coasts and southern
rivers of the United States, feeding chiefly on
fish, which it catches with great dexterity. It
also sometimes assails gulls, and compels them
to disgorge their P ist 2 —The Jabbering Crow
(C. jamaicensis) of the Blue Mountains of Jamaica

588 CROWBERRY

CROWN

is remarkable for the resemblance of its voice to
human speech. Sir J. E. Tennent gives an inter-
esting account of the small glossy gray-necked
crow of Ceylon (C. splendens), which frequents the
towns, feeding on offal, and boldly enters rooms
through open windows, to snatch some morsel from
the dinner-table. See also CHOUGH, JACKDAW,
JAY, MAGPIE.

Crowberry, or CRAKEBERRY (Empetrum nig-
rum), a small procumbent shrub, with characteristi-
eally inrolled leaf-margins, of the order Empetra-
cee, a native of the colder northern parts of the
world, abundant in the moors of Scotland and the
north of England, and common throughout Canada,
Alaska, and Siberia. The order consists of a few
heath-like shrubs, which, however, are usuall
associated with Euphorbiacez (Spurges, &c.), with
amall trimerous unisexual flowers, the fruit a small

Crowberry (Zmpetrum nigrum) :
a, flowering branch ; }, flowers enlarged ; ¢, fruit.

berry seated in the persistent calyx. The berries
of the crowberry are nearly black, surround the
branches in crowded clusters, and each contain six
to nine bony seeds and a watery acidulous juice.
A fermented liquor is prepared from them in some
northern countries. hey are a favourite food of
game. ££. rubrum of Cape Horn differs little,
except in having red berries. The berries of the
Camarinheira (Corema alba) are employed in
Portugal for the preparation of an acidulous drink
in fevers. The plants of this order, especially £.
rigrum, have taken considerable part in the forma-
‘ion of peat.

Crowe, Mrs CATHERINE (née Stevens),
authoress, was born at Borough Green, in Kent,
in 1800. In 1822 she married Lieutenant-colonel
Crowe, and spent great part of her after-life in
Edinburgh. She died in 1876. Her mind was
morbid and despondent, ever hovering on the
border-line of insanity, which it crossed once in
one violent but brief attack. Her translation. of
Kerner’s Seeress of Prevorst (1845) prepared the way
for her well-known Night Side of Nature (1848), a
great collection of supernatural stories, told, in-
deed, with vigour and verisimilitude, but hopelessly
credulous rie uncritical. She wrote also tragedies,
juvenile books, and novels; of the last, the best,
Susan Hopley (1841) and Lilly Dawson (1847).
Her Spiritualism and the Age we live in (1859)
has no value, save as autobiography.

‘Abbey (1867).

Crowe, JoserH ARCHER, C.B., art-writer, born
in London in 1825, studied and travelled widely
on the Continent, where in 1847 he met Carat
easelle; their joint works will be found in the
article CAVALCASELLE. Crowe was a special corre-
spondent in the Crimean war, the Indian mutiny,
and the Franco-Austrian war; and in 1857-59 was
director of the School of Art at Bombay. In 1860
he was appointed British consul-general at Leipzig,
and afterwards at Diisseldorf ; in Tss2 he was named
commercial attaché at Paris. Made a C.B. in 1885,
he was raised to the dignity of K.C.M.G. in 1890.
He contributed the article RAPHAEL to this work,
He died 6th September 1896. See his Reminiscences
(1895), mainly of his career as journalist.

Crowfoot. See RANUNCULUS.

Crow Indians, some 4000 in number, of the
Dakota stock, live on reservations in Montana.

Crowland, or CROYLAND, an ancient market-
town in the south of Lincolnshire, on the Welland,
in the Fens, 10 miles NNE. of Peterborough. Here
in 716 King Ethelwald founded a.monastery in
honour of the hermit St Guthlac, which, burned by
the Danes in 870, and again destroyed by fire in.
1091, was restored in 1113, and thereafter became
a mitred Benedictine abbey of singular magnifi-
cence. The north aisle of its church now serves as
the parish church, and part of the west front also
remains. Ingulph (q.v.) was abbot of Croyland.
Pop. of parish, 2929. See G. Perry’s Croyland
The ‘Triangular Bridge’ is de-
scribed in our article BRIDGE, Vol. II. p. 436.

Crown (Lat. corona). The crown of classical
times was a circular ornament of metal, leaves, or
flowers, worn on festive and solemn occasions, and
as a reward of worth, talent, and military or naval.
prowess. Among the Greeks the crown (stephanos)
was sometimes used as an emblem of office, as in the
case of the archons ; sometimes as an ornament for
the heads of the victors in the public games; and
sometimes as a mark of distinction for citizens who
had merited well of their country. The Romans
made great use of crowns as rewards for valour.
The most highly prized was the corona obsidionalis,
which was bestowed by a beleaguered garrison or
army on the general who rescued them. It was
made of grass or wild-flowers, gathered from the
place which had been beset by the enemy. Next
in order was the corona civica, a garland of oak
leaves and acorns, which was given as a reward to
any soldier who had saved the life of a Roman
citizen in battle ; the corona navalis, a gold circle
decorated with beaks of ships, was the reward for
naval services; the corona muralis, a similar circle
surrounded with battlements, was. bestowed on him
who first scaled the walls of a besieged city; and
the corona vallaris, a circle ornamented with pali-
sades, on the first soldier who forced his way into
the enemy’s camp. There was also the corona
triumphalis, bestowed upon a general when he
obtained a triumph.

Other crowns were emblematical, such as the
sacerdotal, funeral, convivial (of roses, violets,
myrtle, ivy, and even parsley), and nuptial crowns.
The custom of wearing bridal wreaths or even
bridal crowns of metal is not unknown in modern
Europe as in Germany and Norway and medieval
England; and the bridal wreaths of young
brides are still suspended in some Derbyshire
churches. (1) Corona sacerdotalis, worn by the
priests and bystanders when engaged in sacrifice.
(2) Corona funebris or sepulchralis, with which
the dead was crowned, a custom which prevailed
both among the Greeks and. Romans. In Greece,
these crowns were commonly of parsley. (3)
Corona convivialis, worn by guests on festive occa-
sions.

CROWN

589

As the emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe,
the crown was borrowed less from the crowns of
antiquity than from the diadem, a fillet of silk,
linen, or woollen. This decoration was originally
oriental. Alexander the Great adopted it from
the kings of Persia; and Antony assumed it
during his luxurious intercourse with Cleopatra.
In modern states, crowns have been of various
forms, and undergone various changes. The royal
crown of England in the 12th and 13th centuries
was a jewelled circlet of gold, heightened with
strawberry-leaves or trefoils, sometimes alternatel
large and small. In the very costly and magnifi-
cent crown of Henry IV., the strawberry-leaves,
eight in number, alternated with as many fleurs-
de-lis, the whole alternating with sixteen small

ups of pearls. The same crown was worn by

enry V. in the beginning of his reign, but on
undertaking his French campaign he ordered it to
be broken up, and the fragments distributed as
security for the loan required by him to carry on
the war. The crown that succeeded it was prob-
ably an arched one; for although no arched crown
appears on the Great Seal of any monarch before

ward IV., the arched as well as the unarched
form of crown is found occasionally in sculptures
and illuminations of the reigns of Henry V. and
Henry VI. The crown of Edward IV. (which was

robably also worn by Henry V. and Henry VL.)

iffers from previous crowns in being arched over
with jewelled bands of gold, closing under a mound
ensigned by a cross patée, while crosses patée are
substituted for the strawberry-leaves, and roses or
fleurs-de-lis for the clusters of pearls. During
succeeding reigns down to that of Charles II., the
crown underwent various minor changes of form.
; There were sometimes three
complete arches, sometimes
two as at present, and these
were at first very acute, after-
wards more and more de-
pressed; but the crown of
the first Stuarts (weighing
7 lb. 6 oz., and worth £1110)
was broken up in 1649. From
the Peleny of Charles II. till
that of William IV., the same
actual crown was used, its
form being what is still
usually known in this country as the imperial
crown, and represented in fig. 1. It has four
erosses patée and four fleurs-de-lis set alternately
on the circlet, while two
complete pearl-studded
arches rising from within
the crosses patée carry
at their intersection the
mound and cross. A new
state crown was made for
the coronation of Queen
Victoria, differing some-
what from the imperial
ag be Its — ag

most ndicularly,
are slovated Taaber ie
depressed at their inter-
section, and assume the
form of wreaths of rose,
thistle, and shamrock
formed of brilliants ; and
the crown itself is covered with diamonds and
studded with costly gems (fig. 2). In official ee -
sentations of the royal arms, they are ensigned by
the imperial crown, but a graceful modification of
that crown is sometimes made use of instead of it
with Her Majesty's sanction (fig. 3). For the
coronets of the members of the royal family and of
the nobility generally, see CORONET.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

The crown of Scotland, long lost sight of, was
in 1818 discovered, along with the other Regalia
(q.v.), in a chest in Edinburgh Castle. Its gold
circle, richly jewelled and enamelled, is heightened
with ten fleurs-de-lis, alternating with as many
crosses fleury, each adorned in the centre with a great
diamond between four large pearls put crossways.
Four gold arches, added in the reign of James IV.,
close under a mound, on which rests a large cross
patée, with four pearls at the extremities, and as
many in the angles. Excepting the arches, the
crown is probably of the date of Robert Bruce.

In the crown of the kings of France the circle
was ee with fleurs-de-lis; and from the
time of Francis I. it was closed with eight arches,

Fig. 4

Fig. 3.

from whose intersection arose a fleur-de-lis. The
crown of the former German emperors, now of the
Austrian emperors, is cleft in the centre, so as
to present an appearance suggestive of a mitre.
The adoption of this crown by Charles V. seems to
have resulted from the kings of France having, in
emulation of the emperors, assumed a close crown.
The iron crown of the ancient Longobardic kings
( fig. 4)—restored to the king of Italy by the Emperor
of Austria in 1866—is alleged to have been bestowed
by Pope aie the Great on Queen Theodolinda,
and with it Henry of

Luxemburg and _ suc-
ceeding emperors were
crowned, t is a gold
circle with enamelled
flowers and jewels, within
which is a thin fillet of
iron, which has been
asserted to have been
hammered from a nail
of the true cross. The
crown of the new German
empire is shown in fig. 5.
The crown with which
the king of Roumania
was crowned in 1881 was
made of bronze from the cannon captured in the
Plevna redoubts.

The crown of an English King-at-arms is of silver
ilt, with sixteen oak-leaves, each alternate leaf
igher than the

others. Since
1727 that of the
Scottish Lyon
King-at-arms is
similar in form.

Crowns fre-

quently occur as
heraldic bear-
ings; of these
there are three
of the classical r
crowns noticed Fig. 6.

in this article—

viz. the crowns mural, a (fig. 6), naval, b, and
vallary, c, also the eastern or antique crown, d, a
circle with high points rising from it, and the
celestial crown, differing from the last in having a
star on each point.

Fig. 5.

a

590 CROWN

CROYDON

THE CROWN is a term often employed to signify
the state and the matters under control of the
executive authority. Thus, in the interests of the
state there are crown-ministers, crown-lawyers,
crown-officers, crown-lands, &c.—the term, in no
instance, having any special connection with the
sovereign personally. In Scotland, certain high
crimes are technically called Pleas of the Crown.
These are four in number—murder, robbery; ra e,
and wilful fire-raising—and fall within the jurisdic-
tion of the High Court of J ph sin Likewise, in
Scotland, there is a functionary styled crown-agent.
He is a practising law-agent or solicitor, who,
under the Lord Advocate and his deputes, takes
charge of criminal proceedings. His duty is to
receive from the procurators-fiscal of the different
counties the precognitions which they have taken,
and to lay these precognitions before the lawyers

for the crown, that they may determine whether :

there is ground sufficient to call for a prosecution.
He also expedes indictments and criminal letters,
and otherwise discharges the duties of an agent in

reparing and assisting in the conduct of trials
belts the High Court of Justiciary. The appoint-
ment of the crown-agent is with the Lord Advocate,
and ceases with the administration.

CROWN CASES RESERVED, COURT FOR. See
APPEAL.

CROWN-SOLICITOR, the solicitor to the Treasury,
who, in state prosecutions in England, acts as
solicitor for the crown in preparing the prosecution.
In Ireland there are crown-solicitors attached to
each circuit, whose duties correspond in some
degree to those of the Procurators-fiscal (q.v.) and
crown-agent in Scotland. In England there are
no analogous officers, and prosecutions are conse-
quently ‘conducted by solicitors appointed either
by the parish, or by private parties bound over by
the magistrates to prosecute. But in cases of great
importance to the public, such as unusual or mon-
strous crimes, it is of frequent occurrence that the
Solicitor to the Treasury takes charge of the case
and instructs counsel.

Crown Dests.—It is a_ prerogative of the
crown to take precedence of all other creditors, and
in England, to recover its debts by a summary
process called an extent. By 33 Henry VIII., chap.
39, this preference is given over all creditors who
have not obtained judgment (meaning in Scotland,
the execution of diligence) for their debts before
the commencement of the crown’s process; and
the Act 6 Anne, chap. 26, extended the law of
England in this respect to Scotland, the old writ
of extent being abolished in 1856. The rule in
Scotland was limited to movable or personal
property, and the crown has no privilege over
a subject in a competition for heritage. It
obtains, however, as opposed to the landlord’s
Hypothee (q.v.). Mercantile sequestration does
not discharge crown debts except with consent of
the Treasury ; and in a sequestration the crown
has a statutory preference for one year’s arrears of
income and property tax, and assessed taxes, A
similar preference is given for local rates. See
EXTENT, EXCHEQUER.

CROWN-LANDS must be distinguished from such
rights as that in the seashore, which are merely
held by the sovereign in trust for the people; and
also from that aii of the royal patrimony which
consists of such reserved rights as mines, salmon-
fishings, &c. The crown-lands are called annexed
porns in Scotland, and demesne lands in Eng-
and, and are of course also distinct from the
private estate of the person who happens to be
sovereign, They are now contracted within narrow
limits, having been almost entirely granted away
to subjects. King William III. so impoverished
the crown in this manner, that an act was passed

in 1703 voiding all grants or leases from the crown
of royal manors, or other possessions connected
with land, for a period exceeding thirty-one years,
At a much earlier period (1455, chap. 41) a Scottish
statute had rendered the consent of parliament
necessary to the alienation of the property of the
crown, but the policy adopted of extensive subin-
feudation to encourage agriculture had the effect of

reatly diminishing the relative value of crown-
ain not actually given away; and in Scotland
they now consist mainly of a few castles, palaces,
and feu-duties. The superintendence of such pro-

erty as still belongs to the crown is now vested
in commissioners appointed for the purpose, called
the Commissioners of Woods, Forests, and Land
Revenues. See Woops AND Forests. In some
British colonies unallotted ground is nominally
crown-land. Thus the sale and settlement of land
in New South Wales was regulated by the Crown
Lands Act of 1884,

Crown, in Architecture, a species of spire or
lantern, formed by converging flying-buttresses.
Familiar examples in Scotland are the crowns of
St Giles’s, Edinburgh, and King’s College, Aber-
deen; south of -the Tweed the only old crown is
that of St Nicholas’s Cathedral at Newcastle,

Crown Imperial. See FriTitiary.

Crown Pieces Of silver, of the value of five
shillings, were introduced into the English coinage
by Henry VIII. They have a standard weight of
436'56 grains. None were coined from 1861 till
1887, but since then they have again been struck.
The name crown is also used as the translation
of the French écu, which varied in value from 6
franes (or livres) to 3 francs,

Crown Point, a post-village of New York,
on Lake Champlain, near the site of a British fort
of the same name surprised and captured by Colonel
Ethan Allen in 1775.

Crown-work, in Fortification, is an outwork
consisting of two Bastion (q.v.) fronts connected
with the main work by long flanks, so that its plan
resembles somewhat ie outline of a crown,

Crow’s-feet. See CaLtrop.

Crow-stone, the top stone of the gable-end of
a building. See CorBIE STEPs.,

Crowther, SAMUEL ApDJAI, Bishop of the
Niger territory, whose native name is Adjai, was
born in Ochugu, to the east of the kingdom of
Dahomey, in 1812, was carried off as a slave in
1819, and after having been bartered and sold more
than once, was taken by a British man-of-war and
landed at Sierra-Leone in 1822. He was placed
under a missionary for training at Bathurst, and in
1825 professed his adherence to Christianity, taking
his present name after a London vicar. He was
next placed in charge of a mission school at
Regent’s Town; was with the first and second
Niger expeditions (1841, 1854); visited London:in
1842, when, as the result of some further training, he
was ordained by the Bishop of London, entered
with enthusiasm upon his missionary labours, and
was consecrated Bishop of the Niger territory in
1864. Hewas D.D. of Oxford, author of several na-
tive tracts, and translated the Bible into the Yoruba
language. Died in 1891. See his Life (1888).

Croydon, a town in Surrey, 10 miles S. of
London Bridge, yet practically a suburb of London.
It lies on the edge of the chalk and plastic clay,
near the Banstead Downs, at the source of the
Wandle, hence its name Croindene (Fr., ‘chalkhill’)
in Domesday. The archbishops of Canterbury
had a palace here from the Conquest till 1757. Its
Perpendicular hall (1452) and chapel (1633-63) were
purchased by the Duke of Newcastle in 1887 and
presented to the Sisters of the Church Extension

:
;

Te

CROZET ISLANDS

CRUDEN 592

Association. Addington Park, 34 miles ESE., has
since 1807 been the summer seat of the archbishops.

-Addiscombe House, at one time the residence of the

first Earl of Liverpool, was converted in 1812 into the
East India Military College, but was pulled down
in 1863. The fine old Perpendicular parish church
was destroyed by fire in January 1867, with the
exception of the tower, but was rebuilt by Sir
Gilbert Scott, and retains the monument of Arch-
bishop Sheldon, with fragments of that of Arch-
bishop Grindal. That of Archbishop Whitgift was
restored in 1888 at a cost of £600. Whitgift’s
Hospital ( 1596 ) is a red brick pile, restored in 1860;
his mar-school now occupies buildings of 1871,
besides a large Whitgift middle school. A new
town hall, with law-courts and free library, was
opened by the Prince of Wales in May 1896. wei i
don was one of the first towns to grapple effectual
with the economical disposal of town-sewage.

system of disposing of sewage by irrigation was in-

augurated in 1858, and the corporation now possess

_two sewage farms, comprising 680 acres, In 1868new

water-works were completed, the water, which is of
great purity, being obtained from an artesian well,

yielding nearly 3,000,000 gallons per diem; and a

urther supply of 2,000,000 gallons per diem was
introduced in 1888 at a cost of £50,000. The death-

rate in 1848, the year before the adoption of the

Public Health Act, was 28°16; in 1887 it was 14°71.
There are thirteen railway stations. Till the 18th
century Croydon was famous for its ‘colliers’ or
charcoal-burners; now its chief specialty is the
manufacture of church clocks and carillons. — It
was made a municipal borough in 1883, a parlia-
mentary one in 1885, and a county borough in 1888.
Pop. (1851) 10,260 ; (1881) 78,953 ; (1891 ) 102,697.
See J. C. Anderson’s Short Chronicle (1882).

Crozet Islands, a group to the south of the
Indian Ocean, almost on a line between the Cape
of Good Hope and Kerguelen’s Land, in lat. 46° S.,
and long. 52° E. Except four or five, they are mere
rocks, and are all uninhabited, though shipwrecked
sailors have lived for a time on them. ey were
visited by the Challenger expedition in 1873-74.

Crozier. See Crosier.

Crucian (Carassius vulgaris), a fresh-water
fish, nearly related to the carp, from which it
differs in the absence of barbules, in the single-
rowed arrangement of the pharyngeal teeth, and in
a few other minor points. It is found in numerous
varieties in rivers, ponds, and lakes in Europe and
Asia; and is sometimes, though rarely, caught in
the Thames. The food chiefly consists of dead
vegetable and animal matter. The flesh is less
esteemed than that of carp. The fish spawn in
May or June, and then assemble in great numbers.
See CARP.

Crucibles (Low Lat. crucibulum; from the
root of Old Fr. cruche, ‘a pot’) are vessels made of
materials capable of being ex
to high temperatures without altera-
tion, and used for fusing substances
together, such as the materials for
glass-making, or metallic ores, with
various fluxes to obtain the several
metals they yield. Crucibles should
resist the corrosive action of the
substances brought into contact
with them, and are generally made
of fireclay, porcelain, graphite, iron,
platinum, and, for some special operations, of
silver. See ASSAYING.

Cruci‘ferz (Lat., ‘cross-bearing,’ from the X-
wise position of the ae pane) an important order
of thalamifioral dicotyledons, including about 1200
known species, mostly paleearctic, and specially
abundant in Europe. No order is indeed more

Crucible.

familiar or more widely represented ; the Mustard,
Shepherd’s Purse, &c., are among the commonest
weeds of cultivation, while the Turnip and Cab-
bage, the Radish and Cress, &c., are no less
familiar and widespread in usefulness. As wild
flowers, they are mostly inconspicuous, but the
pretty Cuckoo-flower or Lady’s Smock (Carda-
mine tensis), and not a few others, might be
mentioned as contributing some characteristic
feature to marsh or cliff or copse; while a large
number of genera are of the greatest value to the
florist, for whom the exuberant masses of Iberis,
Alyssum, Arabis, and Aubrietia are among the
most admired resources of the rock-garden. Besides
the Stocks and Wallflowers, &c., the old-fashioned
Honesty and Gillyflower are among the most
familiar inmates of every cottage-garden. The
general character of the order is antiscorbutie and
stimulating, with more or less acridity ; the familiar
flavour being due to the presence of a characteristic
ethereal oil. Striking examples of these properties
are given by the Scurvy-grass of our shores, so
important to mariners in the days of long voyages
and salt provisions; or more familiarly by the
Common Water-cress; while a wide range of varia-
tion of flavour is presented by the flesh, rind, and
leaves of the Common Turnip, especially in different
varieties, soils, and seasons. A fixed oil is largely
ry in the seeds (see RAPE, CoLzA), and the
oad Plant (Isatis, see WOAD) has been used from
the earliest times as a source of indigo. The order
was conveniently subdivided by Linnzwus by the
nature of its fruit as long and short podded (Sili-
quosee and Siliculose), while later systematists
have derived important characters from the mode
of folding of the cotyledons within the seed. See
Engler’s Pflanzenfamilien, or other systematic
work, and separate articles—e.g. CABBAGE, &c.

Crucifix (Lat. crux, ‘the cross,’ and figo, ‘I
fix’), a cross with the effigy of Christ fixed to it.
The principal crucifix in Catholic churches stands
in the centre of
the high-altar.
It overtops the
tapers, and is only
removed to make
place for the host
in the service of
Benediction. In
well-appointed
churches, the altar
crucifix is gener-
ally either of gold
or silver, Cruci-
fixes are used
in Lutheran
churches, and in
Prussia they are
often made of Ber-
lin iron. The eru-
cifix first began to
take the place of
the plain cross in
the time of Con-
stantine, but it was never pantecly acknowledged
by the Greek Church, and did not come into general
use in the East till towards the end of the 8th
century. It was not till the Carlovingian age that
it became general in the Latin Church, On the
earlier crucifixes, Christ is represented as alive,
with open eyes, and generally clad, and fastened
with four nails. On later ones he is represented
as dead, naked, except for a cloth round the loins,
and fastened with three nails—i.e. the two feet
pierced by a single nail. See Cross.

Cruden, ALEXANDER, born at Aberdeen, 31st
May 1701, from the grammar-school to

592 ‘CRUELTY

CRUSADES

Marisehal College, where he took his M.A., but,
having shown symptoms of insanity, was for a short
time placed in confinement. On his release he left
Aberdeen, and, after spending ten years as a tutor,
in 1732 established himself as a bookseller in Lon-
don. In 1737 appeared his Complete Concordance
of the Holy Scriptures, a really admirable work.
It was dedicated to Queen Caroline, who graciously
romised to ‘remember him,’ but unfortunately
vied a few days later. Cruden now relapsed into
insanity, and for ten weeks was kept in a mad-
house, as again for a fortnight in 1753. Earning
meanwhile his livelihood as a press-reader, he
assumed the title of ‘Alexander the Corrector,’
and in 1755 began to go through the country,
reproving by voice and pen the nation’s sins of
Sabbath-breaking and profanity. But many a
good and kindly action was interwoven with his
crack-brained courtships, his dreams of knighthood
and a seat in parliament. He was just back from
a visit to his native city, when he died at his
prayers in his Islington lodgings, 1st November
1770. See the Life by A. Chalmers, prefixed since
1824 to many of the numerous editions of the Con-
cordance. See CONCORDANCE.

Cruelty. See ANIMALS (CRUELTY TO), CHIL-
DREN (CRUELTY TO).

Cruikshank, GrorGE, one of the most gifted
of English pictorial satirists, was born in London,
September 27, 1792, the son of Isaac Cruikshank,
who, as well as his eldest son, Isaac Robert Cruik-
shank, was also known as a caricaturist. Cruik-
shank at first thought of the stage as a profession ;
but some of his sketches having come under the
notice of a publisher, he was induced to engage in
the illustration of children’s books and songs.
A publicaticn, The Scourge (1811-16), afforded
scope for the display of his satiric genius, and from
that time forth he continued to pursue with re-
markable success this his true vein. His illustra-
tions for Hone’s political squibs and pamphlets,
and especially those dealing with the Queen Caro-
line trial, attracted much attention, and sent some
of them through no less than fifty editions. But
in the exquisite series of coloured etchings con-
tributed to the Humorist (1819-21), and in the
etchings to the Points of Humour (1823-24), did
his true artistic power begin to be visible. This
second, and in many ways finest, period of his
art, represented by these works, culminated in
the etchings to Peter Schlemihi (1823), and to
Grimm's German Popular Stories (1824-26), which
in the simple directness and effectiveness of their
execution, and in their fertile and unencumbered
fancy, rank as the artist’s masterpieces. The
latter series, now extremely scarce, was repro-
duced in 1868, with a laudatory preface from the
pen of Mr Ruskin. Similar in artistic aims and
method are the spirited little woodcuts contributed
to the Italian Tales (1824), Mornings at Bow Street
(1824-27), and Clark’s Three Courses and a Dessert
(1830); and the plates to Scott’s Demonology and
Witchcraft (1830) may be regarded as the last
examples of his earlier and simpler method as an
etcher. His numerous plates in Bentley’s Miscellany
mark a third period of his art, in which he aimed at
greater elaboration and completeness, introducing
more complex effects of chiar-oscuro, and frequently
attaining great power of tragic design. The finest
of these are the great series to Dickens’s Oliver
Twist, and to Ainsworth’s Jack Sheppard in
Bentley's Miscellany, and The Tower of London,
and in the same class are to be ranked the plates to
Windsor Castle, and The Miser’s Daughter, of
which, as of Oliver Twist, he thirty years after-
wards claimed the chief authorship. Among the
best productions of his later years are the large

Holiness and the Latin

oe

and elaborate etchings to Brough’s Life of Sir
John Falstaff, published in 1858. His last illus-
tration was the frontispiece to Mrs Blewitt’s The
Rose and the Lily (1877), ‘Designed and etched
by George Cruikshank, aged eighty-three, 1875.’
As a water-colourist he left work marked by con-
siderable skill and delicacy. In his late years he
devoted himself to oil-painting, and in this province
showed perhaps more humour, fervour, and inven-
tive ability than artistic power. His most import-
ant picture was ‘ Worship of Bacchus’ (1862), which
has been engraved partly by his own hand, a
vigorous and earnest protest against the evils of
drunkenness ; and to the cause of temperance he
also devoted many of his designs, especially the
tragic and powerful series of The Bottle (1847), which,
reproduce by slypto aphy, attained an immense
circulation. He died Ist February 1878. There
are excellent collections of his works in the print-
room, British Museum; the Royal Aquarium,
Westminster ; and the South Kensington Museum.
The last named, presented in 1884 by the artist’s
widow, numbers 3481 items. See G. W. Reid’s
Catalogue (3 vols. 1871), and Lives by Bates (2d ed.
1879), Jerrold (2d ed. 1883), and Stephens (1891);
and Marchmont’s The Three Cruikshanks (1897).

Cruiser, formerly an armed ship employed to

rotect commerce or capture enemies’ ships. See

RIVATEER, FRIGATE; and for what are now
called Ist and 2d class cruisers, see NAVY.

Crusades is the name given to the religious
wars carried on during the middle ages between
the Christian nations of the West and the Moham-
medans. In time, however, the name came to be
applied to any military expedition against heretics
or enemies of the pope. The first of the regular
crusades was undertaken simply to vindicate the
right of Christian pilgrims to visit the Holy
Sepulchre. On the conquest of Palestine, how-
ever, the olject of the crusades changed, or at least
enlarged, and the efforts of the subsequent erusaders
were directed to the recovery of the whole land from
the Saracens, who had repossessed themselves of it.
From an early period in the history of the church,
it was considered a pious act to make a pilgrimage
to the Holy Sepulchre, and to visit the various
spots which the Saviour had consecrated by his
presence. When Palestine was conquered by the
Arabs in the 7th century, that fierce but generous
people respected the religious spirit of the pilgrim
and allowed them to build a church and a hospital
in Jerusalem. Under the Fatimides of Egypt, who
conquered Syria about 980 A.D., the position both
of the native Christian residents and of the pilgrims
became less favourable; but the subjugation of
the country in 1065 by brutal hordes of Seljuk
Turks from the Caucasus rendered it intolerable.
These barbarians, but recently converted to Moham-
medanism, were nearly as ignorant of the Koran
as of the Scriptures. They hardly knew their
fellow-religionists, and are said to have wreaked
their vengeance on the Mussulmans of Syria as
well as on the Christians. The news of their
atrocities produced a deep sensation over the whole
of Christendom. The first to take alarm were,
naturally enough, the Byzantine monarchs. In
1073 the Greek emperor, Manuel VII., sent to
supplicate the assistance of the great Pope Gregory
viL against the Turks, accompanying his petition
with many expressions of profound respect for His

Chureh. Gregory—who
beheld in the supplication of Manuel a grand oppor-
tunity for realising the Catholic unity of Christen-
dom—cordially responded ; but circumstances pre-
vented him from ever carrying the vast designs
which he entertained into execution, and the idea
of a crusade died gradually away. It was, however,

UNITED STATES CRUISER

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CRUSADES

593

4 " venkved by his successor, Urban II., an able and
humane man, whose sympathies were kindled by

the burning zeal of Peter the Hermit, a native
of Amiens, in France, who had made a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, and witnessed the cruelties perpe-
trated bythe Turks. He was now traversing Europe,

meeting everywhere to crowds in the o air,
and producing the most extraordinary enthusiasm
by his impassioned descriptions of how pilgrims
were murdered, robbed, or beaten; how shrines
and holy places were desecrated ; and how nothing
but restrained the ruffian Turks (who made
the Christians pay heavy taxes for their visits to
Jerusalem) from destroying the Holy Sepulchre,
and extirpating every vestige of Christianity in the
land. As soon as the feelings of Europe had been
sufficiently heated, Urban openly took up the ques-
Two councils were held in 1095. At the
second, held at Clermont, in France, a crusade was
definitely resolved on. The pope himself delivered
a stirring address to a vast multitude of clergy and
laymen, and as he proceeded, the pent-up emotions
the crowd burst forth, and cries of Deus vult
(‘God wills it’) rose simultaneously from the whole
audience. ‘This tumultuous cry,’ rp bs Hallam,
‘which broke from the heart and lips of the assembly
at Clermont, affords at once the most obvious and
most certain explanation of the leading principle of
the crusades.’ These words, Deus vult, by the
injunction of Urban, were made the war-cry of the
enterprise, and every one that embarked in it wore,
as a badge, the sign of the cross; hence the name
Crusade (Fr. croisade, from Lat. crus, ‘a cross’ ).
First Crusade.—From all parts of Europe thou-
sands upon thdusands hurried at the summons of
the pope to engage in the holy war. ‘The most
distant islands and savage countries,’ says William
of Malmesbury, ‘were inspired with this ardent
ion. The Welshman left his hunting, the
eotchman his fellowship with vermin, the Dane
his drinking-party, the Norwegian his raw fish.’
It is said that in the spring of 1096 not less than
6,000,000 souls were in motion towards Palestine.
This, however, must be a huge exaggeration.
What we do know positively is, that previous to
the saiting out of the at hosts of European
chivalry, four armies—if disorderly multitudes
deserve that name—amounting in all to 275,000
persons, had departed for Palestine. The first con-
sisted of 20,000 foot, and was commanded by a
Burgundian gentleman, Walter the Penniless. It
marched through Hungary, but was cut to pieces by
the natives of Bulgaria, only a few, among whom
was Walter himself, escaping to Constantinople.
The second, consisting of 40,000 men, women, and
children, was led by Peter the Hermit. It followed
the same route as its predecessor, and reached
Constantinople greatly reduced in numbers. Here
the two united, crossed the Bosporus, and were
wae pad defeated by the Turks at Nica, the
capital of Bithynia. A third expedition of a
similar kind, composed of 15,000 Germans, led by a
priest named Gottschalk, was dispersed with ter-
rible slaughter in Hungary ; which also proved the
grave of the fourth, a horde consisting of about
,000 wretches from France, England, Flanders,
and Lorraine, who had swept along through Ger-
many, committing horrible ravages, especially
against the Jews, whom they murdered without
mercy. Now, however, the real crusaders made
their apeeare> 3 the gentry, the yeomanry, and
the serts of feudal Europe, under chiefs of the first
rank and renown, In this, the most successful
of the crusades, neither the emperor nor any of
the kings of the West participated; and to this
circumstance was doubtless due its more fortun-
ate termination. Six armies appeared in the
field, arenes separately, and at considerable
4

intervals of time. Their respective leaders were
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine; Hugh
the Great, Count of Vermandois, and brother of
Philippe, king of France; Robert Curthose, Duke
of Normandy, the son of William the Conqueror ;
Count Robert of Flanders; Bohemond, Prince of
Tarentum, son of the famous Guiscard, under
whom was Tancred, the favourite hero of all the
historians of the crusade; and lastly, Count Ray-
mond of Toulouse. The place of rendezvous was
Constantinople. The Greek emperor, Alexius,
afraid that so magnificent a host—there were in
all not less than 600,000 men, exclusive of women
and priests—might be induced to conquer lands
for themselves, cajoled all the leaders, excepting
Tancred and Count Raymond, into solemnly ac-
knowledging themselves his liegemen as long as
they remained in his territory. After some time
spent in feasting, the crusaders crossed into Asia
Minor accompanied by the unfortunate Peter the
Hermit. Here their first step was the siege and
capture of Nica, the capital of Sultan Soliman,
24th June 1097. This monarch was also defeated
by Bohemond, Tancred, and Godfrey, at Dory-
leum. Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, now crossed
into pg. tog where he obtained the princi-
pality of Edessa. After some time, the crusaders
reached Syria, and laid siege to Antioch. For
seven months the city held out, and the ranks of
the besiegers were fearfully thinned by famine and
disease. Many even brave warriors lost heart,
and began to desert. Melancholy to relate, anton
the deserters was the poor enthusiast who h
inspired the enterprise. Peter was actually several
miles on his way home when he was overtaken
by the soldiers of Tancred, and brought back
to undergo a public reprimand. At length, on
the 3d of June 1098, Antioch was taken, and
the inhabitants were massacred by the infuriated
crusaders, who were in their turn besie by an
army of 200,000 Mohammedans sent by the Persian
sultan. Once more famine and pestilence did their
deadly work. Multitudes also deserted, and escap-
ing over the walls, carried the news of the sad
condition of the Christians back to Euro But
in victory crowned the efforts of the besieged.
On the 28th June 1098 the Mohammedans were
utterly routed, and the way to Jerusalem opened.
It was on a bright summer morning (1099) that
40,000 crusaders, the miserable remnant of that
vast array which two years before had laid siege -
to Niczea, obtained their first glimpse of Jerusalem.
On the 15th of July, after a siege of rather more
than five weeks, the grand object of the expe-
dition was realised. Jerusalem was delivered from
the hands of the infidel. As on the occasion of
all the triumphs of these first crusaders, a horrible
massacre ensued. Religious enthusiasm, evoking
the intensest and most strangely mingled passions,
naturally led to these excesses on the part of men
reared in the fiercest times of feudalism. Eight
days after the capture of the city, Godfrey of
Bouillon was unanimously elected king of Jeru-
salem. His kingdom, at first comprising little
more than the mere city of Jerusalem, was gradu-
ally extended by conquest until it ineluded_the
whole of Palestine. a language resembling Nor-
man French was established, a code of feudal
laws drawn up—Jerusalem was erected into a
triarchate, and Bethlehem into a_ bishopric.
he best part of Asia Minor was resto to
the Greek empire, while Bohemond became Prince
of Antioch. For nearly fifty years, the three
Latin principalities or kingdoms of the East—
Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem—not only main-
tained themselves against the attacks of the
Mohammedans of Egypt and Syria, but greatly
increased in size, power, and wealth. At Jeru-

594

CRUSADES

salem were founded the two famous orders of the
Knights Hospitallers of St John and the Knights
Templars.

Second Crusade.—In 1144 the principality of
Edessa was conquered by the Emir of Mosul, and
the Christians slaughtered. His son, Noureddin,
advanced to destroy the Latin kingdoms of Syria
and Palestine. Europe once more trembled with
excitement. A second crusade was preached by
the famous St Bernard, abbot of Clairvanx, in
Champagne; and early in 1147 two enormous
armies, under the command of Louis VII., king
of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany,
marched for the Holy Land. ‘Their united
numbers were estimated at 1,200,000 fighting-
men. The expedition, nevertheless, proved a
total failure. The Greek emperor, Manuel Com-
nenus, was hostile; and through the treachery
of his emissaries, the army of Conrad was all but
destroyed by the Turks near Iconium, while that
of Louis was wrecked in the defiles of the Pisidian
Mountains. After a vain attempt to reduce
Damascus, the relics of this mighty host returned
to Europe.

Third Crusade.—The death-blow, however, to
the kingdom of Jerusalem, and the power of the
crusaders, was given, not by Noureddin, but by
Salah-Eddin, commonly called Saladin, a young
Kurdish chief, who had made himself sultan of
Egypt, and who aspired to the suzerainty of the
Mohammedan world. He invaded Palestine, took
town after town, and finally, in October 1187,
compelled Jerusalem itself to capitulate, after a
siege of fourteen days. The news of this led to
a third crusade, the chiefs of which were Frederick
I. (Barbarossa), emperor of Germany; Philippe
Auguste, king of France, and Richard Cceur-de-
Lion, king of England. Barbarossa took the
field first in the spring of 1189, but lost his life by
fever caught from bathing in the Orontes. His
army, much reduced, joined the forces of the other
two monarchs before Acre, which important city
was immediately besieged. In vain did Saladin
attempt to relieve the defenders; and after a_be-
leaguerment of twenty-three months, the place
surrendered. But the crusaders were not united
among themselves. Philippe soon after returned to
France ; and Richard, after accomplishing prodigies
of valour, which excited the admiration of the
Saracens, concluded a treaty with Saladin, by which
‘the people of the West were to be at liberty to
make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, exeinpt from the
taxes which the Saracen princes had in former
times imposed.’ This, as has been previously
noticed, was a// that had been claimed by the pel
crusaders, On the 25th of October 1192, Richard
set sail for Europe.

Fourth Crusade.—Crusading unfortunately now
became a constituent of the papal policy; and in
1203 a fourth expedition was determined upon by
Pope Innocent III., although the condition of the
Christians was by no means such as to call for it.
It assembled at Venice; but how entirely secular
crusading had become, will be seen from the fact
that the army never went to Palestine at all, but
preferred to take possession of the Byzantine
empire. The leader of this host of psewdo-crusaders,
Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was seated on the
throne of the East in 1204, and thus founded the
Latin empire of Constantinople, which lasted for
fifty-six years. Nothing was achieved in_ this
crusade for the recovery of Jerusalem, but Inno-
eent had his reward in the temporary supremacy
of the papal see over the Eastern Church.

Fifth Crusade.—This was commanded by Frede-
rick II., emperor of Germany. It began in 1228,
and terminated in a treaty between that monarch
and the sultan of Egypt, by which Jerusalem (with

the exception of the Mosque of Omar), Jaffa, Beth-
lehem, and Nazareth were ceded to Frederick, who,
after being crowned king of Jerusalem, returned
to Europe, leaving his new possessions in a state of
tranquillity. Frederick, however, who had _ been
excommunicated by Gregory IX. for his tardiness
in embarking in this crusade, was denounced in the
most violent language by the same pope for having
thus made terms with the infidel.

Siath Crusade.—In 1244 the Khoragmians, driven
from Tartary by Genghis Kan, burst into Syria,
and made themselves masterXof Jerusalem. This
was made, by Pope Innocent RV., the occasion for
another crusade; and in 1249 Louis TX. (St Louis)
of France headed an expedition against Egypt,
which was now regarded as the key of: the Holy
Land. The expedition was an utter failure. Louis
was defeated and taken prisoner by the sultan, and
obtained his liberty only on the payment of a heavy
ransom.

Seventh Crusade.—This also was primarily under-
taken by St Louis, but he having died at Tunis
(where he had gone in the hope of baptising its
king) in 1270, on his way to Palestine, Prince
Edward of England, afterwards Edward I., who
had originally intended to place himself under the
command of St Louis, marched direct for Palestine,
where his rank and reputation in arms gathered
round him all who were willing to fight for the
cross. Nothing of consequence, however, was
accomplished ; and Edward soon returned to Eng-
land, the last of the crusaders. Acre, Antioch,
and Tripoli still continued in the possession of the
Christians, and were defended for some time by the
Templars and other military knights; but in 1291
Acre capitulated, the other towns soon followed its
example, and the knights were glad to quit the
country, and disperse themselves over Europe in
quest of new employment, leaving Palestine in the
undisturbed possession of the Saracens.

Besides the great expeditions above enumerated,
there were many others on a lesser scale. These,
however, from the unimportance of their results,
and the limited numbers engaged in them, do not
call for special mention. OF the pseudo-crusades,
three deserve notice for the important results that
followed from them. Firstly, in 1209, there was
that against the Albigenses (q.v.). Secondly, on
the principle that it was binding on the servants
of the church to do battle with all outside its pale,
in 1230 the Teutonic knights were called on by
Gregory IX. to undertake a crusade against the
heathen Prussians on the shores of the Baltic.
The result was the complete subjugation of the
Prussians, and the establishment in their country
of the Teutonic military order till its extinction at
the battle of Tannenberg in 1410. Thirdly, in 1262
Urban IV., jealous of the growing power of Man-
fred, king of Sicily, son of the Emperor Frederick
II., offered Manfred’s crown to Charles of Anjou,
brother of St Louis of France, and gave to this dis-
possession the name of a crusade. A protracted
war ensued, which resulted in the House of Anjou
gaining the kingdom of Naples, and the House of
Aragon the kingdom of Sicily. The terrible wars
of the 16th century between France and Spain for
supremacy in Italy were the direct consequence of
this pseudo-crusade.

Effects of the Crusades.—While we cannot i ¢
deploring the enormous expenditure of human life
which the ernsades occasioned, it is impossible to
overlook the fact that they indirectly exercised a
most beneficial influence on modern society. They
secured for humanity certain advantages which it
is difficult to see could have been otherwise
obtained. Guizot, in his Lectures on European
Civilisation, endeavoured to show their design and
function in the destinies of Christendom. ‘To the

inspect more narrowly the

CRUSCA

CRUSTACEA 595

first chroniclers,’ he says, ‘and consequently to the
crusaders, of whom they are but the br pe
sion, Mohammedans are objects only of hatred ; it
is evident that those who speak of them do not
know them. The historians of the later crusades
speak “any differently : it is clear that they look
upon them no longer as monsters ; that they have
to a certain extent entered into their ideas; that
oy have lived with them; and that relations,
and even a sort of sympathy, have been established
between them.’ Thus the minds of both, but par-
ticularly of the crusaders, were partly delivered
from those prejudices which are the offspring of
orance. ‘A step was taken towards the e -
chisement of the human mind.’ Secondly, the
crusaders were brought into contact with two
civilisations, richer and more advanced than their
own—the Greek and the Saracenic; and it is
beyond all question that they were mightily struck
with the wealth and comparative refinement of
the East. Thirdly, the close relationship between
the chief laymen of the West and the church,
occasioned by the crusades, enabled the former ‘ to
licy and motives of
the papal court.’ The result was very disastrous
to that spirit of veneration and belief on which the
church lives, and in many cases an extraordinary
freedom of judgment and hardihood of opinion
were induced—such as Europe had never before
dreamed of. The immediate results of the
crusades, however, went altogether to strengthen
the power of the-church. Through their means
the popes found an easy method of ridding them-
selves of refractory monarchs; and by the exor-
bitant taxes levied in the name of the cross they
a agarced rendered all the kingdoms of the West
heir tributaries. Fourthly, great social chan
were brought about. A commerce between the
East and West sprang up, and towns—the early
homes of liberty in Europe—began to grow great
and powerful. The crusades, indeed, ‘gave mari-
time commerce the strongest impulse it had ever
received.’

See Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire; Milman’s Latin Christianity; Hal-
lam’s History of the Middle Ages; Mill’s History of the
Crusades ; Cox’s History of the Crusades ; Heeren’s Essay
on the Influence of the Crusades; the great Recueil des
Historiens des Croisades, issued by the Académie des In-
iptions; and Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades
(‘Nations Series,’ 1894); and the articles BALDWIN,
GopFREY, JERUSALEM, RICHARD I., SALADIN, WILLIAM
oF TyRE, &c

Crusea, ACCADEMIA DELLA. See ACADEMY,
DELLA CRUSCAN SCHOOL.

Crusenstolpe, Macnus Jaxkorn, Swedish
gaa writer, was born at Jénképing, 11th

arch 1795. He wrote novels, elaborate historical
works, pamphlets, and contributed to the news-
papers. His Stdllningar och Foérhollenden, carried
on from 1838 till 1865, applied vigorous and unspar-
ing criticism to the questions and persons of the
day. His bitter opposition to government cost him
three years’ imprisonment (1838-41). He died 18th
January 1865.

Crustacea, a large and important class of
Arthropod animals, including crabs, _lebsters,
shrimps, sand-hoppers, wood-lice, water-fleas, bar-
nacles, acorn-shells, &e. The class contains such
variety of structure that general characters are
hard to find. They are almost all aquatic, but a
few (e.g. wood-lice and land-crabs) are terrestrial.
The majority are marine, but great numbers in-
habit fresh water. The form of the body is ey
variable, as may be seen by contrasting crab an
barnacle. A head with five pairs of appendages, a
limb-hearing thorax more or less united to the

er, and a segmented abdomen with or without

limbs, are very generally distinguishable. The
segmentation is never develo in the Ostracod
water-fleas, and is often lost in degenerate forma.
By the development of shields (Apus), bivalve
shells (water-fleas), and mantles (Cirripedes), the
real form is often obscured, As to appendages, the
head usually bears two pairs of antennew, a pair of
mandibles, and two pairs of maxillw; the thorax is
always limb-bearing except in utter degeneracy ;
and the abdomen of the majority also carries
appendages. The typical form of limb, on which
so many changes are rung, consists of a basal piece
and two more or less jointed forks. The cuticle
varies greatly in degree of firmness, but is always
chitinous (see CHITIN) and often much calcified.
Glands open on various parts of the surface, and
may be of use for preliminary digestion, for o6-
attachment, for mooring the animal, &c. he
soloing of the body is often very brilliant and
beautiful (see PIGMENTS). It is sometimes like that

‘of the surroundings, and is occasionally associated

with sexuality. The power,of colour-change is also
not uncommon. Sapphirina is said to rival the
humming-bird in its splendour. While the nervous
system in general retains the Arthropod charac-
teristics, the ventral ganglia are often concentrated
(as in crabs). The majority possess compound
eyes, which in one large division are stalked.
yes are absent in some subterranean forms, and
are lost during the development of Cirripedia (q.v.)
and many parasites. In the Euphauside there are
very numerous eye-like structures or luminous
organs over the body. Smelling hairs usually occur
on the first antenne, and auditory hairs have been
frequently observed, usually more or less inclosed
in sacs. The alimentary system, which consists of
fore, mid, and hind gut, is usually simple, except as
regards the hard masticating parts often developed
on the cuticle of the anterior portion. In some para-
sitic forms the entire system degenerates. The
body-cavity is usually a good deal filled up by the
muscles and viscera; it contains the blood-fluid,
which is occasionally faintly coloured with hmo-
lobin, tetronerythrin, and other pigments, and
includes amceboid elements. A heart is usually
present in the thoracic region, and is often in-
closed in a special part of the body-cavity—the
ricardium. In higher forms the blood passes
y distinct arteries to the bodies, is gathered up in
venous spaces and sinuses, is purified in the gills,
and returns to the pericardial sac and _ heart.
The respiratory system is typically represented
by distinct gills variously attached ; in many cases
water flows in and out at the anus, and probably
effects an anal respiration; in many lower forms
the blood is simply purified by being exposed under
the skin. The excretory system is never very
marked. The green glands of higher forms, the
shell-glands of Phyllopods and Copepods, and
certain other structures, are excretory. The r
ductive system presents many variations. he
sexes are usually separate, but most Cirripedes are
hermaphrodite. ‘In the Cymothoide (Isopoda)
the sexual organ of the young animal is male—of
the old, female—in function.’ The glands are
usually thoracic, and the ducts double. Some of
the appendages are often modified for copulation or
-retaining. The yee are are peculiar in
being usually non-motile. The eggs are in most
cases sailed about by the female, but are occa-
sionally laid on water-plants, &c., or in the water.
According to Bates, Podocerus capillatus builds a
nest of interlaced seaweed. Parthenogenesis (q.v.)
has been observed in some of the lower forms.
‘Complemental’ males oceur among the hermaph-
rodite Barnacles and Acorn-shells (q.v.).
Life-history.—The development of Crustaceans
is usually indirect—that is to say, the. newly-

596

CRUSTACEA

hatched young is unlike, often very unlike, its
parent. Even when there is no metamorphosis
after hatching, traces of transformation, as opposed
to continuous development, are sometimes to be
detected in the earlier history while the embryo
is still within the egg-case. (a) The crayfish
(Astacus) has a very much abbreviated life-history,
for the newly-hatched form is almost quite like
the adult. (6) The newly-hatched lobster (Hom-
arus ), however, begins life a little further back,
in what is known as the Mysis stage, in which
the thorax bears two-branched swimming append-
ages. (c) Most other higher Crustaceans (e.g.
crabs) begin at a still lower level, in what is called
the Zowa stage, with a short unjointed thorax and
a segmented abdomen without limbs. (d) The

Development of a Prawn (Pencus):
a, Nauplius; b, Zowa; c, Mysis; d, adult.

Decapod Penzus, a shrimp-like creature, has its
life-history still more drawn out. It quits the egg
as a Nauplius, an unsegmented larva with three
pairs of appendages, the first unforked, the other
two pairs double-branched. These correspond to
the first three appendages of the adult. The median
eye is also a distinctive feature in the Nauplius
larva. The Penzus Nauplius has with successive
moults first to become a Zoza, and then a Mysis,
and then an adult. It is as a Nauplius that the
majority of lower Crustaceans leave the egg, but
then they do not climb so high. To understand
the circuitous life-history of a form like Penzus,
we have to note that it begins in the Nauplius
stage, at the level of the lowest Crustaceans, and
ely climbs through a series of higher and

igher stages, each of which is represented per-
manently by some division of Crustaceans which
have not risen higher. If the various grades from
Nauplius up to Decapod adult represent successive
historic levels, now exemplified in the classification
of Crustaceans by those which were left behind at
each lift, what the Penzeus does is to recapitulate
in its individual life-history the historie evolution
of the class. This idea has been beautifully applied
to Crustaceans in Fritz Miiller’s Facts for Darwin.
The various grades of Nauplius, Zozwa, Mysis, and
adult Penzeus (overlooking intermediate ones)
may be compared to stations which mark the
a pone extension of the Crustacean line of advance.

enzeus has to travel along the rails laid down by
the ancestral history, and has to stop for variable
periods at the successive stations between the
starting-point and the terminus. Crabs skip over
the Nauplius station, and like most other Decapods

start at the Zoza point; lobsters abbreviate still
further, and begin as Mysis forms ; the crayfish has
found the shortest cut ofall. Some of the lower
Crustaceans never get far past the Nauplius stage,
while others remain practically on the Zowa grade.
The life-histories of Crustaceans vividly illustrate
how the individual life-history is a rehearsal of the
historic evolution of the kind, or more technically,
how ontogeny recapitulates phytogeny.

Habit of Life.—The acorn-shells fastened to the’
rocks, wafting in their food by their curled feet ;
the barnacles moored to floating logs and ship-
bottoms ; such extremes of parasitism as are illus-
trated by Sacculina on hermit-crabs; the hermit-
crabs themselves, stealing the shells of Gasteropods,
or entering into partnership with sea-anemones ;
the thousand minute and active water-fleas; the’
wood-lice, quite terrestrial; the brine-shrimps in
the salt-pools ; the fresh-water crayfish; the giant
marine lobsters ; the land-crabs, habituated to in-
land life, sufficiently suggest how varied are the
habits of Crustaceans. Some Crustaceans form
masking shelters for themselves out of Tunicates,
or get covered over by a concealing growth of
seaweed, sponge, hydroids, &c. A few forms
are known to make a stridulating noise. The
general intelligence of the class is probably con-
siderable (see CRAB). On the whole the mem-
bers of this class are active animals, but on each
side of the medium activity of the majority there
are extremes. Thus, not a few active marine
forms are phosphorescent, while parasitism (to the
extent of some 700 species) occurs in most of the
subdivisions. Many of the parasites are very
striking in the contrast between the free-swimming
young and the ne plus ultra of degeneracy in the
adults (see DEGENERATION, PARASITISM). Some
of the interesting cases of Commensalism (q.v.)
have been referred to under that title; while some
of the external parasites show in the castration,
&e. which they effect on their hosts, how real in
such cases is the direct influence of the animate
Environment ie ). The diet of Crustaceans is
very varied; the majority are carnivorous and
aggressive; many feed on dead creatures and
organic debris in the water; others depend largely
upon plants. They often lose limbs in fighting or
otherwise, and have the power of replacing what
they have lost.

eho haebge (after Claus).—(A) Entomostraca.
Lower forms, small, simple, with variable number
of rings and appendages, with not more than three.
appendages concerned in mastication, usually leay-
ing the egg as a nauplius. (1) Phyllopoda: (a)
Branchiopoda—e.g. Brine-shrimps (q.v.), Apus,
Estheria, &c. ; (6) Cladocera—the common ‘ water-
flea’ Daphnia, Moina, &e. (2) Ostracoda—com-
mon 'Cypris (q.v.), Cypridina. (3) Copepoda—
common eyes (q.v.), Lernea, &c. (4) Cirri-

edia—Acorn-shells, Barnacles (q.v.), Saceulina,

c.—(B) Malacostraca. Higher, larger forms,
with nineteen segments, with more than three
appendages concerned in mastication, usually
quitting the egg at a higher level than the Nau-
plius: (1) Leptostraca, Nebalia, a primitive form’
with bivalve shell; (2) Arthrostraca, with free
thorax, and no cephalothoracic shield, eyes ses-
sile: (a) Amphipoda—Sand-hoppers (q.v.), Cap-
rella, &c.; (b) Isopoda—Wood-lice (q.v.), Asellus,
Tanais, &e. (3) Personen with all or part of
thorax fused to head, and with a cephalothoracie
shield, eyes mostly stalked : (a) Cumacea, sessile-
eyed—Cuma; (6) Stomatopoda, with gills on ab-
dominal feet—Squilla; (c) Podophthalmata, with
stalked eyes and large shield: (i) Schizopoda,
with eight pairs of double thoracic feet—Mysis;
(ii) Decapoda, with thorax fused to head, and
last five thoracic feet not double; long-tailed

CRUTCHED FRIARS

CRYPT 597

4Macrura)—e.g. Crayfish (q.v.), Lobster; short-
‘tailed ( Brachyura), Crabs,
_ Distribution in Space and Time.—(a) ne
sea forms are very abundant, and often remarkable
‘for their colossal size, their bizarre forms, and
brilliant red colouring.’ Blind species are known
to occur in the depths, and others are brilliantly
rite sent (6) Pelagic surface Crustaceans
especially Schizopods and Entomostraca) are very
abundant, and often form a large part of the food
of fishes. They are often beautifully transpar-
ent, and hardly to be seen in the water.
frequently they are brilliantly coloured (as in
Sapphirina) or phosphorescent. Some of them are
remarkable for their large eyes. One a
Crustacean presents a curious mimicry of a Medu-
soid form. Decapods are most abundant in the
“warmer waters. (c) Crustaceans form an important
of the wes ractng A> ses and uniform fauna of
kes. They occur both on the surface and at the
‘bottom, the latter being generally more sluggish.
The surface forms, at anyrate, are usually per-
fectly transparent, with the exception of the eye.
{d ) The catalogue of terrestrial Crustaceans, which
cludes species of Amphipods, Isopods, and Deca-
pods, is relatively a very short one.

The Crustacea date back to Cambrian times, but
the highest forms (Decapods) were not firmly
established till the Tertiary period. Some 800
fossil species, as against over 5000 living forms, are
known. Some of the genera—e.g. Estheria—from
the Devonian, are marvellously persistent, and
survive from ancient epochs as still very successful
‘and widely distributed forms. The Trilobites
(4.v.) are not now regarded as true Crustaceans.
¢ or ‘Reacmnngen see Heilprin, Inter. Sc. Series,
887.

Pedigree.—It is usually believed that Crustacea
are descended from a primitive Phyllopod-like
‘ancestor, and this from a segmented worm-type.
The very constant occurrence of a Nauplius larva
‘has led zoologists to regard it as representing a
remote ancestor. The lines of differentiation =o J
consisted in the development and manifold modifi-
cation of the fundamentally similar appendages,
and in the perfecting of the exoskeleton as a base
for muscular attachment. {See Herdman’s Classi-
fication of Animals, Lond. 1885.)

Economic Importance.—Crabs, lobsters, crayfish,
shrimps, prawns, &c. form ne of our food-supply.
Others are indirectly useful as spores parts of
the food of herrings and other fishes. Many are
doubtless useful in purifying the water from
organic debris, while others are the hosts of im-
portant parasites—e.g. the Cyclops species, which
contains Dracunculus medinenis.

See ACORN-SHELLS, BARNACLE, BRINE-SHRIMP, CIRRI-
*PEDIA, CoPEPODA, CRAB, CRAYFISH, Cypris, CYCLOPs,
-LoBsTER, PRAWN, SHRIMP, WATER-FLEA, &c. ; also Com-
MENSALISM, PARASITISM, PARTHENOGENESIS, &c., and
references under above articles. For further details,
consult general text-books of Brooks (Boston, 1882),
Claus, Gegenbaur, Huxley, Rolleston and Hatchett
Javkson; also Baird, British Entomostraca (Ray Soc.
1850); Balfour’s Embryology; Bell, British Stalk-eyed
Crustacea (Lond. 1856); Challenger Reports (several) ;
Claus, Genealogy of Crustacea (1876); Dana, Crustacea
of US. Laploring Expedition (Phila. 1852); Gerstecker
in Bronn’s T'hierreich ; Huxley’s Crayfish (1881); Milne-
Edwards, Histoire Naturelle des Ȏs (Paris, 1834-
40); the Monographs of the 7 I Station ( several) ;
_F. Miller, Facts for Darwin (1869); Sars, Fresh-water
Crustacea of Norway (Christiania, 1867); Spence Bate
and Westwood, British Scasile-eved Crustacea (1863-68 )
Stebbing, A History of Crustacea (1893). “

Crutched Friars, an order of friars, carry-
ing in their hand a staff, on the top of which
was a cross, received the name of Crozsiers (Fr.
rota, ‘cross’), corrupted into Crouched or Crutched

Friars. They came to aa ep in the 13th century,
and had monasteries in London (which still gives
name to a street), Oxford, and Reigate.

Cruveilhier, JEAN, physician,
a oar in 1791, became professor of Pathology
at Montpellier in 1824, and of Pathological Ana-
tomy in Paris in 1836. Besides his great work,
Anatomie Pathologique du Corps Humain (2 vols.
1828-42), he published several other works on
anatomy, which were for many years the most
valuable French contributions to their ne
and also a Life of Dupuytren (1840). He died 6th
March 1874.

Crwth (pronounce the w as French ~), an old
Welsh stringed instrument. Four of its six strings
were pla. with a bow, the other two being
twitched by the thumb.

Cryolite, a mineral which exists in great abund-
ance on the coast of Greenland. It consists main
of a fluoride of aluminium in combination wit
Fluoride of Sodium, 6NaF,Al,F, The metal
Aluminium (q.v.) was formerly largely obtained
from it, but it is now most important as a source
of alum and of soda bicarbonate ; much of it, also,
is melted and made into a kind of glass.

Cryophorus (Gr. Aryos, ‘cold,’ and phero, ‘1
ca ) “4 an instrument consisting of a chain tube
with a bulb at both ends, used for showing the
diminution of temperature in water by evapora-
tion. In constructing it the whole of the air is
extracted, leaving practically a vacuum inside. A
little water is present in one of the bulbs, and
when the second bulb, containing only water-
vapour, is placed in a freezing mixture, the vapour
condenses, which causes more vapour to rise from
the water in the first bulb. e result of this
vaporation from the first bulb is the abstraction of
much heat, and ultimately the remaining water
passes into a frozen state.

Crypt (Gr. crypto, ‘IT hide’). In the early da
of persecution the Christians were accustomed for
security to worship in the catacombs or crypts where
they buried their dead (see CATACOMBS). When
persecution ceased, this custom led to the erection
of churches over the ves of martyrs and saints;
but at a later date the bodies of the saints were
transferred to chambers, constructed to resemble
the catacombs, under the sanctuary or altar of the
new churches, in order to add to their sanctity.
These crypts and their sacred shrines were visited
by numerous pilgrims, and were frequently con-
structed for the accommodation of the devotees, of
sufficient size to admit a number at a time, who
descended by one stair, and ascended by another.
In other cases the crypts were so placed that the
shrine of the saint could be seen from the aisles of
the choir, the floor of which was necessarily rai
considerably above the level of the nave. Crypts
of these kinds were usual in the early centuries,
and many examples of them have been preserved in
Italy and France, even where the churches over
them have been rebuilt. The crypt of the Circular
church of St Bénigne at Dies was one of the
largest. There a t circular aperture in the
centre of the floor of the upper church enabled a
very large congregation of pilgrims, including those
in the crypt, to see the shrine of the saint, and
witness any ceremony takiag place there.

After the 13th century crypts were not so much
in use. The at cathedrals were regarded as
much in the light of civil as of ecclesiastical edifices,
and the floor of the choir was brought down to the
level of the rest of the building. It sometimes
happened that owing to the slope of the site con-
siderable underbuilding was required under the
choir, in which case an under church was con-
structed, which was called by the old name of the

born at

598 CRYPTOGAMIA

CRYPTOGRAPHY

erypt, and was generally used for sepulchral pur-
poses. The crypt of wengee is one of the finest
of this kind. The crypt of Glasgow Cathedral is

Crypt, Canterbury Cathedral.

also a very beautiful example, the vaulting over
the shrine of St Mungo being pointed out by Sir
Gilbert Scott in his lectures as one of the best
specimens of its class.

Cryptogamia. This term was introduced by
Linneus as the twenty-fourth and last class of his
system of classification, and broadly with its
present contents. The name, however (Gr. kryp-
tos, ‘concealed,’ and gamos, ‘ marriage’), in opposi-
tion to flowering plants (Phanerogamia, . q.v.),
records its donor’s well-founded expectation that
sexual reproduction would one day be discovered.
Jussieu proposed to distinguish them as Acotyle-
dénes from monocotyledons and dicotyledons ; but
the term has necessarily lapsed for many reasons.
De Candolle distinguished them into two great

roups, Cellulares and Vasculares; while End-
icher’s separation of the vegetable kingdom into
Thallophytes and Cormophytes still further re-
cognised their vast morphological range. Armed
with the microscope more recent investigators
have determined the life-history and mode of
reproduction of all the leading types, so not only
amply confirming the hypothesis of Linnzeus, or
even still further increasing their morphological
importance as compared with Phanerogams, but
entirely revolutionising our interpretation of the
flowering plants themselves, since leading us to
view them as more profoundly eryptogamic than
the cryptogams. The separate groups of erypto-
Berio plants are outlined in the articles ALG,

EAWEEDS, BACTERIA, FUNGI, LICHENS, MOSSES,
FERNS, RHIZOCARPS, HORSE-TAIL, LYCOPODIUM,
SELAGINELLA ; while their relation to higher plants
is explained under PHANEROGAMIA, FLOWER,
GYMNOSPERMS.

Cryptography, the art of secret writing, also
called Writing in Cipher, Hieroglyphic Writing,
Secret Writing, Steganography, Polygraphy, has
been in use from an early date in correspondence
between diplomatists and others engaged in import-
ant affairs requiring secrecy. Every government
used to employ its staff of decipherers, who availed
themselves of extraordinary means for interpreting
despatches which (fairly or unfairly ) came into their
possession. The cipherers and the decipherers
waged a constant struggle to outwit each other ;
the one by constructing new difficulties ; the other
by conquering the difficulties as soon as constructed.
How often we hear of a courier being murdered
and his despatches carried off! And without the

key to decipher letters so written, to what pur-
ose would they be intercepted by such a deed?
n these modern times, however, there has been so
great an improvement in the morals of governments
that the custom of een foreign-office messengers
for the sake of their despatch-bags is entirely
obsolete in diplomacy, and statesmen have ¢
to pillage post-offices or rifle portmanteaus for
cryptogra ic messages.
ost of the odd knacks, contrivances, - decoys,
blinds, now employed by eryptographers were to some
extent known to and employed by the ancients.
Substituting points for vowels; arranging threads,
knots, or ink-spots at determinate distances ; sub-
stituting one letter for another; inventing new
arbitrary characters for whole words or even
sentences—now made use of extensively in tele-
graph codes; abbreviating words in their prefixes
and affixes; writing a long sentence of nonsense,
with a clue to find the words which gave the proper
sense—all were brought into requisition, Perhaps
the most amusing of all cryptographs was the one
mentioned by Herodotus. Histiszeus, a Greek at
the Persian court, being desirous of sending a secret
message to Aristagoras at Miletus, selected a slave
who was afflicted with bad eyes, and shaved his head,
retending that it was necessary for his recovery.
n performing this, Histiseus imprinted his secret
intention in legible characters on the man’s head,
and kept him in close confinement till his hair grew
again, when he sent him to rns eT for a perfect
cure. Aristagoras repeated the shaving, read the
writing underneath, and thus obtained the desired
information by means of the unconscious mes-
senger.

One of the simplest methods of cryptography is
to use instead of each letter of the alphabet a
certain other letter at a regular interval in advance.
Such was a mode of secret writing adopted by
Julius Cesar. As a variety of this plan, the alpha-
bet is used invertedly, z for a, y for b, x for e¢,
and so on; or, while the first seven letters are
represented by the second seven, the next six may
be represented by the last six. And many other
variations may be adopted. But the decipherment
of such messages is naturally not difficult, and with
a little consideration of the peculiarities of the
English language, all the ups and downs of many
an interesting love story related in cipher in the
columns of the Times can be followed from start to
finish with comparative ease. It is known that ¢ is
the most frequent letter; that the is the commonest
word ; that ea and ow are the double vowels which
most frequently occur; that the consonants most
common at the ends of words are 7, s, and ¢, &e.
We also know that a word of a single letter must
be either the pronoun I, or the vowels @ or O ; that
an, at, on, to, of, and in are the most common words
of two letters; that the and and are the most fre-

uent words in three letters; that the most usual

oubled letters are ee, 00, Il, ss, ff; that double
vowels are mostly followed by Z, m, m, 7; that the
letter a begins three two-letter words in very ex-
tensive use—an, as, at; that the letter o begins or
ends eight two-letter words in very common use—
do, go, no, so, to, of, on, or; that more words in a
sentence of average English begin with ¢ than with
any other letter; that in about three-fourths of
all the words in a sentence, either the first or the
second letter is a vowel; that among consonants,
d and h are most largely used, after which come
n, s, r,t; that the letter g is always followed by
u; that no English word of two letters or more
ends with ¢. All these considerations will guide us
to the solution of any simple cipher, enabling a
skilful decipherer to read almost any ordinary
piece of cryptographic writing in a very short
time.

—

ee

ee ae mn al

CRYPTOGRAPHY

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 599

in British history, cryptography has at no time
been in greater pean ata pene the Civil
War. Charles [.’s celebrated letter to the Earl of
Glamorgan (afterwards Marquis of Worcester), in
which he made some compromising concessions to the
Catholics of Ireland, was composed in an alphabet
(sometimes sup | to be Charles’s own, but more
probably Worcester’s invention) of twenty-four
short strokes variously situated upon a line (see
OGAM). Other letters hy the same monarch are
to appearance a mere series of numbers of two or
three figures divided by semicolons, In such cases
it was necessary that the two parties engaging in
the correspondence should have previously con-
certed what words each number was to represent.

In the reign of William III. the Jacobites in-
vented many curious ciphers to enable them to
communicate with their exiled king. All the
Jacobite clubs had distinct methods of their own—
their great aim being to write in such a manner
that the very ciphers themselves should pass
through their enemies’ hands without suspicion.
This they accomplished by means of sympathetic
inks. A favourite Jacobite cipher was the use of
parables, conveying, by means of ordinary lan-
guage, a double meaning, which only the person
acquainted with the writer’s views would think of.
The use of cryptography for sparpeees of state in
England ended, it may be said, with the Peace of
1815. During the Peninsular war the government
attached a cryptographer to the office of the Minister
for Foreign Affairs to read and write the ciphers
received and despatched. It is said that on more
than one occasion the minister was unable to com-
prehend his own cipher.

The earliest elaborate treatise on writing in
cipher is the Steganographia (Frankf. 1606) of the
abbot John Trithemius, a MS. copy of which was
bought for a thousand crowns at Antwerp by Dr Dee
in 1563. Lord Bacon, who esteemed cryptography
one of the most useful arts of his time, Panel
what he believed a not easily penetrable cipher—
in which he employed only a@ and 6, arranging each
of these letters in groups of five, in such collocations
as to represent all the twenty-four letters. Thus
aahab, ababa, babba conveyed the word fly. In
his De Augmentis he styled this an omnia per omnia
cipher, believing that in this case preconcertment
would be necessary; but in reality any clever
modern oe could have read any letter com-
posed in such a manner if it were of any length.

Mr Donnelly, in his work The Great Cryptogram,
endeavours to prove that Bacon inse a cipher
in the Shakespearian plays—which he claims is
the work of the great philosopher—but the cipher
is of so elaborate a kind that nobody but Mr
Donnelly has been able to follow its intricacies.
The unfortunate Earl of Argyll used a mode of
secret writing which consisted in setting down the
words at certain intervals, which he afterwards
filled up with other words, making of the whole
something intelligible, but of no use to any one
else reading the message. The Marquis of Wor-
cester invented a cipher composed of dots and lines
variously ordered within a geometrical figure ; while
Dr Blair made one of three dots, placed over, under,
or on the line, by which he could represent no
fewer than eighty-one letters, figures, or words.
The Doctor, in his able article in Rees’s Cyclopedia,
declares this cipher to be as nearly as possible
undecipherable by strangers ; but two years after-
wards, Mr Gage, of Norwich, published a pamphlet
on pu to solve Dr Blair’s riddle. As he
ated fourteen closely printed octavo to
the explanation, any description of the cipher is
beyond the limits of this article. Mr Thicknesse,
a weil-known expert of the 18th century, also
devised a plan of conveying information in the

disguise of music, the notes, rests, expression-
wry — on for gg 9 :

the methods, however, o ery puogra y ma
thus be summarised: (1) By invisible Pk 3)
by superfluous words; (3) by misplaced words;
(4) by vertical and diagonal reading ; (5) by arti-
ficial word-grouping ; (6) by stencil-plates cut out
so as to show certain words beneath ; (7) by using
two letters (Lord Bacon's cipher); (8) by trans-
posing the letters ; (9) by substitution of letters ;
(10) M counterpart tabulations; (11) by mixed
symbols; (12) by a printed key and code-book,
used chiefly in telegrams ; (13) by the employment
of numerals.

The present century has seen the decline of
cryptography for all practical purposes, and the art
is now only regarded as a eurious study, closely
connected with the history of all nations.

Cryptomeria, or JAPANESE CEDAR. This
lofty and beautiful hardy coniferous tree (C.
japonica) is widely distributed in mountain dis-
tricts of Japan and China, as well as cultivated
in many varieties. It was introduced by Robert
Fortune in 1842, and has since passed into cultiva-
tion. Although ae ory J confused with the
cypresses, it is nearly allied to Sequoia and Taxo-
dium, See CONIFER.

Cryptoprocta, a fierce carnivorous animal of

agascar, forming a genus and species by itself.
Semi-plantigrade, and with beautiful fur, it re-
sembles a large polecat, three feet long, and
attacks the largest animals with great ferocity.

Crystalline Rocks, a name given to all rocks
having a crystalline structure. The crystalline
texture may either be original or superinduced.
Thus some erystalline rocks, such as certain cal-
careous masses, owe their origin to chemical pre-
cipitation from water, while others again, such as
lavas, have consolidated from a state of igneous
fusion. There is another large class of crystalline
rocks, the crystalline pene es of which present
a remarkable foliated character—that is, they are
arranged in more or less parallel layers (see
Scuists). This peculiar schistose structure appears
to have been superinduced—the original rocks
having been either fragmental or crystalline or
both—and the result of great heat and pressure.
Such highly altered rocks occur in the neighbour-
hood of masses of ite, and cover wide regions,
where there is abundant evidence to show that the
strata have been subjected to enormous =
sion, crushing, and crumpling—having been folded
and fractured and pushed violently over each other
for distances of sometimes 15 miles and more. It
is therefore believed that pressure and the heat
engendered by great earth-movements, and the in-
trusion of plutonic igneous matter, are among the
most potent agencies in the production of schistose
structure,

Crystallites, minute non-polarising bodies (the
result of incipient crystallisation) occurring in the
vitreous portions of igneous rocks. See IGNEOUS
Rocks.

Crystallography (from the Greek /rustallos,
‘ice,’ an idea among the ancients being that
rock-erystal, which may be taken as a type of
crystalline minerals, resulted from the subjection
of water to intense cold). Minerals, salts, and in-
organic bodies generally (examples, rock-crystal,
fluor-spar, alum, and sugar) exist in the crystalline
state; and when we examine all crystals, whether
occurring naturally or obtained artificially, certain
laws have been discovered, and phenomena observed,
and these laws and phenomena constitute the
science of crystallography. The following are the
more important laws and rinciples of the science :

(1) Law of Constancy oF Ang-es.—Crystals of the

600

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

same substance may differ much in general appear-
ance, but when the angles between their faces are
measured these angles are found constant. Thus
the crystals A and B (fig. 1), when cut through in

Fig. 1.
Drawings of two crystals differing much in appearance, but
with angles at a shown to be constant when similar sections
are made.

the direction xy at right angles to the prism, give
the sections shown at A’, B’; and in each section
the angles a will be found the same—viz. 120°; or
again, if the angles between the faces ab, be, or
ac, be measured, they will be found identical in both
crystals.

(2) Law of Symmetry.—Suppose we cut a crystal
in two, and then place the two parts with their cut
surfaces on’ a mirror. The mirror will reflect each
part, and may or may not produce the appearance
of the original crystal. If the mirror will produce
the appearance of the original crystal, we have
severed the crystal in a plane of symmetry. Thus
with a cube, if we cut it in either of the planes
abc, def, ghk, lmn, opq,
rhm, nhg, lkn, gmk, and
place in each case the
two severed parts on a
mirror in the way de-

“St UA INI 49 seribed, the reflection
i eg Bs aes with the object
2 Ni Sie will reproduce a cube.

i» There are then in the
cube gr tase of sym-

vs S|} metry. e octahedron
and dodecahedron simi-
Fig. 2 larly have nine planes of

symmetry. ith such
a form as a common
brick there are three
planes of symmetry,
while with other forms varying numbers of planes
of symmetry may be found, until with a sphere
there are an infinite number of planes of symmetry,
for it is obvious that if a sphere be cut anywhere
by a es passing through its centre, and the
half thus obtained be laid upon a mirror, the
appearance of a complete sphere will be produced.
Now examining all SGalchadral) crystals, it is
found that they fall into one of the following six
categories or systems: (1) Anorthic System.—No
plane of symmetry—examples, copper sulphate
and anorthite. (2) Oblique System.—One pix of
symmetry—gypsum and washing-soda. (38) Pris-
matic System.—Three planes of symmetry at right
angles to each other—barytes, saltpetre, and native
sulphur. (4) Rhombohedral System.—Three planes
of symmetry at 120° to each other—calcite, quartz,
and ice. (5) Pyramidal System.—Five planes of
8ymmetry—cassiterite, zircon, and idocrase. (6)

Each of the ag represented

by dotted lines is a plane of
. Symmetry.

Cubic System.—Nine planes of symmetry—fluor-

spar, galena, and alum.

(3) Law of Rationality of Indices.—The various
planes of crystals, as explained below, are indicated
in the Millerian system by three numbers, which
together form the symbol of the plane. Thus we
have planes represented by 1 2 3, by 11 1, by
1 1 0, &. N ow the law of rationality asserts
that the symbol of a plane must be represented b
numbers which are rational—i.e. numbers whic
can be expressed exactly, not those like \ 2; ¥/4,
&e., which can only be obtained approximately.
Thus by the law of rationality, no plane of a crystal
can have such a symbol as1 V/3 5, 1/2 0, &e.

Crystallographic Notation.—Several methods of
representing planes of crystals by symbols are in
use. Two of these only need be mentioned—viz,
Miller’s notation and Naumann’s notation. In °
both systems the planes are referred to three axes
cone in direction to three edges of the
crystal.

Let abe (fig. 3) represent parts or parameters
cut off from three axes wyz, then in Miller's

K~---.
Y”
z ‘’
Fig. 3, Fig. 4,
The plane 1 11 in Miller’s The plane 1 2 3 in Miller’s
notation. notation.

system the plane 1 1 1 sh er ei a plane which
cuts the # axis at one-oneth of a, the y axis at
one-oneth of 6, and the
z axis at one-oneth of c.
Such a plane is indicated
by pgr. The plane 1 2 3
means a plane which cuts
the x axis at one-oneth of
a, the y axis at one-half of
6, and the z axis at one-
third of ec. Such a plane
is represented by stu, fig.
4. he plane 1 1 0 means
a plane which cuts the z
axis at one-oneth of a, the

y axis at one-oneth of 6, Fig. 5.
and the z axis at one- The plane 110 in Miller's
noughth of c—i.e. does not notation.

cut ¢ at all, or is parallel
to it. Such a plane is represented by was in fig. 5.
In Naumann’s system some form is selected as
the fundamental pyra-
mid of the crystal, and
his pyramid, which cor-
responds to Miller’s
form, 111, isrepresented
by the letter P in all
a but the cubic (in
this system it is called
O) and the rhombohed-
ral (in this system it is
called R). Thus the
lanes marked P (fig. 6)
orm the fundamental
pyramid, the planes 4P ¥
are those of a pyramid one-half the height, while
the basal plane is represented by oP or a pyramid

Fig, 6.
A crystal with the faces marked
in Naumann’s notation.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

601

of no height, while the planes co P represent a

pyramid of infinite height.

Drawing and Mapping of Crystals.—Various

_ modes of representing crystals have been adopted.
Perspective drawings are made by projecting the

‘axes according to the rules of Projection fv.)

then the various planes are indicated, and from

these their intersections are known, and these

intersections form the drawing of the crystal.

Fig. 7 represents one octant of the form 2 1 1
z

x

Fig. 7.
Mode of drawing a crystal from projection of axes.

drawn by this method. Some writers represent
crystal forms by orthographic projections—that is,
ees them in plan and front elevation. Of

methods, however, of representing crystals
from measurements made with the goniometer,
the most elegant and convenient is that of spher-
ical projections. Two kinds of spherical projec-
tion are in use—viz. the gnomic and the stereo-
graphic. Imagine a glass sphere placed within a
erystal, as in fig. 8, and suppose the faces of the
crystal to move parallel
to their original _posi-
tions until they touch the

a : sphere, and where the

v8 AS? \ faces touch let dots be

9 pf Bom marked on the sphere.

—, Thus the face a will pro-

{*] oz cal duce the dot a’, the face

. } o the dot o’, and so on,

Ne phen When the sphere is thus

ee Aa marked with dots corre-
sponding to the several

faces, the next thing is to

Fig. 8. make a map of the dots
Sphere within a crystal. in their proper ition.
Rehceaiseniece tins: ae ne be dle
me lacie ere on the gnomic projection,
the sphere is supposed

to be placed on the paper

on which the map is to be made, and the eye
is then vyrige at the centre of the sphere. The
various dots when projected on to the paper as
seen by the eye placed at the centre of the sphere
produce the map. If the map is to be made on
the stereographice projection, suppose a piece of
lass to pass through the centre of the sphere as
in fig. 9, and let the eye be placed touching the
sphere at E, then the dots as they appear on the
glass to the eye ‘at E form the = uch a map
of the crystal of fig. 8 is given in fig. 10. In the
stereographic projection all t circles on a
sphere are represented on the map by either straight
lines or ares of circles, whereas in the gnomic ka
jection they are represented by straight lines. The
map (fig. 10) shows not only the position of the
dots or poles, but also great es passing through

the sphere. These great circles correspond to the
lanes of symmetry of the cube (fig. 2) and other
orms of the cubic system. These stereographic
maps, as will be seen by reference to treatises on

Eat

Fig. 9.
The eye placed at E sees the dots on
lower part of ry projected on
the plane a bc

Fig. 10.
Stereographic map of
the crystal of fig.
8 as obtained by
method in fig. 9.

the subject, convey a good deal of information
sac ge the erystals they portray.

lanes of crystals form a zone when the inter-
sections of the planes (i.e. the edges) are parallel
to each other. Thus, in fig. 6 the faces oP, $P,
P, and coP form a zone. Now in Miller’s notation
these forms have the indices 0 01, 112, 111,
1 1 0, and it will be noticed that all these symbols
have a common ratio—thus, the first and second
index are equal to each other. It may be shown that
this is universally true ; hence, knowing the indices
of a plane, we can say whether it is on a particular
zone, or knowing that a plane lies in two zones, we
can determine its indices. Thus, the planes 1 2 3,
1 2 4, 1 2 5, &e., are all in one zone, as the
symbols have the common ratio 1 : 2, and the plane
3 4 5 cannot be on this zone, because its symbol
does not contain the ratio 1 : 2.

Holohedrism and Hemihedrism.—Crystals which
have all faces present as required by the law of
symmetry are termed holohedral. here, as is
often the case, only one-half of these faces are
present, the crystal is said to be hemihedral ; while
if only one-fourth of the full number of faces are
present, the crystal is said to be tetartohedral.

Physical Crystallography.—The physical pro-
perties of crystals have some interesting relations
to the symmetry and form of the crystal, and
these Ce are included generally with crystal-
lography. Thus, if in the regular system a face
is striated or has any peculiarity, this striation or
peculiarity will be found on each face which is
present by the law of symmetry. Again, most
crystals cleave (i.e. break easily) in certain direc-
tions, and the cleay planes follow the law of
symmetry. Again, when examined by polarised
light, other properties of crystals in relation to
symmetry are brought out. Thus, erystals of the
regular system (except in a few certain cases) do
not doubly refract light, no matter in what direc-
tion the light is incident. With crystals of the
rhombohedral system and the pyramidal system
light is not doubly refracted when it falls parallel
to the vertical axis, but in other directions it is
doubly refracted ; while in the remaining systems
two directions can be found in which the crystals
of these systems do not doubly refract light, though
they do so in all other directions. gain, heat
is conducted differently in different systems of
erystals, Sup erystals turned in a lathe into
spheres, and that the centre is made suddenly hot,
then in the regular y bg: the heat spreads equally,
and after a time the surface of the sphere is
uniformly raised in temperature; with other sys-
tems the effect is different; with the pyramidal
and rhombohedral systems a similar experiment
would result in the surface of the sphere being
heated uniformly over belts corresponding to an
equavor and parallels of latitude, but the tempera-

602 CRYSTALLOID

CTESIAS

ture of the different belts would be different, thus
showing that heat is pe cee in two directions
at right angles to each other with different veloci-
ties. With other systems more complex results
would be obtained owing to heat being propagated
in three directions with different velocities.

When soluble ¢rystals are placed in a solvent
the faces are eaten out differently, producing
figures termed by German writers ‘aetzfiguren.
These figures will often indicate the symmetry of
the crystal, and have been useful in such deter-
mination. As physical properties generally are
related to elasticity, Groth states that the best
way to define a crystal is that it is a solid body,
the elasticity of which is the same in all parallel
directions, but on the contrary is different in dif-
ferent directions.

See A Tract on Crystallography, by W. H. Miller
(Deighton, 1863); A Zveatise on Crystallography, by
W. H. Miller (1839); Jnéroduction to Mineralogy, by
William Phillips (ed. by Brooke and Miller, 1852);
Crystallography, by H. P. Gurney (8.P.C.K.); A Guide to
the Mineral Gallery of the British Museum, by L. Fletcher ;
N.S. Story Maskelyne, Crystallography (Oxford, Claren-
don Press, 1895); W. J. Lewis, A Treatise on Crystal-
lography (1899). In most treatises on mineralogy a
portion of the work is devoted to crystallography.

Crystalloid is a name given by Graham toa
class of substances which when in solution pass
easily through membranes ; as opposed to colloids.
Metallic salts, sugar, oxalic acid, are crystalloids.
See DIFFUSION, OSMOSE.

Crystallomancy, « mode of divination by
means of transparent bodies, at one time very
popular. A precious stone, crystal globe, or other
transparent object was employed, but a Beryl
(q.v.) was deemed most effective. In using it,
the operator first muttered over it certain formulas
of prayer, and then gave it into the hands of a
youth or virgin—none others were pure enough to
discern its revelations—who beheld in it the infor-
mation required. Sometimes the wished-for know-

ledge was conveyed by means of written characters |

on the crystal; sometimes the spirits invoked
appeared in the crystal to answer the questions
asked. Dr Dee was a great adept at Crystallo-
manecy, and two of his magic mirrors—cannel coal
and smoky quartz, polished—are now in the British
Museum. Even in the middle of the 19th century
Lady Blessington’s ‘magic crystal’ was in great
repute in the upper circles of London ; it figured in
the libel case of Captain Morrison, R.N. (‘Zad-
kiel’), v. Sir Edward Belcher (1863).

Crystal Palace. See SYDENHAM.

Csaba, a town of Hungary, 7 miles 8. of Bekes
by rail. It has a trade in grain, flour, wine, hemp,
and cattle. Pop. (1890) 34,243.

Csanad, a village in Hungar op. 3000), on
the Maros, 22 miles E. of Saegedizt Ss

Csardas. See CZARDASCH.

Csoma de Kérés, ALEXANDER, a Hungarian |

traveller and philologist, born 4th April 1784 in the
Transylvanian village of Kérés, was educated first
at the college of Nagy-Enyed, and subsequently at
Gottingen, where Eichhorn the Orientalist inspired
him with a passion for philology. In 1819 he
studied Slavonic in Croatia with his customary
ardour, and next year started on his pilgrimage to
Central Asia, finding his way in Asiatic dress with
the most indomitable perseverance by Bagdad and
Teheran to Bokhara, thence by Kabul and Lahore
to Cashmere and Tibet. He soon began to devote
himself to a study of the Tibetan language under
the patronage of the English government. Early
in 1827 he started on his third journey thither, and
remained in the country for three years, completely
absorbed in study, and indifferent to the extreme

cold of winter and to Men of wend kind.
Early in 1831 he arrived at Caleutta, w ere he
completed his Tibetan grammar and dictionary.
He was appointed librarian to the Asiatic Society,
but no comforts could wean him from his love for
travel. In January 1836 he started on another
journey to Tibet, but died of fever six days after
arriving at Darjeeling in Sikkim, 30th March
1836, a veritable martyr to science. His Life was
written by Dr Theodore Duka (1885), who disposed
of the assertion so often made, that the traveller’s
zeal, at least after the years of mere bovnnod: was
due to a devout imagination that somewhere in the
heart of Asia it was possible still to discover the
original home of the Magyar race.

Csongrad, a town of Hungary, at the conflu-
ence of the Theiss and the Kérés, 75 miles SE. of
Pesth. The inhabitants, 17,837 in number, are
chiefly engaged in the rearing of cattle, fishing,
making of wine and soap.

Ctenoid Scales (literally, ‘comb-like’),
SCALES.

Cteno’phora (literally, ‘comb-bearers’), a sub-
class of Coelenterates (q.v.), representing the climax
of activity in that series of animals. The Common
Berée and Pleurobrachia are good types. Venus’
Girdle (Cestum veneris) is a well-known aberrant
form, which has been elongated sideways to a yard
or more in length, They are beautifully delicate,
free-swimming marine organisms, generally globu-
lar in form, moving by means of comb-like plates.
These are composed of numerous agglutinated cilia,
and disposed along eight meridional rows. The
mouth is at one pole of the sphere, two excretory
or anal apertures lie at the other, which also
exhibits a sense organ and a probable steering
mechanism usually known as the ‘otolith.’? There
are numerous alimentary vessels regularly disposed
in relation to the main central cavity. In most

See

Ctenophore, with streaming tentacles,

cases there are two retractile tentacles ; the sting-
ing cells so characteristic of Ccelenterates are
usually modified into ‘adhesive cells.’ The Cteno-
phores are reo ore carnivorous in diet, ex-
tremely active in habit, and often phosphorescent.
They are connected with the veiled (Craspedote)
medusoids by the transitional genus Ctenaria, a
medusoid which in some ways looks like a Cteno-
phore in the making. Some would place them
along with Eviecrant ibis rather than allow them
the rank of a distinct sub-class. Lang has sug-
gested the derivation of some of the lower worm-
types from Ctenophora, but other authorities do
not regard such a connection as at all probable.
See BEROE, C@LENTERATA,

Ctesias, a Greek historian of Persia, was
private physician of Artaxerxes Mnemon, and
accompanied him in the expedition to crush the
revolt of his brother Cyrus, 401 B.c. His Persika
was a history of Persia in twenty-three books,
written in the Ionic dialect, but unhappily only
a meagre fragment can be recovered in an abridg-
ment in Photius, and in some portions preserved
by Diodorus and other writers. The first six books |

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CUBA 603

contained the history of the Assyrian monarchy
down to the foundation of the kingdom of Persia ;
the next seven continued the history of Persia down
to the end of the reign of Xerxes; the manatees
ten carried it down to 398, the year in whic
Ctesias left Persia. Ctesias compiled his history
from oriental sources, and it is not wonderful that
his statements often contradict those of Herodotus.
Of his Indika also only an abridgment by Photius
is extant. See Gilmore's edition of The Fragments
of the Persika of Ktesias (1888).

Ctesibius, a Greek who flourished under
Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes, at Alex-
andria, about 250 years B.C., and was famous for
his inventions in mechanics. We owe to him and
his pupil Hero Alexandrinus, the pump, the bent
siphon, and also the discovery of the elastic force

air, and its application as a motive power.

Ctesiphon, a city of Babylonia, on the eastern
bank of the Tigris and opposite Seleucia, the com-
mon winter residence of the Parthian kings, and
finally the capital of the Parthian kingdom. It
was con ote by the Romans in 115 A.pD., and
destroyed by the Arabs under Omar in 637.
ruins still attest its former magnificence.

Cuando, a name of the Chobe, a tributary of
the Zambesi (q.v.).

Cuango, or KWAnco. See Conco.

_ Cuba, the most westerly and largest island of
the West Indies, till 1898 the principal colony left
to Spain, stretches in the form of a long narrow
crescent, convex on the north side, at the entrance
of thé Gulf of Mexico, which it divides into two
channels—the north-west, 124 miles wide, and the
south-west, 974 miles at its narrowest part. Cuba is
759 miles long from Cape Maysi on the east to Cape
Antonio on the west, with a breadth varying from
27 miles to 110 miles, and a coast-line of about
2000 miles. According to the census of 1899, the
area of Cuba is approximately 44,000 sq. m., the
Isle of Pines being included in Havana province.
Only about one-third of the coast-line is accessible
to vessels, the remainder being beset by reefs and
banks. The shores, low and flat, are liable to in-
undations, but there are numerous excellent havens.
A watershed running lengthwise through the island
rises into mountainous heights only in the south-
east, where are the Sierra de Maestra shooting up in
the Pico de Turquino to 8400 feet, and the Sierra
del Cobre ( copper). The mountains, composed of
granite overlaid with calcareous rocks, and con-
taining minerals, especially copper and iron, are
clothed in almost perennial verdure, wooded to the
summits, Carboniferous strata appear in the west,
schistose rocks on the north coast. The limestone
rocks abound in caverns, with magnificent stalac-
tites. Mineral waters are plentiful. The rivers,
running north and south, are navigable for only a
few miles by small boats, but are very serviceable
for irrigation of the plantations, and supply excel-
lent drinking water. The climate, more temperate
than in the other West Indian Islands, is salubrious
in the elevated interior, but the coasts are the
haunt of fever and ague. No month of the year is
free from rain, the greatest rainfall being in May,
June, and July, Earthquakes are frequent in the
east. Hurricanes, less frequent than in Jamaica,
sometimes cause widespread desolation. A hurri-
cane in 1846 demolished 1872 houses, and sank 216
vessels,

The soil of Cuba is eminently fertile, a large
part still covered with virgin forest containin
magnificent mahogany, cedar, ebony, ironwood,
dyewoods, and pine. The vegetation of Cuba
so includes lignum-vitee, tamarind, palms, ferns,
lianas, &e. Among the cultivated products are
sugar, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, maize, cotton,

Its

esculent roots, and tropical fruits. Among the ani-
mals are a species of tail-less rat peculiar to Cuba,
great abundance of birds, including the mocking-

ird, a sees of vulture (valuable as a scavenger ),
woodpecker, partridge, flamingo, albatross. Of
noxious animals there are the crocodile, scorpion,
and mosquitoes. The rivers and seas are well
stocked with fish, the turtle abounding in the
shallows and sandy places of the beach.

Sugar, for which soil and climate are peculiarly
favourable, has Jong been the chief product of
Cuba, though it had suffered much from the low

rices even before the insurrection ruined trade.

he total production of sugar in the year 1894-95
was 1,004,264 tons. About nine-tenths of the
sugar and nearly all the molasses are exported
to the United States. Of tobacco, of excellent
quality, the yield is about 300,000 bales annually.

n 1893 the export of tobacco was 227,865 bales,
besides 147,365,000 cigars; in 1895, 156,513,000.
The mining industry of Cuba has as yet received
little attention ; but one iron company has exported
to the United States in some years 200,000 tons
of iron ore. Manganese and copper are also found.
There are some 1600 sugar plantations in Cuba,
$500 tobacco plantations, and 700 coffee plantations.
The total imports into Cuba in 1892 are stated at
57,000,000 pesos or dollars, and the exports at
90,000,000. But for war, the revenue should be
about 25,000,000 pesos. The debt is now much over
40,000,000.

The census taken (1899 ) under the American mili-
tary administration showed a total population of
1,572,797, as against 1,500,000 in 1879 (De las Pejias,
Havana, 1881); the Chinese have decreased to 14,857.
The principal towns, Havana, Puerto Principe,
Matanzas, Santiago, Nuevitas, and Cienfuegos, are
united by railway, of which there are about 1100
miles; the telegraph system aggregates (1898) about
2300 miles. Under Spanish rule the captain-general
was highest military and civil commander ; and all
state offices were held by Spaniards from Spain—
one of the great grievances of the Cubans.

After the war (see below) and the conclusion of

e (1899) between the United States and Spain,
Cuba became practically a dependency—in the first
instance a military protectorate—of the United
States ; and though it was intended that the island
was to be governed in the interests of the Cubans,
and as soon as possible by Cubans, the formal
status of Cuba was not definitely settled. Many
American statesmen regarded with serious ‘mis-

ivings a colonial expansion that absorbed Puerto

ico, annexed Cuba, and took over the Philippines
atonce. But the Americans proceeded to reorganise
the administration on a provisional footing, to make
roads and railways, to improve docks and harbours,
and to im itherto unheard-of sanitary pre-
cautions. aiany burdensome taxes were abolished
and a fair customs tariff was established.

Cuba, spoken of as the ‘Queen of the Antilles,’
was first discovered by Columbus in 1492, the
discoverer calling it ‘the most beautiful land that
eyes ever beheld.’ It was first settled by Spaniards
at Baracoa in 1511. Havana, first settled in 1519,
was reduced to ashes by the French in 1538, and

in in 1554. For about one and a half centuries

uba was in constant danger from French, English,

Dutch, and West Indian filibusters. In 1762 the
English under Lord Albemarle (q.v.) took Havana,
which, however, was by the Treaty of Paris next
year restored to Spain. Hitherto the whole Spanish
trade with the colonies had been in the hands of a
single ajpfoes car company. During the ten months’
English occupation, Havana, open to free trade,
showed in its port, instead of ten to twelve ships
yearly as formerly, more than one thousand, and
agriculture made rapid progress. In 1818 Cuba

604 CUBANGO

CUCKOO

-was opened to the world’s trade, and soon reached
unexampled prosperity. The civil war in the United
States ruined its sugar industry and so benefited
Cuba; but the suppression of slavery by the Spanish
overnment (1880-86) without compensation created
iscontent not abated by the constitution of 1884.
A serious insurrection took shape in 1895. Absolute
freedom from Spanish rule was demanded, a Cuban
Republic was proclaimed, and soon a bloody guerilla
‘war was in progress. In their efforts to crush the
rebellion the Spanish government sent to Cuba up-
wards of 200,000 soldiers, of whom a very large pro-
portion died in hospital. The savage and destruc-
tive character of the war, and the cruelties believed
to have been shown by the Spaniards even towards
non-combatants, provoked very pronounced sym-
athy with the insurgents on the part of the
nited States, and American intervention was
repeatedly threatened. The destruction of an
American war-ship by an explosion in Havana
harbour embittered American feeling, and in April
1898 the United States and Spain were at war.
‘The harbour of Havana was blockaded; but the
centre of military operations was Santiago, where
there was sharp fighting. The total destruction of
the Spanish fleet in August ended the short war, and
the Spanish troops were deported from the island.
By the termsof the peace negotiationsat Paris(1898),
Spain relinquished her sovereignty in Cuba, which
thus became independent, though occupied in a mili-
tary way by the United States during the formation
-of a stable autonomous civil government.

See Gallenga, The Pearl of the Antilles (1873); other
‘books on Cuba by Hazard (New York, 1871) and Ballou
(Boston, 1885), Larrinaga (1881), Piron (Paris, new ed.
1889), R. H. Davis (1897 ), Richard Davey (1898), R. P.
‘Porter (1899) ; and works cited at WxsT INDIES.

Cubango, See NGAmt.

Cube, a solid bounded by six equal square
faces, opposite pairs of which are parallel; the
three edges meeting at any point being at right
angles to one another. his form frequently
occurs in nature, especially among crystals (see
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). In arithmetic, the cube of
a number is the product of its multiplication three
times by itself; if the edge of a cube be a line of
4 inches, its solid content is 64 cubic inches. The
cube root of a number is that number which, mul-
tiplied three times by itself, produces the first
pee. See INVOLUTION, Root, DOUBLING THE

UBE.

Cubebs, or CuBEB PEPPER, the dried berries
of Piper Cubeba, a climbing shrub, a native of
Sumatra, Java, and Southern Borneo. The fruits
of other species of Piper are sometimes substi-
tuted for the true cubeb. Although known to
the Arabs in the middle ages, eubebs fell gradu-
ally into disuse, till at the beginning of this
century all reference to it was omitted in medical
books, and its importation into Britain ceased
entirely. It is again, however, coming into use.
As a stomachic and carminative in indi estion it
has a certain value, while in piles and in sore
vhroats its administration is attended with benefit.

Cubebs contains a volatile oil, a crystalline sub-
stance called ewbebin, and resinous bodies, one of
which is cubebic acid. The cubebin is inactive,
while the volatile oil is not believed to have the
full virtue of the cubebs. It enters, however, into
the composition of a well-known voice lozenge, to
which it imparts highly stimulating properties.
‘The diuretic properties are held by some to be
entirely due to the resinous bodies, but on this
‘point there is difference of opinion. The dose of
powdered cubebs is from one to three drachms,
that of the volatile oil ten drops, and of the
sleoresin five to.thirty drops,

Cubic Equations. A cubic ecuation ina
given quantity is an equation in which the highest
exponent of that quantity in any term is 3.
Every such equation can be reduced to the form
x* + px + q = 0, where x is the variable and p and
gare constants. Every equation of this form has
three roots, all of which may be real, or one may
be real and two imaginary. An equation contain-
ing any number of variables in which the greatest
sum of the exponents of the variables in any term
is 3 is called a cubic equation. Thus a*y + 5y%
+6=0and wyz + 2 =0 are cubic equations in 2,
y, and x, y, z respectively, See EQUATIONS.

Cubit (Lat. cubitus, ‘fore-arm’), a Roman
measure of length, supposed to equal the length
of the fore-arm from the elbow to the tip of the
middle finger. It was 14 Roman feet (174 English
inches). he English cubit is 14 English feet.
The cubit of Scripture is generally estimated at
22 inches. wf

Cubitt, Str WILtIAM, engineer, born at Dil-
ham, in Norfolk, in 1785, was a miller, cabinet-
maker, and millwright until 1812, when he became
chief-engineer in Messrs Ransome’s works at I
wich, whens he was a partner from 1821 to 1826.
In 1823 he joined the Institution of Civil Engineers
and removing to London, was afterwards enga; ed
in most of the public undertakings of his day. The
improvement of the Severn and of Boulogne port,
the Bute docks at Cardiff, and the water-works for
Berlin-are among his works. He also invented
the treadmill, and constructed the South-Eastern
Railway ; and for his services in connection with
the erection of the Great Exhibition buildings he
was knighted in 1851. He died 13th October 1861.

Cucking-stool. See DUCKING-sTOOL.

Cuckoo (Cuculus), a well-known genus of birds
in the order Coccygomorphe, or, according to
others, Picarise, and type of a large family (Cucn-
lide). The common cuckoo (Cuctilus canorus) is a
widely distributed bird, breeding in summer in the
northern parts of Europe and Asia, and migrating
in winter to Africa, as far as the Cape, or to India.
It is best known for the ‘coo-coo’ ery with which
it announces iis arrival and that of spring, and for
its habit of utilising for its own family the nests
and the brooding of other birds. The cuckoo is
slightly over a foot in length ; the bill is as long as
the head, slender and slightly curved ; the wings
are long and pointed; the tail is also long and
rounded ; the upper part of the shank is feathered.

The upper surface is ashen gray, the belly and legs
are whitish with undulating transverse brown lines,
the tail is 2 eae with white above, and the root of
the bill and the feet are yellow. The young birds

CUCKOO

605

are blackish, and mottled with yellow and gray.
A reddish satiety occasionally occurs. The bird
ves in No Europe in April or May, and
| ves again in August or September. Its cheerful
eall ceases to be heard about the middle of June.
_ Predominantly an arboreal bird, it is rare in tree-
less districts. Each cuckoo seems penlonely to
f ve’ a certain territory for itself. Like the
4 Sie anecins of Cuculus, it is a shy, restless, un-
social bird. It is cori valuable on account
of its insatiable appetite for caterpillars. The
forms are especially delighted in, and the
tible hairs form a felt-like coating in the
stomach. The female lays its eggs singly (some-
times to the number of eight), each in the nest of
some suitable bird, choosing such as feed their own
young on insects—in order of preference, hedge-
sparrow, water-wagtail, titlark, yellow-hammer,
green linnet, and whin-chat. The young cuckoo,
unconsciously reared by its foster-parents, manages
to secure the bulk of the food-supply, and in the
struggle for existence completely monopolises . the
nest, ousting the rightful brood. Stories. of the
ungrateful young bird devouring its foster-parent
are entirely mythical. Nor has it been shown that
the adult ever sucks the eggs of other birds. The
males greatly outnumber the females. The latter
have somewhat darker feathers, and a somewhat
less emphatic note. The males are said to be very
passionate in their love-making, but there is no
regular pairing or continued attachment. The
musical interval between the cuckoo’s two notes is
not uniform, and varies from a minor to a major
third (the latter being that adopted in Beethoven’s
reproduction). See Nature, vol. xxxvi. p. 344.
’ he genus Cuculus includes about a score of
other species, restricted to the eastern hemisphere.
In the same family as the true cuckoos are several
oo pepe Pope The Honey-guide ( Indicator), of
Et iopian distribution, feeding chiefly on wild bees,
and directing attention to their nests ; the Golden
Cuckoo (Chrysocoeccyx); the Jay-cuckoo (Coc-
cystes), utilising the nests of crows and magpies ;
udynamis, of similar habit; Scythrops, a very large
form in Australia, New Guinea, and the Celebes ;
the swift ‘Road-runner’ or ‘Ground Cuckoo’
egaaeee ), of California; the grub-eating Ani-
ird (Crotophaga, q.v.); the Coucal or Spurred
Cuckoo (Centropus), with the claw of the inner toe
prolonged into a great spur. An East African
cuckoo (Tepe-tepe) is a delightful song-bird. The
‘American Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) is par-
ticularly interesting, since it makes but a very
rudimentary nest, has a very irregular way of lay-
ing, and exhibits an unnatural indifference to its
young. Its egg is occasionally found in the nest
of other birds. These facts, according to Bur-
roughs, raise the question whether the American
cuckoo ‘is slowly relapsing into the habit of the
European species, which always foists its egg upon
other birds; or whether, on the other hand, it be
not mending its manners in this respect.’

The parasitic habit of our common cuckoo
demands further attention, as one of the strangest
of bird habits. The facts, which are very hard to
explain, may be thus summarised : (1) The habit
of utilising the nests and brooding patience of
other birds is not common to the genus. It is also
the practice of an Australian species, and of some
related genera, and is occasionally exhibited by the
American representative. Professor Newton notes
that a few of our common birds, ‘whether by mis-
take or stupidity, not unfrequently lay their eggs
in the nests of others.’ In the genus Molothrus,
allied to starlings, and far separated from cuckoos,
the various species exhibit a gradual perfecting (if
We may use the term in such a connection) of the
parasitic habit. (2) The modus operandi of the

habit is usually as follows : The cuckoo selects the
nest of an insect-eating bird, much smaller than
herself, and often with eggs approximately like her
own. Into this, say of a hedge-sparrow, she lifts
her egg with her bill, having previously laid it upon
the ground, After an interval of two or three
days, she repeats the process in another nest. The
hedge-sparrow or other bird, all unaware apparently
of what has happened, sits on the cuckoo-egg along
with her own. The young cuckoo is generally
hatched first, and is restless and uneasy until it has
got rid of the other eggs or young birds. This it
oes with considerable exertion, and sometimes
with a real struggle, by lifting the living burden
upon its back and throwing it over the side of the
nest. Thereafter it remains sole though wrongful
r, and is reared in peace. (3) Among the
acts which make the habit a success, the following
should be noted. The relatively small size of the
cuckoo’s egg is pny. ‘The egg of the cuckoo
is not any larger than that of the skylark, although
an adult cuckoo is four times the size of an adult
skylark.’ This makes the duping of the small
birds easier, if, indeed, they have any suspicions.
The laying of the egg in a small bird’s nest makes
the ousting work of the young cuckoo an easier
task. In many cases, as already noted, the cuckoo’s
egg is coloured approximately like those of the
victimised foster-parent. Till the young cuckoo is
about twelve days old, when the disposition for
turning out its companions begins, according to
Jenner, to decline, its broad back has a curious
depression in the middle. The presence of this
a makes it easier for the restless and still
sightless nestling to bear up and toss over the eggs
or young birds which interfere with its desire for
sole pessession. (4) The eb pt to the young
bird, which earns by its exertions p ett | of growing-
room and an extra portion of food, is obvious
enough. The individual parent is also saved both
time and trouble, as well as all the patient sacrifice
of brooding. Jenner has pointed out that the
advantage to the species is porebly this, that by
leaving their eg to other birds to incubate, the
euckoos are able to have a numerous progeny
reared in the short period of their stay in northern
Europe. Or, to put it in another way, the para-
sitic habit enables the cuckoos to migrate earlier.
Hence Darwin believed the constant parasitic
habit of our cuckoo to have been derived from
its occasional occurrence (as in the American
form) through the action of natural selection.
Those euckoos which fell in with the trick suc-
ceeded better than their neighbours, till ually
only those survived in whom the trick had become
habitual.

It is interesting in this connection to note the
occasional reversion of a cuckoo to parental re-
sponsibilities. Mr Romanes has given a detailed

iscussion of the subject in his work on Animal
Intelligence, and also comes to the conclusion that
‘ we are justified in setting down the instinct to the
creating influence of natural selection.’ It ought
not, however, to be overlooked that all the cuckoos
are solitary, unsocial birds; that the American

nus is said to be immorally uninterested in the
ate of the young; that the species of Molothrus,
which has most completely developed the parasitic
habit, is extremely careless about the brood, and
often drops its eggs on the bare ground. The habit
may be regarded not so much as requiring special
explanation, as an expression of a general constitu-
tion or habit of life. Brehm describes the cuckoo
as a greedy, discontented, ill-conditioned, a.
ate, in short, decidedly unamiable bird. It seems
plausible, therefore, to suggest that one dominant
‘ physiological tendency’ or mood shows itself in
the restless selfishness of the nestling, in the

606 CUCKOO-FLOWER

CUD

jealous, solitary individualism of the adult, in the
preponderance of males, in the very note, in the
relatively small size of the egg, and in the parasitic
habit as the most striking outcrop.

The folklore of the cuckoo is almost inexhaust-
ible in every country of Europe. It has the gift of
prophecy as the herald of spring and of long life,
the prelude of storms, of prosperity, and of speedy
marriage to maidens. Countless superstitions, and
those of the most varied character, are connected
with its origin, the cause of its cry, its winter trans-
formation into a hawk, as well as with the first
hearing of its call, the hearer’s occupation at the
moment, and the direction from which it comes ;
while as many proverbs play upon the monotony of
its note, its supposed stupidity, and its obvious
connection with cuckoldom, from its habit of
depositing its offspring with alien parents. — It
has only been by a strange transference of meanin
that the name cocu or cuckold has been transferre
from the paramour to the unsuspicious husband,
unless cuckold means, as explained by Littré, one
who has been cuckoo-ed or treated after the manner
of the cuckoo. The earliest English song extant
(13th century) is an expression of the joyousness
of the first cuckoo-call.

For details of Cuckoo folklore, see Mannhardt in the
Zeitschrift fiir Deutsche Mythologie, vol. iii. pp. 209-
298 ; James Hardy’s ‘ Popular History of the Cuckoo,’ in
Part II. (1879) of The Folklore Record; and Swainson’s
Folklore of British Birds (1886),

Cuckoo-flower. See CREss,

Cuckoo-pint. See Arum.

Cuckoo Spit. See FRorTu-Fiy.

Cucumber (Cu'cumis), a genus of Cucurbit-
acee. The Common Cucumber (C. sativus), dis-
tinguislied by heart-shaped, acuminatel ent-
angular leaves, which are rough with hairs

Common Cucumber ( Cucumis sativus) :
a, fruit.

approaching to bristles, and oblong fruit, is a
native of the middle and south of Asia, and has
been cultivated from the earliest times. Its fruit
forms an important article of food in its native
regions, the south of Europe, &c., and an esteemed
delicacy in colder countries, where it is produced
by the aid of artificial heat. Many varieties are
in cultivation, with fruit from 4 inches to 2 feet
long, rough, smooth, &e. Young cucumbers are
much used for pickling, and are called gherkins ;
a small fruiting variety is selected for this purpose.
The cucumber is cultivated in fields even in the
south of England, for the supply of the London

market; but in all parts of Britain the plants
required for the purpose of growing either in the
open or under glass must be reared in a hotbed in
spring. In the northern parts it can only be suc-
cessfully cultivated in frames during summer. A
large trade is now done in winter crops of eueum-
bers, which are grown in well-heated, specially con-
structed glass-houses. In many parts of the United
States it will, if planted late enough to escape the
frosts, grow well with almost no care. ut it
requires rich soil, much moisture, and heat. To
this genus belong other species valued for their
edible or ornamental fruit, but all that are popu-
larly named cucumber are not properly Cucumis,
but merely species or varieties belonging to
allied genera. Dudaim (C. Dudaim) is a highly
fragrant, handsome fruit, with insipid flavour
and flaccid flesh, often grown in this country by
ardeners under the name, Queen Anne’s Pocket

elon, ee for its attractive appearance, the
fruit being about the size of an ordinary orange,
and beautifully barred with green and orange or
deep orange-red. (Dudaim is the Hebrew name
rendered Mandrake in Scripture.) Connemon is
the fruit of C. conomon, which is grown every-
where in Japan, and preserved ci sold as an
article of food. C. auguria, a West Indian species,
with fruit about the size and shape of a pullet’s
egg, is esteemed as an ingredient in soups, and is
also eaten raw, but considered inferior in that state
to the common cucumber. The Snake Cucumber
(C. flecuosus) has fruit of great length which is
eaten either pickled or raw, and has similar qualities
to the common cucumber. A number of species of
Cucurbitaceze are natives of the United States, but
they are all of small economic importance. For
other representatives of the natural order Cucur-
bitacez, see COLOCYNTH, ELATERIUM, MELON,
&c. See, too, May’s Cucumber Culture (1880).

Cucurbita’cez, an important order of corolli-
floral dicotyledons, of which the 500 species
are mostly herbaceous climbers, inhabiting the
warmer regions of the globe; only one, the Com-
mon Bryony (q.v.), reaching the south of England.
The young shoots and leaves of many species are
used as potherbs, and the persistent rhizomes or
roots of others are sometimes esteemed on account
of their store of starch. Acridity, however, is a
common characteristic of the order; and Bryony,
Elaterium, and especially Colocynth (q.v.), are of
old medicinal repute. But the central importance
of the order is due to the characteristic fruit, which
is technically known as a pepo, but which may be
regarded as a large and many-seeded berry, with
its more or less succulent pulp protected by a hard-
ened wall. The many specific and varietal forms
are known as Cucumbers, Melons, Gourds, Pump-
kins, Squashes, Vegetable-marrows, Bottle-gourds,
&c., and are described under separate articles,
The seeds of some species are medicinal, others
edible, while the fibro-vascular skeleton of the
fruit of an Egyptian species of Luffa (loofah) is
a familiar adjunct of the bathroom.

Cticuta, SAN José DE, a town in the Colom-
bian department of Santander, on the Rio Zulia, 35
miles §. of Puerto Villamizar by rail. It is the
third commercial town of the republic, a centre of
coffee and cacao cultivation. It was destroyed by
earthquake in 1875, but has been well rebuilt.
Pop. 13,000.—RosARIO DE CUcuTA, to the SE.,
was the seat of the first Colombian congress in
1821, and the birthplace of the patriot General
Santander (1792-1840). It has large plantations of
coffee and cacao. Pop. 6000.

Cud, the sodden bolus of hastily swallowed
fodder which ruminants drive from their paunch
and honeycomb stomach back again into the

a a ae

CUDBEAR

CUDWORTH 607

mouth, There the cud is leisurely chewed, and

the semifluid result passes down again into the
stomach, usually into the manyplies. One bolus

_isdriven upwards after another until the greater
part of the cropped herbage has been chewed. See

UMINANTS.

@Oudbear. The lichens from which, and the
by which, this dyestuff is obtained, are
describe aps the head Ae ga being
archi te dried and ground. It is very
Sentul. to Bi wriol-tiver for producing, in con-
junction with indigo, logwood, fustie, and other
colouring materials, ae shades of brown and
late. The preparation of archil, known as

‘French purple, was used for a short time in calico-

printing, and produced fine and delicate shades of
purple, but its employment for this purpose ceased
soon after the introduction of aniline mauve as a
dyestuff. The ancient Cretan purple was B teers 4
tained from the same source as archil. The name
eudbear is a corruption of Cuthbert, and is derived
from that of Dr Cuthbert Gordon, under whose
management the manufacture of this dyestuff was
begun in Leith about the year 1777, by Mr
Macintosh of Glasgow.

Cuddalore (Kidalir or Gudulir), the chief
town in South Areot, Madras, on the Coromandel
or east coast of Hindustan. It is situated on a
backwater formed by the confluent estuaries of
two rivers, 16 miles S. of Pondicherry, and 127
S. of Madras by rail. It has a large trade by
land with Madras in oils, indigo, an sugar, and
oh Fetes grain by sea. Though the river itself is
silted up, and admits only native craft, yet there is

anchorage off-shore at the distance of a mile
and a half. Cuddalore was at one time a place
of great strength; and in that respect it was
frequently an object of contention in the wars
which, during the later half of the 18th century,
so long desolated this neighbourhood. In 1758 it
was taken by the French from the British, who
had held it for 77 years; and was finally ceded to
the British in 1785. Pop. (1891) 47,355.

Cuddapah, a town in the province, and 161
miles NW. by rail of the city, of Madras. It stands,

at the height of 507 feet above the sea, near the

south bank of the northern Pennar, which flows
into the Bay of Bengal. Till 1868 it was a military
cantonment. Pop. (1891) 19,120.—The district of
Cuddapah, partly lowland and partly highland,
has an area of 8745 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of
1,272,072. It has been British since 1800.

Cuddesden, a village of Oxfordshire, 6 miles
ESE. of Oxford. Here is the np of the bishops
of Oxford, rebuilt by Bishop Fell in 1679, with a
chapel added in 1846 by Bishop Wilberforce, to
whom the adjoining theological college (1854) also
owes its existence. The church is a fine old cruci-
form building.

Cuddy was the name first applied in East India
trading ships to a cabin under the poop, where the
men me and slept. The same name was after-
wards given to the only cabin in very small vessels,
and sometimes to the cooking-room.

Cudweed, the popular name of many small
inconspicuous species of composite weeds of the
genera Gnaphalium, Filago, and Antennaria, the
stems and leaves of which are more or less covered
with a whitish cottony down. The heads of the
flowers consist, in ear part, of dry involucral
scales, and may be kept for a long time without
undergoing much apparent change, so that they
may reckoned among Lverlasting Flowers
(q.v.). Antennaria dioica (also called Cat’s-foot)
is very frequent in dry mountain-pastures. All the

genera are represented in the United States,

where Gnaphalium polycephalum has some repute
in domestic medicine.

Cudworth, Ravru, the chief figure in the
group of ‘Cambridge Platonists,’ was born in 1617
at Aller, in Somersetshire, and admitted pensioner
of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1632. He

uated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639, and was
in the same year elected fellow of his college,
where he became a popular tutor. In 1645 he was
appointed by parliament Master of Clare Hall, and
in the same year regius professor of Hebrew. In
1650 he was presented to the college living of
North Cadbury, in Somersetshire, and in 1654 was
elected Master of Christ’s College, an appointment
the confirmation of which at the Restoration his
uiescence with the rule of the Commonwealth
did not prevent. In 1662 he was presented b
Archbishop Sheldon to the rectory of Ashwell,
Hertfordshire ; and in 1678 he was installed pre-
bendary of Gloucester. He died at Christ’s College,
July 26, 1688. His danghter Damaris, who became
the second wife of Sir Francis Matcham of Oates, in
Essex, was a friend of Locke, and herself wrote a
well-reasoned Discourse concerning the Love of God
(1696).

Cudworth’s great work, entitled The True Intel-
lectual System of the Universe, was published in 1678.
It is a learned, ample, and discursive work, singu-
larly large-minded and sagacious; but its logical
consistency as a consecutive argument is somewhat
marred py discussions on such subjects as the true
meaning of the pagan mythology, and the relation
of the Platonic aa Christian trinities. Its aim was
to establish the reality of a supreme divine Intelli-

ence against the materialism of Democritus and

picurus, the ‘atheism of atomicism;’ to vindicate
the eternal reality of moral ideas against the old
nominalists and their suecessors ; and to prove the
reality of moral freedom and responsibility in man
as against pantheistic naturism and stoicism. The
only basis for a philosophy of religion rests on the
conception of man as a free moral subject, capable
of choosing good or evil. The portentous erndition
of this famous treatise, and the redundant fullness
of its endless digressions, with its strange Alex-
andrian amalgamation of fancy and speculation,
have tended to obscure its real merits. Perhaps
its most honourable distinction is the marvel-
lously honest and impartial statement of the
best arguments of his antagonists, which, indeed,
laid him open to the charge of having fallen into
the same heresy with Milton and with Clarke,
and even into atheism, simply for being = to
the arguments of atheistic writers. ‘He has
raised,’ says Dryden, ‘such strong objections
against the being of a God and Providence that
many think he has not answered them ’—‘ the
common fate,’ adds Shaftesbury, ‘of those who
dare to appear fair authors.’

Cudworth’s admirable sermon, preached before
the House of Commons in 1647, shows the best
features of that much-abused Latitudinarian school
to which he belonged, and, says Mackintosh, ‘ may
be compared even to Taylor ( Liberty of Prophesy-
ing, published the same year) in charity, piety,
and the most liberal toleration.’ In its insistence
upon the co-ordinate relativity of all knowledge,
and the connection of religion with life and
morality, the author lays down a sound basis for
a harmony between philosophy and religion, be-
tween reason and faith. any of Cudworth’s
MSS. still lie unprinted. His Treatise concerning
Eternal and Immutable Morality was published
in 1731, and is a contribution of real value to ethics.
See Tulloch’s Rational Theology in England in
the X VII. Century (1872), Dr Martineau’s Types of
Ethical Theory (1885), and monographs by Lowrey
(New York, 1884) and W. R. Scott {1891 F

608 CUENCA

CULDEES

Cuenca, a picturesque decayed city of Spain,
85 miles ESE. of Madrid. It stands on a rocky
hill-girt eminence, 2960 feet above the sea-level,
at the confluence of the Jucar and Huecar—the
latter spanned by the noble bridge of San Pablo
(1523), 150 feet high and 350 long. Of Moorish
origin, Cuenca has narrow, crooked streets, and a
very interesting cathedral (1177-1669). Pop. 7549.
—Cuenea gives name to a mountainous, \well-
watered province, yielding excellent timber, honey,
wine, and grain, with good pasture, and various
minerals, including iron, coal, copper, and silver.
Area, 6726 miles. Pop. 242,460.

Cuenca, a city of Ecuador, on the Rio Paute,
190 miles SSW. of Quito, stands on a fertile table-
land, 8469 feet above the sea, and enjoys a per-

etual spring, with a mean temperature of 58° F.
ts streets are wide, and several canals intersect
the town ; the principal buildings are the cathedral
and high a here is some trade in cheese
and grain, and manufactures of hats, woollens,
earthenware, and candied fruits. Pop. (including
the Ejido, or Indian quarter ) 30,000.

Cuernavaca, capital of the Mexican state
Morelos, lies in a lovely and fruitful valley, about
40 miles S. of Mexico city. It has a church built
by Cortes, an agricultural school, and refineries of
sugar and brandy. Pop. 17,000. Near by is the
famed teocallé of Xochicalco, with five terraces.

Cuevas de Vera, a town in the Spanish
rovince of Almeria, situated on the Almanzora.
t has an old Moorish castle, and a considerable

industry in connection with the silver-mines of the
neighbouring Sierra Almagrera. Pop. 20,644.

Cufie. See KuFIc.

Cui Bono? (‘for whose advantage ?’), a Latin
phrase not infrequent in Cicero and elsewhere, and
very common in modern newspaper English, usually
in a somewhat erroneous sense, as if equivalent in
meaning to ‘ what’s the good ?’

Cuirass. See BREASTPLATE, ARMOUR.

Cuirassiers are heavy cavalry wearing the
‘cuirass’ and helmet. They represent the troopers
of the 16th and 17th centuries, who were similarly
protected. In the British army no regiments are
officially styled cuirassiers, but the two regiments
of Life Guards and the Royal Horse Guards were
given steel cuirasses in 1821, which, however, they
do not wear on active service. The price of one
is £3, 6s. See GuARDS. There are twelve cuir-
assier regiments in the German army, the cuirass
being of white metal with a brass plate. The
French have also twelve regiments of cuirassiers,
having steel cuirasses with a brass plate. Russia
has four regiments of cuirassiers, whose cuirass
of iron, with a thin layer of copper, weighs 30
lb. From 133 to 16 lb. is the weight of those of
other armies. Napoleon III. at one time main-
tained a bodyguard of cuirassiers, called ‘Cent-
gardes,’ who wore ecuirasses of aluminium, much
lighter than steel ones, but, like them, not proof
against a rifle-bullet striking them directly.

Cujacius, properly JAcQUES DE CUJAS or
CUJAUS, jurist, born in 1522, was the son of a
tanner of Toulouse. After studying law, he lec-
tured on the Institutes at Cahors, Bourges, and
Valence (1554-67); lived at Turin and Grenoble;
and after repeated changes, finally settled in 1577
as professor at Bourges, where he resided till his
death, October 4, 1590. His great reputation as a
ty was founded on a lucid exposition of Roman
aw, based on conscientious study of the original
authorities. He had in his library 500 MSS. on
Roman law, and by his emendations contributed
greatly to remove the obscurities of jurisprudence.

complete collection of his works was edited by

Fabrot (10 vols. Paris, 1658), and frequently re-
published. See Spangenberg’s Cujacius (1822),

Culbin Sands. See Drirt.

Culdees, or KELDEEs (Celt. Ceile De, ‘a com-

anion of God;’ Lat. Colidei, Culdei, Calledei,

eldei, Keledei), the name given to an ancient
order of ecclesiastics with monasteries in Scotland
and Ireland, those in the former country being
best known. In England and Wales only two
instances of their occurrence seem to be authenti-
cated—the first, where the canons of St Peter’s at
York were called Culdees in the reign of Athel-
stan (924-31), and the second, where Giraldus
Cambrensis, writing about 1190, describes the
island of Bordsey on the coast of Carnarvon as
inhabited by ‘most devout monks called celibates
or Culdees.’

The origin and early history of these bodies is
involved in almost hopeless obscurity. The name.
is not mentioned in the works of Adamnan, Eddi,
or Bede, and makes its first appearance only about
the 8th century. The conclusion at which Dr
Skene arrives is ‘that the Culdees originally
sprang from that ascetic order who adopted a
solitary service of God in an isolated cell as the
highest form of religious life, and who were termed
Deicole ; that they then became associated in
communities of anchorites or hermits; that they
were clerics, and might be called monks, but only
in the sense that anchorites were monks; that
they made their appearance in the eastern districts
of Scotland at the same time as the secular clergy
were introduced, and succeeded the Columban
monks, who had been driven across the great
mountain-range of Drumalban, the western fron-
tier of the Pictish kingdom; and that they were
finally brought under the canonical rule along
with the secular clergy.’

When the Culdees appear clearly in history in
the 12th century each monastery was evidently an
independent community, connected with the others
by no ties whatever, and owning no control except
that of its own abbot, in this and other respects
resembling the secular canons or monastic ‘families”
of England, Ireland, and the Continent in the 11th
century. The monasteries seem indeed to have’
undergone a similar secularising process to that
which took place in the Northumbrian Church
after the withdrawal of the Columban clergy,
when, according to Bede, false monks, under pre-
text of founding monasteries, purchased for them-
selves territories, and caused ‘these to be assigned ~
to them by royal edicts for an hereditary posses-
sion.’ There seem to have been at this period two
sections in each community, one still performing
divine service+and other religious duties per-
taining properly to the body; while the other had
become thoroughly lay, and so free from monastic
discipline as to marry. Indeed, if a tradition of
the 16th century can be received as authority for
what passed in the 12th, the Culdees of Dunkeld
were all married ; but, like the priests of the Greek
Church, lived apart from their wives during their
period of service at the altar.

According to the records of the see of St Andrews,
the state of the Culdee monastery there (and it
may probably be taken as typical of all the rest)
was in the middle of the 12th century far from satis-
factory. They tell that there were thirteen Cul-
dees holding their oftice by hereditary tenure, and
living rather according to their own pleasure and
the traditions of men, than after the rules of
the holy fathers; that some few things of little
importance they possessed in common; that the
rest, including what was of most value, they held
as their private property, each enjoying what he
pot from relatives and kinsmen, or from the benevo-
ence granted on the tenure of pure friendship, or |

CULDEES

CULLEN 609

otherivise ; that after they became Culdees they
were forbidden to have their wives in their houses,
or any other women of whom evil suspicion could

} arise; that the altar of St Andrew was left without

L

"|

J

a minister, nor was mass celebrated there except on
the rare occasion of a visit from the king or the
bishop, for the Culdees said their own oftice after
their own way in a corner of the church. The first
attempt to reform this state of matters was made
by Queen Margaret, and her efforts were followed
up by her sons, Alexander I. and David I.; so that
from the time of the appointment of Turgot to the
see of St Andrews, when we are told that ‘the
whole rights of the Keledei over the kingdom of
Scotland passed to the bishopric of St Andrews,’
the history of the Culdees is simply that of a vain

resistance to foes backed by all the weight of the

f tradition could be trusted, the first appearance
Culdees in Scotland was later than in Ireland,
and should be placed about the middle of the 9th
century. A leaf of the Register of St Andrews,
written about 1130, relates that Brude, the son of
Dergard, the last king of the Picts (who ceased to
reign about 843), gave the island, since called St
Serf’s Inch, in Lochleven, to God, St Servan, and
the Culdee hermits serving God there. They were
heme by an abbot; and about the year 1093,
uring the rule of Abbot Ronan, they gave up their
island to the Bishop of St Andrews on condition
that he should find them in food and raiment. On
this island they remained in peace, receiving grants
of lands or immunities from all the kings of the
Scots from the time of Macbeth till that of David L. ;
but in 1144, Robert, Bishop of St Andrews, gave
their island, and all their posmaenions, including
their church vestments and their books (a complete
list of which is given in the charter), to the newly-
founded Canons Regular of St Andrews, in order
that a priory of that rule might supplant the old
abbey of Culdees on St Serf’s Inch. The bishop’s
aaa was enforced by a charter from King David,
which it was ordered that such of the Culdees as
chose to live canonically and peacefully under the
new canons should remain in the island. We hear
no more of the Culdee hermits of Lochleven.

The Culdees of St Andrews were of more import-
ance than those of Lochleven, and when the Canons
Regular were established there, the members of the
older body were treated much more considerately
than their unfortunate brethren of St Serf’s Inch,
those who refused to become Canons Regular being
allowed to retain a liferent of their revenues. Not
only was this so, but they had sufficient influence
to manage to remain a distinct community down to
the early part of the 14th century, and were even
able to assert their right to take part in the election
of the bishop till 1273. In that year they were
excluded under protest, and in 1332 they were
excluded entirely, and thereafter the name seems
to have disappeared.

The Culdees of the church of St M
musk, in Aberdeenshire, appear to have been
settled by the Bishop of St Andrews towards the
end of the 11th cg! In the beginning of the
13th century they are found making a claim to be
regarded as Canons Regular, which was, after an
appeal to Rome, settled by a compromise.

uldees are found at Abernethy, in Strathearn,
about 1120. In the end of that century part of
their possessions passed to their hereditary lay-
abbot (the founder of the noble family of Aber-
nethy), and in 1273 they were transformed into
Canons Regular. After a similar division at Brechin,
the prior and his Culdees were absorbed into the
chapter of the new bishopric, founded by Kin
David I. about 1145, and in less than a hund
years be name of Culdee disappears. The same

“7 power.
of

at Mony-

silent change of Culdees into secular canons took
eee during the 13th century at Dunblane, at
unkeld, at Lismore, at Rosemarky, and at Dor-
noch. At Dunkeld, as at Brechin and at Aber-
nethy, great part of the Culdee revenues was held
by a lay-abbot, whose office was of such mark as to
be hereditary in the royal family. The father or
‘ the ious Duncan,’ and the son of St Margaret,
were Culdee abbots. Culdees are found holding
land at Monifieth, near Dundee, about 1200; at
Muthil, in Strathearn, in the beginning of the 13th
century ; and at Iona in the middle of the 12th.

The Culdees of Armagh, dissolved at the Refor-
mation in 1541, were resuscitated for a brief space
in 1627. Their old possessions—among which were
seven town-lands, containing 1423 acres, seven
rectories and four vicarages, were in 1634 bestowed
upon the vicars-choral of the cathedral. There
were at least seven other houses of Culdees in Ire-
land—viz., at Clonmacnois, Clondalkin, Devenish,
Clonés, Popull, Monanincha, and Sligo.

Such is a concise recapitulation of all that is cer-
tainly known of the Culdees. Before their history
was ascertained, opinions were held regarding them
which now find few if any supporters among archz-
ologists. It was believed that they were our first
teachers of Christianity ; that they came from the
East before corruption had yet overspread the
church; that they took the Seriptures for their
sole rule of faith; that they lived under a form
of church-government approaching to Presbyterian
parity ; that they elected prelacy, transubstantia-
tion, the invocation of saints, the veneration of
relics, image woe, and the celibacy of the
clergy ; and that they kept their simple worship
and pure doctrines undefiled to the last, and were
suppressed only by force and fraud, when the Roman
Catholic Church triumphed over their older and
better creed. For all this it is now clearly seen that
there is no foundation. There is no reason to sup-
pose that the Culdees differed in any material point
of faith, discipline, or ritual from the other clergy
of the British Islands and Western Christendom.

See Reeves, in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy for 1860, and his Culdees of the British Islands
(1864); and Skene’s Celtic Scot/and, vol. ii., whose views
have tound acceptance both with Catholics and Presby-
terians. The opinions formerly held regarding the
Scottish Culdees (controverted by Pinkerton and
Chalmers) will be found in Selden’s preface to the
Decem Historie Anglicane Scriptores, and Jameson’s
Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees (1811).

Culenborg, or KvILENBURG, a town of
Holland, 11 miles SSE. of Utrecht, on the left
bank of the Lek, which is crossed here by a rail-
way viaduct 1420 yards long. Pop. 6798.

Culiacan’, an ancient city of Mexico, on the
Rio de Culiacan, 30 miles from the W. coast, and
100 SE. of Sinaloa. Pop. 7878.

Culilawan Bark, also called CLovE BARK,
an aromatic bark, the product of the Cinnamomum
Culilawan, a tree of the same genus with the
Cinnamon (q.v.) tree, growing in the Molucca
Islands. It an odour resembling that of nut-
meg ani cloves, and was formerly sapere to
some extent for cases of indigestion, diarrhoea, Xe.

Cullen, a fishing-town of Banffshire, on the
Moray Firth, 67 miles NW. of Aberdeen 4 rail-
way (1885). Backed by the conical Bin Hill (1050
feet), it has a harbour formed in 1817-34, and a
cruciform parish church, which was founded by
Robert Bruce, whose second queen died here, and
which in 1543 was made collegiate. Cullen House,
a seat of the Earl of Seafield, is a Scottish
baronial pile, enlarged and remodelled in 1861.
Cullen has been a royal burgh since about 1200,
and unites with Elgin and five other places to

610 CULLEN

CULM

return one member to parliament. Pop. (1841)

1423 ; (1881) 2033 ; (1891) 2100.

Cullen, PAUL, a great Irish churchman, was
born near Ballitore, in County Kildare, April 27,
1803. After a brilliant course in the Collegio
Urbano of the Propaganda at Rome, he was
ordained priest in 1829, and filled in succession
the offices of vice-rector and rector of the Irish
College in Rome, and rector of the Propaganda
College. During the period of Mazzini’s power in
Rome in 1848, Cullen astutely saved the property
of his college by placing it under American pro-
tection. At the close of 1849 the three names
sent up to the pope having been passed over,
Cullen unexpectedly found himself nominated to
the archbishopric of Armagh and primacy of Ire-
land. He was consecrated early in the following
year, and at once commenced a vigorous and un-
compromisingly ultramontane reign of eight-and-
twenty years, in which he established lasting
memorials to his memory in new churches, schools,
convents, and hospitals, such as the Mater Miseri-
cordie. He denounced mixed education in every
form, and from the outset opposed all revolutionary
and anti-constitutional opposition to the crown.
His vigorous denunciations of Fenianism made him
many enemies among the more hot-headed Irish-
men, but greatly increased the respect of English
Protestants for a church that would make no
terms with crime, even when committed by its
own children. At the Synod of Thurles in 1851,
principally by Cullen’s persuasion, the establish-
ment of a Catholic university in Ireland was re-
commended. Translated to Dublin in 1852, he
was created a cardinal priest in 1866, the first
Irishman who had reached that elevated rank.
One of the majority at the Vatican Council, he
long enjoyed the familiar friendship of Pope Pius
IX. He died at Dublin soon after his return from
a journey to Rome, October 24, 1878.

Cullen, Wi.1Am, M.D., physician, was born
at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on 15th April 1710, his
father being factor to the Duke of Hamilton.
After learning his profession, first as apprentice to
a surgeon-apothecary in Glasgow, next as surgeon
on board a West Indian trading ship, and then as
assistant to an apothecary in London, he returned
to Scotland in 1731, and commenced practice in his
native county. Feeling the necessity of more
systematic study, he spent two winters at Edin-
burgh University under Munro primus, and then
removed to Hamilton, where he soon secured a
z0od practice. One of his articled pupils was

illiam Hunter (q.v.), to whom he became ex-
tremely attached ; and it was agreed that one of
them should be alternately allowed to study during
the winter, while the other carried on the practice.
Cullen spent the first winter at Edinburgh, and it
is at this time that he appears to have taken an
important part in founding what is now known as
the Royal Medical Society. It being Hunter’s
turn next year he went to London, and having
attracted attention there, did not return, Cullen
generously cancelling the articles. In 1740 Cullen
graduated M.D. at Glasgow University, gave up
surgical work, and soon after established himself
in Glasgow as a physician. At that time there
was not in Glasgow any regular course of medical
study, and Cullen occupied himself much in the
foundation of a medical school, himself lecturing
on various subjects. One of his pupils was the
famous Dr Joseph Black (q.v.). dy en’s labours
resulted in his appointment to the chair of Medi-
cine in the university, which he occupied four
years. In 1755 he was persuaded to leave Glasgow
for Edinburgh, and for the next thirty-five years
was one of the mainstays of the Edinburgh medical

school. During this long period he occupied suc-

| cessively the chairs of Chemistry, Institutes of

Medicine, and Medicine, besides teaching clinically
in the Royal Infirmary all the time.

Living as he did in what might be termed the
renaissance period of the history of medicine, Cullen
was essentially a man of his time, and did much
to advance the science. For many centuries all
disease had been referred to disorders of the fluids
of the body. Just before Cullen’s time, Boerhaave
had added to this a pathology of the ‘fibres’ still
strongly tinctured with the old fluid or humoral
patholey: To Cullen is largely due the recogni-
tion of the important part played by the nervous
system both in health and disease. He denied the
theory supported even by Boe:haave, that the
brain was an excretory organ and the nervous
influence a fluid. Many of his speculations as to
reflex nervous action, the possible presence in a
single nerve of both sensory and motor fibres, and
the connection of sensory and motor nerves with
the anterior and posterior nerve roots, have now
been proved to be facts. He had a singularly open
and candid mind, and while himself introducing
the use of several new drugs, as oxide of antimony
and tartar emetic, was careful to distinguish be-
tween the action of drugs and the curative opera-
tions of nature. It may be said of him in his own
words when speaking of Sydenham, ‘that he rather
sought for theory to connect his facts, than for
facts to support his theory.’

In the later years of his life arose the contro-
versy on the Brunonian system (see BROWN, JOHN,
M.D.), which system Cullen bitterly opposed.
Brown’s specious division of diseases into sthenic
and asthenic was obviously a deduction from
Cullen’s theories of nerve influence, and was only
one instance out of many where a reputation was
built on ideas borrowed from Cullen.

Cullen died on 5th February 1790 at his small
estate of Ormiston Hill, having nearly completed
his seventy-ninth year, and having been activel
engaged in teaching and consulting practice till
within a few months of his death. Cullen’s most
important works are First Lines of the Practice of
Physic (Edin. 1777), Synopsis Nosologia Methodice
(1785), Institutions of Medicine (1777), A Treatise
on the Materia Medica (1789). See Biography,
vol. i, by Dr John Thomson (1832), vol. ii. by Cullen’s
son and Dr David Craigie (1859), also an article by
Sir W. Hamilton in the Edinburgh Review (1831).

Cullera, a town and port of Spain, near the
mouth of the Jucar, 25 miles SSE. of Valencia. It
exports rice, pistachio-nuts, oranges, wine, and oil.
Pop. 11,050.

Cullod’en, or DRUMMossIE MUIR, a broad flat
sandstone ridge, 300 to 500 feet high, 6 miles ENE.
of Inverness. Planting and culture have changed
its aspect much since 16th April 1746, when it was
the scene of the total rout of 5000 Highlanders
under Prince Charles Edward by 12,000 regulars
under the Duke of Cumberland. Since 1881, a
cairn, 20 feet in height, with an inscription, marks
the spot where the battle was fiercest, and where
many of the slain lie buried. Within 2 miles
stands Culloden House, the seat of Duncan Forbes
and his descendants.

Culm, a kind of impure Anthracite (q.v.). In
some districts the culm obtained from the pits in
a broken and erumbling condition is used as fuel,
being made up into balls, with one-third of its
bulk of wet viscid clay. It burns without flame,

roducing a strong and steady heat, well adapted
or cooking (see BRIQUETTE). The term Culm-
measures is applied to the carboniferons strata of
Devonshire, on account of the workings for culm
near Bideford, and other places.

ee ES

CULM CULTIVATED PLANTS 611
Culm, the peculiar cylindrical hollow and jointed | other towns to return one member to parliament.
stem of Grasses (q.v.). Pop. 373. See Beveridge’s Culross and Tulliallan

Culmination, an astronomical term, er
ing the passage of a star across the meridian, The
star is then at the highest eee (culmen) of its
course; hence the name. The sun culminates at
mid-day, or twelve o'clock, apparent solar time—
which seldom agrees exactly with mean time, as
shown by a watch or clock. The full moon culmin-
ates at midnight.

@©ulna. See KALNA.

OGulpa simply means fault (generally the omis-
sion of some act) which leads to legal liability for
the immediate consequences. It may arise under
a contract, especially where many of the obligations
of the parties are left to apleae oe in the
contract of carri of passengers; or from the
mere relative position of parties, as where a mem-
ber of the public, or a neighbour, is injured by the
mepeeent use of property. The distinction between
culpa and breach of contract, while theoretically
clear, is pRwasty difficult ; and accordingly the
— of a jury is constantly required to ascertain
whether fault has been committed in the execution
of a contract.

Culpable Homicide.
MURDER.

Culpeper, Joun. See CoLEPEPER.

Culpeper, NicHo.as, was born in London in
1616, and after studies at Cambridge and elsewhere,
started in 1640 to practise astrology and physic in
Spitalfields. In 1649 he published an English
translation of the College of Physicians’ Pharma-
copeia under the title A Physical Directory, or a
Translation of the London Dispensatory, renamed
in 1654 as Pharmacopeia Londinensis, or the
London Dispensatory. This infringement upon a
close monopoly, together with his sturdy and uncom-
promising support of Puritanism and the _parlia-
ment, iy aa Culpeper many enemies and much
obloquy. In 1653 he published The English Physi-
cian Enlarged. Both books had an enormous sale,
and both are included in Dr Gordon’s collective
edition of his Works (4 vols. 1802). Culpeper
wrote numerous other books, many of which were
left unprinted, and died worn out before his time,
10th January 1654.

Oulpeper, Srr THOMAS, was born of good
Kentish family in 1578. He studied at Hart fall,

See HomIcipE, and

‘Oxford, and at one of the Inns of Court, next

bought Leeds Castle in Kent, where, or at Green-
way Court, near Hollingbourn, he mostly lived
till his death, which took place in 1662. He
was knighted by James I. in 1619. His Tract
against the high rate of Usurie, published in 1621,
contended for the reduction of interest to six per
eent.—His third son, SiR THOMAS CULPEPER, born
in 1626, made his studies at University College,
Oxford, and after making the grand tour, and
a 2 knighted soon after the Restoration, retired
to his estate of Greenway Court, where he
died in 1697. Besides editing and prefacing his
father’s treatise on exorbitant usury in 1668, he
himself published many pamphlets on the same
subject, repesting his father’s arguments. He
wrote also Lssayes or Moral Discourses on several
Subjects (1655 and 1671).

- Culress, an old-world village of Fife ( till 1890 in
a detached portion of Perthshire), on the north shore
of the Firth of Forth, 7 miles W. by S. of Dunferm-
line. With memories of St Serf and St Kentigern,
James VL, and the Elgin and Dundonald families,
it has remains of a Cistercian abbey (1217), but
has lost its manufacture of ‘girdles,’ its salt-
works, shipping, and submarine coal-mines. A royal
burgh since 1588, it unites with Stirling and three

(1885).

Cultivated Plants. That the history of
material progress is directly connected with and
measured by man’s increasing utilisation of the
vegetable and animal, no less than of the mineral
world, is an idea of common experience, which the
researches of archwologists in all parts of the
world have amply confirmed. The whole subject
forms, indeed, one of the most fascinating aspects
of the history of civilisation. Primitive man,
acquiring his acquaintance with useful plants
by slow and often bitter individual experience at
the very margin of subsistence, offers a striking
contrast with the experimental organiser of new
and in every sense remotely productive cultures
like that of the cinchona-tree in the Himalayas,
—a contrast which spans the whole range alike of
the practical resources and the scientific culture
of the human race.

Without speculation as to the precise steps by
which man from the hunting or merely
pastoral to the agricultural state, we find positive
evidence of the existence of agriculture long be-
fore written records. Thus, though the ‘kitchen-
middens’ of northern countries contain no trace
of cultivated plants, the deposits of Swiss lake-
dwellings have yielded remains of fruits, of cereal
and other seeds, and of linen fabrics, showing the
existence of a considerable iculture before the
use of metals. Ancient traditions and ceremonials
of China also bear witness to the remoteness of
cultivation there. The earliest Egyptian picture-
writings and the greater number of cultivated
species have arisen in that central cradle of civili-
sation which may be broadly marked off by draw-
ing lines from the delta of the Nile to the head of
the Persian Gulf, and from the Dardanelles to the
Caspian—i.e. between 30° and 40° lat. From this
region the majority of European plants are derived.
Another great centre of ancient agriculture, how-
ever, is China; while the third is intertropical
America, where the ancient Mexicans and Peru-
vians practised the culture of not a few plants,
of which some have become almost cosmopolitan
since the epoch-making voyage of Columbus.

Since the rise of modern botany (see BOTANY),
our knowledge of species at least possibly useful
has been greatly extended, yet there seems little
risk of displacement of the established cereals,
fruit-trees, &c., since these have the advantage of
an enormous past of artificial selection, which has
in many cases practically transformed them into
new species, apparently distinct from their wild
congeners, and incapable of continued existence
in the uncultiva state—e.g. wheat, barley,
maize, pea, sugar-cane, yam, Xc., and probab
also n, tobacco, manioc, &c. Moreover, suc
long cultivated plants usually exhibit ter
variability than naturally wild species, and thus
in every way new cultures tend to be unremunera-
tive. Hence the majority of species of primary
nutritive importance to man at present are among
those which have been in cultivation for the past
2000 years; and the progress which is now being
made is essentially on lines which merely supple-
ment these; the newer plants, cultivated for las
than 2000 years, being, according to De Candolle,
chiefly artificial fodders, which the ancients
searcely knew; then bulbs, vegetables, medicinal
plants (cinchona); plants with edible fruits or
nutritious seeds (buckwheat), or aromatic seeds
(coffee). Here, of course, the demand for varia-
tions in food and drink, for narcotics and medi-
cines, for textiles and timber, all combine towards
progres in most of these the demand is at

ttom more largely esthetic than utilitarian,

612 CULTIVATOR

CUMBERLAND

while this becomes exclusive in the newest but
extending department of flower gardening.

See the articles AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, FRUIT,
PasTuRE, PLANTS (MEDICINAL), &c. ; those on special

lants—e.g. Barutey, Coca, Date, Maize, &c.; also

e Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants (Inter. Sc.
Series, 1884); and Hehn’s Wanderings of tlants and
Animals (1886).

Cultivator, a farm implement. See GRUBBER.

Culverin, one of the earlier forms of Cannon
(q.v.), of great length, generally an Be ROGUE,
weighing 50 cwt.; the demi-culverin being a
9-pounder, weighing 30 cwt.

Culver’s Root, the rhizome of Veronica
virginica, used medicinally as radix leptandre of
U.S. Pharmacopeeia.

Culvert is the name given to a1 arched channel
of masonry for the conveyance of water under-
ground or beneath an embankment.

Culverwel, NATHANAEL, one of the Cam-
bridge Platonists, was born in Middlesex, and
entered Emmanuel College in 1633. He graduated
B.A. in 1636, M.A. in 1640, was elected fellow in
1642, and died not later than 1651. In 1652 was
published An Elegant and Learned Discourse of the
Light of Nature, with several other treatises—viz.
the Schism, the Act of Oblivion, the Child’s Return,
the Panting Soul, Mount Ebal, the White Stone ;
Spiritual Optics; and the Worth of Souls. An
edition of the Light of Nature was issued in 1857,
edited by Dr John Brown of Edinburgh, with a
critical essay by Principal Cairns. It is a treatise
of great power and learning, written in a vivid and
vigorous style, and is a work not unworthy of the
college that produced Cudworth, Whichcote, and
John Smith. See Tulloch’s Rational Theology,
vol. ii. (1874), pp. 410-26.

Cumze, an ancient city on the coast of Cam-
pania, founded conjointly by colonists from Chalcis
in Eubcea, and from the Molian town of Cyme in
Asia Minor. The date of its foundation is un-
certain, but according to Strabo it was the earliest
of all the Greek settlements either in Italy or
Sicily. It soon attained to wealth and power,
built several harbours or port-towns of its own,
kept a tolerably large fleet, extended its influence
over the native tribes of the neighbouring terri-
tories, planted colonies in Italy and Sicily, at
Puteoli, Neapolis, and Zancle (Messina). Spite
of attacks from the Etruscans and Umbrians with-
out, and dissensions within, for the two hundred
years before 500 B.C. it was the most important
and civilised city in Southern Italy. In 474 its
ally, Hieron, king of Syracuse, defeated the com-
bined fleets of the Etruscans and Carthaginians,
who had attacked it by sea. Cume at length lost
its independence (417 B.C.) when it was conquered
by the Samnites, who killed or enslaved most
of the citizens. It ultimately became a Roman
municipium and colony, but continued to decline.
It re-assumed a momentary importance during the
wars of Belisarius and Narses. Its strong fortress,
garrisoned by the Goths, was the last place in Italy
that held out against the Byzantine army. Few
remains of the ancient city exist.—Cume is famous
as the residence of the Sibyl (q.v.), whose cave was
identified with one of the many subterranean

assages in the rock on which the citadel stood.

ost of these are now choked up.

Cumana, a town of the Venezuelan state of
Bermudez, on the Manzanares, a mile above its
mouth, where the port of Puerto Sucre lies on the
Gulf of Cariaco. It has a national college, and
some export trade, but is chiefly of interest as
the oldest European town on the South American
mainland, having been founded by Christopher
Columbus’s son Diego as New Toledo in 1521. It

has suffered much from earthquakes, and was
almost entirely destroyed in 1853. Population about
10,000.

Cumania is the name of a region in Central
Hungary divided into Great Cumania, east of the
Theiss, and Little Cumania, vetween the Danube
and the Theiss, now incorporated in the adjoining
Hungarian provinces. The inhabitants, the Cumans,
are the descendants of a race of nomad invaders of
the Turkish stock, who forced their way into Hun-
gary from pene the Volga in the llth century.
They long held their own in alternate alliance and
war with the surrounding states. They maintained
their heathenism and their barbarous customs, till
in 1278 a crusade was proclaimed against them by
Pope Nicholas IV., and they were compelled to
accept Christianity and adopt the ways of their
Magyar neighbours. They are now wholly
Magyarised.

Cumberland, a Border county of England,
washed on the W. by the Irish Sea and the Solway
Firth, and elsewhere bounded by Dumfries and
Roxburgh shires, Northumberland, Durham, West-
moreland, and Lancashire. Eleventh in size of the
English counties, it has a maximum length of 75
miles, a maximum breadth of 45, a coast-line of 75,
and an area of 1564 sq.m. The surface is moun-
tainous in the south-west and east; the middle
consists of hills, valleys, and elevated ridges ; and
the north and north-west districts, including the
vale of Carlisle, are low, flat, or gently undulated,
The mountains in the south-west are high, rugged,
and sterile, with deep and narrow valleys, lakes,
rivers, waterfalls, and woodlands. The chief moun-
tains are Scaw Fell Pike (3210 feet), Scaw Fell
(3162), Helvellyn (3118), Skiddaw (3058), Bow Fell
(2960), and Cross Fell (2892). The largest lakes
are Ullswater, Derwentwater, Bassenthwaite, Thirl-
mere, Buttermere, Wastwater, and Ennerdale.
Six of the chief waterfalls are 60 to 156 feet high.
The chief rivers are the Eden, the Esk, and the
Derwent. The Lancaster and. Carlisle railway
route from London to Edinburgh crosses the
north-east part of Cumberland.

The Lake district, or nearly the south-west half
of Cumberland, consists of Silurian slates, with

rotrusions of granite and trap rocks, and with New
Red sandstone along the coast south of St Bees
Head. In the north is a semicircular strip of car-
boniferous limestone; then follow strips of coal
strata and Permian rocks; then the new red sand-’
stone plain of Carlisle, with carboniferous limestone
on the north-east, including a trap-dike 30 miles
long. Cumberland abounds in mineral wealth—
silver, cepper, lead, iron, plumbago, gypsum, lime-
stone, coal, slates, marbles, marl, and several of
the rarer minerals.

In the mountainous parts the climate is wet
and variable, especially from July to October ; on
the coast it is mild. There is an annual rainfall
of 50 inches at Whitehaven, and of 59 at Keswick ;
while at Styhead Pass, at an altitude of 1077 feet,
the rainfall has been as much as 243°98 inches.
Half of the cultivated soil consists of dry loam.
Much of the subsoil is wet clay. The chief crops
are wheat, barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes.
There are many small dairies. Sheep and cattle are
reared in the mountains. The estates are generally
small, and farmed by the owners, or held under the
lords of the manors by customary tenure. Many
of the small proprietors, or ‘statesmen,’ have had
their lands in their families for centuries, and have
a high spirit of independence. There are manu-
factures of woollens—much being domestic —
cottons, linens, earthenware, and glass. The chief
towns are Carlisle, Cockermouth, Whitehaven,
Workington, Maryport, Wigton, Penrith, Keswick,

Bal lan

CUMBERLAND

CUMMIN 613

ont. Under the Distribution of Seats Act,
1885, Cumberland returns one member for each
of the four divisions, North or Eskdale, Mid or
Penrith, Cockermouth, and West or Egremont.
Pop. (1801) 117,230; (1841) 178,038; (1871 ) 220,253 ;
(1891) 266,550. Near Keswick and Kirkoswald
are two fine stone circles; and many Roman relics
have been found, such as altars, coins, and —
tions. For centuries part of Cumbria or Strath-
clyde, the present county was finally annexed to
England in 1157. For three hundred years prior to
the union of the crowns, it was the constant scene
of war and devastation, from incursions of the
English and Scotch; and it suffered again in both
the ‘15 and the ‘45. Cumberland had formerly
several monasteries and hospitals; and on the
Border, many towers or peel-houses; and it has
still some fine old churches. See BORDERS, LAKE
DistRIctT ; and R. 8. Ferguson’s Hist. of C. (1890).
Cumberland, a river, rises in Kentucky, flows
into Tennessee, and returning to Kentucky, enters
the Ohio at Smithland, after a course of about 650
miles, of which nescy 90 are navigable for steam-
boats.—For Cumberland Mountain, see APPALA-
CHIANS,
Cumberland, capital of Alleghany county,
land, on the Potomac River, 178 miles W.
by N. of Baltimore by rail. It is a canal terminus
and an important railway centre, snd has manu-
factures of brick, cement, flour, and leather, and
an extensive trade in coal. Pop. (1890) 12,729.

Cumberland, Dr RiIcHARD, was born in
London, July 15, 1631. Educated at St Paul’s
School and Magdalene College, Cambridge, he was
eet to the rectory of Brampton, Northamp-

nshire, in 1658; in 1667 to the living of All
Hallows, Stamford ; and in 1691 to the bishopric of
Peterborough. Cumberland was a man of great
acquirements, and of sincere and simple piety ; his
frequent saying, ‘a man had better wear out than
rust out,’ explains his unusually high idea of
episcopal duty. He wrote several works, of which
one is still read, his Inquiry into the Laws of
Nature, written in reply to Hobbes, and remark-
able as placing the foundation of morality on a
utilitarian basis. His Essay on Jewish Weights
and Measures was dedicated to his old college
friend Pepys, as president of the Royal Society.
As an instance of Cumberland’s insatiable thirst
for knowledge, it is mentioned that he learned
Coptic after the age of eighty-three. He died
October 9, 1718.

Cumberland, Ricuarp, a dramatic writer
and essayist, was born on the 19th February 1732,
in the lodge of Trinity College, ae en He
was the preatgrenee of Bishop Cumberland
and grandson, by the mother’s side, of Dr
Richard Bentley. From Bury St Edmunds and
Westminster, where he was eens Sef with
Cowper, Churchill, and Warren astings, he

to Trinity College, Cambridge, and here
was elected to a fellowship at twenty. Becom-
ing private secretary to Lord Halifax, he gave up
his intention of entering the church, and, after
passing through several subordinate oflices, was
oeiaee secretary to the Board of Trade. He
held that office after his return from an unfortu-
nate secret mission to Spain (1780), which cost him
as much as £5000, a sum that ministers refused to
reimburse, when the Board was supp Hav-
ing obtained a compensation allowance of about half
his salary, Cumberland retired to Tunbridge Wells,
where he devoted himself to literature, and wrote
incessantly farces, tragedies, comedies, pamphlets,
essays, and novels, two at least of merit, Arundel
and Henry. Many of his comedies were successful
at the time of their appearance, although they have

not kept ion of the stage. Among them ma
here Praca The West Indian, The Brothers. The
Fashionable Lover, The Jew, and The Wheel of
Fortune. Cumberland is alluded to in Goldsmith’s
Retaliation with not unkindly satire as ‘the
Terence of England, the mender of hearts ;’ in
Sheridan’s Critic he is gibbeted as ‘Sir Fretful
Plagiary.’ Cumberland’s essays and translations
from the Greek poets are long forgotten. He died
at Tunbridge Wells, 7th May 1811. His inaccu-
rate Memoirs of himself were published in 1807.

Cumberland, WILLIAM AuGustTus, DUKE or,
second son of George II., was born in 172]. He
adopted a military career, was wounded at Dettin-

n in 1743, and defeated, not ingloriously, at

ontenoy, by Marshal Saxe, in 1745. He was next
sent to crush the Young Pretender’s rebellio
which he did effectually at. Culloden (1746); an
by a series of severe mieasures against the
broken and dispirited. Highlanders he earned for
himself the lasting title of ‘the Butcher,’ to set
off against his reward of £25,000 a year and the
thanks of parliament. In 1747 he was defeated
by Saxe at Lawfeldt, and in 1757 had to surrender
and disarm his army at Kloster-Zeven ; after which
he retired into private life, and died 3lst Oct. 1765.
See the military Life by Kev. A. N. Campbell-
Maclachlan based on the duke’s General Orders
of 1745-47 (1876).—For other dukes and earls of
Cumberland, see HANOVER and CLIFFORD.

Cumberland Island (so called) is a penin-
sula of Baffin Land, extending into Davis Strait.

Cumberland Presbyterians, a religious
denomination which sprang up in 1810 in the state
of Kentucky, in consequence of a dispute between
the presbytery of Cumberland in that state, and
the Kentucky Synod of the Presbyterian Church
in America, concerning the ordination of persons
who had not mesg through the usual educational
curriculum, but whose services the presbytery
regarded as demanded for the ministry by the
exigencies of the times. In 1887 this church had
26 synods, 1538 ministers, 150,000 members, and
several colleges and seminaries. Their form of
government is presbyterian, though they have
added a system of itinerating like the Metho-
dists. Arminian in doctrine, they deny uncondi-
tional election and predestination, and believe in
the universality of the atonement.

Cumberland Valley, See PENNSYLVANIA.

Cumbr Bic or GREAT, an island of Bute-
shire, in the Firth of Clyde, 2} miles E. of Bute at
the narrowest, and 14 mile WSW. of Largs. With
the shape of a shark’s tooth, it is 3? miles long,
2 broad, 104 in circumference, and 5 sq. m. in area.
It rises to a height of 417 feet, and consists of Old
Red sandstone, with wall-like trap-dykes intersect-
ing it. The Marquis of Bute 1s sole proprietor.
Millport, on the south shore, 19 miles SSW. of
Greenock (vid Wemyss Bay), is a crowded resort
in summer. Pop. (1801) 506 ; (1891) 1784, of whom
1668 were in Milport.—LiT TLE CUMBRAE, 14 mile
SSW. of Millport, is barely 1 sq. m. in area, It
rises 409 feet, and has a lighthouse (1826).
Pop. 23.

Cumbria. See CAMBRIA and STRATHCLYDE.

Cummin, or CUMIN (Cuminum), a genus of
Umbelliferse, containing only one known species
(C. cyminum), common in Egypt and the neigh-
bouring countries, sometimes as an annual weed,
but more frequently in cultivation, as also in
southern Europe and India. It is referred to in
Scripture (as in Matt. xxiii. 23). The fruit-lobes
separate in the way characteristic of the order,
and are thus popularly called seeds; their odour
and properties resemble those of Caraway (4q.v.),

614 CUMMING

CUNEIFORM

but are stronger, and therefore to some palates
more pleasant. It is employed as a carminative
flavouring in many parts of the world; but its
strictly medicinal use (as in plasters) is now chiefly
confined to veterinary practice. In Germany, it is
often put into bread; in Holland, sometimes into
cheese. It contains a peculiar volatile oil.( Od of
Cummin). Cummin-seed is brought to Britain
mostly from Sicily and Malta.—The fruit of
Lagoecia cuminoides, another umbelliferous plant,
a native of the Levant, is similar in its qualities
and uses to that of cummin. The Black Cummin
of the ancients is sometimes identified as a species
of Nigella (q.v.).

Cumming, CONSTANCE FREDERIKA GORDON,
a well-known traveller, was born 24th May 1837,
and was the sister of the lion-hunter (see below).
She has travelled extensively, having resided
for two years in Ceylon, and two in Fiji. She
has also visited Tahiti, China, Japan, California,
Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia, and has
written various sprightly and entertaining volumes
of travel, including From the Hebrides to the
Himalayas (1876); At Home in Fiji (1881); A
Lady's Cruise in a French Man-of-war (1882);
Fire Fountains—Hawaii (1883); Wanderings in
China (1885); Two Happy Years in Ceylon (1891).

Cumming, JoHN, divine and author, was born
in Fintray parish, Aberdeenshire, 10th November
1807. He was educated at King’s College, Aber-
deen, where he took his degree of M.A. in 1827,
and in 1832 was ordained to the Scotch Church,
Crown Court, Covent Garden, London, where he
preached with great popularity and success till
1879. Edinburgh University gave him the degree
of D.D. in 1844. He was active in philanthropic
ir, ipa and as a controversialist and lecturer
oth against the party that formed the Scotch Free
Church and in the ‘anti-Popery’ cause; but his
celebrity was chiefly due to his writings on the
interpretation of prophecy. His audacity in this
erilous enterprise drew upon him muelh ridicule.
n 1868 he asked the pope if he might attend the
(Ecumenical Council, but his application was de-
clined through Archbishop Manning. After some
years of ill-health, Cumming died 5th July 1881.

is works number over a hundred various pub-
lications. Among them are Apocalyptic Sketches
(three series, 1848-50), Prophetic Studies (1850),
Signs of the Times (1854), The Millennial Rest
(1862), Ritwalism the Highway to Rome (1867),
The Sounding of the Last Trumpet (1867), and
The Seventh Vial (1870).

Cumming, RoUALEYN-GEORGE GORDON, the
African lion-hunter and the second son of Sir
William-Gordon Gordon-Cumming, was born 15th

March 1820, and was educated at Eton. He be-
came a cornet in the Madras Cavalry in 1838,
served for a time in Canada, and joined the Cape

Mounted Rifles in 1843; but he soon resigned his
commission, and, till his return to England in 1848,
engaged in those famous hunting ex loits narrated
in his Five Years of a Hunter's Life (1850), of
which he issued a condensed edition, entitled 7'he
Lion-hunter of South Africa (1858). He died at
his residence, Fort Augustus, 24th March 1866.

Cummins, Maria Susanna, American novel-
ist, born at Salem, Massachusetts, April 9, 1827,
began to write in 1850, contributing presently to
the Atlantic Monthly and other magazines. Her
first novel, The Lamplighter (1854), had a pheno-
menal sale, 40,000 copies being sold in two months;
its entire sale in America alone has exceeded
120,000 copies. Her other books include Mabel
Vaughan (1857), El Fureidis (1860), and Haunted
Hearts (1864). She died at Dorchester, October 1,
1866.

Cumnock, OLD, a town of Ayrshire, on Lugar
Water, 18 miles. by rail E. of Ayr, and 43 NW. of
Dumfries. The manufacture of wooden snuff-boxes —
was many years since transferred to Mauchline, and
mining is now the chief otal The Covenant-
ing ‘ prophet,’ Peden (1626-86), lies in the church-
yard. Dumfries House, a seat of the Marquis of
Bute, is2 miles W. Pop. 3104. See History by War-
wick ( Paisley, 1899 ).—NEW CUMNOCK, on the Nith,
54 miles SE. of Old Cumnock, has 1514 inhabitants.

Cumulative Voting. See REPRESENTATION.

Cunard, Sir SAMUEL, was born 21st November
1787 at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where his father, a
Philadelphia merchant, had settled. Becomin,
early a successful merchant and shipowner, Cunar
came to England in _ 1838, joined with George
Burns, Glasgow, and David M‘Iver, Liverpool, in
founding (1839) the British and North American
Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and obtained
a contract from the British government for the’
mail service between Liverpool and Halifax,
Boston, and Quebec. The first passage was that
of the Britannia in 1840, the time occupied being
fourteen days eight hours. Iron steamers were
first used in 1855, and paddle-wheels gave wa
entirely to the screw after 1862. From its hots
but successful beginning, Cunard’s undertaking
soon developed into one of the vastest of private
commercial concerns. In 1878 it was made into
a joint-stock company. Created a baronet in 1859,
Cunard died at London, 28th April 1865.

Cunaxa, in Babylonia, east of the Euphrates,
about 60 miles N. of Babylon, noted for the battle
(401 B.c.) between Cyrus the younger and his
brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which the former
was killed.

Cundinamarea, a central department of
Colombia, extending east to Venezuela. It is the
second largest department of the republic, with an
area of 8500 sq. m., excluding the territory to the
south-east of the Meta, which is about as large as
Italy. The population is about 570,000 (including
17,000 wandering Indians). The western part is
mountainous, with fertile valleys and plateaus ; in
the east are vast plains. It is well wooded, and
rich in minerals. The capital is Bogota (q.v.),
also capital of the republic.

Cuneiform, Cuneatic, Wedge-shaped, Arrow-
headed (Fr. ¢éte-d-clou, Ger. keilformig), are
terms for a certain form of writing, of which the
component parts resemble a wedge. It was used
by the ancient peoples of Akkad, Babylonia,
Assyria, Armenia, Elam, and Persia; and was
inscribed upon stone, bronze, iron, glass, and clay..
Cuneiform inscriptions were chiselled upon stone
and iron, but they were impressed upon soft clay
with a pointed stylus having three unequal facets ;
the smallest to make the fine wedge of the cunei-
form signs, the middle-sized to make the thicker
wedges, and the largest to make the outer and
thick wedges of the characters. The first date
that can be assigned to the use of cuneiform
writing is about 3800 B.c., and its use was con-
tinued until after the birth of Christ. The earliest
inscription at present known is that inscribed
upon the porphyry whorl in the time of Sargon of
Agade ; the latest is a tablet preserved at Munich,
which may have been written about 83 A.D.
Cuneiform writing was first used in Mesopotamia,
and from thence it spread to Persia and to the
districts north of Nineveh. For nearly 1600 years
after its extinction its very existence was for-
gotten. The immense ruins found all over that
ancient kingdom, and especially those of ancient
Persepolis, had at all times attracted the attention
of eastern travellers; still no one seems to have
dreamed that those strange wedges which com-

DOOR-SOCKET AND INSCRIPTION FROM THE ANCIENT CITY OF NIPPUR, BABYLONIA.
Inscribed during the reign of Sargon I. Now in the Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania.
Vol. IIL, page 614.

ree ha Ta

CUNEIFORM

615

pletely covered some of them could have any
sania. It was Garcia de Sylva Figuéroa, am-
bassador of Philip IIL. of Spain, who, on a visit
to Persepolis in 1618, first became with
the firm conviction that these signs must be in-
scriptions in some lost writing and, perhaps,
, and had a line of them copied. Amongst

subsequent travellers whose attention was attracted
to the subject, Chardin, after his return to Europe
in 1674, published three complete groups of cunei-
forms, copied by himself at Persepolis, together
with a comparatively long and minute account of
the mysterious character. He likewise declared it
to be ‘writing and no hieroglyphs: the rest,
however, will always be unknown.’ Michaux, a
French botanist, sent, in 1782, a boundary stone,
found at Bagdad, to Paris, covered with inscrip-
tions. Ever since, the materials for the per beige
tion of a subject the high importance of which
that time was fully recognised have been rapidly
Sg Sir H. Jones, Ker Porter, Robert
Stewart, Sir W. Ouseley, Bellino, Dr ig ree
to Rich and Botta, Flandin, Rouet, Layard,
Oppert, Smith, Rassam, Budge, and, above all,
Rawlinson, each in his turn brought back more or
less valuable materials from his eastern travels ;
and, naturally enough, those explorers were among
the foremost to engage in the study of the records
ss had brought to light.

ow that we are able to explain so much of these
inscriptions, it is highly interesting and instructive
to notice the opinions first entertained of them by
the wise and learned in Europe. In the Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of June 1693, they first
appeared from a copy made by Flowers, and they
are held to be ‘the ancient writing of the Gaures
or Gebres.’ Thomas Hyde, the eminent Orientalist,
declared them, in his learned work on the religion of
the ancient Persians (1700), to be nothing more or
less than idle fancies of the architect, who en-
deavoured to show how many different characters a
certain peculiar stroke in different combinations
could furnish. Witte, in Rostock, saw in them the
destructive work of generations upon generations of
worms. Generally, they were pronounced to be talis-
manic signs, mysterious formule of priests, astro-
logical symbols, charms which, if properly read and
used, would open immense vaults full of gold and
pearls—an opinion widely diffused among the native
savants. The next step was to see in them a species
of revealed digital language, such as the Almighty
had first used to Adam. Lichtenstein read in some
of them certain passages from the Koran, written
in Kufic, the ancient Arabic character; in others,
a record of Tamerlane; and was only surprised
that others should not have found this, the easiest
and clearest reading, long before him. Kaempfer
was not quite sure whether they were Chinese. or
Hebrew characters. That they were Runes,
Oghams, Samaritan, or Greek characters, were
some of the soberest explanations.

It was Karsten Niebuhr who first showed the
way, to the more sensible portion of the learned,
out of this labyrinth of absurdities. Without
attempting to read the character itself, he first of
all established three distinct cuneiform alphabets
instead of one, the letters of which seemed to
outnumber those of all other languages together.
The threefold inscriptions found at Persepolis he
rightly took to be transcripts of the same text in
three alphabets, in a hitherto unknown language.
Tychsen of Rostock (1798), and Miinter of Copen-
hagen (1800), affirmed and further developed this
conjecture. The latter went so far as to divide the
characters and inscriptions into alphabetical, syl-
labic, and monogrammatical, and to assume two
different languages—Zend for inscriptions of a
religious, Pehlevi for those of a political character.

The real and final discovery, however, is due to
Grotefend of Hanover, and dates from 1802, On
the 7th of September of that year he laid the first
cuneiform alphabet, with its equivalents, before
the Academy of Géttingen—strangely enough, in
the very same sitting in which Heyne gave an
account of the first reading of hieroglyphs. The
rocess by which Grotefend arrived at that wonder-
ul result is so supremely interesting, that we can-
not omit to sketch it briefly, He fixed upon @
Persepolitan inscription of what was called the
first class, and counted in it thirty promiscuously
recurring oe or combinations of cuneiforms.
These groups he concluded to be letters, and not
words, as a syllabary of thirty words could not be
thought of in any language. Then, again, a certain
oblique wedge, evidently a sign of division, which
8 after three, four, five, up to eight or nine such
groups or letters, must show the beginning or end,
not of a 2 cen but of a word. Tychsen and
Miinter had already pointed out a certain combina-
tion of seven characters as signifying the royal
title. Grotefend adopted this opinion. The word
occurred here and there in the text, and after the
first words of most of the inscriptions, twice; the
second time with an appendage, which he concluded
to be the termination of the genitive plural, and he
translated these two words, without regard to their
phonetic value, ‘ King of Kings.’ He then, in com-
paring the words preceding the royal titles in two
tablets, found them repeated in what he assumed
to be a filial relation ; thus: There were three dis-
tinct groups, words, or names, which we will call X,
D, and H, and this is how they occurred : (1) X,
King of Kings, son of D, King of Kings; (2) D,
King of Kings, son of H; but the (3) fi was not
followed by the word King. H, therefore, must
have been the founder of the dynasty. Now the
names themselves had to be found. Grotefend, un-
like his predecessors, had recourse not to philology,
but to archeology and history. The inscriptions in
uestion were by that time proved to belong to
the Achemenian dynasty, founded by Hystaspes =
group . He was followed by Darius, ‘ King of

ings, son of Hystaspes,’ or Darius Hystaspes =
group D; he, again, by Xerxes, King of Kings, son
of Darius, King of Kings = group X—and the
problem was solved. It could not have been Cyrus
and Cambyses, as the groups did not begin with
the same signs (C); nor Cyrus and Artaxerxes, the
first being too short for the group, the second too
ee. Rr could only be Darius, Xerxes, Hystaspes
—of course in the orthography of their, not of our
time ; and wherever in ts Dik names the same letters
recurred, they were expressed by the same combina-
tions of signs. A further proof of the correctness
of the reading was furnished by a vase in Venice,
bearing a cuneiform and a hieroglyphical inscription,
which were both read at the same time independ-
ently : ‘Xerxes.’ Innumerable difficulties, however,
remained, and remain up to this moment. Grote-
fend had, after all, only read—and not altogether
correctly—three names, which did not contain more
than twelve letters—the rest being mere conjecture
—and there were many more in this alphabet. The
other two alphabets, with an infinite variety of
letters, had hardly been properly approached yet.
Moreover, the discovery of Grotefend was in itself
so startling, so extraordinary and bold, that no one
ventured to follow it up for the next twenty years,
when H. Martin found the grammatical flexions of
the plural and genitive case. We cannot now
specify his further discoveries, or those of Rask,

urnouf, Lassen, Westergaard, Beer, Jacquet, and
others who followed ; we will only say that they
mostly secured for themselves fame and name by
rectifying or fixing one or two letters. The last
and greatest of investigators of this first alphabet

616

CUNEIFORM

is Rawlinson, who not only first copied, but also
read, the gigantic Behistun inscription—containing
more than 1000 lines—of which more anon.

Inscriptions in the ‘Persian cuneiform character
are mostly found in three parallel columns, and are
then translations of each other in different alpha-
bets and languages, called respectively Persian,
Median, and Babylonian ; the Aoiemenion kings
being obliged to make their decrees intelligikle to
the three principal nations under their sway, as in
our days the Shah of Persia would use the Persian,
Turkish, and Arabic languages, in order that he
might be understood in Bagdad and Teheran.

The first of the three, the Persian, consists of
thirty-nine to forty-four letters, and is the most
recent, the most ancient being the Babylonian.
It is distinguished by the oblique stroke which
divides its words. Its letters are composed of
not more than five strokes or wedges placed
side by side horizontally or perpendicularly, or
both, but never—with one exception—crossing each
other. The language is pronounced by all investi-
gators to be as near Zend (q.v.) as possible, and
to be the mother-language of modern Persian.
It is only twice found by itself; all the other
inscriptions are trilingual. The time of its use is
confined to the years 570-370 B.c. The oldest
instance of its employment is an inscription of
Cyrus the Great at Pasargadz; the most recent,
that of Artaxerxes Ochus at Persepolis. The most
important is that of Darius Hystaspes, in the great
inscription of Behistun (q.v.), which contains, besides

enealogical records, a desstintion of the extent of

is power, the leading incidents of his reign, prayers
to Ormuzd and the angels, and reference to the
building of the palaces. Most of these inscriptions
occur at. Persepolis, Behistun, Naksh-i-Rustam,
and Hamadan.

The second kind is called the Median, because it
takes the second place in the trilingual inscriptions,
under the conquering Persians, but over the con-
quered Assyrians, and as the Medes stood somewhat
in that relation to these two nations, that name
was selected. Another name, ‘Scythic,’ has been
proposed, or, by way of compromise, ‘ Medo-
Scythic,’ and the language—supposed to have been
spoken by those innumerable Tartaro-Finnie tribes
which occupied the centre of Asia—has been pro-
nounced to be a Turanian dialect. But the process
of constructing out of such slender elements as
Samojed and Ostiak words, a so-called ‘ Scythiec,’ is
somewhat similar to the attempt of reconstructin
Sanskrit from some detached and very doubtfu
French and English words. These inscriptions
never occur by themselves (one instance again
excepted), and being translations of the Persian
records, about ninety names have been ascertained,
and an alphabet of about one hundred characters—
combinations of a syllabic nature—has been estab-
lished. The principal investigators of this charac-
ter are Westergaard, De Saulcy, Hincks, Norris,
and Oppert. Gobineau holds the language to be
Huzvaresh, a mixture of Iranian and Semitic.

The third and most important is the Babylonian
portion of the cuneiforms. The trilingual records
gave the first clue to the deciphering of this char-
acter; but many original documents, more than three
thousand years older, have since been found in
eat Inte Nineveh, and other places near the
Euphrates and Tigris, and even in Egypt. On one
occasion, the Asiatic Society submitted a cylinder
of Tiglath-pileser to four prominent investigators
of the subject, and they independently read it
nearly alike, with the exception of the proper
names, where they widely difiered. As a proof of
the enormous importance of this character for
history, grammar, law, mythology, archeology,
and antiquities generally, we name some of the

records which Rawlinson began to publish (now
in progress): Babylonian Legends, such as the
Fight between Marduk and iamat, the Descent
of Ishtar into Hades (2000-1500 B.c.); Bricks
from Kilehshergat of the early Kings of Assyria
(1350-1100 B.c.), in a character much complicated ;
Annals of Tiglath-pileser I. (1120 B.c.); Annals
of Assur-nasir-pal, of Shalmaneser I. and IL,
Sargon, Sennacherib, Assur-bani-pal, son of Esar-
haddon; Inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar I. and
II. ; Cylinders containing the name of Belshazzar, —
&c.; besides syllabaries, vocabularies, mathemati-
cal and astronomical tablets, calendars, and a
selection from the mythological tablets.

In order to give the reader some idea of the
appearance of the cuneiform character, we Hone
the name of Darius, written in the Persian, Scythie,
and Babylonian characters.

SVE E (iy

>_- =}

WY YY

= e= eee
Ely -Y\<y erly elk

The cuneiform signs were originally pictures of
objects. It appears that they were first drawn in
outline upon some vegetable substance, called in
the native documents /ékhusi. Whether the supply
of this material failed it is impossible to say, but
it is quite certain that at a very early period in
the history of Babylonia, clay was adopted as a
substance for writing upon. On substances like
pees and leather it is quite easy to draw in out-
ine a picture of any object; but it became more
difficult to do this when z:ay was used, because the
outlines of the object represented had to be pressed
into it. The necessary result of this was that the
shapes of the objects became altered. Thus a circle
(1) represented the sun, but when inscribed upon
clay it became 2; and a star (3) became 4: in
process of time, as scribes became busier, these
signs were represented by 5 and 6 respectively.

oe

The use of clay as a writing material completely
modified the shape of nearly every character in the
cuneiform syllabary. The signs inscribed upon
stones of the early empire are most complex,
and in many of them it is difficult to see what
object they are intended to represent. As time
went on, these complex signs became simplified,
and wedge after wedge was discarded, until the
character was reduced to its simplest form.
Lenormant, Hyde Clark, and others adopting
their theory, have tried to prove that the Baby-
lonian and Chinese signs are related. In the time
of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal, it became the
fashion to write inscriptions in the ancient complex
character, and special syllabaries of such signs
were drawn up. Fragments of these are now in
the British Museum. The cuneiform syllabary
contains about two thousand signs of a phonetic,
syllabic, and ideographic nature. Each sign origin-
ally represented an object, but no attention was
paid to its ideographic signification when its

a eres

ee tl -
aR:

CUNENE

CUPAR 617

Habic or phonetic value was employed in a word.

ore the name of a king, town, city. or private

, &e., a cuneiform sign, being the ideograph

7 for the word following, was placed ; after names of

places like Babilu (Babylon), a suffix Ai, meaning

earth’ or ‘land,’ was placed, It is the opinion

of some that the cuneiform characters were in-

vented by the primitive Akkadian inhabitants of

Chaldea (who spoke an agglutinative language).
See the articles ASsyYRIA, BABYLON, WRITING.

See Sir H. Rawlinson, The Cuneiform Inscriptions of
Western Asia (6 vols. folio, ed. by E. Norris, G. Smith, and
T. G. Pinches, 1861-80) ; Grotefend, Die Keilinschriften
aus Behistun (1854); Lassen u. Weste: Ueber die
Keilinschrrften (1845); Hincks, On the First and Second
Kinds of Persepolitan Writing (Transact. Roy. Ir. Soc.
1846) ; Norris, Memoir on the Scythic Version of the
Behistun Inscription (Journal As, Soc. 1853); Rawlin-
son, A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of
Babylon and Assyris (1850); and works by Benfey,
Oppert, Renan, Spiegel, Schrader, Delitzsch, and others.

Cune'ne, an African river, rises on the heights
which bound the interior plateau of South Africa
in the W., and after a course of 600 miles south-
ward and westward, forming the boundary partly
between the Portuguese and German dominions,
reaches the sea 60 miles north of Cape Frio. It is
shallow and nearly useless for navigation.

Cuneo. See Cont.

ham, ALLAN, poet and industrious

man of letters, was born in the parish of Keir,
Dumfriesshire, 7th December 1784. His father
was factor or land-steward to Miller of Dalswin-
ton, and therefore neighbour to Burns at Ellisland ;
and Allan, a boy of twelve, followed at the great
poet’s funeral, At eleven he was apprenticed to
a stone-mason, but continued to give all his leisure
to poring over native songs and stories. His first
ublications were his verse and prose contributions

Cromek’s sham-antique Remains of Nithsdale and
Galloway Song (1810). These, while they did not
of course deceive the learned, or apparently even
Cromek himself, procured the clever young mason
the ee pice of Hogg and Sir Walter Scott.
With the latter, ‘Honest Allan’ was always a
great favourite. He now removed to London,
and became one of the best-known writers for the
London Magazine, as well as secretary and man-

rin Sagres Ap studio, a t which he held till
Chantrey’s death in 1841, ough thus busily em-
ployed all day, Cunningham maintained an in-
efatigable literary activity, writing tales, novels,
magazine articles, poems, songs, and biographies.
His best works were his Traditional Tales of the
English and Scottish Peasantry (1822); The Songs
of Scotland, Ancient and Modern (1825); Lives of
the Most Famous British Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects (6 vols. 1829-33); and his edition of
Burns, with Life (8 vols. 1834). His Life of Sir
David Wilkie appeared eirrgey cet | e died in
London, 30th October 1842, Cunningham was a
remarkably worthy and kindly man, whose ‘stal-
wart healthy figure and ways’ pleased even Carlyle
—but then he was from mfriesshire. As a
Scotch poet, he ranks, perhaps, after James Hogg.
His songs, although marred by defects in taste,
have the true lyrical impulse and movement. See
Life by the Rev. David Hogg (Dumf. 1875).

Of his sons, the eldest, Joseph Davey (1812-51),
rose in the Indian service, and wrote a good history
of the Sikhs (1849); Major-general Sir Alexander
(1814-93) wrote on Indian, archeology and. statis-
tics; Peter (see below) became a well-known man
of letters; Francis (1820-75), also an Indian
soldier, edited Marlowe, Massinger, and Ben Jonson.

Cunningham, PETER, son of Allan Cunning-
ham the poet, was born in Pimlico, April 1, 1816.
He was educated at Christ’s Hospital, London,

entered the Aucit Office through Peel's influence
in 1834, and ultimately became chief clerk. He
retired in 1860, and died at St Albans, 18th May
1869. His name is chiefly remembered by his
Handbook of London (1849), a book stored with
out-of-the-way facts, and informed with true literary
flavour. He contributed largely to the literary
journals, edited books for both the Shakespeare
and the Percy Societies, as well as Horace
Walpole’s Letters (1857), Drummond of Haw-
thornden, Goldsmith, Johnson’s Lives of the Poets,
and Pope, Other books are Modern London (1851)
and the Story of Nell Gwynn (1852).

Canningham, WILLIAM, a distinguished
Scotch theologian, was born at Hamilton in 1805,
educated at Duns and Edinburgh, and ordained
minister at Greenock in 1830. He was called to
Trinity College Church, Edinburgh, in 1834, and
soon became one of the foremost leaders, alike on
the platform and in the pamphlet, on the ‘ Non-
intrusionist’ side in the t controversy that pre-
ceded the Disruption of 1843. He was appointed
professor of oh in the Free Church College
in 1843, of Church History in 1845, and its principal
on Chalmers’s death in 1847. His D.D, degree was
given him by Princeton in 1842. He was modera-
tor of the Free Assembly in 1859, when he received
a testimonial amounting to over £7000. He died
at Edinburgh, 14th December 1861. His litera
executors published from his MSS. Historie
Theology: a Review of the Principal Doctrinal Dis-
cussions in the Christian Church (1862), Reformers
and Theology of the Reformation (1862), and Dis-
cussions on Church Principles (1863). See his Life,
by Rainy and Mackenzie (1871).

Cunninghamia, a genus of the Taxodium
family of Conifers (q.v.), of which the only species
(C. sinensis) is a lofty evergreen tree of southern
China and Cochin China, with sessile leathery
leaves, somewhat resembling those of an Araucaria.
It is too tender for the climate of Britain, save in
peculiarly favourable localities.

Cup is a name for a refreshing beverage, made
usually of wine, soda-water, ice, and flavouring
ingredients. Thus claret cup may be made of one
quart of claret, one bottle of soda-water, half a
pound of pounded ice, four tablespoonfuls of
pounded sugar, a little grated nutmeg, a liqueur

lass of Maraschino, and a sprig of green borage.

hampagne cup may be made of one quart of cham-
pagne, two bottles of soda-water, one glass of
randy, one pound of pounded sugar, with borage
or cucumber rind. Cider

pounded,

Cup, DrivinaTION By, a mode of foretellin
events, practised by the ancient Egyptians, an
still surviving, though with but little credit, in
some of the rural districts of England and Scot-
land. One of the eastern methods consisted in
throwing in small pieces of gold or silver leaf into
a cup of water, in which also were placed precious
stones, with certain characters engraved upon
them. The infernal powers were then invoked,
and returned answer, either in an intelligible voice,
or by signs on the surface of the water, or by a re-
presentation in the cup of the person inquired
about. By the modern method, a person's for-
tune is foretold by the disposition of the sediment
in her teacup after pouring out the last of the
liquid.

Cupar, or CupaAR-FIFE, the county town of
Fife, on the Eden, 10 miles W. by S. of St Andrews,
30 NNE. of Edinburgh, and 13 S. of Dundee. In
the 12th century a-eastle of the -Macdufis, Earls of
Fife, crowned the ‘School Hill,’ whose northern
slope was afterwards the show-place of mystery-
plays and moralities such as the Zhrie Estaitis

cup is similarly com-

318 CUPELLATION

CUPPING

(1535) of Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.). Cupar has a
handsome new Free Church (1877), the Duncan
Institute (1870), and a public park (1871-72).
Brewing, tanning, &c. are carried on; and there is
a large corn-market. Lord Campbell was a native.
The place has been a royal burgh since at least
1363, and it unites with St Andrews and five other
towns in returning one member to parliament.
Pop. (1851) 5605; (1881) 5010; (1891) 4729. ‘See
also COUPAR-ANGUS.

Cupellation. See AssAyING.

Cupid (Lat. cupido, ‘desire’), also Amor, the
Latin name for the Greek Eros, the god of love.
Eros is not mentioned in Homer, but occurs first in
Hesiod, whose conception of him is that of a cosmo-
ges force uniting, as it were, in harmony and
ove, the conflicting elements of primal chaos.
Thus Plato, in his Symposium, speaks of him as
the oldest of the gods. Quite different, however,
from this venerable and somewhat impersonal
deity is the Eros of the epigrammatic and erotic
poets, the Cupid of Horace and Ovid. The gene-
alogy of this meddlesome divinity is rather con-
fused. He is variously represented as the son of
Aphrodite (Venus) by Ares (Mars), Zeus (Jupi-
ter), or Hermes (Mercury). He appears as a
wanton boy, playful and mischievous, with bow,
arrows, sometimes a torch, quiver, and wings. The
eyes are often covered, so that he shoots blindly.
His darts could pierce the fish at the bottom of the
sea, the birds in the air, and even the gods in
Olympus. The immensity of space was his home,
but like his mother, he specially loved the flowery
thickets of Cyprus. Later poets make a number of
Erotes (Amores and Cupidines), with the same
attributes as the prototype. We find also an
Anteros (‘return love’), whose function it is to
unish those who do not return the love of others.

hespize in Beeotia was the chief seat of the wor-
ship of Eros ; here was held the Erotidia, a quin-
quennial festival. Eros or Cupid was a frequent
subject for Greek and Roman works of art. The
most celebrated statue was that by Praxiteles at
Thespize.

The beautiful fable of Cupid and Psyche, as
given by Apuleius, is a literary version of one of
the best-known stories in the world. Of course
it is merely an ordinary household tale, with
nothing but the names to connect it with the
recognised Greek mythology. Here Cupid is
merely the invisible bridegroom of scores of stories
the world over, with the added name and attri-
butes of the winged son of Aphrodite. See a study
of the myth by Andrew Lang, in the introduction
to his reprint (1887) of Adlington’s translation
(1566) of the story as told by Apuleius.

Cup-markings on rocks and CUP-MARKED
STONES belong to a peculiar class of archaic sculp-
turings which have recently attracted much atten-
tion among archeologists. Cup-markings on rocks
are chiefly of two varieties—circular cavities or
‘cups’ pure and simple, and cups surrounded by
circles. The circles round the cups are shallow
indentations, varying in number up to five or six.
Both cups and circles often show the marks of a

ointed tool, as if they had been formed by picking,

ut frequently they appear as if weathered or
abraded to a_ perfectly smooth surface. The
cups vary in size from about one inch to three
inches or more in diameter. Sometimes they are
confluent at the edges, but more usually separate,
and occasionally two or more are connected by a
shallow groove or duct. They usually occur in
ae er sometimes to the number of several hun-

reds. In such groups the majority are plain cups,
intermingled with occasional cups and circles. e
circles placed concentrically round the cups are occa-

sionally incomplete at one side, and a radial groove
or duct passes from the central cup out through the
circles. The circles are only approximately circular,
sometimes oval, and occasionally even roughl
quate These groups of cups, mingled wit
cups and circles, and occasionally with imperfees
spirals and other rude and irregular sculpturings,
are found on the stones of sepulchral structures of
the stone and bronze ages, on rock-surfaces and
earth-fast boulders, and on loose stones of small size
in the neighbourhood of sites of early habitations
or strongholds over nearly all Europe. They are
still subjects of superstitious regard in Scandinavia,
and while they are found in connection with the
megalithic monuments of Europe and India, Mr
Rivett Carnac has traced a resemblance to them in
the conventional symbols of Siva in the modern
temples. On the other hand Dr Veckenstedt found
recent cup-markings (but without the characteristie
circles) on the walls of churches in Prussia. Dr
Rau_ has described a considerable number of ex-
amples from various oe of America, but few with
circles. oe of the smaller cupped stones he
attributes to the Indian custom of cracking hickory
nuts, by laying them in such cavities and striking
them with another stone. The larger-sized cups
and basin-shaped cavities in earth-fast boulders and
rocks he classes as mortars. But the more elaborate
sculpturings on rock-surfaces present the central
cup, the surrounding circles and the radial groove
of the European and Indian examples, and the
inference is that they belong to the religious or
ceremonial symbolism of primeval man. The most
remarkable examples of rock-surfaces sculptured
with cups and circles in Scotland are those at
Achnabreae in Argyllshire, described by Professor
Sir J. Y. Simpson, and at High Banks in Kirkeud-
brightshire, discovered in 1887 and 1888, and de-
scribed by Mr George Hamilton in the Proceedings
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.

See Archaic Sculpturings of Cups and Circles, &e., by
Sir J. Y. Simpson (Edinburgh, 1867) ; Incised Markings
on Stone, d&c., from drawings made for the Duke of
Northumberland (Lond. 1869); Skandinavien’s Hallrist-
ningar af A, E. Holuberg (Stockholm, 1848) ; and Odser-
vations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian Sculptures
in the Old World and in America, by Charles Rau ( Wash-
ington, 1881).

Cu’pola (Ital., from the root of cup), a spherical
vault, or concave ceiling, on the top of a building ;
the internal part of a Dome (q.v.). The term is
also sometimes used for a dome which is ogival
(not hemispherical or semi-elliptical) in outline,
or fora small dome. Cupolas are often wholly or

artially of glass. There are cupola-furnaces ; see
RON.

Cupping is one of the simplest and most popu-
lar id on of producing local depletion, by the
application of partially exhausted cupping-glasses
to the surface of the skin. By this means the blood
is diverted from deeper structures to the surface of
an affected part, whence it may be removed b
searifyin iio skin (wet cupping), or where it
may be allowed to remain exuded in the subeutane-
ous tissues like a Bruise (q.v.), until it be removed
by absorption (dry cupping).

Cupping has been a part of surgical practice from
the earliest times, and instruments for performin
it have been found in use among the least civilis
nations. Of old, the cups were either small horns,
open at both ends, from which the air was with-
drawn by suction at the narrow extremity, or
glasses of various shapes, with a small hole in the
bottom of each. This hole was plugged with wax,
the air exhausted by heat, and when the operator
wished to remove them, he withdrew the plug, and
allowed the air to enter. The modern cupping-
glass is a beaker containing 3 to 6 fluid ounces,

F: CUPULE

CURARI 619

with a finely-ground rim, which adheres closely to

the surface of the skin.

The principal improvements have been in the
methods of incising the skin. This used to be effected
with a common lancet or narrow knife, with a short

blade and convex edge, set in a long elastic handle,

which the operator struck rapidly with his finger,
80 as to drive the blade 20 or 30 times into the skin
‘This was so tedious an operation, that a number of

similar blades came to be used at once. These are
contained in a box, which has slits pierced in it

corresponding to the number of blades ; the latter

ean be caused to emerge by setting free a spring,

which eauses them to revolve suddenly, and in
doing so they protrude at the slits more or less,
according to the regulation of the instrument
by the operator. This apparatus is known as a
i$ eator.’ <A scarificator, glasses, a torch,

some spirits of wine, and a lighted candle are

laced ready at hand; the part is seonere with
ot water, so as to cause an increased flow of blood
into it; then dried with a warm towel; the torch,
reviously saturated with the spirits of wine and

& ighted, is held for an instant in one of the glasses.

By this means the air in the glass is quickly ex-
agree and when the glass is then rapidly applied

the smooth damp surface of the skin, the rapid
rarefaction of its contained air causes it to adhere

_ tightly, and gives rise to determination of blood to

the part to which it is applied. When the skin
under the glass has become red and swollen, the
cupper removes it, applies the scarificator, and as
rapidly as possible again exhausts the air from the
ginse, which he re-applies. The blood will now

ow into it; and when enough has been taken,
the glass is removed, and some lint applied to the
wounds. The number of glasses applied depends on
the quantity of blood it is thought desirable to
abstract ; each one will probably withdraw from 3 to
5 ounces. This apparently simple proceeding re-

uires considerable skill. The difficulties consist

regulating the depth of the cuts ; for should the

be either too deep or too shallow, the blood will
not flow; in the one case, because the deeper
vessels of the true skin are not opened; in the
other, because the skin being completely cut
ata the fat which lies beneath it is drawn up
into the wounds, which it plugs, and stops the flow
of blood. If, on the other Nand, the glasses be
completely exhausted of air, their rims press so
firmly on the surface as to prevent the flow of
bl to the part from surrounding areas of the
skin, and as a result, very little blood flows from
the wounds.

There are many modifications of the ordinary
cupping apparatus, but all act on the same principle ;
and it need scarcely be added that extempore cups
may be found in tumblers, finger-glasses, or any
oa dd vessel with a —— — "

ry Cupping is simply applying the cups as de-
seribed, but not roriidinas t io akin A hard mass
of extravasated blood is found occupying the skin
at the site of this operation. The mass, at first
cherry-red, becomes in a few days a dead black
colour, then greenish, and finally yellow, following
ai usual course observed in the healing of a

ruise,

Cupule (Cupula), in Botany, a shortened axis
with a number of more or less cohering bracts,
numerous and crowded in the acorn, or three in
the beech-nut, which more or less completely in-
close the ripening fruit. The husk of the hazel-
nut may be regarded as an incipient cupule.

Cupuli ferze (i.e. ‘cupule-bearing’), anold order
of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, more naturally
separated into (1) Betulacez or Corylacese, the birch
and hazel family, including (a) the birch and alder,

(b) the hornbeam and hazel ; and (2) the Fagaces or
Cupuliferee proper, including (a) the beeches, (b)
the chestnuts and oaks. See the articles on these
separate trees.

Cur, a name sometimes applied indiscriminately
to small dogs of any kind not highly valued, and
in this way often particularly appropriated to dogs
of mongrel breed, but also used by naturalists as
the common designation of many races, of which
ve! og (q.v.) may be considered as the type.

OG.

Cura, CIUDAD DE, a town in the state of
Miranda, in Venezuela, lies 60 miles SW. of
Caracas, to the south of Lake Valencia, has a good
deal of industry, and extensive cotton plantations,
and a pop. of 12,200.

Curaca’o (also spelt Cura and Curassou)
is the most important of the Duteh West India
Islands. It lies about 40 miles from the coast of
Venezuela, is 36 miles long by 8 broad, and has a
population (1890) of 26,245. The capital of Cura-
cao is Willemstad, a very handsome town, situated
on the bay of St. Anna, with 10,000 inhabitants.
The soil of Curacao and its dependent islands is
less productive than that of other tropical lands.
The chief produce is salt, and a rock rich in
valuable phosphates, but careful cultivation pro-
duces sugar, tobacco, maize, figs, cocoa, cocoa-
nuts, lemons, and oranges. The Curacao orange,
Citrus Aurantium curassuviensis, is a peculiar
variety. Willemstad is the headquarters of the
colonial government, which has authority not
merely over the neighbouring islands of Aruba and
Bonaire, but also over St Eustache, Saba, and the
Dutch part of St Martin. Altogether the Dutch
West Indies have a population of about 120,000.
The trade is mainly with the United States.
Curacao was discovered by Spain in 1527, taken
by the Dutch in 1634, conquered by the Englisb
in 1807, and restored to Holland in 1815.

Curacoa is a well-known and esteemed liqueur,
usually made in Holland with the dried peel of the
Curacao orange, the pes being macerated with
water, and then distilled with spirit and water.
The result is sweetened with sugar, and a little
Jamaica rum is often added. A palatable imitation
can be made from the fresh peel of bitter oranges
and whisky.

Curari, UrArt, Wooratt, or Woorara, is a
celebrated poison used by some tribes of South
American Indians for poisoning their arrows.
It is by means of this poison that the small
arrows shot from the Blowpipe (q.v.) become
so deadly. It is brought to Europe as a black,
brittle extract, resinous in appearance, and en-
crusting the sides of little gourds containing it.
The source of this deadly poison was for y ow
unknown, owing to the natives jealously guard-
ing the secret. The process of manufacture has
now, however, been witnessed and described by
several travellers, and in each case some species
or other of Strychnos has been recognised as
the source of the poison. There seem to be
four distinct varieties of curari, each character-
istic of a different tract of country, and probably
varying in their physiological action ; but for our
purpose we may confine ourselves to that kind
which is used in physiological experiments. Curari
is one of those poisons which have little action
when taken into the stomach, owing to the diffi-
eulty with which they are absorbed, but when
introduced into a wound it acts with great prompt-
ness. The symptoms caused are loss of muscular

wer, feeble respiration, and death by suffocation.

y means of artificial respiration it is ible to
sustain life for a lengthened pare although the
animal is apparently insensible to pain. this

620 CURASSOW

CURETON

way it is employed in vivisection experiments as
an anesthetic. ¥
At first it was supposed that curari contained
strychnine, but as its action was so entirely different,
this view was soon abandoned. Prolonged research
has separated a special alkaloid, Curarine, which
possesses the leading properties of the poison itself.
Curarine differs from all other crystallisable alka-
loids, save one, in containing no oxygen. Jt forms
salts, and is said to be twenty times as strong as
curari. In medicine curari is very little used. It
has been proposed to employ it in lockjaw, hydro-
phobia, and as an antidote in poisoning by
strychnia; but although it quiets the spasm, it
has no direct curative effect, and it may cause a
equally fatal paralysis.
Besides curari proper, there are two other arrow-
poisons called Corroval and Vao. These, which
are brought chiefly from Colombia, have an entirely
different action on the body, as they primarily stop
the beating of the heart, whereas with curari the
heart continues to beat after breathing has ceased.
Curassow, or Hocco (Craz), a genus of large
ame-birds inhabiting the forests of Central and
outh America. Their most distinctive features
concern the head. This is adorned with a crest
of feathers, curled forwards, and capable of being
raised and depressed; while the often brightly
coloured cere is enlarged into a prominence at the
root of the high beak. Eight species are found
from Mexico to Paraguay, predominantly arboreal,
living mostly on fruits, but in general habit like
poultry. T ey are very unsuspicious of danger,
especially careless at the love-making season, and
are very readily tamed. The best-known species
is C. alector—the Royal Pheasant of the Mexicans.

Crested Curassow.

It is a very sombre bird, about the size of a turkey.
It is occasionally domesticated, and a stock im-
ported into Holland at the end of last century
seemed to become acclimatised. It was, however,
lost amidst the troubles subsequent to the French
Revolution. Though their love-making is keen,
the birds are not very productive, and it is prob-
able that the natives have discovered that this
apparently very profitable bird will not breed
readily under domestication. Closely allied, and
of similar distribution and habit, are the fierce
Guans and Penelopes (Penelopine), and the rare
Mountain ‘Curassow (Oreophasis derbianus). The
Turkey (q.v.) is also a near relative.

Curate, literally one who has the cure (Lat.
cura, ‘care’) of souls, in which sense it is used in
the Church of England Prayer-book, ‘all bishops
and curates ;’ as the cognate word curé is used in
French to denote the incumbent of a parish. It is,

however, generally used now to denote the unbene-
ficed parochial clergy in the Church of England,
more exactly styled ‘ assistant curates.’ Formerly,
such curates were usually the deputies of non-resi-
dent incumbents, but now they are mostly helpers
of resident pastors. A curate, in this sense, is a
minister employed by the incumbent of a church
(rector or vicar), either as assistant to him in the
same church, or else in a chapel of ease within the
arish belonging to the notteka bara He must
t licensed and admitted by the bishop of the
diocese, or by an ordinary having episcopal juris-
diction, who also usually appoints his salary. Any
curate that has no fixed estate in his curacy, not
being instituted and inducted, is liable to removal
on six months’ notice from the incumbent, and to
summary withdrawal of his license by the bishop.
In the latter case, an appeal to the archbishop of
the province is open. But there are perpetual
curates as well as temporary, who are appointed
where tithes are impropriate and no vicarage
was ever endowed : these are incumbents, and not
removable, and the impropriators are obliged to
maintain them. Their title in new district parishes
has been changed to that of vicar.

Curator to a Minor. See GuARDIAN.

Curb. See BriIDLE.—The disease in horses
so called consists of strain of the straight ligament
which runs down the back of the hock; is most
common in animals with straight small hocks and
that conformation known as sickle hams; whilst
like other strains it occurs from sudden and
violent exertion, often proceeding in the lighter
breeds from leaping or galloping in heavy ground,
and in the heavier, from the effort of Gh ing
back a load whilst going down a steep incline.
Swelling appears on the outer and back part
of the joint, about 5 or 6 inches below the
point of the hock, generally causing lameness,
which is most apparent in trotting, and, in slight
cases, usually decreases after the animal has been
out for ten minutes. Fomentations must first
be used to allay the irritation and inflammation,
and a high-heeled shoe te in; when heat and
tenderness disappear, cold applications will be
advisable ; after which the enlargement still con-
tinuing, a blister may be necessary ; whilst, from
the first, all work must be forbidden.

Cureas. See Puysic Nut.

Curculio. See WEEVIL.

Cur’cuma (Arab. kurkum), an Indian genus
of Scitaminez, the ginger and cardamom order,
C. longa is widely cultivated in Southern Asia,
its rhizomes (radix curcume longe of pharmacists)
being the source of Turmeric (q.v.). Young plants
also yield a kind of arrowroot, but this is espe-
cially prepared from C. leucorhiza, with colourless
rhizomes. C. zedoaria yields a tonic medicine (radia
zedoarice nfetenise or zedoary of pharmacists), and
is also used as food. C. amada is the mango ginger
of Bengal.

Curé, the name applied in France to a priest
with a cure of souls, properly the priest of a regular
parochial as opposed to a succursal church, but
commonly applied to any pastor with spiritual
functions.

Cures, an ancient town of the Sabines, 25 miles
NE. of Rome, whence the Romans, after the people
of Cures united with them, came to be called
Quirites. See RoME.

Cureton, WILLIAM, Syriac scholar, born at
Westbury, Shropshire, in 1808, studied at Oxford,
and was ordained in 1831. In 1837 he entered the
British Museum as assistant-keeper of manuscripts,
and here his labours brought to light a Syriae
version of the Epistle of Ignatius (q.v.), remains

CE AO 5 IIS eS EE RE
== rg ar Sa

* on

er

A EE IO - =

=

of a
MSS. |
1 editor in long controversies. In 1849 Cureton was

CURFEW

7+

CURLING 621

oe recension of the Gospels, and other
more or less value, which. involved their

canon of Westminster and rector of St

t’s. Among other honours, he received
the of LL.D. from Oxford and of D.D.
from Halle, and was a Fellow of the Royal Society
and a foreign associate of the Institute of France.

He died 17th June 1864.

Our'few (Fr. cowvre-feu, ‘cover fire’). To
William the Conqueror is ascribed the introduc-

tion of the curfew-bell into England, the object

of which was to warn the people to cover up
their fires, and retire to rest. e time for ring-
these bells was sunset in summer, and about
ht o'clock in winter; and certain penalties

were imposed upon those who did not attend to

the signal. The practice of ringing the curfew-
bell, however, appears to have prevailed through-
out Europe long before the era of the Norman
corny its object being the prevention of fires,
which, owing to houses being chiefly composed

of wood, were then both frequent and destructive.

The custom of =e the curfew-bell at eight or
nine o'clock is still continued in many parts of
England, though its original significance is of
course lost, and a list of the various places where
the custom has been kept up will be found in Notes

_ and Queries for 1883 and earlier years. The name

has passed into literature as a current synonym for
nightfall—it oceurs in the opening line of Gray’s
Eleg . The curfew survives in some parts of New
England. See BELL.

Curia. See Rome, also AULA ReEaIs.—The
Papal Curia, or Curia Romana, the functionaries
forming the court of the pope, including the congre-

tions of cardinals, the secretariat of state, the
unetionaries through whom the holy see has
relations with foreign powers. See Pope.

Curia Muria. See Kurta Murta.

Curicé, a town of Chili, capital of a province
of the same name, lies near the Rio Lontué, 140
miles SSE. of Valparaiso. Pop. 10,110.

Curlew (Numenius), a genus of birds of the
order Grallatores, and of the same family (Scolo-
agg with the snipe, sandpiper, avocet, stilt,

The bill is much longer than the head,
slender, curved, and compressed; the face and
head are feathered ; the legs are slender, and part
of the tibia is naked as well as the shank; the tail
is short, and the folded wings extend about as far
as the tail. The plumage is lark-like. The genus
is cosmopolitan in its distribution. The Common
Curlew (NV. arquatus), the Whaup of the Scotch,
frequents the seashores in winter, and elevated
moors in summer. Its peculiarly weird and
plaintive cry is familiar to every visitor of the

uplands. It feeds on worms, molluscs, and ine
sects, and its long bill enables it to seek its food in
marshy or boggy ground. A slight nest of leaves
or other dry materials is built in some tuft of
rushes or among ae en or heath, and usually
contains four eggs. e curlew is good eating.—

ee eee
Common Curlew

ww

(Numenius arquatus).

The Whimbrel (NV. pheopus) is a smaller species,
much resembling the common curlew. Like the
latter it is very widely distributed in the Old
World, and frequently occurs on the shores of
Britain, though apparently breeding only in the
most northerly moors. North America has several
species of curlew, some of which extend their
summer migrations to very northerly regions.
Curling, a sport on the ice common in Scot-
land, where it is played by all classes of people in
winter. Frozen-over lakes and rivers answer for
the purpose, but under the auspices of curling
clubs, artificial shallow ponds are maintained for
the sake of this popular national sport; and the
bonspiels, or set matches, are contested with great
spirit. The sport is regulated by a body of rules
issued by a central asso-
ciation called the Royal
Caledonian Curling Club,
which has grand matches
in which hundreds are
engaged once, if possible,
every winter, and which
awards medals to pro-
vinces and parishes for
competition. The re-
markable and _ pleasing
peculiarity of curling is,
that it produces for the
time a thorough mingling of ranks—peers, peasants,
clergymen, farmers, country gentlemen, and trades-
men, all meeting familiarly and hilariously for the

Curling-stone,

° w w 2 =z 2 2
33 « sis }° x 3
sae 8 3|2 z
e 2 @ a \ oO
6} Se) —-- ----4.-—-----—-— — - qian -— --- eS et e
BS oa) 7% tawee “le ayer @ 7Y*% a
i ty 8 als bg +3
Y ° o J bed » 2 es
| : 2 = = m . “3
2 Se 20 30 40 60 60 FEET
SCALE
The Rink,

occasion. Latterly, curling has migrated to Eng-
land, Canada, and other countries where Scotch-
men can find ice of sufficient strength and
keenness, and in Southport Glaciarium (1878-89)
the game was played in summer on artificial ice,
Curling is played with flattish round stones, about
9 inches in diameter, prepared by curling-stone

manufacturers, each stone weighing from 30 to 50
Ib, Each of the players has a pair. The stones
are provided with handles, to enable the pe to
hurl them on the ice with the proper degree of
force, As at bowls, the stones are hurled to an
assigned point or mark. The game is as follows:

Sides are made up, usually consisting of four

622 CURLL

CURRANT

against four, with a director styled skip for each ;
alter which a certain length of ice is chosen on
which to play. This is called the rink. Certain
marks are then made at each end of the rink, con-
sisting of several concentric rings, called broughs,
and a centre, called the tee. The game is decided
by time, or by one party first attaining a certain
number of shots, such-as 21 or 31; and the keenness
displayed by rival sides in competing for Victory
is perhaps without a parallel in any other pastime
whatever. One on each side plays alternately.
The chief object of the player is to hurl his stone
along the ice towards the tee, with proper strength
and precision; and on the skill displayed by the
players in placing their own stones in favourable
positions or in driving rival stones out of favour-
able positions, depends nearly all the interest of
the game. At a certain distance from each of
the tees, a line—the hog-score—is drawn across
the ice; and any stone not driven beyond this
mark counts nothing, and is laid aside. In country
places, a dinner composed of ‘beef and greens,’
the well-known curler’s fare, generally concludes
the day’s diversion, which, taking place when out-
door labour is suspended, is felt to be no encroach-
ment on rural occupations.

For laws of curling, and general remarks on the game,
see The Channel-stane (four series, 1883-84), the last
series of which contains an ample bibliography ; Descrip-
tive and Historical Sketch of Curliny (1828), reprinted as
The Kilmarnock Treatise (1883); Curling, Ye Glorious
Pastime (1882), a reprint of the Account of the Game of
Curling (1811); Curling, by Dr James Taylor (1884).
There are, besides, the Annuals of the Royal Caledonian
Curling Club, 1839-88, This club in its jubilee year
(1888) undertook the preparation of a volume—the Rev.
J. Kerr’s History of Curling (1890).

Curll, EpMuNpD (1675-1747), a notorious Lon-
don bookseller of the first half of the 18th century.
His connection with Court Poems (1716) led to his
first quarrel with Pope, who afterwards made the
bookseller figure in the Dunciad. He earned an
unenviable reputation for the publication of in-
decent literature, which afterwards received the
brand of Curlicism.. He was twice (1716 and’ 1721)
at the bar of the House of Lords for bahar
matter regarding its members; was tried and con-
victed for publishing obscene books (1725), fined
(1728) for the issue of Nun in Her Smock and De
Usu Flagrerum, and she an hour in the pillory
for his Memoirs of John Ker of Kersland. His
announcement of Mr Pope’s Literary Correspond-
ence (1735) led to the seizure of the stock, and
furnished Pope (who has been proved to have insti-
gated its publication) with a sufficient excuse for
the issue of an authentic edition (1737-41). Curll
did not deal solely in garbage, as is shown in
a list of his containing 167 standard works, includ-
ing Swift’s Meditation on a Broomstick (1710), Dr
South’s works, &c. His Curliad (1729) is styled a
‘hypereritic upon the Dunciad Variorum.’ It was
of Curll’s biographies that Arbuthnot wittily said
they had added a new terror to death.

Currach. See CoRAc.ez.

Curragh, a large undulating down in the centre
of County Kildare in Ireland, 2 miles E. of
Kildare town. It is the property of the crown, and
in it is a large camp of exercise, established in 1855,
with accommodation for 12,000 troops (see CAMP).
The Curragh of Kildare is even better known asa
famous racecourse,

‘Curran, JOHN PHILPOT, Irish orator, was born
at N ewmarket in County Cork, son of the seneschal
of the Manor Court there, July 24, 1750. At
Trinity College, Dublin, he was as idle and reckless
as he had been at school, butspite of his dissipations
he contrived to learn something of law, and ‘the
boisterous taproom debates of his life in Dublin

and London shaped him into an orator. After two
years at the Middle Temple, London, he was called
to the Irish bar in 1775. Here his conviviality, his
wit, and his vehement eloquence, soon made him a
prominent figure, and led to his being employed in
many of the greatest causes of the time. In 1782 he
became King’s Counsel, and next year was returned
to the Irish parliament for Kilbeggan. He became
a strong supporter of Grattan, but his eloquence
roved less effective on the floor of the House than
befars an Irish jury. His sarcastic retorts led him
into several duels, of which, in the course of his
career, he fought no less than five, all fortunately
without serious harm. Although a staunch Pro-
testant like so many great Irish patriots, Curran —
had a warm sympathy with his suffering Catholic
countrymen, and was eloquent and constant in his
unavailing appeals to the government to change
a poligg was driving the Irish into rebel-
lion. ith his defence of Archibald Hamilton
Rowan in August 1792 commenced the long series
of defences in state-trials which have shed such a
lustre on his name. The insurrection at length
broke out in 1798, but was speedily suppressed,
whereupon the prosecutions of its leaders at once
began. Curran flung himself into their defence
with a heroic energy that rose above the brow-
beatings of the bench and insured him an im-
mortality of affection in the hearts of his fellow-
countrymen. The last of his defences was that of
Napper Tandy in May 1800. Then came the
Union, which Curran had always opposed as ‘the
annihilation of Ireland.’ His own health was now
shattered, and soon domestic troubles followed to
darken his later years. His wife eloped with a
clergyman, and his youngest daughter, Sarah, pined
away and died in Sicily, a few months after the hap-
less fate of her bright young lover, Robert Emmett
(1803). Her story is immortalised in Moore’s
well-known lines, ‘She is far from the land where
her young hero sleeps.’ After the death of Pitt
(1806) and the accession to power of the Whigs,
Curran was appointed Master of the Rolls in Ire-
land, an office which he held till his retirement in
1814. He died in London, 14th October 1817. His
remains were re-interred in Glasnevin Cemetery,
Dublin, in 1834, Curran’s little figure, ugly face,
bright black eyes, and intense vivacity, formal a
sufficiently unique personality ; but his brilliant
wit, his quickness in repartee, his mental acuteness,
and the astonishing felicity of his ready language
were altogether unparalleled, and made him easily
the master of his company. He well deserved
O’Connell’s epitaph: ‘There never was so honest
an Irishman.’ Ree Lives by his son, W. H.
Curran (1819), A. Stephens (1817), and O’Regan
(1817); also Ch. Phillips, Curran and his Con-
Se, gubesbys (1850). His Speeches were edited,
with a Life, by Thomas Davis, in 1855.

Currant, a name originally belonging to a small
kind of grape (see CURRANTS), and transferred, in
consequence of the similar size of the fruit, to many
species of Ribes (order Saxifragaceee, sub-order

rossulariace ). The species known as currants
are destitute of spines, and have the flowers in
racemes : the spiny species are known by the name
Gooseberry (q.v.). Among the fruit-shrubs most
generally cultivated in our gardens is the Red Cur-
rant (2. rubrum), Grosseille of the French, a native
of woods and thickets in the south of Europe,
found also in some parts of Asia and of North
America, perhaps rather a naturalised than a fale
native plant in Britain. It has long been cultivated,
although it does not appear that it had a place in
the gardens of the ancient Greeks or Romans. The
berries, besides being used for dessert, and to a
much greater extent for pies, and for making |
jelly (eaten with mutton. and ‘hare), are used :

ATES Pe am 2

td

—

CURRANT

CURRENCY 623

also for making an agreeable and refreshing
beverage, called in France Hau de Grosseilles

(made of the juice of the fruit, water and sugar,

strained and iced), and a well-known fermented
liquor called Currant Wine (q.v.).—The White
Currant is a mere variety of the red, the result of
cultivation, with fruit less acid, and more fit for
dessert, generally also
rather larger. There
are many sub-varie-
ties, and many inter-
mediate shades of col-
our, Both the red and
the white currants are
either trained as stan-
dard bushes, or against
walls, the latter treat-
ment producing larger
and finer fruit, and

trained on a_ north
wall, to retard their
ripening till after the
ordinaryseason. They
grow readily, like the
shrubs of this genus
in general, from cut-
tings. Unlike the
black currant, the red
and the white grow in
clustered bunches.—
The Black Currant (2.
nigrum), Cassis of the
French, grows in moist
woods, and on the
banks of streams in
Europe and the north
of Asia.” The fruit is
much larger than the
red currant, and culti-
vation has lately pro-
duced varieties re-
markable for size.
There is a variety
found in Russia with yellow berries, The jelly
and preserve made from it are very useful for sore
throats, as is also black currant vinegar, made in
the same manner as raspberry vinegar. In Russia,
the berries are gathered in large quantities in the
woods, and dried in ovens, to be used in pies. They
are tonic, and also slightly diuretic and sudorific.
A liqueur, called Liqueur de Cassis, is prepared in
France from the black currant, and it has been
suggested to introduce this manufacture in the
Hebrides and Shetland Islands. Those who are
fond of the flavour of green tea in mixture with
black, but to whom it is injurious, may effectually
gratify their taste by dropping one or two leaves or
a bud or two of black currant into the teapot during
the process of infusion.—Many other species, some
of them probably deserving of cultivation, are found
in temperate and cold climates in almost all parts
of the world. One with large beautiful red berries,
occurs on the Himalaya at an elevation of 13,000
feet.—R. oxyacanthoides, a native of North America,
is much like the common in flavour, and
the colour is red or n in different varieties. —R,
lacustre, also a North American species, produces
its fruit in bunches, a fruit like that of the black
currant.—The fruit of R. fragrans is sweet, bat
the species is more remarkable for the produc-
tion of a pleasant balsamic resin which exudes
from the under side of the leaves in yellow drops
and has the smell of black currants.—The RKed-
flowered Currant (2. sanguineum), now so com-
mon as an ornamental bush in shrubberies, and
trained on walls, producing in April a profu-
sion of deep-red flowers in large drouping racemes,

Red Currant.

both are sometimes.

is a native of the north-west of America, and was
introduced into Britain in 1826. Its bluish-black,
mucilaginous, insipid berries are not, as is popu-
larly believed, poisonous.—The Golden Currant (2,
aureum), also a very ornamental shrub, from the
same regions, has a tubular calyx and long golden-
qe owers. Its fruit, which is either yellow or

lack, and of fine flavour, is not freely produced in
Britain.—The name Native Currant, or Australian
Currant, is given in Australia to the berries of
different shrubs, particularly the white berries of
Leucopogon Richei (order Epacridacew), Other
fruits bearing the same name are produced by
species of Coprosma (order Cinchonacez ), but they
are very inferior.

Currants, « small kind of raisin, are the dried
red or blue berries of a small-fruited seedless variety
of the common vine, which is cultivated in the East,
and especially the Ionian Islands and in Greece.
The name, originally Raisins de Corinthe, is derived
from the city of Corinth, in the i, gcse of
which they were first cultivated. They are very
small, round, with a thin skin, without seeds, and
very sweet. Those brought from the island of
Zante are most esteemed. The grafting, pruning,
trimming, and irrigating of the vine-stocks, whic
of late have suffered from the phylloxera, involve
much labour. As the grapes ripen, the bunches
are dusted with sulphur, to keep off the dreaded
Oidium (q.v.); rain at this period always injures
and sometimes ruins the crop. The vin is in
August. The currants when ripe are spread out on
drying-grounds in layers half an inch thick, and
frequently turned. The currants, now loosened
from the grape-stick, are tightly packed in barrels
for exportation, and are an important Greek export.
In a few districts of Greece, a very sweet wine is
made from currants. The duty on currants im-
poe into Britain fell from 44s. per ewt. before

834 to 7s. in 1860. Our import is about 126,000
tons per annum. In 1877-91, when the vines were
suffering from the plylloxera, France imported
enormous quantities for wine-making.

Currant Wine is made of the juice of red or
white currants, to which is added about one pint of
water for every four pints of berries employed.
About a pound and a half of sugar is afterwards
added to each pint of the liquor, a little spirits being
geese also added, before it is set aside to ferment.

larger quantity of sugar is sometimes employed,
and no water, and a stronger and sweeter currant
wine is thus produced. Fermentation requires
several weeks, and the wine is not fit for use for
at least some months afterwards, Black currant
wine is made in the same way from black currants,
but the fruit is put on the tire in as small a quan-
tity of water as ible, and heated to the boiling-
point before it is bruised. :

Currency means originally the capacity of
being current, or, as Johnson defines it, ‘the power
of passing from hand to hand.’ It is applied in
practice to the sing. that is so current, and gener-
ally to whatever, by being current among any
nation or class of persons, serves as the money with
which they buy commodities or pay their debts. It
is necessary to be content with a practical explana-
tion, without venturing on a scientific definition of
the term, because, among the many disputed points
in political economy, there is none productive of
more exciting controversy than the proper regula-
tion of the currency; and the advocate of each
theory is apt to define the term according to the
view he takes of the functions of government
regarding currency. Whether correctly or not, it
is applied in practice to everything that is received
for payment. . It differs from the word money, in its
popular acceptation, in as far as it includes various

624 CURRENCY

CURSE OF SCOTLAND

substitutes for the metallic money of a country,
especially bank-notes. The leading question among

olitical economists regarding currency is, how far
it should be restrained. The most effectual method
of restraining it is by confining it to the precious
metals. If it were law that none but a gold cur-
rency should be used in any country, and if, at the
same time, there were no effort to tamper with this
gold currency, and give it an artificial value, the
currency of that country would always be adjusted
to the general level of prices throughout the com-
mercial world, and if it were redundant would be
at once exported, and if deficient at once imported
in exchange for commodities.

A country which does not produce gold must
pay for its gold with commodities, and conse-

uently it is a very expensive currency, and

therefore, ever since man’s ingenuity was turned
to trade, methods have been devised for super-
seding gold or the other precious metals by
something cheaper. Unless, however, law . or
custom intervenes to give it efficiency, this cheaper
material will only be worth its own (so-called)
intrinsic value. <A five-pound Bank of England
note is worth so little in its intrinsic value as a
pea upon thin paper, that such a value can
1ardly be expressed. It derives its power as cur-
rency from the obligation it fixes on a great rich
corporation to make good its professed amount to
the holder. We thus pass.from a purely bullion
pa to the next step of restraint, which is
generally called. a mixed currency. Here some
maintain that no note should be issued unless the
banker or other person issuing it has in his posses-
sion as much bullion as will pay it. Others say it
is sufficient that he is bound to pay its amount in
bullion on demand without his actually possessing
the bullion throughout the whole pantie of the cur-
rency of the note. A third party, again, are for a
currency entirely free of a metallic basis ; they hold
that naturally paper money, passing from hand to
hand, will represent transactions, and will there-
fore come in the end to be made good in some shape
or other ; and they further hold, that if some losses
should thus occur, these will be more than com-
pensated by the rapid increase of trade and enter-
prise, caused by a free trade in currency, as it is
termed—that is to say, by every man issuing his
own notes or promises to pay to whoever will take
them. As a matter of fact, every nation beyond
the first stage of civilisation has always regulated
its currency, and Adam Smith carefully points out
that this is no real infringement of natural liberty
and free trade. Through a succession of practical
measures, reached with considerable caution, the
English have come to a mixed currency, resting on
a compromise between the two classes of mixed
currency above referred to. In the theory of the
measures brought to completion under Sir Robert
Peel in 1844, it is admitted that, to a certain ex-
tent, a currency can be based on transactions and
the property of those concerned in them, but that
a limit must be drawn, to prevent the power of
creating such a currency from running to excess, by
the issue of notes which cannot be immediately
made good by those who issue them. Accordingly,
the several banks in existence were allowed to
continue their note circulation, but they were per-
mitted to increase it only on the condition of
having bullion in their coffers to pay the additional
notes issued by them.

A currency which is not worth its nominal value
in bullion is called a ‘depreciated currency.’ Dur-
ing the period of the restriction of cash payments
(1797-1821), the notes of the Bank of England were
at one time (1816) depreciated 162 percent. Before
the resumption of cash payments, the notes of the
Bank of England had sunk to be worth but 16s, in

the pound, as compared with gold. During the
civil war in the United States, the paper dollar
sank in 1864 to 38 cents; it did not reach par (100
cents) till 1879. A depreciated currency may be
created by a government calling notes or any
other form of money a legal standard, and issuing
a greater quantity of it than the real trans-
actions of the country and the property passing
from hand to hand require ; or it may be created by
private persons acting under laws by which the
right of issuing a currency is not duly limited.
This faculty which a currency has of becomin
depreciated without being repudiated, is the rea
source of danger in all proposals for an unfettered
currency, or a free trade in the issue of money. If
the ean seeben for which bullion cannot be immedi-
ately obtained were repudiated, there might be a
natural che+k on over-issues ; but it is their nature,
on account of the difficulty of getting bullion for
them, or the chance that it may never be got, that
they pass at a discount or reduction of their value.
Hence such a currency would be ever shifting ;
there would be no permanent standard, and the

erson incurring a debt before a depreciation which
is pays afterwards would, in reality, be paying his
creditor a dividend only. A ‘token’ currency, the
material of which is avowedly overvalued, and
which is issued in limited quantities for use in
small payments, must be distinguished from a
depreciated currency. In the silver currency of
Britain, a pound is worth little more than four-
fifths of a sovereign, even at the old valuation of
silver, at about 60d. per oz. If a person due £100
could pay it in silver, he would get off with a divi-
dend of from 16s. to 18s. in the pound ; but by law,
silver is not a legal tender for more than 40s. The
copper currency is so far below its real value, that
it has not been thought worth while to give it a
permanent weight—the pence and halfpence now
issued are little more than half the weight of those
of former mintages ; but they are only a medium
for small sums, and the royal stamp establishes
reliance. See BIMETALLISM, BULLION, MONEY,
and W. A. Shaw’s History of Currency (1895).

Currents, OCEANIC, are treated in the articles
on the oceans to which they belong—ATLANTIC
Pactiric, &c. See also GULF STREAM, SEA, an
the Map of the Atlantic in Vol. I.

Currie, JAMEs, the earliest editor of Burns, was
born at Kirkpatrick Fleming manse, in Dumfries-
shire, 31st May 1756. He spent five years at Cabin
Point, Virginia, in a mercantile situation (1771-
76), then studied medicine at Edinburgh and
Glasgow ; and settling in Liverpool in 1780, soon
obtained a good practice. His chief medical work
was the aiite Reports on the Effects of Water in
Febrile Disease (1797); but he is best remembered
by his edition of Burns (1800; 7th ed. 1813), with
a Life and criticism of the poet’s writings, which he
undertook solely for the benefit of Burns’s family,
and which was long the basis of all subsequent
editions. Dr Currie died at Sidmouth, 31st August
1805. See the Life by his son (2 vols. 1831).

Currying. See LEATHER.

Curry Powder, or Curry PASTE, is a com-
pound of turmeric, coriander, pepper, ginger, and
various spices ; it is used to a large extent in India
and elsewhere as a seasoning for a variety of
dishes.

Curse of Scotland, a term popularly applied
to the nine of diamonds in a pack of playing-cards.
Perhaps the least worthless of the many explana-
tions offered is that it involves a reference to the
detestation entertained in Scotland towards John
Dalrymple, first Earl of Stair, on account of his
activity in promoting the Union, and especially for
his share in the Massacre of Glencoe. His heralaic

CURSING

CURVE 625

somata oy ‘or, on a saltire azure, nine lozenges of
the ,’ bore a fanciful resemblance to the nine of
diamonds.

Oursing. See Swearina,
4. Cursitor, an old name for clerks of the Court
of Chancery who made out writs. The Cursitor
used to administer oaths to sheriffs, bailiffs,

‘ in Fortification, is the portion of ram-
pert connecting one Bastion (q.v.) with another.

-Purtesy. See Courtesy.

Curtis, Georce WiLiiAM, American author,
born in Providence, Rhode Island, in.1824; in 1850
joined the staff of the New York 7ribune, and was
one of the editors of Putnam’s esate ob ~ 1852
- to 1869. He commenced the ‘ Editor's Easy Chair’

papers in Harper's Monthly in 1853, and became
principal leader-writer for Harper's Weekly on its
establishment in 1857. A novel, Trumps (1862),
and most of his books appeared first in these jour-
nals. Until 1884 he was a Republican; then he
supported Cleveland. He died at New York, 31st
August 1892. See Life by E. Cary (1894).

Curtius, Ernst, a distinguished German classi-

archeologist and historian, born September 2,
1814, at Liibeck. He studied philology at Bonn,
Giéttingen, and Berlin, visited Athens with Brandis
in 1837, and next seag See ae his teacher, Ottfried
Miiller, in his travels through Greece. For some
time he taught in two Berlin gymnasiums, next
became extraordinary professor at the university
there, and (1844-49) tutor to the Crown Prince of
Prussia. In 1856 he succeeded Hermann as pro-
fessor at Gittingen, whence he was recalled in 1868
to become ordinary professor at Berlin. From

1853 a member of the eyal Academy of Sciences,
he was in 1871-93 one of its permanent secretaries.
His earlier works were Klassische Studien (1840),
Anecdota Delphica (1843), Inscriptiones Attica
Duodecim (1843), and Die Akropolis von Athen
(1844). The fruits of his repeated visits to
Greece and Asia Minor—last in the spring of
1874, to make paceraeras for the intended ex-
cavations at Olympia at the instance of the
German government—appear partly in the memoirs
of the Géttingen Society of Sciences and of the
Berlin Academy, and ee, age his books, Nazos
(1846), Olympia (1852), Die TIonier (1855), Die
Lopographie ‘leinasiens (1872), and Ephesos (1874).
His orations, delivered at Gottingen in the capacity
of ‘ Professor Eloquentie,’ were collected in 1864 ;
those at Berlin, under the title, Altertum und
Gegenwart (2 vols. 1875-82). Besides these and
numerous peer in the special archeological and
philological journals, Curtius published Pelopon-
nesos (2 vols. 1851-52), a luminous description of
that part of Greece, and Griechische Geschichte
(3 vols. 1857-61 ; 6th ed. 1887-89; trans. by A. W.
Ward, 1868-76), a work unequalled for its insight
into the artistic growth and development of the
Greek race. With Kaupert he prepared the Atlas
von Athen (1878); earlier, with Adler and Hirseh-
feld, Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia, the official
account of the excavations at Olympia (3 vols.
1877-78). He died 11th July 1896.

Curtius, GerorG, a distinguished classical
scholar, the brother of the preceding, was born at
Liibeck, April 16, 1820, and studied at Bonn and
Berlin. After teaching some time at Dresden and
Berlin, he became in_ 1849 extraordinary, in 1851
ordinary, professor of Classical Philology at Prague,
and settled as such at Kiel in 1854, at Leipzig in
1862. He died August 12, 1885. One of the
soundest Greek scholars in Germany, Curtius was
the first philologist of the generation that succeeded
the giants Bopp and Benfey. His most important

144

works were Griechische Schulgrammatis: (1852 ; 20th
ed. 1890), translated into many languages (into
English in Dr Smith's series in 1863); next the Er-
lduterungen to the any sege (1863; 3d ed, 1875),
translated into English by Abbott in 1870; Grund-

iige der Griechischen if (1858; 5th ed.,
with the collaboration of A. Windisch, 1879), trans-
lated into English by A. 8. Wilkins and E,. B.
England, 1875-76; and Das Verbum der Griechisch-
en aeceche (1873-76; 2d ed. 1877-80), translated
by ilkins and England, 1880, Other works were

Nominum Grecorum Formatione (1842), Die

apraphnergisicnens in ihrem Verhdltniss zur Klas-
sischen P. hes, 59 (1845), i pases pay med Bei-
trige zur Griechischen und Lateinischen Grammatik
(1846), Philologie und Sprachwissenschaft (1862),
Zur Chronologie der i A yprachfor-
schung (1867; 2d ed. 1873), and Zur Kritik der
neuesten Sprachforschung (1885), his last work, in
which he vigorously assails the theories of the ‘ new
grammarians,’ and to explain the word-changes in
a language maintains the necessity of a third prin-
ciple of varying or sporadic change, in addition to
invariable phonetic law and the operation of
analogy. In the famous Studien zur Griech. und
Lat. Grammatik (10 vols. Leip. 1868-77) Curtius
united his own pepecs with those of his pupils and
others, including Brugmann, Fick, G. Meyer, and
Windisch. The ninth volume contained Brug-
mann’s famous paper on the ‘ nasalis sonans,’ whic
first marked the revolt of the ‘neogrammatici’
against the master and traditional philology.
Curtius founded in 1878, with L. Lange,
Ribbeck, and H. Lipsius, the Leipziger Studien
zur Klassischen Philologie.

Curtius, METTus or METTIUS, a noble Roman

outh who heroically sacrificed his life for the wel-
of his country, 362 B.c. A yawning chasm had
opened in the forum, and the soothsayers declared
it could only be filled by throwing into it the most
precious treasure of Rome; whereupon Curtius
appeared on horseback in full armour, and exclaim-
ing: ‘ Rome has no gg riches than courage and
arms,’ leaped into the abyss, which at once closed
over him.

Curtius, QuINTUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus),
author of the work De us Gestis Alexandri
Magni, in ten books, of which the first two have
been lost, and the text of the remainder has come
down to us in an imperfect condition. Some critics
have placed him in the reign of Augustus against
the evidence of his style, which is moulded on that
of Seneca, and would naturally suggest a writer
contemporary with Claudius and Nero; others, as
Niebuhr, under Severus ; and others again much
later. Curtius was poorly equipped as a historian,
and his book has but little value as history ; but its
style, if mannered and declamatory, is elegant and

leasing. The editio princeps was published at
Morten about 1471. odern editions are those of
Miitzell (1841), Zumpt (1849), and Vogel (1875-80).

Curule Chair (sella curiilis), the chair of
honour of the old Roman kings, and later of con-
suls, preetors, ‘curule ediles,’ and some of the
other higher magistrates of the republic having
senatorial rank. It was a folding-stool originally
of ivory, then of metal, with curved legs crossing.

Curvature. For Curvature of Strata, see
ANTICLINE, GEOLOGY, MouNTAINS; for Curva-
ture of Spine, see SPINAL COLUMN.

Curve, a line described by a point moving so -
that the direction changes at every instant ; and in
mathematics the term curvature is restricted to
lines that follow some law in their change of direc-
tion. Thus, the law of the circle is, that all points
of it are equally distant from a fixed point, called
the centre. The law of a plane curve is generally

626 CURWEN

CUST

expressed by an equation between the co-ordinates
of any point in it referred to a fixed point ; and thus
the doctrine of curves becomes matter of algebra
(see CO-ORDINATES). When the equation of a
curve contains only powers of x and y, the curve
is algebraic; when the equation contains other
functions, logarithms, for instance, of « and y, the
curve is called transcendental. The cycloid, e.g.,
is a transcendental curve. '

There are also curves, like some spirals, that do
not continue in one plane ; these are called curves
of double curvature, and require, in analysis, three
co-ordinates and two equations.—Curves are said to
be of the first, second, third, &c. order, eae
as their-equations involve the first, second, thir
tbe of zor y. The circle, ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola are of the second order of curves. There
is only one line of the first order—viz. the straight
line, which is also reckoned among the curves.—
The higher geometry investigates the amount of
curvature of curves, their length, the surface they
inclose, their tangents, normals, asymptotes,
evolutes and involutes, &e.

The number of curves that might be drawn is of
course infinite. A large number have received
names, and are objects of great interest to the
mathematician—in some cases, for their beauty, in
others, for their geometrical properties. Among
the most interesting are the following : (1) Circle ;
(2) ellipse ; (3) hyperbola; (4) parabola ; (5) cissoid of
Diocles ; (6) conchoid of Nicomedes ; (7) lemniscata ;
(8) eyeloid ; (9) harmonic curve ; (10) trochoid ; (11)
the witch ; (12) cardioid ; (13) curves of cireular
functions—e.g. curve of sines ; (14) the logarithmic
curve and other plane spirals, such as that of Archi-
medes, the lituus, the reciprocal or hy erbolic, and
the involute (q.v.) of the circle ; (15) the catenary ;
(16) the tractory ; (17) the tractrix ; (18) the ovals
of Cassini.

Curwen, JOHN, the apostle of the Tonic Solfa-
system of teaching music, was the son of an In-
so Sams minister, and was born at Heckmond-
wike, Yorkshire, 14th November 1816. He was
trained for the ministry, and after having served
as assistant in various charges, was settled as
minister of the Independent chapel at Plaistow.
In 1841 he began to advocate the Sol-fa System
(q.v.); in 1843 his Grammar of Vocal Musie ap-

eared ; in 1864 he resigned his ministry and gave
imself wholly to the cause. He died 6th May
1880. See Memorials of John Curwen (1882).

Cur’zola, a Dalmatian island, 30 miles by 5,
with a pop. of 15,000, of whom 2000 are in the town
of Curzola.

Cusa, NICOLAUS OF (1401-64), born at Cusa or
Kues on the Moselle, studied at Deventer with
the Brothers of the Common Life and at Padua.
As archdeacon of Liége he took the anti-papal side
at the Council of Basel ; but was ultimately Bishop
of Brixen in Tyrol, cardinal, and papal legate to
Constantinople. He exposed the false Isidorian
decretals, denounced perverted scholasticism in
De Docta Ignorantia, taught that the earth went
round the sun, and in pantheistic tendencies and
otherwise was a precursor of Giordano Bruno.
See German monographs by Diix (1848), Scharpff
(1871), and Glossner (1891).

Cuscus, 2 marsupial akin to the Phalanger (q.v.).

Cush, the son of Ham (q.v.), and father of the
Cushites. See ETHIOPIA, SEMITES.

Cushing, CALes, American statesman, born in
Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1800, was admitted to
the bar in 1821, sat in the state legislature and
senate, and was elected to congress in 1835-43. He
arranged the first treaty between China and the
United States in 1844; raised and commanded a
regiment in the war with Mexico ; and was United

States attorney-general in 1853-57, counsel for the
United States at the Geneva Conference in 1872,
and minister to Spain in 1874-77. He died in 1879.

Cushman, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS, a distin-
guished American actress, born in Boston in 1816,
appeared first in opera in 1834, and as Lady
Macbeth in 1835. iss Cushman played some-
times in high comedy, but her name is identified
with tragic parts. In 1844 she accompanied
Macready on a tour through the northern states,
and afterwards appeared in London, where she was
well received in a range of characters that included
Lady Macbeth, Rosalind, Meg Merrilees, and

Romeo—her sister Susan (1822-59) playing Juliet. -

Miss Cushman retired from the stage in 1875, and
died in Boston, 18th February 1876.

Cusk. See Torsk.

Cusp (Lat. cuspis, ‘a lance-point’). If we con-
ceive a curve to be generated by a moving —

then a cusp is where the point suddenly stops and.

eae ay ;
A op ae

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

returns for a time in the same general direction as
that in which it was moving when it reached the
cusp point. A later name is ‘spinode.’ When two
branches (as BA, CA) meet a common tangent
without extending further, the point of contact is
acusp. Fig. 1 is an example of the first species,
and 2 of the second. :

Cusparia. See ANGosTURA BARK.

Cusps, curved projections or featherings in
Gothic tracery,
arches, panels, &c.
They began in the
Early English period,
when they projected
from the flat soffit
of the arch; but
they were soon com-

rised in the mould-
ings, and generally
spring from the inner
splay or cavetto. In

ecorated and Per-
pendicular work the
points were length-
ened, and were frequently ornamented with flowers,
heads, &e.

Cusset, a small town in the French department
of Allier, 2 miles NE. of Vichy, with two mineral
springs. Pop. 5356.

Cusso, Kusso, or CaBorz ( Brayera anthelmin-
tica), a small Abyssinian tree of the order Rosaceze,
sub-order Spirzeaceze, the dried flowers of which
have been long infused in Abyssinia as an anthel-
mintic, and have been found so efficacious in the

Cusp.

removal of tapeworm, that they were in_ 1874.

introduced into European pharmacy as Flores
Kusso.

Cust, Ropert NEEDHAM, was born in 1821, at
Cockayne-Hatley, Bedfordshire, studied at Eton,
and entered the Indian civil service. He held
various important administrative and judicial posts
in North India, in 1864-65 was a member of the
legislative council, and returned to England in 1869.
He is a member of many learned societies at home
and abroad, has contributed extensively to their

Transactions, and has published works on the—

—

CUSTARD

CUSTOMS DUTIES 627

modern languages of the East Indies (1878), of
_ Africa (1882), and of Oceania, as well as as tr
and Oriental Essays and Sketches of Anglo-Indian

©ustard, a composition of milk or cream, eggs,
&e,, sweetened with sugar, and flavoured according
_totaste. Custards are of various kinds, such as
plain, baked, lemon, orange, almond, coffee
custards, &c. For a plain custard, take four eggs
and beat them well with two tablespoonfuls of
flour and a a cold aes ae oe —_
Sugar, ground cinnamon, gra emon- » an
_ pour on a pint of boiling milk, sibriiarte all the
e. It may be either baked or boiled. If more
eggs are used, the flour may be omitted. Flavour-
ing ingredients may be added according to taste.

. ©ustard Apple, the name commonly given
in the West Indies and other tropical countries to
the fruits of certain species of Anona (order
Anonacew, allied to Ranunculacew). Some of the
fruits of this genus are among the most delicious
uced in tropical countries, as the Cherimoya
A. cherimolia), and even the Common Custard
Apple (A. sguamosa or reticulata), which is a native
of America, but is now very common throughout
the East Indies. It is a large, greenish, or dark-
brown, roundish fruit, sometimes from its size and
france called Bullock’s Heart in the West
Indies; the tree is of considerable size. Some
other American species and varieties are sometimes
called custard apples, and two or three which are
natives of Western Africa. A. muricata, the sour-
sop, A. (As:mina) triloba, the pappaw-tree of the
warmer parts of North America, and A. palustris,
the dog or alligator apple of the West Indies, may
also be mentioned. A. laurifolia grows in Florida
“a ie West Indies; its large fruit is hardly
eatable.

Custer, GEORGE ARMSTRONG,
soldier, born in Ohio in 1839, uated at West
Point in 1861, and served with distinction through
the civil war, retiring with the rank of major-
general. He afterwards held various cavalry
commands in the west, and several times defeated
the hostile Indians. On 15th May 1876, with a
force of 1100 men, he attacked a of Sioux,
afterwards found to number some , encamped
on the Little Big Horn, in Montana, and he and
his entire command were destroyed. See his Life
by Whittaker (New York, 1878).

Custom, in English Law. This is either general
or particular. For the principal doctrines relating
to general customs, see COMMON LAw. In order
to establish particular customs as law, they must
be ror by verdict of a jury, except the custom
of the city of London, which is proved by certificate
by the lord mayor, aldermen, and recorder. A
particular custom must, like a general custom, be
established as in force for a time whereof the
memory of man runneth not to the contrary. A
custom must have been uninterrupted and
able, reasonable, and certain ; compulsory—i.e. not
in the option of every person whether he will use
it or not—and consistent with other customs.

The customs and usages of England were adopted
by the United States government at its foundation
as far as Elegies to the condition of the country,
and have the effect of positive law. They cannot
be set aside by implication, but only by statutes.
Customs and usages are frequently invoked in the
interpretation of positive law, particularly when a
conservative interpretation is required. A marked
instance of this is found in the interpretation of
generic words used in the federal and state consti-
tutions and laws, so as to deprive women citizens
of the right to the elective franchise in a govern-
ment founded upon equality of citizenship, and to

American

o

~~

restrict their industrial sphere. See Customs
DuTIEs.

Customs Duties, the portion of the revenue
derived from a tax on imports. In some countries,
customs duties are imposed on certain exports
also. The origin of the term is connected with the
long conflict between the crown and parliament as
to the right of taxation, although the practice it
signifies is as old as the Roman empire, and is even
to be traced among the ancient Greeks. To meet
the claims made by the House of Commons to the
exclusive right to vote all supplies, it used to be
maintained that there were certain duties on
exportation and on importation to which the
crown had acquired a right by custom (although it
is certain that customs duties existed in England
prior to the Norman Conquest), and after the

wer of parliament over this branch of taxation

ad been fully established it retained its old name.
This tax, which originally was a sort of premium
of insurance for Seger from robbery, after the
excise came in force was always applicable dis-
tinetively to goods changing place. There were
customs not only upon things leaving and things
coming to the British dominions, but also upon
commodities transferred from one part to another.
In Scotland the duty on commodities imported
into any town from a foreign country was called
the great custom; and the duty charged by a
burghal corporation on commodities coming within
its walls from the country districts was called the
small or petty customs. After 1707 the Scotch
customs duties became the same as those of England.
At present the term customs duties applies in the
United Kingdom solely to the tax levied on com-

modities imported from abroad.
The tax on imports was of old a simple percent-
age, familiarly known to the readers of English

history as ‘tunnage and poundage,’ from the
method in which it was levied on the tun of wine,
or the pound ad valorem of other mercliandise.
These were subsidies granted first to the crown, and
then for the maintenance of the authority and
dignity of the state. That is to say, they were
forms of public revenue; and many complications
arose by the additions and alterations of successive
governments. Out of this confusion, no doubt,
arose the belief that customs duties might be
utilised for fostering domestic industries and
a foreign competition. When it came
to be held as an established principle, with regard
to any trade, that the customs should be adjusted
in such a manner as either to aid or to impede it,
the regulations regarding that trade alone would
have complexity enough for a whole code of
customs laws, the original object of which was mere
revenue. The more complex the arrangements,
the more open were they to the operations of the
smuggler or defrauder, and, consequently, regula-
tion had to be added to regulation, till the whole
became a chaos. Frequently the duties were
such as to act as a prohibition to importation,
and they always added a heavy increase to the
rice. Sometimes there would be_ relaxations
in favour of the produce of British colonies,
and sometimes of some favoured country with
which Britain had a treaty of reciprocity. Then,
to encou trade and manufactures, it was con-
sidered politic to allow goods to be imported for
re-exportation abroad, or to be imported for the
purpose of being worked up into a manufacture,
and there would be a difference between the extent
of wgireion, wag granted to that manufacture if it
were for home consumption or for exportation.
The method in which such relaxation was accom-
plished was at first by charging the duty on the
importation, and afterwards repaying it by what
was called a ‘drawback;’ and this was subse-

628 CUSTOMS DUTIES

CUTHBERT

quently accomplished in an easier method for the
importer, by allowing him to ‘bond’ the goods in
the government warehouses until the duty was
pecs or the conditions which dispensed with it
ulfilled. An ordinary importer was also allowed
to ‘bond’ his goods, instead of being compelled, as
in the old times, to pay duty on arrival of the
vessel whether he had sold his cargo or not. See
BONDED WAREHOUSES. ‘

In the year 1825 the laws of the British customs
were consolidated into some half-dozen statutes. It
will give a conception of the confused and eumber-
some condition into which the system had merged,
to note that the number of acts repealed on the
occasion of the consolidation was 443, and it was
afterwards discovered that several had been
omitted. There was still a long list of customs
duties ; but the free-trade legislation of 1846 cleared
away a great mass of this burden on the commerce
of the country, and there has been steady abbrevia-
tion of the list of duties or Tariff (q.v.). One by
one, articles of food have been exempted; and
nearly the whole customs revenue is now derived
from spirits, wine, tobacco, tea, coffee, and dried
fruits. The tendency has for some time been to
concentrate the customs duties on a few articles,
and yet they supply an enormous amount of
revenue. The British revenue for the year ending
3lst March 1895 was £94,684,000, and to this
amount the customs contributed £20,115,000. Down
to 1845 the tariff included some 1200 articles.

The defects which, according to the doctrines
now prevalent in Great Britain, are to be avoided
in a code of customs, are—l. The prohibition or
discouragement of the importation of useful com-
modities ; 2. Encouragement to the smuggler; and
3. Loss of revenue by raising the duty to the
height which discourages importation. Under the
first head, see CorN LAws, and FREE TRADE. The
second is connected with the view that on stimu-
lants the duty cannot be too high, even though it
should greatly impede their importation: but on
the other hand, if the smuggling trade be en-
couraged, the stimulant is not only obtained with-
out any contribution to the revenue, but the
people ecome demoralised and trained to crime.

nder the third head a memorable example was
furnished by the old sugar-duties of France, which
were so high that the native agriculturists could
make sugar from beet-root cheaper than the duty-
paid foreign sugar.

The collection and general management of British
customs duties is under one great central depart-
ment of the government in London. The office of
receiver-general was in 1871 united with that of the
comptroller-general, and there is a fourfold division
into the paymaster’s, examiner’s, accountant’s, and
auditor’s branches. The annual cost of collecting
the customs dues and managing the necessary
establishments is about £952,000, although the
tariff contains now only twenty dutiable imports.

In the United States, the number of dutiable
articles is large. Of the total imports the dutiable
have nearly double the value of the free goods.
In 1890-95 the total imports had a value of from
$655,000,000 to $870,000,000; and in the years of
largest imports the customs duties reach a value of
$200,000,000, being by far the largest item in the
total national revenue—say, from $300,000,000 to
$400,000,000. The very large surplus from customs
has led to keen debate. See also TAX, EXCISE.

Custom House (Fr. douane, Ger. Zollamt),
the office at a seaport or frontier where the customs
duties are paid, vessels entered and. cleared, &c.
In England the custom-house officer has the right
of personal search only when he has good cause to
suspect that contraband goods are concealed about
the person. See SMUGGLING.

Custos Rotulorum (Lat., ‘keeper of the
rotuli or rolls’) is the person appointed by the
crown to keep the records of the county sessions.
The office is an ancient one, and can only be held
by a justice of peace. In fact it is usually held by
the lord-lieutenant. In practice the rolls are kept
by the clerk of the peace, an officer appointed by
the Custos Rotulorum.

Custozza, a village 10 miles SW. of Verona,
where the Italians have twice been utterly defeated
by the Austrians. On 23d—25th July 1848 Charles
Albert was routed after severe fighting by Radetzky
with a smaller force, and forced to retreat behind the —
Mincio; and on 24th June 1866, Victor Emmanuel
with 130,000 men was defeated by the Archduke —
Albert with 75,000 men.

Ciistrin. See Kustrin.

Cuteh (Kachchh), a protected principally
the government of Bombay, stretches along the Gulf
of Cutch and the Indian Ocean between Gujarat and
Sind. Excluding the Rann of Cutch, it is 160 miles
long from E. to W., and 30 to 70 broad from N. to 8.
The state, exclusive of the Rann, consists of 6500
pe m., is the belt on the seashore, touching Sind,
of which it may be regarded as a physical continua-
tion, on the north-west, and being separated by a
detached portion of the Rann from Gujarat on the
south-east. While the southern edge of this belt
is merely a sandy desert, the northern section,
traversed lengthwise by two parallel ranges of hills,
presents, amid much sterility, many fertile tracts,
which yield cotton, rice, &c., and feed a large stock
of horses, kine, buffaloes, and camels. The grand
defect of the country is the scarcity of water. The
mineral productions are coal, iron, and alum. The
traces of voleanic action are numerous, and earth-
quakes also have recently occurred, as in 1819,
1844, 1845, 1864; that of 1819, besides shaking
every fortified city to its foundations, and destroy-
ing many hundred lives, changed the level of part
of the Rann. The population of the state, accord-
ing to the census of 1891, was 558,415, being 86
individuals to a square mile. The ruler is styled
the Rao; and the feudatory chieftains under him
are about 200. The capital is Bhuj.

The Rann or Runn of Cutch—subdivided into
two parts, the smaller, of nearly 2000 sq. m., on the
east, and the larger, of 7000 sq. m., on the north—
is a desert, being mainly caked, hard ground
during the dry season, and then in turn a sort of
shallow lake formed by the heavy rains and pent-
up tides of the south-west monsoon. It is supposed
to have been originally a permanent inlet of the
ocean, and to have had its level raised by some
such convulsion of nature as that which marked
the year 1819. The periodical disappearance of the
waters leaves behind it one continuous crust of salt.
This dreary waste has a few elevated spots on
which a little vegetation grows. Herds of wild
asses aid clouds of flies are its only inhabitants,
The sea is at present advancing into the little
Rann year by year. For the substance called
Cutch, see CATECHU.

Cuthbert, St, or DURHAM, was one of the three
great saints of England in the middle ages, the
other two being St Edmund of Edmundsbury, and
St Thomas-i-Becket of Canterbury. St Cuthbert
was born about 635. A legend, which was long
generally believed, tells that he was born in Ire-
land, and drew his lineage from one of the petty
kings of that country; but another tradition fixes
his birth in what is now Berwickshire. When the
light of record first falls upon him, he was a shep-
herd boy in the kingdom of Northumbria, which
then stretched northwards to the Forth. In 651,
while watching his flock by night on the heights of
Lauderdale, he believed that he saw the heavens

CUTHBERT

CUTLERY 629

open, and a com of angels descend upon the
earth, and at asced soc kenivie: carrying with
them the soul of St Aidan, the pious Bishop of
Lindisfarne, or Holy Island. The vision deter-
- mined him to become a monk, and in the same year
he entered the monastery of Old Melrose, of which
‘St Boisil was then provost or prior, and St Eata
abbot. When the latter removed to the newly-
- founded monastery of Ripon, Cuthbert accom-
him, and was appointed to the office of
superintendent of the guests. In consequence of
the dispute as to the keeping of Easter, which
was then raging, Eata returned to Melrose,
ad Cuthbert, having accompanied him, was on
the death of St Boisil in 661. elected prior of
the monastery. While in this office, he distin-
guished himself by his assiduity in visiting the
er oenaing country, and especially the remoter
mountain hamlets, sometimes on horseback, but
-oftener on foot, and gamer, ad his teaching and
example to reclaim the people from the superstitious
or pagan rites into which they had fallen. After a
few years spent in this way, he left Melrose for the
island monastery of Lindisfarne, of which he became
bey his old master, St Eata, being abbot. Long-
ing for an austerer life even than the monastic, he

‘quitted Lindisfarne in 676, to become an anchorite,
or solitary recluse, in a hut which he built with his
own hands on House Island, one of the Farne

group. Here, in 684, he was visited by Ecgfrid,
_ king of Northumbria; Trumuine, ex-bishop of the
Picts, and other t men of the north, who came
at the request of the synod of Twyford to entreat
_ that he would accept the bishopric of Hexham. He
_ reluctantly complied with their wishes, but shortly
after exchanged the see of Hexham for that of
Lindisfarne. Still thirsting after solitude, at the
end of two years he resigned his bishopric, and
_ returned to his hut, where he died on the 20th of
March 687. The anniversary of his death was a
_ great festival in the early English Church, which
commemorated also the 4th of September, as the
anniversary of the day on which his body was
‘translated to Durham. The influence which St
_ Cuthbert exercised upon his age seems to have been
due chiefly to his fervent piety and extraordina
asceticism. The gift of a persuasive tongue is
ascribed to him, and he would seem to have had
skill and prudence in the management of affairs,
but nowhere is there any trace of his learning.

The fame of St Cuthbert had been great during
his life; it became far greater after his death.
Churches were dedicated to him throughout all
the wide country between the Trent and Mersey
on the south, and the Forth and Clyde on the

north. It is stated that when his tomb was opened
_ at the end of eleven years, his body was found
incorrupt, and so, for more than 800 years, it was
believed still to continue. It remained at Lindis-
- farne till 875, when the monks, bearing it on their

shoulders, fled inland from the fury of the Danes.
_ After many wanderings it found a resting-place at
_Chester-le-Street in 883. It was transferred to
Ripon in 995, and in the same year it was removed
to Durham. Here, inclosed in a costly shrine, and
believed to work daily miracles, it remained till
the Reformation. The grave was opened in 1826,
when a coffin was found to inclose another, which
there was reason to suppose had been made in 1104;
and this again incl a third, which answered the
description of one made in 698, when the saint was
raised from his first ve. This innermost case
contained, not, indeed, the incorruptible body of
St Cuthbert, but his skeleton, still entire, wrapped
in five robes of embroidered silk. Fragments of
‘these, and of the = og vestments, together
with a comb and other relics, found beside the
bones, are to be seen in the cathedral library.

=
.
4
7:

The asceticism which distinguished St Cuthbert
in life, long lingered round his tomb. Until the
Reformation, no woman was suffered to approach
his shrine. His wrath, it was believed, was equally
prompt to avenge every injury to the honour or
ions of his church. A cloth said to have
n used by St Cuthbert in celebrating mass was
fashioned into a standard, which was believed to
insure victory to the army in whose ranks it was
carried. Flodden was only one of many fields in
which the defeat of the Scots was ascribed to the
banner of St Cuthbert.

The Life of St Cuthbert was twice written by the
Venerable Bede. Other ancient authorities are Symeon
of Durham, and Reginald of Durham. See Raine’s St
Cuthbert (1828), bishop Eyre’s History of St Cuth-
bert (1849; 3d ed, 1887), and Fryer’s Cuthberht of Lindis-
Sarne (1880),

The name St Cuthbert’s Beads has been popularly
given to single joints of the stems of fossil Crinoidea
(q.v.), which being hollow could be strung on
thread, and so made into a rosary.

Cuticle, a sheath formed outside a layer of
cells, either by their secretory activity or by a
modification of their external portions. In the
strict sense, a cuticle is not in itself cellular, but
consists of the products or of the modified portions
of underlying cells. The thin envelope which may
be readily stripped off a leech or earthworm when
killed in spirit supplies a convenient example. A
cuticle is usually formed outside relatively passive
cells, but even ciliated Epithelium (q.v.) may
have its cuticular outer layer through the pores
of which the cilia emer By continuous modifi-
cations of the cells considerable thickness of cuticle
may be developed—as e.g. the hard lining of the
gizzard in many birds. By chemical modification
of a well-developed cuticular formation very varied
protective and offensive skin-structures often
result. Thus the peculiar gelatinous, cellulose-
containing tunic of Ascidians is for the most part
a cuticle ; the shells of molluscs are cuticular for-
mations plus lime ; the raspers of snails are formed
from cuticle; the hard armour of Arthropods is a
cuticle associated with the formation of Chitin
(q.v.); the bristles, jaws, and firm sheaths of many
worms are also cuticular, and so on. For the use
of the term in special connections—e.g. the cuticle
of the hair or of the teeth, see special articles.
The term must not be confused with cutis, one of
the names for the under skin or dermis ; nor should
it ever be used as equivalent to skin. See CELL,
EPITHELIUM, SKIN.

Cutlass, a sword nearly 3 feet long, broad and
nearly straight, mostly used by seamen of the
royal navy. Those of the converted pattern of
1871 were Pepavanced utterly inefficient and unfit
for service by a commission in 1887. See SWORD.

Cutlery, the general namé given to such
cutting instruments as knives, forks, scissors,
razors, &c. The making of larger objects of this
nature, such as axes, chisels, and saws, is rather
the business of the tool-maker than of the cutler.
Shells, flints, and other sharp-edged stones formed
the rudest and most ancient cutting instruments,
and the earliest traces of human existence in
Britain and elsewhere are associated with stone
‘celts’ and other weapons and cutting implements.
These were followed by bronze weapons and other
articles, including reaping-hooks. In the museum
of Bologna there are ancient Etruscan bronze knives
carved in form somewhat like modern reaping-
hooks, and in the sem Naples collection of objects
from Pompeii and Herculaneum, there are sickles,
bill-hooks, knives, lancets, and spring-shears, some
of which are made of iron or steel, as well as of
bronze. These are of course ancient Roman.

630

CUTLERY

Bronze, like steel, can be hardened, but by opposite
means, since it is softened by sudden and hardened
by slow cooling. The ancients appear to have
been great experts in the tempering of bronze.

The Anglo-Saxons had knives somewhat resem-
bling a razor-blade. They had forks also; but it
would appear that these were employed for serving,
not for use in feeding. The custom of using forks
for eating with came from Italy, and was not
known in England till the reign of James I. Be-
fore that, people fed themselves with their fingers,
as is still the practice in the East. The Persians
so much prefer this custom that they contemptu-
ously call a fork a claw. Up to the end of the 15th
century knives do not appear to have been much
used at table, but as in those days everybody
carried a knife in his girdle, it probably served to
cut meat with as one of its applications. Spring-
shears of the ancient Roman form were the only
kind known up to Norman times, and probably
even till the 15th or 16th century.

The London cutlers obtained a charter of incor-
poration in 1417 from Henry V.; but long before
that knives were made at Sheffield, as the ‘ whittle’
of that town, or village, as it would then be,
is incidentally mentioned by Chaucer. Knives,
sickles, shears, and scissors are named as being
made in Sheffield, when the Hallamshire cutlers
were incorporated in 1624. Cutlery was not then
however an English specialty ; and England still
imported iron and steel goods largely from the
Continent; and in England, fermisctan was in the
17th century regarded as the home of smiths and
cutlers. The vast inerease in the size of Sheffield
since 1800 shows that it is chiefly during this
century that its cutlery wares have expanded from
being a mere inland into that of a world-wide
commerce.

Table-knives.—Of these the best kinds are made
by hand, and have the blade of steel, while the
shoulder and tang, to which the haft is fitted, is
of malleable iron. From the end of a thin bar of
steel, which has been carefully brought to a proper
heat, the blade is roughly forged, cut off, and
welded to a piece of iron for the tang and shoulder.
The latter, usually called the ‘bolster,’ is formed
by crushing the hot iron between a pair of dies,
and the tang drawn out by some strokes of the
hammer. After reheating, the blade is again
hammered and the maker’s name stamped upon
it. The next stage, that of hardening and temper-
ing, is all-important in every kind of steel cutting
instrument. Raising the blade to a dull red heat
and then plunging it in cold water hardens it, but
at the same time makes it brittle. The brittleness
is removed and the steel made flexible by the

rocess of tempering, which consists in again heat-
ing the blade till it acquires a bluish colour, and
at this moment putting it back into the water.
After tempering, the knife passes to the grinder,
who smooths the bolster and works the jade a
little on the grindstone. But the blade still
requires to be made quite straight in the smithy,
and again ground. he finishing processes of
lapping, glazing, and polishing follow, in which
. different wheels are used along with emery and
polishing-powder. The lap is covered with an alloy
of tin and lead, and the glazing and polishing
wheels with leather. Bone, ivory, horn, and other
materials are employed for the hafts, but these are
i sti by a different set of workmen,
achinery is now used for the manufacture of
blades of common table-knives, in which case blade,
bolster, and tang are made of one piece of steel.
A few strokes of a steam-hammer shape the blade,
and without reheating the shoulder is formed, but
it requires to be heated again for drawing out the
tang. The blade is next reheated and hammered

thin, and then the whole of the metal portion of the
knife is pressed into dies to ae it the exact shape
and size. Grinding and the finishing processes
ae ati nee ie iw Ge ;

ery cheap knives are made by simply ‘ flying
(ie. res into dies) the blade and tea out of
a oald sheet of steel at one operation, and dispens-
ing with a shoulder.

Forks.—These are made from a bar of steel three-
eighths of an inch square. The forger begins by
forming the tang, shoulder, and shank. Ho shee
beats out flat a square piece left at the end for the
prongs. In the next stage the whole is heated till
it is soft, and pressed with some force between two
halves of a die, which rongily form the prongs.
The fork is afterwards filed, ground, brightened
and hafted. Forks of an inferior kind are cast.

Spring-knives.—Pocket-knives are of much more
modern date than those used at the table. The
earliest piece of cutlery made at Sheffield, or
perhaps in England, was called a thwytel or
whittle, and served for a weapon as well as for
other purposes. At a later time the jack-knife
appeared, which was made to shut into a groove
in the handle, but had no spring. Some spring-
knives are believed to have been made as far bae
as the beginning of the 17th century; but it was
not till about 1820 that a spring-knife of the type
now so much in use was invented by the first Lord
Wharncliffe, or at least was named after him.
The process of making the blade of a spring-knife
does not differ much from that already described
for a table-knife. Sometimes the springs are
forged, but others are ‘flied’—i.e. formed at a
single blow out of a piece of steel. The inner
scales of the haft are made of brass or iron, and
sometimes of a more expensive metal ; while a still

eater variety of material, such as hard wood,
Eom of various kinds, ivory, bone, and tortoise-
shell, is used for the outer scales. ;

Razors.—The use of the razor goes back to a
very remote period. It is referred to in the book
of Numbers, and was used by the ancient Egyp-
tians as well as by the Greeks and Romans. he
blade of a razor is forged from a piece of steel of
the thickness of its back, and half an inch wide
the concave sides being formed on the rounded
edge of the anvil. In the smithing process which
follows, the workman hammers it to make it
compact, and at the same time shapes it into
proper form. It is next ground, hardened, and
tempered ; after which it is once more und,
and then lapped, glazed, and polished. The best
qualities of razors are made of the finest cast
steel, and are manipulated with great care in every
stage of their manufacture. But there is always
some uncertainty about the quality of a razor even
when made with the utmost skill and care and from
the best material. Perhaps this Ns pre why
high-priced razors are not in great demand, at
least in Great Britain.

Scissors.—A blade is forged from a flat bar of
steel, and this, including a bit for the shank and
bow, is then cut off. Next a hole is punched for
the bow to admit of its receiving the point of a
small anvil upon which it is roughly shaped. After
reheating, the bow is further shaped, the shank
formed, and both filed. The joint is now squared,
and the hole bored for the rivet or serew. Grind-
ing and smoothing of the blade follow, and then”
the two are screwed together. If they work
smoothly, they are ready for hardening and temper-
ing, but the screw is first removed and the two-
halves wired together. Afterwards the scissors
are ground and passed through the finishing pro-
cesses already described.

In describing briefly the manufacture of th
several articles of cutlery noticed above, only

CUTTACK

CUTTLE-FISH 631

more pepeent processes have been mentioned.
The subdivision of labour is very fully carried out
in the cutlery trade, so much so, that the man who
the pen-blades does not age 0 the larger
blades for the same knife. It is the same with
those who grind the blades, Including those of a
eeereuvely trivial nature, an ordinary three-
ed pocket-knife goes through more than a
hundred processes.

The grinders in former years suffered so much
from the fine particles of stone and metal which

rvaded the atmosphere of the workshops that

eir average age did not exceed twenty-nine.
This was especially the case with those en in
ary-grinding, which, for example, was that used
for forks. ‘The evil has been lessened in recent
years by the adoption in some establishments of
pee eanding, the water on the stone preventing
the escape o oe of matter through the room.
Another plan has been a good many years in use—
namely, the application of a fan with a properly
constructed flue, which withdraws by suction the
grit and steel dust as it is produced.

A few of the leading manufacturers at Sheffield
repare hafting materia] such as iyory, wood, and
1orn on their own premises ; but the manufacture

of ‘scales,’ as these hafts are called, is to a large
extent a separate trade. Ivory was long so popular
a material for knife-handles that Shettield has in
some years consumed the tusks of 20,000 elephants ;
but owing to its increasing scarcity and price,
various substitutes are now employed. In tradin,
with savage people it is curious how they wi
sometimes unexpectedly reject a useful article on
account of its colour. or example, the Fiji
Islanders a few years ago, if not now, would on no
account accept in barter a white-handled knife, but
would readily take one with a black handle.

In cutlery France and Germany are now compet-
ing with England in many any markets ; but the
trade has again shown a tendency to increase in
Sheffield. e manufacture is now also extensively
carried on in the United States. In France the
headquarters of cutlery are at Thiers, Langres,
Nogent, Chatellerault, and Paris, where the finest
surgical instruments are made. Solingen is called
‘the German Sheffield;’ but Remscheid, Suhl,
Schmalkalden, and many other towns
knives and the like. Swedish razors are
See also SWORD.

Cuttack (Kataka, ‘the fort’), the capital of
a district in Orissa, Bengal, stands immediately
below the bifurcation of the Mahanadi, thus occupy-
ing the apex of the delta of that river, a position
advantageous both in military and commercial re-
spects. The city, which is 220 miles SW. of Cal-
cutta, is chiefly notable for its fili -work in gold
and silver. Pop. (1891) 47,186, of whom over
were Mohammedans.—The district is the central
one of the Orissa division, and has an area of 3633
sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 1,937,671.

Cutter is a name given to two kinds of small
vessels. The cutters used gf get igeii and
revenue cruisers, and which are built with especial
reference to speed, have a single mast, and a
straight running bowsprit that can be run-in on
board occasionally. They are much like sloops in
rig, but have larger sails. Such small vessels occa-
sionally venture on long voyages. In 1857 the
Charter Oak, a cutter of tons, crossed the
Atlantic from New York to Liverpool. In 1865
the Alert, a cutter of 56 tons yacht measurement,
made th® voyage from England to Sydney (Aus-
tralia) in 108 days, including 5 days’ detention at
the Cape of Hope. From that time to this,
long voyages with vessels of this class, especially
across the ...!..:..ic, have been matters of common

amous,

roduce,

occurrence, See YAcHT; for the other kind of

_ Cutter.

cutters, see Boat.—In the United States, very
long sleds, for coasting, are called cutters.

Cuttings are branches or portions of branches
of trees or shrubs, employed to produce new plants,
by burying the lower end in the earth so that new
roots may arise from the nodes. Nothing is more
easy than to propagate willows, fuchsias, pinks,
goraniaee, currants, gooseberries, &e. in this way ;

ut many other plants, commonly propagated by
cuttings, require greater attention on the part of
the gardener, warmth, a uniform damp atmosphere,
and shade. The term cutting is, however, usefully
extended by most horticultural writers to any part
of a plant which can be separated to become an
individual similar to its parent ; thus some plants
may be propagated most readily from simple leaves
or portions of leaves, others from a segment of stem
bearing a single leaf with a bud at its base, others
from offshoots at the base of the parent plant, some
again from the younger shoots, and others from
partially ripened eee. and so on. Hence there is
room for considerable experience and skill, and
detailed instructions should be sought by the
amateur florist in works on horticulture (e.g.
Johnson’s Dictionary of Gardening). The most
convenient general method, however, is to strike
cuttings in well-drained shallow pots or boxes
of silver sand overlying a little sandy peat or loam ;
shade and water being applied with discretion, and
bottom heat only in special cases, which of course
include the majority of stove plants. Hardy fruit-
trees may be t pro ted by cuttings taken
after the fall of the leaf, and planted on the north
side of a wall, but not so close as to be constantly
in shade.

Cuttle-fish (A.S. cudele), strictly s king, a
member of the genus Sepia, more generally applied
to any Cephalopod (q.v.). A brief account is here
given of the structure, life-history, and habits of the
common British species (Sepia officinalis, Linn.),
with a tabular indication of its relationships.

The Sepia (fig. 1) measures from six to ten inches
in length, and its colour varies from pale gray to
dark brown or neutral tint. The body is oval, flat-
tened from above downwards, and contained in a
tough muscular sac (mantle), which expands along
the whole of either margin into a narrow fin. The
integument consists of a single layer of ceils, lying
upon connective tissue, in which are imbedd
‘chromatophores,’ or cells charged with variously
coloured pigment-granules. By expansiou of the
cell the pigment is diffused, and by its contraction
concentrated, hence the rapid flashes of changing

632

CUTTLE-FISH

colour for which the cephalopoda as a whole are so
remarkable.

The head is broad, and contains a cartilage of
complex shape which protects the central nervous
system, and forms a socket on either side for the
large eye; this has a bright green lustre during
life, the black pupil is shaped like the Greek letter
w, and there are two eyelids, the upper coloured,
the lower white. The front of the head is occu-
pied entirely by the bases of the arms and the
mouth. The former are ten in number, eight of

1, Sepia officinalis from the dorsal aspect; 2, view of the
Mouth, showing its Lip and the bases of the Arms and
Tentacles; 3, the Shell seen from the ventral surface ;
4, the same in lateral view; 5, the Animal with the
Mantle divided in the middle line to expose the
Branchial Cavity :

s, siphon; i, its valve; c, pit in the base of the siphon ; c’, pro-
minence on the mantle which fits into it; m, muscle pass-
ing backwards from the siphon to the mantle; a, termina-
tion of the intestine; Br, gill; r, renal opening; g, genital
opening ; 7. s.,ink sac, At the base of the right gill a portion of
the membrane has been remoyed to show the branchial heart.

them being alike, oblong in transverse section and
tapering off to slender extremities ; they have the
surface which is turned towards the mouth covered
with suckers in four longitudinal rows. The suckers
consist of a muscular periphery, strengthened by a
horny ring; a fleshy pad acts like a piston in the
base of this latter. Each sucker is mounted on a
short flexible stalk. The two remaining arms,
known as ‘tentacles,’ occupy the interspaces
between the ventral arms and those next to them.
They are twice as 2: as the others, and have a
cylindrical stem, slightly expanded at the extremity
into a club forniahed with larger and smaller
suckers. They can be withdrawn into pockets
situated beneath the eyes, and are carried in this
position when not in use. The mouth (fig. 2),
situated in the centre of the roots of the arms, is
surrounded by a lip with seven prominent angles,
which bear small suckers in some species, and have
been compared to rudimentary arms. Projecting
from it may be seen the two black horny mandibles,
shaped like those of a parrot, but with the lower
overlapping the upper.

On the lower aspect of the animal, between the
muscular sac and the body proper which contains
the viscera, is a hollow space, the ‘branchial’ or

‘mantle-cavity.’ When this is opened by a longi-
tudinal incision it is seen to contain the following
structures (fig. 5), Anteriorly is the base of the
‘siphon,’ or ‘funnel,’ s, a conical tube containing
a valve, 7, through which water can be forcibly ex-
pelled by the contraction of the mantle. At its
posterior margin on either side is an almond-shaped
depression, lined with cartilage, c, into which fits
a prominence on the inner surface of the mantle, c’,
an arrangement which largely contributes to the
solidarity of the body as a whole. Lying along the
middle line is the terminal portion of the intestine,
a, furnished with two «mall flap-like appendages
of uncertain function, and on either side, a little
farther back, is a small papilla, 7, upon which the
kidney opens, and on the left side only, the genital
orifice, g. Two large gills, Br, are situated in the
lateral recesses of the mantle-cavity, each consisting
of an arterial stem running up the attached side,
and a venous stem passing down the other aspect,
the bulk of the organ being made up of a series of
folds passing transversely from one to the other, and
richly supplied with vessels containing the blood to
be aatated. Respiration is carried on by pet bene
contractions of. the mantle, in consequence of which
water enters at either side, passes over the gills,
and is expelled by the siphon; this takes place
about seventy times in a minute.

On the dorsal side of the animal, immediately
beneath the integument, is a closed sac which con-
tains the internal shell (cuttle-bone, sepiostare, figs.
3,4). Speaking generally, this may be said to
of an elongated spoon or oat shape ; it consists of
a horny lamina, which: gives it its characteristic
outline, extending also into the small cone at the
back, which in many species is much larger than
in the one now under consideration, and has been
compared with the guard of the Belemnites (q.v.).
On the dorsal surface is a granular calcareous
deposit; while the concave ventral aspect of the
spoon is occupied by a series of layers of calcareous
matter, which are deposited in succession and do
not entirely cover each other, so that the hinder
portion of this surface Wiggle a striated appear-
ance due to their parallel margins. This part of
the shell is porous and extremely light, the inter-
stices being filled with air. These shells are im-
ported into Liverpool in some quantity, and ground
into fine powder to form a dentifrice.

The Digestive Organs.—Within the beak above
alluded to is a solid muscular mass (buccal cone),

art of which is devoted to its movements. Through
its centre passes the gullet, the lower wall of
which bears a most remarkable organ, the tooth-
strap or ‘radula;’ this consists of seven longi
tudinal rows of horny teeth, which are secreted by
certain special cells of the epithelium, and whose
apices are directed backwards. They can be moved
to and fro by appropriate muscles. Behind the
buccal cone the csophagus bears the salivary
glands, and still farther back it opens into a round
saccular stomach with muscular walls. A large bi-
lobed gland, commonly called ‘liver,’ but having
the functions of a pancreas, is situated on the
esophagus. Lying parallel to the terminal portion
of the intestine is the ‘ink-bag,’ 7. s., a hollow
land opening near the anus, and furnishing a deep-
iraves uid, which is ejected by the animal when
alarmed in order to conceal its retreat. When
enuine, the pigment known as ‘sepia’ is prepared
om it.

The Circulatory Organs.—The heart is situated
posteriorly, and consists of a pear-shaped sac which
receives on either side a vein from the gills, dilated
just before its termination into a muscular con-
tractile antechamber or auricle. It gives off an
artery anteriorly to supply the head and arms, and
one posteriorly to the abdominal organs. The

cae

ee

PONIES ESS Ie * SR

—

ony

mage

mg

—

_ ‘the

of
‘round
‘the arms and siphon;

lens, made up of an inner and outer

‘the lens is the iris, supported

‘of the whole or

‘nerves which, though oe

CUTTLE-FISH

CUVIER 633

q ‘blood, after being distributed throughout the body,
is collected in veins which traverse the walls of the

kidneys and pericardium, and eventually pass to
Is, at the base of which a muscular dilatation
(branchial heart) is situated, serving to effect the
circulation of the blood through the gills.

~ The Nervous System consists of the three pairs
lia common to the Mollusea concentrated
he cesophagus. One pair (pedal) supplies
a second (pleuro-visceral )
the gills, viscera, and mantle; a third (cerebral)
the and eyes. In the mantle on either
‘side is a large nervous mass (ganglion stellatum)
situated on the pleural nerve, and supplying the
mantle. In addition to these parts, and connected
with them, there is a system of so-called ‘ enteric’
nerves, springing from the buccal ganglia, which

lie on the esophagus just in front of the cerebral

lia.
the Organs of Sense the eyes are the most
conspicuous. They occupy depressions in the head
, the hinder part of which is occupied by
the optic ganglia, ocular muscles, and a white
glandular substance of unknown function. The
retina consists of an inner layer of rods with
swollen bases, and an outer layer of nucleated cells
with a limiting membrane between them. The
retinal chamber is closed in front by a spheroidal
portion, which
are secreted separately by an epithelial structure
occupying a ve round its piper. In front of
i y a cartilage and
‘containing a sphincter muscle; the outer surface
n is formed by the transparent
cornea, which, though continuous in the Sepia, is
rforated in the members of a large group of
g, ay ( Egopsida ).
he ears are a pair of small closed vesicles,
imbedded in the head-cartilage, and supplied by
springing from
the ite ganglia, really have their origin in the
cerebral. ciliated pit, usually considered to be
olfactory in function, lies behind each eye.
Generative Organs.—The sexes are separate. The
testis and ovary are both single and situated in
the hinder part of the body; the latter lies in the
visceral sac or pericardium above described, the
former in an almost closed diverticulum of it. The
eggs have a tough capsule, with a projection at
one end and a kind of handle at the other by
which they are attached in bunches to a twig of
seaweed or other similar substance. As in the
hen’s egg, the proportion of nutritive to formative
yolk is very large, and the embryo, as it develops,
comes to stand head downwards on the former.
Habits.—The animals are found in littoral regions
or in moderately deep water; ordinarily they rest
horizontally on or near the bottom, the fins gently
undulating, the tentacles retracted, and the arms
depressed (see cut at CEPHALOPODA). Progression
may take place by means of the fins with consider-
able rapidity in either direction, the funnel being
turned so that the stream of water issuing from it
assists in she te smart. rapid darts backwards when
the animal is alarmed are brought about either by
the sudden ejection of water through the siphon, or
by spreading out and reuniting the arms. When
feeding, the Sepia remains motionless till its prey
is within striking distance; then the dorsal arms
are raised, the others eee out sideways, the ten-
tacles are shot forth with the rapidity of lightning,
and the victim seized between their terminal clu
(see cut at CEPHALOPODA ).
Distribution.—Fifty-eight recent species of Soe
have been described, of which some forty or fifty
may be regarded as valid. By far the greatest
number belong to the Indo-Malayan region, whilst,
with one doubtful exception, none occur on the

shores of the New World. About a dozen fossil
forms have been recorded from Tertiary deposits.
For large and fabulous Cephalopods, see OcTorus,
SEA-SERPENT.

Cutty Stool, See Stoo. or REPENTANCE.

Cutworm, a term used loosely of worms or
grubs destructive to cabbage, beans, &c.

Cuvier, the chief of modern comparative an-
atomists, the first to unite the paleontology of
extinct forms with the anatomy of the extant,
important also as an_ educationist. Leopold
Christian Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier, better known
by his adopted literary title Georges Cuvier, was
born on the 24th August 1769, in the town of
Montbéliard, at that time belonging to Wiirtem-
berg. His ancestors were Protestant refugees from
the Jura. He was destined by his parents for the
church, but early exhibited a isposition for
natural history. In his education at Stuttgart,
he came under the happy influence of the botanist
Kerner and the zoologist Kielmeyer. At the age
of eighteen he became tutor in a family living near
Caen, in Normandy. There the abundant fossil
Terebratule of the shore, the cuttle-fish and other
molluses landed by the waves, excited his eager
interest, and became subjects of close study. There
too he was introduced to Geoffroy St-Hilaire and
other Parisian savants. Geoffroy at once recognised
his abilities, and invited him to Paris. uvier

accepted the invitation, became first assistant,

and then professor of Comparative Anatomy in the
Jardin des Plantes. Elected a member of the
French Institute in 1795, he became in 1803 per-
manent secretary of the Academy of Sciences. In
1808 he undertook the reorganisation of public
instruction, and shortly before the fall of Napoleon
was admitted into the Council of State. After the
Restoration he was made Chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Paris. After a visit to England in 1818,
where he was received with great honour, he was, in
1819, admitted into the cabinet by Louis XVIIL.,
and in 1826 was made grand-officer of the Legion
of Honour. His decided opposition to the royal
measures for restricting the freedom of the press
lost him the favour of Charles X. Under Louis-
Philippe he was made a r of France (Baron
Cuvier) in 1831, and in the following year he was
nominated Minister of the Interior. Then his
career was terminated suddenly from an attack of
paralysis of which he died, May 13, 1832.

Cuvier’s life was characterised by extraordinary
activity. In his plans for the extension and im-
provement of national education, in his efforts for
the welfare of the French Protestant Church, and
in his scientific work, he was alike zealous and
indefatigable. On every hand he gave evidence
of gigantic intellect, and of honest, resolute char-
acter. He was conspicuous for an unsur
grasp of concrete facts, rather than for originality
of suggestion or power of generalisation, and
remained a vigorous and formidable opponent of
the Theory of Descent.

In several departments of zoology, Cuvier’s inde-
fatigable industry and giant intelligence achieved
aaa progress. (1) By marvellous energy in col-
ecting, examining, and dissecting, he vastly in-
creased the circle of accurately known forms, both
living and extinct. (2) This was done, however,
in a way which combined depth of insight with
increasing breadth of view. He penetrated below
external form to the internal structure, and not
content with empirical dissection, rationalised his
results in the first systematic comparative anatomy.
His profound anatomical studies Jed him farther to
ey Nagron more clearly than heretofore the unity
of the organism and the mutual dependence of its
parts. clearly defining the principle of tis

634 CUXHAVEN

CYANOGEN

correlation of organs, he recognised, to quote his
memorable words, that ‘the organism forms a
connected unity, in which the single parts cannot
change without bringing about modifications in the
other parts.’ (3) In his hands classification became
more natural, being more thoroughly based on
real similarities of structure, and less on super-
ficial resemblances. He recognised the existence
of four
late, and Radiate, a classification independently
confirmed by the embryological researches of Von
Baer. Although his four types are now known to
give a false simplicity to nature, the establishing
of structural classification, followed out in his sub-
divisions, introduced a new order in the animal

kingdom. (4) Before his work, fossil forms had
been very scantily known, and still less under-
stood. His researches, however, especially among

vertebrate remains, not only revealed an undreamt-
of wealth of entombed forms, but disclosed to some
extent the relation between the living and the
dead. For the first time paleontology was linked
to comparative anatomy, and the new contact
brought fresh light. Yet it must be remembered
that to him the Linnean dogma of the constancy of
species seemed unassailable. Clear as he was in re-
gard to the existence of fundamental and recurrent
types, he was as determinedly edgar to the
suggestion of Buffon, Lamarck, and others, that
animals were connected by. common descent.

Among Cuvier’s more important works are the
following : Lecons d’ Anatomie Comparée (1801-5) ;
L’ Anatomie des Mollusques (1816); Recherches sur
les Ossements Fossils des Quadrupedes (1821-24) ;
Discours sur les Révolutions de la Surface du Globe
(introduction to the last); Histoire naturelle des
Poissons (1828-49), written in concert with Valen-
ciennes.. Better known perhaps than any of these
is the work which has passed through so many
editors’ hands—Le Régne Animal distribué daprés
son Organisation (1817), more familiar in the en-
larged and elaborated form which it received under
the editorship of Cuvier’s school. Important too
for the history of zoology are numerous éloges
and historic reports delivered on various occasions
throughout Cuvier’s life.

See Mrs R. Lee’s Memoirs of Baron Cuvier (Lond.
1833); Pasquier’s Hloge de Cuvier (Paris, 1833); Carus’s
Geschichte der Zoologie (Munich, 1872); Haeckel’s History
of Creation (Lond. 1876).

Cuxhaven, a pleasant little German watering-
place, on the southern bank of the Elbe, at its
mouth in the German Ocean, 72 miles NW. of
Hamburg by rail. The port whence the Hamburg
steamers ply when in winter the Elbe is frozen
over, Cuxhaven has an old castle and a safe
harbour. Pop. (1890) 4905—in summer doubled by
visitors.

Cuyaba, the capital of the Brazilian state
of Matto Grosso, occupies pretty nearly the centre
of South America. It stands on the Jeft bank of
the Cuyaba River, 980 miles NW. of Rio de Janeiro.
Founded by gold-diggers in 1719, and wrecked by
an earthquake in 1746, it is now a well-built place,
with a cathedral and 8000 inhabitants. It can be
reached by the rivers Parand and Paraguay, a
voyage of 2500 miles from Buenos Ayres.

Cuyp, or Kuyp, JAcoB GERRITSE, commonly
called the Old Cuyp, was born at Dordrecht in
1575, Jacob Cuyp’s representation of cows and
sheep, battles =k encampnrents, are clever, but

his fame rests principally upon his excellent por- |

traits. His colouring is warm and transparent ;
his manner, free, and spirited. Cuyp was one of
the four founders of the Guild of St Luke at
Dordrecht, and died after 1649.—ALBERT CUYP,
Jacob’s son, was also born at Dordrecht, in 1620.

reat types—Vertebrate, Mollusc, Articu- -

He excelled in the painting of cattle grazing or
reposing, moonlights, wintry landscapes, still waters
with ships, horse-markets, hunts, camps, and
cavalry-fights ; and in rendering effects of warm
golden sunlight he is without a rival. During his
lifetime and long after, Albert’s pictures, although
in many respects equal to those of Claude, were
held in little estimation. Opinion, however, has
now changed regarding them, and a fine example
of his art has realised over £5000. England is
particularly rich in his works, the National Gallery
ossessing eight of his subjects. He died at Dor-
, en 1691.—BENJAMIN CUYP, a nephew of
Albert, was born at Dordrecht in 1608, and be-
came a member of the guild there in 1631. He
ainted biblical pieces in Rembrandt’s style, and
ainiliar scenes of country life. His best works are
in the manner of Teniers, His seashores have less
repute.

Cuzco, a city of Peru, stands 11,440 feet above
sea-level, in a valley of the Andes, 345 miles ESE.
of Lima. It was the ancient capital of the Incas
(in whose language, says Garcilaso, Cuzco signifies
‘navel’), and at the time of its conquest by Pizarro
(1533) had 200,000 inhabitants. ow it has only
some 18,000, but it is one of the finest cities in the
republic, with a cathedral (1572-1654), a so-called |
university (1598), and some remnants of Cyclopean
architecture.—Cuzco gives name to a department,
with 238,445 inhabitants. See Peru.

Cyanite, KYANITE (Gr. kyanos, ‘blue’),
DISTHENE, or SAPPARE, a mineral composed of
alumina and silica. It often occurs erystallised,
and generally in broad prisms. It is sometimes
colourless, red, yellow, &c., but more frequently of
a fine sky-blue, slightly tinged with violet; it is
transparent, and sometimes beautifully opalescent.

Cyanogen, CN or Cy, although intrinsically
of little importance, is one of the most interesting
compounds of carbon. It was the first known com-
pound body which was proved to be able to unite
with elements in the same way as these substances
unite with each other. Thus hydrogen, H, unites
with chlorine, Cl, to form hydrochloric acid, and
sodium, Na, unites with chlorine to form chloride
of sodium, NaCl. Like these elements, H, Cl, or
Na, each a single substance, the group CN, con-
sisting of 12 parts of carbon and 14 of nitrogen,
enters into combination, acting as if it also were
for the time being an element; thus it forms
cyanide of sodium, NaCN, or NaCy, and hydro-
oynae acid, HCN, or HCy. There are now many
thousands of such radicals known, of which the
groups methyl, CH;, ethyl, C,H;, &c. may be
taken as other examples.

Cyanogen is a colourless, poisonous gas, which
burns with a purplish flame. It is soluble in
water, and can be condensed to a liquid, under a
pressure of about four atmospheres (60 Ib. per
sq. inch). It may be obtained by heating the
cyanide of mereury, HgCy,, when the cyanogen
passes off in the gaseous state.

Cyanogen forms poisonous compounds with
metals called cyanides, of which the best known is
the cyanide of potassium, a salt of much import-
ance in photography. With hydrogen it forms the

‘deadly prussie or hydrocyanic acid, while it is

united with oxygen in cyanic acid. For the pro.
perties of cyanides, see HYDROCYANIC ACID.

Cyanie Acid, HCyO, is a compound of cyanogen
which can _ hardly he prepared in the free state,
owing to its great tendency to decompose. It
forms a class of salts called cyanates, of which the
chief is the cyanate of potash, KCyO, produced
when cyanogen gas is passed into solution of potash?
—For the cyanide process of gold-extraction, see
POTASSIUM.

CYANOSIS

CYCADS 635

pane vis (Gr. kyanos, ‘ blue’), lividity of com-
plexion, with fullness of the capillaries and minute
veins, especially of the face and lips. A name
characteristically applied to the colour in certain
eases of congenital disease or malformation of the
heart. See HEART.

Cyanotype is a photograph obtained by the
use of acyanide. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

Cyathea, See TREE-FERN.

Cybele (called also Agdistis and Dindyméne),
an ancient goddess whose worship was universal in
Phrygia, and widely spread in Western Asia as
that of ‘the great mother’ or ‘the mother of the
gods.’ She seems to have been a nature divinity,
whose worship was attended with wild orgiastic
rites, many of which were adopted by the Greeks
from the eastern nations. The Greeks, moreover,
identified the oriental Cybele with their ancient
earth goddess Rhea, whose worship seems to have
originated in Crete, where she is associated with
the Curetes. Among the Romans she was con-
sidered as identical with Ops, the wife of Saturn,
and mother of Jupiter. In Phrygia her priests
were the Corybantes, who worshipped her sige |
with drums, cymbals, and horns, dressed in full
armour. The Roman priests of Cybele were often
called Galli. In art Cybele is usually represented
seated on a throne, adorned with a mural crown,
with lions crouching to the right and left, or sitting
in a car drawn by lions. See RHEA.

Cyeads, or CycaDAcE&, an order allied to
Coniferse (see GYMNOSPERMS), but in vegetative
appearance rather resembling ferns and_ palms.

e stem, which is externally covered with leaf-
scars, _ be so short that the crown of leaves
arises little above the surface of the ground ; more
frequently, however, it rises to a height of a few
feet, then resembling a tree-fern; and in excep-
tional cases (e.g. Cycas media of Australia) may
attain a height
of 50 or 60 feet.
The foliage-
leaves, which
develop under
the protection
of reduced bud-
leaves, are usu-
ally pinnate,
and mostly
arallel-veined ;
ut in Cycas we
have a middle
vein only, and
in the curiously
fern-like Stan-
geria a mid-vein
with lateral
branches. The
leaves are
always of more
or less leathery
consistence, and
sometimes _ be-
come very hard

Fig. 1. and spiny at the
a, Cycas Normanbyana; b, c, Cycas media. pa and on the
edge. In Cycas

the pinne are circinate in bud as in ferns, although
the midrib is straight; conversely in Zamia, the
leaf itself is inrolled, although the pinne are
straight; in others, however, where both are
straight, the pinne overlap each other from above
downwards, as in the moon-wort fern (Botry-
chium), The stem is of complex internal struc-
ture, but is thickened by permanent cambium.
It may bear lateral buds on the axils of old leaves,
especially in unhealthy plants; and these may fall

off and propagate the plant. In some cases, how-
ever, we have an apparent dichotomy, although
probably due to branching. Dichotomy of the
roots has also been described; this, however, not
as a normal development, but due simply to irrita-
tion by a fungus-mycelium or a nostoc-like alga,
which commonly invests the root, and even pene-
trates the tissue (see Sympriosis). Yet among
those who admit the pathological nature of this,
some still regard it as an atavistic reappearance,
the last surviving trace of the dichotomy so com-
mon among the ancestral cryptogams (see FERNS,
LYCOPODIACEZ ).

The exceedingly primitive flowers are found on
separate plants, and are respectively composed
simply of staminate or pistillate leaves, in both
cases usually spirally aggregated as cones. The
stamens are reduced en undivided leaves bearing
on their dorsal surfaces a usually indefinite number
of pollen-sacs, so furnishing a perfectly inter-
mediate form between the sporangium-bearing
frond of a fern and the stamens of higher plants.
The pollen-grains show a very distinct remnant o
the male prothallium.

Passing to the female flowers, we find those at
least of Cycas to be terminal on the axis, which

a, Stamen of Cycas circinalis, under surface; b, group of pollen-
sacs (Microsporangia); d, pollen-grain of Ceratozamia ; c, the
same germinating; e, carpellary leaf of Cycas revoluta, with
lower pinne reduced and ring ovules; f, stamen of Zamia
integrifolia.

after flowering resumes vegetative growth, a con-
dition which occurs only as an anomaly or rever-
sion in higher plants (e.g. proliferous roses). The
separate carpellary leaves retain more or less
distinct traces of vegetative character ; thus in
Cycas the ovules (microsporangia) represent the
reduced lower pinne; more frequently, however,
only two are developed (Zamia, fig. 2); but the
carpellary leaf is always open, and shows no trace
of that still more precocious development of its
ovules and arrest of its opening altogether, which
would give us the ovary of the higher flowering-
lants (see OVARY). On ripening, the cone may
Fall to pieces, liberating the ovules ; in the simpler
Cycas the separate naked seeds become modified and
enlarged into large fruit-like bodies, with an outer
fleshy and an inner stony wall. The nucellus is
crushed into little space by the growth of the endo-
sperm, which contains the straight embryo with
its one (Ceratozamia) or two, often unequal
(Cycas, Zamia), cotyledons.
he more vegetative character, both of the flower-
ing axis and of the carpellary leaves, which dis-
tinguish Cycas from all theother genera, explains the
separation of the order by systematists into Cycadex
and Zamie. Among the latter, Stangeria of Port
Natal is at once distinguished by its pinnate vena-
tion; and Bowenia of Queensland by its bipinnate

636 CYCLADES

CYCLING

leaves. Dioon (Mexico) is characterised by the
origin of its ovules on cushion-like modifications of
the two parent pinnze, instead of being simply sessile
as in the remaining genera, which are merely distin-
guished by slight differences in the shape of their
cone-leaves. The thirty species of Zamia range
from Mexico into the Antilles and far into South
America, Ceratozamia is Mexican, and Microcycas
Cuban, while Macrozamia is distributed over
Eastern Australia, and Encephalartos is character-
istically South-east African. But the widest dis-
tribution is that of Cycas itself. The best-known
species, C. revoluta of Japan, is not only widely
found both wild and in cultivation in many parts
of the Old and New World, but C. circinalis of
the East Indies, C. media and Normanbyana of
Australia, C. Seemani of the Fijis, may also be
mentioned as of importance.

Schimper enumerates no less than thirty-four
fossil genera, with 278 species. The group appears
to have attained its maximum in Triassic and
Jurassic times. They are familiar to English
paleontologists in the Lias and Oolite especially.

The stem of many cycads contains an abundant
starchy deposit, which is used as food in many
countries. It resembles sago, and so has frequently
led to the confusion of cycads with the true Sago-
aise (q.v.). C. revo’uta yields a coarse sago in

apan and elsewhere; trom Dioon edule a kind of
arrowroot is prepared in Mexico, and from Zamia
bar &c. in the Antilles and Florida; while

neephalartos is often called Kafir Bread.

Cyclades. See ARCHIPELAGO.

Cyclamen, a genus of Primulacezx, including
about eight highly variable species, mostly natives
of southern Europe. Their thickened and com-
pressed perennial stem half immersed in the
ground, their heart-shaped leaves, peculiarly twisted
and reflexed corolla-lobes, and spirally reverted
fruit-stalks give the genus a peculiar and highly
characteristic appearance. They are commonly
cultivated on account of the beauty of their flowers;
which mostly appear in spring. C. persicum is the

Cyclamen persicum,

one chiefly grown in our conservatories; C.
europeum, not uncommon in gardens, flowers in
autumn. The turnip-like stem, despite an extrem
acridity which long gave it medicinal repute, is
largely eaten by swine in southern Europe, espe-
cially Sicily; hence the English name of Sowbread.
Cy’ele (Gr., ‘a circle’), in Astronomy and Mathe-
matical Chronology, a period or interval of time in
which certain phenomena always recur in the same
order. There are two great natural cycles, that of
the sun and that of the moon. The solar cycle is a
period of twenty-eight Julian years, after which
the same days of the week recur on the same days
of the year. The lunar or Metonic cycle consists of
nineteen years or 235 lunations (see CHRONOLOGY),
after which the successive new moons happen on

the same days of the year as during the previous
cycle. The number of the year in the cycle of the
moon is called the Golden Number (q.v.). The
eycle of Indictions (q.v.) is purely arbitrary, its
years being fifteen, a conventional number; and
the Julian Period, which combines and _har-
monises all the three others, might be termed the
cycle of cycles. The term ‘cycle of eclipses’ is an
instance of the more general use of the word,
meaning the period of 223 lunations, within which
seventy eclipses recur in the same order and magni-
tude—viz. twenty-nine of the moon and forty-one
of the sun.

Cycling. The early history of cycling—in
which generic term the use of all classes of manu-
and pedo-motive carriages is now by general con-
sent included—is, like that of ancient Britain,
involved in obscurity. As long since as 1818
something in the nature of a bicycle was intro-
duced into England by Baron von Drais, a French-
man resident at Mannheim, and was known as the
Draisnene or Célérifére; while velocipedes or manu-
motive machines with three or more wheels were
in occasional use in England even before that date.
one of the earliest being an invention of Richar
Lovell Edgeworth (circa 1767). The Draisnene con-
sisted of two wheels, about 30 inches in diameter, run-
ning one in the wake of the other, and connected b
a beam of wood, upon which, midway from each end,
was placed a saddle or perch. At the fore-end of -
the beam an th
arm-rest was
secured, and
this, roughly,
completed
the appara-
tus. he
mode of pro-
pulsion was
singularly
simple: the
rider placed
his leg over

e

the am,
got into the
saddle, and,

resting his
arms upon
the support
referred to,
pushed the ‘dandy-horse’ ahead by kicking the
ground with his right and left foot alternately ;
when a certain impetus was attained, he aiala,
were he a skilful rider, cease the kicking process,
and allow the machine to proceed until the momen-
tum was exhausted, when he had to commence de
novo. The satire of Cruikshank and his contem-
oraries effectually killed the quaint and comical
10bby-horse of 1818.

The fashioning of the first practical bic
1846) is currently credited to Gavin Dalzell, a
cooper at Lesmahagow in Lanarkshire. It went
by the name of the ‘wooden horse,’ being con-
structed chiefly of wood; the saddle was low, and
the pedal movements or loeb which moved
backwards and forwards alternately, were connected
by iron rods with the cranked axle of the driving-
wheel. But it seems that Kirkpatrick Maemillan,.
a blacksmith in the parish of Keir, Dumfriesshire,
was six years earlier onthe road with a hobby-horze
completely equipped with cranks and levers. .

The next revival of cycling maybe said to
date from 1867. A few years previous to this it
oceuived to an inventive genius, one M. Michaux,
to fit/to the hobby-horse a pair of pedals b
which the front wheel might be revolved wit
the feet. This, of course, meant that the rider
must depend for his balance upon some means

cle (circa

chan;

CYCLING

637

poeeony the relative positions of the two wheels
mig varied at will; in other words, some
whereby the base of the machine might be

at pleasure. To this end, a transverse
handle was affixed to the front wheel, which
admitted of its being turned even to a right angle.
his new-comer was known as the bicycle, but
is now irreverently alluded to in all quarters as
the ‘boneshaker’—probably because it was made
of wood, and shod with iron tyres instead of rubber,
while springs were often conspicuous by their

absence.

The boneshaker craze was a serious one; it
affected all classes of society, but chiefly—in con-
sequence of the cost of the article—the middle and
upper ranks; in witness whereof, the illustrated
papers of 1867-69 contained more than one wood-
eut showing the Prince Imperial upon his bone-
shaker in the Tuileries. One of the earliest of
Michaux’s bicycles found its way to Mr Charles
Spencer's gymnasium in London in 1868. So little
was to be gained, and so much was to be lost—
particularly in the way of appearances—by ‘ bone-
shakerism,’ that in a few years it promised to
become a lost art, when, happily, the inventive
genius of an cy CTI whose identity is open
to question, supplied the missing link—the rubber
tyre—which, with the suspension wheels and steel
framing introduced at a later period, made the
modern bicycle. From the bicycle the tricycle was
eA evolved, chiefly through the instrumentality
of James Starley (died 1881), of Coventry ; a further
impetus was given by the pneumatic tyre, and now
the types of machine are practically endless.

. The utility of the cycle is proved beyond all
question. It is asserted on the best authority that
a person of average capabilities can upon it travel
at least three, and frequently six, times as far as he
can walk in a day, and this with even less fatigue ;
while the possibilities of the machine in-able hands
will be admitted, when it is pointed out that a mile
has been ridden upon a bicycle in less than two
minutes and a half, and that 32 miles have been
traversed in an hour, 616 miles in the 24 hours, on
the racing track. The twenty-four hours road
record is in England 414 miles; in Scotland, 314
miles; and in Ireland, 248% miles. The roa
from Land’s End to John o’ Groat’s—roughly, 900
miles by road—has been accomplished in three days
four hours forty-six minutes !

But the utility of the cycle is further proved by
facts other than those given; it has become the
poor man’s carriage, and the rich man’s hobby in
more senses than one. Royalty disports itself, at
anyrate in quasi-publicity, upon it, and the nobil-
ity and gentry make no secret of their love of the
wheel, Clergymen visit their parishioners; medi-
cal men their patients; and tens of thousands of
the middle classes transact their business or follow
their pleasures by its means; while it is next to
impossible to pass through any of the streets of our
chief towns without seeing that the cycle, in some
one of its numerous shapes, is ably ministering to
the wants of the community. It was estimated
that in 1895-96 the annual British output was
about 750,000 machines, while that of America
was already over 1,000,000. Cycle-making has
become a very important industry.

So general has cycling become, that there are in
existence in Great Britain alone at least twenty
eycling publications, varying from weeklies to
annuals, while roadbooks and handbooks innumer-
able have already been put upon the market.

As with most other sports or pastimes, cycling is
strong in a clubdom of its own. Hundreds of local
clubs exist in different parts of the country, while
acting in concert with them is the largest of all,
the Cyclists’ Touring Club, whose headquarters are

at 47 Victoria Street, London. The C.T.C., as
it is familiarly called, was not the forerunner of
the local clubs to which reference has been made,
for some of these existed three or four years before
it, but it was called into existence in 1878 for the
ee of encouraging and promoting touring, as
ts name implies. To this end it has appointed at
one fixed tariff some hotel—often the leading one—
in every town as headquarters, It has also appointed
a member in nearly every town to act as consul—
in other words, to be a guide to visiting clubmen ;
in addition to which it has nominated the most
competent mechanic the place to repair
machines at moderate prices in case of breakage.
By the introduction of a specially suitable and
durable uniform ; by the compilation of roadbooks
and maps for the Continent, as well as for Great
Britain; by agitating for better roads, for finger-

ts and milestones ; and in countless other ways
it has benefited cyclists and cycling; and that its
programme is popular, will be apparent when it is
explained that it at present possesses over 45,000
members, It publishes an official Gazette, which,
consisting of some forty to fifty pages, is sent

tis to every member once a month, as well as an
official handbook with full details of the arrange-
ments made in the different parts of the country
for the convenience of its members. The benefits
of membership are all obtainable for a nominal
sum annually. The C. T. C. is international in its
character, nearly a dozen prosperous divisions hav-
ing already been established in the United States,
in Canada, and upon the Continent.

Cycling es also a National Cyclists’ Union
that looks after the legislative side of the sport;
that frames and endeavours to uphold the amateur
definition ; that pledges itself to oppose the intro-
duction of prohibitive restrictions ; that holds the
amateur championships; and that in many other
ways does a large amount of good for wheeldom.
The headquarters of this body are at 57 Basing-
hall Street, London, E.C., and the subscription for
members not belonging to a local club affiliated
en masse is five shillin . There are branches of
the N. C. U. in Scotland, and Ireland has its
Cyclists’ Association.

For many years cycling was practised in England
in the face of much ridicule from the general
public, and hostility from other sections of the
road-using community ; while ingress to the er
was denied its votaries. These prejudices have,
however, happily been overcome; by the instru-
mentality of the C. T. C. and the N. C. U. before
referred to, nearly all these restrictions have been
removed, and, speaking broadly, a cycle is at
liberty to enter and use the inclosures to which
other public vehicles are given access. Similarly,
through the exertions of the C. T. C., the powers
hitherto possessed by courts of quarter session
and corporations under the Highways Amendment
Act of 1878, and the Municipal Corporations Act of
1882, have by the Local Government (England and
Wales) Act, 1888, been taken from them. Cycles
have been declared to be carriages within the
meaning of the Highways Acts, entitled to all
the benefits, and subject to all the penalties (tax-
paying excepted) applicable to other carriages,
while the anomalous and conflicting bylaws
hitherto in foree were, on Ist April 1889, super-
seded by a statute law which runs as follows :

Local Government (England and Wales) Act,
1888, sect. 85.—(1) The provisions of sect. 26, sub-
sect. 5, of the Highways and Locomotives (Amend-
ment) Act, 1878, and sect. 23, sub-sect. 1, of the
Municipal Corporations Act, 1882, in so far as it
gives power to the council to make bylaws regulat-
ing the use of carriages herein referred to, and all
other provisions of-any other public or private acts,

638

CYCLING

in so far as they give power to any local authority
to make bylaws for regulating the use of bicycles,
tricycles, velocipedes, and other similar machines,
are hereby repealed ; and bicycles, tricycles, velo-
cipedes, and other similar machines are hereby
declared to be carriages within the meaning of the
Highway Acts; and the following additional
regulations shall be observed by any persan or
la ha riding or being upon such carriage: (a)

uring the period between one hour after sunset
and one hour before sunrise, every person riding or
being upon such carriage, shall carry attached to
the carriage, a lamp, which shall be so constructed
and placed as to exhibit a light in the direction in
which he is proceeding, and so lighted and kept
lighted, as to afford adequate means of signalling
the epprvech or position of the carriage. (6) Upon
overtaking any cart or carriage, or any horse, mule,
or other beast of burden, or any foot-passenger,
being on or proceeding along the carriage-way,
every such person shall, within a reasonable dis-
tance from and before passing such cart or carriage,
horse, mule, or other beast of burden, or such foot-
passenger, by sounding a bell or whistle, or other-
wise, give audible and sufficient warning of the
approach of the carriage. (2) Any person sum-
marily convicted of offending against the regula-
tions made by this section, shall, for each and for
every such offence, forfeit and pay any sum not
exceeding forty shillings.

Cycle-racing, by both amateurs and professionals,
has deinloped into a fine art, and bids fair to
rival in popularity all but horseracing. Cinder-
paths specially constructed for the purpose exist
in nearly all the more important centres, and
amateur race meetings are of frequent occurrence
during the summer season ; but Leicester, Wolver-
hampton, North Shields, and Coventry are the
po chiefly noted for contests among the pro-
essional fraternity.

The practice of camping out under canvas
is one which seems to have commended itself
to cyclists in a marked degree. The habit
originated at the North of England Cyclists’
Meet, held annually at Harrogate; and it has
been perpetuated not only by Northerners, but by
Southerners as well, the latter usually selecting
Mid-Surrey as their camping ground.

Apart from the marvellous modern records to
which previous reference has been made, some
notable distances were covered even upon the
earlier and more imperfect forms of machines.
Among them should be mentioned the one from
London to Bath by David Stanton, who was
credited with covering the 106 miles in 8 hours
28 minutes on the 17th August 1874, as also the
ike record of Mr E. Tegetmier of the Belsize

icycle Club, London, who claimed to have ridden
over 10,000 miles in a single season.

The development of the pastime of bicycling in
all classes of the community, including ladies, was
especially marked in 1895-96; and this led to a
rapid increase in the number of companies for
manufacturing bicycles, or parts of them. In 1896
alone companies with a capital of £11,000,000
were floated in Britain—one of them, the Dunlop
Pneumatic Tyre Company, with a capital of
£5,000,000. The Americans, though comparatively
late in entering the field, had by 1897 increased
their export of bicycles to a value of about
£1,000,000 a year. Chainless driving gear and Eng-
lish and American roller gear were being ch utiously
introduced ; bamboo spoke and aluminium ma-
chines were no longer novelties; machines con-
structed on the cantilever principle were in use,
and in America the merits of condensed and
hardened paper for bicycle tube frames were com-
mended. As against many of the chainless cycles,

it is alleged that by the bevelled cog-wheels friction
is increased, while the one wheel is spread or
ushed away from the other. One kind of chain-
ess machine is worked by means of roller-bearing
pegs, which engage each other at right angles;
another by means of a self-coiling and self-uncoiling
band from the driving sheave to the driven sheave
(both smooth like belt sheaves), the ends of the
band being screwed to the sheaves. The long-
promised electric tricycle has not yet appeared, the

difficulty being the inevitable weight involved in

carrying a series of accumulators (but see TRAC-
TION-ENGINES).

The crypto-dynamie gear manufactured by the
Crypto Cycle Company (serviceable on rough roads
and on steep gradients) marvellously lightened the
labour of cycling in the case of elderly persons and
invalids, but as a rule a muscular rider is content
with one speed affixed to a light machine, upon
which he is able to make even better progress than
upon the necessarily heavy erypto-geared article.
A simple method of ascertaining how a machine is
geared is to multiply the diameter of the driving-
wheels by the number of teeth in the lower cog-
wheel, and then divide by the number of teeth in

the cog upon the main axle—e.g. a 40-inch wheel

has twenty teeth upon its lower cog-wheel, and
a upon the upper; this gives a gearing of 534
inches.

‘Trick riding’ is an art which American riders
assiduously practise, and in which they naturally
excel ; so much so, that many ‘ professors’ thereof
have from time to time visited Great Britain and
continental Europe to exhibit their prowess to
the multitude. Trick riding aside, however, it
is generally conceded that the typical English-
man makes the most enthusiastic cyclist ; partly
because the bicycle was first systematically made
and ridden here, and partly because he sses
an inbred love of athleties. Coventry, Birming-
ham, Nottingham, Wolverhampton, Cokie and
to a smaller extent other important places, are
interested in the manufacture of machines, while
the first named has happily been enabled to sub-
stitute for the fast-decaying or depressed industries
of ribbon-weaving and watchmaking, for which
she was long celebrated, the designing and manu-
rosin of cycles, which find employment for
thousands of hands. The Pneumatic Tyre Com-
pany is said to be able to turn out about 12,000
tyres per week.

The types of machines in current use are the ordi-
nary bicycle, the dwarf rear-driven safety bicyele or
some modification thereof, the front-steered tricycle,
the carrier or tradesman’s tricycle, tandem bicycles,
both ordinary and dwarf, tandem front-steered
bicycles, and invalid pedo- or manu-motive cycles ;
but numerous machines coming within none of
these categories are met with from time to time.
The fashion in this respect has necessarily changed
with great rapidity, gam: that it is only within the
last few years that really skilled and competent
engineers and mechanics have turned their atten-
tion to the perfecting of the cycle. The numerous
improvements, together with the impracticable
ideas of the ever-present visionary, are generally
shown annually at the Stanley exhibition, a fixture
which takes its name from the London club bearing
this title.

Among recent developments in connection with
the cycle have been its adoption by some of the
leading London dailies to convey special editions to
the various railway termini, and the use of the
cycle by the postal authorities; while pregnant
with much greater import to all concerned is the
official adoption of the two-wheeled machine by the
military authorities. With this object in view,
the various volunteer corps at present in existence

ee

CYCLONE, OKLAHOMA.

Vol. IIL, page 639.

CYCLOID

CYCLOPS 639

were in 1887 authorised by the War Office to form
eycle contingents within their ranks, while a
cyclist corps, known as the 26th Middlesex,

as been called into existence. These various
formations can hardly be considered to have as

t won the place they seem destined to oceupy,
bat they have sufficiently demonstrated their cap-
abilities to cause the highest military authorities
to entertain a very hopeful opinion of their value
in the near future. f

In America, where cycling is becoming increas-

pular, there are a large number of flourish-
ing cyclist clubs in the large cities, such as New
York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Wash-
ington; and the club-houses there are more com-
and better equipped than in Great Britain.
- Oné American cyclist is credited with having ridden
8000 miles in a year, and another 7000 miles. Mr
Thomas Stevens, starting from San Francisco on
the 22d of April 1884, travelled to Boston, then
shipped to England, again embarked for the Con-
tinent, and passed through Germany, Austria-
Hungary, the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Ar-
menia, Persia, Afghanistan, India, and China,
whence he sailed for his starting-point. This was
a ride occupying three years, and involving an
enormous amount of endurance, pluck, and energy.
Two American students, T. Allen and L. Sachtleben,
occupied three years in riding round the world,
15,044 miles. The popularity of cycling has led to
proposals for a tax on cycles; in France £80,000
a year comes from this source.

Cycling, if rationally pursued, is so exhilarating
and health-giving that leading medical men recom-
niend its adoption by both sexes in nearly all cases
where organic disease is absent.

See Cycling, by Viscount Bury and G. L. Hillier
(Badminton series; new ed. 1895); Spencer’s Bicycles
and Tricycles, Past and Present (1883), and his
Cycle Directory; Sir B. W. Richardson’s Tricycle in
Relation to Health and Recreation (1885) ; Stables’s Health
u Wheels (1885); Pleasures and Advantages of Cycling
(1887) ; Mecredy and Stoney, Art and Pastime of Cycling
(2d ed. 1893); Stevens, Avound the World on a Bicycle
(1887); Baudry de Saunier, Histoire Générale de la
Vélocipéde (1891) ; Hillier and Bramson, Amateur Cycling
(1893) ; O. Jennings, Cycling and Health (new ed. 1893) ;
Allen and Sachtleben, Across Asia on a Bicycle (New
York, 1894); A. C. Pemberton, Zhe Complete Cyclist
(1897); Bicycles and Tricycles, an Elementary Treatise
on their Construction, by Archibald Sharp (1897); the
0.7.0. Road Books and Inglis’s Contour Road Books
(1896-97 ).

Cy’cloid (Gr., ‘circle-like’). Ifacircle roll along
a “aed line in its own plane, any point on the
circumference describes a curve which is called a
eyeloid. This is the most interesting of what are
ealled the transcendental curves, both from its
geometrical properties and its numerous applica-
tions in mechanics. In dynamics, for example, we
find that a heavy particle descends from rest from
any point in the are of an inverted cycloid to the
lowest point in the same time exactly, from what-
ever point of the curve it starts. This is sometimes
expressed by saying that the cycloid is the isochron-
ous (Gr., ‘equal-time’) curve. The body having

reached the lowest point,

ve D will, through the im-

tus received in the

P. all, ascend the opposite

‘a branch of the curve to

a height equal to that

A Ms OT: B from which it fell, and
The Cycloid.

it will employ precisel
Z the same time in eee
ing as it did in descending. It is clear that if a
surface could be procured that would be perfectly
smooth and hard, the cycloid would thus present a

solution of the perpetual motion. The line AB,
which is called the base of the cycloid, is equal to
the circumference of the generating circle; the
length of the curve ADB is four times CD, the
diameter ; the evolute of any cycloid is a similar
curve of equal length; and the surface between
the curve and its base is three times the area of the
circle CD. In any position EPF of the generatin

circle, AE is equal to the are EP; PE is the norma
at P and = half the radius of curvature; PF is the
tangent to the curve at P.

Creleta scales, fish-scales with a round un-
toothed paeered margin and concentric lines par-
allel to the latter. See SCALES, FISHEs.

Cyclone (Gr. kyk/os, ‘a circle’), a circular storm
of great force, which, extending over an area of
perhaps 500 miles, and revolving round a calm
centre, advances at the rate of from 20 to 30 miles
an hour. See STORMS.

Cyclopzwdia. See ENcycLopapia.

Cyclo'pes (Gr. kuklopes, ‘the round-eyed’), in
the incoherent traditions of a Lager! developing
mythology, fall into three groups. (1) The Homeric
Cyclopes, a wild, lawless, and impious race of
giants, inhabiting the sea-coasts of Sicily, the most
peg of whom is Polyphemus (q.v.). Although

omer does not directly call them one-eyed, yet he
expressly terms Polyphemus such, and the later
poets attribute his peculiarity to the rest. (2) The
three Cyclopes mentioned by Hesiod: Brontes,
Steropes, and Arges, each having one eye in the
middle of his forehead ; these were sons of Uranus
and Gea, belonged to the race of Titans, and forged
thunderbolts for Zeus. Hurled into Tartarus by
their father, but delivered by their mother, they
helped Kronos to usurp the government of heaven.
Kronos, however, in his turn, threw them back to
Tartarus, from which they were again released by
Zeus, whose servants they now became. Finally,
they were slain by Apollo, because they forged the
thunderbolt with which Zeus killed ecala ius.
Later tradition placed their workshop in Mount
Etna, or in the voleanoes of Lemnos and Lipari,
and made them the slaves of Hephestus. (3) The
Cyclopes mentioned by Strabo as a people who had
come from Thrace or Lycia to Argolis, and were
distinguished for their skill as builders.

CYCLOPEAN WALLS is a name given to masonry
built of large, irregular stones, closely fitting, but
unhewn and uncemented. They were attributed
to Strabo’s Cyclopes, who were probably mythical,
and many of them still exist in Greece (as at
Mycenz and Tiryns), Italy, and elsewhere. More
peseeray the so-called Cyclopean walls were built

y some ancient race, perhaps the Pelasgians ( q-¥),
at a period Jong anterior to the historical civilisa-
tions of Greece and Rome.

Cyclops, a genus of small fresh-water crus-
taceans, type of a family (Cyclopidee ) in the order
Copepoda, They are popularly included under the
wide title of ‘water-fleas.’ Various species are com-
mon as active swimmers in fresh-water pools or slow-
reste as heparan and a few forms have been recorded
from the sea. Like other copepods, cyclops has
an elongated body, without a shell, with four
forked thoracic feet and a five-jointed abdomen.
The head-region is not distinct from the first rin
of the thorax; there is a pear-shaped segmen
body and a long abdomen; both pairs of antennze
are long, and in the male the anterior pair form
claspers; the mandibular and maxillary palps are
degenerate; and a heart is said be absent.
The average length of the commonest species is
from 2 to 3 millimetres; the males are generally
smaller than the females. A very marked feature,
to which the name refers, is the single median eye,
usually bright crimson and sparkling like a gem ;

640 CYCLOPTERIS

CYNOMORIUM

and not less noticeable are the two large egg-bags
carried by the females. They eat both animal and
vegetable matter, and are very prolific. See Crus-
TACEA, WATER-FLEA.

Cyclop’teris, a genus of fossil ferns met with
in Devonian and Carboniferous strata. The leaflets
are somewhat rounded or wedge-shaped, and have
no midrib, the nerves spreading from the point of
attachment. ;

Cyclorama. See PANORAMA.

Cyclosis (Gr., ‘circulation’), the name employed
to designate certain movements of the contents of
cells in plants. See VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Cyclostomata (literally, ‘round mouths’), a
class of vertebrates often included along with fishes,
but separated from them by some fundamental
divergences. Hag-fish (Myxine) and Lamprey
(Petromyzon) are the two most familiar examples,
and are types of the two orders into which the
Cyclostomata (or Marsipobranchii) are divided. :

Cydnus, a river of Cilicia, rising on the south
side of the Taurus range, and flowing through a rich
and level country, past the city of Tarsus, and
a broad lagoon, now choked up with sand, into the
sea. Its water was famous for its clearness and
coldness, and was supposed to be eflicacious against
gout and nervous diseases. Alexander nearly lost
his life through an illness brought on by bathing in
it when overheated.

Cydonia. See QUINCE.

Cygnet, a young Swan (q.v.).

Cylinder (Gr., ‘a roller’), a well-known solid
whose cross-section at any point of its length gives
always the same circle ; or, mathematically, a solid

; generated by the revolution of a
= rectangle about one of its sides,
which line is called the axis of the
cylinder. That, the typical cylinder,
is frequently called rght, and if cut
by two parallel planes not perpen-
dicular to the axis, the result is an
oblique cylinder, with elliptical ends
orsections. The term has also been
generalised to include a solid gener-
ated by a line moving parallel to a
fixed direction while tracing any
fixed closed curve. In all cases the
content of the cylinder is found by
multiplying the number of square
units in the base by the number of
linear units in the altitude, which is
the perpendicular distance between the two ends.
The area of the convex surface is equal to the
roduct of the cireumference of the end, and the
ength of the generating line. To this must be
added the areas of the two ends, to get the whole
surface of the cylinder.

Cyma. See Mou.pinas.

Cymbals are a pair of thin round metal plates,
with a hollow part in the centre, in which a leather
strap is fastened for holding in the hand. They are
instruments of percussion, which, when struck one
against the other, produce a loud harsh sound of
no fixed pitch. They are of very ancient origin,
and were used by the Greeks in the worship of
Cybele. The best cymbals are those made in
Turkey and in China. Attempts to discover and
imitate the composition of the metal have all failed,
the nearest approach to it hitherto discovered
being an alloy of 80 parts of copper to 20 of tin.
The cymbals generally play the same part as the
bass drum, and in orchestras they are played on by
the same performer, one cymbal being fixed on the
drum, the other held in one hand, while the other
hand wields a drumstick. Cymbals are, however,
essentially military instruments.

—

-oky fa,”

Cymbeline, an ancient king of Britain in a
well-known play of Shakespeare called by his
name. By his first wife he had a daughter, Imogen
who married Posthumus Leonatus. His secon
wife had, by a former husband, a son named
Cloten. Shakespeare borrowed the name from the
half-historical Cunobelinus in Holinshed’s Chronicle,
of whom several coins.are extant.

Cyme, a term employed in Botany to designate
those forms of inflorescence which are definite or
centrifugal—i.e. in which the main axis ends in a
flower, but bears one or more lateral branches
which again terminate in flowers, but not before
producing secondary branches which continue the
same process as far as growth permits. The
various forms and varieties of eyme, which are
not only of great morphological interest, but
frequently also of systematic importance—e.g,
Caryophyllacez, Labiate, &c., are described under
Inflorescence (q.v.).

Cymry. See CELTs and WALES.

Cynanchum, a genus of Asclepiadacer, of
which some species have been used medicinally—
e.g. C. monspeliacum as a violent purgative, the
so-called Montpellier Scammony, and C. vincetori-
cum, formerly in repute as an antidote to other
poisons. The Indian C. exwtensum yields fibre, and
C. ovalifolium of Penang, caoutchoue.,

Cynewulf, an Anglo-Saxon poet of whom
almost nothing is known. He has handed down
his name wrapped up in runes in his poems Christ,
Juliana, and Elene. It seems most probable that
he was a Northumbrian, but Wiileker holds that
there is no sufficient evidence for this belief.
Dietrich identifies him with Cynewulf, the Bishop
of Lindisfarne (737-80), but Ten Brink refuses to
admit the identity between the two. Cynewulf’s
principal works may be referred with some degree
of confidence to the second half of the 8th century.
He belonged to the guild of se glee-men,
possessed some learning, and was popular with his
contemporaries. His poems are aglow with fervid
Christian feeling, and show rich imagination and
power of language. The influence of Aldhelm is
distinctly traceable both in the themes and in their
treatment. The chief works are a collection of
poetical riddles ; the Christ ( ed. by Gollancz, 1892),
a subject borrowed from the old Latin homilies, in
which His birth, His ascension, and the judgment
are described, the last being particularly effective ;
Andreas and Elene, religious epics; Guthlac an
Juliana, versified lives of those saints.

Cynics, the name applied to a school of Greek
philosophers, who were distinguished mainly for
their morose and snarling ethics, and their ostenta-
tious contempt of the ordinary pleasures of life.
The name is due either to Cynosarges, the place
where Antisthenes, the founder, taught; or to
their dog-like (ynikos) contempt for conventional
manners. For their peculiar opinions, see articles
ANTISTHENES, DIOGENES, MENIPPUS, &e.

Cy’nips. See GALL-FLY.

Cynodon, a genus of grasses of which one
species, C. dactylon, is of peculiarly widedistribution, |
not only ranging from its British habitat on the
sandy ioreg of Sornwall to fringe those of North
America and the West Indies, where it is known
as Bermuda grass, but also forming (on account of
its great power of resisting drought) the most im-
portant fodder and pasture , di of India, where it
is known as Dhob, Ticeete. c. Its creeping roots, —
and those of its congener, C. dineare, have medicinal
virtues, and are sometimes used as a substitute for
sarsaparilla,

Cynomorium, a genus of the curious parasitic
order Balanophoreze (see PARASITIC PLANTS).

CYNOMORPHA CYPRESS 641

C ‘um coccineum, a plant of a strange fungus- | C. hydra, a tuberous species, is an exceedingly

like appearance, is found in the islands of Malta | troublesome weed in cultivated lands, such as
and Gozo, It was long | cotton-fields,

known as Fungus Melt-
tensis, and enjoyed the
highest reputation as a
styptic, besides being
used as an astringent in
dysentery and other
maladies. These uses,
however, depended on
the doctrine of signa-
tures alone, its scarlet
colour and _blood-like
juice being interpreted
as providential indica-
tions of its curative
destination for all in-
juries or diseases accom-
ponies by bleeding. So
1igh a value was set
upon this plant, that the
knights of Malta took
it under their particular
care as one of their
choicest possessions ; it
was carefully gathered
and deposited in a
government office, from
which the grand-master
sent it to friendly sove-
reigns, and to the hos-
pitals of the island. Up
to a recent date a keeper
of the rock which most
abundantly produces the
plant was still appointed by the British govern-
ment.

Cynomorpha (literally, ‘dog-shaped’), the
aatlay division of Old-World or Karine mon-
keys. Baboon (Cynocephalus) and Magot (Maca-
cus) are good examples. See MONKEY.

Cynoscephale (‘dog’s heads’), two hills near
Scotussa, in Thessaly, where Flaminius defeated
Philip of Macedon, 197 B.c.

Cy’nosure (Gr. kynosoura, literally, ‘the tail
of the dog’), the Greek name for the constellation
of the Little Bear, which contains the pole star, by
which the Phceenician mariners steered their course,
while the Greeks steered by the Great Bear. The
name is metaphorically applied to anything that
attracts attention, or to which all eyes are turned.
Its use, with this meaning in reference to a lady, in
Milton’s classic poems L’ Allegro and Comus, will
be remembered. In the Greek mythology, Callisto,
daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was changed
into the Greater Bear (called also Helice), and her
son, Arcas, into the Lesser (called also Cynosura).
—The Dog’s-tail Grass is called Cynosurus.

Cypera'cez, the order of reeds and sedges, are
nearly akin to es, but easily distinguished by
their solid, unjointed, generally triangular stems,
undivided leaf-sheaths, and absence of paleze. There
are about 2000 species, widely distributed through-
out all climates, but more especially in temperate
and cold regions, and in marshy soils, of which
they often take almost entire possession. Dry and
rough in texture, they furnish only the very poorest
constituent of fodder or hay, nor with few excep-
tions (see BULRUSH, CYPERUS, PAPYRUS, CAREX,
REED) have they any other economic uses.

Cyperus, « large genus of Cyperacee, chiefl
froploal The tubers or rogbatoek of some em
are edible, notably C. esculentus, cultivated in
southern Europe for its amandes de terre. C. longus
and others are used in medicine and perfumery.
C. se of South Africa yields fibre. In America,

Cynomorium coccineum,
growing upon the roots of (a) its
msl ge oteed host; 0}, ¢, d,
ifferent stages of develop-
ment.

Cy-prés, which, roughly translated, means ‘as
near as possible,’ is applied to a well-known doc-
trine in the law of charitable trusts in England.
This doctrine is to the effect that where a truster
mentions a general cg to which money is to
be applied—e.g. higher education, and also some
particular method—e.g. payment to an institution
which ceases to exist, the court will direct the
application of the money in some other particular
method, as near as ible to the one mentioned,
and consistent with the general purpose. The
doctrine is closely connected with another—viz.
that where only a general charitable intention is
exp —e.g. relief of the poor, the court will
devise some particular scheme, and will not hold
the trust void for uncertainty. These doctrines
also exist in Scots law, though not under the name
of cy-prés. The gl Speac= is also applied to a
principle on which the court acts, so as to avoid
illegality in settlements of property. In the
United States it is held that the equity courts
cannot make yalid charities which are uncertain,
but where charitable trusts have once been set
agoing, they will prevent the trust from being
defeated by change of circumstances.

Cypress (Cupressus), a genus of evergreen

coniferous trees or shrubs, with small generally
pa eonrctap and imbricated leaves, and with almost
0

ular cones, the peltate woody scales of which
ar numerous basil winged seeds. The _ best-
known species is the Common Cypress (C. semper-
virens), a native of the Mediterranean countries,
Asia Minor, and Persia, whence it has been intro-
duced into mild localities in Britain. It has two
main varieties, one ( var. horizontalis) with spreading
or drooping branches, forming a flat-topped tree,
the other (var. fastigiata) with closely appressed
branches like a Lombardy poplar, and capable of
attaining a height of 100 feet. On account of its

sombre colour yet upward aspect, this variety has
been planted since classic times around temples and

Branch of Cypress.

tombs ; in this latter aspect, the drooping variety
often took a marked place. The Greeks and
Romans put its twigs in the coffins of the dead,
they used it to indicate the house of mourning,
and planted it about burial-grounds, as is still the
custom in the East. The vast Turkish cemeteries,
of which European and American cemeteries may
be regarded as imitations, are thickly planted with
the poplar-like variety, and are often growing into
sombre forests. The wood of the cypress is yellow
or reddish, and has a pleasant smell. It is very
hard, compact, and durable ; the ancients reckoned
it indestructible; and the resin which it contains
gives it the property of resisting for a long time the
action of water. It is not liable to the attacks of

642 CYPRIAN

CYPRIS

insects, and being also of beautiful colour and
easy polish, was formerly much esteemed for the
finest kinds of work in wood, even Cupid’s arrows
being traditionally made of cypress-wood. Some
believe that the cypress is the true cedar-wood
of Scripture, and it has also been identified by
commentators as the gopher wood of Noah’s ark.
In any case, cypress and cedar have been prized for
shipbuilding in the East from the earliest times.
The doors of St Peter’s at Rome, made of cypress,
lasted from the time of Constantine the Great to
that of Pope Eugene IV., above 1100 years, and
were perfectly sound when at last removed, that
brazen ones might be substituted. Medicinal
virtues were formerly ascribed both to the wood
and seeds of the cypress, and oriental physicians
have long been wont to send patients suffering from
chest-diseases to breathe the air of cypress-woods,
thus curiously anticipating the western practi-
tioner. The resin has also had medicinal repute
from classic times, while the Turks still use also the
fruit and bark. The ethereal oil of cypress-wood
was also used by the ancients for embalming, and
the coffins of mummies were made of the wood.

More common in cultivation in Britain is the
extremely hardy C. Lawsoniana, a native of Upper
California, but of which there are now many
varieties. C. fragrans and macrocarpa, from the
same region, are also often cultivated, together
with C. thyoides, the White Cedar of Canada, and
C. nutkaensis (Thujopsis borealis), the valuable
Yellow Cypress of Alaska and Oregon. Among
tenderer species are occasionally seen C. lusitanica,
the Portugal Cedar, or Cedar of Goa, a native of
Goa naturalised in Portugal; C. torulosa, from the
Himalaya; C. excelsa and others, from Mexico.
The pretty little Retinosporas of Japan, now so
common in cultivation, forms for some authors
only a sub-genus of cypress, or with some of the
preceding (e.g. C. nutkaensis) are separated on
account of their two-seeded fruit-scales, as the
genus or sub-genus Chamecyparis.

Cyprian, St. Thascius Cecilius Cyprianus,
one of the most illustrious Fathers of the church,
was born about 200 A.D., probably at Carthage, of
heathen parents. After being a teacher of rhetoric at
Carthage, he became a Christian, and was baptised
ponent in 245 or 246. Immediately afterwards

e gave to the poor the greater part of his consider-
able fortune, and devoted himself assiduously to
the study of Scripture and the writings of the
church’s teachers, especially Tertullian. After
being successively a deacon and presbyter, he was
made a bishop in 248. His zealous efforts for the
restoration of strict discipline soon brought him a
host of enemies. In the Decian persecution, which
at Carthage was especially severe, the heathen
peve cried incessantly ‘Cyprianum ad leonem!’

ut Cyprian sought safety in flight, in his retire-
ment still caring for his flock with the help of two
vicarii, and distributing large sums of money
among the poor. He returned to Carthage in 251,
and the rest of his life was a constant struggle to
hold the balance between the two extreme parties—
the adherents of Felicissimus and Privatus on the
one hand, who favoured laxity in the treatment of
the Lapsed (q.v.), and those who would exercise the
utmost severity, such as the followers of Novatianus,
on the other.’ Cyprian was excommunicated by
the Roman bishop Stephanus for his opposition
to the Roman view of the validity of lay baptism.
He rejected this doctrine as making the sacra-
ment merely mechanical, and laid stress on the
personal piety of the priesthood and their special
authority for its administration, asserting that
baptism could only be a reality when accompanied
‘with the full and entire faith both of the giver
and receiver.’ At a synod at Carthage in 256,

he maintained that the Roman bishop, spite of
the primacy of Peter, could not claim a es
authority over other bishops. His principle, that
‘a priest of God, holding the gospel and keeping
the commandments of Christ, may be put to death,
but cannot be overcome,’ Cyprian himself illus-
trated, on the 14th September 258, when he
suffered martyrdom under the Emperor Valerian.

His character and conduct have been very
variously judged.
times he has been accused of cowardice and pride.
His zeal, fidelity, and self-denial were undeni-
able, and his courageous martyrdom frees him
from the reproach of cowardice. His writings are
all directed to practical ends. The earliest com-
plete editions of his works are by Erasmus (Basel,
1520), Pamelius (Antwerp, 1568), and Bishop Fell
(Oxford, 1682); and the best is that of Hartel (3 vols.
Vienna, 1868-71). They consist of a collection of
Epistles, and a series of treatises, which are them.
selves pastoral epistles of a bishop to his flock
(see the translation by Wallis, 2 vols. 1869). His
best-known work, De Catholice Ecclesie Unitate,
laid the foundation of the hierarchical conception
of the church. Cyprian holds that the unity of
the church is founded upon the episcopate, not of
Rome, but of the universal Chureh. In the Church
alone can salvation be obtained (‘he cannot have
God for his Father, who has not the church as
his mother’). See the Lives by Poole (Oxford,
1840), Peters (Ratisbon, 1877), and Fechtrup
(Munich, 1878) ; and Archbishop Benson’s Cyprian:
his Life, his Times, his Work (1897).

Cyprinidze (‘carps’), a large family of fresh-
water feme fishes in the order Phyacetnad with
open swim-bladders. Barbel, Bream, Carp, Chub,

ace, Gold-fish, Gudgeon, Minnow, Roach, Tench,
are familiar examples. They are distinguished from
their neighbours by their small toothless mouths,
naked head, usually scaled body, and by the absence
of the adipose fin. The family includes over a
hundred genera, and eight times as many species.
tes are widely distributed, most abundant in
north temperate regions, absent from Australia
and South America, They are voracious, very
fertile, and frequently hibernate. See Carp, &e.

Cyprinodontidze (‘toothed carps’), a family
of small bony fishes in the order Physostomi, wit
open swim-bladders. They are allied to carps
(Cyprinide ), but the mouth bears teeth, the head
and body are scaled, and there are never barbules.
The family includes twenty genera and over &
hundred species, widely distributed in the warm
and tropical zones, both fresh-water and marine.
They are in most cases viviparous, and the males
are generally smaller than the females. The
majority are carnivorous, but several forms are
known as mud-eaters. Cyprinodon, Fundulus,
Anableps (q.v.), and Peecilia are the more import-
ant genera. -

Cypripedium, or Suirrer-orcyis. See Or-
CHIDS.

Cypris, a very common small fresh-water
crustacean, type of a family (Cypride) in the
order Ostracoda. Like other ostracods, this small
‘Water-flea’ (q.v.) has an unsegmented body,
seven pairs of ap ndages, a rudimentary abdomen,
and a feoslea rollasedine shell inclosing all. The
shell of cypris is dainty and elastic; the posterior
antenne bear a long tuft of bristles on their second
joint; the second pair of maxille have a small gill-
appendage ; the posterior limbs are very irregular,

arious species of cypris are readily found in fresh-
water pools, in which they swim very actively ;
the largest form (C. pubera) measures 2°7 milli-
metres in length. The reproductive relations are
of some general interest.

Both in his own and later

*

Some species—e.g. C.

CYPRIS

CYPRUS 643

fusca and C. pubera, reproduce henogeni-
cally in summer and elas g the males being rare
and transient; while in others—e.g. C. ovum, the
males are found throughout the year, and partheno-
— seems not to occur, The eggs are usually

d in masses on stones and water-plants; in ©.
pubera the egg remains as such throughout the
winter. The males are remarkable for a peculiarly
long and complex syringe-like modification of the
reproductive duct. The adults are said to be able
to survive desiccation, and this is certainly true of
theeggs. Some spevies are very abundant as fossils
in fresh-water strata—e.g. C. waldensis, in the
English Wealden. See CRUSTACEA.

Cyprus (Gr. Kupros, Turk. G’br’s, Fr. Chypre,
Ital. Cipro) is situated in the north-east of the
eastern basin of the Mediterranean, S. of Asia
Minor, and W. of Syria, between 34° 30’ and 35° 41’
N. lat., and 32° 15’ and 34° 36’ E. long. The dis-
tance from Cape St Andreas, the north-easternmost

int of the island, to the mainland of Syria near

takia is about 52 geographical miles, while Ca

Kormakiti on the sorth of the island is omy
miles from Cape Anamur in Cilicia. rnaca is
nearly 1000 miles east of Malta, and little over
200 from Port Said and the entrance to the Suez
Canal, while Limassol is somewhat nearer to both.
The familiar shape of the island was likened by the
ancient Greeks to that of a deer’s skin, of which the
_ long and narrow peninsula of Carpas represented
the tail. The extreme length is about 140 miles,
of which 40 consist of this Carpas peninsula; the
extreme breadth is 60 miles; and the area is 3707
sq. m., or a little larger than Norfolk and Suffolk
together. There are two principal ranges of
mountains which form the most remarkable
natural feature of the country. The northern
range extends from Cape St Andreas, at the
extreme east of the island, almost as far as
Cape Kormakiti, some 20 miles to the west of
Kyrenia. The highest mountains of this range,
Buffavento (3240 feet), St Hilarion (3340), and
a relakiyion (2480), are situated almost immedi-
ately north of Nicosia, and —— owing to the
extreme clearness of the atmosphere, to rise almost
from the outskirts of the town, from which they are
distant fully 12 miles. To the south of this range,
and extending from Salamis to Morfu Bay, is the
great Messaorian plain, once famous for its crops of
cereals. Of late years, owing to the abandonment
of irrigation-works, the decay of wells, and the
absence of og | system of water storage, its fertility
has greatly fallen off, and in 1887, owing to a
deficient rainfall, there was a scarcity almost
amounting to famine. The western range occupies
the greater part of the western and south-western
districts of Cyprus, and extends to the east as far as
the isolated peak of Santa Croce or Stavrovouni,
only 12 miles to the west of Larnaca. The highest
mountain of this range is Mount Troédos (6352
feet), of which one of the peaks bears the classic
name of re rage

On the slopes of Trotdos, under gigantic
_ trees, is pitched the camp where troo rom
_ Limassol spend a part of the summer months under
canvas, and where the brigade of guards recruited
their strength in the autumn of 1885 after their
sufferings in Egypt. Cyprus has practically no
_ harbours ; Larnaca and Limassol, the chief seaport
- towns, are open roadsteads, unprotected against all
but northerly winds, with such shallow water that
steamers are obliged to anchor at a considerable
distance from the shore. Moreover, a dangerous
surf is raised in stormy weather which renders
landing difficult. At Kyrenia there is a little
harbour fit aay for small craft, and unprotected in
northerly winds; and in days gone by there were
harbours at Salamis, at Papho, and Famagusta.

ine-

The restoration of the last would greatly increase

the strategic value as well as the commercial

marence of Cyprus, but so far nothing has been
one,

The rivers only flow after heavy rain or the
anne of the snow in the hills. There are ne
lakes of any importance save that of Paralimni near
Famagusta, which is noteworthy chiefly on account
of the fact that whereas it becomes entirely dry in
summer, it abounds in fish during the winter, a
phenomenon which has never been explained, but
which certainly cannot be called in question. The
chief towns are Nicosia (the capital ), Larnaca, and
Limassol. Famagusta is a ruin; Papho, a site;
Kyrenia and Morfu, villages on the northern coast.
Until 1885 the epeetanny of Nit hr was by no
means accurately known, a state of things now put
an end to by the issue of the great map of the
trigonometrical survey of the island. This map,
which was rrr in 1885, has been engraved
by Messrs Stanford on a scale of one inch to the
statute mile.

A census taken by order of government in 1891
showed the 6 alps to be 209,291, of whom
161,247 profess the Orthodox or Greek religion, and
48,044 the Mohammedan. Dividing the popula-
tion according to ectctane 140,000 speak as their
mother-tongue a form of the Romaic or modern
Greek, and 46,000 the Turkish. The Cypriot
Greek dialect is a poor'as well as a corrupt idiom,
neither expressive nor harmonious. The language
of the Cypriot Moslems, on the contrary, is re-
markably pure, and is said to be the best Turkish
spoken out of Stamboul.

History.—Cyprus was colonised at a very early

riod by the Pheenicians and subsequently by the

reeks, who gave to the island the name Kupros,
and substituted the worship of Aphrodite (the
Cyprian goddess, ‘Paphian Venus’), to whom
2 ade was conside sacred, for that of the
Pheenician Ashtaroth or Astarte. The ancient
Cypriote syllabary was derived, according to Sayce,
from the writing of the Hittites (q.v.). Early in
the 6th century B.c. Cyprus was conquered by the
Egyptian king Amasis; and a little later by Cam-
byses, who annexed it to Persia, 525 B.c. After the
battle of Issus, Cyprus became a part of the Mace-
donian empire, but on the death of Alexander it
ed into the possession of the Egyptian Ptolemy.
n 58 B.C. Cyprus me a Roman province, and
was administered by Cato the hee and Cicero.
The Cypriotes were one of the first Gentile peoples
to embrace Christianity, and Cyprus was visited not
only by St Paul but many saints of the early
church. At the division of the empire Cyprus
naturally passed into the hands of the Eastern or
Byzantine emperors, to whom it continued subject
for over seven hundred years. In consequence of
the su discovery by a shepherd of the body
of St Matthew and part of his gospel near Salamis,
in the 4th century, Cyprus was constituted by the
via a separate autonomous church, and to the
archbishop was accorded the privilege, enjoyed onl
by the emperor himself, of si
ink, a privilege which has n uninterruptedly
exerci to the present day. In 646 Cyprus was
taken by the Saracens, under Othman, and again
in 802 by Haroun al Rashid ; but on each occasion
it remained but a very short period under the sway
of the Moslem. In 1195 Richard I., on his way to
Syria for the third crusade, took the island from
Isaac Comnenus, the representative or duke of the
eastern emperor, and gave it to Guy de Lusignan,
king of Jerusalem, in whose family the sovereignty
of the island remained until 1487, when it
under the dominion of the republic of Venice. In
1570 the Turks under Selim II. invaded Cyprus,
and after long sieges and terrible massacres at

ing his name in

644 CYPRUS

CYRENAICA

Famagusta and Nicosia, took possession of the
country and ruled it for three hundred years. On
the 10th July 1878 Cyprus was occupied by the
British, under the provision of the celebrated Turk-
ish Convention, by the terms of which the island is
to be occupied by Great Britain until Batoum, Kars,
and Erzeroum are restored to Turkey by Russia,
England paying £92,440 a year to the Porte as quit
rent. By a subsequent arrangement this ‘ tribute’
is paid by Cyprus to England, and England pays
one-half to France, or rather to the French bond-
holders of the 1854 Turkish Loan. The surplus
revenue of Cyprus did not till 1892 reach £92,000 ;
the deficit is made up by an annual grant by parlia-
ment. In 1880 the administration of Cyprus was
transferred from the Foreign to the Colonial Office,
and in 1882 a constitution, with a (partly elected)
council, &c., was granted to Cyprus.

Although under the convention the English
maintain the Mohammedan religious tribunals, an
admirable judicial system has lately been introduced,
and English barrister-judges preside over courts
which are highly appreciated by the people. The
fiscal system, however, is well-nigh unreformed, and
is most unsatisfactory, as is the system of land
tenures. The Eastern Telegraph Company have
stations throughout the island, the cable connecting
with Alexandria and Syria. Postal communication
with England is slow and unsatisfactory ; within
the folesia it is efficient. The police, 215 horse and
460 foot, under English officers, is an admirable
force. Half a regiment of English infantry is
guakiered at Polymedia camp, 4 miles north of

imassol. There is no artillery in the island. The
Cypriotes are peaceable, orderly, and easily ruled.
Englishmen, almost exclusively officials, are popu-
lar. There are three high Da over 200 Christian
elementary schools, and 120 Moslem schools.

Cyprus produces wheat, barley, cotton, silk, flax,
tobacco, carobs, madder, wool, gypsum, oranges,
pomegranates, sponges, gum-mastic, and immense
quantities of wine. Carobs, or locust beans, are
perhaps the most important export; the annual
value being from £75,000 to £105,000. Next in
importance comes wine, of which some 3,500,000
gallons, worth, say, £200,000, is annually produced
(as well as 200,000 gallons of spirits), and £66,000
exported ; next cotton, about £28,000. The export
of wheat varies from a value of £10,000 to over
£30,000, though the amount grown in the country
is of the value of over £200,000. Barley is grown
in very large quantities for home consumption,
both as grain for horses and cattle, and as spring
fodder, in a green state in place of grass, of which
none grows im the island, The export of madder
has entirely ceased since the adoption of aniline
dyes. Wool and silk (cocoons) are each exported
to the extent of about £8000 a year, but a good
deal of both is spun and woven in the country.
The total value of all exports in 1890-95 varied
from £470,000 to £550,000; but only £60,000 worth
of produce was shipped to Great Britain in conse-
quence of the want of good communication,

apy was once celebrated for its copper-mines,
which were worked by the Pheenicians yee Romans ;
indeed the word copper is derived from the name
‘of the island. At the present day a concession
granted to Messrs Knowles and Foster to mine
copper at Limni, in the extreme west of Cyprus, is
being worked by a company. Gypsum or plaster
of Paris is manufactured at Larnaca in large

uantities and exported chiefly to Alexandria.
Salt was produced, under the Turks, to the value
of £40,000 a year, by evaporation at the salines,
near Larnaca, whence that town is sometimes called
Salinas. At present, owing to prohibitive duties in
the neighbouring countries, no salt is exported and
only a very small amount for island consumption

=

is made by the British authorities. Cyprus imports
(to the value of from £240,000 to £350,000) wheat,
barley, olive-oil, sugar, textile fabrics, iron and cop-
per goods, rice, dried fish, coal, timber, cotton-yarn
and piece-goods, tobacco, petroleum, and goats.
The revenue varies from £175,000 to £220,000, of
which about a sixth is ponies by customs, and a
little less by excise, while of the remainder, part
is derived from land-tax, but by much the greater

portion from the tithe on produce, an oppressive, —

antiquated, and expensive form of taxation. The
tithe on grapes was abolished in 1884. The expen-
diture in the island, curtailed from year to year since
the occupation, amounts now to from £105,000 to
£120,000, leaving a considerable surplus to be sent
to England for the ‘ tribute.’ The climate of Cyprus
has been unduly vilified. When the English troops
landed in the hot autumn of 1878 they were
encamped in malarious situations and kept without
appropriate shelter, food, or occupation, and it is
true that most of them sickened and that many
died. But for people who live regular lives and
take reasonable precautions, the climate of Cyprus
is not only healthy but very } Seriects The death-
rate is low. Ophthalmia and intermittent fever of
a mild type are the commonest forms of disease.
Throat, chest, and lung complaints are exceedingly
rare, but leprosy is not uncommon. ‘The people are
healthy and well grown; the men, as a rule, hand-
some, the women rarely so.

The flora and fauna are with few exceptions the
same as those of the neighbouring coasts of Syria
and Asia Minor. Among wild animals the moufilon

or Cyprus sheep is the most interesting, but is be- —

coming very scarce. Mules of peculiar excellence
are bred in Cyprus and command large prices,
Goats are amongst the pests of the island. The
forests (for which Cyprus was once famous) have

well-nigh disappeared, and the climate and fertility —

of the country have greatly suffered in consequence.
Nothing is being done to re-afforest the island, and
the flocks of goats prevent any natural growth of
trees on the mountains, by biting off the tops of the
young shoots as fast as they appear. A still greater
scourge has commanded the attention of the authori-
ties, and the locusts are now almost exterminated.
The work of destruction has been thoroughly as
well as economically performed (especially 1880-84),
upon a system invented by a Cyprus gentleman,

r Richard Mattei, C.M.G.

Since the English occupation something has been
done for the roads (till then few and bad), and a
little for re-afforesting the hills and restoring the
timber supplies. In 1897 a railway cpnnecsne
Nicosia, Larnaca, and Limassol was being laid,
and both the English government and the local
administration made large grants for irrigation
and drainage of swamps. A company was tryin
to revive silk-culture (once very famous, as g
Cyprus cocoons are the best known) and to improve
agriculture. ;

See works on Cyprus by Cesnola (1877 ), J. Thomson,
Lang, Hepworth Dixon, Sir 8S. Baker, Mrs Scott Stevenson,
Miss Agnes Smith, W. H. Mallock (1889), and Mrs Lewis

(1894); Macheras, Chronique de Chypre (Paris, 1891); ~

vol. iii. of Perrot and Chipiez, History of Ancient Art
(trans. 1885); M. O. Richter, Kyprus, the Bible, and
Homer (1894); and pamphlets and articles in the maga-
zines by Professor Geddes in 1897.

Cyrenaica, the name of the district in northern
Africa whose capital was Cyrene (q.v.). In its

widest limits it stretched from the borders of —

Carthage to the Chersonesus Magna or northern
headland of the Gulf of Plateea ( |
The productions of Cyrenaica mentioned by ancient
writers are corn, oil, wine, honey, fruits of all
kinds, cucumbers, truffles, cabbage ; flowers yield-

ing the richest perfumes; a rare plant called —

ulf of Bomba), —

OYRENE

CYRIL 645

a ean (still abundant), from which was obtained
a medicinal gum-resin ; and its horses, The
first settlements in Cyrenaica were made by a
Spartan colony in 631 B.c. The earliest cities were
uchira and Hesperis, then Barca, a colony from
e; and these, with Cyrene itself, and its port
Apollonia, formed the original Libyan Pentapolis ;
su uently, Hesperis became Berenice ; Teuchira,
Arsinoé; while Barca was eclipsed by its port,
which became a = with the name of Ptolemais.
Cyrenaica at length became Roman, and under
Constantine was constituted into a province as
Libya Superior. In the 7th centary it was overrun
thea rabs, and now nearly corresponds with
(q.Vv.).

’ arene, the capital of Cyrenaica (q.v.), founded
in 631 B.c., by a colony of Spartans under Battus,
whose dynasty ruled for nearly two centuries, and
was replaced by a republic, which was far from
a tea until the Roman rule at length gave
t rest from party conflicts. During its prosperity
Cyrene carried on a great commerce with Greece
and Egypt, and to a less extent with Carthage.
Its extensive ruins still attest its former magnifi-
cence. It is repeatedly mentioned in the New
Testament. Here were born the philosophers
Aristippus (q.v., founder of the Cyrenaie School),

niceris, and Carneades, the poet Callimachus,
the astronomer Eratosthenes, and the Christian
rhetorician and bishop, Synesius.

Cyrenius, a Grecised form of Publius Sulpicius

uirinus, named in Luke ii. as governor of Syria.

e received his appointment as governor in 6 A.D.,
but the difficulty in harmonising this with Luke is
got over by admitting that he had been governor
also at an earlier date—according to Zumpt, from
4 B.C. to 1 B.C.

and Methodius, apostles of the Slavs,

were brothers, and natives of Thessalonica. Cyril
was the name Pah ee as a monk by Constantine,
born in 827. He had been a disciple of Photius,
and for his learning was surnamed ‘ the philosopher.’
The Khasars, a Tartar people who inhabited the
country from the north-east of the Black Sea to the
lower Volga, having about the year 860 asked the
Emperor Michael IIL. to send them Christian mis-
sionaries, Cyril was sent in answer to their appeal,
and made many converts. The Bulgarians of
Thrace and Meesia were evangelised by Methodius,
who baptised their king Bogoris in 861. At the
request of Ratislav, Duke of Moravia, the brothers
then turned to the countries on the March and
Danube. They prepared a Slav translation of
the Scriptures and chief liturgical books (which
became the foundation of the literature of the
Slavs), and by their services in the mother-
tongue won the hearts of the people from the
Roman missionaries. The two brothers were
summoned to Rome to explain their conduct, and
Cyril died there in 869. ethodius, who in the
same year was consecrated at Rome Bishop of
the Moravians, completed the evangelisation of the
Slavs. Called to Rome a second time in 879 to
justify his celebration of the mass in the native
ngue, he succeeded in Spining the approval of
Rope John VIIL., returned to his diocese in 880,
and (according to the most probable account)
died at Hradisch on the March, 6th April 885.
Bohemia and Moravia celebrated the millenary
festival of their two apostles on the 5th July 1863.
Both brothers are recognised as saints by the
Roman Catholic Church, after having been con-
demned as Arians by several HS (including
Gre ory VII.). Their festival falls in the Roman
Catholic Church on the 9th of March, in the Greek
- Church on the 11th of May. The Cyrillic alphabet,
modified out of the Greek by Cyril, su ed ‘the

more ancient Slavonic alphabet over a wide area.
The his of Cyril and Methodius is still very
obscure. The sources are collected by Schafarik in
vol. ii. of his Slavische Alterthiimer (Ger. trans. 2d
ed. 1863), and more completely by Ginzel in his
Geschichte der Slawenapostel Cyril und Method
oe So 1857). See also Diimmler and Mik-
er Die Legende vom Heiligen Cyril (Vienna,

Cyril of Alexandria, Sv, one of the Fathers
of the church, was born at Alexandria, and brought
up under the care of his uncle Theophilus, whom,
after some years spent as a monk in the Nitrian
desert, he succeeded as patriarch of Alexandria in
412. Cyril forthwith closed the churches of the
Novatians, and in 415 expelled the Jews from the
city. With the shameful murder of Hypatia (q.v.)
he was at least indirectly connected. The latter
part of his life was spent in his relentless persecution
of Nestorius (q.v.), against whom, in the name of a
synod held at Alexandria in 430, he hurled twelve
anathemas for his refusal to apny to the Ms
Mary the epithet Theotokos (‘Mother of God’).
The ecumenical council of Ephesus in 431 con-
demned Nestorius, with his doctrine of the two
natures in Christ. After this, John of Antioch,
with his adherents (numbering from 30 to 40
bishops), who had arrived at Ephesus too late to
take part in the discussion, constituted a synod of
their own, which condemned Cyril. The emperor
confirmed both of these depositions, but Cyril, not-
withstanding, kept his patriarchate till his death
in 444. On hearing of his death, Theodoret wrote,
‘Envy is dead, and heresy is buried with her.’
Among the extant works of Cyril are a defence
of Christianity, in 10 books, written against the
Emperor Julian in 433; a series of homilies and
doemens treatises on the Trinity, the Incarnation,
and on the Worship of God in spirit and in truth
(17 books, written against the Anthropomorphites ).
The best edition of his works is that of Aubert
(7 vols. Paris, 1638). See Neander’s Church
History, Newman’s Historical Sketches (vol. ii.),
Kingsley’s a wae Hefele’s History of the Councils
(vol. ii.), and Kopallik, Cyril von Alexandria
(Mainz, 1881).

Cyril of Jerusalem, St, was born probably
about 315, but his descent and birthplace are
unknown. About 334 he was ordained a deacon,
and about 345 a presbyter. During the Arian con-
troversies he endeavoured to maintain a neutral
attitude, and in 351 was ordained Bishop of Jeru-
salem by Acacius, Bishop of Cesarea, who was
an Arian. Cyril having repeatedly disregarded
citations by Acacius, his metropolitan, was deposed
by him in 358, and by a synod at Constantinople in
360; but on the accession of Julian in 361 he re-
turned to his flock, which he ruled in peace till 367,
when, by order of Valens, he was again expelled.
He returned to Jerusalem on the death of Valens
in 378, took part in the second cecumenical council
at Constantinople, and died on the 18th (according
to other accounts, on the 11th or 20th) March 386.
The genuine writings of Cyril are his Katéchéseis
(or instructions to catechumens ), eighteen of which
are addressed to candidates for baptism, and five to
the newly baptised. They are not in the form of
question and answer, but are connected lectures,
written in a style of great pcan i ay Sn clearness,
and making constant reference to Scripture. The
articles of the creed (called by Cyril Péstis, or the
‘Faith’) on which the teaching is based can be
gathe with tolerable certainty from the last
thirteen of the first series of the Katéchéseis, and
are distinguished from those of the Nicene Creed
by the avoidance of its distinctive word Homoousios
(‘of the same substance’). The best editions are

646 CYRUS

CYST

by Touttée (Paris, 1720; new ed. 2 vols. 1844) and
by Reischl and Rupp (2 vols. 1845-60). There is
an English translation by Dean Church in the
Oxford Library of the Fathers (vol. iii. 1838). See
also works on Cyril by Plitt (1855), Gonnet (1876),
and Mader (1891).

Cyrus THE GREAT (Kurus, porare from kur,
‘a mountain’), the founder of the Persian empire.
He was the fourth in a line of kings of Anzan or
Susiana (called by the Hebrews Elam) who formed
a branch of the royal dynasty of the Achzmenides
(q.v.). According to Herodotus, Cyrus was the
son of Mandane, daughter of Astyayes, king of
Media, and the Persian Cambyses. Moved by
superstitious fears, Astyages attempted to destroy
him in his infaney, but the child was saved by a
herdsman, who brought him up as his own son.
Being recognised in his boyhood by Astyages, he
was sent to his parents in Persia. Cyrus in course
of time rose against Astyages and conquered him.
This narrative and the greatly varying accounts
of Xenophon, Ctesias, Nicolaus of ‘Damascus,
Diodorus, and Trogus Pompeius, formerly re-
garded as the authorities for the life Cyrus,
have been superseded by the evidence of recently
discovered monuments. A new light has been
thrown on his history by the discovery of his own
cuneiform records on a clay tablet and cylinder
recently brought from Babylon to England. Cyrus
was the son of Cambyses t. grandson of Cyrus L.,
and great-grandson of Teispes, conqueror of Elam,
who was also the great-grandfather of Hystaspes,
the father of Darius (q.v.). From the tablet-
inscription we learn that in the sixth year of
Nabonidus, king of Babylon (549 B.c.), Cyrus,
‘king of Elam,’ conquered Astyages, king of
Media, made him a prisoner, and took his capital,
Ecbatana. By the year 546 he had become ‘ king
of Persia.’ Year after year was idly spent by
Nabonidus at Tema, a suburb of Babylon, while
his son (doubtless Belshazzar) was with his army
in Akkad (Northern Babylonia). In 538 Cyrus,
favoured by a revolt of the tribes on ‘the Lower
Sea,’ or Persian Gulf, advanced on Babylon from
the south-east, and, after giving battle to the army
of Akkad, took Sippara (Sepharvaim) and Babylon
itself ‘ without fighting.’ The account of the siege
of Babylon by Cyrus recorded by Herodotus must
therefore be erroneous. The Greek historian seems
to have transferred to the reign of Cyrus events
which took place in the reign of Darius. On the
eighth day after Cyrus entered Babylon in person,
he appointed Gobryas its governor, and that very
day Nabonidus died. Nabonidus in his distress
had brought the images of many local gods to
Babylon, so as to protect it from the invader ; and
the cylinder-inscription shows very clearly that
Cyrus was a polytheist and an idolater, for he
there says, ‘the gods dwelling within them left
their shrines in anger when [ Nabonidus] brought
them to Babylon,’ and, after telling how he had
restored them all to their sanctuaries, prays them
to intercede before Nebo and ‘Merodaaly my lord,’
for himself and Cambyses his son. Cyrus at once
began a policy of religious conciliation. The
nations who had been carried into captivity in
Babylon along with the Jews were restored to
their native countries, and allowed to take their
ae with them. The empire of Lydia had fallen

efore the army of Cyrus two years before (in 540),
and after the conquest of Babylonia he was master
of all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Hindu
Kush. The conqueror’s hold over Asia Minor and
Syria was much strengthened by his friendly rela-
tions with the Pheenicians and also with the Jews,
who received the news of his triumphs with enthusi-
astic sympathy as the confirmation of the prophetic
aspirations for their national deliverance. In the

Old Testament he is called the Shepherd and the
Anointed of Jehovah, because in 538 he «gave
the Jews who were living in captivity in Babylon
ermission to return; yet it is expressly said of
hit : ‘For Jacob My servant’s sake, and Israel M

chosen . . . I (Jehovah) have surnamed (or titled)
thee, though thou hast not known Me... I
will gird thee, though thou hast not known Me’
(Isa. xlv. 4, 5),
to the Jewish people awoke the hope that he
might be won over to faith in Jehovah as the one

true God; but doubtless he was less moved by
religious than by political motives to allow the —

Jews to return to their own land. After the
great king had extended the boundaries of his
empire from the Arabian desert and the Persian
Gulf in the south, to the Black Sea, the Caucasus,
and the Caspian in the north, he died in 529—
according to Herodotus and Diodorus, during an
unsuccessful struggle with Tomyris, queen of the
Massagetee, on the Jaxartes ; according to Ctesias,
of a wound which he had received while conquerin

the Derbicci on the upper Oxus. The empire o
Cyrus was organised under satraps and minor
governors, after the manner of the second empire
of Assyria. Three years before his death, Cyrus
made his son and successor Cambyses ‘king of
Babylon.’ His own title was ‘king of the world.’
The chief seat of his court was Ecbatana; durin

the spring months it was held at his old capital,
Susa, or Shushan, in Elam. Cyrus takes a high
rank among Asiatic conquerors ; he was a wise and
considerate ruler, whose aim was to soften by his
clemency the despotism which he was continually
extending by the sword. But he did little to con-
solidate the empire which he founded, contenting
himself with a declaration of allegiance, and leay-
ing the government nearly everywhere in the hands
of native rulers. He brought the greater part of
the Old World (Egypt excepted) under his sway,
but left the organisation of his conquests to his
successors. The Cyropedia of Xenophon is obvi-
ously an historical romance. See Professor Sayce’s
Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther (2d
ed. Lond. 1887); also his Fresh Light from the
Ancient Monuments (1883).

Cyrus THE YOUNGER, the second of the sons
of Darius Nothus (or Ochus) and Parysatis, was
born in 424 B.c. He conspired against his brother
Artaxerxes Mnemon, who had succeeded to the
throne (404 B.c.). The plot, however, being dis-
covered, he was at first sentenced to death, but
afterwards pardoned, and even restored to his
dignity as satrap of Asia Minor. Here he employed
himself in making arrangements for war against
his brother, although he concealed his purposes to
the very last. In the spring of 401 B.c. he left
Sardis at the head of 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000
Greek mercenaries, under pretence of chastisin

the robbers of Pisidia. Artaxerxes being warne

of Cyrus’s perfidy, made preparations to oppose
him, and the two armies encountered each other in
the plains of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon.
Cyrus was defeated and slain, although the Greeks
fought with the greatest courage, and even routed
that portion of Artaxerxes’ troops immediately
opposed to them. The fortunes of the Greeks, on
their retreat through the highlands of Armenia, in

‘severe winter-weather, are recorded by Xenophon

in his Anabasis (q.v.).

Cyst (Xystis, ‘a bladder’), a word sometimes
used in the original sense as applied to hollow
organs with thin walls, as the urinary bladder
and gall-bladder; but commonly reserved for the
designation of pathological structures or new forma-

tions within the body having the bladder form. ~

Cysts may arise in two different ways: (1) either

The favour which he showed —

—«- —_

Se

_

eiaiiiias., ilallia

7
.

CYSTIN

CZASLAU 647

by the accumulation of products within cavities
normally present, or §2) by the independent forma-
tion of a cavity. Of the first, wens, collections of
secretion in a sebaceous gland of the skin, are the
comuronest example ; instances of the second are
eystic tumours of the Ovary (q.v.) and the sacs

evelo in connection with certain parasites
(‘bladder-worms ;’ see HypATID, ENTOZOA). The
structure of their walls is still more variable than
their mode of origin ; sometimes they are thin and

transparent, sometimes dense and fibrous. They

are either simple or compound, unilocular or
multilocular ; they are sometimes small, numerous,
and separate; in other cases they grow to an
enormous size, and are very complex. Some cysts
are present at birth, and remain through life

almost unchanged ; some increase rapidly in size,

and form large and dangerous tumours. For Cystic
Worms, Cysticereus, see BLADDER-WORM, CES-
TOoID Worms, TAPEWORMS.

Cystin, or Cystic OxIDE, forms a rare variety
of Peet ee ( .v.). Its chemical composi-

tion is C,H,NSO,, and it forms a whitish or dirty
yellow deposit consisting of six-sided crystalline
tablets. It is soluble in ammonia, and is thereby

Eeernaeished from the similar crystals of uric
aci

Cystitis, inflammation of the Bladder (q.v.).

wyerolden (Gr. eystis, ‘a bladder’), a group of
fossil echinoderms, so called from their spherical or
bladder-like form. The spherical body was inclosed
by caleareous plates, and resembled that of the
erinoids in general form. It was borne on a
short stalk, or was sessile. See CRINOIDEA.

Cythe’ra. See Crerico.

Cy’tisus, a large genus of Leguminose, sub-
order Papilionacez, small trees or shrubs, with
ternate leaves, and yellow, white, or purple flowers,
natives chiefly of the warmer temperate parts of
the Old World, but frequently introduced on
account of the beauty of their flowers (see LABUR-
NUM). In its widest sense the genus may include
the common Broom (q.v.).

Cyzicus, the ancient name of a peninsula of
Asia Minor, projecting into the Sea of Marmora,
which lies immediately to the SE. of the island of
Marmora, and is about 9 miles in length. It was
at one time an island. In early times Cyzicus
was a Milesian colony, and the city of Cyzicus,
which was not finally ruined till its conquest by
the Arabs in 675, is described by Strabo as one
of the first cities in Asia, alike for extent and
splendour.

Czar, more properly Tsar, Tzar, or Zar, the
title of the emperors of Russia. The word occurs
early in Old Slavonic, equivalent to king or kaiser,
and is connected with the Latin Cesar, continued
in the Roman empire as a title of honour long after
the imperial house itself had become extinct. In
the Slavonic Bible the word basi/eus is rendered by
ezar; Cresar (kaisar) by Cesar. In the Russian
chronicles also the Byzantine emperors are styled
czars, as are also the khans of the Mongols who
ruled over Russia. The title of the Russian princes
was kniaz (‘prince’) and veliki kniaz (‘great prince’) :
and the princes of Moscow took the title of ezar
as rulers of the Mongolians. As individual sub-
khans made themselves independent of the king-
dom of the Golden Horde, they also assumed the
title of czar; thus, there were czars of Siberia,
of Kasan, and of Astrakhan. The conquest of
the Golden Horde by the khan of the Crimea in
1480 made the grand-princes of Moscow completely
independent ; and upon them devolved the absolute

wer which the czars had exercised over all

ussia, Ivan IV. the Terrible first caused him-

self to be crowned czar in 1547; from that time
the title of czar became the chief title of the
Muscovite rulers, and became practically the
equivalent of emperor. The wite of the ezar
was named tzaritza (czarina); the sons, tzare-
witch; the daughters, tzarevna; but after the
death of Alexei—Peter I.’s son—these titles were
abolished, and the imperial princes were called

nd-dukes, and the imperial princesses grand-
ea In 1799 the Emperor Paul I. intro-
duced the title of cesarewitch (not czarewitch )
for his second son, the Grand-duke Constantine.
The heir-apparent and his wife are still called
cesarevitch and cesarevna. Among the Russian
people themselves, the emperor is more frequently
called Gossudar (Hospodar, ‘Lord’) than ezar.
The term White Czar, bél/yj zar’, comes down from
Mongol times, and is merely equivalent to an in-
dependent, non-tribute-paying czar. See Russia.

Czardasch, or CsArDAs, a Hungarian national
dance, consisting of two sections—a slow move-
ment called a dassu or lassan, and a quickstep,
the friss or friska. Both are always in 4 or
% time, and in the same key. Examples on an
extended scale occur in Liszt’s ‘Rhapsodies Hon-
groises.’

Czartoryski, ADAM GEORGE, son of Prince
Adam Czartoryski (1734-1823), was born at
Warsaw, 14th January 1770. Educated at Edin-
burgh and London, he returned to Poland, and
took part inst Russia in the war of 1794.
Sent to St Petersburg as a hostage, he gained
the friendship of the Grand-duke Alexander and
the confidence of the Emperor Paul, who made
him ambassador to Sardinia. When Alexander
ascended the throne, he appointed Czartoryski
assistant to the Minister of Foreign Affairs; and
he took an active part in official life until after
the peace of Tilsit. As curator of the university
of Wilna (1803) he exerted all his influence to
keep alive a spirit of nationality ; and when some
of the students were sent to Siberia on a ou;
of sedition, Czartoryski resigned his office. is
successor reported to the emperor that the amalga-
mation of Russia and Lithuania had been delayed
a century by Czartoryski. Russian favours could
not deaden or even dull Czartoryski’s- pure

atriotism. Into the revolution of 1830 he threw
himself with all his heart. He was elected
president of a provisional government, and in
this capacity summoned a national diet, which
in January 1831 declared the Polish throne
vacant, and elected Czartoryski head of the
national government. He immediately devoted
half of his large estates to the public service,
and adopted energetic measures to meet the power
of Russia. In August he resigned his post, but
continued to fight as a common soldier. After
the suppression of the rising (see POLAND), Czar-

toryski—specially excluded from the general am-
nesty, and his estates in Poland confiscated—
esca to Paris, where he afterwards resided, the

liberal friend of his poor expatriated countrymen,
and the centre of their hope of a revived nation-
ality. In 1848 he liberated all his serfs in Galicia,
and during the Crimean war he ineffectually en-
deavoured to induce the allies to identify the cause
of Poland with that of Turkey. He refused the
amnesty offered to him by Alexander IT., and died
15th July 1861. See his Memoirs, translated by
Gielgud (1888).

Czaslau (Bohemian Cédslav), a town of Bo-
hemia, 40 miles ESE. of Prague by rail, with
manufactures of beet-sugar and alcohol. Its
church, in which the Hussite leader Ziska was
buried, is surmounted *by the highest steeple in
Bohemia (290 feet). The place was the scene of

648 CZECHS

CZERNY

an important victory gained over the Austrians
by Frederick the Great, 17th May 1742. Pop.
(1890) 8396.

Czechs (also spelt Tzechs, Tschechs, Cesks, Ches-
kians, &c.), the most westerly branch of the great
Slavic family of nations. In the latter half of the
5th century A.D. the Czechs migrated from their
lands in Carpathia, on the upper Vistula, to the
country now known as Bohemia. Other Slavic
tribes came too; but in the course of time the
Czechs gained such an ascendency that, in the
9th century, their name was commonly applied to
the whole Slavic population of Bohemia (q.v.).
Here, in Moravia, and in other parts of Austria,
the Czechs now number in all some 7,000,000.

Czegled, a market-town of Hungary, 47 miles
SE. of Pesth by rail. The inhabitants ( 1890),
27,549 in number, are employed principally in
agricultural pursuits, the district around yielding
much grain and red wine.

Czenstochau, or CZENSTOCHOWA, a town of
Poland, 148 miles SW. of Warsaw by rail. A
Catholic monastery, founded here about 1382, is
visited yearly by fifty to sixty thousand pilgrims,
as possessing the famous ‘ Black Virgin,’ a murky

ainting of Byzantine origin, but ascribed by
featnid to St Luke himself. In 1655 Czenstochau
was the only place in Poland which offered_resist-
ance to Charles Gustavus of Sweden, when 70
monks and 150 soldiers for 38 days held out
against 10,000 men. The inhabitants, 15,500 in
number, carry on a considerable trade in sacred
pictures and rosaries.

Czermak, JOHANN NeEpoMUK, physiologist,
was born, 17th June 1828, in Prague, studied at
Vienna, Breslau, and Wiirzburg, was_ professor
successively at Cracow, Pesth, Jena, and Leipzig,
and died 16th September 1873. He was the
founder of laryngoscopy. His principal work is
Der Kehlkopfspiegel (2d ed. 1863), and his collected
works were published in 1879.

Czerno’witz, the capital of the Austrian
Foie of Bukowina, stands 720 feet above sea-
evel, near the right bank of the Pruth, 165 miles
SE. of Lemberg by rail. Among its buildin
are the palace of a Greek archbishop (1875); his
hatholiral (1864), on the model of St Isaac’s at St

Petersburg; the Armenian church (1875); the
synagogue (1877); and the ‘Austria Monument’
(1875). The university, founded in 1875, has
36 instructors and some 225 students. The manu-
factures and trade are steadily developing. Pop.
(1869) 33,884; (1880) 45,600, of whom 14,449 were
Jews ; (1890) 57,403.

Czerny George (Turkish K aradjordje)—i.e.

Black George, the leader of the Servians in their |

struggles for independence, was born of poor
arents, 21st December 1766, near Kragujevatch.
e took part in a rising against the Turks in

1787, and was subsequently a cattle-dealer. In-

August 1801, a band of janizaries broke into his
dwelling, and plundered it. Czerny fled, vowin
vengeance. He soon collected a band of mal-
contents, and commenced a sort of guerilla war,
Gradually his numbers increased, and in 1804 he
captured the fortress of Schabaz. Subsequently,
he invested Belgrade, and in the beginning of 1806
routed the Turks at the rivers Drina and Morawa.
Assisted secretly by Russia, he captured Belgrade
in December 1806. After the treaty of Slobosje
(8th July 1808), he was elected governor by ie
people, and recognised as Prince of Servia by the
sultan. The French invasion of Russia in 1812
compelled the latter country to let Servia shift for
itself. Hostilities recommenced ; the Turks were
successful, and Czerny had to flee to Austria,
where he lived for some time. Meanwhile, the
freedom of Servia had again been secured through
the leadership of Milosch Obrenowitch ; and when.
in July 1817, Czerny returned, he was murder
at the instigation of Prince Milosch.

Czerny, KARL, pianoforte teacher and com-

ser, born at Vienna in 1791, was the pupil and
riend of Beethoven, and also gained much from
Clementi and Hummel. Besieged by pupils, he
would teach only those who showed especial
talent; among these were Liszt, Thalberg, and
Dohler. Living in great retirement, he devoted
much of his time to composition ; a mass of MS.
is preserved in the archives of Vienna, while his
pa lished works number over 900, of which his
heoretical and Practical School is the best known,
and probably also the most valuable. He died
15th Sil 1857.

bate allel

SI LG RTE ETT TE POE LOO CT OS

‘tiene are

D

a TNS RC
SS

>,
aD
>,
:

is the fourth letter in our own
alphabet, as well as in the Phee-
nician, Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin, from which last it was

immediately derived. The
af original symbol in the Egyp-
of, tian hieroglyphs was__ the
‘Cz icture of a hand. When

ken over by the Pheenicians,
this sign was called daleth, ‘the door,’ from a fancied
resemblance to the curtained aperture of a tent,
rather than to the wooden quadrangular door of a
house. This resemblance may be traced in the Greek
letter A, whose name delta was derived from the
Semitic daleth. In Pheenician and the oldest
Greek, the letter had a short tail, 4, but as this
form differed very little from that of B, and hardly
at all from that of R, the three letters were differ-
entiated, B acquiring a second loop, R a tail, while
D lost the downwar gg eager of the stem.

In cursive Greek the letter was rounded, and
acquired the form 6, which is due to the ligature
connecting it with the following letter. hese
changes are shown in the table given in Vol. L,
page 187, which also explains the singular process
whereby, in the minuscule form d, the loop of
D has been transferred from the right of the stem
to the left. In the Aramean alphabets the loop
opened out, as is seen in the Hebrew -.

The sound of D is the soft dental mute. It has,
like ¢, an affinity for n, and is often brought in as
a sort of shadow to facilitate the utterance of this
letter. It is intrusive in such words as sound,
compound, lend, riband, gender, thunder, kindred.
Sometimes it disappears, as in the case of cruel
from crudelis, or winnow from windewe. It is often
assimilated to the following consonant, especially
in compounds derived from the Latin, as in the
words accept, aftain, a/locution, rk psi affirm,
arrogant, gossip. It is sometimes replaced by /, r,
or b, as in the words /acrima, Ulysses, /ingua,
arbiter, meridies, bellum, bonus, dis. By Grimm’s
Law a primitive d becomes ¢ in English, and z in
German : as in the words decem, ten, zehn; or duo,
two, zwei. A primitive dh becomes @ in Greek, th
in German, f in Latin, and d in English; as the
words O7p, thier, fera, and deer. Di followed by a
vowel sometimes becomes 7, as in journal from
diurnal.

D, the Roman numeral for 500, arose out of ID,
the half of CIO, which was the old way of
writing ©, the primitive sign for 1000, which was
afterwards written M.

D, in Music, is the second note in the natural
scale. See Music, SCALE.

Dab (Pleuronectes limanda), a species of
Flounder (q.v.), common on European coasts, but
not occurring in the Mediterranean. It is distin-

ishable from plaice and flounder by its light-

rown, or ashen-gray colour, with small irregular
dark spots, by the roughness of its small, close-set
scales, and by its more arched lateral line. Its
length is from 8 to 16 inches. It is common all
round Britain, and in the Firth of Forth is known
as the Salt-water Fluke. Its flavour excels that
of flounder. A rather larger species, of even more

northern distribution, is the Lemon or Smooth Dab
(P. microcephalus). It may be distinguished from

Dab (Pleuronectes limanda).

the common dab by the fact that the first ray of
the anal fin is not spiny. The brownish colour is
sometimes prettily mottled.

Dabchick. See GREBE.

Da Capo (Ital., ‘from the beginning’), a term
in Music, frequently placed at the end of a part or
movement, indicating that the performer must
return to the beginning of the movement, or (dal
Segno) to some other part of it marked with the
sign :$:, and finish where the word fine is placed.
The words are generally abbreviated thus, D.C.,
sometimes D.C. al fine.

Dacea, a city of Bengal Proper, 150 miles NE.
of Caleutta, on the north bank of the Buriganga,
occupies an area of 8 sq. m., and consists of a dull
esplanade and one long street meeting at right
angles, with a complementary network of narrow,
crooked lanes. Its position commands the principal
waterways of the delta, and it thus enjoys singular
facilities in the way of inland navigation. On this
account it was chosen, about 1610, as the seat of
the Mohammedan government of Bengal, which
rank it retained, except during an interval of
twenty years, until 1704. The suburbs extended
15 miles northward, where mosques and_ brick
buildings are still found buried in thick jungle.
In the 18th century it became widely celebrated for
the delicate texture of its muslins, and in connec-
tion with this manufacture the French and the
Dutch, as well as the English, had extensive estab-
lishments in the place. After 1817, however, the
annual value of the trade declined, under the com-
petition of Manchester arti, and the aspect
of the city changed with the disastrous decay of its
staple industry. Its busy marts were deserted ; in
many quarters the streets, with their desolate,
abandoned houses, were overgrown with jungle ;
and the population fell from 200,000 in 1800 to
69,212 in 1872. Since then the fortunes of Dacca
have somewhat brightened; the general pathos A
ment of trade throu “Loat the presidency has brought
back a share of its former prosperity, and the open-
ing of the Dacca and Maimansingh State Railwa;
in 1886 has notably increased the transit trade.
small colony of muslin-weavers still survives, and
other manufactures are coarse cotton cloth, em-
broidery, silver-work, shell-carving, and pottery.
Besides the Dacca College (1835), with about 300
students, there are many good schools, and a fine

650 DACE

DACTYL

hospital; in 1878 a system of water-works was
opened, and the sanitary condition has since im-
proved. Pop. (1891) 82,321.—Dacca DisTRIcT has
an aréa of 2797 sq. m., and. consists of a level
lain, intersected by a network of rivers and arti-
ficial watercourses. Two-thirds of the district is
under cultivation ; food-crops, oil-seeds, jute, cot-
ton, safflower, and sugar-cane are grown. Trade
is carried on chiefly by water, and the rivers are
crowded at all seasons with steamers and native
craft; the adventurous boatmen of the district
have a name throughout Bengal. Floods, blight,
or drought never seriously affect the district, but
earthquakes are of common occurrence. Outside
Dacca city sanitation is unthought of; fevers,
dysentery, and goitre are among the endemic
diseases, and epidemics of cholera and smallpox
are not infrequent. Pop. (1872) 1,852,993; (1881)
2,116,350; (1891) 2,420,656—over 60 per cent.
Mohammedans.

Dace, Dare, or Dart (Leuciscus vulgaris), a
fresh-water fish in the carp family Cyprinide (q.v.),
and of the same genus as the roach, chub, min-
now, &c. It chiefly inhabits the deep and clear
water of quiet streams. Itis found in Italy, France,
Germany, &c., and in some of the rivers of England,
but is very local. In form it is not unlike the
roach, but rather more elongated; the mouth is
rather larger, the scales smaller. The upper parts
are dusky blue, becoming paler on the sides, and

Dace (Leuciscus vulgaris).

passing into white on the belly, the cheeks and gill-
covers silvery white. It measures about 8 inches
in length, and never exceeds a pound in weight.
The dace is gregarious, and swims in shoals. It
spawns in early summer. Its flesh is preferred to
that of the roach, but is not highly esteemed. The
dace is perhaps the liveliest and most active of the
Cyprinide, and affords the angler fair sport both
with fly and bait.

Dachshund, a name adopted from the Ger-
man, signifying ‘ badger-dog.’ The dachshund has
been common in Germany for many years, but was
unknown in England until introduced by the late
Prince Consort towards the middle of the 19th
century ; it then became very fashionable and
popolar, but is not now so common. The dachs-
1und is a small dog, weighing about 20 lb., with
short crooked fore-legs, and an extremely long body,
its head rather resembling that of a miniature
bloodhound. Its strong, large paws enable it to
dig rapidly. Its colour should i black and tan,
or brown. On the Continent the dachshund is
extensively used for covert-shooting, but rarely so
in Britain, as his headstrong disposition somewhat
ag his usefulness. The dachshund is closely
akin to the old English Turn-spit, employed to
drive a wheel by which roasting-spits were turned.

Dacia, the land of the ancient Daci or Getz,
including the country between the Danube, the
Theiss, the Carpathians, and the Pruth. The
Dacians were the most valiant of all the tribes of
Thracian origin (see THRACE). In the reign of
Augustus they began to molest the Roman allies,
and indeed from this time there was almost _con-
tinual fighting between the Romans and the Daci,

who actually, under their brave king, Decebalus,
compelled their civilised enemies, in the reign of
Domitian, to purchase peace by paying tribute.
In 101 the Emperor Trajan cressed the Danube.
and after five years’ desperate fighting, conquer
the whole country, and formed it into a Roman
province. Roman colonists were sent into the
country, great roads were opened up, and a bridge
was built over the Danube—the ruins of which are
still extant. Under Aurelian the Danube was
made the peta of the empire, and Dacia was
resigned to the

being transplanted to Meesia.

Dacier, ANDR£, a French scholar, born of Pro-
testant ae at Castres, in Upper Languedoc,
6th April 1651, studied at Saumur under Tanneguy
Lefebre ; and in 1672 came to Paris, where in 1683
he married Anna (1654-1720), his old preceptor’s
daughter, and two years later was admitted with
her to the Roman Catholic Church. Dacier subse-
quently became royal librarian, member of the
Academy of Inscriptions and of the French
Academy, and perpetual secretary of the latter.
He died 18th September 1722. His works include
a Delphin edition of Festus and Verrius Flaceus
(1681), as well as indifferent translations of Horace,
the Poetics of Aristotle, some of the Dialogues of
Plato, Epictetus, and Plutarch’s Lives. His wife’s
works include Delphin editions of Florus, Aurelius
Victor, Eutropius, Dictys Cretensis, and Dares
Phrygius; and translations of Anacreon, Sappho,
some plays of Plautus and Aristophanes, Terence,
the Tiadl and the Odyssey. Her admiration of
Homer was more unbounded than discriminating,
and involved her in many controversies,

Dacoits, a name used for brigands herding in
gangs in various parts of India, and living by dacoity
or robbery with violence. According to the report
of the general superintendent of the Thuggee and
Dacoity Department in 1887, there were over 9000
men practising dacoity in India, which in some
districts is carried on with great ferocity. In the
Gwalior territory forty-six persons were killed
by dacoits ; and of the seventy-five villages in the
Chander district, thirty-six had been dacoited since
1880. Dacoity was long prevalent in Burma. See
THUGS ; and Hervey, Some Records of Crime (1892),

Da Costa, Isaac, a Dutch poet, born at
Amsterdam, the son of a Portuguese Jew, 14th
January 1798. He studied at Leyden; and in
1822, a year after receiving the degree of doctor
of philosophy, he embraced Christianity. His
poems speedily gained him such reputation that,
on the death in 1831 of Bilderdijk, whose warm
friendship he had enjoyed, Da Costa succeeded
him in the first place among the poets of Holland,
which he held till his death, on 28th April
1860. His principal works are to be found in his
Poézij (2 vols. 1821-22), Politieke Poézy (1854), and
Hesperiden (1855). His Battle of Nieupoort, the
last of his poems, is one of his masterpieces. Da
Costa also made essays in the domain of histo
and theology, the most important of which, his

Israel and the Gentiles, has been translated into-

English,
Dacotahs. See Sioux, AMERICAN INDIANS.

Dacry’dium, 2 genus of coniferous trees of
the yew family, but more allied to Podocarpus.

There are twelve apepiee Eas Tasmanian, .

and of New Zealand. Dacrydiwm cupressinum of
New Zealand is best known in Britain, on account
of the beauty of its pendulous foliage. D. frank-
lini, the so-called Huon Pine, and D. taxifolium,
the Kakaterra tree, yield valuable timber.

Daectyl (Gr. dactylos, ‘finger’), the name of .

arbarians, its Roman colonies —

a measure or ‘foot’ in Greek and Latin versifica- —

DACTYLOLOGY

DAG 651

tion, consisting of a long and two short syllables,

as in the word émnibis, It was so called from its
resemblance to the finger, which consists of three
joints—one long and two short. The same name is
sometimes applied to a trisyllabic measure in Eng-
lish verse, consisting of one accented syllable and
two unaccented syllables, as in déstiny (see VERSE).
Dactylie verse consists of apr: fs and spondees,
and includes both hexameter and pentameter verse.
Dactylology, the art of communicatin
thoughts by the fingers. See DEAF AND Dump. 4
Daddy-long-legs, or CRANE-FLY (Tipula
oe dg “eign ya — _ wrth oh tera,
a type of its family Tipulidae. e a
the legs, Sad the antennze ps very long. The
Jatter have an arched curvature, and are longer in
the males; the front of the head projects promi-
nently ; the posterior body, which is connected with

~—

_—_

Daddy-long-legs ( Tipula oleracea) :
a, eggs ; b, larva; c, pupa case as left by the insect sticking out
of the earth ; d, perfect insect.

the thorax by a very thin bridge, is broader in the
females. The middle of the body is gray, with
brown stripes, the abdomen reddish-brown, the legs
brownish-yellow, and in part blackish, the wings
brown, varying to red and white. This common
he, insect is towards an inch in length, is
abundant from July to October in meadows and
gardens, and is familiar to every one. ' The female is
often seen laying her numerous eggs in damp places
on the ground; the eggs are small, black, and
shining; the larve, known as ‘ leather-jackets,’
live in the ground, and often do damage in vege-
table gardens and fields; the pups have spines on
their abdominal segments, by which they push
their way out of the ground. Of the genus Tipula
about ninety European species are known. The
largest form (7. gigantea) measures over an inch,
eat is not uncommon in Britain. 7. hortulana is
very common in gardens. The genus Ctenophora,
commoner in wooded districts, is nearly allied.
They have stouter bodies, and usually brighter
colours. See MIDGE.

Dado (lItal., ‘a die’), in classical Architecture,
the term applied to the cubie block which forms
the body of a pedestal. It is also applied to the
plane face and the series of mouldings which, in
the interiors of buildings, form, as it were, a con-
tinuous pedestal. The interior dado is formed of
wood, and, running round the bottom of the walls
of a room, serves to protect the plaster or paper
from injury. Dados and wall-linings were much
used in Elizabethan and su uent styles till this
century, when, under the classic regime, they were

dispensed with. The recent revival of the ‘Queen
Anne’ taste, however, has led to the reintroduction
of dados not only in ‘the form of wooden panel-
lin + but also in the painting and papering of the
walls.

Dv'dalus, a figure in Greek Mythology who
personified the beginning of the arts of sculpture
and architecture. He was of the old Athenian
royal race of the Erechtheidw. Having killed his
nephew and pupil in envy at his growing skill, he
had to flee to Crete, where he made the well-
known cow for Queen Pasiphaé, and afterwards for
King Minos the famous labyrinth to confine the
Minotaur. Minos next capt abc Deedalus, but
he escaped with the help of Pasiphaé, and formed
wings for himself and his son Iearus, with which to
fly across the sea. He himself flew safe across the

igean, but unhappily Icarus flew too near the
sun, the heat of which melted the wax that
fastened his wings to him, so that he 0 into
the sea, and left his name to be borne by that part
of the Aigean into which he fell. Dedalus made
his way to Sicily. Some accounts made him first
alight at Cume in Italy, where he dedicated his
wings to Apollo. Works of art were freely ascribed
to Deedalus in Greece, Italy, Libya, and the Mediter-
ranean islands. The name Dedala was applied to
the earlier painted and gilded wooden statues of
the gods,

Daendels, HERMAN WILLEM, a great Dutch
eneral, was born in 1762 at Hattem, in Gelder-
and, took part in the revolutionary disturbances
that broke out in Holland in 1787, and was in con-
sequence compelled to seek pein in France. In
the campaign of 1793 he rendered important service
to Dumouriez, and was elevated to the rank of a
general of brigade. In 1799 he commanded one
of the two divisions of the army of the Batavian
republic, and in 1806 took service under the king
of Holland. From 1808 to 1811 he was governor-
general of the Dutch East Indian possessions, and
ublished a work on them. On the overthrow of
apoleon, the new king of Holland, William L.,
intrusted Daendels with the organisation of the
Dutch colonies on the
coast of Africa, and
there he died in June
1818.

Daffodil (cor-
rupted from Lat.
oe gates the Eng-
lish name of those
species of Narcissus .
which have a large
bell-shaped _ corona,
The Common Daffodil
(N. pseudo-narcissus )
is a native of England
and of most parts of
Europe, growing in
woods and hedges, and
often cultivated in
gardens, where it not
unfrequently becomes
double. It is natural-
ised in many places in
Scotland and Ireland,
but seems scarcely in-
digenous, From Her-
rick’s lament to
Wordsworth’s dancin
verse we have widely varied recognitions of the
familiar golden cups of the daffodil as a source alike
of poetic wealth and inspiration. See NARCISSUS.

Dag, a hand-gun or thick pistol, used in the
15th and 16th centuries. It oceurs in the Spanish
Tragedy (1603); it sometimes means a dagger. ~

Common Daffodil
(Narcissus pseudo-narcissus).

652 DAGGER

DAHLIA

D er, a weapon resembling a sword, but
Laieet y rsa na being used for stabbing at
close quarters. Daggers are Beara two-edged,
and very sharp towards the point. The dagger of
lath was the weapon given to the Vice in the old
moralities.

Daghestan (‘mountain-land’), a triangular
territory of Ciscaucasia, between the Caucasus
and the west coast of the Caspian Sea. Area,
11,425 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 610,000, The surface
is generally mountainous, being traversed by
offsets from the Caucasus; the ‘Jevel tracts are
chiefly near the coast, and here and in the valleys
the land is very fertile. The country is well
watered, the climate generally mild in the low-
lands, and dry, except along the coast, where the
rainfall is considerable. In the highlands large
flocks of sheep are herded. The chief town is
Derbend (q.v.). See Caucasus, and SHAMYL;
also Cunynghame’s Daghestan (1872).

Dago, an island near the entrance of the Gulf
of Finland, forming part of the Russian govern-
ment of Esthonia, and separated by the narrow
channel called Sele-sund from the island of Oesel
on the south. Area, 367 sq. m.; pop. 15,000, of
whom one-third are Swedes and Germans. The
coast is rugged, and the soil fertile only in the south
and south-west ; inland there are large forests and
swamps (54 sq. m.).

Dagoba, the common name in Ceylon for a
Buddhist tope. See TOPE.

Dagobert was the name of several of the
Merovingian kings of France, the first of the name
reigning from 631 to 638. See FRANCE.

Dagon, the national god of the Philistines,
half-man, half-fish, is mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment as having temples at Gaza and Ashdod.
Several names of places prove that the worship of
Dagon existed also in other parts of Palestine. It
seems to have come to Canaan from Babylonia, the
Assyrian monuments presenting a figure with the
body of a man and the tail of a fish, and the cunei-
form eta en containing the name of a god
Dakan or Dagan, which is probably identical with
Dagon. Baudissin favours the old derivation of
the name from dag (‘fish’), with the formative
syllable -on. Dagon and the fish-goddess Derketo
or Atargatis probably answered to each other as
male and female water-deities,

Daguerreotype is the name of the photo-
graphs fixed on a plate of copper thinly coated with
silver by the successive action of the vapours of
iodine, bromine, and mercury. Louis Daguerre,
after whom the invention is named, was born in
Normandy in 1789, was a scene-painter in Paris,
made a famous diorama in 1822, and devoted the
rest of his life mainly to perfecting the processes
of photography, from 1826 till 1833 in conjunction
with M. Niepce. He wrote two works on the
subject, and died in the neighbourhood of Paris,
12th July 1851. The history of the invention is
given at PHOTOGRAPHY.

Dahabeeah, a boat used by voyagers on the
Nile, which varies in size, has one or two masts,
and accommodation for from two to eight passen-

ers, including a raised cabin on the after-deck.
fhe boat sails, is rowed, or is dragged by ropes,
according to circumstances.

Dahl, JOHANN CHRISTIAN CLAUSEN, a Nor-
wegian landscape-painter (1788-1857), who from
1821.onward was professor of Painting at Dresden.

Dahlak, a group of three islands, with many
smaller rocks, in the Red Sea, off the Bay of
Massowah, They were famous in Roman times
for their pearl-fisheries, but the beds have long
since been exhausted and abandoned. The inhab-

itants number about 1500, are under the rule of a
sheik holding authority from Egypt, and carry on
a trade with the Arabian coast.

Dahlgren, Karu FREDRIK, Swedish poet and
humorist, born at Stensbruk in Ostergétland,
20th June 1791, studied at Upsala, and acted from
1815 as preacher at Stockholm, where he died, 2d
May 1844. As a writer he made his début in
Atterbom’s Phosphorus, and afterwards published —
novels, humorous tales, poems, and dramas. His
works fill 5 vols. (1847-52).

Dahlgren Gun is so called after John Adolph
Dahlgren (1809-70), an officer in the United States
navy, by whom it was introduced in 1850. It is
a muzzle-loading, cast-iron, smooth-bore gun, with

reat thickness of metal at the breech. Many
Dehieres guns are still in the United States
service. In 1883 six of 10-inch calibre and muzzle-
loaders were converted into 8-inch eae
rifle guns, by lining and strengthening them wit.
wrought-iron coils.

Dahlia (Dahlia Georgina)—after Dahl, a
Swedish botanist, and pupil of Linnzeus—a genus
of large perennial composites (sub-order Tubuli-
floree, family Asteroidez). It was first brought
from the botanic garden of Mexico to that of
Madrid in 1784, whence it reached England in

Dablia :
A, single; B, double varieties.

1789, and France in 1802, while in 1804 Humboldt
sent a fresh supply of seed to Berlin. Its extra-
ordinary variability soon attracted the attention of
florists, who brought to bear on it all the resources
of selection and crossing, with so much success
that by about the middle of the present century no
fewer that 2000 varieties had been described, all
from D. variabilis or D. coccinea or their hybrids,
and chiefly from the first named. For a long time
only ‘double’ dahlias were cultivated, but of late
years the single dahlia, in which the florets of the
disc remain tubular, has again come into fashion ;
while among double dahlias the less regular cactus
dahlia is highly esteemed. They are easily culti-
vated, and propagated by seeds, cuttings, or tubers ;
but the tubers poor to be taken up and stored in
a dry place out of the reach of frost. They flower
luxuriantly in autumn, until cut off by the first
frosts. On account of the quantity of inulin
in their tubers, they are cultivated for food in |
Mexico, but similar attempts in Europe have failed

:
I

DAHLMANN

DAIMIOS 653

because of their unpalatableness. See Nicholson’s
or other Dictionary of Gardening, also any florist’s
catalogue.

Dahlmann, Friepricu Curistorn, German
historian, was born May 13, 1785, at Wismar.
His earlier studies in Copenhagen and Halle were
devoted to archeology and philology; but his
attention was subsequently directed to the study
of politics and the history of the middle ages.
From 1813 on, he filled the chair of History at
Kiel, and in 1829 was appointed to that of Politi-
eal Science in Géttingen, where he published
(1830) his invaluable Quellenkunde der deutschen
Geschichte. Banished in 1837 by King Ernst
August of Hanover, on account of his protest

nst the abolition of the Hanoverian constitu-
on, he went to Leipzig, next to Jena, where he
wrote his historical masterpiece, Geschichte von
Diinemark (3 vols. 1840-43). In 1842 he became
Professor of History at Bonn, and took a prominent
part in the political affairs of Germany after the
movement in 1848, heading the constitutional
liberals, who were unfortunately too reasonable to
be successful. At the close of the struggle, he
returned to his academic duties, to which he
devoted himself till his death, 5th December 1860.
See Life, by A. Springer (2 vols. Leip. 1870-72).

Dahn, Jutius Sorpnus FEtrx, patties, his-
torian, and poet, was born at Hamburg, 9th
February 1834, the son of a well-known actor and
actress. He studied law, philosophy, and history
at Munich and Berlin, became extraordinary
professor at Munich (1862), next year ordinary
professor at Wiirzburg, and in 1872 was sepa
to the chair of German Jurisprudence at Kénigs-
berg. Among his contributions to public law are
Das Kriegsrecht (1870), Handelsrechtliche Vortrdge
(1875), Deutsches Rechtsbuch (1877), and Deutsches
Privatrecht (1878). Of his historical works the chief
are Prokopius von Cdsarea (1865), Die Kénige der
Germanen (1861-71), Westgotische Studien (1874),
Langobardische Studien (1876), Urgeschichte der
ermunischen und romanischen Volker (3 vols.
881-84), and Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit (1885).
Dahn’s versatility is as remarkable as his erudi-
tion is profound. He has written a series of
ated historical romances, and of lyrical and
ramatic poems. Of the former may here be
named Ein Kampf um Rom (1876), a powerful
novel, Odhins Trost (1880), and Die Kreuzfahrer
(1885). See his Hrinnerungen (1892-93).
Dahna. See Arabi, Vol. I. p. 362.
Dahomey (the native name of the people being
Dauma or Dahomé) is since 1892-94 a French pro-
tectorate in Western Africa, between Lagos (British)
and Togoland (German), with an area stated at 4000
miles. But the frontiers of the ‘ hinterland,’ always
vague, were matters of disagreement and debate
between Britain and France as late as 1897, the
French claiming a territory continuous to Borgu and
beyond. The coast strip is not Dahomey roper,
but, as the Slave Coast, is part of Fienth Baines
ppoceessing Grand Popo, Cotonu, and Porto Novo).
The long lagoon which, shut in from the ocean by a
protecting bank of sand, affords an easy route along
nearly the whole of this coast, extends in Dahomey,
from its western frontier almost to the Denham
lagoon, in the east. About midway is the port
of Whydah, whence a road extends inland to
Abomey, a distance of 65 miles. Dense forests and
dismal swamps cover nearly two-thirds of this
distance, but from the Great Swamp of Agrimé
vast undulating peeing rise for many miles, in the
direction of the Kong Mountains, The Avon and
Denham lagoons receive the rivers of the country,
none of which are very important. The soil is a
rich, red-coloured clay, and is extremely fertile.

Groves of oil-palms encircle each town, and palm-
oil is made in large quantities. Maize, beans, and
peas, as well as cassava, yams, sweet potatoes,
imes, oranges, pine-apples, and other tropical
fruits, w in splendid luxuriance ; cotton, sugar,
and spices of all kinds are also grown, and sheep,

ts, swine, and poultry are raised, though not in
oni numbers. Cotton cloth is made, and weapons
and tools are forged from native iron.

The people are negroes, of the Ewe group, gener-
ally of small stature, but very robust and active.
They are sociable, —— fond of dancing and of
rum, but warlike and prone to theft. The Daho-
man kingdom dates from the beginning of the 18th
century, and reached its zenith under Gezo, who
ruled from about 1818 to 1858. Since then its

wer has declined, and even its population has
allen off; but little reliance can be placed on
the estimates of the numbers, which range
from 150,000 to 900,000, the former number being

robably most correct. The army may be taken at
0,000 men; the Amazons (devoted to celibacy),
who are distinguished for their bravery and ferocity,
may perhaps limited to 1000. Fetich-worship
prevails, taking the form of serpent-worship along
the coast; a temple with over a hundred of these
sacred snakes exists at hehe The king is the
most absolute of despots. holesale murder is one
of the chief features in religious and state cere-
monies ; but, according to Sir Richard Burton, who
visited Dahomey in 1863, the number of the victins
has been greatly exaggerated, and they are princi-
pally foreign captives. Still, as many as 500 human
victims have been sacrificed at one of the grand
‘customs’ which take place every October. The
revenue formerly depended tly upon the sale of
slaves ; but the vigilance of the cruisers agg Do
to prevent the traffic has ruined the trade. Hence
the monster slave-hunts which periodically took

lace are a thing of the past. In 1876 the coast of

ahomey was placed under a strict blockade b
Great Britain, on account of an outrage on a British
subject, for which the king of Dahomey refused
satisfaction.—ABOMEY, the capital, stands on a roll-
ing plain, nearly surrounded by marshes. It is about
8 miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a
deep ditch and clay walls, pierced by six gates.
There are three palaces belonging to the king here,
several large squares, and a number of farms, which
are cultivated within the city. Pop. about 30,000.
Whydah has a pop. of about 12,000; and Cana,
where is the king’s country residence, 8 miles SE,
of Abomey by a good road, about 5000. See Bur-
ton’s Mission to Gelele, King of Dahomey (new ed.
1864); Skertchly, Dahomey as It is (1874); and
— La Céte des Esclaves et le Dahomey ( Paris,

).

Dahra, a district of Algeria, to the east of
Mostaganem. In June 1845 Pélissier (q.¥.) suffo-
cated 500 refugee Kabyles in caves here.

Daimiel, a town of Spain, 28 miles ENE. of
Ciudad Real by rail, with manufactures of woollens,
brandy, &c. Pop. 9652.

Daimler Motor, a specially modified petro-
leum oil-engine (see GAS-ENGINE, Vol. V. p. 109),

rfected by the inventor, Gottlieb Daimler of

annstatt in Wiirtemberg (who assisted Otto of
Deutz in perfecting his gas-engine), for use in auto-
cars (see TRACTION-ENGINES), Such carriages could,
even when, noisy and smelly, they were first put
upon the roads, easily do twelve and a half miles an
hour, and carry supplies of petroleum for four or
more hours’ running. Experiments—which involved
several days’ running—were successfully carried out
between Paris and Bordeaux in June 1895. Similar
experiments were subsequently repeated in England.

Daimyos, the old nobles of Japan (q.v.).

654

DAIRY

Dairy is a word used in speaking of a number
of cows kept for milking purposes, or to indicate
the buildings in which Milk (q.v.) is sold or manu-
factured into Cheese (q.v.) or Butter(q.v.). The byre
or cow-house should be connected by a covered way
with the milk-house proper, and the arrangements
for ventilation made so perfect that it should not
be possible to detect in the vicinity of the milk any
smell from the cows, pigs, or other source. , The
milk-house should on no pretext be made a common
storeroom for meat, game, onions, or any material
which will taint the air and then the milk and the
cheese or butter, as the case may be. The first
essential in a dairy is the absolute cleanness not
only of the floors and walls of the building, but of
all its furnishings. This is secured by daily wash-
ing and by the scalding or steaming of all vessels
or implements which come in contact with milk
or its products; the object being to destroy the
microbes which live and multiply in milk and
bring about its acidity and decay. The thermo-
meter in the dairy should stand at 55° F. in sum-
mer, and 60° F. in winter. At ite Speed higher
than these milk is liable to spoil, owing to the
greater activity of the above-mentioned germs ;
many degrees below this it gets chilled, and will
not manipulate satisfactorily. An abundant supply
of pure water is necessary, and means for boiling
water must also be provided, not only to secure
scalding water for washing, but to raise, when
necessary, the temperature of the products of milk
during manufacture, or maintain a suitably high
temperature in the air of the cheese-room or the
milk-house. A small steam or gas engine is
frequently employed in a dairy conducted on a
large scale, to supply the power necessary for a
centrifugal Cream Separator (q.v.), also for churn-
ing whole milk or cream, and at times for drivin
the compressed-air refrigerator. The latter is use
to lower the temperature of vaults in which fresh,
summer-made butter is stored until the winter
season, when the prices for good ‘ grass’ butter are
high. As the cost of the necessary machinery is
considerable, the method can only be made to pay
when the business is extensive.

Dairying has developed much within recent
years. The growing demand for milk in large
towns has increased the volume of the milk-trade,
and modified the system of management. Summer
dairying, while suitable for the making of cheese,
and so far for butter also, must be id Bier
by winter dairying to keep up the supply of milk
and fresh butter throughout the year. pe summer
dairying it is usually arranged that the cows calve
during March, April, and May, so that they go to
pasture when they are coming to the period at
which, with a proper supply of succulent food and
suitable surroundings, they should develop their
greatest yield of meg They lie out day and night,
and have the whole summer and early autumn before
them—the period in which grass, the most natural
food of a cow, is most abundant, best, and cheapest.
In some instances the grass is supplemented by 2 or
3 lb. a poe of cotton-seed or other cake, and when
the grass begins to fail in autumn, some variety of
geen food, as cabbages, rape, vetches, &c. As
rost begins to appear the cows are housed at night,
and in spite of liberal and careful feeding, fall off
in their yield of milk. Nevertheless, it is the better
prec to house them in good time, because they

eep in better condition during winter than if left
out too long, and for the few remaining weeks of
the milking period they give a larger average
return. All naturally ‘dry off,’ some more rapidly
than others. Milking should be stopped abruptly at
the end of the year—experience points to this being
the best and simplest method of drying off cows
at this season, After two or three months of rest,

the cows calve, and this goes on year by year from
the age of two or three (depending upon size and
condition) until ten years old, when all should,
without exception, be replaced by heifers. A ring
appears on the horn to mark each year after the
third year, and by this the age can be determined.
Where winter dairying is also practised, the cows
are made to calve at all times of the year, so that
a number come in possibly every week, to replace
others that have ceased to milk satisfactorily. The

temperature of the cow-house has to be maintained —

at such a high point, to keep up the full flow of
milk during winter, and the feeding is made so
forcing and unnatural that the constitutions of cows
would show the effects of this high-pressure system
if they were kept to calve another year. In conse-
quence, few farmers who adopt this system of
management retain their cows more than one milk-
ing period. They shut them in the house both
summer and winter, and give a full supply of food
all the while, to maintain their condition. Some
send them to auction as soon as the yield of milk
falls to the net cost of its production. Others
anon to feed the cows after this until they put
on flesh, so that they command a higher total price
and a higher rate per stone in the fat market
than ordinary milking cows. | Unquestionably
the system of changing cows after one milking
period pays farmers who are favourably situated for
the disposal of milk to private families, better than
keeping them for a number of years and ‘ bringing
them round’ to calve each season ; yet there is one
serious drawback as regards the suspension of the
improvement of dairy cattle, by neglecting the
selection of calves for rearing from the best milking
mothers. The system is only possible, without
doing serious injury to the breeds of cattle, because
it is not general throughout the country, but con-
fined to dairies supplying milk to large centres of
population.

tight to ten cows is a sufficient number for each
milker, and the operation should be performed as
quietly and as expeditiously as possible.
usually employed in England, and women in Scot-
land. When cows give a large flow of milk, or
when it is wanted for town consumption, milkin
is done thrice daily ; but in the great majority o
cases throughout the country it 1s only performed
morning and evening. Heavy milking cows con-
sume a large pee of water, which should be
supplied to them at least twice daily. Cows not
in milk are often allowed to drink only once a day,
though it would be better to let them do so twice.
To offer tepid water to a cow immediately after
calving is an unnatural and altogether unnecessa
precaution ; she should have cold, but not iced,
water in small quantities, and given frequently
until she is satisfied. Cows consuming a large
amount of sloppy food and roots do not require
much water.

It is important that the water should be pure and
clean. Outbreaks of typhoid fever among children
have been traced to cows drinking water contam-
inated with the germs of this disease. Though
sewage irrigation grass is extensively used, under
the ‘soiling’ system, by cowfeeders near to towns
(Edinburgh, for example), no injurious results have
been traced to this practice. Irrigation grass has been
largely superseded within recent years by supplies
of better quality got from immense crops of Italian
ryegrass (Lolium italicum), grown without irriga-
tion by means of heavy and repeated dressings of
nitrate of soda. In no place can this system be
seen to greater perfection than around Edinburgh.
In some parts clover and vetches take the place of

egrass. Succulent food is essential for the pro-

uction of large returns of milk. As the grass

season ends in October, the succulent portion of —

Men are ©

i i

DAIRY

DAIRY FACTORIES 655

food may be derived from brewers’ and distillers’
grains (1 bushel per day being a full allowance for
a large cow), and from turnips—a favourite variety
at present being the Fosterton hybrid. Turnips,
when given in excessive quantities, produce an
objectionable taste in the milk and butter, but as
an ingredient in a liberal and well-balanced diet
they may be used with impunity, where milk is the
uct wanted. Swedes and mangels are not so
liable as common turnips to taint cow products, and
as they keep well when stored, they are reserved
for use during the winter and spring months. Cows
in full milk require a daily allowance of perhaps 5
to 81b. of concentrated food—a mixture of various
farinaceous meals and oil-seed cakes along with
bran, which acts as a corrective as well as a food sub-
stance. Bean meal is prominent among the meals
for encouraging a flow of rich milk and at the same
time maintaining the condition of the cow. Tur-
nips, unless liberally supplemented, are liable to
uce the condition. The 1. gong in the food
mixture should be determined by their market
prices from time to time. There is a decided
advantage in giving a mixed food, as compared
with one variety, provided a proper proportion is
secured between the albuminoids and the carbo-
hydrates—one to five is a good ordinary average
to aim at under ordinary circumstances, hav-
ing estimated oil as equivalent to two and a
half times its weight of starch. Not only must
the proportion of the components of a food mix-
ture be adjusted, but the total bulk of the food
must great enough to distend the stomach
sufficiently to promote healthy action in the diges-
tive system. About 30 lb. of dry food substance
is a good allowance for a healthy milking cow of
one of our large breeds. If that were given entirely
in the form of concentrated food, such as meal and
eake, the animal could not chew the cud, and im-
paction of the rumen would result. The practice
of chaffing straw into very short lengths is associ-
ated with the same danger. D. odder, more
‘especially straw, is vastly improved for milk cows
by cooking—either steaming it, or throwing warm
water over it, and covering it up for a few hours.
In spring, before the grass comes, the flow of milk
in newly-calved cows is often largely developed and
maintained by treating hay in this fashion, and
supplying them with the hay tea and the solid resi-
due mixed with meal. When very large quantities
of concentrated food are used, it is safer to add to
the daily allowance of each cow from 1 to 2 Ib. of
molasses, which supplies not only a valuable in-
gredient of food, but maintains a healthy action in
the organs of digestion. Without some such pre-
caution the percentages of ailments and deaths, in
the case of cows kept under a high-pressure system
of feeding, are likely to be considerably above an
average. Epsom salts should never be. given to a
cow in milk, as they permanently reduce the yield
for the season; 8 to 10 lb. of warm treacle is
more rapid in its action, safe, and free from injuri-
ous after-consequences. Bought concentrated food
has another function than the above to perform.
Its ash ingredients which pass away in the manure
make to the land the considerable loss of bone-
earth and other valuable substances which are
removed in dairy products—more especially milk.
See CATTLE, BUTTER, CHEESE, MILK.

Dairy Factories. Asa special business dairy-
ing has been extensively developed in America (the
United States and Canada in-) goosrignt 1899, 1897, and
cluded) during the latter half | 1900 in me U.8. by J.B
of the 19th century, mainly | Mppisect Company,
through the introduction of the pecnliarly Ameri-
can factory system, or associated dairying. The
first factory was organised in the state of New
York, by Jesse Williams, in 1860, and the result

being exceedingly favourable in regard to the
= and increased market value of the pro-
uct (which was then cheese only), many other
factories were organised, until in 1866 there were
nearly 500 of them in operation in the state men-
tioned, the cost of these being about $1,000,000
(£200,006), with a stock of cows worth, at the
then low valuation, at least $10,000,000. The
farms thus associated were then worth, for the
million acres covered by them, not more than
$40,000,000 (£8,000,000), or an average of $40 per
acre. Five years later there were factories in
several of the states and also in Canada; the list
comprising 946 in the state of New York, 103 in
Ohio, 46 in Illinois, 5 in Kentucky, 4 in Minnesota,
34 in Wisconsin, 26 in Massachusetts, 32 in Ver-
mont, 14 in Pennsylvania, 7 in Iowa, 2 in Indiana,
and 1 each in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee,
Kansas, and Connecticut. This associated indust
became known in foreign countries as the ‘ Amerl-
can system of dairying,’ and was quickly intro-
duced into England, Sweden, Denmark, Switzer-
land, Holland, and other countries where the dairy
business was carried on extensively, but it has not
increased to anything like the extent it has in
America. Very soon the manufacture of butter
was introduced into the factories, as well as into
special establishments for butter-making alone, the
latter being called creaimeries, in contradistinction
to the factories where cheese only was made, or
where butter and skim-milk cheese were made,
or where the skim-milk was adulterated with
fats and oils of various kinds, as substitutes for
cream. It was about this time (1872) that the
French oleo-margarine (a preparation of beef-fat)
was introduced into the American dairy as a
substitute for pure butter fat in the manufacture
of cheese. It is a disagreeable truth to confess
that this fraudulent ‘dairy (?) product,’ as it is
called, still maintains a firm hold upon American
dairying, and largely as a distinct fraud, made use
of for the purpose of making and selling adulter-
ated cheese, and butter as well, for a pure product.
And in addition to the fat of beeves, lard and
cotton-seed oil are extensively used. Laws recently
— in several of the states and in the United
tates congress forbid under heavy penalties the
sale of butter so adulterated, but cheese has not yet
been so protected. This stigma upon the American
dairy (from which Canada is happily free ) is a re-
ei and severe pecuniary damage to the dairy

usiness ; the annual export of cheese decreased 40
per cent. between 1893 and 1898.

American dairy cheese is made under the well-
known Cheddar system, so called, which is preval-
ent in parts of England, and in Ayrshire and other
localities in Scotland. This is the American cheese
which is so well known and highly regarded in
Great Britain, when purely made under the best
system of management. Buta considerable variety
of cheese is now made in imitation of foreign kinds,
and is used by the foreign-born citizens, who have
not forgotten their acquired taste for the old home-
made cheese.

Creameries, or butter-factories, came into use
with the cheese-factories, but were not numerous
until a way was found to utilise the skim-milk
by adding artificial fats to it. Then the combined
butter and cheese factory turned out its butter and
its full-milk cheese together. This questionable
method of business, however, became unpopular,
and actual creameries came into vogue after 1880.
The cheese and butter factory system has been
introduced into various countries (Denmark,
Holstein, &c.) with great success, and success-
ful experiments have n made in Ireland and
Britain. In the creamery, the cream gathered
from 600 or 800 cows is worked up by one skilled

656

DAIRY FACTORIES

butter-maker, and the product is a good article
of even quality all through; it is made in suffi-
cient quantity for shipment and sale under the
best conditions, and hence it commands a higher
price than the best ordinary farm-dairy butter. It
is made with the best apparatus, is packed and
shipped in cold-storage or refrigerator cars, and
wuthes the domestic consumer within a week, after
it is made; and the foreign purchaser may have it
upon his table within two weeks of the churning
in the creamery, more than 4000 miles distant.
These are advantages which the solitary butter-
maker cannot secure; hence he can only get the
creamery price by securing special customers near
his dairy. A few so-called fancy dairies are able
to secure 40, 50, or even 75 cents (Is: 8d. to 3s.)
per pound for their butter, but even the best
ordinary farm-dairy butter sells at a lower price
than creamery butter, and fully three-fourths of it
sells for less than half the price of the other.
American creamery butter is made by the dee
setting system, borrowed from the Swedish method,
and improved by American ingenuity. The milk
is strained from the pail into cans 9 inches in
diameter and 20 inches deep. These are set in
tanks of water cooled by ice to 45°. At the end of
twelve to twenty-four hours the cream has separ-
ated, and the milk is drawn off by a tap in the
bottom of the can, view being given by a strip of
glass let into the side of the can. The cream is
then drawn off by itself. For the use of the
creamery the quantity of cream is measured by the
inch, and is paid for on the basis of so many inches
to the pound of butter. One hundred and thirteen
cubic inches of cream is taken as the standard in
this respect. The creamery gathers the cream once
a day, and secures it perfectly sweet, while the
skim-milk is &lso left sweet for the feeding of
calves, for sale for consumption, or for the makin
of pork. The cream is kept until it is slightly |
before it is churned, making thus a quality of
butter which keeps better and longer than that
made from sweet cream. The churns most popular
are those without any dash, being a cubical box
turning on an axis passing through diagonal corners;
or a barrel turning on an axis passing through its
centre sidewise ; or an oblong square on oscillat-
ing endwise in swinging supports. The action of
churning thus consists of a dashing of the cream
violently against the sides or ends of the churn,
and, by concussion, causing the globules.of fat in
the cream to adhere together, and gradually
coalesce and form small grains of butter. When
these grains are as large as wheat-grains, or peas
at the largest, the buttermilk is drawn off, cold
water or weak brine is poured into the churn, and
the churn is moved penily, to agitate and wash the
butter. When the butter has been completely freed
from milk, and no longer clouds the water, it is
drained, and salted with finely-ground pure salt, at
the rate of from 4 oz. to 1 oz. to the pound of butter.
The salt-is easily incorporated with the small grains
of butter, and after a rest of a few hours for the salt
to absorb the excess of moisture from the butter
and become completely dissolved, a butter-worker
is used to press the butter, make it solid and even
in. texture, and as dry as possible. _ It is then packed
in new spruce or oak tubs, or pails, of 20 to 50 lb.,
for domestic sale, or in 100-lb. firkins for export.
_ The dairy interest has reached vast proportions
in America and Canada. At least 1,500,000
farms, with 10,000,000 cows and 100,000,000 acres
of land, are devoted more or less closely to the
various branches of the industry. In the most
populous of the states, where the dairy is the
principal agricultural employment, good dairy
arms are valued at $100 (£20) per acre and up- ;

wards, as the buildings may be more valuable than

the average. The land held to be most suitable for
the dairy is a rich limestone loam or gravel, that is
productive of the best variety of grasses, especiall
the so-called blue grass (Poa helps ), whi
affords the best pasturage. The best dairy districts
are in the states of Vermont, New York, Penn-
sylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, and the
province of Ontario, in Canada.

The cows mostly kept upon dairy farms are the

Dutch or North Holland, commonly called Holstein ©

or Holstein-Friesian, Shorthorns, Ayrshire, the
half or higher bred grades of these, and the
common ‘native’ cows, the descendants of the

romiscuous mixture of the various races of cattle
browats into America. The most popular of these
is the grade shorthorn, which may be purchased
when in fresh milk; the Dutch cow is next in
popular estimation, but it is searce and high-priced,
and is much less used. The average yield of these
cows varies from 6000 to 8000 lb. of milk per year,
or between calves, where calves are bred; the
largest yield of the shorthorn and its grades
averages 50 lb. daily, that of the Dutch cows is
somewhat greater, and a few of the best have a
record of more than 24,000 lb. of milk between
calves and within a year. These cows can be kept
with profit only upon high dectiiag and the best of
pasture. For the butter-dairy the Jersey breed
and its grades are the most profitable, and Ameri-
can pastures are now quite thickly sprinkled with
the Jersey colours. Ayrshires come next, and the
Devon follows in favour; but of necessity the
common native and much cheaper cow forms the
rank and file of the dairy herds,

In America the whole of the work of caring for
the cows, feeding and milking them, is done by men.
The feeding consists of pasturing wholly ; pasturing
with partial soiling, or full soiling in the summer ;
and feeding upon hay and meals of various kinds
with pulped roots or silage in the winter. A large
number of dairies are devoted to making butter in
the winter, by which a higher price is obtained for
the product, and leisure is secured in the summer for
the growth of the feeding crops for use in the winter.
With the rapid rise in the value of farms suited to
the dairy, pasturing is found to be too costly for the
mee cai profit, and partial soiling is almost univer-
sally resorted to. Complete soiling, by which one
cow may be kept on the product of one acre of land
all the year, is practised in some of the best of the
fine-butter dairies, where land is worth $200 per
acre or more, and where pure-bred Jersey, Guern-
sey, or Ayrshire cows of high value are kept, a
yield of 12 to 14 lb. of butter per week being
obtained by the high feeding of these cows. One
of these cows, a Jersey, recently produced 49 lb. of
butter in a week, under a forced test, while from
14 lb. to 24 Ib. of butter weekly has been given by
more than 100 Jersey cows now living. This, how-
ever, isan example of what is known as fancy dairy-
ing, which is closely connected with breeding cows
for sale at high prices. In a good working ae a
cow is required to yield 7 to 10 lb. of butter weekly
in the height of the season, and at least 200 to

250 lb. in the season.

The average feeding of a dairy cow in the sum-
mer consists of the best pasture that can be afforded,
with some fresh green fodder as soon as the great
heat of the summer hardens the grass, and from
2 to 12 quarts of ground feed—ground corn and
oats, bran, cotton-seed meal, or linseed meal. A
very common method of feeding is to give 2 or3
quarts of mixed corn meal and bran, with a

uart of cotton-seed meal at each ree: time,
the cows generally being brought to the barn to
be milked. In winter, hay of clover and timothy
grass mixed, with the same Peckagd above men-
tioned of meal and a peck o

brewers’ grains, is —

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DAIS

DAKOTA 657

& common ration for cows kept in milk-dairies ;
swers’ grains are not thought favourably of
cheese or butter dairies, where any food that
lily mes sour or tainted is scrupulously
ided, and is wholly prohibited by the owners of
factories or creameries, and by condensers of milk.
Roots of various kinds are rarely used in America,
ne hot, dry summer climate and the greater ease
growing the equally valuable feeding crop,
@ (commonly called corn), combining to make
unpopular, When roots are grown, the
or the yellow globe mangels are preferred.
_ The use of ensilage has been found very con-
-Yenient in the dairy, and this practice is rapidly
extending. In the dairy districts of Wisconsin at
least 2000 silos were built in 1888, the serious
damage to the feeding crops by the dry season of
aeenseysons gl having induced dairymen to secure
ad feed by growing corn—which suffers little
from drought, and to some extent enjoys dry, hot
Wweather—and preserving it green in silos. It is
uite certain that the cheapness and ease of produc-
on of this grand fodder crop has given a greater
imulus to the American dairy than any other
vourable circumstance. The abundance and
peeenees of the in (corn), and also of bran,
enable American dairymen to produce cheap milk,
cheese, and butter; and there is no other class of
American farmers who enjoy equal comfort, and
even wealth.
— Pais (Old Fr. deis, dois, from Lat. discus, ‘a
quoit,’ ‘platter ;’ in late Lat. ‘a table’), a term
used with considerable latitude by medieval writers.
Its most usual significations are the following : (1)
_ A canopy over an altar, shrine, font, throne, stall,
_ chair, statue, or the like; the term being applied
_ to the canopy without regard to the materials of
which it was composed, which might be cloth,
_ wood, stone, metal, or other substance; (2) the
chief seat at the high table in a hall, with the
canopy covering it; (3) the high table itself;
_ (4) the raised portion of the floor, or estrade, on
~ which the high table stood, and which divided the
a prior from the lower portion of the hall; (5) a
_ cloth of state for covering a throne or table.
Daisy (Bellis), a genus of tubulifloral com-
_ posites (family Asteroidez) characterised by its
_ conical receptacle and absence of pappus. The seven
_ or eight species are palzarctic, save B. integrifolia
_ of Tennessee and Arkansas. The familiar species,
_ B. perennis, needs no description, nor can any one
have failed to notice its habit of closing at night.
- Double varieties, crimson, pink, white, or striped,
_ are common in gardens, and are frequently of such
_ exuberantly vegetative habit as to produce smaller
heads in the axils of the involueral bracts of the
main capitulum, whence the popular name of Hen-
_ and-chickens, _A handsome variegated variety is
ealled aucubefolia. The characteristic beauty and
_ almost perennial profusion of blossom have made
| ne commonest of flowers the prime favourite alike
_ of childish and poetic garlands, and invested its
many names (Eng. Day's eye, Scot. Gowan, Fr.
- Marguerite, &c.) with such an unequalled wealth
associations that it must here suffice only to
name Chaucer and Burns as foremost laureates of
a ceaseless tribute of admiring song. The Ox-eye
* Daisy is a Chrysanthemum (q.v.).

Dak, or Dawk, the mail-post of India; also,
- travelling by Palanquin (q.v.). See BUNGALOW.

Ff Dako’ta, Norru and SouTH, two states of the

_ American Union embracing the former territory of

~ Dakota, and having respectively | copsrignt 1889, 1897, and

areas of 70,795 and 77,650 square | 1900 in the U.S. by J.B.

miles. The territory from which | M?P!eot Company.

ey were formed was bounded N. by Assiniboia
an

y

Manitoba (Canada); E. by Minnesota and
146

a

Iowa; 8. by Nebraska; and W. by Montana and
Wyoming. Four-fifths of the surface is an undu-
lating plain, A belt of high plateau, the Coteau
du Missouri, traverses the tract from north-west
to south-east; and a similar but smaller ridge or
divide lies east of the James River valley. The
great river Missouri flows south-eastward across
the Dakotas; and the country west of that stream
is more broken and better timbered than the rest.
In South Dakota lie the Black Hills, a rugged
and mountainous region (3200 sq. m.), and well
wooded, Their highest point, Harney Peak, is 8200
feet high. The Turtle Mountains in the north are
crossed by the Canadian boundary, south of which
their area is but 800 sq. m., and their highest ele-
vation 2300 feet. The geological features of the
Dakotas are full of variety and interest. A very
large proportion of the surface is covered by
lacial and alluvial drift, and much of the country
ae evidence of having been more than once
submerged. During the Silurian age a shallow
sea or saline lake must have rolled over it; while
there is evidence that at about the end of the
lacial period it was either the bed of a great
fais, or at least was very largely covered with
lacustrine waters. At present the lakes are all
relatively small, except Devil’s Lake, or Minni-
waukon, in the earth which, like many others
of this region, has no outlet. Its waters are
therefore saline, but it is inhabited by fishes of
various fresh-water species. About one-third of
the area of the tract, chiefly towards the north-
west, is believed to be underlaid with beds of work-
able lignite, well adapted to use as a domestic fuel ;
and the spontaneous firing of the lignite beds has
probably been a large factor in the development of
the so-called ‘ bad ds,’ which are covered with
rocks of most fantastic shapes. Natural fuel-gas
has been obtained by boring at several points,
Among the building-stones are quartzite, jasper,
and granite in the south-east, and sandstone,
marble, and granite in the south-west. Fictile clays,
gypsum, cement, chalk, mica, and other useful
minerals are found in many places. Medicinal and
thermal springs are found in the south-west, where
the Black Hills afford much gold and silver, as well
as tin, antimony, lead, mica, copper, and other
minerals, The tin-mines are the only ones of any
extent ever worked in America; and some of the
gold-mines are among the most extensive in the
world. In the ten years 1877-87 the gold and
silver production of the Black Hills amounted to

$33,770,000.

The climate of the Dakotas presents some remark-
able features. The winters are cold, but so dry
and sunny that the cold is usually borne without
great suffering, except during the blizzards (see
BLIZZARD) which are occasionally experienced.
The summer days are warm and often windy, but
the nights are ordinarily calm and cool. The
climate is everywhere remarkably healthful ; mal-
arial diseases are nearly unknown. ‘The rainfall
is relatively low, but the copious saline elements
in the soil, with the generally level surface and
the coolness of the climate, tend to the retention
of moisture; hence the rainfall is usually ae
for the production of all the ordinary crops. The

lanting of forests has been greatly encou by
ocal and national legislation. The Missoun River
is the principal stream ; it is usually navigable for
eight months in the year. The other important
rivers are the James, noted for the fertility of its
valley; the navigable Red River, famous for its
rich alluvial basin; the Big Sioux, Vermilion,
White, Cheyenne, Bad, Moreau, Grand, Cannon
Ball, Heart, Little Missouri, Maple, and the Mouse
or Souris. The north-east section of North Dakota
is tributary to Hudson Bay through the Red River ;

658 DALAI-LAMA

D’ALEMBERT

but the far greater part of the Dakotas belongs to
the Mississippi valley. The leading agricultural
products are sprin wheat of high grade, the staple
product of the Red River basin ; maize, which does
well throughout a large part of the states; flax,
raised chietly for the oil of its seed ; oats, rye, bar-
ley, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay. Fruit-growin
is receiving a rapid development. Hops grow wil
and of good quality in certain sections. The rear-
ing of live-stock is very important, the cattle-ranch
system prevailing in the less settled districts; the
Bad Lands, formerly regarded as worthless, are
now specially valued as suitable for cattle-raising.
The Indian reservations occupy a total of 21,328 sq.
m., of which 15,371 sq.m. arein South Dakota; total
Indian population, 26,995 in 1898. The area still
open for settlement is about 30,000 sq. m. in North
Dakota, and about 20,000 sq. m. in South Dakota.
Immigration has gone on at a rapid rate, the larger
proportion of the settlers coming from the older
northern states and Canada; but many come from
Scandinavia, Britain, and Germany, and not a few
(Mennonites) from Russia. The construction of
railways has been pushed, preceding, rather than
following, the pibtleiaent of the country. The
aggregate mileage in 1897 was 5346, of which
2547 miles were in North Dakota and 2799 miles
were in South Dakota. Abundant provision has
been made for the educational needs of the coun-
try: beside the district free-schools, each state has
a state normal school for the training of teachers,
a state university, an agricultural college, a school
of mines, and a system of teachers’ institutes, and
other universities and colleges. North Dakota
has 39 counties, and South Dakota 69. Among the
principal towns of North Dakota are Bismarck, the
capital, Fargo, Wahpeton, Grand Forks, Pembina,
Jamestown, &c.; of South Dakcta, Pierre, the
capital, on the Missouri River, Deadwood, in the
Black Hills, Sioux Falls, Yankton, Watertown, &c.

Pop. of the territory of Dakota (1860) 4837;
(1870) 14,181; (1880) 135,177. Area of North Da-
kota 70,795 sq. m.; pop. in 1890, 182,719. Area of
South Dakota 77,650 sq. m.; pop. in 1890, 328,808.

History.—The first real and permanent white
settlement in Dakota was probably established by
French Canadian settlers near Pembina about 1780.
Lord Selkirk in 1812, by a mistake, built his fort of
Pembina south of the Canadian line; there were
fur-trading posts established at least as early as
1808. By a treaty with the Dakota Indians in
1851 a large part of the country was opened to
white settlement. The territory was established
and organised in 1861. Yankton was the capital
until 1883, when Bismarck became the seat of
government. During the congressional session of
1888-89 provision was made to admitit into the Union
as two states—North Dakota and South Dakota.

Dalai’-Lama. See LAMAISM.

Dalbeattie, a town of Kirkcudbrightshire,
near Urr Water, 15 miles SW. of Duntfries.
Founded in 1780, it owed its importance to the
neighbouring Craignair granite-quarries (now to a
large extent exhausted ), and to its polishing-works,
which furnished granite for the Liverpool and
Odessa Docks, the Thames Embankment, and
many more works, both at home and abroad. Pop.
' (1841) 1430; (1881) 3861; (1891) 3149,

Dalberg, the name of an ancient and noble
German family which long held by hereditary right
the office of chamberlain to the archbishopric of
Worms. So great was the renown of the Dalberg
family, that at every coronation of a German
= 3 Sea the royal herald exclaimed: ‘Is there no
Dalberg here?’ whereupon the representative of
the family kneeled, and received from the new
emperor the dignity of ‘ first knight of the empire.’

One of the most eminent members of this family was
Karl Theodor (1744-1817), the last prince-bishop of
Mainz, who, trained for the church, held numerous
high offices, and ultimately became elector of
Mainz, chancellor of the empire, and primate of
Germany. He was a friend of Wieland, Herder,
Goethe, and Schiller, and wrote works on history,
philosophy, and esthetics.

Dalber a tropical genus of papilionaceous
trees and ss toa om of chev are valuable
timber-trees, particularly the Sissoo of Bengal
(D. Sissoo) and D. melanoxylon cf Senegal
(Senegal Ebony, q.v.). D. monetaria, of Surinam,
yields a resin very similar to Dragon’s Blood.

Dale, Davip, was born 6th January 1739 at
Stewarton in Ayrshire. Early apprenticed to a
Paisley weaver, he afterwards travelled some time
round the country, buying up the homespun linen
yarn, next became clerk to a silk-mercer, then
an importer of French and Dutch yarns. On
Arkwright’s visiting Scotland it was agreed that
he and Dale should engage in cotton-spinning
together at New Lanark near the Falls of Clyde.
There Dale built mills, and became prosper In
1799 he sold these mills to a Manchester company
whose manager was the famous Robert Owen,
husband of Dale’s daughter. Dale spent his last
years in active works of benevolence in Glasgow,
and in preaching to a church of his own which
called itself the ‘Old Independents.’ He died at
Glasgow, 17th March 1806.

Dalecarlia, or DALARNE (signifying ‘valley-
country’), an old province of central Sweden, now
forming the lin or county of Kopparberg. The
Dalecarlians are celebrated for the part they took
under Gustavus Vasa in freeing their country from
the yoke of Christian II. of Denmark.

D’Alembert, JEAN LE RonD, mathematician
and encyclopedist, was born in Paris, November
16, 1717, and was found the day after his birth near
the church of St Jean-le-Rond, from which he
derived his name—the surname he himself added
long after. He was the illegitimate son of Madame
de Tencin and the Chevalier Destouches, and was
brought up by the wife of a poor glazier; but his
father, without publicly acknowledging the pater-.
nity, secured to him an allowance of 1200 frances
a year. At twelve the boy entered the College
Mazarin, where he soon showed his lifelong passion
for mathematical studies. On leaving college, he
returned to the humble home of his kind foster-
mother, where he continued to live and pursue his
favourite studies for thirty years, broken only by
two ineffectual attempts to earn a living by law and
medicine. ‘ You will never,’ said his foster-mother,
‘be anything but a philosopher; and what is a
ares ae but a fool who torments himself during
iis life that people may talk about him when he is
dead?’ His first distinction was admission at
twenty-three to the Academy of Sciences. Two
years later appeared his Traité de Dynamique,
which reduces all the laws of motion to the con-
sideration of Equilibrium, thereby making an
epoch in mechanical philosophy. Later works
were Réflexions sur le Cause générale des Vents,
which gained the prize of the Academy of Berlin,
1746, and which contains the first conception and
use of the Calculus of Partial Differences ; 7raité
de V Equilibre et du Mouvement des Fluides (1744) ;
Recherches sur la Précession des Equinoxes et sur la

Mutation de? Axe dela Terre (1749); and Recherches —

sur Différents Points Importants du Systeme du
Monde (1754). His Opuscules Mathématiques (8 vols.

1761-80) contain an immense number of memoirs,

some on new subjects, some containing develop-
ments of his previous works.
But D’Alembert did not confine himself to

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DALGARNO

DALHOUSIE 659

1 science. For the t LEneyclopédie
ed by Diderot he wrote the famous Discours
iminaire, a noble tribute to literature and

Spoiget Ae a model of lucid and eloquent exposi-

though its classification of the sciences is
open to question. Besides numerous articles in the
Bneyelopédie (the mathematical portion of which

he edited), he published books on philosophy,

‘literary criticism, the theory of music, and a

, Sur la Destruction des Jesuites (1765),
which involved him in controversy. He became
secretary to the Academy in 1772, and there-
after he wrote the lives of all the members
deceased between 1700 and that. year—one of the

most pleasing of his works. His literary works
have n published in a collected form, new
edition, by Bossange (Paris, 5 vols. 1821). This

edition contains his correspondence with Voltaire
and the king of Prussia: His scientific works
have never been collected.

So genuine was D’Alembert’s love of independ-
ence that wealth and rank had no fascination
for him. Frederick IL of Prussia offered him
the presidency of the Academy of Berlin in
1752, but he declined to leave France, and only
accepted a subsequent offer of a pension of 1200
frortte, The king of France granted him a
similar sum. In 1762 Catharine II. of Russia
invited him, through her ambassador, to undertake
the education of her son, with a salary of 100,000
franes; and when he declined, she wrote him an
oops eee letter, urging that to refuse to contribute
to the education of a whole nation was inconsistent
with his own principles; and inviting him, if he
could not reconcile himself to the breaking-off of
his Pree and friendships, to bring all his friends
with him, and she would provide both for them
and for him everything they could desire. But
he remained steadfast. D’Alembert never married.
He was tenderly attached for many years to
Mademoiselle Lespinasse (q.v.), with whom he
lived in the same house in Platonic affection for
nearly a dozen years, but who was scarce worthy
of his devotion. Her death in 1776 was a crushing
blow to the philosopher. He died October 29, 1783.
See his Quvres et Correspondances inédites, edited
by Charles Henry ( Abbeville, 1887), and the Life
by J. Bertrand (Par. 1889).

Dalgarno, GEORGE, an almost forgotten but
very able author, was born at Aberdeen about
1626, studied at Marischal College, and afterwards
kept a school in Oxford for thirty years, where he
died August 28, 1687. He deserves to be remem-
bered for two remarkable works—the Ars Signorum,
vulgo Character Universalis et Lingua Philos hica
(1661), and Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb
Man’s Tutor (1680). The formeris a very ingenious
attempt to represent and classify ideas by specific
arbitrary characters irrespective of words. It con-
tains the germs of Bishop Wilkins’s subsequent
speculations in his work, A Real Character and
a Philosophical Language (1668). Leibnitz has
repeatedly alluded to it in complimentary terms.
The latter work has for its design ‘to bring the
way of teaching a deaf man to read and write as
near as possible to that of teaching young ones to
speak and understand their mother-tongue.’

Dalhousie, JAMes ANDREW Broun-RaAmsay,
MARQUIS OF, Governor-general of India, and
: test of Indian proconsuls,’ was the third son
of the ninth Earl of Dalhousie, and was born
April 22, 1812, at Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian. He
was educated at Harrow, and graduated at Christ
Church, Oxford. In 1832, by the death of his only
remaining brother, he succeeded to the courtesy title
of Lord Ramsay. In 1835 he stood unsuccessfully
for Edinburgh in the Conservative interest; in 1837

was elected for Haddingtonshire. On the death of
his father in 1838 he entered the House of Peers
as Earl’of Dalhousie. In i843 Sir Robert Peel
appointed him Vice-president of the Board of Trade,
and in 1845 he succeeded Mr Gladstone as Presi-
dent of the Board. The ‘ railway mania’ threw an
immense amount of labour and responsibility upon
his department ; but the energy, industry, and
administrative ability he displayed in his office, no
less than his readiness and fluency in parliament,
marked him out for the highest offices in the
state. When Peel resigned office in 1846, Lord
John Russell paid the Earl of Dalhousie the rare
compliment of asking him to remain at the Board
of reas, in order to carry out the regulations he
had framed for the railway system. In 1847 he
was appointed Governor-general of India, as suc-
cessor to Lord Hardinge, and arrived in Calcutta,
January 12, 1848—the youngest governor-general
ever sent to that country. His Indian adminis-
tration was not less splendid and successful in
regard to the acquisition of territory than in the
means he adopted for developing the resources
of the country, and improving the administration
of the East Indian government. Pegu and the
Punjab were conquered ; Nagpur, Oudh, Sattara,
Jhansi, and Berar were annexed—altogether, four
great kingdoms, besides a number of minor prin-
cipalities, were added to the dominions of the Queen.
Railways on a colossal scale were planned, and partly
commenced ; 4000 miles of electric telegraph were
spread over India; 2000 miles of road between

aleutta and Peshawur were bridged and metalled;
the Ganges Canal, the largest of the kind in the
country, was opened; important works of irriga-
tion all over India were planned and executed ;
and the department of public works was reorgan-
ised.. Among other incidents of his beneficent ad-
ministration may be mentioned his energetic action
against suttee, thuggee, female infanticide, and the
slave-trade; the organisation of the Legislative
Council ; the improved training of the civil service,
which was opened to all natural-born subjects of
the British crown, black or white; the successful
development of trade, agriculture, forestry, mining;
and a great reform in the postal service of India.
In a minute which he drew up on resigning office, he
reviewed with pardonable pride the events of his
eight years’ governor-generalship. His constitution
had never been strong, and it gave way under the in-
cessant lahour and responsibility imposed upon him
by his noble ambition. Meanwhile, honours had
been showered upon him by his Queen and country
with no sparing hand: in 1848 he was made a
Knight of the Thistle ; in 1849 he received the mar-
quisate, the thanks of both Houses of Parliament
and of the East India Company for the ‘zeal and
ability ’ displayed in administering the resources of
British India in the contest with the Sikhs; in
1852, on the death of Wellington, he was nomin-
ated by the then prime-minister, the Earl of Derby,
to the office of Constable of Her Majesty’s Castle
of Dover and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.
Dalhousie sailed from Caleutta in March 1856. On
his arrival in England he was unable to take his
seat in the House of Lords; and the remainder
of his days was er in much physical suffering
and prostration of strength. On 19th December
1860 he died at Dalhousie Castle in his 48th year,
leaving behind him a name that ranks among the
highest in the roll of Indian viceroys for states-
manship, administrative vigour, and the faculty
of inspiring confidence among the millions sub-
jected to his sway. As he died without male
issue, his title of marquis became extinct, the
earldom of Dalhousie and other Scottish honours
reverting to his cousin, Baron Panmure. His
policy of annexation has been blamed for the

660 DALIAS

DALMATIC

mutiny which broke out ere his death ; but though,
in Justin M‘Carthy’s words, ‘he was a man of com-
manding energy and indomitable courage, with the
intellect of a ruler of men and the spirit of a con-
queror,’ he was also of a most sensitive conscience,
and entered on the Sikh and Burmese wars and
embarked on a policy of annexation against his will.
See the articles INDIA, OUDH, PEGU, PUNJAB,
SIKHs ; the Duke of Argyll’s India under Dalhousie
and Canning (1865); and Captain Lionel Trotter’s
Dalhousie in the ‘Statesmen’ series (1889).

Dalias, a town in the Spanish province of
Almeria, at the foot of the Sierra de Gador, with
a pop. of about 9500, who are employed chiefly
in mining and smelting.

Dalkeith, a town of Midlothian, 6 miles SE.
of Edinburgh, on a tongue of land between the
North and South Esks. There is a large corn
exchange (1855); of nearly a dozen places of wor-
ship the only old one is the parish: church, collegiate
once, of which Norman Macleod was for three
years minister. The chief glory of the place is
Dalkeith Palace, a seat of the Duke of Buccleuch
(see SCOTT). Standing near the end of the High
Street, in a beautiful park of 1035 acres, it is a
Grecian edifice, built in 1700 by Sir John Vanbrugh
for Monmouth’s widowed duchess. The castle, its
predecessor, was the seat first of the Grahams,
and then of the Douglases from the 14th century
till 1642, when the ninth Earl of Morton sold it to
the second Earl of Buccleuch. Dalkeith thus has
memories of the Regent Morton (the ‘ Lion’s Den’
the castle was called in his day), of General Monk
(1654-59), and of visits from James IV., James
VI., Charles I., Prince Charles Edward, George
IV., and Queen Victoria. It is the scene, too, of
Moir’s Mansie Wauch. Pop. (1841) 4831; (1881)
6931 ; (1891) 6952.

Dallas, capital of Dallas county, Texas, on
Trinity River, 265 miles NNW. of Houston by rail.
It is a flourishing place, with colleges for boys
and girls, a inedical institute, a number of flour-
mills and grain-elevators, several foundries, and
manufactures of woollens, soap, &c. Pop. (1880)
10,358 ; (1890) 38,067.

Dallas, GrorGE MIFFLIN, an American diplo-
matist and statesman, was born in Philadelphia,
July 10,:1792. His father, A. J. Dallas (1759-
1817), was a distinguished lawyer of West Indian
birth and Scottish descent, who filled with credit
the positions of secretary of the treasury and
acting-secretary of war under President Madison.
The younger Dallas graduated at Princeton Col-
lege in 1810. In 1813 he was admitted to the bar,
and soon after entered the diplomatic service. In
1831 he was sent to the United States senate by
the Pennsylvania legislature. He was United
States-minister to Russia from 1837 to 1839, and
in 1844 was elected vice-president of the United
States. In 1846 his casting-vote as president of
the senate repealed the protective tariff of 1842,
though he had previously been considered a Pro-
tectionist. His course on this question aroused
much indignation in Pennsylvania. He was sent
to Great Britain as United States minister at St
James’s from 1856 to 1861. He died at Philadelphia,
December 31, 1864. His principal published writ-
ings were posthumous ; they include a very read-
able and entertaining Series of Letters from London
(1869), and a Life of A. J. Dallas (1871). His life
was marked by assiduous devotion to official duties,
which left him little leisure to look after his own
private interests, and he lived and died a poor
man.

Dalles. See CoLumsBraA RIVER.
Dalling, Lorp. See BuLWER.

Dalmatia, a narrow strip of Austrian territory

extending along. the Adriatic Sea, and bounded,on

the N. by Croatia, on the E. by Bosnia, Herze-
govina, and Montenegro. Area, 4940 sq. m.;
pop. (1890) 527,426. The coast of Dalmatia and
numerous adjacent islands is everywhere steep
and rocky, and the chief towns, all of which are
on the coast, are Zara, Sebenico, Lissa, Spalato,
Brazza, Ragusa, and Cattaro. The country is moun-
tainous, chiefly dry moorland, with numerous small
lakes and rivers, most of which dry up in summer,
The highest mountain is Orjen, near Cattaro, 6235
feet. The climate is uncertain; mean temperature
about 60°; rainfall about 28 in. The Bora (q.v.)
wind is much dreaded. About one-ninth of the
land is arable, and produces wheat, barley, oats,
maize, rye, and potatoes. Wine and olives are also
produced. Nearly half of the land is in pasture,
and wood occupies about a third. The islands
are not very fertile, but supply good timber for
shipbuilding. Cattle-rearing, seafaring, and the
fisheries are the chief industries. he annual
value of the exports and imports is £1,500,000.
The exports consist principally of wine, oil,
brandy, hides, wool, wax, honey, and fruits. Of
the whole population, it is computed that about
55,000 are Italians, 1000 Albanians, 1000 Germans,
500 Jews, and the remainder consists of Southern
Slavonians—chiefly Dalmatians and Morlaks.

as seamen and soldiers, and former]
main support of the military power of Venice.

In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable
kingdom, and, after many unsuccessful attempts,
was first subjugated by the Romans in the time
of Augustus. On the fall of the Western Empire,
Dalmatia, which had formed the most southern

part of the province Illyricum, was captured by |

the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari
(490), who in their turn yielded it to the Slavo-
nians about 620. The state founded by the Slavo-
nians continued until the beginning of the 11th
century, when King Ladislaus of Hungary incor-
porated a part of Dalmatia with Croatia, while the
other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself
under the protection of the Venetian republic.
The Turks afterwards made themselves masters of
asmall portion ; and by the peace of Campo-Formio
(1797), the Venetian part of Dalmatia, with Venice
itself, became subject to Austrian rule. When
Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part of Dalmatia
to Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of
Italy ; afterwards (1810) to Illyria. Since 1814
Dalmatia forms part of Austria ; the commune of
Spizza being added by the Congress of Berlin in
1878.

See Sir Gardner Wilkinson, Dalmatia and Montenegro
(1848); Paton, Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic
(1849) ; Wingfield; Zour in Dalmatia (1859); Yriarte,
Les Bords de ? Adriatique (1878); Freeman, Sketches from
the Subject and Neighbouring Lands of Venice (T3803

Henri Cons, La Province Romaine de Dalmatie (1882);

and Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnaro, and Istria (1887).

Dalmatian Dog, or CARRIAGE-DOG, a variety
of dog closely resembling in size and shape the
modern pointer. It is often kept in stables, be-
comes attached to the horses, and may be seen
running after carriages.
white with black spots not more than an inch in
diameter regularly distributed over its body, in-
cluding its ears and tail. Its origin is uncertain ;
the name Dalmatian is probably altogether mis-
leading ; and it is supposed that it may have been
brought from India, where a very similar kind of
dog exists.

Dalmatic (Dalmatica), the deacon’s robe in
the Roman Catholic Church. The most ancient
form of the dalmatic is exhibited in the annexed

The
Dalmatians are a fine race of men, bold and brave’
were the

Its colour should be

ye Os

PA — ees ay

< tS te
oe

“%

DALMAU

DALYELL 661

woodent, after an early Christian painting on a
wall in the catacombs at Rome. It was originally
of linen, but it is
now generally made
of the same heavy
silk as the Chasuble

(q.V.).

Dalman, a cit
of Oudh, on the left
bank of the Ganges,
60 miles NW. of
Allahabad, with a
magnificent Hindu
temple. Pop. 5367,

Dalmelling-
ton, an Ayrshire
village, near the
river Doon, 154
miles SE. of Ayr
by rail, In its
vicinity are many
active collieries
and ironworks.
Pop. of the village
alone, about 1500.

Dalri‘ada (‘the home of the descendants of
Riada’), the ancient name of a territory in Ireland,
comprehending what is now called ‘the Route,’ or
the northern half of County Antrim. — Its inhabit-
ants were Scots of Gaelic race living in the midst
of a Pictish population, and a number of them
erossed over to Argyll in 498 and founded there
another kingdom of Dalriada. More than twent;
kings of this state are enumerated before Kennet
MacAlpin, who, about 843, united under one
sceptre the Dalriads or Scots and the Picts, and
thus became the first king of Alban, which about
two.centuries afterwards began to be known as
Scotia or Scotland.

Dalry, a town of Ayrshire, on the Garnock, 23
miles SW. of Glasgow. Pop. (1851) 2706; (1891)
4572, this wth being due to the establishment of
neighbouring ironworks in 1845.—For the skirmish
at Dalry, near Tyndrum, see BRUCE.
Dalrymple, ALEXANDER, hydrographer, was
a younger feoahier of Sir David Dalrymple, Lord
Hailes, and was thus a member of an old and illus-
trious Scottish family (for its chief members, see
STArR and HAILEs); he was born at New Hailes,
near Edinburgh, 24th July 1737. At fifteen he
‘sailed for Madras as writer in the East India
Company’s service, and after a few years’ dreary
work began to attract the notice of his superiors
by his industry and intelligence. In 1759 he made
_ a voyage of observation among the eastern islands,
and after returning to Madras in 1762, was sent
to open up the trade with Sulu, reaching Canton
late in 1764. In 1775 he went to Madras as a
member of council, but was recalled two years
after on an unfounded charge of misconduct. He
became hydrographer to the East India Compan
in 1779, and to the Admiralty in 1795, and di
_ three weeks after his summary dismissal from the
latter office, 19th June 1808,
__ Dalrymple, Sir JAMEs, was the second son of
Sir James Dalrymple, baronet, afterwards first
Viscount Stair. e was called to the Scottish
bar in 1675, and ultimately became one of the chief
clerks of the Court of Session, and a Nova Scotia
baronet in 1698, He was a sound voabeg oye and
his work entitled Collections concerning the Scottish
History preceding 1158 ( Edin. 1705) is still of value.
Dalton, JoHN, chemist and physicist, was born
6th September 1766, at Eaglesfield, near Cocker-
mouth, in Cumberland, and was the son of a Quaker
weaver. He received his early education at a

Quaker school in his native place, and, after 1781,
in a boarding-school kept by a relative in Kendal,
of which three years later he and a brother became
the proprietors. Here his love of mathematical and
physical studies was first developed. He wrote
several mathematical essays, and in 1787 ecom-
menced a journal of meteorological observations,
which he continued throughout his whole life,
recording in all 200,000 observations. He collected
butterflies, and gathered a great hortus siccus and
herbarium, In 1793 he was appointed teacher of
mathematics and the physical sciences in New Col.
lege, Manchester : after the removal of the college to
York in 1799, he supported himself in Manchester
by private tuition. In 1803 he lectured at the
Royal Institution. His Meteorological Observations
(1793), dealing largely with auroras, contained the
rms of many of his future discoveries. In 1794 he
rst deseri the phenomena of colour-blindness,
observed by him in his own case and that of his
brother, and often called Daltonism. In 1808-10
he published his New System of Chemical Philo-
sophy, to which he added the first part of a second
volume in 1827. In 1817 he was appointed presi-
dent of the Manchester Philosophical Society. He
was also a member of the Royal Society, and an
associate of the Paris Academy, and of several
other foreign societies. In 1833 he received a pen-
sion of £150, afterwards raised to £300. In the
same year Dalton’s friends and fellow-townsmen
collected £2000, to raise a statue to his honour,
which was executed by Chantrey, and placed at
the entrance of the Royal Institution in Man-
chester. Oxford gave him its D,.C.L., and Edin-
burgh, LL.D. He was twice a vice-president of
the British Association. In 1837 he had a shock
of pbs and he died, universally srapecters
at Manchester, July 27, 1844. His chief physical
researches were on the constitution of mixed gases,
on the force of steam, on the elasticity of vapours,
and on the expansion of gases by heat. In
chemistry, he distinguished himself by his develop-
ment of the atomic theory, as also by his researches
on the absorption of Les by water, on carbonic
acid, carburetted hydrogen, &c. Dalton was un-
questionably one of the greatest chemists that any
country has prenter Profound, patient, and
intuitive, he had precisely the faculties requisite
for a great scientific discoverer. His atomic theory
elevated chemistry into a science. In his habits,
Dalton was eet it in manners, grave and re-
served, but kindly, and distinguished by his truth-
fulness and integrity of character. He ‘never
found time’ to marry. See Lives by Angus Smith
(1836) ; Henry (1854) ; Lonsdale (1874) ; and Sir H.
Roscoe (1895); and the article ATOMIC THEORY.

Dalton-in-Furness, 2 town of Lancashire, 16
miles WNW. of Lancaster, communicating with
the sea by a canal (34 miles). It has extensive
malting and ironworks; and the ruins of Furness
Abbey (q.v.) are in the vicinity. Romney was a
native. Pop. (1861) 2812; (1890) 13,300.

Daltonism. See CoLOUR-BLINDNESS.

Dalyell, or DALZELL, THOMAS, a_ Scottish
neral famed for his zeal in the repression of the

venanters, was born about 1599, the son of
Thomas Dalyell of Binns, Linlithgowshire. Enter-
ing the army at an early he was made a general
major of foot by Charles II. in 1650; and excluded
from Cromwell’s Act of Grace, he entered the
service of Russia and distinguished himself in
the wars against the Tartars and Turks. At the
request of Charles II. he was permitted to return
home, and in 1666 was appointed commander-in-
chief in Scotland with the view of repressing the
Covenanters. On 28th November he defeated them
at Rullion Green, in the Pentlands, and, in Burnet’s

662 DAM

DAMASCENING

words, ‘ acting the Muscovite too grossly,’ made his
name a byword of terror. A very devoted royalist,
he is said never to have shaved his beard after the
execution of Charles I. He died 23d August 1685.
Dam. See WATER, Vol. X. p. 570; CoFFERDAM.
Damages, in Law, are tle pecuniary repara-
tion due for loss or injury sustained by one
erson through the fault or negligence of another.
here a sum ascertained in amount is due, the
action is one not properly for damages, but of debt.
But where the sum is not ascertained, as where an
injury has been done to. a man’s character or
property, the action can in general only be for
damages the amount of which the injured party
estimates, and which is determined by the judgment
of the court or verdict of a jury. When parties to
a contract agree that if the contract be broken, a
specified sum of money shall be paid, this sum is
spoken of as liquidated damages, a sum agreed
upon to save the trouble of ascertaining the actual
damage done. Nominal damages are those given
to a plaintiff who establishes his right, but has not
shown that he has suffered actual loss. Exemplary
or vindictive damages are given not only to com-
pensate the injured party, but to punish the
offender, as in actions for damages by fraud,
seduction, and the like. Damages witra are
additional damages claimed by f prose pe over and
above those paid into court b efendant. Every
person is liable in damages for injuries caused by
culpable neglect or ignorance. Professional persons
are liable to make reparation of loss occasioned
through their want of ordinary skill in their calling.
Railway companies and steamboat owners are
liable for injuries to person or property caused by
the fault of themselves or their servants. The
principal rules according to which damages are
awarded are, that the damage is measured by the
actual pecuniary loss, when ascertainable ; that the
injury suffered must be the immediate consequence
of the faulty act or omission; and that all the
parties concerned in committing a wrong are liable
each for the full amount of damages to the injured

a
a

arty.

In the United States, the same general principles
apply asin England. But the tendency of modern
legislation, instead of restricting actions for damages
to cases in which the restitution of property and
the enforcement of rights are involved, is gradu-
ally being extended to cases involving civil injury
arising from criminal negligence. This has been
made necessary from the great powers granted
corporations by law. Damages for the infringe-
ment of patents and copyrights may by act of con-
gress be double or treble the verdict of a jury, at
the discretion of the court. See Costs, LIABILITY.

Daman’, an outlying portion of the Punjab,
extending along the right bank of the Indus, and
as far back as the Suliman Mountains.

Daman’, a Portuguese settlement and
the province of Gujarat, on the Gulf of Cam-
bay, 100 miles N. of Bombay. The settlement
consists of Daman proper (22 sq. m.), and the
orgie of Nagar Havili (60 sq. m.), to the east.
‘Pop. of the former, 56,084; of the latter, 12,636,
nearly all Hindus. The climate is generally
healthy, the soil moist and fertile. The magnificent
teak forests of Nagar Havili provide excellent
timber for shipbuilding, for which Daman has
some celebrity. The port, guarded by two forts,
stands at the mouth of the Daman-Ganga, a deep,
navigable, stream, with a bar at its mouth,
while outside is an excellent roadstead. Although
the Portuguese have held Nagar Havili since
1780 only, Daman has been occupied by them
since 1558. It formerly was noted for its weaving
and dyeing, and exported its own fabrics to the

ort in

coast of Africa, besides large quantities of opium
to China. The opium trade, however, has n
stopped, and the chief industry, beyond the weaving
of cotton cloth, and of bamboo mats and baskets,
is now the deep-sea fishing, in which about 4500
men are engaged.

Daman. See HYRAx.

Daman-i-Koh (‘skirts of the hills’), a traet
of hilly country in Bengal, reserved for the Santals
and other equally primitive races. Area, 1366 sq.
m.; pop. 360,000. F

Damaraland, a territory in the west of South
Africa, between Namaqualand and Ovampoland
proper, extending from ths, Atlantic to about. 19°
45’ E. long. Behind the waterless coast region (100
miles) rises a mountain district, with peaks over
8500 feet above the sea; and farther inland stretch
wide prairies. The mountains are rich in minerals,
Specter copper ; vegetation is confined to their
valleys, and to the prairie region, which in the
north enjoys a fine rainfall. The produce of the
interior consists of ivory, feathers, skins, &c. The
Damaras, properly Herero, a Bantu (q.v.) stem,
number about 80,000, of whom 50,000 live in the
mountain district ; they are nomads, and own large
flocks and herds. The Hawkoin, or Hill Damaras,
in the north-east, however, who are a much lower
type, now speak Hottentot. The only harbour in
this part of the coast is Walvisch Bay (q.v.), which
properly belongs to Namaqualand ; it was annexed
to Cape Colony in 1884. In.the same year the
desert region along the coast was made a German
protectorate.

Damascening, or DAMASKENING, is a name
which is given (1) to the watered or striated
structure seen in certain sword-blades and other
weapons, and (2) to the ornamental inerustation
with gold and silver of steel and iron surfaces. - The
term in both its applications originates from the city
of Damascus, whence the crusaders brought into
Europe swords and other weapons of remarkable
strength, elasticity, and keenness of edge, the
surfaces of which were beautifully striated with
waved dark and light lines. The hilts of such
weapons, and the whole surface of defensive armour
from the same source were in many cases elabor-
ately ornamented with incrusted gold, and hence
one term came to be applied to the peculiar structure
of the metal, and to its ornamental treatment. It
is probable that even in the crusaders’ times the
making of the so-called Damascus blades and the
art of damascening were Persian, and to this day
they remain characteristic of that country, the
practice having spread thence eastward into India,
while the Persians still supply the Turks on the
west with their best and most highly ornamented
weapons. The production of a watered or damas-
cened surface is illustrated by the manufacture of
‘Damascus twist’ barrels for sporting-guns. The
metal for the barrels is prepared from rods of iron
and steel, piled alternately and forged and welded
together into a single solid rod of small section.
Three of these composite rods are used in forming
a barrel. They are separately twisted in contrary
directions till each has the appearance of a fine
threaded screw, then they are welded together into
a solid ribbon, which in its turn is spirally wound
and welded by the edges till the requisite length
and bore of barrel are formed. The result of the —
intertwisting of fine laminz of steel and iron is a ©
beautifully damascened surface which shows itself
when the haere has been treated with acid. The —
incrustation of arms, armour, and other objects of
steel and iron with gold, and more rarely with
silver, is very extensively praetised in the North-
west Provinces of India, as well as in Persia. In
India it is known as Kuft work or Kuftgari. The —

Difato this the

¢ity stands 1
_ through which the Barada, the Chrysorrhoas of the

la

DAMASCENUS

DAMASCUS 663

to be worked cut is undercut in the metal,
ld or silver wire is laid, and the
ten down with a hammer, thus

searp edge is
position, Another method

securing the wire in its

consists in scratching the surface, and beating into
the seratched lines the gold or silver wire, after
_which the whole surface is burnished to remove the

incisions. See Gun.
Damascenus. See JoANNES DAMASCENUS.
Damascus is the capital of Syria, and the
t town in Western Asia. It is called by the
natives Dimashk es-Sham, or simply es-Sham, the
name which is generally applied to all Syria. The
mile from the mouth of the gorge,

Greeks, forces its way into the plain ; and it is now

- eonnected with Beyrout on the Mediterranean by

an excellent French road about 70 miles long.
The plain of Damascus, 500 sq. m. in area, is
dot by over a hundred towns and villages.
It is bounded on the north-west by the Anti-
Libanus range, on the south by the Black
Mountains, beyond which are the hills of Bashan,
and on the east by the marshes of the plain.
Damascus is situated on the western side of the

t plain at an elevation of 2260 feet above the
evel of the sea, and immediately to the north-west
of the city the Anti-Libanus rises to a height of 3840
feet. This elevated part of the mountain, called
Jebel Kasytin, is crowned by the Kubbet en-Nasr
(‘Dome of Victory’). From the base of this dome
the best view of Damascus is obtained. Its ex-
quisite beauty, as seen from the mountain, is
greatly enhanced by contrast. Towards the west
there are the bare chocolate sahara and the storm-
bleached, lime-streaked mountains. But the
Barada, having forced its way through the moun-
tain, spreads fan-like by seven rivers over the plain
of Damascus, ‘and everything lives whither the
river cometh.’ A beautiful green meadow, the joy
of all orientals, extends almost from the mountain
to the city; gardens, in which all the trees of the
forest and the field blend their many shades, extend
for many a mile and hold the desert at bay. From
out this bower of soft green the city lifts to heaven
its forest of minarets towering above pearly domes.
The rivers of Damascus are the constant source of
the city’s perennial existence. According to tradi-
tion, Abraham on his westward march lingered by
the crystal waters, and ruled the city in peace.

The seven canals by which water is drawn off
from the central Barada are called rivers. The
most important on the right side is Nahar Abanias.
This is the river Abana, and it flowed through the
fashionable west-end suburb in the palmy days of
Damascus. The most important canal on the left
side of the Barada is Nahar Taura—the Pharpar of
2 Kings, v. 12. Both rivers flowed through the
residential parts of the city, and were largely used
for bathing purposes.

The appearance of Damascus as viewed from the
mountain resembles a tennis-racquet. The handle,
which lies in a south-westerly direction, is the
Meidan, a suburb which extends along the Mecca
eat for about a mile, and ends at the

wabat Alla (‘Gate of God’). The other part is
concentrated on the rivers, and is inclosed within
ancient walls and encompassed by luxuriant gardens
which seem to surge around and over the pearl-
coloured city like a sea. At the western side of the
city within the walls stands the citadel. It is a
large quadrangular structure about 300 yards lon
and 250 wide, with projecting towers, and surround
by a moat, It was erected in 1219 by Melik-el-
Ashraf, and has a massive appearance, but it is a
good deal dilapidated. The palace stands outside
the walls west of the citadel, and about 400

ards east of the citadel stands the Great Mosque,

urnt in October 1893. The Mosque was erected b
Walid ’Abd-el-Melik at the as ery of the 8
century on the site of the church of St John, just
as that church had been erected by Arcadius about
the beginning of the 5th century on the site of a

temple, which probably occupied the site of
the ancient Beit Rimmon. The church was con-
structed from the splendid material of ancient
temples, and the mosque is made up of the materials
of ancient churches. The old walls and many of
the columns of the church are still in position, and
on a portal, older than Mohammedan or Christian
times, is carved a cross, followed by the 13th verse
of the 145th Psalm in Greek, from the Septuagint,
with the abbreviation Xe added. The mosque is
adorned by three minarets, one of which, called the
minaret of Jesus, rises to a height of 250 feet, and
on this minaret, according to Mohammedan tradi-
tion, Jesus will > Aaa when he comes to judge the
world. Near to the pulpit there is a richly gilded
dome, beneath which the head of John the Baptist
is said to rest, and in the court there is another
dome which contains precious fragments of Kufie,
Syriac, and other manuscripts. Damascus con-
tains 70 other mosques, and more than 150 chapels
for prayer and instruction. The churches and
pe, i have no architectural pretensions, and
their internal decorations are gorgeous but tawdry.
The tomb of Nir ed-Din is one of the ornaments
of the city, and the walls of the best baths are
decorated with beautiful Kishani tiles, and the
floors with parian marble. The public cafés, though
picturesque when lighted up, are dirty and sodden.

The ees communities oceupy different
quarters of Damascus. The Jewish quarter (Harat-
el-Yahoud) lies to the south of the ‘street called
Straight,’ which runs east and west for about a
mile, with Roman gateways at either end. The
course of the Via Recta can be traced by the
columns in situ. The Christian quarter ( Harat-en-
Nasara) lies north of the street called Straight in
the eastern part of the city, and the remainder of
the city is oceupied by Mohammedans. It is
spoken of as Harat-el-Islam. The Christians are
superior in physique, in education, in enterprise,
- skill, in industry to their Mohammedan neigh-
ours.

The different industries are also carried on in
separate quarters. There is the silversmiths’
bazaar, where rough but very effective personal
ornaments are made; the saddlers’ bazaar, where
scarlet saddles and horse-trappings are gaily
decorated with gold and silver Given the shoe-
makers’ bazaar, where red and yellow slippers of
gondola-form and gorgeous top-boots are made ;
the Greek bazaar, where imitation ‘Damascus
blades’ and ‘antiques’ newly made are offered to
theunwary. The book bazaar (the Paternoster Row
of the East), the cloth bazaar, the seed bazaar, the
silk bazaar, and all the other trades and commodities,
have their distinct locations. The narrow and
badly paved streets of Damascus are dusty in
summer and muddy in winter. On either side are
the rows of arched niches which are the shops of
the place. Each shopkeeper sits cross-legged in
his dukkan, with his spices or Manchester goods
piled up around him, awaiting customers, whom he
serves with great stateliness of manner. Behind
the mud walls and mean entrances there are
splendid houses in Damaseus. On entering, one is
dazzled by the barbaric grandeur—white marble
porenene, tesselated with coloured stone ; snowy
ountains where the constant music of falling
water mingles with the cooing of doves from their
nests in the lemon-trees or trellised vines; walls
frescoed and decorated with mosaics and Persian
tiles, and slabs inlaid with coloured pastes and

664 DAMASK

DAMASUS

recious stones; arabesque ceilings set with

enetian mirrors, and adorned with blue and
purple and gold—all that oriental art and lavish
expenditure can do has been done to attract and
charm the eye. P :

Great and steady progress is being made in
Damascus in education, especially by the Christians ;
but the Jews and Mohammedans are also awaking
to the necessity of a higher standard of civilisation.
For many years the Irish Presbyterians have con-
ducted successful educational establishments in the
city and neighbouring villages as auxiliary to their
mission work. The British Syrian schools have
also an establishment, and the London Jews’
Society. as

One of the sights of Damascus is the Hajj (q.v.).
When it is starting for Mecca the whole city turns
out to see the procession. For miles around there
is a surging sea of human beings, dressed in the
brightest and most striking colours. Circassians
and Afghans, Kurds and Kalmucks, Turkomans and
Tekkes, Bedouins from the desert, and shepherds
from the steppes, and all the heterogeneous tribes
and peoples of the East, are represented in that
brilliant procession. Damascus is also one of the
meeting-places between the East and West.
Enormous caravans of camels pass to and fro
between Bagdad and Damascus, exchanging the
dates and tobacco and spices and carpets of the
East for the produce of the looms and workshops
of Europe. The chief exports are grain, flour,
native cotton and silk manufactures, wool, apricot
paste and stones, raisins, and liquorice-root ; the
imports include textiles, indigo, tobacco, coffee
sugar, and leather. The exports have an annual
value of £350,000, and the imports of about
£400,000, half of the latter British. In 1889 gas
and tramways were introduced into the city ; and
since 1892 two railways hither (from Haifa and from
Beyrout) were begun, but not finished. Pop. about
150,000, of whom 20,000 are Christians of various
sects ; 6000 are Jews.

Damask. This name, long given to certain
fabrics with ornamental patterns, appears to have
originated through Damascus having become, as
early as the 12th century, so celebrated for its
we silks that they were sought for everywhere.
The term damask is now applied to stuffs made for
table-covers, window curtains, and furniture cover-
ings, with floral, scroll, heraldic, or partly geo-
metrical eerne woven in the loom, but not to
printed designs. There are silk, woollen, linen,
and cotton damasks. Some are of two materials,
usually dyed of different colours, such as silk and
linen, or silk and wool, while many old damasks
are of silk and gold. There are other figured
textiles more or less resembling damask, such as
Brocade (q.v.) and figured Velvet (q.v.), but on these
the pattern is Haig at least slightly, raised,
while in damask the surface is flat, and the pattern is
distinct on both sides of the cloth. The structure of
damask, like diaper, is merely a variety of twilling.
It is by the order .n which the warp threads are
raised and depressed for the interweaving with the
weft that the pattern is produced ; the weft, as a
rule, intersecting the warp from every fourth up to
every eighth thread. This is accomplished by a
Jacquard apparatus attached to the loom. The
pattern is first painted on a specially prepared

aper, and then ‘read off’ and perforated on cards
oxy a cutting machine made for the purpose, each
card being made to control the arrangement for
one shot or weft thread. These cards, which may
be from 200 to 2000 in number, are laced into
an endless chain, and made to revolve on a
cylinder forming part of the apparatus. The
holes in the cards correspond to a certain number of
cross ‘ needles,’ into which are looped upright wires

terminating in hooks for lifting the warp threads,
The mechanism for raising such of these wires, and
with them the warp threads as are required for
each throw of the shuttle, is explained under
JACQUARD-LOOM. It requires four Jacquard-
machines to complete some patterns of damask,
and a greater number if the design is exceptionally
elaborate.

Table-linen damask is perhaps the kind most
largely made. In Great Britain, the principal seats.
of this manufacture are Dunfermline in Scotland,
Belfast in Ireland, and Barnsley in Yorkshire. At
some of the linen damask mills in England and
Scotland, coloured union damask, of wool and linen,
is also made on a large scale. Cotton damasks,
both dyed and undyed, are woven extensively at
Manchester and its neighbourhood, as well as at
Glasgow and Paisley. The mills where all-wool
damasks are chiefly manufactured are situated
at or near Halifax and Bradford, where a new
kind, consisting of mohair, or of mohair and silk,
has been recently fabricated. Silk damasks are
rincipally made in the neighbourhood of London,
Rince 1860, largely through the labours of Dr
Bock of Aix-la-Chapelle, one or two very interest-
ing collections of Rsopest damasks and other
figured stuffs, ranging in date from the 13th to
the 16th century, have been made. A catalogue
with some illustrations of the specimens in the
South Kensington Museum was He some
years ago by the Rev. Dr Daniel Rock. Since
then some remarkable examples have been added,

and the authorities of that institution are now ~

ublishing large coloured illustrations of these.

he original pieces, even though many of them are
much faded, give a vivid idea of the beauty of
the products of the looms of Sicily, of Florence,
Venice, Lucca, and Genoa, and of some Spanish
towns, during the middle ages. The materials of
which they are made are silk alone, silk and gold,
silk and linen, and silk and cotton. When flowers
or animals are represented on these damasks, they
are conventionally, not realistically, treated, and
the designs of most of them are so appropriate and
effective, that even the chromolithographs of them
are of great value not only to the textile designer,
but to students of every branch of decorative art.

Damasus, the name of two popes of Rome.—
Damasus I. was born in 306, probably at Rome,
became archdeacon of the Roman Church in 355
and pope in 366. The party of Ursinus, the rival
of Damasus, were overpowered after a sanguina
struggle of three days in the streets of Rome, an
afterwards in the Basilica Liberiana (S. Maria
Maggiore), from which 137 corpses were carried out
in one day, the 25th October 366. The Emperor
Valentinian I. decided in favour of Damasus, and
twelve years later, the schism still continuing, an
edict of Gratian (378) made him the judge in the
case of all the clergy of the hostile party who still
lived in Rome. e was a zealous opponent of
the Arians, and condemned the Illyrian bishops
Ursacius and Valens at a synod which he held
at Rome in 368, and Auxentius, Bishop of Milan,
at a second synod there in 370. Damasus induced
his friend Jerome to undertake the revision of the
Italia (in 383 and 384), which led him to the pre-
poe ory of the Vulgate version ; and he did much
or the
catacombs. He died in 384, and was canonised.
His festival falls on the 11th December. The
writings of Damasus, which are chiefly letters and
epigrams, were published at Rome in 1638 (new
editions, Rome, 1754, and Paris, 1840). See Langen,
Geschichte der rimischen Kirche (vol. i. Bonn, 1881),
and Rade, Damasus, Bischof von Rom (Freiburg,
1882).—Damasus II., previously Poppo, Bishop of

Brixen, was elected pope in 1048, through the influ- |

reservation and adornment of the Roman _

A Ae eae Kick cae

oe re

DAMBULA

DAMIETTA 665

ence of the Emperor Henry III., and died twenty-
three days after his accession.

Dambula, or DAmBUL, a vast Buddhist rock-
temple in Ceylon, 40 miles N. of Kandy, con-
- taining, among a profusion of Migs. 9 res of

Buddha of extraordinary magnitude, EYLON.
Dame (Lat. domina, ‘a mistress’), a title of
honour which long distinguished high-born ladies
from the wives of citizens and of the commonalty
in general, and which still is the accurate title of a
knight's wife (see also BARONET). In the age of

chivalry, it was customary even for a queen to
be so called by her chosen knight (‘the dame
of his heart, of his thoughts,’ &ec.). In conse-
quence of the greater courtesy shown towards

women of higher rank, arose the custom of pre-
fixing the word ma to dame, as a special proof of
veneration and homage. Hence, too, the Virgin-
mother was called in France Notre Dame (‘ Our
Lady’, as if no single Christian could exclusively
claim the privilege of serving her with the homage
of his heart). The daughters of the king of France
as soon as they came into the world, were called
Madame ; and this was also the sole title of the
wife of the king’s eldest brother. In England, the
word Dame, though not much used, is now applied
to married women of all classes; but has dase
acquired a special significance in connection wit
the Primrose League (q.v.). It is also applied
' specially to the mistress of a small elementary
school, especially if elderly and ignorant. Madame
is shortened into Madam, a usual term of address
for ladies in general, but still also a word of honour,
applicable, in particular cases, to majesty itself.

us Tennyson in dedicating his poems to Queen
Victoria, speaks as a chivalrous troubadour might
have done—

Take, Madam, this poor book of song.

Dame’s Violet ( Hesperis), a genus of Cruci-
fere, closely allied to stock and wallflower ; natives
chiefly of the
middle and south
of Europe, and
temperate Asia.
One only, the
Common me’s
Violet or Rocket
(H. matronalis),
occurs wild in
Britain as a gar-

den escape. The
usually lilac-
eolou flowers

are scentless by
day, but very
fragrant at night,
on which account
this plant is cul-
tivated in flower-

ts by German
ae The cus-

m appears to
have pe old
—— one also,
and from it the
plant derives its
technical name.

- Common Dame's Violet ( Hesperis

matronalis ). (H. tristis) is also

a favourite flower
in Germany.
There are many florist’s varieties ranging on each
side of the familiar lilac tint to purple or white,
often also variegated, and single or double.
Damiani, Pierro, a great Italian ecclesiastic
of the 11th century, was born in 1007 at Ravenna,

herded swine in his boyhood, but rose by his learn-
ing and devotion to the interests of the church to
be cardinal and Bishop of Ostia (1057), He sup-

wted with vigour the ecclesiastical policy of

ildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.), without
sharing his arrogance and ambition, and was em-
ploy in many important missions. He died at

aenza in 1072, is letters, speeches, and other
writings were collected by Cardinal Cajetan, and
often reprinted (best ed. 4 vols. Ven. 1743). See
the Life by Neukirch (Gétt. 1875),

Damianus, St. See Cosmas.

Damien, FATHER. Joseph Damien, born at
Louvain, 3d.January 1841, in 1873 devoted himself
to the awful duties of spiritual guide to the lepers
confined to the Hawaiian island of Molokai. Sent
on a mission to Honolulu, where he heard from the
bishop the neglected state of the lepers, some 700
or in number, who lived on that small island,
he volunteered to establish himself amongst them ;
and from 1877 onwards became physician of their
souls and bodies, their magistrate, teacher, car-
penter, gardener, cook, and even gravedigger at
need. For long he worked on single-handed at his
noble labours, but was ultimately joined by another
priest. For twelve years he escaped all contagion
of the fatal disease, though in constant contact
with the sick and dying; but in 1885 the malad
appeared in him; yet he continued unabated his
heroic labours till near his death, 10th April 1889.
There are lives by Clifford (1889) and Cooke (1889).

Damiens, Rosert Francois, the would-be
murderer of Louis XV., was born in 1714 near
Arras. Already known in his youth as Robert le
Diable, he was by turns a soldier and a servant in
Paris; in 1756 he was forced for a robbery to
flee to Belgium, but ventured to return to ‘Paris
about the end of the year. Already he had formed
the plan to murder the king, either, as he him-
self pe on account of his conduct towards
the parliament, or because, as was generally
asserted, he was instigated by the Jesuits. On
4th January 1757 he went to Versailles, next day
followed the king and his courtiers about every-
where, and about six o’clock at night, when the
king was ope y J his carriage to leave Trianon,
managed to stab him. Damiens was seized before
he could finish the deed, and was nearly three
months later adjudged by the parliament to a
horrible death. The hand which had attempted
the murder was burned at a slow fire; the fleshy
parts of his body were then torn off by pincers,
and melted resin and oil poured into the wounds;
finally, he was torn to pieces by four horses. The

ments of his body were burned, the house in
which he was born pulled down, and his family
banished from France for ever.

Damietta (Arab. Dimyat), a town of Lower
Egypt, situated on the right bank of the chief
eastern mouth of the Nile, about 8 miles from its
mouth in the Mediterranean. It is irregularly but
well built, and has some handsome mosques and
marble baths, and of course several bazaars. Its
commerce has been much injured by the prosperity
of Alexandria, but it still carries on a considerable
trade in exporting rice, fish (from Lake Menzala),
coffee, and dates; and imports charcoal, soap, and
manufactured goods. It is the terminus of a branch-
railway from Cairo. The cambric (asad) known
as dimity received its name from Damietta, where it
was first manufactured, but it is so no longer ( Lane-
Poole, Art of the Saracens), and the leather-work
for which it was famous has also declined, A bar
at the month of the river prevents vessels of more
than fifty or sixty tons burden from ascending to
the city. — ut 30,000, The existing town
was erected r 1251, but, prior to that, a city of

666 DAMMAR

DAMPIER

the same name (more anciently Tamidthis) stood
more to the south. It was strongly fortified by the
Saracens, and formed on that side the bulwark of
Egypt against the early crusaders, who, however,
succeeded in ca turing 1t more than once. It was
razed, and rebuilt farther inland on the site it now
occupies, by the Mamluk sultan Beybars.

Dammar, or DAmMAR PINE (Agathis, Dam-
mara), a genus of Conifers, of the family Arau-
cariine, distinguished from Araucaria by its later-
ally winged seeds not being adherent to the
carpellary leaf. There are four species, all oriental
or Australasian, of
which the most
familiar is A. (Dam-
mara) orientalis or
alba of the lower
mountain-regions of
the Malay Archi-
pelago, Borneo, and
the Philippines, a
lofty tree with stout,
leathery, lanceolate
leaves. The timber
is light, but the tree
is chiefly valuable
for its extraordinary
abundance of resin,
which is not only
obtained in quantit
from incisions whic
are best made in
the large knot-like

rominences of the
ower part of the
stem and the root,
but which naturally
exudes so freely as
to form large lumps
underground, and
foot-long icicles or stalactite-like masses hanging
from the branches. According to Miguel it even
drips from the branches in Sumatra in such quantity
as often to form incrustations and rock-like masses
on the banks of streams.

leasant balsamic odour, it soon hardens into an
inodorous transparent mass, of no great hardness,
but of glossy appearance and conchoidal fracture.
It is soluble in cold ether, and at all temperatures
in ethereal and fatty oils; but not entirely in
boiling alcohol. It is of great value in the pre-
paration of transparent and rapidly drying var-
nishes. The name signifies in Malay: ‘light.’
The Kauri Pine (q.v.) of New Zealand is A. aus-
tralis. D. ovata of New Caledonia has also similar
properties.
he same name is applied in commerce to the
resin of other and unrelated trees. Thus the
dammar of shipyards is derived from a species of
Canarium, an Amyridaceous tree, while Black
Dammar is a kind of pitch derived from the allied
Marignia. Shorea robusta, a dipteraceous tree,
yields pitch and resin used in Indian dockyards,
and sometimes also called dammar. Dammar is
also occasionally confused with kinds of copal; thus
the resin of Vateria indica (Dipteracez) is some-
times known as Dammar or Piny Dammar. It is
the source of the Piny Varnish of India. See
COPAL.

Damnatory Clauses.
CREED.

Damocles, one of the courtiers and flatterers
of the elder Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. Cicero
tells how Damocles, having extolled in the highest
terms the grandeur and happiness of royalty, was
reproved by Dionysius in a singular manner. The
sycophant was seated at a table, richly spread and

Branch of Dammar Pine.

See ATHANASIAN

At first semifluid and of '

surrounded by all the furniture of royalty, but in
the midst of his luxurious banquet, on lookin
upwards, he saw a keen-edged sword sus naer
over his head by a single horse-hair—a sight that
at once altered his views of the felicity of kings.

Damodar, a river of Bengal, rises in the Chutia
Nagpur watershed, and after a south-easterly course
of 350 miles, enters the Hoogly from the right.
The valley of the Damodar abounds in coal and
iron; and some 40,000 tons of coal are brought
down yearly in native boats, strengthened to resist
the ‘oni caused by frequent grounding on sand-
banks.

Damoh, a town of India, in the Jabalpur
division of the Central Provinces, 50 miles E. of
Sdgar, with 8800 inhabitants.—The district of
Damoh has an area of 2831 sq. m., and a pop.
of 325,613.

Damon and Pythias (more correctly Phin-
tias), two noble Pythagoreans of Syracuse, remem-
bered as the models of faithful friendship. Pythias
having been condemned to death by the elder
Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, begged to be
allowed to go home, for the purpose of arranging
his domestic affairs, Damon pledging his own life
for the reappearance of his friend at the time
appointed for his doom. Dionysius consented, and
Pythias returned just in time to save Damon from
death. Struck by so noble an example of mutual
affection, the tyrant eens Pythias, and desired
to be admitted into their sacred fellowship.

Damper, 2 door or valve which, by sliding,
rising and falling, turning on a hinge, or other-
wise, diminishes the aperture of a chimney or air-
flue ; this lessens the quantity of air that can pass
through a furnace or other fire, and thus ‘damps’
or checks the combustion.—The damper of a piano-
forte is that part of the mechanism which, after a
key is struck, and the finger is lifted up from the
key, immediately checks or stops the vibration of
the string (see PIANO).—Damper is also the name

iven in Australia to a simple kind of unleavened
Frond formed of wheat-flour. It is made while
travelling in the bush, and baked among the ashes
of a fire often kindled for the purpose.

Dampier, the name of several places in Aus-
tralasia : (1) Dampier Archipelago, a cluster of about
twenty small rocky islands off the NW. coast of
Australia, in 21° 8. lat., and 117° E. long., divided
by the Mermaid Strait in two groups; in_ the
eastern is Rosemary, the largest island.—(2) Dam-
pier Island, off the NE. coast of New Guinea, with
a voleano about 5250 feet high.—(3) Dampier’s
Land, a peninsula of Western Australia, fertile and

well watered, lying between King Sound and the.

Indian Ocean.—(4) Dampier Strait, between New
Guinea and the archipelago of New Britain, form-
ing, with Goschen Strait to the SE., the shortest
route from Eastern Australia to China by some 300
miles. —(5) Dampier Strait, separating the island of
Waygiou from the NW. extremity of New Guinea,
the safest and easiest passage between the Indian
and Pacific oceans.

Dampier, WILLIAM, a celebrated English
navigator and hydrographer, was born near Yeovil
in Somersetshire in 1652. He went early to sea,
saw much hard service, and gained a great know-
ledge of hydrography in voyages to Newfound-
land, Bantam, sia and the Bay of Campeachy.

After spending a few years among the lawless log- _

wood-cutters on the coast of Yucatan, where honest
trade was pleasantly varied with gate piracy, he
joined in 1679 a regular party of buccaneers who
crossed the Isthmus of Darien, sacked Santa Marta,
and ravaged the ‘coast as far south as the island of
Juan Fernandez.

In 1683 he engaged in another |

i
$

DAMPING OFF

DANAE 667

buceaneering expedition, in which he coasted along
the shores of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, sailing
ce across the Pacific, and touching at the
_ Philippine Islands, China, and New Holland. Put
ashore on Nicobar Islands, May 1688, after a
dispute with his comrades, he made his way by
sheer seamanship in a native canoe to Atcheen, and
r two years’ trading in the neighbouring seas,
made his way to England (1691), where he pub-
his vigorous and interesting Voyage round

the World (1697). He was afterwards deputed by
Srey ae to conduct a voyage of discovery to the
South Seas, in which he explored the west and
_ north-west coasts of Australia, also the coasts of
‘New Guinea and New Britain, giving his name to
the Dampier Archipelago and Strait. On the
return voyage his vessel was wrecked off Ascension,
and Dampier with his crew lived on turtles and
goats on that island for over two months, until
relieved. The old buccaneer was more skilful as a
ilot than successful as a commander, and his over-
ring cruelty to his lieutenant led to himself
being court-martialled. Yet soon after he was
again appointed to the command of two vessels in
a privateering expedition to the South Seas, He was
as unfortunate as before. According to an account
published by Fummell, one of his sailors, Dampier
was guilty not merely of drunkenness and brutality,
but even of cowardice, which at least is hard to
believe of an old buccaneer. The master of one of
his two vessels was that Alexander Selkirk who
was marooned at Juan Fernandez, and was yet to
be made immortal as Robinson Crusoe. Dampier
returned home at the close of 1707, poor and broken,
nor did his angry Vindication re-establish his
reputation. Next year he sailed again to the
South Seas as pilot to a privateer, which rescued
Selkirk, and returned in 1711 after a prosperous
voyage. Dampier died in London early in March
1715. See Life by Clark Russell (1889).

Damping off, in Horticulture, the death of
plants from excess of moisture in the soil and
atmosphere. Young seedlings in stoves and hot-
beds are particularly liable to it. Although the
cause is sufficiently obvious, prevention is not
always easy; not only because some plants are
very sensitive as to moisture, but also because the
necessity of keeping sashes closed on account of
temperature often stands in the way of the ventila-
tion which would otherwise be desirable, and it is
when a moist atmosphere stagnates around them,
and the temperature is not very low, that plants
are most liable to damp off.

Damson, « rather small oval-fruited variety of
the common ‘chp much esteemed for preserving,
and not wholly unfit for dessert. The tree grows
to a considerable height, but has a bushy, sloe-like
appearance. It is extremely fruitful. There are
many sub-varieties, with fruit of ditferent colours,
dark purple, bluish, black, yellow, &c. Damsons
are produced in great quantities in some parts of
England. Damson pies and damson cheese—made
somewhat in the manner of fig-cake—are well
known. The name is a corruption of Damascene,
from Damascus.—The Mountain Damson or Bitter
Damson of the West Indies is the Simaruba (q.v.).

Dana, CHARLES ANDERSON, an American man
of letters, was born at Hinsdale, New Hampshire,
8th August 1819, spent two years at Harvard,
and was a member of the Brook Farm (q.v.) com-
munity. From 1848 to 1862 he was the managing
editor of the New York TZribune, which he was
largely instrumental in making the leading organ
of the party opposed to the extension of slavery to
new territories; and from 1863 to the close of the
war he was assistant-secre of war. In 1867 he
purchased the New York Sun, and commenced the

successful imanagementof that journal on democratic
lines. He published several translations and an-

-thologies, collaborated in a Life of Grant (1868), and,

along with George Ripley, an associate at Brook
Farm, planned and edited the New American Cyclo-
pedia (1857-63), and its revised edition, the Amer-
wan Cyclopedia (1873-76). See ENCYCLOPADIA.
Died October 17, 1897.

Dana, JAmMeEs DwIGur, an American mineralo-
gist and geologist, was born at Utica, New York,
2th February 1813. He graduated at Yale College
in 1833, and was sent out in 1838 as a scientific
observer in the United States exploring expedition,
under Wilkes, visiting the Antarctic and Pacific.
During the course of this expedition Dana’s shi
was wrecked. He was afterwards associated wit
his father-in-law, the elder Silliman, in the editor-
ship of the American Journal of Science. In 1846
he was elected professor of Natural History and
Geology in Yale College. Among his works are a
System of Mineralogy (1837), a Manual of Mineral-
y (1848), two treatises on Corals, a Text-book of
eology (1864), Hawaiian Volcanoes (1890), and
many highly valued reports on geological, minera-
logical, and zoological subjects. He died on the
14th April 1895. Dr Dana’s labours gained him
world-wide distinction, and he was made an hon-
orary member or fellow of many of the prominent
scientific societies of Europe and America.

Dana, RicHARD HENRY, an American poet
and prose writer, was born at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, 15th November 1787. He was educated
at Harvard College, and was admitted to the bar
at Boston in 1811. In 1818 he became associate
editor of the North American Review, to which he
contributed largely. Some of his poems, such as
The Dying Raven (1821), and The Buccaneer (1827),
were warmly praised by critics on both sides of the
Atlantic. The American public, however, received
them coldly, partly because it was not at that
time educated up to the standard of Dana’s work,
but chiefly because that work, with all its literary
merits, such as learning, neatness of execution, and
precision in verbal expression, lacked the elements
which most appeal to the popular feelings. Dana’s
best literary work was done in the field of criticism.
His abilities as a critic were very decided; and
though many of his best efforts were not duly appre-
ciated in his day, they did much to educate and ele-
vate the literary taste of New England. A collec-
tion of his prose and verse appeared in 1833. He
was for a time in 1821-22 connected with The Jdle
Man, a meritorious though ill-supported literary

riodical. He died at Boston, 2d wagers 1879.—

is son, RicHARD H. DANA, author and lawyer,
was born Ist August 1815, and graduated at Harvard
College in 1837. During an interval in his collegi-
ate career, occasioned in part by a troublesome
affection of the eyes, he shipped as a common
sailor, and made a voyage to California and back.
This voyage he described in Two Years before the
Mast (1840), the best book of the kind in the
language ; in 1840 he was admitted to the Massa-
chusetts bar. As a lawyer he attained great dis-
tinction, especially in the department of maritime
law. Among his works are The Seaman’s Friend
(1841) and To Cuba and Back (1859). He also

ublished an edition of Wheaton’s International
aw, and was prominent as a Free-soiler and Re-
ublican. In 1879 he was nominated minister to
land, but after a long contest the senate failed
toconfirm the appointment. Hedied in Rome, 7th
Jan. 1882. See Life by C. F. Adams (2 vols. 1890).

Danaé, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos,
himself the great-grandson of Danaus. An oracle
had announced that she would one day give birth
to a son, who should kill his grandfather. Acrisius,

668 DANAKIL

DANCE OF DEATH

for safety’s sake, shut her up in a dungeon, where,
nevertheless, she was visited by Zeus in a shower
of gold, and so became the mother of Perseus.
Acrisius next put both the mother and child into a
chest, and exposed them on the sea. The chest,
however, drifted ashore on the island of Seriphos,
and Danaé and her child were saved. She remained
in the island until Perseus (q.v.) had grown up and
become a hero famous for his exploits ; afterwards
she accompanied him to Argos. On his arrival,
Acrisius fled, but was subsequently slain accident-
ally by Perseus at Larissa.

DanAkil (singular Dankali), the Arabic and
now general name for the numerous nomad and
fisher tribes inhabiting the coast of north-east
Africa, from Massowah south to Tajurrah Bay,
and from there south-west to Shoa. They belon
to the Ethiopic Hamites, and are well built anc
slender, with features indicating an intermixture
of Arab blood. In a country of waterless plains,
they are generally nomads, living partly by caravan
tratfic and the aavectrade, but mostly on the milk
of their flocks. For the language, see Isenberg’s
Vocabulary (Lond. 1840) ; see also Scaramucci and
Giglioli, Ne otizie sut Danachili (1884).

Danaiis, in Greek Mythology, the son of Belus
and twin-brother of Agyptus, originally ruler of
Libya. Fearing his brother, he fled to Argos, with
his fifty daughters, the Danaides, and here he was
chosen king, in place of Gelanor. The fifty sons of
AEgyptus followed him, and under the pretence of
Pisndabtt, sought the hand of his daughters in
marriage. Danaus consented, but on the bridal
night he gave his daughters each a dagger, and
urged them to murder their bridegrooms in revenge
for the treatment he had received from Aigyptus.
All did so, except one, Hypermnestra, who allowed
her husband, Lynceus, to escape. The poets tell
how in the under-world the Danaides were com-
pelled, as a punishment for their crimes, to pour
water for ever into a vessel full of holes. From
Danaus, the Argives were called Danai.

Danbury, one of the capitals of Fairfield
county, Connecticut, 69 miles NNE. of New York;
has a sewing-machine factory, and over a dozen
manufactories of hats, employing a capital of
~~ Pop. (1870) 8753 ; (1880) 11,666 ; (1890)

Danby, Francis, A.R.A., landscape-painter,
was born near Wexford, Ireland, 16th November
1793. In 1812 lr began to exhibit in Dublin; in
1813, with O’Connor and George Petrie, after-
wards president of the Hibernian Academy, he
started for London, but at Bristol the means of
the party were exhausted, and Danby resolved
to settle in that city, where he resided till 1824.
His ‘ Upas Tree,’ a large and impressive work, now
in the South Kensington Museum, was exhibited
in the British Institution (1820) ; his ‘ Disappointed
Love,’ in the Academy (1821), as also his ‘ Deliver
of the Israelites ont of Egypt’ (1825), whic
ained him his election as an associate. In 1828
is ‘Opening of the Sixth Seal’ won a premium
of £200 at the British Institution; in the follow-
ing year two other important subjects from the
Apocalypse appeared in the Academy. At this
time a disagreement arose between the artist and
the Academy, which, along with other reasons,
led to his leaving England. For eleven years he
resided on the Continent, mainly in Switzerland,
painting little, and_amusing himself with boating.
On his return to England, he took up his resi-
dence at Exmouth, and contributed very regularly
to the Academy till his death on 9th February
1861. His ‘ Fisherman’s House, Sunset’ (1846), is
now in the National Gallery. His works, of which
several have been engraved, are distinguished by

imagination and poetic feeling. His three sons,
John, Thomas, and James Francis, were all land-
scape-painters. The last named was born at
Bristol in 1816, and died in London, 22d October
1875.

Danby, Lorp. See LEEDS (DUKE OF).

Dance, GEORGE (1700-68), architect, designed
the Mansion House (1739) and many other London
buildings.—His son, GEORGE DANCE, the younger —
(1741-1825), rebuilt Newgate (1770-83), and was
one of the original Royal Academicians. .

Dance of Death (Lat. Chorea Machabeorum,
Fr. La Danse Macabre), a name given to a certain
class of allegorical abe pepe illustrative of
the universal power of death, and dating from the
14th century. When the introduction of Christi-
anity first banished the ancient Germanic conception
of a future state, a new description of death-myth-
ology arose, pars: out of biblical sources, partly out
of the popular character itself, wherein the Last
Enemy was represented under simple and majesti¢
images, such as that of a husbandman watering
the ground with blood, ploughing it with swords,
sowing it with corpses, rooting out weeds, plucking
up flowers, or felling trees; or of a monarch assem-
iling his armies, making war, taking prisoners,
inviting his subjects to a festival, or citing them
to judgment. But with a gradual change in
national manners came a change in the mode of
treating the subject, and it was associated with
everyday images, such as the confessional, chess-

laying, and above all, with the adjuncts of a
Festi —viz. music and dancing. This tendency
to familiarise the theme increased during the con-
xusion and turmoil of the 14th century, when the
national mind alternated between fits of devotion
and license, or blended both elements in satire and
humour. Such a mood as this naturally occupied
itself with personifying Death, and adopted by
preference the most startling and grotesque images
it could find—that of a musician playing to dancing-
men, or a dancer leading them on ; and as the dance
and the drama were then intimately connected,
and employed on religious occasions, this particular
idea soon assumed a dramatic form.

This drama was most simply constructed, consist-
ing of short dialogues between Death and four-and-
twenty or more followers, and was undoubtedly
enacted in or near churches by religious orders in
Germany during the 14th century, and at a rather
later period in France. It would appear that the
seven brothers, whose martyrdom is recorded in the
7th chapter of the 2d Book of Maccabees, either
played an important part in the drama, or the first
representation, which took place at Paris in the

onastery of the Innocents, fell upon their festival,
and hence the ouge of the ancient name, Chorea
Machabeorum, or La Danse Macabre. As early as
1400, the dramatic poem was imitated in Spain,
and appears there in seventy-nine strophes of eight
lines each (La Danca General de los Muertos), but
it did not spread; while the French, having a love
for pictorial representation, very early affixed an
illustration to each strophe, and in 1425 painted the
whole series on the churchyard wall of the Monas-
tery of the Innocents, where the Dance of Death was
habitually enacted. We find the subject treated in
painting, sculpture, and tapestry, in the churches
of Anjou, Amiens, Angers, Rouen, to say nothing
of the numerous woodcuts and accompanying letter-

ress which succeeded the invention of printing.
‘rom Paris, both poem and pictures were trans-
lanted to London (1430), Salisbury (about 1460),
Wortley Hall in Gloucestershire, Hexham, &e.

But nowhere was the subject so variously and
strikingly treated as in Germany. A picture in one
of the chapels of the Marienkirche, at Liibeck,

DANCETTS

DANCING 669

still, in spite of repeated sominnes bearing the
unmistakable impress of the 14th century, exhibits
the very simplest form of the drama, and has
some Low-German verses attached to it. Here
we see twenty-four figures, partly clerical, partly
ay, arranged in a descending scale, from the pope
down to a little child, and between each of
them a dancing figure of Death, not in the form of
a skeleton, but a shrivelled corpse, the whole bein
linked in one chain, and dancing to the music o
another Death. This representation is almost the
same as avery ancient one at La Chaise-Dieu, in
Auvergne, and points to the identity of the original
_ dramatic spectacle in both countries.
_ The celebrated Dance of Death on the cloister
walls of the Klingenthal, a convent in Basel, though
_ painted probably not later than 1312, exhibited a
Elorartars from the simplest form—the number of
_ persons exceeding the original twenty-four, and the
chain being broken up into separate couples. But
both alike are only to be regarded as scenes from a
drama, and cannot, therefore, be justly compared
with a painting in the Pisan Campo Santo, the
_ *Triumph of Death,’ ascribed to Andrea Oreagna.
And the acted drama enduring till the 15th cen-
tury, we find that while there were varieties in the
paintings, the poem, which was the most important
ture, remained almost unchanged.

About the middle of the 15th century, however,
the drama being altogether laid aside, the pictures
became the main point of interest, the verses merely
subsidiary. Accordingly, we find from this time
the same pictures repeated in different places, with
different verses, or no verses at all, tii] at length
both verses and pictures entirely ian their
_ original character. The Dance of Death being
_ transferred from the quiet convent walls into public
places, gave a new 8 EE to popular art. Duke

rge of Saxony , in 1534, the front of his
Dresden castle ornamented with a life-size bas-relief
of the subject, and other representations are to be
_ found at Strasburg and Bern. There was a Dance
of Death painted round the cloister of old St Paul’s
in London, in the reign of Henry VI. ; and there
is a sculptured one at Rouen, in the cemetery of
St Maclou. But Holbein has the credit of avail-
ing himself most effectively of the original design,
and giving it a new and more artistic character.
Departing from the idea of a dance, he illustrated
the subject by fifty-three distinct sketches for
engravings, which he called ‘Imagines Mortis.’
The originals of these are at St Petersburg, and
im ions of them have been frequently repeated
under different names.

See Peignot’s Recherches sur les Danses des Morts

oes) 5 Massinan’s Baseler Todtentdinze (1847); and
ce’s Dance of Death (1833),

Dancetté, one of the lines of partition in
Heraldry, which differs from In-
dented in the greater width and
depth of the indentations. A fess
dancetté has but three inden-
tations, as in the subjoined fig-
ure,

Dancing, a form of exercise
or amusement in which one or
more persons make a series of
more or less ful movements
with measu steps in accord
with music, In its earliest forms among simple
races it is a mode of outward expression for
strong emotions of joy and sorrow, love and rage,
and even for the most solemn and impassioned
religious feelings ; in more civilised strata of human
_ Society it becomes a mere frivolous amusement with
no high signification whatever. Dancing corre-
‘(sponds to a universal primitive instinct in man.

“4 4 |

Fess Dancetté.

:

It is still practised by the South Sea Islanders, the
forest Indians of Brazil, the Zulus, the negroes of
Central Africa, and the native Australians, exactly
as it was in the earlier stages of every civilised
modern race. Many of the rude courting dances
of modern savages, like the native Australian
corro-boree, are themselves refinements of more
ancient dances, in the survivals of which we can
eee at their original grossness and obscenity.
erocious war-dances were constantly practised
by savage warriors, as the North American Indian
braves, who worked themselves up into frantic
mechanical intoxication capable of carrying them
irresistibly on to victory. The Zulu war-dance
is still a noble exercise for warriors, like the
Pyrrhic dance of the ancient Spartans; and the
dancing and spinning dervishes in the East, who
work themselves into spasms of physical excite-
ment, are still highly esteemed for devoutness and
piety. Into savage dancing, moreover, the idea
of magic always enters. Thus the Mandan Indians
dance buffalo to bring game when supplies of food
are low, the rain-doctors of Central Africa dance
mystic dances to bring down rain, and the wives
of Gold Coast negroes dance a battle-dance to
ive their absent husbands courage in the battle.
verywhere in ancient religions is dancing one of
the chief acts of worship. Religious processions
went with song and dance to the Egyptian temples ;
the Cretan chorus, moving in measured pace, sang
hymns to the Greek god, Apollo; and one of the
uses (‘Terpsichore), themselves daughters of Zeus,
was the especial patroness of the art. The Phrygian
Corybantes danced in honour of Rhea to drum and
eymbal; at Rome, during the yearly festival of
Mars, the Salian priests sang and danced, beating
their shields; among the ancient Jews, Miriam
danced to a song of triumph—itself an act of
worship, and David danced in procession before
the Ark of God. A survival of religious dancing is
still seen even within the pale of Christendom,
where during the Corpus Christi Octave a ballet is
danced every evening before the high altar of Seville
Cathedral, by boys from twelve to seventeen years
of age, in plumed hats and the dress of pages of
Philip IIL.’s time.

Dancing and imitative acting in the lower stages
of civilisation are identical, and in the sacred
dances of ancient Greece we may trace the whole
dramatie art of the modern world. Aristotle
ranked dancing with poetry, and Pindar applies the
name of the dancer even to Apollo. The dancing-
master in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme asserts that
the destinies of the nations depend on the science
of dancing ; and Lucian, in a well-known dialogue,
proves that the art is superior to tragedy, and
coeval with the world iteell.. Sir John Davies, in
his long poem, the Orchestra, illustrates the origin
and importance of dancing, tracing in it all the
motions of nature :

For what are breath, speech, echoes, music, winds,
But dancings of the ayre in sundry kinds,

The Spartans practised dancing as a nastic
exercise, and ah it compulsory upon ‘all children
from the age of five. Cicero says, ‘ No one dances
sober unless he chances to be mad ;’ and indeed
sedate Romans in general considered it disgrace-
ful for a free citizen to dance, except in connec-
tion with religious ceremonies, but willingly
a witnessed the performances of profes-
sio dancers, like the Almé of modern t,
and the Bayaderes or Nautch girls of India. the
early Christians practised choral dances, which
came into discredit with the love-feasts or Agape.
St Augustine says, ‘it is better to dig than to
dance,’ and many of the Fathers condemned the
practice as vigorously as our Puritan ancestors, who

670 DANCING MANIA

DANDELION

saw deadly sin in ‘promiscuous dancing.’ St
Chrysostom says dancing came first from the devil,
and Father Mariana tells us the famous saraband
worked more mischief than the plague. The fan-
dango was hotly condemned by the clergy, but when
danced before the Sacred College, who wished
to see it before finally prohibiting it, so charmed
the grave judges that they gave it their unani-
mous approval. Many of the medieval dances were
solemn and stately in character, like the danses
busses, which were danced to psalm-tunes at the
court of Charles IX. of France; while it was not
uncommon to see the princes of the church them-
selves treading a measure, and it is said the whole
august Council of Trent danced at a ball given
in 1562 to King Philip II. of Spain. The more
lively galliarde and volta were introduced into
France from Italy by Catharine de’ Medici, but it
was not till the reign of Louis XIV., himself an
enthusiastic dancer and performer in the court
ballets until cured by some verses about Nero in
Racine’s Britannicus, that dancing reached its
height in France. A Royal Academy of Dancing
was founded in 1662, at the head of which was the
famous Beauchamps, from whom the king took a
dancing lesson every day for twenty years. Later
eat dancing-masters in France were Pécour,
arcel, and Noverre. Among dances that succes-
sively were paramount in society in France were
the graceful minuet, the favourite for a century ;
the quadrille or contre-danse, often connected
erroneously with the English country-dance; the
Heossaise, first introduced in 1760; the galop, a
death-blow to the ‘poetry of motion,’ introduced
from Germany; the cotid/on, fashionable under
Charles. X. ; the polka, first danced at the Odéon
in 1840 by a dancing-master from Prague ; the polka
tremblante, or schottisch, also of Bohemian origin,
first brought out in Paris in 1844; the /ancers, intro-
duced by Laborde in 1836 ; and the waltz, originally
Bavarian, and which, now considerably modified
from its original form, promises to maintain its
supremacy. The French provide the world with
fashions, and society everywhere in Europe has
followed their lead. The people, however, have
preserved their own old national dances, and
these are still danced in every corner of Europe,
stamped everywhere with as distinct an impress of
nationality as the grave Basque mutchiko, or the
cachucha, the fandango and bolero of southern
Spain. Characteristic again of particular races or
merely of classes of people are such forms of the
dance as the Scotch reel, Highland-fling and strath-
ey, the Irish jig, the negro break-downs, sailors’
ornpipes, step-dances, the can-can, morris-dances,
and the like. Skirt-dancing became popular about
1891; and between that date and 1898 the Ameri-
ean dancer Loie Fuller, by means of voluminous
draperies deftly managed and skilfully illumined,
revealed new possibilities in the art.

See BALLET, WALTZ, STRATHSPEY, &c. ; German books
by Czerwinski, Voss, Angerstein, Zorn, and Freising ;
Desrat, Dictionnaire de la Danse (1896); Soria, Histoire
de la Danse (1897); E. Scott, Dancing as an Art (1893),
and Dancing in all Ages (1899); Mrs Grove, Dancing
(Badminton Library, 1896); Gaston Vuillier, The His-
tory of Dancing (trans. 1897).

Dancing Mania, an epidemic disorder allied
to Hysteria (q.v.). Imposturewas often present,
and the consequences often clearly showed impure
motives ; but there is also evidence that in many
cases the convulsive movements were really beyond
the control of the will, whatever may have been the
original character of the motives that prompted
them. Epidemics of this sort were common in
Germany during the middle ages, and are formally
described as early as the 14th century; in Italy,
tarantism, a somewhat similar disease, was ascribed

to the bite of a spider called the Tarantula (q.v.);
and similar convulsive’ affections +have~been : wit-
nessed in Abyssinia and India, and even in com-
paratively modern times and in the most civilised
countries in Europe, under the influence of stron
popular excitement, especially connected with
religious demonstrations. But the true dancing
mania of the middle ages had its theatre chiefly
in the crowded cities of Germany.

In July 1374 there appeared at Aix-la-Chapelle

assemblies of men and women, who, excited by the
wild and frantic, partly heathenish, celebration of
the festival of St John, began to dance on the
streets, screaming and foaming like persons pos-
sessed. The attacks of this mania were various in
form, according to mental, local, or religious con-
ditions. The dancers, losing all control over their

movements, continued dancing in wild delirium, till

they fell in extreme exhaustion, and groaned as in
the agonies of death ; some dashed out their brains
against the walls around. When dancing they
were insensible to external impressions, but haunted
by visions, such as of being immersed in a sea of
blood, which obliged them to leap so high, or of
seeing the heavens open, and the Saviour enthroned
with the Virgin Mary. The frenzy spread over
many of the towns of the Low Countries. Troops
of dancers, inflamed by intoxicating musie, and
followed by crowds, who caught the mental
infection, went from place to place, taking

sion of the religious houses, and pouring forth
imprecations against the priests. The mania spread
to Cologne, Metz, and Strasburg, giving rise to
grave disorders, impostures, and profligacy. These
countries were generally in a miserable condition ;
and arbitrary rule, corruption of morals, supersti-
tion, and insecurity of Deepens had aleee ees
pared the wretched people, debilitated by disease
and bad food, to at relief in the intoxication: of
an artificial delirium. Exorcism had been found an
efficacious remedy at the commencement of the out-
break ; and in the beginning of the 16th century.
Paracelsus, that great reformer of medicine, a plied
immersion in sete water with great success. At the
beginning of the 17th century it was already on
the decline; and we now hear of it only in single
cases as a sort of nervous affection. See CHOREA,
CONVULSIONARIES, VITUS (St), and Hecker’s Epi-
demics of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans. 3d. ed.
1859).

Dancourt, FLORENT CARTON, a French drama.
tist, born in 1661. At one time an actor and a
favourite of Louis XIV., he became devout in his
old age, which he spent in retirement in the country.
He died in 1725. He was a prolific author, and
excelled in depicting the stupidity of the peasantry
and the follies of the bourgeoisie. Of his plays the
best are Les Bourgeoisies de Qualité, Le Chevalier

a la Mode, Le Galant Jardinier, and Les Trois

Cousines. ;
Dandelion (Zaraxacum officinale, formerly

Leontodon Taraxacum) is a ligulifloral composite, —

common in several varieties or sub-species through-
out Britain and the whole of Europe, in
and by waysides, and now also so perfectly natu-
ralised in many parts of North America as to be
there one of the most familiar spring-flowers. The
names Dandelion and Leonbaden (Fr. and Gr.,

‘lion’s tooth’) both have reference to the form of ©

the leaves. The whole plant abounds in a milk

juice, containing a peculiar crystalline principle —
called Taraxacin ; has a bitter taste, and valuable —
und, dande- —

medicinal properties. Roasted and
lion-root-is sometimes used as a substitute for coffee.
Dandelion Coffce, however, is usually a mixture of
ordinary coffee and the powder or extract of dande-

lion-root ; and Dandelion Chocolate is composed of —

f

astures.

bE TT a E.R ges ee

2

NP a ee ITT

ee ee

DANDOLO

DANIEL 671

one _ of common chocolate and four parts of the
er of dandelion-root. The young leaves, when

Rianehed, are a good salad, resembling lettuce or
e.

endiv

Dan‘dolo, a famous Venetian family, which

ve four doges to the republic. The most illus-
Tans of its members was Enrico, born about 1110
or 1115 A.D. Eminent in learning, eloquence, and
knowledge of atfairs, he ascended from one step to
another, until, in 1173, he was sent as ambassador
to Constantinople, and in 1192 was elected doge.
In this latter capacity he extended the bounds of
the republic in Istria and Dalmatia, defeated the
Pisans, and, in 1201, marched at the head of the
crusaders. He subdued Trieste and Zara, the
coasts of Albania, the Ionian Islands, and Con-
stantinople, 17th July 1203. When the Emperor
Alexius was murdered by his own subjects, Dan-
dolo laid siege to Constantinople, and took it by
storm, 13th ‘R ril 1204. He established there the
empire of the Latins, and caused Count Baldwin of
Flanders to be chosen emperor. By his exertions
Venice obtained possession of several Greek islands
and large territories in Greece. Dandolo died at
Constantinople, Ist June 1205. See CRUSADES,
VENICE.—Giovanni Dandolo was doge, 1280-89;
Francesco, 1328-39; Andrea, 1342-54.

Dandy Dinmont. See TERRIER.

Dandy Fever. See DENGUE.

Dan’ebrog (‘the Danish banner’) is the name

of the second in dignity of the Danish orders
instituted by King Waldemar in 1219.

Danegeld, a tax levied on land, originally to
buy off the Danes. It was first. raised by Ethelred
II., was abolished by Edward the Confessor,
reimposed at a higher rate by the Conqueror, and
finally abolished under Henry IL.

Dane-lagh (Danelaw or Denalagu), the name
applied to that part of England in which Danish
influence was at one time paramount, and which
still shows in the blood of the natives and in
popular place-names a distinct Danish impression.
At various times it ranged along the coast counties
from Yorkshire to Essex. The southern part of the
old province of Deira was the most thoroughly
Danish part of the whole district, and here the
typical Danish endings for place-names, thorpe,
caster, and by, are still the most common. Next to
Yorkshire came Lincoln, with Lindsey for its
centre. The least Danish part of the Dane-lagh
was East Anglia and Essex. Deira and Lindsey
were divided into ridings or trithings, and these
again into wapentakes, like the hundreds of southern
counties. See NORTHMEN, ENGLAND.

Danes’ Dyke. See FLAMBorouGH HEAD.

pang: rfield, THoMAS (1650-85), an accom-
plice of ‘Titus Oates (q.v.).

Dangs, THE, a hilly tract within the limits of the
residency of Bombay, in 20° 22’—21° 5’ N. lat., and
3° 28’—73° 52’ E. long., with an area of about 1000

8q. m., and a population of 50,000, belonging almost

' entirely to the wild forest tribes. Densely wooded

and shut in by steep hills, with a heavy rainfall
and a close atmosphere, the country is singular]
unhealthy. It is ruled by fifteen petty chiefs, wit
from 134 to 14,205 subjects respectively. The
Bhils (q.v.) are the most important tribe; they
have charge of the police and of the district trea-
suries. The only important products are the teak
and other timber-trees.

Daniel (Heb., ‘God is judge’) is mentioned
by Ezekiel (6th century B.c.), along with Noah
and Job, as a t example of righteousness
and wisdom (Ezek. xiv. 14, 20, and xxviii. 3).
According to the book which bears his name, he
was one of the Jews carried away to Babylon in

the reign of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, and gained
a high position at the court of Nebuchadnezzar,
which he maintained also under Darius and Cyrus,
notwithstanding ali the intrigues of hostile
courtiers. The book stands in our Bible, as well
as in the LXX. and Vulgate, immediately after
Ezekiel, while in the Hebrew canon it is not
included in the collection of the Prophets, bat
appears among the miscellaneous ‘ Writings’ (see
BIsLR ). Delitzsch points out that the book no-
where claims to be written ps Daniel, and that its
position in the canon shows that it is not properly
a prophetic book, but an apocalypse. It is written
partly in Hebrew, partly in Aramaic, but forms a
coherent whole, which is now divided into twelve
chapters, the first half consisting of narrative, the
second half of predictions. These a are
not prophetic speeches like those of the other pro-
phetie scriptures, rebuking the sins of contempo-
varies, foretelling judgment on the impenitent, and
pecmeing Messianic salvation to the repentant and
lieving ; they are minutely detailed apocalyptic
visions embracing the history of four successive
world-empires—the Chaldean, the Median, the
Persian, and the Greco-Macedonian—culminatin
in the establishment of the eternal kingdom o
the saints of the Most roy Objections to the
Danielic authorship of the book were made by the
Neoplatonist Porp wry as early as the 3d century
A.D., but first found support in the critical investi-
ations of Bertholdt (1 8), followed by those of
leek, De Wette, Langerke, Ewald, Liicke, and
others. These investigations have led to the view
that the book was not written till the time of
the religious persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes,
about 168-165 B.c. But the book is certainly
of great importance, and ‘has exercised,’ says
Schiirer, ‘a profound influence upon the form
of the Messianic idea. . . . In this book (xii. 2)
the hope in a resurrection of the body is for the
first time plainly and decidedly expressed... The
Messianic hope is here the hope of a glorious
future for the nation, but with the double modi-
fication that the future kingdom of Israel is con-
ceived of as a universal kingdom, and that all
the saints who have died will share in it.” Accord-
ing to Delitzsch, our Lord’s testimony in Matt.
xxiv, 15 proves ‘that Dan. ix. 26, et seg., is a
seg of the desecration of the temple in the
man war, not that it is a prophecy then fulfilled
for the first time.’ See Hilgenfeld, Die Jiidische
Apokalyptik (1857), and the special commentaries
by Hitzig (1850), Auberlen (3d ed. 1874), Hilgen-
feld (1863), Caspari (1869), Pusey (1864), Desprez
(1879), and Robinson (1882).

Daniel, SAMUEL, poet, was the son of a
music-master, and was born. in 1562 near
Taunton, Somersetshire. He entered Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, in 1579, but ‘his glory being more
prone to easier and smoother studies than in peck-
ing and hewing at logic,’ quitted the university
without taking a degree. He was some time tutor
at Wilton to William Herbert, son of the Earl of
Pembroke and Sir Philip Sidney’s sister; after-
wards at Skipton to Anne Clifford, daughter of
the Earl of Cumberland. In 1603 he was appointed
to read new plays, and twelve years later he had
for some time cha of a company of young
players at Bristol. In 1607 he became one of the

ueen’s grooms of the privy chamber. Towards
the close of his life he retired to a farm which he

at Beckington, in his native county,
where he died in October 1619. Daniel was highly

raised by his contemporaries, as Lodge, Carew,
rummond of Hawthornden, although Ben Jonson
described him as ‘a good honest man . . . but no

poet,’ and Drayton quotes the reat of some wise
men that he was ‘too much historian in verse,’

672 DANIELL

DANTE

!

besides saying for himself that ‘his manner better
fitted prose.’ Of modern critics, Coleridge, Lamb,
and Hazlitt unite in praising him. As a sonneteer
Daniel-is altogether admirable. Some of the
‘ Delia’ series rank near the best examples of this
form in English. Daniel is indeed an elegant if
not a great poet. His writings are pervaded by a
moral thoughtfulness and purity of taste remark-
able indeed, but lacking that vital energy of move-
ment and memorableness of expression which
spring from genuine inspiration. The ‘well-
languaged Daniel’ is therefore not the most in-
teresting of the Elizabethans, although his style
is quite modern. His works include sonnets,
epistles, masks, and dramas; but his chief pro-
duction is a poem in eight books, entitled a History
of the Civil Wars between York and Lancaster.
His Defence of Ryme (1602) is written in admirable

rose. Dr Grosart reprinted Daniel’s works in the

uth Library (3 vols. 1885-87).

Daniell, JoHN FREDERIC, scientist, was born in
London, March 12,1790. He was for a time engaged
in a sugar-refining work, but was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society in 1814, and devoted himself to
chemistry and meteorology. In 1823 he published
his Meteorological Essays, and in 1824 the Horti-
cultural Society awarded him their silver medal
for an essay on artificial climate. In 1831 he
was appointed professor of Chemistry in Kg?
Collége, London; and in 1839 published his Jn-
troduction to Chemical Philosophy. In 1843 he
received the degree of D.C.L. om the university
of Oxford, and obtained all the three medals in
the gift of the Royal Society. He invented a
myeromert (1820), and a new pyrometer (1830), as
well as the electric battery known by his name;
and he wrote many valuable papers on chemistry,
especially on voltaic combinations and_ electro-
lysis. e died suddenly, March 13, 1845.

Danish Literature. See DENMARK.

Danites, or DESTROYING ANGELS, a secret
raise of Mormon devotees organized in 1838, pro-
fessedly for the defence of the Mormon sect against
the mob, and supposed by the ‘“ gentiles” to have
acted under the authority of the Mormon officials.
Historians of that sect, however, claim that the
band was organized by one Sampson Avard on his
own responsibility for purposes of plunder, and that
as soon as the practices of the band became known
Avard and all who persisted in them were cut off
from the church. The members, originally some
300 in number, were bound by terrible oaths and
penalties to sustain one another in all things, and
assassinations and other outrages were laid to their
charge. Remembrance of the society’s operations
was revived by the trial, conviction, and execution
of John D. Lee, in 1877, for the massacre of a train
of 146 non-Mormon emigrants at Mountain Meadow,
near Pinto, Utah, twenty years before.

Dannecker, JoHANN HEINRICH VON, a Ger-
man sculptor, was born at Waldenbuch, in the dis-
trict of Stuttgart, 15th October 1758. His parents
were in the humblest circumstances; but through
the favour of the Duke of Wiirtemberg, he received
a good education at the military academy at
Ludwigsburg. His artistic talents were rapidly
déveloped. In 1780 he obtained the prize for the
best model of ‘Milo;’ and in 1783 went to Paris,
where he studied for two years; after which he
returned to Rome, where he met Goethe, Herder,
and Canova, to the last of whom he was in-
debted for much valuable instruction. At Rome
Dannecker remained till 1790. Here he executed
in marble his statues of ‘Ceres’ and ‘ Bacchus.’
On his return to Germany, the Duke of Wiirtem-
berg appointed him professex of Sculpture in the
Academy of Stuttgart, in which city he resided till

his death, 8th December 1841. Dannecker was un-
doubtedly one of the best of modern sculptors. His
forte lay in expressing individual characteristics,
in which respect he has not been surpassed. This
gives a great value to his busts of distinguished
persons, such as Schiller, Lavater, and Gluck.
His earlier works are chiefly pagan in their subjects,
while his later ones are Christian, and are pervaded
by a pensive idealism. ‘Ariadne on the Panther’
(1816; at Frankfort) ic his masterpiece.

Dannevirke (‘Danes work’), the rampart
p

built by the Danes about 808 across Sleswick (q.v.),
just north of the Eider; the scene of fighting in
1849, and razed by the Germans in 1850.

D’Annunzio, GABRIELE, an Italian realist
poet and novelist, born in 1864 on board ship in
the Adriatic. His novels show great gifts as a
story-teller, and combine decadentism, zestheticism,
pessimism, and egoism. They attracted notice out-
side of Italy in French translations before they
were translated into English (Zhe Triwmph of
Death, 1896, &e.).

Dante Alighieri (also written ALDIGHIERI,
ALAGHIERI, and otherwise), ‘ that. singular splen-
dour of the Italian race,’ as Boccaccio, his first bio-
praises, calls him, was born in May 1265, the exact

ay being unknown. The house in which he was
born is still shown in the Piazza di San Martino at
Florence. His father was a lawyer, his mother,
who was his father’s second wife, was named Bella,
but her surname is not known. The future poet
was baptised with the Christian name of Durante,
afterwards contracted into Dante, in the beautiful
baptistery of Florence, towards which in his later
years the tenderest thoughts of the hopeless exile
turned (see Jnf. xix. 17; Par. xxv. 1-12). The faney
of the old biographers loved to dwell on the appro-
priateness of both names, ‘the much-enduring,’
and ‘the giver.’
halo of legend surrounds the circumstances of his
birth and early years. But the curtain is first lifted
on his actual history, and that by himself, in his
Vita Nuova, the New (i.e. probably Early) Life,
wher he relates how he first set eyes on ‘ the glorious
lady of his heart, Beatrice,’ he being then about
nine years of age, and she a few months younger.
To Boccaccio, and to his statement alone, we owe
the generally accepted fact that she was the
uaoheer of Folco Portinari, for Dante himself
never gives the slightest clue as to her family name.
Owing to his reticence on this point, combined with
the extraordinary and, to modern notions, almost
unintelligible amount of idealisation in Dante’s
language about her, some critics have (as might be
expected ) denied that she was a real person at all.
That chance meeting in May 1274 determined the
whole future course of the poet’s life. The story of
his boyish but unquenchable passion is told with
exquisite pathos in the Vita Nuova. There is no
evidence that any similar feeling was aroused in the
heart of Beatrice Portinari. She was married at an
early age to one Simone de’ Bardi, but neither this
nor the poet’s own subsequent marriage interfered
with his pure and Platonic devotion to her.
became even intensified after her death, which took
place on June 9, 1290, when she was in her 24th

ear. Shortly after this Dante married Gemma

onati, a member of one of the most powerful
families of the Guelph faction at Florence. Accord-
ing to Boccaccio, this marriage was recommended
by his friends, alarmed at the condition of his health
through overmuch sorrow. It has commonly been
assumed that the marriage was am unhappy one.
This, however, is merely a conjecture, supported
mainly by the fact that after Dante’s exile in 1301
he never appears to have seen, or cared to see, his
wife again.

As with many other great men, a —

This .

#
4
k
5

DANTE

673

_ In 1289 Dante took part in the battle of Cam-
paldino, in which the Florentines and their Guelphic
allies defeated the Ghibelline league of Arezzo.

The flight and death of Buonconte, who fought
on the opposite side, is the subject of one of the
most splendid episodes in the Divina Commedia

. v.). Later in the same year he was present
at the capitulation of Caprona, as he himself tells
us in Jnf. xxi. 94. With these experiences his
military life seems to have closed. Soon after, we
find him beginning to take part in politics, and

according to the custom of the times, he first be-
came tered in one of the city guilds—viz, that
_ of the Apothecaries, he being then thirty years of
age. It is interesting to note that he is there

- entered as ‘ Dante d’Aldighieri, poeta.’ It should,
_ perhaps, have been mentioned that we know little
of his early education, except that he is said to
have studied at the then celebrated. university of
Bologna, and that he was certainly for some time
a pupil of Brunetto Latini, of whom he speaks with
the utmost veneration and affection, though astern
sense of justice compels him to place him in Hell
(Inf. xv.). At the outset of his public life his
sympathies were with the Guelph party, to which
he would naturally have been attached by family
ties both through his father and his wife. After
filling minor public offices, and possibly going on
some embassies abroad (though, doubtless, not all
of those which later writers in their admiration have
attributed to him) in the ever-memorable year 1300,
the mezzo cammino of his own life, when he was
thirty-five years old, the beginning of a new cen-
tury, the year of the first Jubilee at Rome, the
assumed year of the great poetic vision of the Com-
media, he attained to the dignity of one of the six
riors of Florence. That singular office, lasting
or only two months, seems (as Mr Lowell suggests )
to have been invented by the Florentines ‘ appar-
ently to secure at least six constitutional chances
of revolution in the year.’ It should be explained
that this was a very critical and Ff pret at
Florence. Not only was the eternal feud of Guelph
and Ghibelline in full foree, but a new excuse for
Se hatred had been found in the distinction of
lack and White Guelphs, te latter being the
more moderate party, who tended to verge towards
the Ghibellines, and under certain circumstances to
make common cause with them. So far as Dante
could be called ‘a party man’ at all (see Par. vi.
100-3; xvii. 68-69), it was towards this section
that his sympathies tended. His office as prior
lasted from June 15 to August 15 in the year 1300,
He distinguished his brief tenure of office by pro-
curing the banishment of the heads and leaders of

the rival factions by which Florence was torn asun- °

der. He carried out this process with characteristic

sternness and Lg bog on Guelph and Ghibel-
line, White and Black alike, unmoved by any con-
siderations of relationship, friendship, or political
armpeshy. Shortly afterwards the leaders of the

hites were permitted somehow to return, The
partiality thus shown was a prominent feature in
the accusation against Dante; but he had a com-
plete answer in the fact that he was no longer in
office at the time that it occurred.

In the following year, 1301, and probably in the
autumn, in alarm at the threatened interference of
Charles of Valois, who had now crossed the Alps,
Dante was sent on an embassy to Rome to Po
Boniface VIII., under whose instigation Charles
was acting. From that embassy he never returned,
nor did he ever [soos set foot in his native city.
For meanwhile had occurred the dreaded advent of
Charles, nominally as peacemaker, on November 1,

1301. He espoused tre side of the Neri or Blacks,
and for three days the ‘ight raged in the streets of
Plorence. Finally, the victory of the Neri was

147

complete, their opponents were slain or banished,
and their houses sacked, Soon after, in January
1302, the sentence of banishment went forth against
Dante and others, nominally on the charge, an
utterly baseless one, of baratteria, or malversation
in the office of prior in 1300. This was followed by
a yet severer sentence on March 10, condemning
them to be burned alive if ever caught, which was
repeated again on September 2, 1311, and yet once
more on November 6, 1315. We need not attempt
here to follow the wanderings of his exile of twenty
years. He made at first one or two hopeless
attempts to return, but abandoned them, partly in
disappointment at their failure, gaa y in disgust at
the kind of associates with which such proceedings
linked him (see Par. xvii. 61-69).

His principal halting-places seem to have been—
first Verona, under the protection of one of the
Della Scala family, described by him as ‘gran
Lombardo’ with much eulogy in Par, xvii. 71.
Then in succession he sojonrned in Tuscany (with
Count Salvatico ), in the unigiano (with Moruello
Malaspina), near Urbino (with Uguecione della
Faggiuola), and then at Verona again. During
this period he is said to have visited Paris; but
though there seems little doubt that he was
actually there at some time of his life, yet some
of his biographers connect this visit with the period
of his early education. Among these is Serravalle,
who wrote, it should be noted, as late as 1417, and
who is also the sole authority for Dante’s all
visit to England and Oxfo Those who, like

io, take him to France during his exile,
suppose him to have been recalled to Italy
and politics by the election of Henry of Luxem-
burg as emperor, and his visit to Italy, where
no emperor had set foot for more than fifty
years (see Purg. vi. 105, &e.). The exile’s hopes
were now roused to the highest pitch, and he
addressed an spate to Henry, couched in language
borrowed largely from Scripture, which to our ears
sounds extravagant. His hopes were once more
and finally crushed by Henry’s unexpected death
on August 24, 1313, after which Dante took ap
in Romagna, and finally in Ravenna, where for the
most part he remained, under the protection of
Guido Novello da Polenta, until his death. This
took place on September 14, 1321. The precise
cause of it is unknown. He was no doubt utterly
broken in spirit and in health. He had been
employed by his patron in an embassy to Venice,
which proved unsuccessful, and he died very soon
afterwards, as some biographers say, from grief
and annoyance at his failure at Venice, and as
others, with more probability, assert, from the
effects of a fever, vated if not originall
caused by the unhealthy marshes which he h
traversed on his return to Ravenna by land, the
Venetians having harshly refused to allow him to
make the journey by sea.

He was buried with much pomp by his friend
Guido at Ravenna, and there he still lies. At
some unknown period, by unknowr hands, and
from a motive still unexplained, his body was re- ©
moved from the sarcophagus in which it lay, and
was walled up in the neighbouring church of St
Francis, in a rough box, inscri Dantis Ossa.
There it was discovered by pure accident on May
27, 1865, and after the bones had been identified
beyond possibility of doubt, they were replaced in
the sarcophagus, from which it was found they had
been abstracted. Dante had seven children, six
sons and one daughter, Beatrice, who was a nun in
a convent at Ravenna. His family, however, be-
came extinct in the 16th century. His personal
appearance is too well known to need much de-
scription. Fortunately, a cast was taken from his
face after death, so that we have an absolutely

674 DANTE

DANTON

authentic record of his features. Boccaccio also,
writing not very many years after his death, has
preserved numerous personal details, such as that
he was of moderate stature, stooping when he
walked, slow and dignified both in gait and speech,
reserved and taciturn in habit, but, when he spoke,
keen, sarcastic, and often contemptuous. That
he was devoted to music and painting appears
from many passages in his works, as well 4s from
current tradition.
The dates and sequence of his various’ works are
a matter of conjecture, and are still very much dis-
uted. Doubtless the Vita Nuova is the earliest.
y far the most celebrated is the Divina Commedia,
‘the pre-eminent greatness of which has tended to
eclipse his other writings, which do not generally
receive the attention they deserve. In this poem
he purposes, and asarédly fulfils his purpose, ‘to
say of Beatrice that which never yet was said of
any woman’ (end of Vita Nuova). In_this vision
of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, we have, as it
were, an encyclopedic view of the highest culture
and knowledge of the age on philosophy, history,
classical literature, physical science, morals, the-
ology. 1 this, moreover, is expressed in the
sublimest and most exquisite poetry, and with
consummate power and beauty of language. The
Divina Commedia, indeed, may be said to have
made the Italian language, which was _ before ‘so
rude and unformed that. Dante himself hesitated
te employ it on such a theme, and is said to have
commenced his poem in Latin. No work probably
in the world, except the Bible, has given rise to so
large a literature. To say nothing of nearly six
hundred MSS. in which it was copied before print-
ing became common, there have been published
about three hundred editions; it has been no
less than a hundred times translated into various
European languages; and of commentaries, intro-
ductions, essays, and monographs there is no end.
About fifty years after Dante’s death, a public
lectureship on the Divina Commedia was estab-
lished at Florence, to which Boccaccio was first
se aha
he next most important work (and one throwin
much light on the Commedia) is the fragment falled
the Convito, or Banquet. It takes the form of acom-
mentary on some canzoni, or short poems, of the
author, of which there are only three, though the
work, if completed, would have contained fourteen
of these ‘courses,’ as the author calls them. Its
contents are almost as encyclopedic as those of the
Commedia. The De Monarchia (written in Latin)
expounds Dante's theory of the right, and, as he
held, divinely-intended, government of the world,
by a universal emperor acting in harmony with a
universal pope, respectively administering, without
conflict or interference, the temporal and spiritual
affairs of mankind. Another work, again un-
_ finished, since it consists of two books only, when
four were promised, is the De Vulgari Eloquio.
It also is written in Latin, and is a discussion of
the origin of language, the several divisions of
languages, and the numerous dialects of Italian
in particular. A considerable collection of short
poems, canzont, sonnets, &c., is also preserved
under the title of the Canzoniere, and finally, we
have about a dozen epistles addressed mainly to
leading statesmen or rulers, and dealing with the
most urgent political problems of the day. There
are also some Hclogues and other minor works, as
well as several of doubtful authenticity which are
sometimes assigned to him,

The editions most: to be recommended are as follows:
For the Commedia, Brunone Bianchi, or Fraticelli, are
the most serviceable for ordinary students; for a more
thorough and critical study, Scartazzini (3 vols.) is indis-
pensable; for the De Monarchia and the Vita Nuova,

also the Commedia, the editions of Witte; for all the
works, Fraticelli; for all except the Commedia, Giuliani.
The Oxford Dante, a complete text (3 vols.), was pub-
lished in 1894 by the present writer, who has also written
Dante and his Early Biographers (1890). Scartazzini’s
Proleyomeni della Divina Commedia (1890) represents the
labours of fifteen years; and on it is based the German
Dante Handbuch, translated by Butler (1894) as A Com-
panion to Dante. Butler has also published Dante, his
Times and his Work (1895). The invaluable Bibliografia
Dantescaof Colomb de Batinés wascontinued by Carpellini
(1845-65) and by Petzholdt (1865-80). L. G. Blane’s
Vocabolario Dantesco is very valuable ; and for a general
introduction to the life, character, and works of Dante,
A Shadow of Dante, by Maria Francesca Rossetti, is
strongly to be recommended. The Renel 1 English
translations in verse are by Cary, right, Cayley,
Pollock, Longfellow, Plumptre, Hazelfoot, Rossetti, sib.
bald, and Musgrave (the last three the Jnf. only); and
= Brose by Dr John Carlyle (Inf. only), Butler, and C.
. Norton,

Danton, GEORGES-JACQUES, was born of good
farmer-people, at Arcis-sur-Aube, 26th October
1759. The outbreak of the French Revolution
found him a quiet and studious man, practising as
an advocate in Paris, but ere long its fever filled his
veins. It was not till 1792, however, that he became
a great leader, as we find no trace of his influence in
such movements as the destruction of the Bastille
and the forcible removal of the court from Ver-
sailles to the Tuileries. Mirabeau quickly de
tected Danton’s genius, and hastened to attach him
to himself, but his death in the spring of 1791
removed the last stay to the speedy downfall of the
monarchy and the onward progress of a turbulent
and infatuated democracy. Along with Marat and
Camille Desmoulins, Danton instituted the Corde-
liers’ Club, which soon became the rallying-point of
all the hotter revolutionists. There the tall brawny
man—a born Tribune—with harsh and daring
countenance, beetling black brows, and a voice
of enormous power, thundered with vehement
eloquence against the aristocrats, till the passions
of the populace rose into ungovernable fury.
Meantime the unhappy king stumbled into ever
new blunders—most Pal, the attempt to flee from
Paris (June 1791), «ad the affair of the Champ de
Mars (July 2, 1791). Assertions have been made
that Danton was after these events corrupted by
the court, but there is no trustworthy evidence
of this, and it is certain that his hostility to the
monarchy remained as implacable as ever. ‘The
Mirabeau of the Sansculottes’ was, indeed, says
M. Claretie, ‘a kind of ta Mirabeau, equally
powerful, but neither dissolute nor venal.’ Dan-
ton’s share in the insurrectionary march on the
Tuileries (10th August 1792) is very doubtful, but
it is certain that immediately thereafter he appears
as Minister of Justice. And now the gigantic per-
sonality of the man seemed to overshadow all the
surrounding figures. He stood forth as the incar-
nate spirit of the Revolution, manifesting alike its
heroic audacity in the presence of danger from
without, and its mad suspicion and terror of
danger from within. The advance of the Prussians
seemed for a moment to strike a panic to the heart of
France. On the 2d of September Danton mounted
the tribune, and addressed the Legislative nae
in a speech of tremendous power, which closed wit
the famous words regarding the enemies of France:
‘Pour les vaincre, pour les atterrer, que faut-il ?
De l’audace, encore de l’audace, et toujours de
Vaudace.” The heart of Paris was moved with
resistless enthusiasm : she poured forth army atter
army of her sons, whose fiery valour quickly drove
the invaders from the sacred soil of France. But
the excitement of Paris was not all heroic—the Sep-
tember murders in the prisons were merely an out
burst of cowardice and fear. Danton had no share

ber,

SR ae Prat eE ta

J

.

DANTON

DANUBE 675

j in this atrocit , for which Marat was mainly re-

sponsible, but he admitted that such excesses were
incidental to a revolution, and condoned them as

merely morbid and ing ebullitions of forces that
r amit y iy in

; et flow free healthy channels,
-_ Danton voted for the death of the king (January
_ 1793), was one of the nine original members of the

~ Committee of Public Safety, and frequently went

on missions to Dumouriez and other republican
erals. In the Convention he now bent all
‘giant strength to crush the Girondists, or
party, on whose fall the extremists
found themselves supreme. But he could not re-
strain the forces he had created, and his heart filled

with ineffectual pity when the heads of opponents

against whom he had thundered in debate fell

under the merciless guillotine of the triumph-

ant Mountain (October 1793). Danton was chiefly

instrumental in setting ne strong central autho-

rity in the Committee of Public Safety and invest-

ing it with dictatorial powers, but he elected not to
on

& to it himself. Henceforth all his energies
were devoted at once to fire the hearts of French-
men inst the foreign enemy, and to conciliate

domestic hatreds. He strove with all his might
to abate the fanatical and oe severity of the
revolutionary tribunal, but although Hébert and his

y were cut off, Danton’s policy of elemency

iled to commend itself to the Mountain, whose
ferocious instincts saw a more promising leader in
the narrow and acrid Robespierre. 4 fruitless
attempt was made to reconcile the two, but their
interview left them worse friends than before.
Meantime Danton was strangely careless of his
fate. He went awhile for rest to his native Arcis,
and forgot all the machinations of his enemies in
the quiet of domestic pom oe with the wife he had
just married. ‘I prefer being guillotined to guillo-
tining,’ he said to a friend—a great saying which
history will remember. Soon his friends summoned
to return to Paris. When news was brought
him that the warrant for his arrest was made out,
he said merely, ‘ They dare not,’ and calmly went to
sleep as usual. Arrested at last, he carried his head
high until his doom :—‘I leave the whole business
in a frightful welter. Not one of them understands
anything of nie ge Robespierre will follow
me; I drag down Robespierre. h, it were better
to be a poor fisherman than to meddle with govern-
ng of men.’

n the 2d April 1794 he was brought with
Camille Desmoulins and a group of his friends
before the bar of the Revolutionary Tribunal he
had formed a twelvemonth before. Asked his
name formally by Fouquier-Tinville, the attorney-
general, he replied with more than his customary

tness of phrase: ‘My name is Danton: a name
tolerably known in the Revolution ; my abode will
soon be annihilation; but I shall live in the Pan-
theon of history.’ His defence was sublime in its
audacity, its incoherence, its mixture of heroism
and magnificent buffoonery. ‘I sold to the enemy !’
he exclaimed, ‘A man of my stamp is priceless.’
‘Do I look like a hypocrite?’ was his only answer
to one of the absurdest of the charges. The first

| _ two days of his trial his mighty voice and passion-

concocted

ate eloquence moved the people so greatly that
the Committee of Public Safety in terror hastily
a decree that the mouths of men who
had ‘insulted Justice’ should be shut; and only
with this shameful outrage upon justice were his
enemies able to send to his doom the test figure
that fell in the Revolution (April 5, 1794). At the
foot of the scaffold the thought of his much-loved
wife filled his heart, but with the words, ‘ Danton,
no weakness,’ he nerved his heart to die’ as he had

lived. To the headsman he said, ‘Thou wilt show

_ my head to the people; it is worth showing.’

The outlines of the Titan of the Revolution in
Carlyle’s slowing pages are none too heroic; his
story is written large on the annals of his time.

See also French works by Robinet and Bougeart, and
English works by Belloc (1889) and Beesly ( ).

antsic, See DANzia.

Danube (Lat. Danubius ; in the lower course,
Ister ; Ger. Donau; Hung. Duna; Slav. Dunat),
the second river of Europe, inferior only to the
Volga, has its origin in the Brege and Brigach, two
mountain-streams rising in the Black Forest, in
Baden, and uniting at Donaueschingen, 2264 feet
above sea-level. 1e Danube has a total length,
including windings, of 1740 miles, and drains an
area estimated at 315,000 sq. m. It flows first SE.
to Gutmadingen, and then NE. to U)m (1519 feet
above sea-level), which may be taken as the limit
of its upper course. A few miles above Ulm it
receives on its ae bank the Iller, from which point
it is navigable for boats of 100 tons. At Regens-
burg ( Ratisbon ) the river reaches its most northerly
point (49° 2’), and from thence its course is gen-
erally SE. to the northern frontier of Bulgaria.
Between Ulm and Passau, where it leaves Ger-
man territory, it receives, among other tribu-
taries, the three large alpine streams, the Lech,
Isar, and Inn, on the right, and the Altmiihl and
Regen on the left bank. At Passau its width is
231 yards, and its depth 16 feet. The crystalline
rocks of the Bohemian Forest mountains follow the
stream into Austria, and as far as Aschach its
banks are wild and picturesque. It flows E. to
Presburg with little variation of course, receiving
the Ens from the 8., and the March or Morava from
the N. ; and it passes from the Austrian dominions
through an opening, called the Carpathian Gate,
between the Leitha chain and the Lesser Car-

thians, where its width is 320 yards, and its

epth 20 feet. Between Presburg and Komorn
the stream divides, and forms the Great and Little
Schiitten, or alluvial islands. Near Waitzen it
turns directly S., and enters upon the Hungarian
plain, a vast sandy alluvial flat, in which it is con-
tinually forcing new channels and silting up old
ones ; 1t maintains this course for 230 miles, receiv-
ing from the N. the Waag and the Gran, while the
Drave from the W. adds considerably to its volume.

After this last accession, the Danube turns again
SE., and, increased by the waters of the Theiss and
Temes from the N., sweeps past Belgrade, where it
is joined by the Save, and forms the boundary
between Hun and Servia. At Semlin, near
Belgrade, it is 1706 yards wide and 46 feet deep,
but the width is greatly contracted by spurs of the
Transylvanian and the Servian mountains for
75 miles beyond Ujpalanka. Within this stretch
are eight distinct rapids, shut in by lofty walls,
and strewn with rocky shoals of limestone, crystal-
line schists, and ite. The lower Klissura is
the most strikingly picturesque of these, but the
most difficult e is the shortest (14 mile) of
the eight—the ‘Iron Gate,’ properly so called,
below Orsova, where the middle course of the river
ends. Here the stream has a breadth of only 129
yards, and the piled-up waters attain a depth of
28 fathoms; ledges of rock lift their tooth-like
points above the surface, and all around a seething
stretch of whirlpools, cataracts, eddies and counter-
eddies, combines with the river’s rapid fall to
present a serious and formerly im ble obstacle
to navigation. Many attempts have been made
to improve the bed here, which, under article 57
of the Berlin Treaty, Austria bound herself to
clear; but prior to 1889 little had been effected :
only. when a depth of at least 8 feet covered
the obstructions could steamers drawing 5 feet
make the From here the Danube enters
on the Wallachian depression, and flows in a

676 DANUBE

“DANZIG

wide stream, through a district fertile indeed,
but solitary and poorly cultivated, constantly
broadening into a lake, or overspreading its banks
with swamps. It drains the country between the
Transylvanian mountains and the Balkans, form-
ing the northern boundary of Bulgaria as far as
Silistria ; and from here it turns northward, skirt-
ing the Dobruja, and flows between marshy banks
to Galatz, receiving on the way the Jalomitza and
the Sereth. From Galatz it flows E., and, after
being joined by the Pruth from the N., SE. to. the
Black Sea. The delta, which begins 5 miles W. of
Tuldja, is a vast wilderness, covering an. area of
1000 sq. m., and resembling an immense green sea
of rushes; it is cut up by numerous channels and
lakes, and is the haunt of sea-birds, wolves, and
buffaloes. The farthest mouths are 60 miles apart.
Two-thirds of the Danube’s volume passes through
the Kilia, but this arm forms a secondary delta
near its outlet, and the southern or St George
branch also forms two channels ; it is consequently
by the middle or Sulina mouth that ships enter,
although it discharges only 7 of the river’s waters.
The improvements (1858-95) of this mouth have
increased the depth over the bar from 7 or 11 feet
(according to the season) to a minimum depth of
23 feet. And cuttings (1890-94) have shortened
the course of the Sulina branch by six nautical
miles. To defend Vienna against risk of inun-
dation, the course of the Danube skirting it was, in
1868-81, diverted into an artificial channel, and the
bed has since been improved, aboye and below the
city, from the mouth of the Isper to that of the
March. Similar works have been carried out near
Pesth, and a new channel, cut at vast expense, to
avoid the impediments to navigation at the Iron
Gate, was opened in 1893. Until then any effectual
improvements of that passage had never advanced
beyond the stage of projects, while throughout
Hungary and along the lower course inundations
had caused great dainage. The operations were
actually begun by the Hungarian government in
1890. A great steel cantilever railway bridge
across the Danube at Tchernavoda in Ronmania
(with its appro, 11,800 yards long) was opened
in 1895. It partly rests on the island of Balta.
The Danube has about 400 tributaries, 100 of them
navigable, and the Danube Steam Navigation
Company (1830), which has done much to increase
the commerce, possesses nearly 200 steamers and
over 700 iron tow-boats ; other companies also have
oe steamers on the sete portions of the river.
evertheless, owing to the obstructions and to the
shifting course of the stream, the tonnage of the
Danube trade is inferior to that of the Elbe. The
Danube is connected with the Rhine by means of
the Ludwigs-Canal (1844), and with the Elbe by
means of the Moldau and Mihl, and canals.

THE INTERNATIONAL DANUBE NAVIGATION
COMMISSION was constituted in 1856, when at the
Peace of Paris the navigation of the river was
declared free to all nations, and was composed of
delegates of all the great powers, to whom a re-
presentative of Roumania has been added since
1878, It was appointed on the express condition
that it should Slaotlve in 1858, but such was its
usefulness that it was informally continued till
1866, when the Conference of Paris formally pro-
longed its powers for five years. In 1871 the piel
ference of London continued the Commission for
twelve years, and in 1883 a second London con-
ference extended its existence for other twenty-one
years. It exercises almost sovereign power on the
mouths of the Danube, where it has conducted the

reat engineering works already referred to; it has
its own flag, uniform, and revenue, and has raised
loans, made laws, and maintained its own small
army of police. Its jurisdiction, originally limited

to the river between Isaktcha and the sea, was
extended at the Congress of Berlin (1878) as far as
Galatz, and afterwards to the Iron Gate; but in
the last-named portion of the stream its authority
is exercised on y by delegation to the Riverain
Commission of the states on the bank (also con-
stituted in 1856), or on appeal from its decisions, _
Danubian Principalities, a name applied
to Moldavia and Wallachia. See RouUMANIA.
Danvers, a post-village of Essex county,
Massachusetts, 4 miles NW. of Salem, wi
manufactures of shoes, carpets, bricks, &e. It is
the seat of a state asylum for the insane, Pea.
body, 3 miles to the south, was formerly South
Danvers. Pop. (1885) 7048 ; (1890) 7454.
Danville, (1) capital of Vermilion county,
Illinois, on the Vermilion River, 132 miles S. of
Chicago by rail. It is an important railway june-
tion, and contains railway-shops, besides a number
of steam-mills and foundries, and organ and chair
factories. Bituminous coal is mined near by.
Pop. (1890) 11,491.—(2) Capital of Montour county,
Pennsylvania, on the north branch of the Susque-
hanna, 68 miles N. by E. of Harrisburg by rail,
The place was first settled in 1768, and the Penn-
sylvania Ironworks here is the oldest establishment
in the United States for the manufacture of rail-
road iron. There are also numerous blast-furnaces,
foundries, and rolling-mills, and the annual value
of the iron forged and. rolled here has sometimes
reached $5,000,000. Pop. 9073.—(3) A flourishing
town of Virginia, on the Dan River, here spann
by an iron bridge, 141 miles SW. of Richmond by
rail, with a female college, large cotton and other
mills, and a very important trade in tobacco. Pop,
(1880) 7526 ; (1890) 10,305, with suburbs, 15,000.
D’Anville, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON, a
geographer and map-maker, was born at Paris,
llth July 1697, and devoted himself to mathe-
matical and geographical studies with such zeal
and success that in 1719 he was appointed geo-
crore to the ee He died 28th
e published in all 2
collections were the Atlas
the Atlas Antiquus Major, with its accompanying
three volumes of Geographie Ancienne (1769).
Danzig (Polish Gdansk), an important seaport
and capital of West Prussia, and fortress of the

first rank, is situated on the left bank of the ~

western branch of the Vistula, 284 miles NE. of
Berlin by rail, and about 4 miles from the river’s
mouth in the shallow Gulf of Danzig, an inlet of
the Baltic. Danzig was an important town in the
10th century, and its possession was contended for
by Danes, Pomeranians, Prussians, Brandenburgers,
Poles, and the Teutonic Knights, the last of whom
held it from 1308 to 1454, when it became a free
city under Poland. In 1793 it fell to Prussia, in
whose hands, except during the years 1807-1814,
when it existed as a separate dukedom under
Napoleonic rule, it has since continued. It is
surrounded by a wall with twenty bastions, and by
wet ditches, and possesses works for laying the
surrounding country under water on three sides ;
its works are strengthened by outlying forts, and
a chain of batteries extends to the mouth of the
river. The city is traversed by the Motlau and
Radaune, tributaries of the Vistula, the former of
which has been deepened to 15 feet, and admits
vessels up to the Speicherinsel, an island forming
one of the quarters of the town, retained for the
storage of grain. The principal port, however, is
at the mouth of the Vistula, below the sand-bars
across it. Many of the streets are narrow and
crooked, but the Langgasse, intersecting it from
east to west, presents a most picturesque appear-
ance, with its lofty gable houses of the 16th

anuary 1782. »
11 maps; the most notable.
énéral (1737-80), and ©

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DAOUDNAGAR

D’ARBLAY 677

and 17th centuries; and there are good suburbs
to the west, with wide thoroughfares. Among
the most noteworthy buildi ave the la
charch of St Mary (1343-1502), with a noble
*Last Judgment,’ A eioen probably by Memling,
and a finely-carved altar of wood; the church
of St Catharine (1326-30); the fine old Gothic
town-hall; the old exchange; and the Fran-
ciscan monastery, now used as a museum and
1. hop § was at one time a prominent
member of the Hanseatic League, and is still one
of the chief commercial cities of northern Euro
Of the seaward trade in 1884, nearly £2,850,
‘represented the imports (chiefly herrings, cotton,
iron, drugs, coal, coffee, and hides), and £3,162,000
the exports (sugar, wheat, timber, spirits, We.).
_ The river and railway trade is also important.
_ The manufactures include beer, spirits (Danzig
_ Goldwasser), sugar, tobacco, flour, iron-wares,
machinery, amber, gold and silver ornaments ; and
there are also an imperial dockyard employing 1580
men, and an artillery arsenal with over 800 work-
men. The town has a library of 100,000 volumes,
and is well supplied with hospitals, asylums, schools,
museums, &e. Pop. (1880) 108,551 ; (1885) 114,805;
(1890) 120,338— two-thirds Protestants.
- Daoudnagar,. See DAUDNAGAR.

Daphne, a nymph who, chased by Apollo,
changed herself into a laurel. The myth is a point
@appui of the solar mythologists. Daphne was
the name of a famous grove of cypresses and laurels
near Antioch, with a temple of Apollo.

Daphne, a genus of Thymeleacez, all shrubs
or small trees, deciduous or evergreen, acrid and
with poisonous berries, but often with delicious}
fragrant flowers. The deciduous Mezereon (D.
Mezereum), well known both for the f nee of
its pink winter flowers and for its medicinal uses,
is naturalised in some places of England. The
guly species ees a native of England is the

purge Laurel (D. Laureola), an evergreen shrub,
3 to 4 feet high, with large, leathery, tufted leaves,
and greenish-yellow axil-

lary flowers. It grows well
under the shade of trees,
and flowers in February,
while the nearly allied D.
pontica, introduced from
Asia Minor, flowers a month
later. Upon the three
species are grafted the
rarer or less | species.
Easily recogni y its
trailing and branching
habit, with persistent
smooth, linear, obtuse,
mucronate = ( box-tipped)
leaves, and its f t
profusion of terminal
flowers in early spring, D. Cneorum is the best of
all species for small gardens ; while D. alpina, with
its varieties Dauphin and Verloti, is a pretty de-
ciduous form for rock-work.—D. japonica, from
Japan, has lemon-scented leaves. From the bast
of some species of Daphne, and nearly allied

nera, useful fibre is obtained, and paper is made
in different parts of the East, pexwen ey. 8
paper from that of D. cannabina. In Tibet Edg-
worthia Gardneri is employed in the same way.

Daphnia. See WATER-FLEA.

Dapsang. See Ast, Vol. I. p. 485.

Darabgherd, or DARAB, a town of Persia, in
the province of Farsistan, 115 miles SE. of Shiraz.
Pop. 4000.

Daraganj, 2 suburb of Allahabad, from which
it is race distant, on the right bank of the
Ganges. Pop. 13,159,

Daphne Cneorum.

Darbhangah, the chief town of Darbhangah
district, in Behar province, on the Little Baghmati
River, 78 miles NE. of Patna by rail. It has large
rs and a handsome market-place, extensive
tanks, a hospital, and the maharajah’s palace, with
fine gardens, menagerie, and aviary. here is an
active trade in oil-seeds, food-grains, timber, salt,
iron, lime, &e. Pop. (1891) 73,561.—The district
has an area of 3665 Bes m., forming one large
alluvial plain, intersected by a network of streams,
and covered with wide rice-fields, bamboo, and
mango-groves. The rivers flood extensive areas, and
fever is endemic. Rice, indigo, linseed, mustard,
and tobacco are the chief crops; the manufactures
include indigo, sugar, saltpetre, pottery, cloth, and
tobacco. Pop. (1872) 2,139,298 ; (1891) 2,801,955.
bD’Arblay, MADAME, better known as a novelist
by her maiden name of Frances Burney, was born at
King’s ¢ bors 13th June 1752, the second daughter
and the third child of the six children of Dr Burney,
then organist there. Her father removed to London
to teach music in 1760, and on his wife’s death next
year sent his daughters Esther and Susannah to a
school in Paris, but kept Fanny at home from a fear
that her great affection for her maternal grand-
mother, then in France, should make her a convert
to Catholicism. Dr Burney’s second marriage in
1766 gave her a kind step-mother, but did not disturb
her daydreams nor her incessant scribbling of
stories, plays, and poems, begun at ten, although
but two years before she was ignorant of her letters.
On her fifteenth birthday, in a fit of repentance for
such waste of time, she burned all her papers, but
she could not erase from her brain the plot of the
story which grew later into Evelina, or a You
Lady's Entrance into the World. This was sol
for £20 to Lownes, and published anonymously in
January 1778, not even her father having seen the
manuscript, although he had been dutifully told
beforehand of the project. Dr Burney. at. once
ised his daughter's touch, and soon confided
the secret to Mrs Thrale, who, as well as Dr
Johnson, petted and flattered the gifted young
authoress to her heart’s delight. The praises
showered upon the book by Johnson, Reynolds
Burke, and the whole world of fashion, might well
have turned her head, and are told in delightful
detail in her diary. Urged to write a comedy,
she had the sense to suppress it in deference to
the criticisms of her Esha and Samuel Crisp, a
ious old critic, soured to the world but not
to her, the ‘daddy’ of so many of her letters.
In 1782 she published Cecilia, which was no less
successful than her first novel. At Windsor,
in the house of her friend the venerable Mrs
Delany, she became known to the royal family,
and soon received (July 1786) the appointment of
second keeper of the robes at court, with a salary
of £200 a year. She soon found her menial duties
intolerably tedious, and her health began to decline,
but her veneration for the queen kept her from
resigning until compelled by the remonstrances of
Burke, Boswell, Windham, and others of her father’s
friends. At length in July 1791 she was permitted
to retire with a pension of £100 a year, and soon
recovered her health and spirits by travelling in
England. At Mickleham, near Dorking, she met
General D’Arblay, a French refugee, and married
him on nothing more than her pension in July
1793. Her third novel, Camilla, was published by
subscription in 1796, and brought her, it is su
, about 3000 guineas, with which she built
amilla Cottage, near Mickleham. It was, how-
ever, nothing more than a pecuniary success, while
her t y, Edwy and Elvina, had already been
damned in 1795, spite of the acting of Mrs.
Siddons and Kemble. From 1802 to 1812 she
lived at Passy in France with her husband, who

678 DARBOY

DAR-FUR

had procured civil employment there, then returned
to England with her son, tended her—father till his
death ‘in April 1814, and in the beginning of the
same year published her last novel, /e Wanderer,
another literary failure. At the first Restoration
she joined her husband in Paris, was at Brussels
during the battle of Waterloo, and soon after re-
turned finally to E gland with her husband, who
died 3d May 1818. Her son was tenth wrangler at
Cambridge that year, took orders, became minister
at Ely chapel in 1836, and died of rapid decline the
ear after. In 1832 Madame D’Arblay published
her memoirs of her father, written in pretentious
style; she died 6th January 1840. Five vol-
umes of her Letters and Diaries were published in
1842, two more volumes in 1846, and the Early
Diary in 1890. Spite of its tedious triviality this
work is invaluable from the insight it gives us into
the very heart of the dull decorous court of George
II[., and much more for its revelation of English
manners towards the end of last century. Its stories
of Dr Johnson and his group will live in literary
history. _Croker’s ill-tempered attacks on her
veracity for allowing an impression to go abroad
that ELvelina had been written at seventeen, printed
in the Quarterly Review for April 1833 and June
1842, were satisfactorily answered by Macaulay in
the Edinburgh Review for January 1843. As a
novelist, Frances Burney’s greatest merit is that
she conceived the idea of representing modern
society in a manner realistic without ceasing to be
feminine and completely artistic. She was the
forerunner of Miss Edgeworth and Jane Austen,
who were both greater than herself. The latter's
admiration for her model is imperishably written
in a passage in Northanger Abbey.

Darboy, GEORGES, an ill-fated Archbishop of
Paris, was born 16th January 1813 at Fayl-Billot
in Haute-Marne. He was educated at the seminary
of Langres, and four years after his ordination as
priest (1836) was appointed a professor there. In
1845 he came to Paris, where his reputation as trans-
lator of Dionysius the Areopagite had preceded
him. In 1854 he was made protonotary apostolic,
in 1859 Bishop of Nancy, and in 1863 Archbishop
of Paris. e strenuously upheld the Gallican
theory of episcopal independence, and waged a
long struggle with the Jesuits that lost him
the favour of the holy see. At the Vatican
Council he opposed with vigour the, declaration
of the papal infallibility, but when the dogma
was finally adopted, was one of the first to set
the example of submission. During the German
sicge of Paris he was unceasing in labours of
benevolence, and during the brief but dreadful
triumph of the Commune he refused to leave his
flock. Arrested as a hostage by the Communists,
4th April 1871, he was shot in the court of the
prison of La Roquette on the 24th of May. He
died with the heroic courage of the Christian
martyr, words of forgiveness on his lips, and his
hands lifted in blessing as he fell. is two im-
mediate predecessors had likewise died a bloody
death—Sibour murdered during the celebration of
a religious rite (January 3, 1857); Affre shot down
on the barricades (June 1848). Darboy’s body was
reinterred in a stately public funeral, 5th June
1871. See Foulon’s Vie de Darboy (1889).

Darbyites, a name often applied to the Ply-
mouth Brethren (q.v.) from their principal founder,
John Nelson Darby (1800-82), of whose collected
writings thirty-two volumes have appeared (1867-
83). See his Personal Recollections (1881).

D’Arec. See JOAN oF Arc.

Dardanelles (the ancient ellespont), & narrow
channel sep nne Europe from Asia, and uniting
the Sea of Marmora with the Archipelago. The

name is derived from the ancient city of Dardanus
in the. Troad, on the southern shore; and Dardanus
was named from the Dardani, an ancient people’
farther inland. The strait extends from north-east.
to south-west, and has a length of about 40 miles,
and a breadth varying from 1 to 4 miles. From

the Sea of Marmora a strong current runs through -

the strait to the Archipelago. Both sides are
strongly fortified. A treaty concluded between
the five great powers and Turkey in 184] arranged
that no ship of war belonging to any nation save
Turkey should pass the Dardanelles without the
express consent of Turkey; all merchant-shi
being also required to show their papers to the
Ottoman authorities. These provisions were con-
firmed at London in 1871 and at Berlin in 1878,
in the February of which year a British fleet
had sailed into the Sea of Marmora, The Dar-
danelles is celebrated in ancient history on account
of’ Xerxes and Alexander having crossed it, the
former in 480 B.C. to enter Europe ; and the latter
in 334 B.c. to enter Asia. The point at which
Xerxes crossed, by two separate bridges, was
in the neighbourhood of Abydos, on the Asiatic
shore, opposite to Sestos. lexander crossed at
nearly the same place; and here also young
Leander nightly swam across to visit Hero—a feat
performed in 1810 by Lord Byron.

Dardanus, a son of Zeus and Electra, the
mythical ancestor of the Trojans, and through
them of the Romans. Originally a king in Arcadia,
he migrated to Samothrace, thence to Asia, where
King Teucer gave him the site of his town, Dar-
dania. He married a daughter of Teucer, and his
grandson was the eponymous hero Tros, who re-
moved his grandfather’s Palladium to Troy.

Dardistan is the name given to a region of
Central Asia, bordering on Baltistan, the north-
western portion of Cashmere. The country, which
consists of lofty mountains and high-lying valleys,
is little known, and its limits are variously given.
But its interest depends mainly on the fact that
its inhabitants, the Dards, are an Aryan people,
speaking a Sanskritic tongue mixed with Peta
words. They had been called ‘Stray Aryans in
Tibet,’ and are Moslems converted from Buddhism
at a comparatively recent period : the rajah of Cash-
mere is constantly endeavourin
completely to his authority. he chief districts
are Hasora, Gilghit, and Tassin ; some would also
include Chitral (q.v.) in Dardistan. See Leitner’s
Tour in Dardistan (1867-70), and CASHMERE.

Dar-es-salaam, a seaport of German East
Africa, 45 miles 8. of Zanzibar. Pop. 4000.

Dares the Phrygian. See Troy, X. 309.

Dar-fertit is the name of the thinly peopled
territory south of Dar-F far, beyond the Bahr-el-Arab,
and north of the Niam-Niam country. Scliwein-
furth was here in 1870. -

Dar-Fir, a country of Central Africa, one of
the divisions of the Siddn or ‘ Land of the Blacks,’
situated approximately in 10° to 16° N. lat., and
in 22° to 28° E. long. ; but its limits are not clearly
defined. It is hilly in parts, and traversed by a
mountainous ridge called Marra, which is the
source of numerous streams. Towards the north

it is level, sandy, and almost destitute of water.-

During the rainy season (June—September) it
exhibits a rich vegetation. The principal pro-
ducts are wheat, millet, rice, maize, and sesame.
Tobacco, which is used by the natives in every
form, abounds, Water-melons, also, are abundant
during the rainy season. Among the fruits are
tamarinds and dates. The chief minerals are copper
and iron. The wealth of the inhabitants con-
sists principally in cattle.

to cr them.

Horses, sheep, camels, |

DARGAT

DARIEN SCHEME 679

: ee game abound, The 3,000,000 or so of inhabi-
are mainly Fulahs (q.v.). Dar-Far, long a
centre of the slave-trade, was annexed to Egypt
in 1874-75, but suffered with the rest of the Soudan
from the desolating tyranny of the Mahdi (q.v.)
and his successor the Khalifa, till the defeat of the
in 1898. By the treaties with Germany and
in 1890-91, and with France in 1899, it is
recognised as part of the Egyptian Soudan and
under British influence. See Ecypr, SouDAN.

Dargai, a plateau in the Afridi country on the
_ NW. Indian frontier, taken in a fight in which
Gurkhas and Gordon Highlanders specially dis-
ee arenelves, 2ist ewe 1897.
A argan, WILLIAM, railway projector, was
born at Carlow, 28th February 1799, spent some
time in a surveyor’s office, and for a time -was
employed under Telford. He was a_ successful
- contractor, and became one of the first capitalists
in Ireland. It was he who in 1831 contracted for the
first railway ever executed in Ireland (the Dublin
and Kingstown), and he was afterwards connected
with most great Irish undertakings, such as the
making of railways, canals, tunnels, and embank-
ments. He was also an extensive holder of rail-
way stock, a steamboat proprietor, flax-grower,
farmer, and the main promoter of the Dublin exhi-
bition of 1853, when he declined a baronetey. He
died 7th February 1867.

i ens, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER, MARQUIS,
born at Aix, in Provence, 1704, at the age of fifteen
entered the army, but disabled in 1734 by a fall
_ from his horse, and disinherited for his follies, he
went to Holland and tried his fortune in author-
ship. Frederick the Great, then crown prince of
Prussia, was attracted by his wee and on his
accession invited him to the court of Prussia. The
king appointed him chamberlain and a director of
the fine arts. When almost a sexagenarian he

renewed the adventures of his youth by again fall-

ing a victim to the charms of an actress, whom he

married without Frederick’s permission. Deprived
- of his pension, he returned to Provence, and died
near Toulon, 1771. His works fill 38 volumes. See
his Mémoires (new ed. Paris, 1807).

py enson, MARC PIERRE, COMTE, a cele-
brated French statesman, was born in 1696, the
younger son of the Marquis d’Argenson (1652-1721 )
who created the secret police and established the
lettres de cachet. After holding a number of inferior
offices, he became war minister in 1743, at a time
when the very ay existence of France was
imperilled, and by his vigour and lucky choice of
generals changed the fortunes of the war in the
course of a single year. After the e of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1748), he devoted himself to the improve-
ment of the military system, and in 1751 established
the Ecole Militaire. e was an illustrious patron
of literature. Diderot and D’Alembert dedicated

to him their great Encyclopédie ; and to Voltaire,

whose fellow-student he had been, he furnished
materials for his Si¢ele de Louis XIV. In 1757 he
was banished to his estate by the machinations of
Madame Pompadour ; but on her death he returned
to Paris, where he died in 1764.

Darie, « Persian gold coin named after Darius,
weighing rather more than a sovereign.

Dariel. See CAUCASUS.

Darien, «a name formerly applied to the entire
isthmus now generally known as Panama (q.v.).
It is now more properly confined to the heavily-
wooded hill-country lying between the Gulfs of
Uraba on the north and San Miguel on the south.
The former, a principal inlet of the Caribbean Sea,
is commonly called the Gulf of Darien; and the
Colombians distinguish San Miguel as the Darien
of the South. The southern extremity of the

northern gulf forms the Bay of Choco, into which
the river Atrato (q.v.) debouches; the southern
gulf receives the Tuira, after a course of 190 miles,
of which over 100 are navigable. Little of the
district, which is rich in gold, has yet been ex-
plored. There is, however, an active trade in
tortoiseshell, pearls, and gold-dust, which the
Indians readily barter for firearms and rum.
These natives are said to number 20,000, are un-
civilised, and as og Sd with the gun as were their
ancestors with the bow. The capital of the district
is Yaviza (3000 inhabitants ).

Darien Scheme, 4 disastrous speculation pro-
jected by William Paterson (q.v.), the founder of
the Bank of England, was established by act of the
Scottish parliament, and was sanctioned by royal
authority in 1695. Its object was to plant a colony
on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, and
so form a commercial entrep6t between the eastern
and western jg erie An entire monopoly of
the trade of Asia, Africa, and America, for a term
of thirty-one years, was granted to the Company.
At that time, the foreign trade of Scotland had
been ruined by the English Navigation Act of 1660,
which provided that all trade with the English
colonies should be conducted in English ships alone,
so that when Paterson opened his subscription-list,
the nobility, the gentry, the merchants, and people,
royal burghs, and public bodies in Seotland all
hastened to subscribe. No less than £400,000 was
immediately put down on paper, of which £220,000
was actually paid up. Deputies in England received
subscriptions to the amount of £300,000; and the
Dutch and Hamburgers subscribed £200,000. The

‘English parliament, however, actuated by a feelin

of national antipathy, and the jealous clamours o
trading corporations, gave its unequivocal condem-
nation to the scheme. The British resident at
Hamburg, pokey with the concurrence of
William III., also made various insinuations
against it. The result of this interference was
the almost total withdrawal of the Dutch and
English subscriptions. It must now be admitted
that there was one fatal objection to the scheme
—viz. the danger of settling on ground claimed
by Spain, without coming to a proper under-
standing with that country beforehand. Unable,
however, to see any sort of obstacles, incited by
the vehement eloquence of Paterson, and dazzled
hy the magnificent proportions of the scheme, the
Scotch hurried forward their arrangements. Five
ships, with 1200 men on board, set sail from Leith
for Panama on the 25th July 1698, They reached
their destination in four months, near what is still
called Puerto Escoces (in 8° 50’ N. lat.), and havin
bargained with the natives for a country whic
they called New Caledonia, the colonists fixed the
site of what was to be their capital, New Edin-
burgh, and built a fort in its vicinity, which they
named New St Andrews. Having thus constituted
their colony, they issued a proclamation of perfect
freedom of trade and universal toleration in religi-
ous matters to all who should join them. For the
first few months they seemed to be on the highway
to success. But the climate, which was tolerable
in winter, became unbearable in summer, and
many sickened under it ; their supplies failed before
they could derive a return from the soil; and on
sending to the British colonies in America for pro-
visions, they learned with the deepest indignation
and ee that the British American colonies,
havin n informed that King William had not
given his sanction to the expedition, had resolved ©
to hold no intercourse with the new colony at
Panama.

Sickly and desponding, they waited long for
supplies from the mother-country ; but the Com-
pany at home was not aware of their wretched

680 DARIUS

DARJEELING

condition, and none came. At length, having
waited eight months for assistance, the colony
broke up. In the meantime, 1300 colonists had
set sail from Scotland, but ere they arrived the
pioneers had fled. A Spanish force of 1500 men,
and a squadron of 11 ships, immediately threatened
the new-comers. Captain Campbell marched by

night with a sag of 200 Scots upon the Spanis

camp, which he broke and comp nord dispersed.
On returning to the fort, however, he found it
invested by the Spanish squadron. The am-
munition of the colonists had now become ex-
hausted, and they were obliged to capitulate, the
Spaniards granting honourable terms. Not more
than thirty of the colonists, among whom was
Paterson, who was rendered for a time insane
hy his dreadful misfortunes, ever came back to
Scotland. The scheme and its collapse caused un-
precedented excitement in Scotland from 1695 till
1703, when the last of the adventurers reached
home, and contributed to render the union of the
kingdoms highly unpopular. It has been faiily
contended that, but for the hostility of the king
and the jealousy of the English companies, the
scheme might have led to enormous extension of
British commerce and British territory. And it
should be remembered that a Panama Canal was
included in the plans of the far-seeing projector.
The books and other documents which had
belonged to the Company are preserved in the
Advocates’ Library; the most complete account
of the scheme is J. H. Burton’s Darien Papers,
ee by the Bannatyne Club (1849). See also
is History of Scotland, vol. viii., and Warburton’s
novel Darien.

Dari'us (Déryavus, Heb. Daréydvesh), the name
of three kings of Persia. Darius I. (Hystaspis),
born in 548 B.c., was the son of Hystaspes ( Vish-
taspa, in the Babylonian cuneiform Ustaashpi), of
the family of the Achzmenides (q.v.), aah suc-
ceeded to the Persian throne in 521, after putting
to death the Magian GaumAta (the Pseudo-Smerdis
of the Greeks), who gave himself out to be Bardes,
brother of Cambyses. We possess accurate accounts
of his reign through a contemporary monument,
the great trilingual inscription on the rock of
Behistun (q.v.). He is there represented with his
foot on the body of GaumAataé, and with nine con-

uered rebels in front of him, the first three from
Susiana, Babylon, and Media, the ninth a Sacian,
with the characteristic pointed hat mentioned in
Herodotus, vii. 64. The inscription states that
his father, Hystaspes, was the great-grandson of
Teispes, who was the son of Achemenes. Darius
had for several years to contend with revolts in
all parts of his empire. Babylon resisted him
with especial obstinacy under Nidinta-Bel for
nearly two years (520-19), and revolting a second
time, under Arakha, was again taken (514). He
then reorganised the Persian empire, removing the
seat of government to Susa, dividing his dominions
into more than twenty satrapies, establishing a
regular system of taxation, and providing facilities
for communication and trade; while he also pushed
his conquests as far as the Caucasus and the Indus.
The Indian province paid into the exchequer
£1,290,000 a year; Babylonia, £290,000; while
other eighteen satrapies contributed altogether
£1,674,000. In his expedition against the Scythians
in 515, after carrying 700,000 men across the Bos-
porus on a bridge of boats, and subduing Thrace
and Macedonia, he was led on by the retreating
‘Scythians as far as the Volga, and returned to the
Danube with the loss of 80,000 of his warriors. He
returned to Susa, leaving Megabazos in Thrace
with a large part of his army. His first expedition
against the Athenians miscarried through the
wreck of his fleet at Mount Athos in 492; the

second was decisively defeated at Marathon (q.v.)
in 490. He died in 485, before the Egyptian revolt
(487) had been subdued, and in the midst of his
preparations for a third expedition against the
Athenians, and was succeeded by Xerxes (q.v.).
Darius was a Persian by birth, and bred in the
Zoroastrian faith, which under him and his suc-
cessors became the state religion of the empire.
He is mentioned in the Old Testament as permit-
ting (520) the erection of the second temple at
Jerusalem, which was completed in the sixth year
of his reign (515). ;

Darius II. (Ochus, called by the Greeks Wothos,
‘bastard’), illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I., in
424 B.c. snatched the crown from Sogdianus, his
also illegitimate brother, who had put to death the
rightful king, Xerxes I]. He was entirely under
the influence of the eunuchs and women of his
harem, especially his cruel and depraved aunt and
spouse Parysatis; and his reign was a Icng series
of miseries and crimes. The numerous revolts were
cruelly put down, except that of Amyrtzeus, satra
of Egypt, who was independent from 414 to his
death in 408. After the failure of the Sicilian
expedition of the Athenians in 415, Darius seized
the oppervaeny to break the humiliating treaty of
449. Through Tissaphernes, satrap of Asia Minor,
and his successor Cyrus, younger son of Darius and
Parysatis, he gave so much suppor to the Spartans
against the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war as
turned the scale to the side of the former. He died
at Babylon in 405, and was succeeded by his eldest
son, Artaxerxes IT.

Darius III. (Codomannus), the last king of the
Persians, son of the Achemenid Arsanes by Sisy-
gamle daughter of Artaxerxes II. (q.v.). He is

riefly designated as ‘ Darius the Persian’ in Nehe
miah, xii. 22, and in the lst Book of Maccabees is
called ‘King of the Persians and Medes.’ Arta-
xerxes III. had been poisoned by Bagoas in 338, and
the speedy death of his son and successor, Arses,
prepared the way for Darius III., who began to
reign in the same year as his conqueror Alexander
the Great (336). Defeated at the Granicns (334),
at Issus (333), and at Arbela (331), the handsome
and gentle king was betrayed and slain during his
flight by one of his satraps (330). See ALEXANDER
THE GREAT.

DARIUS THE MEDE, mentioned in the Book of
Daniel, cannot with certainty be identified with
any historical king.

Darjeeling (Dérjiling), a sanitary station in
the Lower Himalayas, and administrative head-
quarters of Darjeeling district, is situated on a
narrow ridge, at an elevation of 7167 feet above the
sea. It has a fine sanatorium (1883), a good water-
supply, and is an increasingly popular summer-
resort for visitors and invalids, 1e fashionable
month is October, after the rains, when the clear
atmosphere shows at its best a view of unsurpassed
extent and grandeur. Pop. 7018.—DARJEELING
is the most northerly district of the Kuch Behar
division of Bengal, divided from Independent
Sikkim by a series of rivers and mountain-torrents.
Area, 1234 sq. m. Pop. (1872) 94,712; (1895)
250,000, mostly Nepalis and other aboriginal or
semi-aboriginal tribes, attracted to the district by
the increased demand for labour on the railway
and in the tea-gardens. With a surface divided
between the Lower Himalayas and the marsh
sub-montane strip, the scenery of the district is
magnificent; up to 12,000 feet the ridges are
clothed with valuable forests, and on the higher
slopes the rhododendron grows in gorgeous luxuri-
ance. The climate is excessively humid, but not
unhealthy. Food-crops are raised, and there is a
trade with Tibet and Nepal; but the staple
industry is the cultivation of tea, of which the |

DARK AGES

DARMESTETER 681

yield steadily increased in 1875-95. The district
suffered from earthquake in 1899.
~ Dark Ages. See Ace.
_ Darley, Feurx Octavius Carr, an American
t, was born at Philadelphia, June 23, 1822.
e@ early gave himself to drawing with such
success as to encourage him to devote himself
exclusively to art, especially in the form of book
illustration. His earliest important work was a
series of drawings for the Library of Humorous
American Works, after producing which he went
to New York (1848), where his outline drawings
to Washington Irving’s Legend of Sleepy Hollow
and om Winkle soon spread wide his reputa-
tion. ter works, not less popular, are his illus-
trations of Judd's Margaret, and to Cooper's,
_ Dickens’s, and Simms’s novels. In 1868, after
some years’ residence in Europe, he published
both illustrations and letterpress of Sketches Abroad
with Pen and Pencil. Died March 27, 1888.

Darling, a name applied to a river, a mountain-
range, and two districts in Australia, is derived from
Lieutenant-general Sir Ralph Darling (1775-1859),
who was governor of New South Wales (1825-31).
(1) The river Darling, a tributary of the Murray

iver, is formed by the union of several head-streams,
all of which rise in the great Dividing Range. The
chief of these head-streams are the Barwon and
Gwydir. Farther down, the Darling receives the
Culgoa and the Warrego from the north, and the

from the south. Its length, with affluents,
is stated at 1160 miles, and it and its tributaries
are estimated to drain an area of 198,000 sq. m.
It joins the Murray at Wentworth, on the border
between New South Wales and South Australia,
having received no tributary in its lower course.
Mueh of the district traversed by it is an arid
plain, save near the river-bank ; the river is subject
to floods. (2) The Darling Range, in Western
Australia, runs parallel to the west coast, at a
distance of 10 to 25 miles inland, from the south-
west corner of the colony to a point some 250 miles
farther north. The range has a height of from
1500 to 2000 feet; and in Mount William attains
an elevation of 3000 feet. (3) The Darling district
at the south-western corner of New South Wales,
seantily watered, has an area of 50,000 sq.m. (4)
The Darling Downs form the richest pastoral
district of Queensland, in the southern part of the
colony. This is an upland district on and about
the summit of the Dividing Range. It was dis-
covered by Allan Cunningham, the botanist, in
1827, and has an area of 6080 sq.m. There is also
much fine agricultural land in which the cereals,
— and all kinds of vegetables w well.
he western railway traverses the north, and the
southern line the extreme east of this district.

Darling, GRACE, a name famous in the annals
of heroism, was the daughter of William Darling
(1795-1860), lighthouse-keeper on Longstone, one
of the Farne Islands, and was born at Bamborough,
24th November 1815. On the morning of the 7th
September 1838, the Yorfarshire, bound from Hull
to Dundee, with sixty-three persons on board,
struck the Harker’s k, among the Farne
Islands, and in fifteen minutes forty-three persons
were drowned. The vessel was seen by Grace
Darling from the lighthouse at a quarter to five
lying broken on the rocks. Darling and_ his

aughter agreed that if they could get to her,
some of the shipwrecked crew would be able to
assist them in getting back. By wonderful
strength and skill, they brought their boat to
where the sufferers (nine in number) crouched. The
solitary, woman and four men were safely taken
to the Longstone ; two of the men returned with
Darling, and succeeded in bringing the remainder

off by nine o'clock A.M. Such an undertaking, so
daring in itself, and so successfully carried out,
filled oer one with the warmest admiration.
The lighthouse at Longstone, mayor § and un-
known no more, was visited by many of the wealthy
and the great. Presents, testimonials, and money
were heaped at the feet of Grace Darling; but she
did not long survive her change of circumstances.
She died of consumption, after a year's illness, on
20th October 1842. See Grace Darling, by E.
ar op 1876), and the Journal of William Darling
( y

Darlington, 2 parliamentary and municipal
borough in the south of the county of Durham, on
a slight elevation overlooking the Skerne near its
junction with the Tees, 23 miles 8. of Durham, and
45 NNW. of York. The chief industry of the
place is connected with the extensive locomotive
works, which give employment to many workers.
There are iron and steel works in the north end of
the town; brewing and tanning are carried on; and
there are wool-mills. Pop. (1821) 6551; (1851)
11,228 ; (1871) 27,730; (1881) 35,102 ; (1891 ) 38,060,
of whom many belong to the Society of Friends,
long a prominent and influential element amongst
the inhabitants. Darlington was created a parlia-
men borough, sending one member to parlia-
ment, in 1867. Its prosperity dates from the open-
ing, on 27th September 1825, of the Stockton and
Darlington Railway, which was the first passenger-
line on which a locomotive-engine was employed ;
and that locomotive now stands on a pedestal out-
side the station. From the 11th century onwards
the town belonged to the bishops of Durham, and
till 1867 a borough bailiff, appointed by the bishop,
managed its affairs; in that year it obtained a
charter of incorporation. St Cuthbert’s collegiate
church, a very fine specimen of Early English, was
founded in 1160 by Bishop Pudsey, and was restored
by Sir G. G. Scott in 1869. It has three beautiful
sedilia, and a tower 180 feet high. Among the
chief modern erections are the other churches
(Anglican, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Non-
conformist), the spacious new railway station (1887),
a grammar-school, a high school for girls, a British
and Foreign School Society’s college for female
teachers, and the banks of khouse & Co., and
Pease & Co. A free library was opened in 1885,
for which Mr Edward Pease had bequeathed
£10,000. At Oxen-le-field, 3 miles from Darlington,
are curious cavities of unknown origin, called Hell
Kettles; and near Darlington was the seat of
George Allan the antiquary (1736-1800).

Darlingtonia, a genus of remarkable American
Pitcher-plants, belonging to the order Sarraceni-
ace ; and like its congeners, is insectivorous. See
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS.

Darmesteter, JAMES, orientalist, was born in
1849 at ChAteau-Salins (in the part of Lorraine now
German), ef a Jewish family originally—as the
name indicates—from Darmstadt. He was edu-
cated at Paris, in 1875 wrote a thesis on tlie Avesta,
crowned by the Institute, and became a conspicuous
member of the Société Asiatique. He was pro-
fessor of Zend at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes
(1877) and at the Collége de France (1885). In
1883 he published Etudes Iraniennes, followed by
works on the Mahdi, on Persian popular poetry, and
on Afghan folk-songs (the fruits of a government
mission to India). His principal works were a
series of books on the Zend-Avesta, including a,
translation of the great part of it in The Sacred
Books of the East. He held taat much of the
Avesta has a late origin (see ZE.D). In a volume
on the Hebrew Prophets, he advocated a return
to Hebrew monotheism. He also wrote Zssais '
de Littérature Anglaise, edited two volumes of

682 DARMSTADT

DARTMOOR

philological articles by his brother Arséne, and
translated into rhythmical French a selection of
his wife’s poems. He died 19th October 1894.
His wife, Agnes Mary F. née Robinson in 1857, has
written a long series of books of admirable poetry,
lyrical and other, translations from Euripides, a
novel (Arden), and Lives of Emily Bronté (1883)
and Renan (1897).—ARSENE (1846-88), trained to
be a rabbi, passed. to the study of mediaeval French,
in which he soon became the recognised authority ;
and began the great dictionary in collaboration
with M. Hatzfeld

Darmstadt, a town of Germany, capital
of the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is
situated on the small river Darm, 15 miles S. of
Frankfort-on-Main. The streets of the old town
are narrow, but those of the new town exhibit
many imposing specimens of architecture. Darm-
stadt has several public squares, and fine public
gardens and promenades. Besides the arsenal,
the barracks, and the various religious edifices,
it possesses two palaces. One of these, the
old ducal palace, contains museums of painting,
natural history, and archeology, and a library of
506,000 volumes; in the other, Prince Charles’s
alace, is Holbein’s famous ‘Meyer Madonna.’

he handsome post-office dates from 1881, the
theatre from 1871. There are manufactures of
chemicals, hats, machinery, tobacco, playing-cards,
carpets, and beer; and a trade in iron, petroleum,
fruit, flour, and wine. But the place depends more
on its ducal court and government offices than on
its industries, Pop., with suburb (1875), 44,088 ;
(1890) 56,399 (including 9038 Catholics, 1498 Jews).

Darnel (Loliwm temulentum), an annual grass
of the same genus with Rye-grass (q.v.), common
as a weed in cornfields in England and many parts
of Europe. Probably the tares of the parable, it is
reputed (though some authorities deny the fact) to
have a narcotic poisonous seed. See RAPHANTA.

Darnétal, a town in the French department of
Seine-Inférieure, 24 miles E. of Rouen, with manu-
factures of cotton, linen, and cloth goods, Pop.
6532.

Darnley. See MARY QUEEN oF Scots.

Darter (Plotus), a genus of birds nearly allied
to Cormorants (q.v.), but very heron-like in gait
and gesture. The four species are severally re-
stricted to the warm parts of America, Africa,

Darter (Plotus anhinga).

Asia, and Australia. The head is small, with
naked cheeks and throat; the neck is very long,
thin, and flexible; the bill is long and straight ;
the tail and the toes are also long. The darters
catch fish voraciously and with great dexterity ;
the name ‘snake-neck’ well describes them.

Though aquatic in habit, they rest and nest on
trees. The American species figured is over three:
feet in length.

Dartford, a thriving market-town of Kent, in
the narrow valle
influx to the Thames, and 17 ESE. of London.
Edward III. here founded an Augustinian nunnery
(1355); St Edmund’s chantry was a great place of

pilgrimage; and at Dartford Wat Tyler commenced -

his rebellion (1381). The church, with a Norman
tower, was restored in 1863 ; among its interesting
monuments is one to Sir John Spielman, Queen
Elizabeth’s jeweller, who in 1588 established at

Dartford what is said to have been the first paper-.

mill in England. Paper is still manufactured,

besides steam-engines and machinery, gunpowder,

&c. The modern buildings include a county court-
house (1859), assembly rooms (1860), and, in the
neighbourhood, the City of London lunatic asylum
(1866). Pop. of parish (1851) 6224; (1881) 10,163;

(1891) 11,962. See the local histories by Dunkin

(1844) and Bayly (1876).

Dartmoor is a great granitic upland in Devon-
shire, the source, with two exceptions, of all the
principal rivers of the county, remarkable alike for

its wild and rugged scenery, its antiquities, its wide, -

solitary, trackless wastes, and its mineral products,
It is upwards of 130,000 acres in extent, the extreme
length from north to south being 25 miles, and the
extreme breadth from east to west 20 miles. The
outline is irregular. The central portion is the
ancient royal forest of Dartmoor, and this is sur-
rounded by a belt of open country, once known as
the ‘ Commons of Devonshire,’ but portions of which
have been inclosed. The attempts to cultivate Dart-
moor itself have been very few, and the northern
quarter for miles shows no trace of man, but the val-
leys through which the rivers descend to the lowland
country are singularly fertile, and at times full of
beauty. The moor itself affords valuable mountain
pasture to cattle, sheep, and large numbers of half-
wild ponies. The forest rights belong to the duchy
of Cornwall; but there are rights of pasturage
exercised by holders of what are called venville
tenures in certain parishes bounding the moor,
which date prior to the Norman Conquest.

The average height of Dartmoor above the sea is
upwards of 1200 feet, but its highest point, High
Willhayes, is 2039 feet; and the next, Yes Tor,
2030. The hills are commonly called tors, and
for the most part have granite crests, weathered
into grotesque and picturesque shapes. The whole
of Dartmoor is of granite, protruded between the
close of the Carboniferous and the opening of the
Triassic periods. Devonian rocks mantle round its
southern extension, and Carboniferous round its
northern, associated at various points with gabbros,
dolerites, and other intrusive rocks. The granite
is chiefly gray, but there are rich red varieties, as
at Trowlesworthy.
nary stone have been quarried, especially at Hey
Tor and King Tor. Dartmoor is rich in minerals.
Tin has been raised for many centuries, long
before the dawn of history, by streaming in the
valleys, and vestiges of the ancient mining opera-
tions of the ‘old men’ abound. Copper, iron,
and manganese have also been wor
mining is now carried on at a few points only.
Gold has frequently been found in the river-beds,
The tinners of Devon had a quasi-corporate exist-
ence in Saxon times, and their rights were con-
firmed by King John and other monarchs. The
Stannary Parliaments, in which they managed their

affairs, were held in the open air on Crockern Tor, |

The most important mineral product of Dartmoor
at the present day is china-clay, or kaolin, which
is the result of the decomposition of the felspar

of the Darent, 2 miles above its”

Large quantities of the ordi-.

d, but -

tartans gat pita. Ape

oe

‘
a

DARTMOUTH

DARWIN 683

of the granite. The largest china-clay works in
i are at Lee Moor, and are connected by
F ek, ya with wharves at Plymouth.

“ ‘fauna and flora of Dartmoor have many
Ps ts of interest. ‘Trees are very rare; but there
18 @ very singular group of gnarled and stunted
- oaks on a slope overlooking the West Dart, near
_ Crockern Tor, of high antiquity and weird aspect,

which has been called one of the ‘ wonders of the
~ moor’—‘ Wistman's Wood.’

The chief rivers rise at a height of over 1800 feet
_ above the sea, in a wide stretch of peubobeg somvans
Cranmere Pool—the Dart, Teign, Taw, Okement,
Lyd, Tavy, and Walkham. From the morasses of

’ pew gre quarter spring the Plym, Yealm,
e, an
Dartmoor is unrivalled in England in the extent
_ and character of its prehistoric and rude stone an-
tiquities—earthworks, barrows, kistvaens, men-
lines or avenues, cyclopean bridges, circles,
eromlechs, trackways, and pounds or inclosures
of stones, sometimes containing the remains of
villages. Many stone implements have been found.
On several of the tors there are rock basins, formerly
called Druidical, but now assigned to the operation
of natural causes.

The chief centre of apes is Prince Town,
named after George IV. when Prince Regent.
Here a prison was built (1806) during the war with
Napoleon, for the reception of prisoners of war.
When the war ended it was abandoned, and was at
one time used for the manufacture of naphtha from
Sse which failed, as all attempts to utilise the

moor peat beyond the supply of local wants
have done. In 1855 the buildings were adapted to
their present purpose of a convict prison. Attached
is a tertile reclaimed farm. A very picturesque
railway runs to Prince Town, See Rowe’s Peram-
bulation of Dartmoor (1856 ; 3d ed. 1896).

Dartmouth, a seaport and municipal borough
(till 1867 also parliamentary) in the south of
Devonshire, 32 miles S. by W. of Exeter. It is
built in picturesque terraces on a steep slope 300
to 400 feet high, on the right bank of the romantic
estuary of the river Dart, at a short distance from
the sea. The streets are narrow, and many of
the houses very old, with overhanging stories, pro-
jecting gables, and wood-carvin St Saviour’s
Church (cirea 1372) has a richly sculptured,
painted, and gilt stone pulpit, and a beautifully
earved rood-loft. battery, and the remains
of a castle built during the reign of Henry VIL,
stand at the entrance to the harbour. Pop. (1891)
6038. Dartmouth is a quarantine port of the Eng-
lish Channel, and has a considerable trade with the
Mediterranean, and in the Newfoundland fisheries.
It is the port of departure of the ‘ Castle’ line of
mail steamers to South Africa, and a favourite

achting station—the harbour being deep and land-
Jocked. At Dartmouth, in 1190, the Crusaders,
under Richard Cceur-de-Lion, embarked for the
Holy Land. The French burned it in Richard’s
reign, but were repulsed, chiefly by the women, in
an attack in 1404. In 1346 Dartmouth furnished
31 ships for the siege of Calais. In 1643 Prince
Maurice besieged and garrisoned it; but in 1646
Fairfax stormed and took it. Newcomen, the in-
ventor of the steam-engine, was born here; Sir
Humphrey Gilbert was born at Greenway, on the
opposite side of the Dart; and another great
Fltzabethan worthy, - John Davis, at Sandridge.

Daru, PIERRE ANTOINE, CoMTE, a French
writer and financier, was born at Montpellier, 12th
January 1767. At sixteen he entered the army, and
rose rapidly, but was flung into prison during the
Terror, where he amused himself by translating
Horace. Under Napoleon he was Intendant-

Avon.

general in Austria and Prussia, and a councillor
of state, while in 1818 Louis XVIII. made him a
— Thenceforth he devoted himself exclusively

letters. He died a member of the Institute and
of the Academy of Sciences, 5th September 1829.
Of his many books the chief are Cléopédie (1800), a
spirited i; Histoire de la République de Venise
(7 vols. 1819-21); and Histoire de la Bretagne (3
vols, 1826).—His son, NAPOLEON DARU (1807-90),
opposed the coup d'état, and was proscribed ; but
became a member of the National Assembly in
1871, of the senate in 1876.

Darwaz. See BOKHARA.

Darwen, a municipal borough of Lancashire,
on the river Darwen, 34 miles 8. of Blackburn, and
9 N. of Bolton. Cotton is the staple manufacture ;

then come panes making and paper-staining ; and
to these and other industries, with its water facili-
ties, and the neighbouring coal-mines and stone
quarries, Darwen owes its rapid growth and its
well-being. It was incorporated in 1878. Chief
buildings are the free library, market hall, co-opera-
tive hall, and the public baths, erected in memory
of Sir Robert Peel. Pop. (1851) 7020; (1881)
29,744 ; (189] ) 34,192. See History by Shaw (1891).

Darwin, CHarves Rovert, naturalist, the
discoverer of the principle of natural selection,
was born at Shrewsbury, February 12, 1809. His

dfather was Dr Erasmus Darwin, and his father

r Robert W. Darwin, F.R.S. His mother was a
daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, the celebrated potter.
Darwin was educated at Shrewsbury grammar-
school, studied at Edinburgh University for two
sessions in 1825-6-7, and entered at Christ's College,
Cambridge, in 1828. Already at Edinburgh he had
become a member of the local Plinian Society ; he
took part in its natural history excursions, and read
before it his first scientific paper—a new contribu-
tion to our knowledge of the Flustra or sea-mats.
It was at Cambridge, however, that his biological
studies seriously began. Here he became ac-
quainted with Professor Henslow, the well-known
botanist, who encouraged his interest in botany and
zoology. His chief taste at this time was for

eological research. In 1831 he took his degree of

.A., and shortly after was recommended b
Henslow as naturalist to the expedition of H.M.S.
Beagle, under Captain (afterwards Admiral) Fitz-
roy, R.N., then about to start for a scientific
survey of South American waters. He sailed on
December 27, 1831, and did not return to mie
from his long cruise till October 2, 1836. Mean-
while he visited Teneriffe, the ae de Verde
Islands, the Brazilian coast, Monte Video, Tierra
del Fuego, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, and the
Chilian region, the Galapagos Archipelago, Tahiti,
New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Keeling Islands,
in which last he laid the foundation for his famous
theory of coral reefs. It was during this long
expedition that Darwin obtained that intimate
knowledge of the fauna, flora, and geological con-
ditions of many tropical, subtropical, and tem-
perate climates which so admirably equipped him
at last for the great task he was afterwards to per-
form in settling the factors of biological evolution.

On his return to England in 1836, he set to work to
co-ordinate the results obtained during his a
He formed the friendship of Sir Charles Lyell and
other scientific leaders, by whose aid he was ap-
pointed secretary of the Geological Society in 18%

A year later, he was elected to the fellows nip of the
Royal Society, and early in 1839 he married his
cousin, Miss Wedgwood. In the same year he pub-
lished his Journal of Researches into the Geology
and Natural History of the various Countries visited
by H.M.S. Beagle. From 1840 to 1843 Darwin was
occupied with the publication o- the Zoology of the

‘684

DARWIN

Voyage of the Beagle, under government auspices,
to which great work (compiled by the leading
specialist authorities of the day) he himself con-
tributed an introduction and many notes. _ In 1842
appeared his work on The Structure and Distribu-
tion of Coral Reefs ; in 1844, Geological Observations
on Volcanic Islands; and in 1846, Geological
Observations on South America. These works
placed him at once in the front rank of contem-
porary scientific thinkers. In 1851-53 appeared his
valuable treatise on barnacles, A Monograph of the
Cirripedia.

Three years after his marriage Darwin settled
at Down, near Beckenham, in Kent, where for
the rest of his days he passed his time as a country
gentleman among his conservatories, his pigeons,
his garden, and his fowls. The practical informa-
tion thus gained (especially as regards variation
and interbreeding) was of invaluable use to him
in his later researches. Private means enabled
him to devote himself unremittingly henceforth,
in spite of continuous and distressing ill-health,
to the ursuit of science. It was at Down that
Darwin began to occupy himself with the great work
of his life—the problem of the origin of species.
In 1837 he had already set out to accumulate facts
cand observations for this purpose. After five years’
unremitting work, he ‘allowed himself to specn-
late’ on the subject, and drew up some short notes,
which he enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of conclu-
sions for his own use. These conclusions embodied
in embryo the famous principle of natural selection,
the germ of the celebrated Darwinian Theory (q.v.).
With constitutional caution, however, Darwin de-
layed publication of his hypothesis, which was only
at length precipitated many years later by an
accidental circumstance of a romantic character.
In 1858 Mr Alfred-Russel Wallace, the distin-
guished explorer, sent home from the Malay Archi-
pelago a memoir addressed to Darwin himself, for
presentation to the Linnean Society. On opening
this packet, Darwin found to his surprise that it
contained in essence the main idea of his own
theory of natural selection. Sir Charles Lyell and
Sir Joseph Hooker, to whom he communicated the
facts, persuaded Darwin to read a paper of his own
concomitantly with Wallace’s before the Linnean
Society, which was accordingly done on July 1,
1858. Urged forward by this strange coincidence,
Darwin set to work seriously at once to condense
his vast mass of notes—the ition of a lifetime—
and put into shape his great work on The Origin of
Species by means of Natural Selection, published
in November 1859. For an account of the main
ideas there promulgated, see DARWINIAN THEORY.
The book itself, an epoch-making work, was
received throughout Europe with the deepest in-
terest, was violently attacked and_ energetically
defended, but in the end succeeded in obtaining
recognition (with or without certain reservations)
from almost all competent biologists. From the
day of its publication Darwin continued to work on
unremittingly at a great series of supplemental
treatises, in which his main principles were still
further enforced and enlarged, while minor corol-
laries were brought prominently into view. The
Vertilisation of Orchids appeared in 1862, The Vari-
ation of Plants and Animals under Domestication
in 1867, and The Descent of Manin 1871. The last-
named work, hardly less famous than the Origin of
Species, derives the human race from a hairy quad-
rumanous animal belonging to the great anthropoid
group, and related to the progenitors of the orang-
utan, chimpanzee, and gorilla. In this beok
Darwin also developed his important supplement zy
theory of sexual selection, which on the whole has
been received by scientific thinkers with less favour
than his other ideas. 1

His later works are The |

Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
(1873), Insectivorous Plants (1875), Climbin Plants
(1875), The Effects of Cross and mee Fertilisation
in the Vegetable Kingdom (1876), Differént Forms
of Flowers in Plants of the same Species (1877), and
The Power of Movement in Plants (1880). His last
work, The Kormation of Vegetable Mould through
the action of Worms, appeared in 1881. In it Dar-
win showed grounds for believing that the vegetable
mould which covers a large part of the globe is —
mainly due to the castings of earth-worms, without
which the greater portion of the land surface of the
world must necessarily consist of barren rock or
thirsty sand. |
It is, however, as the great leader of evolutionary
biology that Darwin will be mainly remembered
among men. aioe not (as is commonly, but
pik rie believed ) himself the originator of the
evolution hypothesis, nor even the first to apply the
conception of descent with modification to plant
and animal organisms, Darwin was undoubtedly
the first thinker to gain for that conception a wide
acceptance among biological experts. By adding
to A erude evolutionism of Erasmus Darwin,
Lamarck, and others, his own specific idea of
natural selection, he supplied to the idea a suffi-
cient cause, which raised it at once from the level
of a hypothesis to the grade of a verifiable theory.
His kindliness of character, honesty of purpose,
devotion to truth, and attachment to his friends
rendered him no less remarkable on the moral and
emotional than on the purely intellectual side of
his nature. For many years his health had been
extremely feeble, and he had worked under the
severest physical disadvantages. He died sud-
denly, after a very short illness, April 19, 1882, and
was buried with unusual honours in Westminster
Abbey. See his Life and Letters by his son, Francis
Darwin (1887).
’ Darwin, Erasmus, physician, natural philo-
sopher, and didactic poet, was born 12th December
1731, at Elston Hall, near Newark, in Nottingham-
shire ; entered St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1750.
graduated B.A. in 1754, and afterwards studied
medicine at Edinburgh. After an unsuccessful
attempt to establish a practice at Nesting he
removed to Lichfield, where he married and became
a popular physician and prominent figure from his
ability, his radical and free-thinking opinions, his
poetry, his eight-acre botanical garden, and his im-
penans advocacy of temperance in drinking. After
is second marriage in 1781, he settled in Derby, and
then at Breadsall Priory, where he died suddenly
18th April 1802, Darwin had once a great reputa-
tion as a physiologist, but his system is, for the
most part, inconsequent, baseless, and untenable.
At the same time, many of his ideas are original,

suggestive, and contain within them the germs of 1

His strength and his weakness
lay in his faculty for eh analogies in nature.
Sometimes he is exceedingly happy in his dis-
coveries; at other times he is quite fantastical.
The same remarks hold good as regards his verse,
where, amid the frequent extravagance and i
comprehensibility of his notions, there burst forth
strains of genuine poetry. The Loves of the Plants
(1789), a part of his chief poem, the Botanic
Garden, was happily burlesqued in the ‘Loves of
the Triangles’ in the Anti-Jacobin, Interest in
Darwin’s speculations has been revived by the
recognition of his partial anticipation of Lamarck’s
views on evolution, and so of his own famous
randson’s. His chief works are Zodénomia, or the
aws of Organic Life (1794-96) ; and his Phyto-
logia, or Philosophy of Agriculture (1799). See his
Life by Krause, trans. by Dallas (1879). By his
first wife he was A apmyone of Charles
by his second, of Fran

important truths.

cis Galton.

Im-

Darwin; —

.”

my

DARWINIAN THEORY

685

Darwinian Theory the explanation of the
evolution of forms of life on our planet, offered
the great naturalist, Charles Darwin (q.v.).
rom the very outset we must carefully guard
> oom the confusion, still widely popular, of
‘Evolution’ with ‘Darwinism.’ Evolution must
clearly be retained to denote the entire drama of
cosmic change; Darwinism, therefore, must as
clearly be restricted to one particular interpreta-
tion of the mechanism and plot of this cosmic
drama, of many which have been thrown out by
reflective spectators, Darwin expressed the mode
of the evolutionary process in a classic phrase,
the title of his great work—The Origin of Species
by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation
of Favoured Races in the brie. a Sor a That
eeerge is not only in itself peculiarly shrewd
and well reasoned, luminous and widely appli-
rt-

cable, but has been of the very greatest im
ance in awakening biologists and students of all
other sciences, and thus ultimately the intelligent
public, to the facts of the case—to the conscious-
ness of this evolutionary drama. On the pro-
mulgation of this new hypothesis as to the e of
occurrence of evolutionary changes in the organic
world, the whole discussion as to the occurrence of
evolutionary change at all speedily came to centre
round it ; although in view of the powerful argu-
ments for the occurrence of evolution which had
been independently adduced by Spencer and others,
it may be admitted this was not quite logical. The
fact, however, remains. Moreover to the new stand-
point afforded by the clear acceptance of both ideas
, —evolution and this through natural selection—and

to the energetic aceite of these, first by Darwin
; himself, but soon by a multitude of zealous workers,
we owe a progress which it would as yet be prema-
_ ‘ture to estimate, but which has pervaded the whole
| field of biology, and even the fields of all the higher
| sciences, mental and social, which so largely utilise
biological methods and generalisations. hatever
; may be the subsequent development of our evolu-
} tionary conceptions, the epoch-making importance
_ of the Darwinian theory will be unaltered. Hence

‘the expediency of the present comparatively full
___ exposition of its main positions and of their bear-
ings, apart from the larger and more general argu-
ment under EVOLUTION.

To the statement of Darwin’s theory, therefore,
Wwe may at once proceed, postulating no more than
that general acquaintance with the aims and results
of biology which is now becoming so commonly
current, or which may readily be gained by help of
the articles BloLoGy and BoTANy. Nor need any
statement of the general doctrine of evolution, or of
evolutionary theories before Darwin, here detain us
: since these find more fitting place in the general
article EVOLUTION.

The failure of pre-Darwinian theories to gain
any very general acceptance among naturalists
was no doubt largely attributable to established
prejudice, backed as this was by the predominant
authority of Cuvier. This was by no means the
whole explanation. For while those theories
rendered it tna 4 ee that modification
had occurred, they all fell short, as Darwin pointed
out, in one most important particular. They
failed to show how the modification of one species
from another could take place, ‘so as to acquire
that perfection of structure and co-adaptation
which justly excites our admiration ;’ since the
s1 NBf of the potency of external conditions

of habit, of the volition of the organism itself, and
so on, alike successively broke down.

Darwin was especially struck by the distri-
butional phenomena he witnessed during his
‘Naturalist’s Voyage,’ and thereafter devoted
himself primarily to the problem of the origin of

ny

species, specially concentrating himself upon what
seemed to him the weakest point of the preceding
theories, the explanation of adaptations, _Com-
mencing in 1837, ‘after five years’ work, I allowed
myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up
some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a
sketch of the conclusions which then seemed to be
robable ; from that period to the present day I
ve steadily pursued the same object.’ This was
written as late as 1859, and even then because he
had received a paper from Mr A. R. Wallace (at
that time exploring the Malay Archipelago), in
which views identical with his own were expressed,
and thus was compelled to proceed to the publica-
tion of his results. He did. so first in a brief out-
line read, by advicé of Lyell and Hooker, simul-
taneously with Wallace’s paper (see Jour, Linn,
Soc., 1858); and in the following year in that fuller
abstract, as at first he merely regarded it, which
soon became so famous—the Origin of Species.
Its substance may with advantage be briefly sum-
marised, so far as further compression of such
‘intellectual pemmican’ is possible. For details
and explanations the reader must consult the work
itself (7th ed. 1880 ).

Outline of ‘Origin of Species.’—In order to gai
insight, then, into the means of modification,
Darwin commences with a study of the variation
of plants and animals under domestication (later
es into a separate work ; 2d ed. 1876).

‘Variation and Heredity.—While all plants and
animals exhibit some degree of variation, this is

test among domesticated species, owing to
their new and less uniform conditions of life.
These may act directly on the whole organisation,
or on separate parts, and the variation, though
rarely, is sometimes definite, as when size increases
with quantity of food, or colour changes with its
quality ; or the conditions may act indirectly by
influencing the reproductive system, which is peeu-
liarly sensitive. Changed habits produce an in-
herited effect—e.g. the leg-bones of the common
duck weigh proportionally more, and its wing-bones
less, than in the wild variety, because it flies less
and walks more. So, too, tame mammals acquire
drooping ears, since these are rarely pricked in
alarm. One variation is usually correlated with
others, thus long-beaked pigeons have small feet,
and conversely. All variations tend to be in-
herited. The eee belief that domestic races
wom as revert to the aboriginal stock is unsupported
by tacts.

Save that domestic varieties are less uniform
than wild species, often differ more widely in some
single part, and are fertile when crossed, there is
no well-marked distinction between these and so-
called true species. If, therefore, such varieties as
the different breeds of the dog can be shown to be
descended from a single wild species, there neces-
sarily arises great doubt as to the immutability of
closely allied natural species, such as the foxes.
While, however, the many breeds of dog appear to
have arisen from several wild species, and those of
cattle also from two or three, our fowls, ducks,
rabbits, &c., all certainly arise from a single ances-
tral species. The case of pigeons is of peculiar im-

rtance, since pouter, carrier, fantail, and tumbler

iffer so thoroughly, externally and internally, that
any ornithologist would be compelled to assign to
them not merely specific but generic distinctness,
if he had discovered them in the wild state. There
is at least as much difficulty in believing that such
breeds can have proceeded from a common ancestor,
as there is in the case of any group of birds in
nature ; and every breeder of these has been firmly
convinced of their descent from distinct species.
Yet all these breeds are proved to come from the
common rock-dove (Columba livia; see PIGEON),

686

DARWINIAN THEORY

and thus those who admit the unity of domestic
races should be cautious in deriding the unity of
wild ones.

Domestic races all exhibit adaptations to man’s
use or fancy, rather than to their own good. The
key to this is man’s power of selection : nature gives
successive variations, man accumulates these, so
making for himself useful breeds, and often, (e.g.
in sheep, cattle, roses, dahlias) profoundly modifies
their character even in a single. human lifetime ; so
that in all characters to which he attends, they
may differ more than the distinct species of the
same genera. Again, that unconscious selection
which results from every one trying to possess and
breed the best animals is yet more important than
conscious selection. Two flocks of Leicester sheep,
kept equally pure, appeared of quite different
varieties after fifty years. Such slowly accumu-
lated change explains why we know so little of the
origin of domestic races; and its absence in regions
inhabited by uncivilised man explains why_ these
yield no plants worth immediate culture. uman
selection is facilitated (1) by the keeping of large
numbers, since variations will be more frequent,
and (2) by preventing free-intercrossing; some
species vary, however, more than others.

Variation under Nature.—All similar organisms
in nature present individual differences, more con-
siderable than is usually supposed. No two blades
of grass are alike, and far more marked differences
often occur, several castes or varieties sometimes
existing in the same sex. Between these castes,
and much more frequently between forms which
systematic botanists and zoologists rank as true
species, perfectly intermediate forms may occur.

o agreement about the definition of species (the
amount of difference necessary to give any two
forms specific rank) has ever been come to; thus,
in the British flora alone, there are nearly two
hundred disputed forms, and individual opinion is
in these cases the only criterion. As long as a
genus is imperfectly known, and its species founded
upon few specimens, they appear clearly limited.
But with fuller knowledge, intermediate forms
come in, and doubts as to specific limits augment.
The terms species and variety are thus arbitrarily
given to sets of individuals more or less closely
resembling each other, See VARIATION, SPECIES,
GENUS.

Individual differences are thus of the highest
importance, as the first steps towards the slightest
varieties worth recording, these in turn towards
more distinct and permanent varieties, these varie-
ties again towards sub-species, and in the next
stage to species; though extinction may often
arrest the process.

The species which present most varieties are
those which have the greatest geographical range, or
the widest diffusion in their own territory, or which
possess the greatest number of individuals. In
the larger genera of each country the species vary
more frequently than in the smaller genera; and
in many respects the species of large genera present
a strong analogy with varieties, which analogy is
alone intelligible on the view that they once
existed as mere varieties themselves.

Struggle for Existence.—All organic beings tend
to increase with extreme rapidity, so that if they
were not kept down, the earth would soon be
covered by the progeny of a single pair. This is
evidenced not merely by calculation, but by actual
observation of the extraordinary rapidity with
which plants and animals have Asai § when in-
troduced into new and favourable circumstances
(eg. thistles and rabbits into Australia).

ince organisms then are reproducing themselves
so rapidly, and since all their offspring cannot

escape their eneiies, get food, and live, much less

leave progeny in turn—since, in other words, the
doctrine of Malthus applies to animals and plants
with manifold force (for these can have no artificial
increase of food, and no prudential restraints on re-
production )—there must in every case be a struggle
for existence, either of one individual with another
of the same species, or with the individuals of dis-
tinct species, or with the physical conditions of
life; often, indeed, with all these at once, and
that more or less intensely throughout the whole of —
life. ,

The checks which prevent increase are most
obscure, and vary in each case. In all cases the
amount of food, of course, gives the extreme limit.
The youngest organisms genetally suffer most;
seedlings, for instance, are destroyed in vast num-
bers. Thus, even in a patch of ground purposely
dug and cleared, where no choking from other plants
could take place, 295 out of 357 seedling-weeds were
destroyed, chiefly by slugs and insects. So, too,
the stock of game on an estate depends chiefly upon
the destruction of vermin. Climate, however, is
highly important, and periodic seasons of extreme
cold and drought seem the most ‘effective of all
checks—a severe winter sometimes destroying four-
fifths or more of the birds of a locality. Epidemies,
too, may occur, especially where numbers have
inordinately increased. n the other hand, a
large number of individuals of the same species
is essential for its continued preservation. ae

The complex relations of all animals and plants
to each other require illustration. The planting
of part of a heath with Scotch fir leads to a pro-
found alteration of its flora and fauna, while the
growth of these firs again is wholly dependent
upon the exclusion of cattle. Many flowers depend
for fertilisation on the visit of a special insect—
e.g. red clover on humble-bees. But bees are
destroyed by field-mice, and consequently pro-
tected by cats; hence, not only no bees, no clover,
but also the more cats, the more clover! The
struggle for life is most severe between individuals
and varieties of the same species, and between
the species of the same genus, since these tend to
fill the same place in the economy of nature; hence
we see the brown rat supplanting the black, and
the hive-bee supplanting its Australian congener.
The structure of every ioe is related to that of
the others with which it competes, or from which
it seeks to escape, or on which it preys; as is alike
evident in the structure of the tiger and of the
parasite which clings to his hair. So, too, the
albumen of a seed is aheey useful in favouring the
young plant’s struggle for light and air against the
adult plants around.

Natural Selection.—But how will the struggle
for existence act with regard to variation? Can
the principle of selection, so potent in the hands
of man, apply under nature? Most efficiently so.
Let us bear in mind (1) the constant occurrence
of variation; (2) the infinite complexity of the
relations in which organisms stand to each other,
and to the physical conditions of life; and con-
sequently (3) what infinitely varied diversities of
structure one be useful to each being under
changing conditions of life. Can it then be thought
improbable, seeing that variations useful to man
have undoubtedly occurred, that other variations
useful in some way to each combatant in the great
and complex battle of life should also occur in the
course of many generations? And if such do
oceur, can we doubt (remembering that many more
individuals are born than can possibly survive)
that individuals having some advantage, however
slight, have the best chance of surviving and of
reproducing their kind, while injurious variations
are destroyed? This preservation of favourable
variations, and the destruction of injurious ones, —

DARWINIAN THEORY

687

is termed Natural Selection, or less figuratively,

the Survival of the Fittest.
Taking the case of a country undergoing a
one of climate, the proportional numbers of
its denizens would change, some species probably
becoming extinct—and these chan would in
many ways affect the survivors. further dis-
turbance would come from the immigration of new
forms; or if that were prevented, we should have
mare in the economy of nature which might be
filled up. Any slight favourable modifica-
tion of the old species would tend to be preserved,
and we have seen that changed conditions increase
variability.
_ Nor are such changes necessary in order to leave
aces for natural selection to fill. No country can
named where the native inhabitants are per-
_ feetly adapted to their conditions and competitors,
for as some foreigners have taken firm ion
in every country, we may tf conclude that the
natives might have been modified with advantage
to resist them.

And when human selection has produced such

t results, why may not natural? Human
selection acts. only for man’s own good, on mere
external and visible characters, and irregularly
oh pat a short period; natural selection acts
for the good of the being itself, on the whole
machinery of its life, and incessantly on the
species, throughout almost infinite time. (It is
important here to remember that the objection to
this agency on the ground of its presumed insigni-
ficance, is identical with that so long but unsuc-
cessfully employed-against Lyell’s explanation of
the origin of the physical features of the globe by
summing up the existing natural changes. )

Natural selection thus leads to the improvement
of each creature in relation to its organic and
inorganic conditions of life, and consequently in
most cases to what must be regarded as an advance
in organisation, Nevertheless, low and simple
forms will long endure, if well fitted for their
oe ies conditions.

atural selection may modify the egg, seed, or
young, as easily as the adult, and these moditica-
tions may effect through correlation the structure
of the latter, and conversely.

Besides Natural, we have to consider Sexual
Selection—i.e. not merely do individuals struggle
for existence, but the males struggle for the
females, and the most vigorous thus tend to leave
most progeny. Special weapons, offensive and
defensive, like the cock’s spurs, the stay’s horns,
or the lion's mane, are used in this struggle,
and the most useful variations are those which
are transmitted. Again, just as man can in a
short time give beauty to his domestic birds, so
there is no good reason to doubt that female birds
in thousands of generations, by selecting, as the
are observed to do, the most melodious or beauti-
ful males, might produce a marked effect, and
many sexual differences are thus explained.

The theory of natural selection may be applied
in special cases—e.g. (1) to explain the evolution
of swift greyhound-like varieties of wolves ; (2) to
explain the origin and the excretion of nectar in
flowers, its use to insects, the action of insects in
transferring pollen from flower to flower, with its
advantage in intercrossing; and the resultant
modification and adaptation of flower and insect
to each other by the preservation of advantageous
variations,

The circumstances favourable to the production
of new forms through natural selection are also
reviewed. These are chiefly, great variability ;
large numbers of individuals; the complex effects
of intercrossing ; isolation in small areas, yet also
extension over continental ones,.especially if these

vary in altitude; and considerable lapse of time.
Rare species are shown to be in process of extine-
tion. The divergence of character in domestic
breeds, largely due to the fact that ‘fanciers do
not, and will not, admire a medium standard, but
like extremes,’ applies throughout nature, from the
circumstance that the more diversified the descend-
ants from any one species become in structure,
constitution, and habits, by so much will they
be better enabled to seize on many and widely
diversified places in nature, and so to increase in
numbers. Thus, taking a carnivorous animal which
has reached the maximum numbers its territory
will support, it is evident that it can succeed in
increasing only by its varying descendants seizing
places hitherto occupied by other animals. This
must hold equally of all species, and is separately
demonstrated for plants. The greatest amount of
life can be supported by help of es a gs great
diversification of structure; hence, in small areas
where competition is severe, the inhabitants are
extremely varied.

The probable effects of the action of Natural
Selection, through divergence of character and
extinction, on the descendants of a common
ancestor are then discussed in detail by Mr Darwin
with an illustrative diagram. This takes the form
of a genealogical tree—‘ the great tree of life, which
fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of
the earth, and covers the surface with its ever-
branching and beautiful ramifications.’

Laws of Variation (see VARIATION).—Of the
cause of most variations we are still ignorant, but
the same laws appear to have acted in producing
the lesser differences between varieties of the same
species and the greater differences between species
of the same genus. Changed conditions sometimes
induce definite and permanent effects: habit, use,
and disuse are potent in their effects. Specific
characters are more variable than generic, and
varietal than either. Rudimentary organs and
secondary sexual characters are highly variable.
Species closely related of similar constitution and
similarly influenced, present analogous variations,
and frequently exhibit characters which can only
be explained as reversions to those of their ancient
progenitors—e.g. zebra-like stripes on horses, or
wood-pigeon’s markings on fantails, tumblers, Xe.

Difficulties and Objections.—In four chapters all
the miscellaneous objections raised against the
theory between 1859 and the appearance of the
latest edition are successively stated, weighed, dis-
cussed, and met, as well as the mucli more serious
difficulties pointed out by Darwin himself. These
latter are, (1) the definiteness of species and the
rarity of transitional forms; (2) the enormous
degree of modification in habits and structure
assumed by the theory, and the seeming improba-
bility that Natural Selection should produce on the
one hand an organ of such trifling importance as
the tail of a giraffe, and on the other, an organ so
wonderful as the eye; (3) the acquirement and
modification through Natural Selection of such
marvellous instincts as those of the bee; (4) the
sterility of crossed species, and the fertility of
crossed varieties. For these discussions, however,
the reader must consult the work itself.

Imperfection of the Geological Kecord.—On the
assumption of the extermination of an enormous
number of intermediate varieties, which were the
links between existing and remote ancestral forms
—why, then, is not every —— formation
charged with such links? hy does not every
collection of fossils afford plain evidence of the
— and mutation of the forms of life?

eology, assuredly, does not reveal any such finely
graduated organic chain, and this is one of the
most obvious and plausible objections to the

688

DARWINIAN THEORY

theory. The explanation offered is the extreme—
the almost ireredibls stm perteciion of the geological
record. Only a small portion of the globe has been
geologically explored with care; only certain classes
of beings have been fossilised; and the number,
both of specimens and species yet discovered, is
absolutely as nothing compared with the number
which must have passed away during even a single
formation. The Malay Archipelago equals in area
the formations best known to us; its present
condition represents that of Europe while Europe’s
strata were being deposited; its fauna and flora
are among the richest on the globe, yet, even if all
the species were to be collected which ever lived
there, how imperfectly would they represent the
natural history of the world! Only few species are
reserved at all, and most of these in an imper-
ect manner; moreover, subsidence being almost
necessary for the accumulation of rich deposits,
great intervals of time must have elapsed between
successive formations, so that during periods of ele-
vation, when variation would be most frequent, the
record is least perfect. Moreover, geological forma-
tions have not been continuously deposited ; the
duration of specific forms probably exceeds that of
each formation; migrations have largely taken
place; widely ratiging species are most variable,
and oftenest give rise to new species; varieties
have been at first local ; and finally, it is probable
that periods of modification are short as compared
with periods of permanence. Hence we cannot find
innumerable varieties, and any linking variety
between two forms is, of course, ranked as a distinct
species, for the whole chain cannot be permanently
restored. Thus the geological record is a history of
the world indeed, but one imperfectly kept, and
written in a changing dialect; of this history we
possess the last volume only, relating to two or
three countries. Even of this volume only here and
there has a short chapter been preserved, and of
each page only here and there a few lines.
Geological Succession of Organic Beings ( Distribu-
tion in Lime). —The preceding difficulties excepted,
the facts of paleontology agree admirably with the
theory. New species come in slowly and succes-
sively ; they change in different rates and degrees ;
old forms pass through rarity to extinction, and
never reappear ; dominant forms spread and vary,
their descendants displacing the inferior groups, so
that after long intervals of time the productions of
the world appear to have changed simultaneously.
The most ancient forms differ most widely from
those now living, yet frequently present characters
intermediate between groups now widely divergent,
and they resemble to a remarkable extent the
embryos of the more recent and more highly
specialised animals belonging to the same classes.
hese laws, and, above all, the important law of the
succession of the same types within the same areas
during the later polemics periods, and most
notably between the Tertiary period and the
present time (e. §. fossil and recent marsupials in
Australia, and edentates in South America), cease
to be mysterious, and become at once thoroughly
intelligible on the principle of inheritance, and on
that alone.
- [Since the publication of the Origin of Species in
1859, paleontological research has been constantly
furnishing the most triumphant verification of these
views. The imperfection of the geological record
was so far from overestimated that Huxley
(Science and Culture, 1880), in comparing our
resent knowledge of the mammalian Tertiary
auna with that of 1859, states that the results of
the investigations of Gaudry, Marsh, and Filhol
are ‘as if zoologists were to become acquainted with
a country hitherto unknown, as rich in novel forms
of life as Brazil or South Africa once were to

Europeans.’ Gaudry has found the intermediate
stages by which civets passed into hyzenas; Filhol
has disinterred still more remote ancestral carni-
vores; while Marsh has obtained a complete series of
forms intermediate between that, in some respects,
most anomalous of mammals, the horse, and the sim-
lest five-toed ungulates (see MAMMALS). Again,
Darwin's belief that the distinctness of birds com
all other vertebrates was to be accounted for by the
extinction of a long line of progenitors connecti
them with reptiles, was in 1859 a mere assumption ;
but in 1862 the long-tailed and intensely reptilian
bird Archeopteryx (q.v.) was dlisoovenmets while in
1875 the researches of Marsh brought to light
certain cretaceous birds, one (Hesperornis) with
teeth set in a groove, the other (Ichthyornis) with
teeth in sockets, and with bi-conecave vertebree,
Besides these reptilian birds, bird-like reptiles have
similarly been forthcoming, and the hypothesis of
Darwin is thus admirably verified. Considerable
light, too, has been thrown on the pedigree of
crocodiles; ammonites, trilobites, and other in-
vertebrates have: been arranged in series, while
important collateral evidence is also furnished by
‘persistent types’ such as Ceratodus, Beryx,
N, autilus, Lingula, &c., which have survived—we
must assume by ordinary generation—almost com-
pletely unchanged since remote geological periods,

n such grounds, therefore, Huxley asserts (op. cit.)
that ‘on the evidence of paleontology, the evolu-
tion of many existing forms of animal life from
their predecessors is no longer an hypothesis, but
an historical fact; it is only the nature of the
physiological factors which is still open to dis-
cussion.’ }

Geographical Distribution.—Neither the simi-
larity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of
various segions, whether of land or sea, can be
accounted for by identity or differences of climate,
or other physical conditions, but both are related in
the most striking degree to the absence or presence
of barriers to migration between those regions.
Within the same area there exists the most marked
affinity among the species, though these differ from
place to place. Species appear to have arisen in
separate definite centres, the few apparent excep-
tions being accounted for by migration and dis-
persal, idllowed by climatic and scograaaa
changes. But for a summary of our knowledge of
the existing mode of distribution of organic life,
and of the way in which that distribution has been
effected, as well as of the very important bearing of
these facts upon the theory of evolution, which
they may be said, indeed, more than any other
class of facts, to have suggested, see the article
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Morphological Arguments.—The physiological
and distributional lines of argument being sum-
marised, those furnished by morphology, although
not less numerous and highly important, can only
very briefly outlined. These are mainly four, and
are derived from (a) Classification, (6) Homologies,
(c) Embryology, (d¢) Rudimentary Organs.

(a) Classification. — Naturalists arrange the
species, genera, and families in each class, on what

| is called the Natural System. But what is meant

by this system? Is it, after all, merely an artificial
scheme for enunciating general propositions, and of
placing together the forms most like each other?
or does it, as many believe, reveal the plan of crea-
tion? The grand fact of classification is, that
organic beings, throughout all time, are arranged
in groups subordinated under other groups—in-
dividuals under varieties, and these again under
species ; species under genera; genera under sub-
families, families, and orders; and all under a few
grand classes. The nature of all these relation-
ships—the rules followed and the difficulties met.

,

DARWINIAN THEORY

689

hy naturalists in their classifications—the high
value set upon constant and prevalent structures,
- whether these be of great or little use, or, as with

rudimen organs, of none at ali—the wide
opposition in value between such misleading re-
_ semblances of adaptation, as, for instance, the fish-
like form of whales, and such characters of true
allinity as are afforded by the structure of their
cireulatory or respiratory system—all these receive

a simple and natural explanation on the view of
_ the common descent of allied forms with modifica-
tion ugh variation and natural selection ; while
it is to be noted that no other explanation has ever
even been attempted. The element of descent,

forms, and varieties of the same species, wi el
though these (e.g. Cirripedes ) may differ from eac
other in structure: and we have only to extend
it to understand the meaning and origin of the
Natural System.

, () Homology.—The members of the same class,
in ependently of their habits of life, resemble each
other in their general plan of organisation. Thus,
the hand of man, the digging-paw of the mole, the
leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the

pattern, bone corresponding to bone. Similarly
with the hind-limb. Again, the mouths of insects
are of innumerable varieties of form and use—
_ witness the long spiral trunk of a moth, and the
_. great jaws of a beetle—yet these are formed by
modifications of an REer lip, mandibles, and two
pairs of maxille. And so it is with the limbs of
crustaceans, or the flowers of plants; in fact, with
the organs of every class of beings.

This conformity to type is ‘ powerfully suggestive
of true relationship, of inheritance from a common
ancestor ;’ it admits, in short, as no one indeed
denies, of a simple explanation in terms of the
evolutionary theory, and thus strengthens that
theory not a little. Attempts have been made to
explain this unity of plan in two other ways—first,
by assuming it due to utility, which is negatived
by the facts, since organs of identical use (e.g. the
wings of a bird and those of a buttertly) very
frequently do not conform to the same type at all;
memaly, by attributing it to a unity of design,
which, however, (a) instead of being < Boge main-
tained, as it should be, on the theory, is not un-
a sere quite lost in highly specialised forms ;
and which, even if it always existed, (b) would
directly suggest the unity of descent,.the design
thus serving only to mislead the anatomist.

Serial Homology, too, has to be accounted for—

that unity of type which is found on comparing the
different parts and organs in the same individual,
so that the wonderfully complex and varied jaws
and legs of a lobster, or the widely different leaves,
pee petals, stamens, and pistils of a flower, are
all found to be modifications of a simple limb, and
a simple leaf-organ respectively. ot only are
such metamorphoses apparent on comparison, but
they can be actually observed to occur during the
“development of each individual; is then the term
metamorphosis to have a mere metaphorical mean-
ing when applied to the species, or has it not
actually arisen in past time, through the natural
selection and transmission of advantageous varia-
tions ? .

(c) Development.—It has been already indicated
that the serially homologous parts in the same in-
dividual are alike during an early embryonic period,
as also are the homologous organs in animals which,
like bat, horse, and porpoise, may be widely differ-
entiated in adult life. So closely, too, do the
embryos of the most distinct species pelongiug, %
the same class resemble each other, that even Von
Baer “e unable to distinguish whether two un-

48

organisation.

too, is already used in linking all the sexes, ages,

wing of the bat, are all constructed on the same

labelled specimens were lizards, birds, or mammals,
This law of embryonic resemblance holds very
widely—e.g. with young crustaceans. The embryo
often retains within the egg or womb structures
which are of no service to it, either at that or at a
later period of life, like the transitory gill-arches of
birds or mammals; while, on the other hand,
larve (e.g. of insects), which have to provide for
their own wants, undergo complete secondary
adaptation to the surrounding conditions. The
— of development goes from the general to
he special ; thus there is generally an advance in
In peculiar conditions, however,
degeneration may occur. All these facts are
readily explained on the principle of successive
slight variations not necessarily or generally super-
vening very early in life, and inherited at a corre-
sponding period ; hence it is in the highest degree
probable that most embryonic stages show us more
or less ey the progenies of the group in its
adult state; and embryology thus rises greatly in
interest. See EMBRYOLOGY.

(d) Rudimentary Organs.—Rudimentary, atro-
phied, and abortive organs, bearing the plain stamp
of inutility, are so extremely common that it is im-
possible to name a higher animal in which none
occurs. The mamme of male mammals, the hind-
legs of boas, the wings of many birds, or the teeth
of foetal whales, and the upper incisors of unborn
calves, are familiar instances. Such organs are in--
telligible on the evolutionary theory, and on that
theory alone.

Recapitulation and Conclusion.—After tersely
summing up the pets mass of evidence,
Darwin concludes by pointing out (a) that the
theory of evolution by natural selection is no more
inimical to religion than is that of vitation, to
which the same objection was strongly raised ; (6)
its revolutionary influence on the study of all de-
partments of natural history ; (¢) on Psychology »
(q.v.); (d) on the origin of man and his history
(see MAN); (e) on our theories of future progress.

Envoy.—‘ It is interesting to contemplate a
tangled bank clothed with many plants of many
hades: with birds singing on the bushes, with vari-
ous insects flitting about, and with worms crawling
through the damp earth, and to reflect that these -
elaborately constructed forms, so different from
each other, and dependent on each other in so
complex a manner, have all been produced by laws.
acting around us. These laws, taken in the la t
sense, being Growth with Reproduction ; and Inher-
itance, which is almost implied by reproduction ;
Variability from the indirect and direct action of
the conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a’
Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle
for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selec-
tion, entailing Divergence of Character and the
Extinction ot les improved forms. Thus, from the :
war of nature, from famine and death, the most
exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, |
namely, the production of the higher animals,
dhiesély follows. There is grandeur in this view of
life, with its several powers, having been originally
breathed by the Creator into a few forms, or into
one; and that, whilst this planet has gone eycling
on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so
simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful.
and most wonderiul have been, and are: being, :
evolved.’

The stormy reception of the Origin of Species, the
controversies to which it gave rise, its rapid
and widespread acceptance, helped as it was by.
the independent support, yet generous self-abnega-,
tion, of Mr Wallace, and the powerful advocacy of,
Huxley, Hooker, Asa Gray, and others, are all
recorded in Darwin's Life. Of the proposed expan-
sion of the Origin, only the first chapter actually.

690 DARWINIAN THEORY

DASH

appeared, as Variation of Animals and Plants
under Domestication (see VARIATION); but in
Fertilisation of Orchids, Forms of Flowers, Insect-
ivorous Plants, Climbing Plants, Movement in
Plants, we have a series which not only greatly
developed Darwin’s favourite study of adaptations,
and with it enormously strengthened his general
theory, but gave to the arid field of botany the
interest and freshness of a new intellectual spring
(see BoTANy). Again, the very difficulties which
he felt to be presented to his theory by the com-
plex phenomena of bee and ant society led him
onwards, till he reached the problems of mind and
language ; the obvious and burning question of the
origin of man had-also to be faced, and thus we
had the*Descent of Man and the Expression of the
Emotions.

. Before conclusion, justice demands, if not dis-
cussion, at least mention of some of the more im-
nortant criticisms which have been urged against
lawns theory. That which Darwin himself
seems to have felt as most serious was made by
Fleeming Jenkin, who laid stress on the tendency
to swamping any individual variation, however
advantageous, through intercrossing. Mr Mivart’s
Genesis of Species next engaged him most; but
Darwin’s replies to these and other criticisms up to
1872 will be found in the final edition of the Oragin
of Species. In his essay in Darwin's Life, Huxley
says, ‘I venture to aflirm that so far as all my
knowledge goes, all the ingenuity and all the
learning of hostile critics have not enabled them to
adduce a single fact of which it ean be said this is
irreconcilable with the Darwinian theory ;’ while
Mr Ray Lankestey still more recently assures us
that ‘sinceits first publication in-1859 the history
of Darwin’s theory has been one of continuous and
decisive conquest, so that at the present day it is
universally accepted as the central, all-embracing
doctrine of zoological and botanical science.’

-As a matter of fact, however, this ‘universal
acceptance’ is not without its universally dis-
tributed exceptions. Some of Darwin’s contem-
oraries have withheld their adhesion—e.g. Virchow
in Germany, Owen and Cleland in Britain,
and the older French naturalists; nor can the
critical and controversial writings of Mivart, the
Duke of Argyll, Samuel Butler, and others, be thus
wholly ignored. Constructive criticism is also
busy. On one hand certainly we have the ultra-
Darwinian speculations of Weismann, warmly
accepted by Lankester and others; but on the
other, attempts are again being made, and with
increasing frequency, to restate the theory of evolu-
tion more or less completely in non-Darwinian
terms. Thus, following up the doubt which occa-
sionally troubled Mr Darwin’s recent years, that he
had assigned too little importance to the modifying
factors of use and disuse, of environment, &c., we
have Mr Spencer re-entering the field; in America
an active Neo-Lamarckian school has also arisen,
which lacks neither knowledge nor thoughtfulness ;
in Germany. we owe new constructive efforts to
Niigeli and Semper, and more recently to Eimer ;
while in Britain, complementary hypotheses have
been propounded by Romanes, Sutton, Gulick,
Geddes, &c. But such proper’ positive contribu-
tions to the evolutionary theory fall rather to be
treated under EVOLUTION.

See Biotocy, Borany, EVOLUTION, ENVIRONMENT,
HEREDITY, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ZOOLOGY, and
other articles. Besides the works of Darwin himself,
and those of Alfred Russell Wallace (from Natural Selec-
tion in°1870 to Darwinism in 1889), with the special
treatises referred to under the above-mentioned and
minor articles (e.g. FERTILISATION ), see F. Darwin’s Life
of Charles Darwin; also minor Lives by Grant Allen
and Bettany. Of other expository literature may be.

‘novels a year.

menticned Haeckel’s Generelle Morphologie and Natural
History of Creation; Huxley’s Lay Sermons, American
Addresses, Science and Culture, Anatomy of Invertebrated
Animals; also his essay On the Reception of the Origin
of Species in Darwin’s Life, vol. ii.; Obituary Notice of
Charles Darwin in Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond. 1888) ; and
Struggle for Existence, a Programme ( Nineteenth Century,
1888). Weismann’s Studies in the Theory of Descent
(1880-82), and for more recent developments his subse-
quent papers (see HEREDITY and WEISMANN), must also
be noted. Romanes’ Scientific Evidences of Organic -
Evolution, Lankester’s Degeneration (both Nature
ser.es), Schmidt’s Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism,
Fiske’s Darwinism and other Essays, are examples in
English of an abundant and more popular literature, in
which the writings of Mr Grant Allen and Dr A. Wilson -
are also specially known, and which is likewise abundant
in Germany, France, and Italy. :

Of controversial writings may be cited Mivart’s Gencsis”
of Species, Lessons from: Nature, &c.; the Duke of Argyll’s |
Unity of Nature, as well as the review articles of both
writers. See also Butler’s Evolution, Old and New, and.
Luck or Cunniny. For the literature of the more con-
structive attempts referred to, see EVOLUTION. For
general bibliography Bettany’s Life of Darwin is most
accessible ; also Seidlitz, Die Darw. Theorie (Leip. 1875),
the Naples Jahresbericht f. Zoologie, and the Zoological
Record ; Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin (1895);
Poulton, Darwin and Natural Selection (1896).

Darwin Sound and Mount Darwin are on
the SW. side of King Charles’s South Land, Tierra _
del Fuego. The mountain rises 6800 feet.

Dasent, Str GEORGE WEBBE, was born in 1820
at St Vincent in the West Indies, of which island
his father was attorney-general. He was educated
at Westminster School and King’s College, London;
graduated B.A. at Magdalen Colleve, Oxford, in
1840; and was called’ to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1852, in which year also he received his
degree of D.C.L. He was for twenty-five years
(1845-70) an assistant-editor of the Zimes, and
married a sister of its editor, Mr Delane. An
accomplished linguist, especially in Scandinavian,
he acted as examiner in English and modern
languages for the Civil Service; he was a Civil
Service Commissioner in 1872-92, was knighted
in 1876, and died 11th June 1896. In 1842 he pub-
lished a translation of The Prose or Younger ‘Edda i
which was followed by an soe; ‘The Norsemen,’
in the Oxford cay (1858) ; ular Tales from
the Norse, with an Introducto ssay on the Origin
and Diffusion of Popular Tales (1859), and Tales
from the Fjeld (1874), both from the Norwegian of
‘Asbjérnsen ; translations from the Icelandic of the
Saga of Burnt Njal (1861), and the Story of Gisli,
the Outlaw (1866); and an Introduction and Life
of Cleasby, prefixed to Vigfusson’s completion of
Cleasby’s untinished Icelandic-English Dictionary
(1874). Sir George Dasent also wrote several fair
novels. His famous introduction to Asbjérnsen’s
Popular Tales was a solid contribution to folklore,
being an admirable exposition of the Aryan theory

of story-transmission as advocated by Grimm and.
Max Miller.
Dash, Countess, the name under which

Gabrielle Anna Cisterne de Courtiras, Vicomtesse
de Saint-Mars, published a series of novels, many
of which were readable, if of but slender literary
merit. She was born at Poitiers, August 2, 1804,
of a noble family, married early, and took to ~
literature for a living after the loss of her pro-
perty, writing sometimes as many as five or six
She died 11th September 1872.
Her stories deal almost exclusively with the aristo-
cratic world and its more or less illegitimate /az-
sons. They have a certain brightness and vigour,
but lack reality, and are tau ses by a crowd of
stilted puppets rather than living men and women.
Of her numberless books may only be mentioned —

a ele aE eh Oe ee ee ee

pre S

DASHKOFF

DATE PALM 691

my Amours de Bussy-Rabutin (1850), La Pomme
Pve (1853), Le Galanteries dela Cour de Louis XV.
1861), Comment Tombent les Femmes (1867), and
Aventures Cune Jeune Mariée (1870).
Dashkoff, Princess EKATERINA ROMANOVNA,
daughter of Count Voronzoff, was born 28th March
1743, at St Petersburg, and from her earliest youth
received a careful training. She married Prince
Dashkoff when only fifteen years old, but was left
a widow three years after. She was an intimate
friend of the Empress Catharine IIL., and one of the
heads of the conspiracy formed against Peter III.,
the success of which secured the throne to Cath-
arine. Soon afterwards quarrelling with Catharine
she obtained permission to travel, and visited
Germany, England, France, and Italy, making
tlie erigentanoe of many eminent men (among
others, Garrick, Dr Blair, and Dr Robertson). The
empress and she were reconciled to each other,
and the princess was appointed Director of the
Academy of Arts and Sciences ; and in 1783, Presi-
dent of the Russian Academy, established at her
own suggestion in imitation of the French Académie.
On.the death of Catharine in 1796, she was deprived
of her offices, and ordered by Paul IIL. to retire to
her estates at Novgorod. She died 16th January
1810... Besides writing several comedies and occa-
sional papers, the Princess Dashkoff was mainly
instrumental in inducing the Russian Academy to
draw up a dictionary of the Russian language, and
herself exéented part of the work, See her very
interesting autobiography (trans. 1840).
_Dasyprocta, See Acouti,
. Dasyure (Dasyurus), a genus of carnivorous
marsupials, including forms which in the Australian
and Tasmanian fauna take the place filled in other
regions by carnivores. The large sharp canines,
the sharp-pointed cusps on the back teeth, and the
clawed toes are among the adaptive carnivorous
features, and there are others of a more technical
nature. The dasyures are nocturnal and savage
animals, and as one would expect, peculiarly un-
tamable. One of the most pronounced is the
Tasmanian Devil (D. ursinus), a savage animal,
about the size of a badger, with a disproportion-
ately large and broad head, and massive crowded
teeth. The body is plump; the fur is coarse and
brownish-black, with a white band on the chest,
and another at the end of the back; the tail is

Tasmanian Devil ( Dasyurus ursinus).

thick, and about half as long as the body. In
Tasmania these ‘devils’ used to commit great
havoe among poultry and even sheep, but are being
driven into more and more remote haunts. The
Spotted Dasyure (D. maculatus ), also Tasmanian,
is a much smaller animal, about the size of a cat.
Another ‘ wild cat’ of the same country and Vic-
toria is Mauge’s Dasyure (D. maugei or viverrinus).
Other species occur in Australia and New Guinea.

Nearly allied to the dasyures are two genera,

Thylaeinus and Phascogale. The former, the
Thylacine (q.v.) or Tasmanian wolf, is the largest
carnivorous marsupial; the latter is insectivorous.
See MARSUPIALS.

Date. See CHRONOLOGY.

Date Palm (Pieniz), a genus of palms, the
most important species of which is the Common Date
Palm, the Palm Tree of ewer gor (P. dactylifera),
a native of the northern half of Africa, the south-
west of Asia, and some parts of India, and of which
the cultivation is no less wide, and still extending.

Date Palm :
a, bunch of dates dependent from their spathe ; }, portion of leaf.

Some parts of China produce large crops. Thestem,
which is straight and simple, reaches a height of 30
to 60 feet, and bears a head of 40 to 80 glaucous
eye leaves, of 8 to 10 feet long, and a number of
ranching spadices, each of which on the female tree
bears 180 to 200 fruits (dates, dactyli). A bunch of
dates weighs 20 or 25 lb., so that an average year’s
crop may be reckoned at 300 to 600 lb. per tree,
and the yield per acre at about twelve times that
of corn. From the earliest times fertilisation has
been artificially aided by cutting off the male
inflorescences just before the stamens ripen, and
suspending them among those of the female tree ;
so avoiding the risks and losses of ordinary wind-
fertilisation. In a palm grove there may be but
one male stem to forty or fifty fruit-bearing ones.
The Arabs seldom raise palms from seed ; to make
sure of the sex they take suckers from female trees
known to bear good fruit. The tree begins to bear
about the eighth year, reaches maturity at about
thirty years, and does not decline until about the
age of one hundred. This is one of the most im-
portant and useful of all the palms. In Egypt,
and generally in North Africa, Persia, and
Arabia, dates form the principal food, and date
Ims the principal wealth of the people. The
eshy part of the fruit contains 58 per cent.
of sugar, accompanied by pectin, gum, &c. The
fruit is eaten either fresh or dried, and in the
latter state becomes an article of commerce. Cakes
of dates pounded and kneaded together, and so
solid as to be cut with a hatchet, are the store of
food provided for African caravans on their journey
through the Sahara. <A sweet juice (date-honey )
can be expressed from the fruits, from which a kind
of wine is obtained by fermentation ; also a sort of
vinegar ; an ardent spirit is of course also distilled
from the fermented juice. Palm-wine is also made
from the sap after the terminal bud is removed.
The bud is eaten as palm-cabbage, similarly also

.the undeveloped panicles of flowers. The date

692° DATE PLUM

DAUBENY

‘stones’ or seeds are roasted in North Africa as a
substitute for coffee, and have also been introduced
into Britain for the same purpose. They are also
ground and pressed for oil, and the residue used
for feeding cattle. From leaf-stalks of the common
date palm, all kinds of basket and wicker work are
also made, and walking-sticks, fans, &c. The
leaves themselves are made into bags, mats, &c. ;
the fibres of the web-like integuments at the base
of their stalks into cordage. The wood is used for
building, fences, &e.—The Toddy Palm of the north
of India, or Wild Date Palm (P. sylvestris), so
nearly resembles this species, that it is doubtful if
it is distinct. In some places, the trees present a
curiously distorted and zigzag appearance, from the
practice of yearly tapping the alternate sides for the
sup or toddy. This forms a grateful and whole-
some beverage ; readily also fermenting into palm-
wine, and by distillation yielding Arrack (q.v.);
whilst’ if boiled down it yet the syrup called
jaggery, from 4 |b. of which 1 Ib. of sugar: is
obtained, a single tree producing about 7 or 8
Ib. of sugar annually, The operation of tapping
for toddy spoils the fruit of the tree, which is
small and much inferior to the African date. It
is, however, eaten.—Another species, P. ‘paludosa,
the most gregarious of Indian palms, growing
only 6 or 8 feet high, covers the landscape of
the Sunderbunds with the liveliest verdure. P.
acaulis and P. farinifera:are also dwarf and
closely allied common Indian species. P. re-
clinata is a characteristic palm of the Natal
coast, and P. spinosa of Sierra Leone, &e.
Some derive the origin of the colonnade pillar in
architecture to the regular mode of its planting and
the use of its stem in building, while in symbolic
interest it stands second to no other plant. The
symbol of beauty and of victory alike to Hebrews
and Hellenes from the earliest times, it passed
readily to the suggestion of victory over death and
neler immortality ; hence alike the name Phenix
rom the fabled bird, and the habit of representing
angels and the blessed with palms in their hands.
It was largely used also for decoration of festivals,
and for strewing in processions. Christ’s triumphal
entry into Jerusalem is still commemorated on
Palm Sunday (q.v.).

Date Plum (Diospyros), a genus of Ebenacez,
important for timber (see EBony, IRONWooD) and
fruit. The Common Date Plum or Pishamin, also
called the European Lotus and the Date of Trebi-
zond (D. lotus), is a tree of 18 to 30 feet in height,
with oblong shining leaves and small reddish-white
flowers, a native of the coasts of the Caspian Sea,
Northern Africa, &c., but cultivated and natural-
ised in the south of Europe. It can also be grown in

‘the-south.of England.. Its fruit is of the size of a
cherry, and in favourable climates larger, yellow,
' sweet, and astringent. It is eaten when over-ripe,
like the medlar, or is used for conserves. - This
fruit has been supposed by some to be the Lotus
(q.¥.) of the Lotophagi. The Virginian Date Plum,
or Persimmon (D. virginiana), is a tree of 30 to 60
feet high, with ovate oblong leaves and pale-yellow
flowers, a native of the southern states of North
America, where one tree often yields several bushels
of fruit. The fruit is about one inch in diameter,
with six to eight oval seeds. It is not palatable
till mellowed by frost, and is sweet and astringent.
A kind of beer or cider and an ardent spirit are
made from it. D. Mabola is cultivated as a fruit-
tree in Mauritius. D. Kaki, sometimes called the
Keg-fig, is a native of Japan, which occasional]

is Kept in greenhouses in France and England.
The sweetmeat called Figues-caques is made from
this fruit in France. The fruit of some other
spesiea is also edible—e.g. D. decandra of Cochin-

hina.

Datholite (Gr. dathos, ‘turbid’), a mineral, -

colourless or inclining to grayish, greenish, wliite,
or .yellowish-gray colour, oceurring both massive
and crystallised in rhombic
angles of which are commonly replaced by planes.
It is composed of boracic acid, silica, and lime, with
a little water. It has been found both in schistose
and crystalline igneous rocks; and
Edinburgh, in Norway, Italy, Connecticut, &e. _

Datia, a native state of Bundelkhand, with
a pop. of 186,440. The chief town, Datia, 125
miles SE. of Agra, on a rocky eminence, has a pop.
of 27,566.
tenanted.

Datiscacex, a very small order allied to
Begoniacex, including only four species, of remote
distribution. Datisca cannabina, a plant much
resembling hemp, is cultivated in Crete and Asia

Minor for its hemp-like fibre, also as a source of

yellow dyestuff. It has tonic properties.
Dative. See DECLENSION.
Dat’'ura. See THORN APPLE.

Daub, Kart, a speculative theologian, was
born 20th March 1765, at Cassel, studied philosophy
and theology at Marburg, and became in 1795
ge g of Theology at Heidelberg, where he

ied 22d November 1836, “An earnest and singu-
larly open-minded seeker after truth, although
defective in the true historical sense, and not
a robust and independent thinker, Daub laboured
incessantly to find a sound basis for a reconciliation
between religion and philosophy, and his successive
writings reflect the whole development of prevailin
philosophy from Kant to Hegel. Thus his Lehrbw
der Katechetik (1801) rests irere yee on Kant’s
fundamental principles ; again, dominated by the
influence of Rchelling’s ‘philosophy of identity’
are his Theologumena (1806) and EHinleitung to
Christian dogmatics (1810); while Schelling’s tran-
sition to theosophy and to ‘positive philosophy ’
is mirrored in
despite its eccentricities his best work. Hegel was
called to Heidelberg in 1816, and henceforth it was

his influence which was dominant over the receptive:
In his Dogmatische Theologie

mind of Daub.
(1833) and Prolegomena (1835), he attempts in
the darkest language of the Hegelian dialectic a

philosophical restoration of the dogmas of the’

church. Daub’s Theol.-philos. Vorlesungen were
collected by Marheineke and Dittenberger in seven
volumes (1838-43). See Rosenkranz’s eulogistic but
uncritical Hrinnerungen (1837), and D. F. Strauss,
Charakteristiken und Kritiken (2d ed. 1844).

Daubenton, Louis JEAN MARIE, naturalist,
was born at Montbar in Burgundy, 29th May 1716.
He studied theology at the Sorbonne, but soon
gave himself up to medicine and anatomy. In
1742 his old schoolfellow, Buffon, invited him to
assist him in the preparation of his great work
on Natural History, and Daubenton contributed
richly to the first fifteen volumes of the Histoire
Naturelle, until the jealousy of Buffon led to an
estrangement. Daubenton now devoted himself
almost entirely to his duties in the Jardin du Roi,
where he was professor of Mineralo He was
also for a time professor of Natural History in the
College of Medicine. He contributed largely to
the first Encyclopédie, and wrote many valuable
mémoires. He died 31st December 1799.

Daubeny, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE, chemist
and botanist, was born at Stratton in Gloucester-
shire, 11th February 1795. He devoted himself
chiefly to the elucidation of natural phenomena by
the aid of chemical science—his great work’ being
A Description of Active and Extinct Volcanoes
(1826). “Fe also wrote on thermal springs. He

risms, the edges and -

occurs near .

It has several palaces, some now un-

aub’s Judas Ischarioth (1816),

D’AUBIGNE

DAUDET 693

became professor of Chemistry at Oxford in 1822,
of Botany in 1834, and was an F.R.S. Other works
-are an Jntroduction to the Atomic Theory (1831),
Lectures on Agriculture (1841), and Lectures on
Climate (1862). Daubeny died December 13, 1867.

D’Aubigné, Jean-Henrt MERLE, a popular
ecclesiastical historian, was born at Eaux-Vives,
near Geneva in Switzerland, 16th August 1794
studied there and at Berlin—under Neander—and
in 1818 became pastor of the French Protestant
‘Church in Hamburg. In 1823 he was appointed
court-preacher at Brussels; but after the revolu-
tion of 1830, he deelined the t of tutor to the
Prince of Orange, and returning to Geneva, took
part in the institution of the new evangelical
church, and filled the chair of Church History in
its theological ei ae ore his sudden death, in
the night of October 20-1, 1872. With the excep-
tion of some visits to England and Scotland, where
he had numerous readers and admirers, and where
he received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford and
the freedom of the city of Edinburgh, he remained
constantly at Geneva. The work which has given
him a widespread reputation is his Histoire de la
_Réformation au Seizéme Siécle (1835-53); it has
been translated into most European tongues, and
has attracted more notice ab than at home; it
is written with a devout, fervid sympathy that is
often eloquent, although the narrative is too
phic to be everywhere exact. Its popularity
as been immense. Among his other writings are
Germany, “ah rome and Scotland (Lond. 1848); a
vindication of Cromwell (1848); Zrots Siécles de
Lutte en Ecosse (1849); and Histoire de la Réforma-
tion en Europe au Temps de Calvin (1862-78).
_ D’Aubigné, THEopoRE AGRIPPA, a famous
French scholar, was born on 8th February 1550,
near Pons in Saintonge. At an early period he
-exhibited a remarkable talent for the acquisition
of languages. ene born of a noble family, he
inherited no wealth from his father, and conse-
seemetly chose the military profession. In 1567 he
distinguished himself by his services to the Hugue-
‘not cause, and was subsequently .rewarded by

Henry IV., who made him vice-admiral of Guienne
and Brittany. His severe and inflexible character

frequently embroiled him with the court ; and after
Henry’s assassination (1610), he betook himself to
Geneva, where he spent the remainder of his life
in literary studies. He died April 29, 1630, leavin
a worthless son, Constant, who was father o
Madame de Maintenon. D’Aubigné’s best-known
-work is his Histoire Universelle, 1550-1601 ( Amster-
dam, 1616-20), which had the honour of being
coe - France by oo = nan.

*Aubigné was possessed of a spirit of bitin
‘satire, as is proved by his Confession Catholique
du Sieur de Sancy, and his Aventures du Baron
de Fenesté. See his Histoire Secréte, écrite par
lui méme (1731); also French studies by Réaume
(1883) and Morillot (1884).

Daubigny, CHARLES FRANCoIS, landscape-
painter and etcher, born in Paris in 1817, studied
under his father, who was a miniature-painter,
Paul Delaroche, and others, and from 1838 ex-
hibited in the Salon, although his full ae
came only after the artist had reached his fiftieth
‘year. He devoted himself to close and sympathetic
study from nature, working much on the Seine ina
house-boat, and developed a style of landscape art
marked by singularly unaffected fidelity and origin-
ality. In 1853 he gained a first-class medal with his
‘Pool of Gylien.’ In 1857 he produced his ‘ Spring-
time ;’ in 1861, ‘The Banks of the Oise ;’ in 1872,
‘Windmills at Dordrecht ;’ and in 1877, his large
and very impressive ‘Rising Moon.’ His ‘Sluices
in the Valley of Optevos’ (1855) and his ‘ Vintage’

pees) are in the Luxembourg Gallery. fle is also
nown as a book-illustrator and as a vigorous
etcher, having produced over a hundred plates,
some reproductions, others direct from nature,
marked by great frankness of method and free
a apehagy quality. He died in Paris, 19th
ebruary 1878,

D’Aubusson, Pierre, Grand-master of the
order of St John of Jerusalem, surnamed ‘the
Shield of the Church,’ was born of a noble French
family in 1423. At an early age he entered the
service of the Emperor Sigismund, and served under
the Archduke Albrecht of Austria inst the
Turks. Returning to France, he served with the
Armagnacs against the Swiss, and covered himself
with glory at their defeat near St Jacob (1444).
He next joined the order of the Knights of Rhodes,
and rose rapidly into power, becoming grand-master
in 1476. He labo to bring about a confedera-
tion of all the Christian pores to counteract the
triumph of the Turks that followed the fall of
Constantinople. Mohammed II.’s career of con-

uest, which threatened to spread over Western

urope, was stayed alone by the obstinate bravery
of D’Aubusson and his little colony of Christian
soldiers in the island of Rhodes. In May 1480 an
army of 100,000 Turks invested the town, but were
forced to raise the siege after a month’s desperate
fighting, leaving behind them as many as 9000
dead. Mohammed was filled with fury, and a
second attack was only averted by his death in 1481.
D’ Aubusson died.in 1503. See HOSPITALLERS.

Daudet, ALPHONSE, was born at Nimes on
May 13, 1840. His family had been in trade, but
were not in good circumstances. He was, however,
well educated at the Lyons Lycée, and was able
when quite a boy to take the place of usher in a
school at Alais, an employment of which, in Le
Petit Chose and others of his works, he has given no
cheerful reminiscences. He was only seventeen
when, giving up his ushership, he set out for Paris
with his elder brother, Ernest, who himself became
a journalist and novelist of some mark. Alphonse
(as also did Ernest) obtained an appointment as
clerk or private secretary in the office of the Duke
de Morny, of whom he has drawn a famous portrait
in Le Nabab. Indeed, one of the main character-
istics of M. Daudet’s method, and one of the main
reasons of his popularity with some, and his un-
popularity with other readers, is the manner in
which he seems to have utilised almost every cir-
cumstance and almost every acquaintanceship of
his life in his books. M. Daudet’s literary efforts,
however, began with poetry; and his first book,
in 1858, was entitled Les Amoureuses. He also
devoted some not too successful years of a ge
ment to theatrical work, writing by himself, or
with a collaborator, La Derniére Idole (1862),
L’Gillet Blane (1865), Le Frére Ainé (1868), Le
Sacrifice (1869), Lise Tavernier, and L’Arlésienne
(1872), pieces of which the earlier were more suc-
cessful than the later. Besides this, he contributed
to many journals, especially the Figaro, In this
form appeared some of his best work, the Lettres
de Mon Moulin (collected 1869), Robert Helmont
(1871), the Contes du Lundi, and others; and it
was in these years that he conceived the charm-
ing extravaganza of Tartarin de Tarascon, a
most amusing satire on the characteristics of
the natives of the south of France (1874), which he
followed up with Tartarin sur les Alpes (1886) and
Port Tarascon (1890).

It was not, however, till many years after his
literary beginnings that M. Daudet hit on the
style which has made him popular and famous. He
had sketched something of the kind early in Le
Petit Chose, a book full of pathos and of reminis-

694 DAUDNAGAR

DAUPHIN

cences of his own early struggles. This pathetic

uality is still further erica aie in Jack (1873),
the story of an illegitimate child, part of the in-
terest of which turns on the half-malicious sketches
of certain literary Bohemians; and in /romont
Jeune et Risler Ainé (1874), where the devotion of
a man of business to his firm, his wife, and his
brother, meets in all three cases with an equally
evil return. These have been followed by Le
Nabab (1877), a transparent caricature of Morny
and other well-known personages under the empire ;
Les Rois en Ezxil (1879), the chief parts in which
are supposed to have been played also by actual
persons; Nwma Roumestan (1882), the hero of
which was supposed to have some resemblance to
Gambetta, and which at anyrate is as remarkable
in the serious way as Zartarin in the comic amongst
satires on the ‘meridional’ type; L’Evangéliste
(1883), in which the then new craze of the Salvation
Army was introduced ; Sapho (1884), a book some-
what out of M. Daudet’s usual line, in which the
mutual infatuation of a young man and a courtesan
and artist’s model is drawn with remarkable if not
very wholesome power ; and L’Immortel (1888), in
which all the author’s powers of ridicule, and all
his practised skill in attacking individuals under a
thin disguise, are employed to throw discredit on
the French Academy. The vigour, and within cer-
tain limits, the versatility, of this series of novels is
not ‘denied by any one; but in addition to the
personality already noticed, there has been charged
against the earlier ones at. least a following of
Dickens, which can hardly be accidental, though
it has been asserted to be so.

M. Daudet married early a lady of talent, who
rendered him much assistance in his literary work,
and he formed for some time part of a coterie of
remarkable literary characters, which included the
Russian novelist Turgenief, Gustave Flaubert, the
brothers Goncourt, and M. Zola. He published
autobiographic papers, collected as Trente Ans de
Paris (1887), and Souvenirs d’un Homme de Lettres
(1889). Long a sufferer from locomotor ataxy, he
died 16th December 1897. See R. H. Sherard’s
Daudet (1894) and the Memoir by his son, Léon
( Eng. trans. 1898), who is also a novelist.

Daudnagar, a mean-looking town in the Gaya
district of Bengal, on the Son, 90 miles SW, of Patna.
It possesses, however, a considerable river trade, and
‘manufactures coarse fabrics both of wool and of
cotton. Pop. 9870.

Daulatabad (‘fortunate city’), a town and
fort in the Deccan, within the Nizam’s dominions,
28 miles NW. of Hyderabad. The fortress consists
of a conical rock, 600 feet high, with a wide ditch
and an outer wall nearly 3 miles in circumference.
‘The place surrendered to the Mohammedans in
1294, and Shah Muhammad Tughlak (1324-51)
thrice attempted to remove the seat of government
hither from Delhi. The fortress has not been
garrisoned now for many years, and the town has
greatly decayed. Pop. 1243.

D’Aulnoy, MARIE CATHERINE JUMELLE DE
BERNEVILLE, COUNTESS, was born about 1650, and
died in 1705. She wrote many tedious and long-
winded romances long consigned to safe oblivion.
Of these may here only be mentioned Hippolyte,
Comte de Douglas (1690). Equally enh lene are
her historical memoirs. But her fame rests securely
on her Contes des Fées, which are written in a
simple, bright, and charming style, not altogether
unworthy of the inmitable master, Perrault. The
White Cat, the Yellow Dwarf, Finette Cendron,
and Le Mouton have for two centuries been
naturalised in the nurseries of Europe, and are
still familiar figures in pantomime.

D’Aumale. See AUMALE, (Duc D’).

Daumer, GEORG FRIEDRICH, an able but
eccentric German writer, was born in 1800 at Nurem-
berg, where for a time he was a professor in the
gymnasium, and where Kaspar Hauser (q.v.) was
committed to his care. Abandoning the pietism of
his student days, he passed through Schelling’s phil-
osophy to a position of bitter antagonism to Chris-
tianity, which he wished swept from the face of
the earth ; but in 1859 he joined the Ultramontane

arty, and became one of its foremost champions.
His many philosophical writings reflect his varying
positions; so late as 1847 he endeavoured to prove
that among the ancient Jews and the Christians
of the first century human sacrifice obtained ; from
1859 he expounded and defended the faith. His

oetical works, especially Mahomet (1848) and the
Mederbliiten des Hafis, two graceful imitations of
Persian poetry, have gained a high reputation.
Daumer died at Wiirzburg, 14th December 1875.

Daumier, HENRI, a celebrated French carica-
turist, was born at Marseilles in 1808. Fashion,
tittle-tattle, seandal, politics, blemishes of figure,
and oddities of character in turn inspired his
inexhaustible genius for mockery. Few among his
illustrious contemporaries escaped his pencil, and
his caricatures had always some peas truthful
feature about them. e made his début in the
Charivari, in a series of sketches from Robert
Macaire ; and the revolution of 1848 suggested two
of his most remarkable series—Jdylles Parlemen-
taires and Les Représentants Représentés. In old
age Daumier became blind, and was befriended by
Corot. He died: at Valmondois, 10th Feb. 1879.
See monograph by A. Alexandre ( Paris, 1888).

Daun, LropoL.p JOSEPH, GRAF VON, com:
mander-in-chief of the imperial troops during the
Seven Years’ War, was the son of Count Wierich ~
Philipp von Daun, a distinguished officer in the
Austrian service, and,was born at Vienna, 24th
September 1705. Entering his father’s aes
he acquired a reputation during the Turkish cam-
paigns (1737-39). The war of the Austrian Succes-
sion also afforded him many opportunities of dis-

laying that, combination of valour and prudence
or which he was famous. After the peace with
Prussia in 1745, Daun fought against the French in
the Netherlands (1746-48), and in 1754 received
the dignity of field-marshal. Before this, he had,
in spite of many obstacles, introduced into the
imperial army a new military system, and reorgan-
ised the Military Academy at Vienna. At the com-
mencement of the Seven Years’ War he commanded
the army of Moravia im 1757, and neutralised the
defeat of the Austrians under General Browne
near Prague, by driving Frederick the Great, who
had beleaguered that city, as far as Kolin, and fore-
ing him, after a hard-fought battle, to evacuate
Bohemia. On the 14th of October 1758 he gained
another victory over Frederick at Hochkirch, and
came near to annihilating the Prussian army. In
1759, at Maxen, he compelled Fink, the Prussian
general, with 11,000 men, to surrender. After
this, however, he gained no important successes ;
Frederick began to understand the tactics of ‘ the
Austrian Fabius Cunctator,’ and to conduct uis
campaigns accordingly. Daun died 5th February
1766.

Dauphin (Lat. Delphinus), formerly the title
of the eldest son of the French king, was origin-
ally that of the sovereign lords of the province of
Dauphiné, who bore a dolphin as their crest. The
last of these, the childless Humbert III., in 1343
bequeathed his possessions to Charles of Valois,
grandson of Philippe VI. of France, on condi-
tion that the eldest son of the king of France
should bear the title of Dauphin of Vieane: and
govern the province.

As late as the time of Louis

DAUPHINE

DAVID 695

XI, the dauphin exercised almost sovereign rights;
but after his time these were ually abri ped,
until Dauphiné was placed under the same laws
as the rest of the kingdom, and the title became
amet pomorary. After the revolution of 1830, it
was abolished altogether. See DELPHIN CLASSICS.

Dauphiné, formerly a frontier — in the
south-west of France, now forming the departments
Drome, Istre, and Hautes Alpes. Its capital was
Grenoble, and it boasted its ‘seven wonders ’—
remarkable caves, mountain-peaks, &e. Once the
territory of the Allobrogi, after the fall of the
Roman empire Dauphiné formed the southern-
most part of the kingdom of Burgundy. It then
passed under the dominion of the Franks, and after

e dismemberment of the Carlovingian monarchy,
it became a portion of the new Burgundian king-
dom of Arles, It then passed by legacy into the
possession of the German emperor in 1032, and
remained united with Germany till 1343, when it
was presented to France (see DAUPHIN). There
is a history by Chorier (2 vols. 1883).

Daurat, JEAN, a gifted French scholar, who
played an important part in determining the course
which his country’s literature took at the time of
the Renaissance. He was born about 1510, and
became president of the Collége Coqueret, where
he superintended the studies of Ronsard, Du
Bellay, Baif, and Belleau. These poets, with
whom he was united in the famous coterie of the
Pléiade (q.v.), he carefully trained for the task of
reforming the vernacular, and ennobling French
literature by the imitation of Greek and Latin
models, e wrote nothing of importance in
French, but devoted himself to guiding and stimu-
lating the other members of the Pléiade, in whose
works his learning and enthusiasm bore rich and
enduring fruit. He died in 1588.

Dauria, a mountainous region of south-eastern
Siberia, between Lake Baikal and the river Argun,
on the Chinese frontier.

Dauw. See Horse, QUAGGA, ZEBRA.

D’Avenant, Sir WiLuiAM, English poet and
play wright, was born in 1606 at Oxford, where
is father kept the Crown Tavern, a house at
which Shakespeare was in the habit of stopping
when on his journeys between London and Strat-
ford. A story arose later that D’Avenant’s birth
was due to an intrigue between his mother and
' the great dramatist, but for this there seems to
‘be no foundation, though apparently D’Avenant
himself was willing enough to barter his mother’s
reputation for the credit of such a_ parentage.
‘Aubrey tells us that D’Avenant would often say,
when pleasant over a cup of wine, that it seemed
to him that he wrote with the very spirit that
Shakespeare did, and ‘seemed contented enough
to be thought his son.’ In his twelfth year the
recocious boy penned an Ode in Remembrance of
aster Shakespeare, not printed, however, until 1638.
After a short period of study at Lincoln College,
he became page to Frances, Duchess of Richmond ;
next passed into the household of the aged t,
Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, and in 1628 took to
writing for the stage. During the next ten years
he produced many plays, the least poor of which
were The Cruel Brother (1630) and The Wits
(1636).
was appointed poet-laureate in succession to Ben
Jonson. , About the’ same time he lost his nose
through an illness—a calamity which laid him
open to the merriment of such wits as Suckling,
nham, and Sir John Mennis. He afterwards
became manager of Drury Lane Theatre, but be-
came embroiled in the intrigues of the Civil War,
and was apprehended and flung into the Tower.
He soon escaped to France, and returning, distin-

In 1638, at the request of the queen, he *

guished himself..so much in the royalist cause,
that he was knighted by Charles at the siege of
Gloucester (September 1643). D’Avenant again

t into difficulties, and was confined in the Tower
or two years, when he was released, it is said, on
the intercession of Milton. Once more he set
about establishing theatrical representations, and
in 1658 succeeded in opening a theatre. Two years
earlier he had given what was practically the first
opera in England, with Mrs Coleman as the first
actress that ever appeared on an English stage.
After the Restoration, D’Avenant was favoured
by royal patronage, and continued to write and
superintend the performance of plays until his
death, April 7, 1668. His epic, entitled Gondi-
bert, a feeble reaction from the romanticism of the
Elizabethan ,poets, consists of fifteen hundred four-
line heroic stanzas with alternate rhymes—a metre
which the genius of Gray’s Elegy can scarce save
from the damning sin of monotony ; much bepraised
by its contemporaries, it now sleeps securely in
the same oblivion with the author’s Madagascar,
and his t opera The Siege of Rhodes. A col-
lected edition of his plays, with memoir, was edited
by Logan and Maidment (Edin. 5 vols. 1872-74).—
CHARLES D’AVENANT, his eldest son, was born in
London in 1656, was educated at Balliol College,
sat in parliament under James II. and William IIL,
was commissioner of excise and joint-licensér of
plays, under Anne secretary to the Commissioners

or Union with Scotland, next inspector-general
of imports and exports. , He died 6th November
1714. Among his writings are Discourses on the
Publick Revenues and the Trade of England (1698),
and A Discourse upon Grants (1700), b

Davenport, capital of Scott county, Iowa, on
the Mississippi, o ite Rock Island (q.v.), 183
miles W. by 8. of Chicago by rail. It is the seat of
Griswold College (1859) and of several Catholic
institutions, has extensive manufactures of flour,
wooden and iron wares, and woollen goods, and is
the shipping depdt of a large grain trade. Pop.
(1880) 21,831 ; (1890) 26,872 ; (1900) 35,254.

Daventry (pronounced Daintry), an ancient
municipal borough of Northamptonshire, at the
sources of the Avon and Nene, 12 miles W. of
Northampton, and 4 NW. of Weedon by a branch
line opened in 1888. It. is yell, built on an emi-
nence, and has two principal streets. Charles I.
spent six days here in 1645 before the battle of

aseby. Pop. (1851). 4430; (1881) 3859; (1891)
3939. A mile to the east is Danes or Borough Hill,
one of the largest Roman camps in the kingdom.

David, capital of Chiriqui (q.v.) in Panama,
lies in a fertile plain on the Rio David, which
enters the Pacific 8 miles to the south. Stock-
raising and the cultivation of tobacco are exten-
sively engaged in, and there is a considerable trade.
Pop. 9000.

David (Heb., ‘ beloved’), the second king over
Israel. He sprang from a family of Judah, and
was the youngest son of Jesse, a man of some sub-
stance at Bethlehem. He is described as a hand-
some youth, ‘red-haired,.with beautiful eyes, and
fair of face,’ when he first distinguished himself in
Israel by slaying the Philistine giant Goliath.
After this heroic deed, Saul-took him to his court,
and appointed him to a military command. Accord-
ing to another account (1 Sam. xvi. 14-23) it was
his skill in playing the harp, and his being sent for
to banish the melancholy of Saul by that means,
that first led to his coming into contact with the
moody king. He had soon to flee from Saul’s court,
as the king’s jealousy of his supposed rival led him
to seek David's life; but, by the craft of his wife
Michal, Saul’s daughter, and the friendship of
Jonathan, Saul’s son, he escaped, and fled to the

696

DAVID

country of the Philistines, where, however, he found
_refuge only for a short time. In the cave (or hill-
fort) of Adullam, near Gath, he gathered a troop
- of 400 freebooters, which afterwards increased to
, 600, and with which he ranged through the country
between Philistia and the Dead: Sea, never attack-
ing his king or countrymen, but always their
enemies on the west and south, and levying con-
tributions from the people of Judah for his protec-
_ tion of their flocks. The expeditions which Saul led
against him frequently put him to great straits,
and the difficulty of controlling his irregular force
‘without assuming the offensive against ‘the Lord’s
: anointed ’ becoming ever greater, David left Judah,
_and became a vassal of the Philistine king of Gath,
, occupying for a year and four months the town of
. Ziklag in the desert to the south. After the death
. of Saul-and Jonathan at Gilboa, he reigned seven
and a half years in Hebron over the tribe of Judah,
while Ishbosheth, Saul’s son, ruled the rest of Israel
: with the help of Abner—probably as a vassal of the
Philistines. On the death of Ishbosheth, all Israel
_ chose David as king. - He conquered the independ-
ent city of Jebus (Jerusalem), the strongest natural
fortress in the country, and made it the political and
: religious.centre of his kingdom, building, with the
help of Tyrian artificers, a palace for himself on its
highest hill Zion (the ‘city of David’), and placing
the Ark of the Covenant (q.v.) there under a tent
; —to be replaced under his successor by a temple,
‘for which large collections of materials were made
in David’s reign. The nucleus of his army
consisted of his old bodyguard of 600 gibborim
(or ‘heroes’),. from. which.,the officers of the
general levy were drawn. <A plan is described
in Chronicles by. which 24,000 were put under
‘arms each month out of the 288,000 able-bodied
-men who were the fighting strength of the coun-
_try. There was an additional regiment of life-
‘guards, mostly foreigners (‘Crétht and Pléthi’).
In the course of a few years the conquest of the
‘Philistines, Moabites, Arameans, Edomites, and
Ammonites reduced the whole territory from Egypt
to the Euphrates. During the siege of Rabbah, the
Ammonite capital, David committed the greatest
sin of his life, his adultery with Bathsheba and
indirect murder of her husband. Henceforward
'*the sword never departed from his house.’ The
last years of his long reign of thirty-two years
in Jerusalem ‘were trotbled by’ popular disaffection,
of which ‘his favourite son Absalom availed himself
‘to attempt a revolution, which nearly succeeded in
‘placing him on the throne, but cost him his life, to
avid’s excessive grief; and shortly before David’s
«death—which: was at earliest 1018, at latest 993
'B.C.—another such unsuccessful attempt was made
“by another son, Adonijah, who was aggrieved at
“the choice of Solomon as his father’s successor.
David is by far the greatest of the kings of Israel.
The spirit of his rule is beautifully expressed in his
‘last (poetic) words,’ in 2 Sam...xxiii. 1-7. His
personal courage, his skill and unvarying success
-In war, his foresight and cireumspection in govern-
ment, and his readiness to. sacrifice merely personal
-ends to the welfare of his whole people are especially
conspicuous,
unto all his people.’. The foundation of his rich-and
Pega was his strong faith in Jehovah
-his Goa. . It was this that..distinguished him from
‘Saul as ‘the man after God's own heart.’ He was

‘no saint in the Christian sense, and in his lapses:

from veracity, his polygamy, and his cruel treat-

‘ment of conquered enemies, he followed the customs

of his time. But the same unvarnished history
‘which is the sole authority for the dark sides of his
character is equally to be believed in its presenta-
tion of the brighter sides, and does not support
the unfavourable judgment of David ecsanseds by

_make

‘that only a kin
_theocracy ordained of Jehovah ; he formed the pro-

‘his after career.
‘William of Malmesbury puts it, he was ‘polished

He ‘exeeuted judgment and justice!
from a boy’ until he ‘h

Bayle, Voltaire, Renan, and others, who would
him out either a licentious, cruel, and
hypocritical despot, or simply a child of nature
gifted with an equal share of great virtues and
great vices. ;

The historical picture. of David fully supports
the tradition that ‘the sweet singer of Israel’
was the greatest poet of his time, and the founder
of the sublime religious lyric poetry of the Hebrews,
though many of the Psalms* are rather
tions of the Davidie spirit than of David’s own
en. ‘At an earlier date,’ says Cheyne, ‘much
er was rather unprofitably spent in defending
the Davidic authorship of psalms transparently non-
Davidie. An opposite tendency now prevails. Of

_ the three most distinguished writers, Ewald acknow-

ledges only eleven entire psalms and some frag-
ments of psalms as Davidic, Hitzig fourteen, and
Delitzsch forty-four. All of these agree as to the
Davidic authorship of Psalms iii., iv., vii., vili., xi.,
Xvili., xix. 1-7, and two out of three as to that of
Psalms ix., x., xii., xiii., xv.-xviii., xix. 8-14, xxiy.,
xxix., xxxii., ci. Kuenen, however, will admit no
Davidic psalm, though Davidiec passages may have
been inserted. In any case, it is quite certain
that. there are none in the last three books, and
the probability is that Ewald’s is the most con-
servative view of the headings at present tenable.’

The reign of David» not only determined the

olitical life of Israel, but also its conception of
ideal glory. As the succeeding ages grew darker
and more troubled, believing hearts in Israel turned
back to those days of the kingdom’s glory ; men felt
like David could restore the

totype for the Messianic hope that Jehovah would
send a son of David, who should redeem Israel.

David, or DEwI, ST, the patron saint of Wales,
first mentioned in the Annales Cambrie (10th
century) as having died in 601, Bishop of Moni
Judeorum, or Menevia, afterwards St David’s,
He presided over two Welsh synods, at Brefi and
at ‘Lucus Victorie.’ A rich legendary history
supplements these meagre but authentic details.
Rhygyfarch tells that he was grandson of Kin
Ceredig, and a pupil of Paulinus, that he journeye
throu i Wales preaching and working miracles,
visited Jerusalem, and denounced Pelagianism at
Brefi with such triumphant loudness that he was
made by acclamation metropolitan cae bags of
Wales. Giraldus follows Rhygyfarch in his life,
and Geoffrey of Monmouth sunt ements it further
by making David the uncle of King Arthur, and

‘locating the metropolitan see first at Caerleon,

whence it was transferred by David, with the sanc-
tion of Arthur, to Menevia.

David I. (often called St Davin), king of
Scotland, was the youngest of the six sons of
Malcolm Ceannmor and St Margaret (q.v.). Born
in 1084, he was sent in 1093 to England along with
his sister Matilda (who in 1100 married Henry I. of
England), and remained for several years at the
English court—a residence that powerfully affected
There, as his contemporary

rubbed off all the rust of
Scottish barbarity.’ “

In 1107, when his elder brother Alexander suc-
ceeded to the throne, David, by express bequest
of Eadgar, became Prince of Cumbria, a territory
which, ‘besides part of the modern shire of Cumber-
land, included the whole district between the

Tweed and Solway and the Firths of Forth and

Clyde, caw the shires of Haddington, Edin-
burgh, and Linlithgow. Over the greater part of

this domain he appears to have held absolute sway.
Alexander seems at first to have been inclined to —

rodue-

\
eet ie ee ee ed

es

|
|
|

DAVID

697

dispute David's right to the district, but the suc-
cess of his claim was secured without contest by
the influence of the great Norman barons who had
by this time acquired extensive ions in the
south of Scotland, and to whom David's English
training rendered him pegs” acceptable. By
David's marriage in 1110 to Matilda, widow of
Simon de Senlis, and heiress of Waltheof, Earl
of Northumberland, he still further increased his

wer, becoming Earl of Huntingdon and Earl of
Northampton.

In 1124 he succeeded his brother on the Scottish
throne, but had in 1130, and in in 1137, to fight
for his crown against the heirs of the old Celtic
dynasties supported by the wild tribes of the north
and west. On both occasions the Anglo-Norman
_ chivalry which David had gathered around him
gave him decisive victories. Having sworn, along

_with the other great barons of England, to maintain
the right of his niece, Matilda, to the English
crown, David took up arms on her behalf in 1135
when ‘Stephen mounted the English throne, and
penetrated into England as far as Durham, where
at a meeting between him and Stephen peace was
restored by the grant of the earldom of Hunting-
_don, and the promise of the earldom of North-
umberland, to David’s son senity. In 1138 the
war was, however, renewed, and the king of Scots,
deserted by Bruce and others of his Anglo-Nor-
man ‘adele who owned large estates in England
as well as in Scotland, was signally defeated at
the ‘ Battle of the Standard,’ near Northallerton.
The next year, a second peace was concluded,
when the promised earldom of Northumberland
was bestowed on Prince Henry.

The rest of David’s reign—which marks the end

of Celtic and the beginning of Feudal Scotland—
was devoted to the accomplishment of the great
designs begun by his father and mother, and con-
tinued by his two predecessors—the union of the
different races of Scotland into one nation, and
the civilisation of the b prone. How well he suc-
ceeded may be traced in the two centuries of
mpeny that followed his rei, By the intro-
uction of the feudal system, and the promulgation
and bg se "stg superintendence of the work-
ing of wise laws, he endeavoured to secure the
peace and safety of the country ; and he looked for
aid in this work to the Anglo-Normans whom he
_had brought from the south. By the erection of
burghs he promoted the trade, manufactures, and
commerce of the nation, and laid the foundations of
its freedom. In his civilising efforts he depended
_also largely on the church, the extension and in-
- fluence of which he greatly fostered and encouraged.
Immediately after he became Prince of Cumbria he
restored the fallen bishopric of Glasgow, and after

_ his accession he founded and endowed the bishoprics
‘of Ross, Aberdeen, Caithness, Brechin, and Dun-
blane; besides enriching the previously established
sees of St Andrews, Moray, and Dunkeld, and re-
viving the old see of Galloway Whithorn). He
also founded or restored the ab ys of Kelso, Jed-
burgh, Melrose, Newbattle, Holyrood, Cambus-
kenneth, and Kinloss, as well as a number of
minor religious establishments. So far indeed did
this process of endowment go, that according to
Bellenden, ‘the croun was left indegent throw
amplation of vo rentis to the kirk,’ a state of
’ matters that led James I. (of Scotland) to remark,
while standing by David’s tomb at Dunfermline,
' that ‘he was ane sair sanct for the crown.’ On
the other hand one who was a hard judge of
monarchs—George Buchanan—said with much
more truth, that ‘if men were to set themselves
to draw the a of a good king, they would fall
short of what David showed himself throughout

the whole course of his life.’ Though King David

is often called St David, he was never formally
canonised; but his name was inserted in the
calendar prefixed to Laud’s Prayer-book for Seot-
land, printed at Edinburgh in 1637.

King David died at Carlisle, 24th May 1153. His
son Henry had died in the previous June, and he
was succeeded by his grandson, Malcolm, then in
his twelfth year.

The oldest Scottish painting now known to exist—an
illuminated charter to the monks of Kelso, written in
1159—preserves rude miniatures of the young king Mal-
colm and his saintly grandfather. It is preserved at
Floors Castle, and engraved in fac-simile in the Liber S.
Maurie de Calchou (Bannatyne Club, 1846). See also
Innes’s Scotland in the Middle Ages (1860); Robertson’s
Scotland under her early Kings (1862); and Skene’s
Celtic Scotland (1876). The remains of David's legisla-
tion, including the ac ee code of the Leyes Bur-
yorum, have been carefully collected in the first volume
of The Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland (1844),

David II., only son of King Robert Bruce, was
born at Dunfermline, 5th March 1324, and was
married in 1328 to Edward II.’s daughter, Joanna.
In June 13829 he succeeded his father, and in
November 1331 was crowned, with his child-queen,
at Scone. In 1334 the success of Edward Baliol
(q.v.), and Edward III.’s victory at Halidon Hill,
forced David’s guardians to send him and his consort
to France, whence by the triumph of the national
party he was permitted to return in 1341. Five
— later, in fulfilment of his alliance with

rance, he invaded England, but at the battle of
Neville’s Cross, near Durham, was utterly routed
by the Archbishop of York, 17th October 1346.

or eleven years he remained a prisoner, in or near
London, and at Odiham, in Hampshire; at length,
in 1357, he was released on promise of a heavy
ransom (100,000 merks), whose non-payment in-
volved him in shameful dependence on Eng-
land. In 1363 he actually pro to his parlia-
ment that Edward IIL.’s second son should sueceed
him on the Scottish throne; and though the pro-
posal was curtly rejected, the intrigue between the
two kings was ended only by David’s death at
Edinburgh Castle, 22d February 1371. He was
not forty-seven years old, yet his reign had lasted
more than forty-one years—a reign as inglorious as
it was long, but still of great moment to Scotland,
since, ‘from a war of conquest and patriotic resist-
ance, the struggle had died into a petty strife
between two angry nations, a mere episode in the
larger contest which it had stirred between England
and France.’ Queen Joanna dying in 1362, David
next year had married Margaret Logie, a comely
widow, whom he divorced in 1369. By neither
marriage had he ay issue, so was succeeded by his
sister’s son, Robert II.

David, F&LIcIEN, a French composer, was born
8th March 1810, at Cadenet, in the department of
Vaucluse. He was first a chorister in the cathe.
dral of Aix, then at the age of twenty entered the
Paris Conservatuire. He threw himself earnestly
into the social speculations of his day; became
an ardent Site of St Simon, and afterwards of
Enfantin; and finally, on the break-up of the
brotherhood in 1833, he betook himself, along with
several of his fellow-dreamers, to the East, The
little knot of enthusiasts reached Constantinople,
whence they made their way to Sniyrna and Cairo.
As they had no means, they suffered greatly from
want, sickness, and ill-usage. In 1835 he returned
to Paris, and published his Mélodies Orientales for
the prea They were unsuccessful; and
David remained in obscurity till 1844, when he
brought out at the Conservatoire his Désert, a
grand Ode-symphonie, as he called it, the words of
which were furnished by his friend and fellow-
wanderer, Auguste Colin. Its success was sudden

698 DAVID

DAVIDSON

and vomplete. David was declared a master at
once, and his Désert was performed in all the
theatres. Subsequently, he travelled through
Belgium and Germany, and was everywhere
greeted with applause. Less successful works
were—Moise sur le Sinai (1846), Christophe Colombe
and Le Paradis (1847), La Perle du Brésit
(1851), Herculaneum (1859), and Lalla Ltookh
(1862). He composed also a quartette for strings,
a nonette, a symphony, and songs. Appointed
an officer of the Legion of Honour in 1862, and
in 1869 librarian to the Paris Conservatoire de
Musique, David died 29th August 1876.

David, FERDINAND, a distinguished violin
virtuoso, born 19th June 1810, at Hamburg, was
from thirteen a pupil of Spohr at Cassel, and
became in 1836 concertmeister at Leipzig, which
place he kept till his death at Klosters in the
Grisons, 19th July 1873. His remarkable talent
for teaching his instrument he showed after the
establishment of the Leipzig Conservatorium, and
many of the best violinists of his time were his
pupils. His compositions were equally esteemed.

David, GERHARD, painter, born about 1450,
at Oudewater in Holland, in 1484 entered the
Painters’ Guild of Bruges, of which he became
dean in 1501. He died in Bruges in 1523. The
National Gallery, London, contains an admirable
-example of his work in ‘A Canon and his Patron
Saints,’ a wing from an altarpiece; and among his
other pictures are a Madonna, in the museum at
Rome ; a Crucifixion, in Berlin; and a Baptism of
Christ and a Descent from the Cross, both at Bruges.
David, Jacques Lovts, historical painter, was
born at Paris, 3lst August 1748. e received
his first instruction from Boucher, his uncle,
and at the age of twenty-one became a pupil
of Vien. After several unsuccessful attempts he
ained the ‘prix de Rome’ in 1774, and in the
ollowing year he settled in Rome, where Vien had
been appointed director of the French Academy.
Here he produced little in colour, but devoted him-
self to making accurate drawings from the antique.
Six years later he returned to France, and his
‘ Belisarius’ (1780) procured his admission to the
Academy. Soon afterwards he married, and again
visited Italy and also Flanders. It is in the works
executed during this period, such as the celebrated
‘Oath of the Horatii’ (1784), ‘The Death of Socrates’
(1788), ‘The Loves of Paris and Helen’ (1788), and
‘Brutus condemning his Son’ (1789), that the
classical feeling—founded upon sculpture and
possessing much of its hardness as well as its clear-
cut accuracy of form which was the painter’s chief
characteristic—is first clearly visible. During the
Revolution David entered with enthusiasm into
the political conflicts of the period. In 1792 he
became a representative for Paris in the Con-
vention. He voted for the death of Louis XVL.,
and was a member of the Committee of Public
Safety; and he was the artistic director of the
reat national fétes of the republic, which were
ounded on classical customs. After the death
of Robespierre he was twice imprisoned, and nar-
rowly escaped with his life. On his release in
1795 he devoted himself to his art, producing ‘ The
Rape of the Sabines’ (1799), which is usually
ranked as his masterpiece. He was an original
member of the Institute, and in 1804 was appointed
court painter by Napoleon. After the restoration
of the Bourbons, he was banished in 1816 as a
regicide, and retired to Brussels, where, having
declined an invitation to undertake the director-
ship of Fine Arts at Berlin, he died, 29th Decem-
ber 1825.
David’s productions are distinguished by a cer-
_ tain austere dignity of conception and by elaborate

| accuracy of form. On the other hand they are

often cold and unreal in sentiment, unpleasantly
monotonous in colouring, and defective in their
arrangements of light and shade. His art and
example exercised the most powerful effect upon
the French school of painting; among his pupils
were Girodet, Gros, Léopold Robert, Ingres, and
Gérard ; and the classicism which he introduced
reigned supreme until the rise of the Romantic
school headed by Géricault and Delacroix. The
influence which in his later days he exercised upon
the school of Belgium was hardly less marked and
powerful. Fourteen of his works are in the Louvre,
and five—including ‘ Bonaparte crossing the Alps’
(1805)—are at Versailles. See Le Peinire David,
by his grandson, J. L. Jules David (1880).

David, PIERRE JEAN, a French sculptor, known

as David d’Angers, was born at Angers, 12th March
1789. In spite of the opposition of his father, a

talented wood-carver, he resolved to become an
artist ; and after studying in the art schools of
his native town, he made his way on foot to Paris
in 1808, and placed himself under Jacques Louis
David, the painter. In 1811 his ‘Death of Epami-
nondas’ gained the ‘grand prix,’ and David pro-
ceeded to Rome, where, though he became intimate
with Canova, he preserved his own individuality, —
and produced works modern in feeling and full of

strongly marked character. In 1816 he returned
to France. A statue of the Great Condé, which
he executed about this time, established his repu-
tation. In 1826 he was named a member of the
Institute, and appointed a professor in the School
of the Fine Arts; in 1828, and again in 1834, he
visited Germany. During the July revolution,
David fought in the ranks of the people, and in
consequence he was employed by the new govern-
ment to execute the pediment of the Pantheon
(1835-37). By many it is considered his chef
@auvre. In 1848 the well-known republicanism

' of the artist procured for him the honour of a seat

in the Constituent Assembly. After the coup d’état
he was sent into exile, and went to Greece, but
soon after returned to France. He died 5th
January 1856. In the museum of Angers about
two hundred of David’s works in relief and the round
are preserved, as well as some four hundred of his
medallions and many of his drawings. Besides its
artistic value this collection possesses the greatest
historical interest, as inclu ing portraits of the
most eminent of the sculptor’s contemporaries.
See his Life by Jouin (1878).

Davidson, ANDREW Bruce, D.D., LL.D.,
born in Aberdeenshire in 1831, was educated at
Marischal College, Aberdeen, and at the Free
Chureh College, Edinburgh, where in 1863 he
was appointed to the chair of Hebrew and Old
Testament exegesis. In this capacity he hag
since laboured quietly, but has exercised a quite
unusual personal influence upon his students,
and through them has done much to leaven the
Free Church with a critical spirit that is fearless
in method, but reverent in spirit, and in the best
sense conservative of the real essentials of faith.
With a singular reticence and self-repression, Dr
Davidson, beyond an occasional sermon or article
in the Expositor, has seldom spoken outside his
lecture-room, and has published little, and that

_Tather suggestive than demonstrative of his power

as an exegete. He was throughout a member
of the Old Testament Revision Committee. His
books are a short treatise on Hebrew accentuation
(1861), an unfinished commentary on Job (1862),
a thoroughly serviceable Introductory Hebrew
Grammar (1874), and admirable short school Com-
poe on Job, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and
zekiel, re

ry Ns

5 —_— a i

Treland in 1807, educated at the Royal

DAVIDSON

DAVIS 699

Davidson, Samvet, D.D., LL.D., one of the
ablest of English exegetes, born near wri hres in
llege of
Belfast, entered the Presbyterian ministry, and
was called in 1835 to the chair of Biblical Criticism
in his own college. Remon ing a Commregntegeeet:
he was called in 1842 to the chair of Biblical Litera-
ture and Oriental Languages in the Congrega-
tionalist College at Manchester; a position which
he was compelled to resign in 1857 on the publi-
cation of the volume which he contributed to a new
edition of Horne’s [ntroduction. He wasa member
of the Old Testament Revision Committee. He
died Ist April 189s, and his Autobiography, edited
by his daughter, apotared in the next year. His
works are Sacred Hermeneutics (1843), Lectures on
Ecclesiastical Polity (1848), An Introduction to the
New Testament (3 vols. 1848-51), Treatise on Bibli-
al Criticism (2 vols. 1852), The Hebrew Text o
the Old Testament revised (1855), Text of the Old
Testament, and the Interpretation of the Bible, for
the new edition of Horne’s Introduction (1856);
Introduction to the Old Testament (3 vols. 1862),
An Introduction to the New Testament (2 vols.
(1868), On a fresh Revision of the aapeer Old
Testament (1873), The Canon of the Bible (1877),
‘The Doctrine of Last Things (1883); besides trans-
‘lations of the New Testament from Tischendorf’s

_ text, of Gieseler’s Church History, and Fiirst’s

Hebrew Lexicon.

Davies, Str JoHN, poet and statesman, was
born of a good family at Tisbury, Wiltshire, in 1569.
-At sixteen he entered Queen’s College, Oxford,
whence he passed to the Middle Temple. He was
called to the bar in 1595, but was disbarred three
years later for breaking a stick in the dining-hall
over the head of a wit whose raillery had provoked
him. He returned to Oxford, and there wrote his
long didactic poem on the immortality of the soul,
Nosce Teipsum, dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, in
1599. Spite of the difficulties of a formal poem
‘upon such a theme, it is a fairly successful perform-
ance, clear, vigorous, and sincere, though quite
devoid. of passion or imagination. The verse is
that of the Annus Mirabilis and Gray’s Elegy.
Davies had already published in 1596 his Orchestra,
or a Poeme of Dancing, ‘a sudden rash half-capreol
of my wit.’ It is written in seven-line stanzas in
imitation of Spenser, and is a graceful and har-
‘monious poem on the conceit that all natural
pusronuns are subject to a regulated motion
‘here called dancing. In 1599 Davies published
also his Hymns to Astrea, a collection of clever
acrostics each making the name Elizabeth Regina.
He contributed also to England's Helicon and
to Francis Davison’s Poetical Rhapsody. In 1601,
after ample apologies, Davies was readmitted
to the secietv of the Middle Temple, and was
returned to parliament for Corfe Castle. On the
‘death of Elizabeth he accompanied Lord Hunsdon
‘in his journey to the Scottish court, and quickly
‘came into favour with James I., who sont Wii in
‘1603 as solicitor-general to Ireland. Three years
‘later he was appointed Irish attorney-general and
‘serjeant-at-law, and was raised to the honour of
‘knighthood. He sent many statesmanlike letters
‘and reports to Cecil, supported severe anti-Catholic
and repressive measures, and took an important
ocr in the plantation of Ulster. He sat in the

rish parliament for Fermanagh, and was for some
time its speaker; but was returned to the English
parliament in 1614 for Newcastle-under-Lyne, and
resigned his office at Dublin in 1619, continuing to
practise as king’s serjeant in England. He was
nominated chief-justice in November 1626, but died
‘suddenly of a fit of apoplexy about a month after.
He collected his three chief poems into one volume
in 1622, His complete works were collected by Dr

Grosart in the ‘Fuller Worthies Library’ (3 vols.
1869-76 ).—His widow, Eleanor Touchet, daughter
of Baron Audley, whom he had married in 1609,
married again and survived till 1652. She was
crazy enough to imagine herself a prophetess ; but
her exercitations brought her nothing save fine,
imprisonment, and ridicule (see ANAGRAM ).—With
Sir John Davies must not be confoanded John
Davies of Hereford (1565-1618), poet and writing-
master, whose poetry is not without merit, although
prolix and tedious. His chief long poems are Mirum
in Modum, Microcosmus, and Summa Totalis. In
his collection of three hundred poor epigrams (about
1611) is one addressed ‘To our English Terence,
Mr Will. Shake-speare.’ His works were collected
by Dr Grosart in two volumes in 1873.

Davila, Enrico CATERINO, a celebrated Italian
historian, was born at Pieve di Sacco, in the
vicinity of Padua, in 1576. When seven years old,
he was taken to France for his education, and at
the age of eighteen he entered the service of Hen
IV., which he afterwards exchanged for the mili-
tary service of Venice. In 1631 he was shot by an
assassin on his way to Crema, to take command of
the garrison. Davila has been rendered famous b
his great work, entitled Storia delle Guerre civilé
di Francia (1630; best ed. Milan, 1807), a history
comprising that eventful period from the death of
Henry II. (1558) to the peace of Vervins in 1598.
There is a translation by Aylesbury and Cotterell
(1647). See BALBOA, AVILA.

Da Vinci. See LEONARDO DA VINCI.

Davis, JEFFERSON, president of the Confederate
States, was born in Christian county, Kentucky,
June 3, 1808. He studied at Transylvania College,
and at the United States military academy at West
Point, where he uated in 1828. Entering the
army, he served in several frontier campaigns, but
resigned his commission in 1835. He entered con-
gress in 1845 as a representative from Mississippi,
and served in the Mexican war (1846-47) as a
colonel of volunteers, in which capacity his bravery
won high commendation. He was appointed to the
United States senate in 1847, and re-elected in 1848
and 1850; in 1851 he made an unsuccessful canvass
for the governorship of Mississippi. From 1853 to
1857 he was Secretary of War under the presidency
of Franklin Pierce. After this he returned to the
senate, where he succeeded Calhoun as the leader
of the extreme State Rights party. He was the
author of the seven resolutions passed in May 1860
Nd the senate, in which it was virtually asserted
that neither congress nor the legislature of any
territory could prohibit slavery in such territory,
but that both were bound to protect property in
slaves ; that the people of no territory could prohibit
slavery until after the adoption of a state constitu-
tion ; and that con could neither prohibit nor

rmit the institution of slavery in any state apply.

g for admission into the Union. The refusal of
the lower house of congress to concur in these
resolutions led to great popular agitation in the
South. The failure of the Democratic National
Convention at Charleston to adopt resolutions
embodying substantially the same ideas
already ay 1, 1860) caused the disruption of that
body and of the Democratic party ; and the election
of Lincoln, the Republican candidate, to the presi-
dency was an immediate result of this division
of the Democrats. In January 1861 the state of
Mississippi seceded from the Union, and as a con-
sequence Davis left the senate. A few weeks
later he was chosen president of the Confederate
States under their provisional form of government.
In the November following he was without opposi-
tion elected president of the confederacy for a term
of six years. The history of his presidency is that

700 ‘DAVIS

~ DAVOUT

of the war of 1861-65 (see UNITED STATES). In
-May 1865, after the crane of his government,
Davis was captured by a force of Union cavalry.
After two years’ imprisonment in Fort Monroe he
was released on bail, and though he had been
indicted for treason, was never brought to trial, a
nolle prosegui being entered in his case in 1868.
After 1879 he resided on an estate bequeathed
to him in Mississippi; and in that year he was
specially excepted in a bill to pension veterans of
the Mexican war. In 1886 he dedicated a Confed-
erate monument in Montgomery. He published
The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government
(2 vols. 1881). Died Dec. 6, 1889. See his Life by
Alfriend (1868) and Pollard (1869) ; also Craven, The
Prison-life of Jefferson Daas (1866). —

Davis, JoHN, an English navigator, was born
.at Sandridge, near Dartmouth, about 1550, and is
principally distinguished for having undertaken in
1585 and the two following years three voyages to
-the Arctic Seas in search of a north-west passage.
In the last voyage, he sailed with a bark of
ppparen sis not over twenty tons, as far north as
the 73d degree of latitude, and discovered the strait
which bears his name. He next made two ill-fated
voyages towards the South Seas, and as pilot of a
Dutch vessel bound to the East Indies. In his
last voyage as pilot of an English ship of 240 tons
he was killed in a brush with some Japanese pirates
at Bintang, near Singapore, 30th December 1605.
His writings, Zhe World’s Hydrographical Descrip-
tion (1595) and The Seaman’s Secrets (1594), were
edited for the Hakluyt Society in 1878 by Captain
‘A. H. Markham, with a biographical introduction.
Here it is pointed out that Davis is often confounded
with John Davis of Limehouse, a navigator to the
East Indies, who died at Batavia in 1622, and pub-
lished in 1618 A Ruter or Briefe Direction for Readie
Sailings into the East India, which will be found in
Part 1. of Purchas his Pilgrimes.

' Davis, THomAs, Irish poet and patriot, was
‘born at Mallow, 14th October 1814, the son of an
a¥my surgeon. At Trinity College, Dublin, he
read hard and graduated, and, after spending nearly
three years in London and on the Continent, was
called to the bar after his return to Dublin in 1838.
Next year, though a Protestant, he joined the Repeal
Association, and in 1841 became for a short time
joint-editor with John Dillon of the Dublin Morning
Register. In the July of 1842, with Dillon and
Dutfy, he founded the famous Nation newspaper,
the chief aim of which was ‘to direct the popular
mind and the sympathies of educated men of all
parties to the great end of nationality.’ It was
the first time that conspicuous literary ability
had been devoted to the cause, and ere long its
‘bright vigorous articles and stirring as well as

athetic songs, many of them from the pen of

avis himself, made the pages of the Nation dear
to Irishmen all over the island: Davis started a
projected series of Irish orators with the Speeches of
Curran (1844), and wrote a ores ‘Essay on Irish
Songs’ for Barry's Songs of Ireland (1845). But
his bright and promising career was soon closed by
his premature death of te in Dublin, September
16, 1845. His Poems were published in 1846 in
‘Duffy’s Library ;’ his Essays in 1847. See the
Memoir by Sir C. G. Duffy (1890).

Davis Strait washes the western coast of
Greenland, and connects Baffin Bay with the
Atlantic Ocean. At its narrowest point, immedi-
ately notth of the Arctic circle, it measures about
200 miles across. In 1888 the identity ‘between
Ginnunga Gap, referred to in the Sagas, and the
present Davis Strait was demonstrated.

Davits, on shipboard, are upright columns of
forged iron, curved at their upper ends, which pro-

ject, or may be made to project, over a vessel’s
side or stern, and are used as a kind of crane to
hoist, suspend, or lower a boat. They are arranged
in pairs, one for each end of the boat. See Boat-
LOWERING GEAR.

Davitt, MIcHAEL, founder of the Irish Land
League, the son of a Mayo peasant, was born
near Straid, County Mayo, in 1846. Evicted from
their small holding, the family emigrated to
Hastingden in Lancashire (1851); and here six
years later the boy lost his right arm through ~
a machinery accident in a cotton-factory. n
1866 he joined the Fenian movement; the restlt
being that he was sentenced in 1870 to fifteen
years’ penal servitude. He was released in
1877; and, supplied with funds from the United’
States, began some two years later an anti-
landlord crusade in Ireland, which culminated
in the foundation of the Irish Land League
(October 21, 1879). Davitt was thenceforward in —
frequent collision with the government, and from
February 1881 to May 1882 was imprisoned in
Portland for breaking his ticket-of-leave. His
Leaves from a Prison Diary were published in 1885.
The views of the ‘ Father of the Land League’ on
the subject of land therein take a Socialistie form,
and accordingly, though a strong Home Ruler, on
the question of land nationalisation he found him-
self in opposition to the Parnellites. After the
split in the party, he opposed the continued leader-

‘ship of Mr Parnell (q.v.), and was.returned to

parliament in 1892 as anti-Parnellite, but unseated
on petition, on the ground of clerical and other
intimidation.
South Mayo in 1895, but resigned in 1899,

Davos’ (Romansch Tavauv) is a small valley
lying amongst the Alps of the Eastern Grisons, 16
miles SE. of Coire. The village of Davos-Platz
stands 5105 feet above sea-level; but the Mies

-inclosed by lofty hills, has become famous as a healt

resort in winter, especially for such as suffer from
chest disease. The air is still and dry, and through-
out the winter there is a great deal of bright,
warm sunshine. ‘Till lately mere out-of-the-way
hamlets, the villages of Davos-Platz and Davos-
Dorfli have now eight or ten hotels, numerous villas
and chalets, several doctors, and daily posts. The
3561 inhabitants of the valley, which till 1848 was
one of the 26 independent republics of the Grisons,
are mostly German Protestants. See works by
Wise (1881) and Muddock (1884); and J. A.
Symonds, Our Life in the Swiss Highlands (1892).

Davoiut (not DAvoust), Louis Nico.Las, French
marshal, was born 10th May 1770, at Annoux, in
Burgundy ; was educated along with Bonaparte at
the military school of Brienne ; and in 1788 became
lieutenant in a cavalry regiment. During the
revolutionary wars he rose-to the rank of general.
He accompanied Bonaparte to the East, where he
mainly contributed to the victory at Aboukir, and
otherwise distinguished himself both in Upper
and Lower Egypt. On his return to France, he
was named general of division in 1800, commander- —
in-chief of the consular grenadier guards in 1800,
and marshal of the empire in 1804. He acted a
brilliant part in the great victories obtained by the
French at Austerlitz (1805) and Auerstidt, and was
created by the emperor Duke of Auerstiidt (July 2,
1808). On the renewal of the war with Austria in
1809, Davofit rendered useful service at Eckmiihl
(22d. April); and at Wagram, where he com-
manded the right wing, he succeeded in turning
the enemy’s left, ‘and so first checked the Austrians
attack. In 1811 he was created Prince of Eckmiihl.
Appointed governor of Poland, he ruled that

country in a spirit of the harshest despotism, and |

provoked the reproaches of the emperor, but,

He was returned unopposed for

Sy oe ee

Poe see

_ with agriculture, on whic
_ of epoch-making lectures, which were published

_ Chemistry (1813).

v7

DAVOUT

DAVY 701

_ wevertheless, did not forfeit his esteem. In the
campaign of 1812 he gathered fresh laurels

on thie fields of Mohilev and Vitebsk (27th July).
After the retreat from Moscow, Davoit became
vernor-general of the Hanse towns, and at Ham-
urg, though hated for his cruelty, resolutely
maintained himself till the restoration of the
bons. On the return of Bonaparte from
Elba, Davofitt was appointed war-minister, and as

such showed a remarkable genius for the rapid

organisation of troops and na Lay After the
battle of Waterloo, he received the command of
the remnant of the French army under the walls of
Paris. He would have continued the vontest had
_he not been ordered by the Provisional Government
in the capital to conclude a military convention

_ with the Allies. In 1819 he was made a peer of

France. His death took place June 1, 1823.
Firmness of character and dauntless courage were
Davoat’s leading characteristics ; but his military
severities often went the length of harshness, and
even cruelty, while his rapacity had in it something
akin to barbarism. See his Corr dance (4 vols,
1885), and his Life by Chénier (1886), by his
daughter, the Marquise Blocqueville (3 vols. 1879-
80), and by Montegut (1882).

Davy, Sir Humpnury, one of the greatest
chemists, was born 17th December 1778, at Pen-
zance, Cornwall, where his father was a carver
in wood. At the school at Penzance, and after-
wards at Truro, he developed a taste for story-
telling, poetry, and angling, and for experimental
science, in which he was aided by Dunkin, a
saddler. . In 1795 he became apprentice to a
vi poe and apothecary in Penzance, wrote verses,
and indulged in chemical experiments. He at the
same time entered upon a course of study all but
universal. ‘Speculations on religion and _ politics,
on metaphysics.and morals, are placed in his note-

_ books in juxtaposition with stanzas of poetry and

The study of natural

or brome of romance.’
_ philosophy brought him near to that department

which was to be his own; but it was not till he
had reached his nineteenth year that he entered
seriously upon the study of chemistry. He was
then introduced to the notice of Dr Beddoes (q.v.),
who in 1798 established a Pneumatic Institute at

Clifton, and took him as his assistant. Here he

made the acquaintance of the Earl of Durham,
_ of Coleridge, and Southey, and carried on a course

of experiments on the respiration of different gases,
in which he had more than once nearly sacrificed
his life. He thus discovered the singular exhilar-
ating effect of nitrous oxide when breathed. The
account which he published in his Researches

_ Chemical and Philosophical (1799), although after-

wards regretted, established his reputation, and
led to his appointment, at the age of twenty-two,
as lecturer to the Royal Institution of London.
He delivered his first lecture in 1801; and his
eloquence, and the novelty and variety of his ex-
periments, soon attracted crowded and brilliant
audiences, In 1803 he began researches connected
he delivered a course

under the title of Zlements of Agricultural
The discoveries, however, on
which Davy’s fame as a chemist chiefly rests,
took their origin in the views which he de-
veloped in 1806, in his Bakerian lecture, On Some
Chemical Agencies of Electricity. This essay was
universally regarded as one of the most valuable
contributions ever made to chemical science, and

_ obtained the prize of the French Institute. Fol-
_ lowing out his hag he was led to the grand

discovery ‘that the alkalies and earths are com-
und substances formed by oxygen united with
etallic bases. It was potash that he first suc-

ceeded in decomposing, on the 19th October 1807,
When he first saw the globules of the new metal,
potassium, his delight is said to have been so
ecstatic that it required some time for him to com-
himself to continue the experiment. He next
tele soda and the alkaline earths, baryta,
strontia, lime, and magnesia; and discovered the
new metals, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium,
and magnesium. With regard to the earths proper,
he succeeded in proving that they consist of metals
united to oxygen. It was reserved for Wéhler and
others to exhibit the metals by themselves. He
lectured in Dublin in 1808-9, and received the
honorary de; of LL.D. from Trinity College.

On 8th April 1812 Davy was knighted; he
married Mrs Apreece, a lady of considerable
wealth, daughter and heiress of Charles Kerr of
Kelso, and resigned the chemical chair of the
Royal. Institution, April 1813. In order to mark
the high sense of his merits, he was elected honorary
professor of Chemistry. He discovered the talents
of Faraday (q.v.), for whom he secured the appoint-
ment as assistant in the laboratory of the Royal In-
stitution. That he might investigate his new theory
of voleanic action, he received permission from the
French government—though the two countries were
then at war—to visit the Continent, and was re-
ceived with the greatest distinction by the scientific
men of France. He was accompanied by Faraday.
On returning to England in 1815, he entered on the
investigation of the nature of fire-damp, which is
the cause of explosions in coal-mines. This resulted
in the invention of the Safety-lamp (9-v. i Se
public subscription of about £1500 was collected as
a testimonial by those interested in 1817, and he was
entertained to dinner, and presented with a service
of plate. He was created a baronet, 20th October
1818. On the death of Sir Joseph Banks in 1820,
Sir Humphry Davy was elected President of the
Royal Society. In 1820-23 his researches on electro-
magnetism were communicated to the Society. He
invented an ingenious plan for preventing the cor-
rosion of the copper-sheathing of ships by alterin
the electric condition of the copper by means o
bands of zine; but the bottoms of the vessels be-
came so foul from the adhesion of weeds and shells
that the plan had to be abandoned.

Early in 1825 Sir Humphry Davy had n to
complain of the loss of strength, nad in 1826 he had
an apoplectic attack. He made two journeys to
the Continent for the recovery of his health, and
died at Geneva on the 29th May 1829, at the early
age of fifty-one. The Genevan government evinced
their respect by a public funeral. He was a member
of almost all the scientific institutions in the world.
Cuvier, in his Eloge, says: ‘Davy, not yet fifty-
two years of age, occupied, in the opinion of all
that could judge of such labours, the first rank
among the chemists of this or of any other age.’
Another critic has said : ‘He was not only one of
the atest, but one of the most benevolent and
amiable of men.’ His widow placed a tablet to his
memory in Westminster Abbey, and a statue was
erec to him in Penzance. Besides the works
already mentioned, and a great number of con-
tributions to the Philosophical Transactions, Sir
Humphry Davy was author of Elements of Chemical
Philosophy (1812); On the Safety-lamp in Coal-
mines (1818); Salmonia, or ys of Fly-fishing
(1828); and Consolations in Travel (1830)—all in-
eluded in his Collected Works (9 vols. 1839-40).

See Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy, by his
brother, John Davy (1836); his Fragmentary Remains
(1858); the Life by Dr Paris (1831); and that by Dr T.
E. Thorpe (1896).

Davy, JOHN, musician, was born near Exeter
in 1763, and died in London in 1824. Many of his
songs were great favourites, and though most are

702 DAVY JONES

DAY

forgotten, ‘The Bay of Biscay’ has never lost
popular favour.

Davy Jones, a sailor's familiar name for a
malignant sea-spirit or the devil generally. The
common phrase ‘ Davy Jones’s locker’ is applied to
the ocean as the grave of men drowned at sea. A
dubious explanation of the name makes it com-
pounded from Duffy, a West Indian negro spirit
name, and the scriptural prophet Jonah, in jocular
allusion to his somewhat unusual adventures.

Davy Lamp. See SAFETY-LAMP.

Dawalla (Hypophthalmus dawalla), a fish of
the family Siluridie, found in the rivers of Guiana,
and highly esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh.
It is sometimes 24 feet long, and is brightly
coloured. The eye is situated below the angle of
the mouth.

Dawkins, Witt1Am Boyp, was born at
Buttington vicarage, near Welshpool, Montgomery-
shire, 26th December 1838, and educated at Rossall
School and Jesus College, Oxford. In 1862 he
joined the Geological Survey, became curator of
Manchiater Museum in 1889, and professor of Geo-
logy in Owens College there in 1874. In 1882 he
presided over the anthropological section at the

outhampton meeting of the British Association,
and in the same year was elected honorary fellow
of his old college. The Channel Tunnel committee
employed him in 1882 to make a special survey of
both coasts; and next year he laid down the line for
a tunnel under the Humber. Professor Dawkins is
a fellow of the Royal and other learned societies,
and has contributed numerous papers to their
issues relating especially to fossil mammalia. His
books’ are Cave-hunting: Researches on the Evt-
dences of Caves respecting the Early Inhabitants of
Europe (1874), and Lar/y Man in Britain, and his
place in the Tertiary Period (1880), the latter a
work of great interest.

Dawlish, a pleasant watering-place, on the
SE. coast of Devonshire, 12 miles 8. by E. of Exeter
by rail. Backed by the Great Haldon (818 feet),
it has public baths, and a dressing pavilion con-
nected with the sea by a small tram-car. Pop.
(1861) 3505 ; (1881) 3977; (1891) 4210.

Dawn. See TWILicHt.

' Dawson, GEORGE, a busy and popular preacher
and lecturer, was born in London, 24th February
1821, taught for a time in his father’s academy, and
studied at Aberdeen and Glasgow. He became
pastor of Rickmansworth Baptist Chapel in 1843;
of Mount Zion, Birmingham, in 1844, where his
eloquence, breadth of view, and entire freedom from
conventionality drew crowds to his services. Daw-
son’s doctrinal position, which did not allow of his
being fettered by theological forms of belief, led to
his resignation ; the ‘Church of the Saviour’ was
built for him (1847), which borrowed its ritual from
many sources. He took a lively interest in polities ;
was extremely popular as a lecturer for thirty years;
popularised the views of Carlyle and Emerson,
with both of whom he was personally acquainted ;
taught English literature classes at the Midland
Institute for six years; advocated free libraries,
. and was one of the founders of the Shakespeare
Memorial Library, Birmingham. Since his sudden
death at King’s Norton, near Birmingham, 30th
November 1876, other works have been published :
Sermons (4 vols. 1878-82), Prayers (2 vols. 1878-83),
Biographical Lectures (2 vols. 1886-87), and Every
oo” (1888). See the Memoir by Crosskey
‘ Dawson, Sir JoHN WILLIAM, geologist and
naturalist, was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia,
Octoher 1820. He studied at Edinburgh, and
afterwards devoted himself to researches in the

natural history and geology of Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick, aiding Sir Charles Lyell in his
investigations in Nova Scotia in 1842 and again in
1852. He was appointed superintendent of edu-
cation in Nova Scotia in 1850; principal of M‘Gill
University, Montreal (1855), and afterwards vice-
chancellor. In 1882 he received the Lyell medal of
the London Geological Society, to whose Proceed-
ings he frequently contributed; in 1884 he was
knighted; and he was an LL.D. of Edinburgh, &e.
His address as President of the Birmingham meet-
ing of the British Association (1886) was on the
geographical history of the Atlantic Ocean. His,
Devonian and Carboniferous Flora of Eastern
North America records the discovery of what he
believed to be the lowest known form of animal
life, the Eozoién Canadense of the Laurentian
limestone (see EozoUN). In some of his works he
combated the Darwinian theory of the origin of
species. He published Archaia (1858), ore of
the Earth and Man (1872), Dawn of Life (1875),
Origin of the World (1877), Fossit Men (1878),
Change of Life in Geological Time (1880), Egypt.
and Syria (1885), Geology and History (1894), and
Relics of Primeval, Life (1897). e died 19th,
November 1899, a ;

Dax, a town in: the French department of
Landes, on the Adour, 93 miles 8S. by W. of
Bordeaux by rail. A fine bridge connects it
with its suburb of Sablar; and it has a 14th-
century castle, now a barrack, remains of Roman
walls, a cathedral and several other interest-
ing churches. It has manufactures of pottery and.

liqueurs, and some trade; but it is chiefly re- q

markable for its hot sulphur-springs (77°-144° F.)
whose waters are used in cases of rheumatism and
nervous complaints. A commodious bathing estab-
lishment has been constructed. The springs were
known to the Romans, who called the place Aque
Tarbelle ; in the middle ages it was called Acqs.
Pop. (1872) 8154; (1886) 9458 ; (1891) 9927.

Day originally meant the space of time during
which it is light, in opposition to the space of dark-
ness or night; it now more usually denotes a com-
plete alternation of light and darkness. It is the
earth’s rotation that causes the vicissitude of da.
and night. The earth being a globe, only one-half
of it can be lighted up by the sun at once; to that
half it is day, while to the other half, which is in
shade, it is night. But by the earth’s rotation, the
several portions of the surface have each their turn
of light and of darkness. This happens because
the position of the earth is such that the equator
is on the whole presented towards the sun; had
either pole been towards the sun, that hemisphere
would have revolved in continual light, the other
in continual darkness.

One complete rotation of the earth does not make
a day, in the usual sense. If the time is noted when
a particular fixed star is exactly south or on the
meridian, when the same star comes again to the
meridian the next day, the earth has made exactly
one rotation, and the time that has elapsed is called
a sidereal day. This portion of time may be re-
garded as being always of the same length ; for the
motion of the earth on its axis differs extremely
little from absolute uniformity. Hence sidereal or
star-time is much used by astronomers. But the
passage of a star across the meridian is not a con-
spicuous enough event for regulating the move-
ments of men in general.
rotation of the earth, but a complete alternation of
light and darkness that constitutes their day. This,
Which is called the civil or the solar day, is
measured between two meridian passages of the
sun, and is about four minutes longer than the
sidereal day. The cause of the greater length is

It is not a complete —

DAY

703

this: When the earth has made one complete turn,
so as to bring the meridian of the place to the same
tion among the fixed stars as when it was noon
he day before, the sun has in the meantime (ap-
ogre y) moved eastward nearly one degree among
he stars, and it takes the earth about four minutes
more to move round so as to overtake him. If this
eastward motion of the sun were uniform, the length
of the solar day would be as simple and as easily
determined as that of the sidereal. But the ecliptic
or great circle in which the sun apparently moves,
crosses the earth’s equator, and is therefore more
oblique to the direction of the earth’s motion at one
time than another; and besides, as the earth moves
in her orbit with varying speed, the rate of the
sun's erent motion in the ecliptie must also
vaty: . Tlie consequence is, that: the length of the
solar day is constantly fluctuating; and to get a
fixed measure of solar time, astronomers have to
imagine a sun moving uniformly in the celestial
equator, and paneer, its circuit in the’ same
time asthe real sun. The time marked by this
imaginary sun is called mean solar time; when the
imaginary sun is on the meridian, it is mean noon ;
when the real sun is on the meridian, it is apparent
noon. It is obvious that.a sun-dial must show ap-
parent time, while clocks and watches keep mean
time. Only four times in the year do these two
coincide. The difference is called the equation of
time, because, when added to or subtracted from
apparent time, according as the sun comes too soon
or too late on the meridian, it makes it equal to
mean time. The mean solar day is divided into
twenty-four hours, the hours into minutes and
seconds. A sidereal day, we have seen, is shorter ;
its exact length is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
of mean solarorcommon time. Astronomers divide
the sidereal day also into twenty-four hours, which
are of course shorter than common hours. In the
course of a civil year of 365 days, the earth turns
on its axis 366 times, or there are 366 sidereal days.
Astronomers reckon the day as beginning at noon,
and count the hours from 1 to 24. The civil day
begins at midnight, and the hours are counted in
two divisions of twelve each. The ecclesiastical
day was reckoned from sunset to sunset. The
Greeks counted their day from sunset, as did also
the Hebrews, the Romans from midnight, the Baby-
lonians from sunrise, the Umbrians from mid-day.
The diagram will explain the variation in the
relative duration of light and darkness at different
times of the year and different parts of the earth’s
y surface. C represents
the position of the
earth, P being the
north pole of the
heavens. E and W
represent the east
and west points.
EQW and EKW are
the celestial equator
and ae ecliptic re-
spectively. t us
roy the observer
to be in the northern
hemisphere and that
: HEH ’W is his _ hori-
zon. When the sun is on the equator it is obvious
that the ares EQW and EQ’W are equal—i.e. the
sun is as long above the horizon as it is below it.
But, if the sun be in the northern half of the
ecliptic, its apparent er is a circle parallel to
EQW passing through the sun’s position; and

more of this circle is above the horizon than below
it. Similarly we can explain the ap nees for
other positions of the sun and of the observer.

Day as opposed to night, varies with the latitude
and the séason of the year. As we go north from

os

the equator it increases in summer, and decreases
in winter. At the equator, day is a little more,
night a little less than twelve hours; at the poles,
day is a little more, night a little less, than six
months, For the time of day in different countries,
see TIME.

A day, in Law, includes the whole twenty-four
hours from midnight to midnight. In reckoning
periods of time from a certain event, the day on
which the event occurred is excluded. On the
other hand, if it be required to prove survival for a
certain number of days, it will suffice if the person
be alive for any portion, however small, of the last
day. While an obligation to pay on a certain day
would therefore be theoretically discharged by pay-
ment before midnight, the law requires that reason-
able hours be observed—e.g. if the payment (as a
bill) is at a bank or place of business, it must be
within business hours.

A lawful day is a day on which there is no legal
impediment to the execution of a writ—i.e. all
days except Sundays and fast-days appointed by
government. Criminal warrants, and in Scotland
warrants against debtors in meditatione fuga, are
an exception to‘ this rule, and may be both granted
and executed on Sundays and fast-days. By 29 Car.
II. chap. 7, all contracts made by persons in their
ordinary calling on a Sunday are void. The excep-
tious to this rule will be explained under Lorp’s
Day. In England, Christmas-day and Good-
Friday generally stand on the same footing with
Sundays and fast-days appointed by royal pro-
clamation ; but in Scotland there is no exception ,
made in favour of any of the feast or fast days of,
the church. 7

Days of Grace.—The time at which a bill is
actually due and payable, except in the case of
bills payable on demand or at sight, is three days
after the time expressed on the face of it, and these
three additional days are called days of grace. If
the third day of grace fall on a Sunday, Christmas-
day, Good-Friday, or a national fast or thanksgiving
day, the bill is payable the day before. If it fal
on any of the other bank holidays, or if the last
day of grace is a Sunday and the second a bank
holiday, the bill is payable on the succeeding
business day (see BILL). Daya of grace have now
been abolished in many countries, but there are
still three allowed in the United States, and ten
in Russia.

Day, JoHN (1522-84), a native of Dunwich,
was an early London printer, his most celebrated
production being Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.

Day, JOHN, a dramatist, of whose life hardly
anything is known. He is mentioned in Henslowe's
Diary in 1598 as an active playwright. But few of
his earlier works have come down to us save The
Blind Beggar of Bednal Green. Day collaborated
freely with contemporary writers, as Chettle and
Dekker. Ben’ Jonson in his conversations with
Drummond of Hawthornden grouped him with
some other admirable gentlemen and authors as
a rogue and a base fellow. His best works that
have reached us are a ful comedy, Humour
out of Breath, and The Parliament of Bees, a kind
of allegorical masque in which all the characters
are ‘The very air,’ says Charles Lamb,
‘seems replete with humming and buzzing melodies.
Surely bees were never so berhymed before.” An
edition of Day’s works was privately printed by
A. H. Bullen in 1881.

Day, Tuomas, the author of Sandford and
Merton, was born in London, 22d June 1748, and
thirteen months later, by his father’s death, became
heir to £900 a year. rom the Charterhouse he
poses to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he
ormed a close friendship with Richard Lovell

704 DAY-FLY

DEACON

Edgeworth (q.v.). In 1765 he entered the Middle
Temple, in 1775 was called to the bar, ‘but he
never practised. A good, clever eccentric, a
disciple of Rousseau, he brought up two children,
an orphan blonde and a foundling brunette, one of
whom should presently become his wife. That
scheme miscarried ; and, admitted to the Lichfield
coterie, he proposed first to Honora Sneyd, next to
her younger sister Elizabeth. She sent him to
France to acquire the French graces; as acquired
by him, Sieg beet moved her to laughter. Finally
in 1778 he married an appreciative heiress, Esther
Milnes, and spent with Aker eleven happy years,
farming on philanthropic and costly principles in
Essex and Surrey, till on 28th September 1789 he
was killed by a fall from a colt he was breaking in.
His wife died broken-hearted two years afterwards,
and both lie in Wargrave churchyard near Henley.
Two only of Day’s eleven works call for mention—
The Dying Negro (1773), and the History of Sand-
ford and Merton (3 vols. 1783-89). The poem
struck the keynote of the anti-slavery movement ;
the child’s book, like its author, is sometimes ridi-
culous, but always excellent. See Day’s Life by
Keir (1791) and Blackman (1862); also Miss
Thackeray’s Book of Sibyls (1883).

Day-fly. See EPHEMERA.

Day-lily (Hemerocallis), a perennial herbaceous
jens of Liliacez, so named from the ephemeral
uration of its individual flowers, which, however,
succeed each other freely upon the peculiar in-
florescence (a helicoid cyme). Several species are
cultivated in our flower-gardens, especially the
fragrant Yellow Day-lily (H. flava), a native of

? Yellow Day-lily (Hemerocallis flava).

~~ warmer Europe, Southern Siberia, and Northern
China, and ulva, from the Levant. Both
species, but particularly the latter, have been re-
commended as sources of green fodder for cattle.
Dayton, capital of Montgomery county, Ohio,
the fifth city of the state in point of population and
of wealth, is situated on the Great Miami, at the
mouth of the Mad River, 60 miles NNE. of Cincin-
nati by rail. The streets are broad, the private
residences generally handsome; the public build-
ings include a court-house of white marble, a large
gaol, a number of schools, and about fifty churches.
standing on the line of the Miami Canal (opened
1829), the city is the terminus of eight railroads,
and the water of the Mad River is brought through
its streets by an hydraulic canal, supplying abund-

It has numerous and import-
ant manufactures, including railroad-cars, cotton
woollen, and iron goods, oil, flour, paper, and
machinery. Dayton is the headquarters of the G
sies in the United States. Pop. (1870) 30,473; (1880)
38,678 ; (1890) 61,220 ; (1900) 85,333.

D’Azara, FELIX, naturalist, was born in Aragon
in 1746, entered the army, and in 1781 was
appointed a commissioner for defining the Spanish
and Portuguese possessions in South America. He
wrote an important Natural History of the Quad-
rupeds of Paraguay (1801; Eng. trans. 1838), and
Voyages dans ’ Amérique Méridionale (4 vols. 1809).
He died in Spain in 1811. ‘

D’Azeglio. See AZEGLIO.

Deacon, lit. a ‘servant’ or ‘follower’ (and, in
that sense, found in classic and also in Hellenistic
Greek), became in ecclesiastical usage the name
for an office-bearer in the Christian church. In
Acts vi. we read of the appointment of seven men
chosen by the laity and ordained by the apostles:
to attend to the finances of the infant chinate and
to see that its alms are fairly distributed. The
name deacon is not applied to them. They are to
be spiritually-minded men; they are nije set
apart from the rest of the congregation ; and almost
immediately they are found preaching and baptising
(Acts, vi. vii. and viii. 38); and the most distin--
guished of them, St Stephen, dies as the first Chris-
tian martyr. In the epistle to the Philippians they
are named along with the bishops, and in the pas- '
toral epistles they are recognised as part of the’
Christian ministry (1 Tim. iii. 8-13) without any
special reference to financial duties. Chrysostom
suggested that the appointment in the Acts was of—
a temporary nature, and distinct from the sacred °
ministry of the diaconate subsequently instituted ;
and this view obtained some sanction from the
sixth General Council. But a great Anglican anti-
quary, Bingham (supported in this matter by the

oman Catholics Thomassinus and Petavius ), takes
the opposite side, and is able to es to Justin
Martyr, Ireneeus, Hilary, Cyprian, and other doctors,
to the effect that the seven were truly deacons in
the later sense, and were authorised by the apostles
to undertake these higher functions. The number
seven continued to be adhered to in many churches
—e.g. at Rome, until the 11th century, when the
number was doubled,

During the 2d and 3d centuries, the duties falling
to the deacons had considerably increased ; and since —
as confidential attendants and Lelpers of the bishops,
they had risen into consequence, it became neces-
sary to divide the various functions among an arch- ©
deacon, deacons, and sub-deacons. Deacons might
now dispense the bread and wine at the communion,
but not consecrate them. bibs had to receive the
offerings and presents for the bishop, to keep the
sacred vessels, to chant the introductory formulas
of public worship, and to take the oversight of the
morals of the congregation; and they were allowed,
in many cases, with the leave of the bishop, to
preach and baptise, and receive penitents into the
communion of the church. At an early period, the
offices of archdeacon and deacon were considered to
belong to the higher orders of consecration (ordines
majores): this was not the case with that of sub-
deacon till after the 12th century. At the conse-
cration of a deacon, according to the Roman rite,
certain sacred vessels may be handed to him as
symbols of his office ; but this does not seem to be
regarded as essential. In the Greek rite the
flabellum (a fan for driving away flies from the
sacred elements) is given to the deacon. The
peculiar robes are the dalmatica and the stole, but —
the stole (both in East and West) is only placed
over the left shoulder.

ant water-power.

q
Y

DEACON OF A TRADE

DEAD NETTLE 705

In Protestant churches the position of deacons
varies. Among Presbyterians, the elders have the
ritual oversight of the congregations; while
eacons (as in the Free Church of Scotland) and
managers in others have the care of the financial
affairs. Among ongreae panera, the deacons
combine both spiritual and financial duties. The
Church of England has retained in the main the older
form of ordination. The deacon has only the hands
of the bishop laid upon him, and not those of any
attendant priests also; he cannot consecrate the ele-
ments at poy communion or pronounce the absolu-
tion or benediction ; and he only preaches by special
license from the bishop, and not directly by virtue
of his office. For this, as well as for holding any
benefice or church-preferment, priest’s orders are
necessary. The office is now regarded very much as
simply one of probation before admission to priest’s
orders. But in ancient times it was not uncommon
for a man to remain a deacon for life. The cardinal
deacons at Rome sometimes remain such, especially
if much occupied with secular business. Thus
the late celebrated Cardinal Antonelli always re-
mained a deacon. Before a person can be appointed
deacon in the English Church, he must have
reached the age of twenty-three, and he usually
remains in this office one year at least.

DEACONESSES (ancille, ministre, vidue, virgines,
episcope, presbyter), female ministers or servants
of the church or Christian society in the time of the
apostles (Rom, xvi. 1). At a later a they co-
operated with the deacons, showed the women their
hi in the church assemblies, assisted at the bap-
ism of persons of their own sex, instructed those
who were about to be baptised as to the answers
they should give to the baptismal questions, arranged
the agape or love-feasts, and took care of the sick.
In the 3d century it seems to have been also part
of their duty to visit all Christian women who
were suffering imprisonment, and to be hospitable
to such as had come from afar. In very early times
they were consecrated to their office by ordination
in the same manner as other ecclesiastical or
spiritual personages; later, however, they were
inducted into their office by prayer without the
imposition of hands. Until the 4th century, the
deaconesses had to be either maidens or widows
who had been only once married, and sixty years of
age; but after the Council of Chalcedon the age
was fixed at forty. Their assistants were called
sub-deaconesses. After the 6th century in the
Latin Church, and after the 12th century in the
Greek Church, the office of deaconess was discon-
tinued ; but the former has retained the name. In
convents, for example, the nuns who have the care
of the altar are called deaconesses, In the Reformed
Churches of the Continent there are deaconesses
who nurse the sick and tend the poor. The first
deaconesses’ house at Kaiserwerth on the Rhine,
near Diisseldorf, was founded by Pastor Fliedner
in 1836; and now scattered over the Protestant
world there are upwards of sixty similar institu-
tions, with fully 6000 sisters. The Church of Scot-
land adopted the office of deaconess in 1887-88.
The Diocesan Deaconess Institution, London, was
established in 1861; but Sisterhoods (q.v.) have
struck a much deeper root in the Anglican com-
munion. See works by Dean Howson (1886) and
Cecilia Robinson (1899).

Deacon of a Trade, the president, for the
time being, of certain incorporations in Scotland,
where, prior to the passing of the Burgh Reform
Act, 1834, the deacons of trades or crafts represented
the trades in the respective town-councils, That
act enacted that the deacons shall no longer be
recognised as official and constituent members of
the town-council, but preserved the power of the
crafts to elect deacons and other officers for the

149

management of their affairs. The deacon-convener
of the trades in Edinburgh and Glasgow is still a
member of the town-council. See DEAN oF GUILD,

Dead, in seafaring language, is very frequent]
employed as part of a déelanaticn or phrase avian
in general, a meaning somewhat opposite to that of
active, effective, or real. The chiet of such phrases
are the following: Dead-eyes, cirenlar, flattish
wooden blocks, without sheaves, and having eyes
for lanyards, which form a” purchase or tackle
whereby the shrouds or other fixed rigging are
extended or set-up taut ; Deal S= the name for
one of the midship-timbers; Dead-lights, strong
wooden shutters used to close cabin-windows, on
the approach of a storm, to protect the glass; Dead-
ropes, such as do not run in blocks; Dead-wood
is the term epenes to the solid blocks of timber
erected upon the keel throughout the sharp portions
of a ship’s hull at stem and stern, the chief object
being to give solidity and strength to the ends of
the ship; Dead-reckoning, an estimation of a
ship’s place without celestial observations, made
chiefly by the log-book, and liable to error on
account of currents, lee-way, fluctuation of wind,
&e. To these may be added Dead-wind, aseaman’s
designation for a wind blowing directly against a
ship's course.

ther compounds are Dead-lock, a position of
matters when they have become so complicated
that they are at a complete standstill and progress
is impossible; Dead-freight, the compensation paid
to the shipmaster by the merehant who freights a
whole ship for the space which he fails to oceupy ;
Dead language, one no longer spoken; and Dead-
letter, a letter undelivered and unclaimed at the
Post-office (q.v.). The Dead-points.of an engine
are when the connecting-rod and the crank are in
one line (see CRANK). The impetus of the fly-
wheel is necessary to carry the engine over these
points, and if it is allowed to stand at either of
them, a start is impossible till the fly-wheel is
turned by hand sufficiently to permit of the piston
acting on the erank.

Dead, Book or THE, the great funerary work
of the ancient Egyptians, who themselves entitled
it Per-em-Hru, ‘to go forth from (or by) day.’ It
is ‘a collection of prayers and exorcisms com
at various periods for the benefit of the pilgrim-
soul in his souraty through Amenti (the yptian
Hades); and it was in order to provide him with
a safe-conduct through the perils of that terrible
valley that copies of the work, or portions of it,
were buried with the mummy in his tomb.’ Such
copies, hieroglyphic or hieratie according to the
age when they were executed, and made some to
order, others for sale, constitute fully one-half of
the thousands of extant papyri. They are mostly
corrupt and faulty; but as the fruit of ten years’
toil, a bene text at last has been published by
Edouard Naville in Das Aeqgyptische Todtenbuce
der XVIII, bis XX. Dynastie (Berlin, 1886), whose
folio supplement contains 212 plates of texts,
vignettes, and variants of vignettes. Dr Birch’s
English translation (Zgypt’s Place in Universal
History, vol. v. 1867) is on Lepsius’ imperfect
Turin text (1842), as also is Pierret’s French trans-
lation (1882). See the articles Ecypt, H1ERo-
GLYPHICS, and AMENTHES; two works by E. A.
Wallis Budge (1895 and 1897); and a masterl
article on M. Naville’s work by Miss A. B. Edwards
in the Academy for 10th September 1887.

Dead, PRAYER FOR THE. See PRAYER, PUR-
GATORY. ;

Deadly Nightshade. See BELLADONNA.
Dead-men’s Fingers. See ALCYONIUM.

Dead Nettle (Lamium), a genus of Labiate.
L. purpureum-and L. album, together with (Gaie-

706 DEAD SEA

DEAF AND DUMB

opsis) the closely allied Hemp-nettle, are very
common British weeds. The commoner species
have been somewhat
thoroughly naturalised
in the long-settled parts
of the United States.
They are sometimes
boiled as pot-herbs in
Sweden. The name
seems derived from the
superficial resemblance
to the true or stinging
nettles; this is especially
marked in L. album.

Dead Sea is the
usual name, dating from
the time of Jerome, for
a most remarkable lake
in the south-east of
Palestine, called in the
Old Testament The Salt
Sea, Sea of the Plain, or
East Sea; by Josephus,
Lacus Asphailtites ; and
by the Arabs now, Bahr-
Lit, ‘Sea of Lot.’ It is
46 miles long, with a
breadth of from 5 to 9 miles. Its surface, which
is lower than that of any water known, is 1292
feet below the level of the Mediterranean. The
depth of the greater part, the northern section,
is about 1300 feet; but at the southern end the
water is only from 3 to 12 feet deep. The shape is
that of an elongated oval, interrupted by a pro-
montory which projects into it from the south-east.
The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan from the north,
and by many other streams, but has no apparent
outlet, its superfluous water being supposed to be
entirely carried off by evaporation. Along the
eastern and western borders of the Dead Sea
there are lines of bold, and in some cases perpen-
dicular, cliffs rising in general to an elevation of
1500 feet on the west, and 2500 feet on the east.
These cliffs are chiefly composed of limestone, and
are destitute of vegetation save in the ravines
traversed by fresh-water streamlets. The north
shores of the lake form an extensive and desolate
muddy flat, marked by the blackened trunks and
branches of trees, strewn about and_ inerusted
with salt. The southern shore is low, level, and
marshy, desolate, and dreary. On this shore is
the remarkable ridge of rock-salt, 7 miles long and
300 feet high, called Khashm Usdom (‘Ridge of
Sodom’). ava-beds, pumice-stone, warm springs,
sulphur, and volcanic slag prove the presence here
of voleanic agencies at some period. The neigh-
bourhood of the Dead Sea is frequently visited by
earthquakes, and the lake still occasionally casts
up to its surface large masses of asphalt. The
basin of the sea and the valley of the Jordan seem
both to be due to a great fault or crack in the
earth’s surface of very ancient date. The long-
entertained belief that the exhalations from this
lake were fatal is not founded upon fact. Within
the thickets of tamarisk and oleander, which here
and there may be seem upon its brink, the birds
‘sing sweetly, and they fly over and swim about on
its surface. But the salinity of the waters is
adverse to life, though some lower organisations
are found in them.

The water of the Dead Sea is characterised by the
presence of a large quantity of magnesian and soda
salts. Its specific gravity ranges from 1172 to 1227
(pure water being 1000). The proportion of saline
matter is so great, that whilst sea-water contains
only 3°5 per cent. of salts, the water of the Dead
Sea contains upwards of 26 per cent., or more than
eight times-as-much as that of the-ocean.. In all

White Dead Nettle
(Lamium album).

lakes or collections of water without any outflow,
the water acquires an infusion of salt, its feeders
constantly bringing in this material, while none
can go off by evaporation, even when the shores do
not as here abound in salt and nitre. The evapora-
tion is great as the heat is intense, and the sea
rather contracts than increases. Rain hardly ever
falls; the water is nearly as blue and clear as that
of the Mediterranean; and though its taste is
horribly salt and fetid, a bath in it is refreshing. —
Owing to the great specific gravity of the water,
it is almost impossible for the bather to sink in it,
strive as he may. Several of those who have navi-
ated and explored the sea have fallen victims to a
fatal fever. The story of the ‘Cities of the Plain,’
is given in Gen. xix. See PALESTINE; and Conder
says, ‘It is now generally agreed that the Dead
Sea and Jordan were formed by a great fault or
crack in the earth’s surface long before the creation
of man, and that the district presents in our own
days much the same aspect as in the days of
Abraham. It is vain, therefore, to suppose that the
‘* cities of the plain” were beneath the present sea,
although this view was held as early as the time
of Josephus’ (Bible Geography, 1884). See also
Ritter’s Geography, and the works on Palestine
by Robinson, Stanley, and Tristram ; De Luynes’
Mer Morte (1874); Lieutenant Lynch’s Report of
the United States Dead Sea Expedition (1852);
and Professor Hall’s Survey of Western Palestine
(Palestine Exploration Fund, 1886).

Dead’s Part, in Scots law, is that part of a
man’s movable property which he is entitled to
dispose of by testament. If a man dies without
leaving widow or children, the dead’s part is the
whole; if he leave widow but no children, or
children but no widow, it is a half; and if he
leave both widow and children, it is a third of his
movable property. The dead’s part, however, may
be increased or diminished by special provisions in
a marriage-contract, or by wife and children re-
nouncing their legal rights. This dead’s part in
English law is called the ‘dead man’s part,’ and
went formerly to pay for masses for the dead man’s
soul. Afterwards the administrators applied it to
their own use, until finally it was by statute sub-
jected to be distributed among the next of kin.

Deaf and Dumb. Persons who are born
deaf, or who lose their hearing at a very early age,
are dumb also; hence the compound term deaf-
and-dumb. But deafness is the primary defect;
dumbness is only the consequence of deafness.
Children poten Be hear sounds, and then learn to
imitate them—i.e. they learn to repeat what they
hear other persons say. It is thus that every one
of us has learned to speak. But the deaf child
hears nothing ; cannot, therefore, imitate, and re-
mains dumb. Persons who lose their hearing later
in life are not to be classed among the deaf and
dumb. Having learned to speak before their hear-
ing was lost, they can readily communicate with
others; and if they are educated, there are still
open to them all the stores of knowledge contained
in books, from which the juvenile deaf and dumb,
ignorant of all written and spoken language, are
utterly excluded. It is this latter class alone which
is contemplated in our census enumerations, and for
which our institutions for the education of the deaf
and dumb are designed.

The term ‘ deaf and dumb’ is somewhat unfortu-
nate, as embodying and repeating the error that the
affliction is twofold. It.affects two organs, certainly,
but only, as above described, in the way of cause
and effect. The organ of hearing is wanting, but
the organs of speech are slap they merely lack
the means of exercise. The ear is the guide an
directress of the tongue; and when the ear is doomed

DEAF AND DUMB

707

to a silence, the tongue is included in the
ban ; though, if we could by any means give to the
ear the ert | of hearing, the tongue would soon
learn for itself to fulfil its proper office. To correct
the error involved in this apparent misnomer, some
authorities use the term deaf simply, others speak
of the deaf-dumb and deaf-mute. The latter term
is common in America, as in France is its equivalent
Sourds-muets. In the Holy Scriptures the same
original word is translated ‘deaf’ in some places
12 in Mark, vii. 32), and ‘dumb’ or ‘speechless’

others (see Matt. ix. 33, and Luke, i. 22).

This affliction is very much more common than,
for a time, and up to a recent period, it was
sup to be. Happily, however, along with the
‘knowledge of its extensive puerelens, as come
the means of alleviating it, by education. It was
only when the schools now in existence began their
useful work, and caused inquiries to be made, that
the actual numbers of the deaf and dumb began to
appear. In every place where it was pro to
establish a school—in Paris, London, Liverpool,
Manchester, Yorkshire, and in New York—the
objection was immediately started that children
could not be found in sufficient numbers to require
‘such schools. Their promoters, however, knew
better than this, and persisted in their design.
They soon had the satisfaction of converting the
objectors into their warmest supporters. The facts

thus ascertained, and the caleulations based upon
‘them, continued to be the only statistics upon the
subject of deaf-dumbness in Great Britain and
‘Ireland until the census of 1851, when for the first
time the number and ages of the deaf and dumb
formed a part of the inquiry.
- In 1891 the total number of deaf and dumb
ate in England and Wales was 14,192, in
Scotland 2125, in Ireland 3365, and in the United
Kingdom 19,682—a decrease in proportion to the
to — (38,104,975 in the United King-
dom at the same date), as appears from the figures
for earlier census years :

1851.
Number of Total

“ Deaf and Dumb, Population. Proportion.
England and Wales......... 10,314 17,927,609 1 in 1738
i a NI SE as 155 888,742 1 1340
MOMMIME Vitec, ¢o.2 os anes Ko ein 9747 6,552,385 1 » 1380
Islands of the British Seas.. 84 143,126 1 w 1704
yo | ee Re 17,800 27,511,862 1 in 1590

1861.
England and Wales......... 12,236 20,066,224 1 in 1640
PRR re ae 2,335 8,062,294 1 » 1811
SEMNUD, i Dan Vals wave Cagesise 4,930 5,798,967 1 w 1176
Islands of the British Seas.. 87 143,347 1 w 1647
‘ WOU 5 <6 nchasanec 19,588 29,070,882 1 in 1484

1871.

England and Wales ......... 11,518 22,712,260 1 in 1971
BEMMRE Ts i xiy Fis seen atacand x 8,360,018 1 » 1609
ME ate nc haa w ocean © 5,412,377 1 1211
Islands of the British Seas.. 77 144,688 1 » 1878
POL ede adesiuye 18,150 81,629,298 1 in 1742

1881.
England and Wales......... 13,295 25,974,489 1 in 1953
MAMIE AT, ic a'a's s chapaides one 2,142 8,735,573 1 w 1744
OS eS eee 993 5,174,836 1 w 1296
Islands of the British Seas.. 88 138,791 1 » 1577
otal: cs auvesay ab 19 518 35,023,689 1 in 1794

The increase of population in 1861 above that of
1851 was 14 millions, and the number of deaf and
dumb had also increased ; but although the popula-
tion in 1871 had increased by 2} millions above that
of 1861, the returns show a large decrease in the
proportion of deaf and dumb. further increase
of population in 1881 of 34 millions still shows a
diminution in the proportion of deaf and dumb;

ere was only a total increase of 1368 deaf and

dumb. We can only attribute this to more extended
and improved sanitary measures, advanced know-
ledge in medical treatment, and more careful nursin
of children when suffering from those diseases which
so frequently result in deafness.

But while social science is prosecuting its import-
ant inquiries into the causes, inevitable and pre-
ventable, of deafness, Philanthropy has before her
the work of educating these ‘children of silence,’
to whom the ordinary means of instruction are
obviously inapplicable, and for whom, until little
more than a century ago, there existed scarcely any
available means of education at all.’ The deaf are
spoken of frequently in the writings both of the Old
and New Testaments ; they are alluded to by the
poets, philosophers, and lawgivers of antiquity ; yet
we have no account of any attempt at educating
them until the 15th reaper no school existed for
them until the middle of the 18th; nor could it be
said that education was freely offered, and readily
accessible, until within the last fifty or sixty years.

Some isolated attempts had been made before the
18th century, by different men, in different coun-
tries, and at long intervals, to give instruction
to one or two deaf and dumb persons, and their
endeavours were attended with various degrees of
success. These several cases excited some atten-
tion at the time; but after the wonder at their
novelty had subsided they seem to have been
almost forgotten, even in the countries where the
experiments were made. Bede — of a dumb
youth being taught by St John of Beverley (q.v.),
to repeat after him letters and syllables, and then
some words and sentences. The fact was re ed
as a miracle, and was classed with others alleged
to have been wrought by the same hand. From
this time, eight centuries elapsed before any record
of an instructed deaf-mute occurs. Rodolphus
Agricola, a native of Groningen, born in 1442,
mentions as within his knowledge the fact that
a deaf-mute had been taught to write, and to note
down his thoughts. Fifty years afterwards, this
statement was controverted, and the alleged fact
pronounced to be impossible, on the ground that
no instruction could be conveyed to the mind of any
one who could not hear words addressed to the ear.
But the discovery which was to give the key to this
long-concealed mystery was now at hand. In 1501
was born, at Pavia, Jerome Cardan (q.v.), a man
of great but ill-regulated talents, who, among the
numerous speculations to which his restless mind
prompted him, certainly discovered the theoretical
principle upon which the instruction of the deaf
and dumb is founded. He says: ‘ Writing is asso-
ciated with speech, and speech with thought; but
written characters and ideas may be connected
together without the intervention of sounds,’ and
he argues that, on this principle, ‘the instruction of
the deaf and dumb, though difficult, is ible.’
All this, which to us is obvious and familiar, was
a novel speculation in the 16th century. With us
it is a comnion thing for a man to teach himself to
read a language, though he cannot pronounce it.
There are, for instance, hundreds of persons who
can read French, who do not and cannot speak it.
Now it is evident, in this case, that written or
printed words do impart ideas independently of
sounds, yet this was a discovery which the world
owes to Jerome Cardan; and it was for want of
seeing this truth, which to us is so familiar, that
the education of the deaf and dumb was never
attempted, but was considered for so many centuries
to be a thing impossible.

It was in Spain that these principles were first

ut into practice by Pedro Ponce (1520-84), a

nedictine monk, and again, in the following
century, by another monk of the same order, Juan
Paulo Bonet, who also published a work upon the

708

DEAF AND DUMB

subject, which was the first step towards making
the education of the deaf and dumb permanent,
by recording the experience of one teacher for
the instruction of others, This book, published
in 1620, was of service to De l’Epée a hundred
and forty years later; and it contains, besides
much valuable information, a manual alphabet
identical in the main with that one-handed alpha-
bet which is now in common use in the schools
where the alphabet is used, on the Continent and
in America. His own system of teaching, how-
ever, like that of every teacher in avery. country
before De l’Epée, was in the main oral. The prac-
ticability and adaptability of signs, for conversa-
tion rather than teaching, had occurred to several
of the earlier teachers, but De l’Epée was the first
to adopt them as a distinct medium, and the chief
medium, of teaching ; and so to establish them as
a language. Bonet himself says of the manual and
written alphabets that they ‘should be associated
with speech, by pointing to the letter as written
with the finger corresponding with the same letter
in the manual alphabet and the articulated sound.’
He also describes the positions and movements of
the vocal organs necessary in pronunciation, as he
himself used them, and as, with little variation,
Wallis and Amman used them also in later times,
believing themselves to have been the original in-
ventors of the methods they employed. From the
time of Bonet there was ‘a general awakening of
the attention of intellectual men, not only to the
importance of the subject, but to the ap ope
of instructing the deaf-mute. One of Bonet’s pupils
was seen by Charles I., when Prince of Wales;
and the case is described by Sir Kenelm Digby,
who met the prince in Madrid, during his memor-
able matrimonial journey to Spain (1623). Of this
pupil, a younger brother of the Constable of Castile,

ir Kenelm gives an interesting account in his
Treatise of Bodies, how he ‘would repeat after
anybody any hard word whatever’—not Spanish
merely, but English, and even Welsh.

When the art died away in Spain, it was taken
up by Englishmen, and began forthwith to assume
an entirely new aspect. Dr John Bulwer published,
in 1648, his Philocophus, or the Deafe and Dumbe
Man’s Friend, in which he speaks of a ‘ lip-grammar,
which may enable you to fas with your eye, and
thence learn to speak with your tongue.’ Bonet
also found in the course of his experience that lip-
reading reached a much greater utility than he had,
at the outset, thought it capable of. It has been
described as the backbone of the oral system. It
is the conviction arising from experience, which
has in our own days, and in nearly every country,
in Italy and France especially, made some of the
most eminent sign-teachers the chief advocates of
the oral system. Dr William Holder published his
Elements of Speech, with an Appendix concerning
Persons Deaf and Dumb, in 1669; and Dr John
Wallis, Savilian Professor of Mathematics in the
university of Oxford, both taught the deaf and
dumb with great success, and wrote copiously upon
the subject. In 1662 one of the most proficient of
his pupils was exhibited before the Royal Society,
and in the presence of the king. The Philosophical
Transactions of 1670 contain a description of his
mode of instruction, which was destined to bear
ample fruits long after his death.

Before the close of the 17th century many works
of considerable merit appeared, the chief of which
are the Surdus Loguens (1692) of John Conrad
Amman, a physician of Haarlem; and the Didas-
calocophus, or Deaf and Dumb Man’s Tutor, of
George Dalgarno (q.v.). This treatise, p* blished
in 1680, and reprinted in 1834 by the biaitland
Club, is eminently sound and practical, which
is the more remarkable, as the author speaks

of it as being, for aught he knows, the first that
had been written on the subject. He is the first
English writer who gives a manual alphabet. The
one described by him, and of which he was the
inventor, is, most probably, the one from which the
resent two-handed alphabet is derived. Henry
aker (q.v.) about 1720 introduced an improved
system of his own; in 1765 the Abbé de lEpée
established his little school in Paris; and five years
reviously, the first school in the British dominions.
had been started in ii by Thomas Braidwood
(q.v.). He commenced with one pupil, the son of a
merchant in Leith, who had strongly urged him to
carry into effect the plan of instruction followed by
Dr Wallis, and described in the Philosophical Trans-
actions ninety years before. His school, the parent
and model of the earlier British institutions, was
visited and spoken of by many of the influential men
of that day, and its history and associations are
imperishable. Its local name of ‘Dumbiedykes’ sug-
ested to Sir Walter Scott a designation for one of
is most popular characters in the Heart of Mid-
lothian. A visit paid to it in 1773, by Dr Johnson,
and his biographer Boswell, supplies one of the most —
suggestive tid characteristic passages in the Journey
to the Western Islands, in which he speaks of Hen
Baker and his unpublished work. In 1783 Braid-
wood removed to Hackney, near London, and
the presence of his establishment so near to the
metropolis undoubtedly led to the foundation of
the London Asylum in 1792. Dr Watson, its first
principal, was a nephew, and had been an assistant,
of Braidwood; and he states that, some ten or
fifteen years previously, the necessity for the estab-
lishment of a public institution had been plainly
seen, and some few but insufficient steps taken
towards the accomplishment of such a design.
From its foundation in 1792 until 1829, it was
directed with great ability by Dr Joseph Watson,
author of Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb.
The numbers of deaf and dumb children at school
in the United Kingdom at the dates given, were
as follows :

1851 1861. 1871, 1881, 1885.

England and Wales.. 816 i001 1200 2782 1991
Scotisnd....0.c.s4s 250 240 301 386 412
Trelandss .igseacins ds 234 399 478 545 555
— -—_— 6. er sates Fas eae

Total ss yesies 1300 1640 1979 27138 2958

In 1895 the schools for the deaf and dumb
eertified under the Elementary Education (Blind
and Deaf Children) Act of 1893 provided accommoda-
tion for 2755 deaf children (1155 day-scholars and
1600 boarders) in England and Wales, and in
Scotland for 525 children. In Ireland the number
of deaf and dumb children receiving education is
somewhat larger than in Scotland.

In England and Wales there are some 25 public
institutions for deaf and dumb, and several private
ones. The oldest is that of Old Kent Road, London,
founded in 1792, and now at Margate; the next, —
that at Edgbaston, Birmingham, in 1812. In
Scotland there are 8, that in Edinburgh dating
from 1810; in Ireland 4, one in Dublin founded
in 1816. In the United Kingdom there are about
50 schools and classes, with 250 teachers and
3800 pupils. In the United States there are over
60 sikpale with 7500 pupils and 600 teachers ;
in Germany, 96 schools, with 5892 pupils under
595 teachers ; in France, 70 schools, 3655 scholars,
and 364 teachers; in Italy, 35 schools, 1500 pupils
and 238 teachers. If to these we add the schools in
Austria, 18; Switzerland, 15 ; Sweden, 17 ; Norway,
8; Russia, 11; Belgium, 11; Spain, 7; Holland,
3; Canada, 7; Australia, 3; with others in New
Zealand and Cape Colony, and one at Bombay
(the only one in Asia), it will be evident that the
pen throughout the world must be about 500 in
number.

oe

A PE

parison.

DEAF AND DUMB

709

It is to the 19th century that the honourable
distinction belongs of having done so much for the
deaf and dumb. This has not been by inventing
the art of teaching, or by raising up the earliest
labourers in this field of usefulness, but by founding
and supporting public institutions for this purpose.
De l’ Epée, when he opened his school in Fe. had
no foreknowledge of the work he was commencing.
As his labours increased, he invited others to his

ce, and they were thus enabled to carr,
the light of instruction elsewhere, and to keep it
alive when he was no more. His death took eo
in 1789, and his assistant, Sicard, succeeded him
Four years afterwards, the school was taken over
by the French government, and now exists as the
Institution Nationale of Paris. A pupil of this
institution, M. Laurent Clerc, went in 1816 to the
United States with Mr Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet
(1787-1851), the founder and first principal of the
American asylum, who in the New World became,
like De 1’ Epée, ‘ the father of the deaf and dumb.’

There is some diversity of opinion as to which is
the best kind of school for the deaf—the boarding
or the day school. And with this question is
involved, to some extent, the question of systems
of instruction. Until the introduction of the oral
system from Rotterdam in 1867, and the establish-
ment in 1874 of the classes for the deaf in the
ordinary schools by the School Board for London,
all the institutions in Great Britain were board-
ing-schools. Of the two systems—by congre-
gation or by separation—the former, the boarding-
school system, is upheld by its advocates for its
advantages of continuous teaching, influence, and

sciempline. These they hold to be of special neces-

sity for the deaf, and not to be attainable, gener-
ally, under the day-school system. The latter
system is accepted by some, but only as a necessit;
—not the best to be hoped for, but, the best whic
can be got. Others defend separation, and oppose
peperegstion altogether, on the ground that with
the oral system it is the best, absolutely ; that the
pupils, being taught to speak in order to prepare
hem for the world, ought to live in the world, and
so to bring into constant exercise and practice what
they have been taught. Living at home or boarding
out in families is therefore advocated and adopted,
on this ground, in London and in various large
towns on the Continent, though in many places
where the oral system finds its strongest supporters
the boarding-school is still retained. The possible
danger to life and limb in passing through crowded
streets alone, has combined with other reasons to
pene in London the establishment ‘of homes for
eaf children—where they are boarded, lodged, and
eared for, and receive their education in a con-
veniently adjacent school-board class. These
homes, now occupying seven separate houses, were
established by the Rev, Dr William Stainer. They
are largely made use of by Boards of Guardians
and others, and are called by the founder's name.
The mental condition of the deaf and dumb is so
eh aie entirely unlike that of any other
ranch of the human family—that it is extremely
difficult, without very close thought, to obtain an
accurate conception of it. While almost every one
will readily 1it that there is a wide difference
between a deaf and a hearing child, very few, who
have not had their attention specially drawn to the
subject, possess any adequate notion of the differ-
ence, or could tell whereia it consists. Sometimes
the deaf are compared with the blind, though there
exists no proper ground of comparison between
them. Except that the blind are more dependent
than the deaf and dumb, the relative disadvantages
of the two classes do not admit of a moment’s com-
The blind can be talked with and read
to, and are thus placed in direct intercourse with

the world around them : domestic converse, literary
pleasures, political excitement, intellectual research,
are all within their reach. The born-deaf are
utterly excluded from every one of these. The two
afflictions are so essentially dissimilar, that they
ean only be considered and spoken of together by
way of contrast, Each of them affects both the
physical and the mental constitution ; but blind-
ness, which is a greatey physical affliction, falls less
severely on the mind; while the effect of deafness
is the extreme reverse of this—it touches only one
se 4 organ, and that not visibly, but the calamity
which befalls the mind is one of the most desperate
in ‘the catalogue of human woes.’ The depriva-
tion under which the born-deaf labour is not merely,
or so much, the exclusion of sound, as it is the com-
plete exclusion of all that information and instruc-
tion which are conveyed to our minds, and all the
ideas which are suggested to them, by means of
sound ; as it is through sound alone, in the first
instance, that we all learn language, the medium
of all knowledge. The deaf know almost nothing,
because they hear nothing. We, who do hear,
acquire knowledge through the medium of lan-
guage—through the sounds we hear, and the words
we read—every hour. But as regards the congeni-
tally deaf, speech tells them nothing, because they
cannot hear; and books teach them nothing,
because they cannot read; so that their original
condition is far worse than that of persons who
‘can neither read nor write’ (one of our most
common expressions for extreme ignorance); it is
that of persons who can neither read, nor write,
nor hear, nor speak; who cannot ask you for
information when they want it, and could not
understand you if you wished to give it to them.
Your difficulty is to understand thezr difficulty; and
the difticulty which first meets the teacher is, how
to simplify and dilute his instructions down to
their capacity for receiving them.

A class thus cut off from all communication
through the ear, ean only be addressed through the
eye (1) by means of objects, or representations of
them, or by the visible langua of pictures, signs,
and gestures; (2) the finger-alphabet (or Dactylo-
logy) and writing, which make them acquainted
with our own written language ; or (3) articulation
and reading on the lips, which introduce them to
the use of spoken language. The education of the
deaf and dumb must be twofold—you must awaken
and inform their minds by giving them ideas and
knowledge, and you must cultivate them by means
of language. here the oral system is employed,
the deaf child is taught by spoken language as
other children are. here the combined system is
in use, a knowledge of things is conveyed by the
use of signs; but to this must be added a know-
ledge of words. These pupils are therefore taught,
from the first, that words convey the same ideas
to our minds as pictures and signs do to theirs;
they are therefore required to change signs for
words until the written or printed character is as
readily understood as the picture or the sign.
This, of course, is a long process, as it has to be
repeated with every word, Names of visible objects
(nouns), of visible qualities (adjectives), and of
visible actions (verbs), are gradually taught, and
are readily acquired ; but the syntax of language,
abstract and metaphorical terms, a copious diction,
idiomatic phraseology, the nice distinctions between
words called synonymous, and those which are
identical in form but of different signification—
these are far more difficult of attainment ; they can
only be mastered through indomitable perseverance
and application on the part of the pupil, in addi-
tion to the utmost skill and ingenuity of the
teacher. The wonder, therefore, surely is, seeing
the point of starting, that this degree of advance-

710

DEAF AND DUMB

ment is ever reached at all on the sign system ;
though oral teachers maintain that on their system
it is attained readily, in a manner similar to that
of hearing children. é

Yet it has been set forth by otherwise respectable
authority, that the deaf and dumb are a ‘gifted
race ;’ that they are remarkable for ‘ their prompti-
tude in defining abstract terms ;’ and those who
ought to have known better have strengthened
this delusion by putting forth, as the bond-fide
answers of deaf-mutes, those brilliant aphorisms
and definitions of Massieu and Clere, which are
so often quoted at public meetings by eloquent
speakers who know nothing of the subject. It is
very well known to those who are acquainted with
the subject, that the so-called definitions of Hope,
Gratitude, Time, Eternity, &c., were not Massieu’s
at all, but those of his master, the Abbé Sicard.
The influence of these fallacies has been most mis-
chievous ; they raise expectation to a height which
is unreasonable, for it is thought that what was
done by ‘the celebrated pupil of the Abbé Sicard’
may be done every day ; and disappointment is the
inevitable consequence. The honest, laborious
teacher who cannot produce these marvellous
results, and will not stoop to deception, has often
to labour on without that appreciation and encour-
agement which are so eminently his due; the cause
of deaf-mute instruction suffers; and a young in-
stitution is sometimes crippled by the failure of
support, which was first given from one impulse,
and is now withdrawn from another—not a whit
more unreasonable than the first, but very unfor-
tunate in its consequences.

In 1886 the education of the deaf and dumb was
referred to the investigation of a Royal Commission
which has instituted far-reaching inquiries, from
which valuable results are anxiously expected. But
the most striking feature of all has been the rapid
diffusion of the pure oral system. Originally con-
fined to Germany and Holland, it has since 1867
spread over western Europe and America, some-
times forming by itself the sole principle of instrue-
tion, and sometimes, though against the views
and protests of its principal advocates, in com-
bination under the same roof with the sign or
manual system. It was introduced into London in
1867, at the instance of the late Baroness Meyer de
Rothschild, and applied by Mr Van Praagh, at the
Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home. In 1871 it was
extended by the establishment of the ‘Oral Asso-
ciation,’ whose school and training college, placed
under the direction of Mr Van Praagh, are in
Fitzroy Square. In 1877, by the efforts and influ-
ence of Mr B. St John Ackers, the training college
and school was founded which has its headquarters
at Ealing, and of which one of the chief objects was
the diffusion of the ‘German’ system in the United
Kingdom. The college of teachers was established
later, in 1885. It has had a successful career.
Nearly every head-master in the kingdom is a
member, and it has attracted a large number of the
younger teachers to its examinations, all of whom
are required to pass in subjects set by the heads of
the profession, including the ability to teach on the
oral system. -This method, advocated by the means
already named, had been prosecuted with great zeal
and much success, but was wonderfully accelerated
by the international congress held at Milan in
September 1880. Here the pure oral system was
stamped with almost unanimous approval, and its
acceptance, either wholly or partially, speedily
followed in every country in Europe and some more
distant regions. It was at once adopted in. the
three national institutions of France—the birth-
seg and cradle of the sign or French system ; and

y 1884 more than 60 per cent. of all the known
schools in the world had proclaimed their full

adoption of it. In Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Luxemburg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland
its adoption was universal ; in Italy it prevailed in
34 out of 35 schools; and in Norway in 6 out
of 7. In other words, it was the system in actual
practice in all the schools of some countries, in
nearly all of other countries, and in a continually
increasing number in every country where the

deaf are taught at all. ri

The oral system, discarding signs and the manual
alphabet as instruments of teaching and as means
of communication, employs speech and lip-readin,
for these purposes. The child is taught (a) to spea
by seeing how his teacher speaks ; (6) to lip-read—
that is, to read the speech oF his teacher and others
as expressed upon their lips; and to understand so
much of this as is co-extensive with his own know-
ledge of language; to which he is of course adding
daily and hourly by means of speech. Instruction
comes to him by the spoken and written lan-
guage of the hearing, not by the signs and
gestures of the deaf. Thus, he speaks, he lip-
reads, and he has books opened to him. The first
attainment, striking as it is, is as nothing to the
second, and the second is inferior to the third. It
cannot be too clearly understood that the greatest
and most certain of all these advantages is the
last-named. The acquirement of speech may be
more or less perfect, therefore more or less
uncertain as a means of communication; but the
ability to read the lips of other persons does not
depend on this, and it is much the more valuable
of the two, because by this means the mind which
is full is laid open for the information of the mind
comparatively empty. But the ultimate attain-
ment—the command of books and literature
afforded by the mastery of language—is, in regard
to intellectual cultivation and moral guidance,
incomparably the most valuable acquirement of all,
however gained. Nothing is to be compared with
this as a means of breaking down the barrier and
bridging over the gulf which separates the deaf
from the hearing—the most formidable and at first
sight the most impassable which can separate man
from man. By way of illustration, it has been said
that the aiental condition of the born-deaf, without
education, is blank imprisonment in the most
awful solitude ; that the sign system removes this
to the extent of enabling the captives to associate
with each other; while the pure oral system throws
open the doors of their captivity, and sends them
out to take their part in the life and action of the
world around them.

The modes of teaching on the oral system are
not everywhere uniform, though the principles are
the same. These methods vary to some extent in
different countries, being influenced by the charac-
ter of the language, and are essentially traditional.
Some eminent authorities teach the vowels first,
others the consonants; the simple combinations

‘follow, afterwards those which are less simple, and

then short phonetic words, leading on to simple
sentences. The vocal organs are trained to pro-
nounce and the eye to observe (i.e. to lip-read)
simultaneously. It is gravely erroneous to sup-
pose that teaching speech is all that is meant by
teaching on the al system. Its advocates say
that, with pupils properly taught, lip-reading,
articulation, and writing are simultaneous. One
branch is not allowed to get ahead of the other.
To acquire a new word, the pupil first reads it from
his teacher’s lips; he is next taught to pronounce
it himself, and then to write it down. On this
principle the whole course of instruction is carried
out. The system, to be successful, demands its
own conditions, of which a longer school term (eight
years at least), an earlier commencement (at the’
age of seven or younger), smaller classes (of not

DEAF AND DUMB

711

more than eight or ten), teachers trained specially
to the work, and the exclusion of signs and the
manual alphabet are held to be indispensable.
_ The growth and decadence of the sign system is
his It came in after 1760, It then took hold
and grew, and maintained its ascendency for near!
a hundred years, when the reaction began which
has marked our own times. Before 1760 there were
no public schools ; all teaching was individual and
vate, and it was oral. After 1765, when De
°E had a school of sixty children and no
tants, it is no wonder that he gave his pre-
ference to signs, whereby the pupils could help to
teach each other, and he could address them all at
once. So speech was abandoned, except in some
favourable cases as an accomplishment ; signs be-
came the language of deaf-mutes, teachers were
few and inadequate, a large proportion of them

were deaf themselves, teaching deteriorated, and
interest languished. Meanwhile, the best men did
the best that was possible with an imperfect instru-
ment. The sign system was such an instrument,

and what was within its capabilities they did,

devotedly and did well. But with the superior
instrument, the oral system, applied with the same
energy and zeal, higher results have been reached,
notably, in many instances, by the same men.
Though they have worked on each method as it
came before them, there never was in the minds of
the most experienced teachers any doubt as to the
superiority oF speech over signs. The question was
never, which system is the best? but which system
is the most practicable in large schools? It is
obviously better that deaf persons should use the
speech common to everybody than the lan of
nobody but themselves. Until seventeen hundred
people go out of their way to learn the lan age
of one, the deaf minority must stand isolated in the
world, shut up with each other. Though such as
have learned to speak may not, with all their

efforts, succeed in rising to the level of those that
hear, yet the efforts made are themselves improving,
and habitual tice is still more so; whereas
the practice of signing is distinctly lowering and
hindering. Those tatght.by signs think in signs ;
those taught by speech think in words. The mix-
ture of the two is injurious ; translation from signs
to words produces confusion ; signs invert language,
and when the two systems are placed together
signs become the dominant power, and speech the
lesser one; then comes in a combined system in
which the oral system stands degraded, of which it
has been said, to degrade it is to kill it. Natural
signs—the signs which all hearing persons under-
stand—are allowed to be used for purposes of ex
planation, and some authorities permit the use of
the manual alphabet as well, because what is con-
veyed by the manual alphabet is identical with
language, and not, like conventional signs, an
imperfect substitute for it. But the inflexible
advocates of the pure oral system condemn and
exclude signs and the manual alphabet altogether.
Signs, they say, are at best but a ‘ baby lan 4
wedded to which the mind cannot grow, and with
which, alone, intellectual maturity can never be
attained.

Excellent work for the deaf and dumb has been
done in the United States. The institutions there
are munificently supported by grants from the
states, and are admirabl wap The staff of
teachers is numerous, able, and efficient, and a
high d of success is attained where the work
is carried on under advantages which are unknown
in the schools of Great Britain. At Washington a
college was established in 1864, under the presi-
dency of Dr E. M. Gallaudet, the youngest son of
the founder of the American Asylum. It is em-

wered by the United States government to confer

egrees, and has expressed this power by conferring
the title of Doctor upon four prominent experts in
Great Britain—Messrs Charles Baker and D. Bux-
ton in 1870, and R. Elliott and W. Stainer in 1887.
The same honour was conferred in 1880 upon Pro-
fessor A. Graham Bell. The inventor of the tele-
phone, he is also well known by his interest in the
education of the deaf on the oral system, of which
he is one of the most eminent and influential
advocates. That advocacy is mainly based on
educational unds, but also as a check to the
evils arising from the congregation of the deaf and
dumb together in institutions—their general asso-
ciation with each other, their frequent intermar-
, the consequent excess in the births of deaf-
mute children, and the danger, by no means vision-
ary, he insists, of ‘the formation of a deaf variety
of the human race.’ In New York the Rev. Dr
Thomas H. Gallaudet, vicar of St Anne’s, in 1852
started services in his church in the sign language,
and in 1872 organised a mission to promote the
temporal and spiritual welfare of adult deaf-mutes
in other cities of the Union. In London St
Saviour’s church was built to meet the same neces-
sity, and religious services have been conducted
there by successive chaplains. Another clergyman
and several laymen conduct similar services in
various parts of the metropolis. In Liverpool, Man-
chester, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, also in
pie ow: rm and the large manufacturing towns
of Yorkshire, special funds are raised, and special
agents employed, to promote in like manner the
social and religious benefit of the deaf and dumb.

The contentions between the rival systems have been:
carried on with much vieest and spirit in numerous
articles, reports, and pamp. lets ; and education has been
promoted by the publication of lesson-books such as those
of Dr Harvey P. Peel of New York, and of Moritz Hill of
Weissenfels (trans. by Stainer). See; besides the report
of the Royal Commission above mentioned, the Manual

712 DEAFNESS

DEAN

on the education of Deaf-nvutes by T. Arnold (1872) and
his Method (1881); W. R. Scott, The Deaf and Dumb
(1870); J. A. Seiss, The Children of Silence (Phila. 1888) ;
French books by Ordinaire (1836), Dubranle (1884), Dupont
(1884), Goguillot (1889), Denis (1886), and Drouot (1896) ;
and German books by Hill (1867), Schottle (1874), Hart-
mann (1880), Walther (1882 and 1895), Schmaltz (1884),
Gude (1880), Heidsiek (1889), Hedinger (1884), Vatter
(1892), Mygind (trans. 1894), and Bezold (1896). °

DEAF AND Dumps, in Law. The Roman law
held deaf and dumb persons to be incapable of con-
sent, and consequently unable to enter into a legal
obligation or contract. Both in England and Scot-
land they may make contracts or wills if they have
the use of reason and understand the nature of their
undertaking, and express their consent intelligibly.
Although the presumption of law is that a deaf and
dumb person is in the same state as an idiot, and
incapable of any understanding, such a one may be
subjected to a criminal trial on proof that he knows
right from wrong. And, if he understands the
nature of an oath, and is possessed of intelligence,
he may give evidence as a witness by signs through
an interpreter or by writing. It is always a good
objection to a juryman that he is deaf and dumb.

In the United States, in general, the legal pre-
sumption of the common law as to the mental
incapacity of the deaf and dumb does not exist.
They are presumed to be capable of comprehending
the nature of crime, the nature and obligation of an
oath, and of making any contract; hence may be
indicted, tried, and punished for crime, and may
testify as witnesses. The federal courts have no
aire jurisdiction as to persons deaf and dumb,
but the act of congress prescribing punishment to
be inflicted upon ‘every person’ who is guilty of
certain acts prohibited, includes every person pos-
sessed of sufficient mental capacity for criminal
responsibility, although they may be deaf and
dumb. The federal courts are governed by the
practice of the states in which the cause is pending
as to the ee of a deaf and dumb person as
a witness, and this competency will be determined
in either state or federal court by the judge before
whom the cause is pending, upon examination
of the individual, and upon testimony of those
acquainted with the party. A deaf and dumb per-
son is legally incapacitated to serve as a juror, or
for service in the army and navy, but in other
respects has the rights of citizenship.

Deafness, See DISEASEs OF THE EAR, IV. 158.

Deak, Francis, Hungarian politician, was born
in 1803 at Kehida, in the district of Szalad, where,
after a course of legal study at Raab, he practised
as an advocate, until returned as its representative
to the national diet in 1832. Here he soon took
his place as leader of the liberal opposition, and by
his firm and moderate policy effected reconciliations
between Hungary and the Austrian emperor as her
king—temporarily in 1840, and more permanently
in 1867. After the revolution of March 1848 he
became Minister of Justice in the cabinet of Count
Batthyanyi, and made every effort to ward off the
inevitable war. On Kossuth’s coming into power
(September 1848), Deak resigned his portfolio, and
after the unsuccessful attempt next year at nego-
tiation, withdrew from public affairs, and retired
to his estate. He refused to return to public life
till 1860, when a constitution was granted to his
country.

Returned by Pesth to the diet-in 1861, he again
yecame the leader of the moderate party, while the
extreme party collected round Count Téléki. The
death of the latter (8th May) destroyed the only in-
fluence which could counterbalance that of Deak ;
and the diet appointed him to draw up.the address
to the emperor demanding the constitution of 1848,

a Hungarian ministry resident in Pesth, the return,
without restriction, of the exiles, and the restitu-
tion of their property. The emperor answered it
by a hostile rescript, against which Deak protested
strongly. Out of the humiliation of Austria in
1866 came the weg of Deak’s policy. He asked
nothing more than before, and thus his wise and
statesmanlike moderation effected a satisfactory
constitutional relation between Austria and Hun-
gary in the dual system of monarchy. Dedk’s —
party was all-powerful, but he lived to see the rise
of a more advanced party under the leadership of
Tisza. He died at Buda-Pesth, January 29, 1876.
See Memoir, with preface by Grant-Duff (1880).

Deal, a municipal borough and sea-bathing place,
in the east of Kent, on a bold open beach near
the south extremity of the Downs, between North
and South Foreland, 89 miles by rail from London,
and 6 miles SE. of Sandwich. Till 1885 it was part
of the parliamentary borough of Sandwich. A
fine anthorae extends 7 or 8 miles between Deal
and the Goodwin Sands. Deal has mainly arisen
to supply the wants of the numerous vessels which
are often detained by the winds in the Downs. The
chief branches of industry are connected with mari- —
time pursuits, boat-building, sail-making, piloting

or hovelling, victualling and naval stores. the pro-
sperity of the place now largely depends on its sea- —
bathing, on the military dep6t at Walmer (2 miles
S. of Deal), and on the s ipping in the Downs.

The handsome iron promenade pier was erected in
1864. Pop. (1851) 7067 ; (1891) 8898. It has been
one of the Cinque Ports (q.v.) since the 13th cen-
tury. Of the three castles built by Henry VIII. in
1539, Deal Castle is the residence of its ‘ captain ;’
Sandown Castle (where Colonel Hutchinson died)
to the north, has been blown up (1880-95) as
dangerous through the encroachment of the sea;
and to the south, Walmer Castle (q.v.) is now the
residence of the Warden of the Cinque Ports. See
H. 8. Chapman, Deal Past and Present (1891).

Some maintain that it was near Deal that Julius
Cesar landed in 55 B.c.—The Deal boatmen are,
like some of the other boatmen on that coast,
locally known as ‘hovellers.’ They are noted for’
giving assistance to ships in distress, and were
formerly much employed in carrying off provisions
to outward-bound vessels, and in bringing ashore
mail-bags requiring to be forwarded by express.

Bealfish (Traiger). a genus of deep-sea
bony fishes, in the Ribbon-fish (q.v.) sub-order of
Acanthopteri. As the name suggests, the elongated
body is laterally compressed, and with the excep-
tion of a small separate anterior portion, the dorsal
fin is continuous along the back. The tail fin is
peculiar in being turned sharply upwards. The
pectoral fins are well developed. The skeleton is
very brittle. Some eight species are known, on
European coasts and from the west of South
America. They rarely come to the surface. One
form (7. arcticus or bogmarus, the vane of
Icelanders and Norwegians) is occasionally found
on North British coasts. It is a large fish, 4 to 6
feet in length, and of a silvery colour. The dorsal
and caudal fins are red. A smaller species (7.
tenia) occurs along with others in the Mediter-
ranean.

Dean. The word dean, from the Latin decanus,
properly means an officer over ten subordinates, the
etymon being decem, ‘ten.’ Itis first found as a mili-
tary grade, being mentioned by Vegetius in the 4th
century as an old but then disused term (De Re
Milit. ii. 8). Somewhat later it. appears, still in
the 4th century, as a title of certain minor officers
in the imperial household (St Ambrose, Epist. i.
20; St Chrysostom, Hom. 13, in Heb. vii.). With
the rise and organisation of monachism, the name —

ae

Pe

——

|

a
, .

’ within a tithing, for every

semaine Sti ch tl Ea ia la

DEAN

DEATH 713

was given to a monk placed in charge of ten others
for whose discipline or execution of Me
tasks he was responsible (St Augustine, De Mor.
Keel. Cath, i, 31); and in the legislation of Justinian

the word has yet another sense, being applied to
the public oflicers having superintendence of
funerals (Novell. 43, 59). In the Visigothic and

Anglo-Saxon codes the decanus is a judge of first
instance or other legal oflicer having jurisdiction
hundred consisted of ten
districts, called tithings, and in every tithing was a
constable or civil dean. The monastic model was
adapted to collegiate and other churches having a
large staff of clergy, and the dean in such churches
Py over ten canons or prebendaries, though

rule of number does not seem to have been
strictly required.

In conformity with this, the
tual governors, the bishops, divided each

ocese into deaneries or decennaries (Lat. decem,
*ten’), corresponding to tithings, each of which was
the district of ten parishes or churches, over every
one of which a dean was appointed, who in the
cities or large towns was called the dean of the city
or town, and in the country, dean of Christianity,
or rural dean. In the English Church there are
the following dignitaries who bear this name :

(1) In the province of Canterbury it is part of
the dignity of the archbishop to have prelates to be
his officers, and of these the Bishop of London is
his provincial dean; and when a convocation is
assembled, the archbishop sends to him his mandate
for summoning the bishops of the province. This
is the sole example of the kind.

(2) Honorary Deans, as the Dean of the Chapel
Royal of St James’s. See CHAPEL ROYAL.

(3) Deans of Peculiars, as of Battle in Sussex,
founded by William the Conqueror in memory of
his conquest. There are also the Deans of the
Arches in London, of Bocking in Essex, and of
Croydon in Surrey, who have jurisdiction, but no
cure of souls.

(4) Deans of Chapters, as at Canterbury, St
Paul’s, &c., who are governors over the canons in
eathedrals and collegiate churches. Their appoint-
ment is in the direct patronage of the crown, which
may appoint by letters-patent; and the dean so
appointed is entitled to be installed. The dean of
a chapter must reside eight months in the year, and
he may hold one benefice with his. deanery. The
income of the office is, in the case of Durham,
£3000; of St Paul’s, Westminster, York, and
Manchester, £2000; of other cathedrals, £1000,
stig of St Davids and Llandaff, which have £700.
See CATHEDRAL,

(5) Rural Deans.—This is a very ancient office
of the church, but custom gradually transferred
its duties to the archdeacon, as in the visitation
of churches, parsonage-houses, &c. Rural deans,
however, may act as deputies to the bishop and arch-
deacon ; and since 1850 the office has been revived
with great advantage, and in well-ordered dioceses
affords a useful channel of communication between
the bishop and his clergy, and a means of joint
action in matters affecting the church. There are
hy, eyed nearly six hundred rural deaneries in
England and Wales.

In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge the
dean is the officer who superintends the discipline
of the college and the chapel services. At Christ
Church, Oxford, which is a cathedral, the dean is
master of the college.

In the Roman Curia the Cardinal-bishop of
Ostia is ex officio dean of the College of Cardinals ;
but while the head of foreign collegiate churches
is styled dean, the officer bearing that title
in cathedral churches is inferior in rank to the
provost in some cases, and in others to the vicar-
general; and in feudal times the clerks who acted

as deputies for the lay-abbots of impropriated
foundations were also styled deans,

Dean, Forest oF, a picturesque hilly tract, 34
sq. miles in extent, in the west of Gloucestershire,
between the Severn and the Wye, and within the
hundred of St Briavels, is an ancient royal forest,
It was almost entirely disafforested by Charles L
on a sale to Sir John Wintour, but was re-afforested
by act of parliament very shortly after the Restora-
tion. The greater part still remains crown property ;
and about one-half is appropriated for the growth
of timber for the navy. It is divided into six
‘walks,’ which contain woods of oak, beech, &e.
There are coal and iron mines, and quarries of
stone suitable for building and making grindstones,
troughs, and rollers. Persons born in the hundred,
and residing and working a year and a day in the
mines, become, on registration, free miners. Their
ancient Lbs a entitling them exclusively to
grants of the crown mines (subject to the right of
the crown to put on a fifth man for every four
miners, now commuted for a royalty ), and, formerly
to timber for the mines, were regulated and enfor
by the Mine Law Court, held at the Speech House,
within Dean Forest, where the Verderer’s Court is
still held; but have, with some variations, been
defined and confirmed by several acts and commis-
sioners’ awards of the present century. Dean Forest
is under the control of the Commissioners of Woods
and Forests, one of whom, as ‘gaveller,’ has the
supervision of the mines, and a deputy-surveyor,
pes at registrar, four verderers (whose
office, since the extermination of the deer in 1854
is almost a sinecure), and other officials.

‘Dean of Faculty. See ApvocarTes.

Dean of Guild, in Scotch burghs, was the
head of the mercantile body called the Guild-
brethren (see GUILDS). In former times ( Act 1593,
chap. 180) he was a judge in mercantile and mari-
time causes within the burgh, but for a very long

riod he has been rather what might be called a

otch kind of Atdile (q.v.). His chief duty is now
to see that buildings within the burgh are erected
according to law, and, in case of their falling into
a ruinous condition, to order them to be pulled
down. Though in some of the larger burghs the
dean of guild is still (3 and 4 Will. IV. chap. 76,
sect. 22) a member of the town-council ex officio,
his jurisdiction is altogether separate from that of
the bailie-court. In Edinburgh the Dean of Guild
Court, in addition to the dean of guild, consists of
five members of the town-council, and five registered
electors of the city, not being councillors, of whom
three must be architects, civil engineers, ordained
surveyors, or master-builders. They are assisted
by the law assessors of the magistrates of the city.
No building can be either erected or demolished,
or even materially altered, without a warrant from
this court. Ventilation and sanitary arrangements
are under the control of this court. Opposition to
the granting of the warrant may be offered either
by a private party or e the corporation acting for
the public interest. The enforcement of the Act
1698, chap. 8, as to the height of buildings, the thick-
ness of the walls, Xc., lies within the province of
the Dean of Guild Court. The judgments of the
Dean of Guild Court may be reviewed by the Court
of Session.

Death. It is one of the fundamental doctrines
of physiology, that every part of the organism has
its own definite term of vitality, and that there is
a continuous succession of the destruction of old
cells and the formation of new ones in all tissues,
and especially in those in which the most active
vital changes are going on, as, for example, in the
nervous and muscular tissues. Even the most
solid portions of the animal frame, such as the

714

DEATH

bones and (to a less extent) the teeth are under-
going a perpetual although a slower change of this
nature.; and throughout the whole body there is a
continuous removal of effete or worn-out tissues, and
a corresponding deposition of new matter. Every
blow we strike, every thought we think, is accom-
panied by the death and disintegration of a certain
amount of muscular or nervous tissue as its neces-
sary condition; and thus every action of our cor-
poreal life, from its beginning to its close, takes
place at the expense of the ar of a certain
amount of organised structure. his is termed
molecular death, and, within its proper limits, is
obviously essential to the life and well-being of the
organism, :

The cessation of the circulation and respiration
may be regarded as constituting somatic death, or
the death of the entire organism, which must
obviously be shortly followed by the molecular
death of every portion of the body.

We shall now briefly notice the principal modes
in which death occurs. Death happens either from
the natural decay of the organism, as in old age,
or (and much more frequently ) from some of those
derangements or lesions of the vital organs which
occur in the course of the diseases and injuries to
which we are liable. These derangements of the
vital organs may occasion various modes of dying.
Dr Watson said that life rests on a tripod, whose
three vital supports are the heart, the brain, and
the Jungs; and Bichat, that ‘the mode of dyin
may begin at the head, the heart, or the lungs.
The functions of these organs are, however, so
mutually dependent upon each other, that impair-
ment in the functions of one of them may lead to
death, though the immediate cause of death is the
failure of another.

Death from failure of heart may be either sudden
or gradual. Sudden failure (death by syncope or
fainting) may occur from disease or weakness of
the heart itself, or from shock conveyed to it
through the nerves. Gradual failure takes place
when the whole system is enfeebled—e.g. by the
action of certain poisons, and by many wasting
diseases (death by asthenia, Gr., ‘want of power’).
When death occurs from loss of blood (anzemia),
the failure of the heart may be either sudden or

adual, according to the extent of the loss; but
in this case the heart ceases to contract not from
inability to do so, but because the blood, its natural
stimulus, is insufficient in amount to excite con-
traction.

Death from failure of respiration (Asphyxia,
q-V.) occurs when access of the air to the Feige is
impeded, or when the actions of the muscles of
respiration cease. We have examples of it in
drowning, smothering, choking, strangulation, &e.
Forcible pressure upon the chest, such as sometimes
happens in great crowds, or as occurs to workmen

artially buried by the fall of earth, &c., will cause

eath in a few minutes, if movement of the lungs
is prevented by the pressure. Tetanus and the
poison of strychnine prove fatal in this way.

Death by coma, or beginning at the brain, is
caused by obstruction to the circulation through
that organ by pressure (as, for example, when there
is effused blood within the cranium, or when a
abn of bone is depressed in a fractured skull) ;

y clots of blood within the vessels; by various
narcotic poisons, such as opium, alcohol in exces-
sive quantity, carbonic acid, &e.

To these forms of dying some writers propose to
add necremia, or death beginning in the blood, as
in typhoid fevers and in other diseases of a malig-
nant or pestilential kind. Such cases may, how-
ever, always be referred to one of the three forms
already enumerated, or a combination of them ;
and further complication seems unnecessary.

The signs of approaching death require a briet
notice. The mer inay be affected in various ways ;
there may be dullness of the senses, vacaney of the
intellect, and extinction of the sentiments, as in
natural death from old age; or there may be a
peculiar delirium, closely resembling dreaming,
which usually is of a pleasing and cheerful char-
acter.

Dementia or imbecility sometimes comes on
shortly before death, and manifests itself by an
incapacity of concentrating the ideas upon any one
subject, and by an almost total failure of memory.
The mental weakness is often exhibited by the

leasure which is derived from puerile amusements,
Shakespear notices ‘playing with flowers’ as a
token of approaching dissolution. In the form
of delirium, ocular spectra seem frequently to be
present, the patient apparently trying to catch
some imaginary object.

There is generally well-marked relaxation and
incapacity of the muscular system, and the voice is
usually weak and low as death approaches, often
dwindling to a mere whisper. The mode in which
the action of the heart declines is various ; in most
diseases of long standing, the cessation of the heart’s
action is gradual, the rate of the pulsations bein
much increased, but their energy being very mue
impaired. In some acute affections, the failure is —
shown by the irregularity of the pulse, while the
force is little altered. In other cases (especially in
cerebral diseases) the heart, before ually ceasing
to beat, contracts violently, and suddenly stops.

The respiration is sometimes hurried and panting
till just before death, while in other cases it is slow,
laborious, and stertorous. The accumulation of |
mucus, &c. in the air-passages increases the diffi-
culty of breathing ; the sound known as the ‘death-
rattle’ being produced by the passage of the air
from the lungs through the fluid collected in the
trachea and upper respiratory passages. There is
also a loss of animal heat, beginning at the extremi-
ties.

The signs of actual death may be arranged under
three heads : (1) Signs of the extinction of the vital
functions ; (2) Changes in the tissues ; (3) Changes
in the external appearance of the body.

(1) The arrest of the circulation and respiration
would at first sight appear to afford decisive evi-
dence of death; but these functions, as in the case
of hybernating animals, may be reduced to so low
a condition that it is by no means easy to decide
whether or not they are completely annihilated. In
cases of apparent drowning, and in newly-born
infants, these functions are frequently suspended
and again restored ; and cases like that of Colonel
Townsend (see any standard work on medical
jurisprudence) occasionally occur, in which the
patient has the power of voluntarily suspending
these functions for a considerable period. The
gradual loss of animal heat is an important sign.
But it is sometimes delayed; and in exceptional
cases a rise of temperature may even take place
after death. Loss of contractility of the muscles
when a galvanic current is applied to them is a
certain sign of death; but the period at which it
takes place is very variable. The contractility of
the skin is also lost after death. When a cut is
made through the skin of a dead body, the edges of
the wound collapse, while a similar lesion inflicted
during life presents an open or gaping appearance.

(2) Among the changes in the tissues, the rv
mortis, or rigidity of the muscles, which ensues at a
varying period after death, is the most important.
It may ap ear within half an hour after death, or
may be singed twenty or thirty hours, according
to the nature of the disease ; and its mean duration
is from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. It com-
mences in the neck and trunk, then appears,

Le ———— ——

DEATH DUTIES

-

DE BARY 715

according to most observers, in the upper, and lastly
in the lower extremities, and disappears in the
same order.

(3) Various changes in the external appearance
of the body have been regarded as indicative of
death by different writers; of these, the most
important ey is the altered colour of
the surface. Livid spots of various sizes may oceur
from local congestions during life; but the appear-
ance of a saroee tint on the skin of the abdomen,
accompanied by a separation of the epidermis, is a
certain sign that life is extinct.

The discrimination of true from apparent death
is obviously not a matter of mere physiological
interest. The case of Vesalius, the eminent
anatomist, who opened an apparently dead bod
in which the exposed heart was seen to be still
beating, is well known; as also that of the Abbé
Prevost, who, having been struck down by apoplexy,
was rded as dead, but recovered his conscious-
ness under the scalpel, and died immediately after-
wards ; and a French author, Bruhier, in a work
On the Danger of Premature Interment (1742-45),
collected fifty-four cases of persons buried alive,
four of persons dissected while still living, fifty-
three of persons who recovered without assistance
after they were laid in their coffins, and seventy-
two falsely considered dead. But when reason-
able care is taken such mistakes are hardly possible.
See BURIAL, CATALEPSY.

Death, in a legal point of view, is either natural
or civil: the former being the cessation both of
physical life and of the legal rights which attach
to it; the latter, the cessation of the legal rights
whilst the physical life remains. A man was said
to be civilly dead in England when he had been
attainted of treason or felony, or had abjured the
realm, or was banished, or became professed in
religion by going into a monastery. In these
events his property devolved asif he were naturally
dead. The doctrine of civi] death is now abolished
except as to cases of outlawry, in which it seems
still to be applicable.

According to the Scottish Law of Death-bed, an
heir in heritage was entitled to reduce all volunta
deeds granted by his ancestor to his prejudice, i
they were granted by this ancestor on his death-
bed. It was necessary that at the time the deed
was granted the ancestor should be suffering from
the disease of which he died, and should not sur-
vive for more than sixty days. The law did not
apply if, after granting the deed, the ancestor was
able to go unsupported to kirk or market. The
law of death-bed was abolished in 1871.

The so-called Valley of Death is a specially arid
tract in the MOHAVE DESERT (q.v.)—a depression
without vegetation, and with a saline efflorescence.
See also the articles ANNUITY, CAPITAL PUNISH-
MENT, DANCE OF DEATH, DISEASE, EXECUTION,
INSURANCE, LIFE, REGISTRATION.

* Death Duties, See Lecacy.

Death’s-head Moth (Acherontia atropos),
a species of Hawk-moth (q.v.), in the family
Sphingide, not uncommon in some parts of
England and of the continent of Europe. It is
widely distributed over the world, being found in
Africa, the Mauritius, and the East Indies. It is
one of the largest of the European Lepidoptera,
and measures almost six inches from tip to tip of
the extended wings. The general colour is dark,
the woolly body yellow, with black markings, the
thorax with markings which have some resem-
blance to a skull, the upper wings mottled with
brown, black, and yellow, the hind wings dark
yellow ‘with two black bands. The large cater-

illar is greenish-yellow, the back speckled with
lack, with transverse lines partly blue and partly

white. The tail end bears an S-shaped horn. In
countries where the potato is cultivated it is often
to be found feeding on the leaves of that plant.

———

Pat ~ a
: é .
— F Ay: ) %

Death’s-head Moth ( Acherontia atropos) and Caterpillar.

In the pupa stage it is brown, and lies in a hole in
the ground. The insect is nocturnal in habit, and is
interesting as an audacious plunderer of bee-hives.
How it daunts the bees is a mystery. Even more
remarkable is the much discussed shrill piping note,
which is probably produced by the forcible expul-
sion of air from the fore-gut through a cleft in the
roboscis. The sudden apeeerense of large num-
rs is popularly regarded as ominous of evil, and
in the Mauritius the insect is believed to cast from
its wings a dust which produces blindness in those
persons on whom it falls.

Death-watch, a ticking or rapping noise
produced by various insects in houses. Being
oftenest heard in the quiet of sickness and anxiety,
it has been superstitiously regarded as a signal of
approaching death. In Britain it is generally the
love-signal of the small boring beetle (Anobium,
see BORERS), of a brownish colour, and about }
inch in Jength. Various species frequent wood,
furniture, &e. A. pertinax, A. tesselatum, and
A. striatum are all common death-watches. Some
other insects besides Anobium make tapping noises,
notably the Giant Cockroach (q.v.) or drummer.
One of the book-lice (Atropos pulsatorius), in a
very different order, used to be regarded erroneously
as the ‘ death-watch.’

Debacle, a French word, meaning in that
language the breaking up of the ice in a harbour
or river, but introduced into English by geologists
to express any sudden flood of water, which bears
before it opposing obstacles, and leaves its path
marked with confused and scattered fragments of
rocks, stone, and other debris.

De Bary, Hetnrich ANTON, an eminent
botanist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, 26th January
1831. After a course of medical studies at
Heidelberg, Marburg, and Berlin, he began in
1853 to practise in his native city, but next year
became a privat-docent in Tiibingen, the year after
was called to be professor of Botany at Freiburg,
where in 1859 he was appointed ordinary professor.
In 1867 he obeyed a call to Halle, and in 1872 to
Strasburg, where he was the first rector of the
newly reo ised university. He died at Stras-
burg, 19th January 1888. As a botanist, De
Bary is famous especially for the contributions he

716 DEBATEABLE LAND

DEBT

has made to our knowledge of the morphology and
physiology of the fungi and the Myxomycete.
Of his numerous works in these departments, the
Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns
has been translated (1885); as also the Mor-
phology of Plants, and Lectures on Bacteria (1888).

Debateable Land. See BorDERSs.

Deben’‘ture is a deed or instrument issued by
a company or public body as a security for a loan
of money. It charges the property of the company
with the payment of interest, and the repayment
of the principal at some fixed period, usually
three, five, or seven years. Debentures vary in
their terms,-style, and legal incidents according to
the statutes under which power is given to issue
them; but the most common form is that of the
railway debenture, which is a mortgage issued
under the Companies Clauses Act, 1843, and con-
taining an assignment of the whole undertaking
and receipts of the company. Debentures of a
company registered under tle Companies Act, 1862,
generally create a charge on the ie of the
company, but are sometimes merely bonds, or in
the form of promissory notes. In many cases the
issue of debentures has been superseded by the
issue of debenture stock, which, with the interest
thereon, is a charge on the undertaking of the
company prior to all shares or stock of the com-
pany. It is capable of being transferred in any
amount, and does not, like a simple debenture,
represent the title of the original holder by an
instrument complete in itself, but requires entry
in a register.

The term debenture is also used by officers of
excise to denote a certificate entitling a merchant
who exports goods to receive bounty or draw-
back.

Debit and Credit. See BooK-KEEPING.

Debo'rah (Hebrew, ‘bee’), the ‘Mother in
Israel,’ a Hebrew prophetess, wife of Lapidoth,
judged Israel under a palm-tree on Mount Ephraim

etween Ramah and Bethel. Through her patriot-
ism the Hebrews were delivered from the yoke of
the Canaanites, under which they had lain for
twenty years. She united several of the tribes
of northern Israel under Barak (= Carthaginian
Barca, ‘lightning’), who completely destroyed a
great army of the Canaanites at Taanach in the
plain of Esdraelon on the brook Kishon. Sisera,
the Canaanite leader, fled, and was murdered in
his sleep by Jael. ‘The land had rest forty years.’
The song of Deborah (Judges, v.) is an inspired
utterance of the most joyful enthusiasm. See
Ewald, Die poetischen Biicher des alten Testaments
(vol. i. new ed. 1865), and the eloquent passage on
‘this Hebrew Boadicea’ in Coleridge’s Confessions
of an Inquiring Spirit.

De'breczin, a town of Hungary, in the midst
of a wide plain, 130 miles E. of Pesth by rail.
It is a large straggling place, indeed really a
collection of villages. Notwithstanding its gener-
ally squalid character, Debreczin is possessed of
some very handsome public buildings, including a
town-hall. The Protestant college, with faculties
of law and theology, has a valuable library,
and physical and zoological collections, is the
chief Reformed college in Hungary, and has 1500
students; there are also a Catholic academy, a
commercial college, and an agricultural college.
Agriculture is the dominant interest; enormous
herds of cattle graze on the fertile plains around.
There are alsé, manufactures of soap, saltpetre,
sausages, hams} and tobacco-pipes, which are
famous throughout Hungary, and a great steam
flour-mill. There is much trade in cattle, swine,
and grain. Pop. (1891) 56,996, all Protestants but
2000. The ‘Rome of the Calvinists,’ Debreczin

was long the headquarters of the Reformed faith,
and its inhabitants suffered much for their religion.
The town took a prominent part in the revolution
of 1849, and was for some months in that year the
seat of the national diet.

De Brosses. See BRossEs..

Debruised, a heraldic term applied to an
animal having a bend or other
ordinary placed over it.

De Bry, THEODOR, a gold-
smith and copperplate engraver,
born at Liege in 1528, who
settled in Frankfort-on-Main
about 1570, and established a
printing-house there, The most
important of the works issued
from his press is the collection
of Voyages to the East and
West Indies, published in Latin
(25 parts, 1590-1634) and Ger-
man (27 parts, 1590-1630). He died in 1598, leay-
ing two sons to complete the undertaking.

Pree: means a definite sum of money owed by
to
creditor as well as the liability of the debtor. It is
contrasted with the liability for damages, or other
unliquidated liability. In England there is, in
general, no method of securing debts before they
are payable (what is called a garnishee order
applying ony to judgment debts); but future and
contingent debts may in Scotland be secured by
arrestment or inhibition where the debtor’s solvency
is doubtful. The main division of debts in Scotland
is into movable and heritable—the former being
primarily chargeable only upon the debtor’s per-
sonal funds, although they may, by adjudication,
be made also a charge upon his real estate; and
the latter being directly a charge upon his real
estate. The former have always been treated as
personal estate as far as regards the creditor's
succession, while until 1868 the latter were con-
sidered as heritable estate. Now, there is no
distinction. In England also a debt may be
secured on the debtor's real estate, as by mortgage
or equitable lien ; but these mortgages were always
regarded as personal estate, although until 1874 the
formal title was in the heir, not the executor. In
England, a debt of record is one proved to exist
by the records of a court. The most important
are judgment debts, which have not only certain
facilities in execution and attachment, but must
be paid in full out of the personal estate before any
debts due on contract. A judgment debt, when
delivered in execution, creates a charge on the
debtor’s real estate, as if he had given a mortgage.
Specialty debts in England are debts by contract
created by a deed or an instrument under seal.
Such debts were formerly entitled to a preference
over simple contract debts, such as the liability
under a bill of exchange. But that was altered in
1869. In the administration of a deceased’s estate,
the order of preference among debts (as recognised
by the Judicature Act of 1873) is (1) expenses;
(2) crown debts ; (3) judgment debts ; (4) recogni-
sances and statutes; (5) special and simple con-
tract debts. Under the Judicature Act in England,
and at common law in Scotland, in the winding up
of the estates of deceased persons, provision must
be made for the valuation of contingent and future
liabilities or debts, very much in the same way as
under sequestration or liquidation proceedings in
cases of bankruptcy. ;
In bankruptcy there are certain. preferential
debts, such as taxes and rates, wages and salaries,
In England, actions of debt, when on contract under
seal, must be brought within twenty years; on
other contracts, within six years. The time in both

Debruised, >

The word includes the right of the — q

DEBT 717

cases is taken from the accruing of the cause of
action—i.e. the breach of contract; but if a
su nent acknowledgment in writing has been

‘made by the party liable, or he has paid the debt

in Bt or paid interest, the time will run from
such subsequent act. In Scotland, on the other
hand, obligations generally, and especially such as
aren to the specialty contracts of England,
are only subject to the long negative prescription
of forty years, but tradesmen’s accounts and some
others prescribe in three years (see wine ate et
The debtor's summons, commonly used in England,
is a summons to pay generally a trade debt (not
less than £50) within so many days, otherwise an
act of bankruptcy will have been committed, and a
bankruptey petition will be presented.
IMPRISONMENT OF DeEsTors.—Except in the

‘ease of fraud, no debtor can be imprisoned in

England for a debt below £20, exclusive of costs.
But such debtors, if ordered by an insolvent or
county court to pay the debt by instalments, or
otherwise, may, if they make default, be committed
by the court to prison for forty days. In Scotland,
the limit below which imprisonment for debt is in-
competent is £8, 6s. 8d. If a debtor escapes after
arrest, and before imprisonment, the officer of the
law in charge of the process is liable for the debt.
In England, imprisonment for debt was abolished
by the Debtors Act, 1869, except in certain cases,
the most important of which are those of a default-
ing trustee and of a- judgment debtor who is able,
but refuses to pay. In certain actions for £50,
defendants about to leave the country may be im-
agen and under the Absconding Debtors Act,
870, insolvent debtors may be arrested to prevent
their evading bankruptcy proceedings by going
abroad. In tland, imprisonment for debt was
abolished by the Debtors (Scotland) Act, 1880, 43
and 44 Vict. chap. 34, generally known as Cameron’s
Act; except in the case of taxes, fines, or penalties
due to the Queen, and rates and assessments law-
fully imposed, and also sums decerned for aliment.
By the Civil Imprisonment (Scotland) Act, 1882,
and 46 Vict. chap. 42, imprisonment was further
limited, (1) in the case of assessments, to a period
of six weeks ; (2) in the case of aliment, to debtors
wilfully failing to pay, though of means,
or being able to earn the same. These acts do not
exclude imprisonment where a debtor is in medi-
tatione fuge, or where he refuses to perform an
obligation ad factum prestandum. What is known
in Scotland as a fuge warrant is granted where it
appears that a debtor, in a debt above £8, 6s. 8d., is
about to leave the country without providing for its
oc aeaate Security must be S yeep to present the
ebtor when decree is obtained, so that he may be

charged to pay. It is — this remedy «oes
not apply to foreigners travelling through Scotland
for pleasure.

In the United States originally imprisonment of
debtors was adopted as a part of the common law,
but at the present time imprisonment for debt,
sort in case of fraud, or of an absconding debtor,
is believed not to exist in any of the states. Con-
gress, empowered by the United States Constitution
to make a uniform bankrupt law, exercised this
power, and subsequently repealed the law of impris-
onment (see BANKRUPTCY); and now, by Revised
Statutes 990 and 991, no person can be imprisoned
for debt by any process issuing out of the courts of
the United States, in any state where by the laws
of the state imprisonment for debt has been
abolished. Most of the states, by constitutional

rovision (either by Article of the Constitution, or
y Declaration in Bill of Rights), have prohibited
arrest or imprisonment for debt, while the other
states, either by direct statutes prohibiting im-

-prisonment for debt, or by poor debtors laws, or by

insolvent laws, secure the same result; it being
held to be against public policy to deprive a man, by
imprisonment, of the power to pay his debts, and
make him a direct charge upon the state. These
statutes and constitutional provisions are not in con-
flict with the provision of the United States Consti-
tution, prohibiting the states from making any law
impairing the obligation of contracts, as imprison-
ment for debt is no part of the contract; but they
do not in general apply to arrest in actions for tort.
In some states, statutes providing for the arrest of
a defendant in actions for breach of promise have
been held to be unconstitutional, as in conflict with
the provisions of state constitution prohibiting arrest
for debt, that provision applying to mesne as well
as final process. If a person in custody of the court
is discharged by giving bail for the payment of a
fine or other money within a certain specified time,
the bail may be forfeited, but no commitment can
be made for the payment of the fine, as that would
be imprisonment for debt, but a judge may im-
prison for personal examination in act of execution.

RECOVERY OF DeEsBTs.—With respect to the
recovery of debts, if the debt exceeds £50 in
amount, the creditor must, in England, proceed in
one of the superior courts of law; and, in Scot-
land, he may proceed either before the superior
court or before the sheriff-court. If the debt do
not exceed £50, the creditor may proceed in the
English county court, or the sheriff-court ; if below
£25, in Scotland he must proceed in the sheriff-
court.

In England, the first step to recover a debt not
exceeding £50 in the county court, is for the
creditor to go to the registrar of the district within
which the defender resides, or to the jurisdiction
of which he is on some other ground amenable.
He there fills up a printed form, called a plaint,
shortly stating the claim and the ground of it.
The registrar upon this issues a summons, and
gives it to the bailiff of the court, who serves
a copy of it on the defendant. This summons
names a day on which the parties must appear
before the judge. No written pleadings are in
| prereea necessary ; but if the debtor has any special

efence—such as, that he has a counter-claim
against the plaintiff, or that he (the defendant)
was a minor at the time the debt was contracted,
or that he has been cea under the bank-
ruptey acts—he must give the creditor notice in
writing five days before the oxiashy If he simply
denies the debt, he has nothing to do but to attend
the hearing, with what witnesses he may require.
If the witnesses are not likely to come voluntarily,
summonses to enforce their attendance (as well as
the production of documents) may be obtained at
the registrar’s office. At the hearing, the jud
(unless a jury have been required ) proceeds himnself
in a summary way to try the cause. He examines
the witnesses on oath, wip no record of the
evidence ; and, on hearing the parties, gives judg-
ment at once. If he decides for the plaintiff, he
may make the sum payable at once, or in cases
below £20, by instalments. The costs are accord-
ing toa fixed scale, which may be seen in the court
or in the registrar's office.

There are provisions for parties having their case
tried by jury, and also for appeal on questions of
law. Either party who wishes it, may ask for a
jury ; and if the sum claimed exceed £5, the demand
must be complied with. If there be a jury, the
number of jurymen is five, and their verdict must
be unanimous. The party dissatisfied with the
verdict may ask for a new trial, and the judge, if he
thinks right, may grant it on such terms as he
thinks reasonable. This power to try by jury is
used very rarely indeed—less than one per cent. of
all the cases which go to trial being tried in that

718

DEBT

manner. The right to appeal is against decisions in
point of law, and against the admission and rejec-
tion of evidence. The appeal is to a Divisional
Court of the High Court of Justice. It is taken by
requiring the judge to state a case for the opinion
of the higher court, and thereafter entering it for
discussion there. The appellant must give security
for the costs of the appeal, and (if detendant) for
the amount (both of principal and costs) contained
in the judgment. The right of appeal is not much
exercised, and the parties have it in their power to
agree beforehand (in writing) that there is to be
none. Leave to appeal is required where the sum
sued for is less than £20. Before trial, cases may
be removed by Certiorari (q.v.) to the High Court of
Bune, but that is in the discretion of the superior
udge.

, hen judgment is for the creditor, and the order
for payment is not complied with, execution ma,
issue against the goods of the debtor. Althoug
imprisonment for debt was (in the general case)
abolished in England in 1869, it still remains the
law that in the county courts, in certain cases,
the debtor may also be imprisoned. The debtor
is summoned to show cause why he has not obeyed
the judgment. At this hearing (whether the debtor
attend or not), the creditor may get an order to
commit, if he can show, to the judge’s satisfac-
tion, that the debtor has had since the judgment
sufficient means to pay, and has refused to do so.
This imprisonment may be for six weeks, but it is
not held to be equivalent to payment. Of course
the debtor is protected by bankruptcy or liquida-
tion.

Although it is competent to proceed in the count
courts for sums as large as £50, they are not muc
used for sums above £20. When the debt does not
exceed £20, there is a certain compulsion on the
creditor to resort to the county court, for if he resort
to a superior court, and recover no more than that
sum, he will have no costs, unless he satisfies the
court that he had sufficient reason for taking that
-course. In point of fact, there is only about one
case for a sum exceeding £20, for a hundred which
do not exceed it; and the average amount sued for
is between £2 and £3. The law upon this ex-
tremely important practical matter is now con-
solidated in the County Courts Act, 1888.

In Scotland, under the Small Debt Act, 1 Vict.
chap. 41, as amended in 1853, debts not exceeding
£12 may be recovered in the Sheriff Small-debt
Court. The creditor takes two copies of his
account to the office of the sheriff-clerk for the
circuit in which the debtor lives; from him he
obtains a summons, in which the day for the trial
is fixed ; and this summons he takes to an officer of
the court (sheriff-officer), who serves a notice, with
one of the copies of the account, on the debtor, at
least six days before the trial. The presence of a
witness at citation was dispensed with by the Cita-
tion Amendment Act of 1871, which also abolished
lockhole citation ; and under the Citation Amend-
ment Act of 1882, citation by registered letter
instead of by messenger-at-arms will be allowed in
the general case, it being formerly allowed only
where the debtor hid himself, or refused access, or
had gone for forty days. Both parties may employ
an officer to cite witnesses. The creditor must
appear at the trial, either by himself or by one of
his family, or by such other person as the sheriff
may permit. Law-agents require special permission
to appear, unless where both parties consent. If
the defender intend to plead a counter-claim, he
must cause a sheriff-officer to give a copy of it to

the pursuer, at least one free day before the trial;

otherwise, there are no written pleadings. On the
day fixed for the trial, if the debtor does not appear,
decree is given against him, with expenses, as a

matter of course ; against which he can afterwards
be ‘reponed’ only.on consignment of the expenses
and asum of 10s. If both parties appear, the judge
hears the case. If the pursuer or the defender have
clearly no good ground of action or defence, he
disposes of it at once; but if not, he examines the
witnesses on oath. No record of the evidence is
taken. At any time before judgment, the case ma;
be remitted to the ‘ordinary court’ of the sheriff,
where it is conducted by agents on written plead-—
ings and written proof. Otherwise, the whole. pro-
ceedings are concluded in one day, adjournments
not being permitted, except in special cases, After
judgment, there is no appeal, except on the ground
of want of jurisdiction, malice, oppression, or wilful
neglect of the statutory forms, in which cases there
is an appeal to the Court of Justiciary. The judg-
ment provides for execution against the debtors
goods. This process is often used for the recovery
of small rents. :

The Debts Recovery Act, 1867 (30 and 31 Vict.
chap. 96), has extended the Scottish small-debt
jurisdiction, with important alterations, to £50.

he class of debts that may be sued for between
£12 and £50 has been limited to those which most
require summary proceedings —namely, those which
prescribe if not sued for within three years, such
as all ordinary merchants’ accounts, and accounts
for professional services or for servants’ wages.
The principal differences between this and the
proper small-debt proceedings are, that agents are
allowed to appear; that there are two days in
court, one at which the grounds of action and
defence are stated, and an adjourned one, at which
the witnesses are examined ; that the judge makes
a note of the pleas of the parties; that a record is
kept (if required) of the admissions in fact and of
the evidence ; and that there is a right of appeal, if
the debt does not exceed £25, from the sheriff-
substitute to the sheriff, and if it exceed £25, also
to the Court of Session. If the judge be not asked
to take a note of the evidence, thane is no appeal in
matters of fact. All the fees and costs, whether
payable to the sheriff-clerk, the officers of the
court, or the law-agents, are distinctly stated in the
act, and must be hung up in every court. In other
respects, the proceedings are analogous to those in
the Small-debt Court, and, like them, may proceed
either at the principal town of the county, or at
oaerr the towns at which sheriff's circuit-courts are

eld.

In England and in Scotland there are other
courts which deal with the recovery of debts beside
the county courts. The Sheriff's Court of the City
of London has a jurisdiction similar in general to
that of the English county courts; and there are
local courts, such as the Court of Passage at Liver-
pool, and the Manor Court at Bradford, which |
exercise jurisdiction in small] as well as other debts.
In Scotland, the magistrates of royal burghs, and
the justices of peace, possess a small-debt jurisdiec-
tion for debts not exceeding £5 in amount. In the
latter case, the Royal Commission of 1870 recom-
mended a reform, capeclalty: as regards fees and
execution against goods. he widespread belief
that a corpse could be attached for debt was a
vulgar error,

Laws or DEBTOR AND CREDITOR.—In the
history of execution for debt the mareh of social
progress may be traced in earlier times. On the
one hand, lending is confounded with alms-giving ;
and the exaction of interest, and even of capital, is
regarded as an act of inhumanity towards the poor.
On the other hand, when the creditor’s rights come
to be recognised in a legal sense, there seem to be
no limits set to them. If he is entitled to exact
the debt at all, he is entitled to seize the goods of
the debtor; and if the debtor has no goods, he is

DEBT

DECALOGUE 719

‘entitled to his services, But the ion of his
services implies the possession of his person; and

the ion of his person implies the possession
of his life. The person of the individual, the father
of a family, brings along with it right over his wife,

his children, and his slaves. The creditor thus
becomes the absolute master of the life and liberty
of his debtor, and of all those who are dependent
upon him. The arrangements of the Mosaic Law
are an illustration of the manner in which, in the
ruder forms of society, the laws of debt thus com-
bine a degree of lenity with a degree of severity
which are equally alien to modern views. If an
Israelite became poor, it was a duty to lend to him,
and no interest was to be exacted either in money
or in produce. If he was a foreigner, the case was

different, and the taking of interest was legal

a xxii. 25; Deut, xxiii. 19, 20; Lev. xxv.
). When the Sabbatical.year arrived—i.e.
at the end of every seven years—there was a general
remission of debts as between Israelite and Israelite ;
and the near approach of the year of remission was
not to be recognised as an apology for declining
to lend to an indigent brother (Deut. xv. 1-11).
Pledges, it is true, might be taken, but even here
the same humane principles prevailed. The upper
millstone was sacred, for to take it would be to
deprive the debtor of the means of subsistence. If
raiment was the pledge, it must be returned before
6 jake yg when it might be required for a pees |
(Exod, xxii. 26, 27); and the widow’s garment coul
not be taken in pledge. In strange contrast to
this is the provision (Lev. xxv. 39) that a poor
Israelite may be sold to one of substance,
even when modified by the special provision that he
shall serve as a hired servant, not as a bond-servant,
and shall be set at liberty when the year of jubilee
atrives. Michaelis says that the judicial procedure
for debt was quite summary, the most important
causes being decided probably in a single quarter
of an hour; and he remarks that Moses nowhere
thinks it necessary to mention how a debt was to
be proved before a judge. There was, however, an
extensive system of appeals from the judge over
10, the case was carried to the judges over 50, 100,
and 1000, and finally to Moses himself. As eve
Israelite was entitled to claim the land of his
fathers at the jubilee year, and thus to place matters
on the footing on which they were after the settle-
ment in Palestine, debts and burdens on land were
limited to claims to the fruits of forty-two harvests ;
but houses, with the exception of those of the
Levites, might be sold in perpetuity (Lev. xxv. 29,
30, 32, 33). Children were often given in pledge
(Job, xxiv. 9), and ultimately into slavery, in pay-
ment of debt (2 Kings, iv. 1). Subsequent to the
Captivity, the er € of debts upon the poor
became so intolerable, that Nehemiah espoused
their cause, and insisted on a general remission
(Nehem. v.), exacting from the rich an oath that
gd would never afterwards press for payment.
oth in Greece (Plut. Vita Solonis, 15) and in
Rome (A. Gell. xx. 1, 19; Liv. ii. 23) the ereditor
had a claim to the person of the debtor. Previous
to the time of Solon this arrangement had produced
consequences at Athens closely analogous to those
which afterwards led to the struggles between the
patricians and plebeians at Rome ; and his abolition
of it forms one of Solon’s many claims to the char-
acter of an enlightened legislator. By the Twelve
Tables, it was enacted at Rome that if the debtor
admitted the debt, or had had judgment pronounced
against him for it, thirty days should be allowed
him for spe At the expiration of that period
he was liable to be given into the hands of his
creditor, who kept him sixty days in chains, expos-
ing him on three market days, and proclaiming his

debt. If no one stepped in to release him, the

debtor at the end of that time might be sold fora
slave, or put to death. If there were several credi- .
tors, the letter of the law permitted them to cut
their debtor in pieces, sharing him in proportion to
their claims ; but Gellius says this law was never
enforced. To treat him as a slave, however, and
make him work out the debt, was the common
practice ; and the children in his power, in accord-
ance with the whole constitution of society at Rome,
followed his condition. The Lex Petelia (326 B.c.)
alleviated the condition of the debtors (nexi) by
-earteigag the voluntary alienation of personal
freedom. It is uncertain whether it also put an end
to the. involuntary. alienation by the execution of
judgment debts. ‘During the Republic a debtor
could not be taken as a slave to satisfy a judgment
debt. The imprisonment of the debtor in a public
prison took the place of his reduction to sete :
(chap. vii. 71, 1). Great prominence was given by
the plebeians to a change in the laws of debtor and
creditor, on the oceasion of their first secession, in
494 B.c. ; and subsequently during the whole course
of the struggles between the two orders. At Rome
the creditor was not bound to maintain his debtor
in prison, but it was an offence to prevent food and

ding being supplied. In 320 A.p, Constantine
abolished imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor
was contumacious.

During the feudal period the person in general
was not attachable for debt, imprisonment being
inconsistent with the duties of warlike service, to
which every man was bound; and it was for the
encouragement of commerce, and in consideration
of the merchant having to deal with strangers
and foreigners, that it was first introduced by the
mercantile communities of Europe.

For further information on this and cognate subjects,
see other articles in this work, such as ARRESTMENT,
ATTACHMENT, BANKRUPTCY, Bonn, CEessIo BoNnoruM,
ContTRACT, DILIGENCE, HUSBAND AND WIFE, INFANT,
Sanctuary, &c. For the history of the law of imprison-
ment for debt, see, for England, Reeves’s History of the
‘Law, and for Scotland, Bell’s Commentaries. For archaic
systems of execution for debt, such as the Indian darna,
or fasting at the door of the debtor, see the works of Sir
Henry Sumner Maine.

Debt, Nationa. See NATIONAL DEBT.

Debut (début), a French word which has been
adopted into the English language, signifying
generally a beginning or entrance, but specially
applied to the first appearance of an actor or
actress on the stage at all, or to a first appearance
in a particular theatre. In these circumstances, the
actor is called a débutant ; the actress, a débutante.

Deca (Gr., signifying "ten ), a prefix of fre-
quent occurrence: as in Decapolis, a group of ten
cities ; decalogue, the ten commandments; deca-
métre, & measure of ten metres, Kc. From deca
is formed decade, a collection or up of ten.
In the calendar of the French Republic the term
decade was used to designate their week of ten
days, the various days of which were named
primidi, duodi, tridi, quartidi, quintidi, sextidi,
septidi, octidi, nonidi, and decadi. See CALENDAR.

Decachord, an ancient Greek instrument of
ten strings (hence the name), triangular in shape ;
also a kind of large guitar with ten strings.

Decagon is a plane geometrical figure of ten
sides, fhen the des are equal, the figure is
called a regular decagon.

Decalogue (Gr. dekalogos, ‘ten words’ or
‘sentences’), the ten ht roy The ‘ten
words,’ as they are called in Exodus xxxiv. 28, and
elsewhere, are prefixed to the collection of laws
called the ‘Book of the Covenant’ (Ex. xx. 22 to
xxiii. 83), and with it form part of the * Prophetical
Narrative’ of the Pentateuch (here extending from

720 DECAMERON

DECATUR

Ex. xix. 3 to xxiv. 15). They are quoted at length
in Deut. v. 1-21, and, besides minor differences,
with remarkable extensions and variations in the
fourth, fifth, and tenth commandments. The
Divine rest after Creation is given as the ground of
the fourth commandment in Ex. xx. 11, the first
part of that verse being based on Ex. xxxi. 170,
and the second part on Genesis, ii. 2b, beth of
which form part of the ‘ Priestly Narrative’ of the
Pentateuch. In Deuteronomy this reason for the
commandment is omitted, and appended to the
commandment there is a statement of the purpose
of the Sabbath (based, indeed, on Ex. xxiii. 12),
‘in order that thy man-servant and thy maid-
servant may rest as well as thou,’ and of the
motive to keep it—viz. Israel’s gratitude to Jehovah
for deliverance from his own servitude in Egypt.
It has been conjectured that the Decalogue in
its original form was entirely without comments,
and that all the commandments were expressed
with the same terseness and brevity as in the first,
sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth.

The prohibitions of other gods and of image-
worship being closely connected, and supported
in common by the reason annexed in Ex. xx. 5, 6,
were even in ancient times taken together as one
of the Ten Words; the number ten being made
out of the rest in various ways. The Jews com-
monly considered the prefatory words in Ex. xx. 2
(Deut. v. 6), ‘I am the Lord,’ &c., as forming the
first Word. The Lutheran Church, following
another ancient Jewish division, divides the pro-
hibition of evil concupiscence into two—the ninth
and tenth commandments, making ‘Thou shalt
not covet thy neighbour’s house’ (which in Ex.
xx. 17,.is mentioned first) the ninth. The
Roman Catholic Church, following Augustine,
finds the ninth commandment in the first clause
of Deut. v. 21, ‘Thou shalt not covet thy neigh-
bour’s wife.’ In the other Protestant Churches,
and in the Greek Church, as also in Josephus,
Philo, and the earliest Church Fathers, the pro-
hibitions of other gods and of image-worship are
counted as the first and second commandments, and
that of evil desire as one—viz. the tenth. The
Catholic and Protestant Churches agree in making
‘Honour thy father and thy mother’ begin the
second table of the Decalogue; but Delitzsch,
Oehler, and other scholars hold that the ten com-
mandments fall into two sets of five, the first includ-
ing the commandments of piety to God and to those
whom he has invested with natural authority ; the
second, the commandments of probity, or of duty
to one’s neighbour. See PENTATEUCH; Driver’s
Notes on Lessons from the Pentateuch (New York,
1887); Stanley’s Christian Institutions, chap. xvii.

Pceneeran the great work of Boccaccio
q.V.).

Decamps, ALEXANDRE-GABRIEL, a celebrated
French painter, was born at Paris in 1803. A
great portion of his childhood was spent in a lonely
part of Picardy among the peasants, which seems
to have given him a felong distaste for the ways
of cultivated society. He studied in a desultory
manner under Bouchot, Abel de Pujol, David, and
Ingres, but he saw nature in his own way, and
stamped the small pictures of animals which he
then produced with his own individuality. His
want of a thorough grounding in art, and his dis-
inclination for systematic study, told against him,
and prevented him from working with perfect
ease and mastery. His effects were attained by
repeated paintings, and his pictures exhibit a
strong impasto, which he scraped with pumice-
stone, and again retouched. In 1824 he spent the
summer in Switzerland, and in 1827-28 he travelled
in Italy and passed to the Levant, where he found

| of botany by the lectures of Vaucher.

congenial subjects, of the class that Delacroix
afterwards treated, which greatly occupied his
brush, and which attracted attention in the
Salon of 1831. He aspired to treat historical and
religious subjects: his ‘ Defeat of the Cimbri’
(1834) attained a great success. He was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1839, and
became officer in 1851. He died at Fontainebleau
from a hunting accident, 22d August 1860. His ©
works prove him to have been a powerful colourist ;
they are effective in composition and the distribu-
tion of light and shade, and show a fine apprecia-
tion of the wilder and more picturesque aspects
of man and nature. Since his death they have
realised large prices, his water-colour of ‘Children
let out of a Turkish School’ (1842) fetching 34,000
francs in Paris in 1861. See his Life by Moreau
(1869). i
De Candolle, AuGusTIN PyYRAME, an emi-
nent botanist, descended from an ancient noble
family of Provence, was born at Geneva, 4th
February 1778, and was first drawn to the study
In 1796-97
he studied chemistry, physics, and botany in Paris, —
where in 1797 his earliest work, on lichens, was
published. Other works quickly followed, includ-
ing his Astragalogia (1802), and his valuable EHssais

sur les Propriétés Médicales des Plantes (1804). In

1802 he was elected to an honorary professorship in
the Academy of Geneva, but remained in Paris,
and delivered his first botanical lectures in the
Collége de France in 1804. His Flore Francaise —
appeared in four volumes in 1805. Employed by
the government, he visited all parts of France and
Italy in 1806-12, investigating their botany and
agriculture. The results of his journeys are partly
embodied in a supplement to the Flore. He was
appointed in 1807 to a chair at Montpellier, where
he lived from 1810 to 1816; he then retired to
Geneva, where a professorship of Botany was
founded for him, rat where he spent the remainder
of his life. He died 9th September 1841. De Can-
dolle was an industrious writer, and the fruits of
his valuable studies in systematic botany and the
roperties and natural alfinities of plants are em-
8 ied in a considerable number of works. The

eee of these, his Regni Vegetabilis Systema

aturale (vols. i. and ii, Paris, 1818-21), was
commenced on too grand a scale, and was con-
tinued within more reasonable limits in the Pro-
dromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis (17
vols. 1824-73, the last ten by his son and others).

De Candolle bequeathed his collections—ineluding

a herbarium of more than 70,000 species of plants—
to his son, ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE (born 1806),
on condition of his keeping them open to the public,
and of his carrying on the Prodromus. That son
himself a botanist of no mean fame, published
several works of note, the most important being
Géographie Botanique (2 vols. 1855) and Origine
des Plantes Cultivées (1883). He also edited the
Mémoires of his father (1862). Died April 9, 1893.
Decapoda. See CrAB and CRUSTACEA.

Decapolis. See DEca.
Deca‘tur, capital of Macon county, Ilinois, on

| the Sangamon River, 39 miles E. of Springfield, at

the junction of several railways. It has woollen,
planing, and flour mills, and a number of smaller
manufactories. Pop. (1880) 9547; (1890) 16,841,
Decatur, STEPHEN, American naval com-
mander, was born in Sinnepuxent, Maryland, 5th
January 1779, of French descent, and obtained
a midshipman’s warrant in 1798. He saw some
service against the French, and was commis-
sioned lieutenant in the following year; and at
the close of the French war in 1801 he was one
of the thirty-six officers of that rank retained in

DE CAUS

DECEASED WIFE’S SISTER 721

the reduced strength of the navy. In the war with
Tripoli (1801-5) he gained great distinction ; his
4 brillian t achievement of boarding and burning the
captured Philadelphia in the harbour of Tripoli,
and then Seeping under the fire of 141 guns,
Nelson pronounced ‘the most daring act of the
’ For this he received his commission as
captain in 1804; in 1810 he was pea com-
modore. In the war with England in 1812 he
captured the frigate Macedonian, but in 1814 he
was obliged to surrender, after a resistance that
cost’ him a fourth of his crew, to four British
frigates. In 1815 he chastised the Algerines for
their Yammy § and compelled the dey to declare the
American flag inviolable; and he obtained indem-
nities for violating treaty stipulations from the
bey of Tunis and the pasha of Tripoli. He was
sepanted a navy commissioner in 1816, and was
ed in a duel by Commodore James Barron, near
Bladensburg, Maryland, 22d March 1820.

De Caus. See Cavs.

Decazeville, a town in the French department
of Aveyron, 110 miles NNE. of Toulouse by rail,
With iron and coal mines near by, and exten-
sive blast-furnaces and ironworks employing 3000
hands. Pop. (1886) 7981 ; ( 1891) 8871.

Deccan (Dakshin, ‘the south’), a term ap-
plied sometimes to the whole of the Indian
peninsula south of the Vindhya Mountains, which
separate it from the basin of the Ganges, and
sometimes restricted to that portion of the same
which is rather vaguely bounded on the north by
the Nerbudda, falling into the Gulf of Cambay,
and on the south by the Kistna or Krishna, flow-
ing into the Bay of Bengal. Independently of this
indefiniteness of meaning, the name, like that of
- the Carnatic (q.v.), is rather of historical interest
than of actual use.

Deceased Wife’s Sister. By the laws of
the United Kingdom, marriage with the sister of a
deceased wife is prohibited as being incestuous.
At one period this was the universal law of Christen-
dom—both branches of the Christian church, the
Eastern as well as the Western, having united
in condemning it. The early canon law forbade
marriages between relatives to the seventh degree
(afterwards changed to the fourth degree by
a council of Lateran), and declared that affinity
must be treated in the same way as consanguinit
(see CONSANGUINITY). The foundation for this
was the Mosaic law respecting the intermarryin
of kindred, as given in Leviticus xviii. As is reel
known, however, the canon law was not at all
times stringently enforced by the ecclesiastical
courts, and we find that papal dispensations—
a fruitful source of revenue to the church—
were not uncommon at certain Rips of history.
A noted historical instance is the case of Henry
VU. and Catharine of Aragon. The opinion
of the 19th century, however, tends to run counter
to the canon law on the subject, as adopted by
the Reformed Churches; and the law prohibitin
marriages with a brother’s widow or a diotentes
wife’s sister has been abrogated in every state on
the continent of Europe, in the United States,
and in most, if not all, the British colonies. Great
Britain alone adheres to the old rule.

In England, though marriage with a deceased
wife’s sister seems to have been voidable at
common law, it was first specially prohibited by
the ecclesiastical courts by an act in the
reign of Henry VIII. (25 Henry VIII. chap. 22).
The force of this enactment was, however, soon
afterwards somewhat weakened by another statute
in the same reign declaring that ‘ all lawful persons
may marry.’ The combined effect of both statutes
and common law continued to be a subject of

150

dispute among lawyers down to the passing of
Lord Lyndhurst’s Act, 1835. The better opinion
seems to be that down to 1835 such marriages
were binding till they were annulled by decree
of the ecclesiastical courts, and therefore if either
of the parties died before decree was obtained,
the children of the marriage were legitimate, and
entitled to inherit. But Lord Lyndhurst’s Act
put the matter on a clear footing, for it declared
all such marriages*entered into after its date to
be ipso facto null and of no effect. And aceordin
to the construction which this statute has received,
the English courts hold every marriage entered
into with a deceased wife's sister to be null,
provided the parties have their domicile in England,
although by the law of the locus contractus the
wore might be quite legal. It was so decided
in the famous case of Brook v. Brook (1861), where
two go oor ge om had gone to Altona in Germany
to be married.

In Scotland, by the Act 1567, chap. 14, all con-
nections expressly prohibited by the divine law in
the 18th chapter of Leviticus are declared incestu-
ous, and punishable by death. The declaration of
the Confession of Faith follows in this matter the
canon law. According to the interpretation which
this Act of 1567 has received from the judges (and
the Act 1567, chap. 15, as regards civil eflects), it
applies to marriages with a deceased wife’s sister.
And there are not wanting instances where the
punishment of death was inflicted for such mar.
riages. Barbara Tannahill, in the beginning of
the 18th century, was executed on her own judicial
confession, for having had connection with the
husband of her deceased sister. (See Hume on
Crimes, vol. i. 449). According to the existing
law of Scotland, therefore, as expressed in these
old statutes, i with a deceased wife’s
sister is prohibited as incestuous, and is null for
civil effects as well as punishable criminally. In
punishing the offence criminally, the Scottish law
1s more stringent than the English, incest not
being per se a crime in England.

Organised agitation in Great Britain fcr the aboli-
tion of the law respecting marriage with a deceased
wife’s sister dates back to about the time of Lord
Lyndhurst’s Act. The matter was first brought .
before parliament in 1841, in which year leave was
refined bi the House of Commons for the introdue-
tion of a bill for the repeal of the law. Since then
the subject has been brought before nearly every
successive parliament. Its history in the House of
Commons may be given briefly as follows: In the
parliament of 1847 the bill was twice read a second
time. In that of 1853 it was once read a second
time, and once rejected on the second reading. In
1857 it was twice read a second time. In 1859 it
was twice thrown out, In 1866 it was rejected
once. In 1868 the second reading was carried
four times; and in 1874 the second reading was
negatived yy a small majority. Introdu into
the House of Lords first, in 1882 the bill was only
thrown out by four votes, and in 1883 it was
carried on the second reading by five votes, but
lost by seven on the third. Yn i884 the bill was
semeee on the second reading in both Houses,
and in 1885-86 it was lost in the House of Lords
by a majority of twenty-two. Generally till 1893
the bills have been carried in the Commons by a
large majority, but lost in the Lords. But in 1896
the bill was carried in the Lords. Marriages of
this kind have been legalised in Australia, Canada,
Barbadoes, Ceylon, and Mauritius, and progress in
the same direction made in other colonies. A bill
legalising in Britain marriages validly contracted
in the colonies has not been carried.

In Britain the churches oppose legislation, the
existing law being based upon ovitiens xviii. 18, but

722 DECEMBER

DECIMAL FRACTIONS

the interpretation of this text has given rise to
diversity of opinion. The better opinion is that the
prohibition refers only to marriage during the life-
time of the wife; and, in particular, this view of
the text has been taken by the most learned Jewish
rabbis. In the Book of Deuteronomy the Jewish
law seems to have allowed and even commanded
the marriage of a woman with her deceased, hus-
band’s brother (Deut. xxv. 5), and it seems hardly
reasonable to suppose that the one should be
permitted and the other prohibited. ye

It should be noted that there is no distinct
reference to this subject in the New Testament, it
being generally admitted that the words of our
Lord, ‘And they twain shall be one flesh’ (Matt.
xix. 5), in reference to husband and wife, are used
in a metaphorical sense. ;

The principal arguments (leaving out of view the
question of scriptural authority) adduced by those
in favour of repealing the law are as follows : That
on oe of social expediency such marriages are
to be approved. They are desired by the poorer
classes generally, amongst whom they are of fre-
quent occurrence. When a law is out of harmony
with the manners and feelings of a people it should
be abolished. Secondly, it would, as a rule, be a
benefit to the children of a wife who has died when
they are in tender years to have their maternal
aunt taking the place of mother to them, rather
than a stranger. Naturally she would be least
likely to act the cruel stepmother. Thirdly, the
present state of the law inflicts a wrong on the
offspring of such marriages, by their being thereby
deprived of their rights of inheritance, and this
more particularly in the case of poor parents who
cannot afford to shift their domicile (an easy matter
for the rich ) to the Continent, or one of the colonies.
Further, it may happen, in the present state of the
law, that one who has been long residént and legally
married in one of our colonies, and has returned to
settle in Great Britain, may find his children
bastardised. In regard to this, the late Lord
Cairns has observed : ‘If a man, being domiciled in
a colony in which it is lawful to marry his deceased
wife’s sister, do marry her, his marriage will be good
all the world over ; whereas if a domiciled English-
man, merely resident in such colony, do so marry,
his marriage will be bad everywhere.’ Finally,
experience is in favour of such marriages, for it is
said that in other countries where the repeal of the
law in question has taken place nothing but good
has resulted.

This latter assertion is denied by the upholders
of the law, who further assert that by maintainin
the law in its present state the unity of conjuga
life is cherished, the circle of sisterhood is enlarged,
and the growth of domestic intimacy between allied
families promoted, which could not be the case were
such unions possible. Many, too, have affirmed their
belief that by making this change in our marriage
laws other changes of a more sweeping nature would
be sure to follow (as in the case of Germany), and
the sanctity of the marriage tie be thersay dis-
turbed. But this, which is styled the thin-end-of-
the-wedge argument, ignores the fact that prior to
1835 such marriages were in England not uncom-
mon, and that not more than one per cent. were set
aside by the ecclesiastical courts.

December, the last month of the year. In
the old Roman calendar, before the time of Julius
Cesar, the year began with March, and that which
is now the twelfth was then the tenth month; hence
the name (decem, ‘ten’). Our Saxon ‘ancestors
called it Mid-winter-month and Yule-month. °

Decemvirs, the ten men appointed to codify
the law, both public and private, at Rome. Com-
missioners were first. sent to Greece to study the

Greek statute law, and on their return (302 B.C.)

all the magistracies were suspended, and a com-
mission of ten patricians (decemviri legibus secri-

bendis) appointed with consular powers to reduce.
the laws to writing. By the end of the next year

the code was finished, and after being ratified by

the comitia of the centuries, was erected in the.
Forum inscribed on ten tables of wood. Next.
year the decemvirate was renewed, and the result

of their deliberations was to add two other sup-.
»lemental tables, from which the whole code bore

its official title of the laws of the Twelve Tables

(q.v.). The president of both the decemyirates

was the notorious Appius Claudius (q.v.). -

Deception Island, a volcanic island belong-
ing to the South Shetland group in the Antarctie
Ocean, directly south of Cape Horn. Amidst its
ice-covered rocks lies a crater-lake, 5 miles in
circumference, surrounded by hot springs.

Deciduous Trees (Lat. de, and cado, ‘falling
off’) are those which annually lose and renew their
leaves. In cold and temperate countries the fall of
the leaf in autumn, and the restoration of verdure:
to the woods in spring, are among the most familiar
phenomena of nature, connecting themselves also
very intimately with the feelings, habits, and cir-
cumstances of mankind. The greater part of the
trees and shrubs of temperate regions are decid-
uous; but within the tropics the forest retains
always its luxuriance of foliage, except in couiitries
where the dry season is extremely marked. There.
many trees lose their leaves in the dry season, and
exhibit the same partial suspension of vegetative
life. Trees not deciduous are called Evergreen
(q.v.). The means of disarticulation of deciduous
leaves is described under LEAF.

Decimal Fractions (Lat. decem, ‘ten’) are
such as have for their denominator any of the
numbers 10, 100, 1000, &c.—i.e. any power of ten
(see FRACTION). Thus, 75, 25, 1325, are decimal
fractions. In writing these the denominator is
conventionally omitted, and the fractions expressed
thus : 0°7 or °7, °23, 019. That these numbers do
not express integers is intimated by the point to the
left; and the denominator is always 1, with as
many ciphers annexed as there are figures in the
decimal. In the third example a cipher is pre-
fixed to 19, because otherwise it would read as if it
stood for +%;. The expression £5°647 is read, Five
pounds and 647-thousandths of a pound; or, Five
pounds, and six-tenths, four-hundredths, and seven-
thousandths of a pound. That these two readings
are equivalent appears from this, that +445 = 0%
+ 7495 + ooo = ho t+ ria t+ x50. It thus appears:
that the first figure of a decimal to the right of the

oint expresses tenths of the unit; the second,
loner as ; the third, thousandths, &e. In this
propery. lies the great advantage of decimal
ractions ; they form merely a continuation of the
system of notation for integers, and undergo the
common operations of addition, multiplication, &e.,
exactly as integers do. To explain the principles
which determine the position ot the decimal point:
after these operations belongs to a treatise on
arithmetic.

The disadvantage attending decimal fractions is,
that comparatively few fractional quantities or
remainders can be exactly expressed by them ; in
other words, the greater number of common frac-
tions cannot be reduced, as it is called, to decimal.
fractions, without leaving a remainder. Common
fractions, such as 3, 3, 4, #, 2, for instance, can’
be reduced to decimal fractions only by multi-
plying the numerator and denominator of each by
such a number as will convert the denominator
into 10, or 100, 1000, &ce. (The common process

is merely an abridgment of this.) But that is

ee ae

DERE ea lineage seid a

——~

series, which is called a re

DECIMAL SYSTEM

DECK 723

ST ~— : " = = :
toe only where tlie denominator divides 10, or

0, &e., without remainder. Thus, of the above
denomixators, 2 is contained in 10, 5 times; 4 in
100, 25 times; and 25 in 100, 4 times; there-

“Ga 5 ae? A hee fae

9 5 = 3305 ~ 10 = 884" ix = 107
9 9x4 36 : ‘

255 ox = os xa = foo = 36. But neither 3 nor

7 will divide 10 or any power of 10; and therefore
ese numbers cannot produce powers of 10 by
multiplication. In such cases, therefore, and in
in the case of any vulgar fraction (in its lowest
terms) whose denominator contains any other prime
factor than 2 or 5, an equivalent decimal cannot be
found. If we try to find it, the result is an infinite
ting, recurring; or
circulating decimal. Thus’ $= “6666, &c., where
the 6 repeats for ever—i.e. } cannot be-expressed as
adecimal. The non-terminating result, ‘666, &c.,
is written *6,
- Decimal System. This name is applied to
any system of weights, measures, money, &e., in
which the standard unit is divided into tenths,
hundredths, &c., for the denominations below it,
and multiplied by 10, 100, &e., for those above it.
The nature of this method of division will be best
explained by an example from the French system,
where it has been most rigidly carried out. The
métre (= 39°37 English inches nearly) is the unit of
length, and the foundation of the whole system.
For the higher denominations of length, the Greek
words -<sie Agere ee and myria, are prefixed to
signify multiplying by 10, 100, 1000, 10,000; so
that déeamnetre = 10 métres, kilometre = 1000 métres,
&e. . The Latin words déci, centi, milli, on the other
hand, are used to express division by 10, 100, &c.,
and thus furnish names for the lower denomina-
tions ; décimetre = +5 of a métre, centimetre = hy
of a métre, &c. Similarly with money ; the P cbega:
being the unit, a décime is the tenth part of a france ;
and a centime, the hundredth part.

In 1865 Belgium and Switzerland adopted the
French decimal system of money, weights, and
measures. Afterwards the Italian /ira, the Greek
drachmé, the Spanish peseta, and more recently the
Roumanian /e7/, and the Servian dinar, were assimi-
lated to the franc. Other countries, though retain-
ing each its own special unit coin, divide it into 100

arts—viz. Germany, Austria, Russia, and the

nited States of America. The following have
adopted the metrical system of weights and
measures, though rejecting the franc: Germany,
the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Norway, and
Sweden. Engineers, too, have their own decimal
systems of measurement. —

The method of decimal gradation in weights and
measures naturally suggests itself to the arith-
metician, on account of the Janguage of numbers,
and the Arabic notation. Practical legislators,
however, have pronounced the number ten to be
most unsuitable as a basis, especially for the pur-
poses of ‘retail trade.’ In France the prices 1°25,
4°25, 6°75, &c. are extremely common; yet if halfa
yard of cloth, for example, is bought at 1°25 the
yard, the exact price cannot be paid, and the buyer
therefore suffers. He is compelled to pay more than
the proper value by reason of the limitations in-
separable from the decimal system. The analogous
price in English money is 1s. 3d., which allows not
only half a yard to be sold at the exact price, but
even a quarter of a yard. To estimate the loss
undergone by the poorer, classes in France on
account of the imperfections inherent’ to their
monetary system, the most ordinary case will
suflice—e.g. if sugar is sold at 25 centim®és a pound,
then any one who buys half a pound must pay

exactly 4 per cent. more than the proper price.
The same’serious drawback is inseparable from the
monetary system of the United States, as com-
pared with that of Great Britain. In such a case
as that just quoted, the poor buyer in New York is
defrauded still more than in Paris; whereas, in
Edinburgh, London, or Dublin, the buyer will not
only lose nothing by such a transaction, but can buy
even a quarter of a pound at the proper price.

In 1821, after an able report ach up by John
Quincy Adams, the United States government
rejected the metrical system as unsuited to practical
life. The question of adopting the French scheme
has also been repeatedly discussed in the House of
Commons, but though many, in the interests of
certain scientific pursuits and international transac-
tions, advocated a change, there seems little prob-
ay of uprooting our existing method, with its
excellent supply of binary factors, and the much
greater ease with which it lends itself to mental
arithmetic. Although proposed in 1795, the decimal
system in France required repeated legislation
before it could gain footing, and though it was made
obligatory from January 1, 1840, the people still
retain traces of the older and less arbitrary mode of
computation, inst as the shilling and sixpence still
exist in the United States as terms of reference.
The centesimal division of the right angle was also

roposed at the French Revolution, but has lon

n abandoned, even in France. It was also u
as a basis in dividing the thermometric scale (mis-
named centigrade for hectograde), but Fahrenheit’s
is often preferred because there are more sub-
divisions, and because it avoids the use of negative
numbers. The application of the system to the
division of time was so unworkable as scarcely to
toerate even a trial. There, as elsewhere, the
duodecimal mode, as compared with the decimal,
is vastly and incontestably superior. For the
decimal system in numerical notation, see NOTA-
TION, NUMERALS; and for the system of measure-
ments based on the metre, see METRE.

Decimation, a Roman wilitary punishment,
whereby when a considerable body of troops com-
mitted some grave military offence, which would
be punished with death in an individual, the

unishment was awarded to one-tenth of them by
fot, instead of to the whole number, that so the
army might not be too much weakened. _ The
practice was borrowed from the Romans by Essex
at Dublin (1599), - the Austrians at ipzi
(1642), and by the French at Tréves (1675); but
Bliicher tried. vainly to employ it against the
mutinous Saxon battalions at Liége (1815).

Decis, a Roman emperor, whose name in full
was C. MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS Decrius. He
was born at Budalia, in Lower Pannonia, towards
the close of the 2d century, and was sent in 249 by
the Emperor Philippus to reduce to subordination
the rebellious army of Mesia. The soldiers pro-
claimed him emperor A his will, and foreed
him to march upon Italy. Philippus encountered
the forces of Decius near Verona, but was defeated
and slain. Decius assumed the government of the
empire in the end of the year 249, but his brief
reign was one of restless warring with the Goths,
fighting against whom he was killed near Abricium
in the close of the year 251. In his reign the
Christians were persecuted with great severity.
At Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem the bishops were
massacred, the great Origen was cruelly tortured,
= dreadful cruelties were perpetrated at Alex-
andria.

. Deck, in ship structure, is a horizontal platform
extending from one side of a vessel to the other,
thereby connecting them together, and forming in

addition a flooring to the persons above it, anda

724 -DECKEN

DECLARATION

covering to those below it. There are, as a rule,
moré than one deck in ships of medium size, and
in steamers of the larger class—both war and
mercantile vessels—there are usually three, four,
and even five decks. Modern steamships of great
length with three or four decks have, as a rule,
two of the decks composed of iron or steel plating
in addition to the usual cross deck-beams and
longitudinal wood planking. All decks, especially
the upper or ‘weather’ deck, have a slight ‘cam-
ber’ or ‘round-down’ towards the sides of the ship,
in order to dislodge water and contribute to their
lateral strength. The several tiers of decks are
supported one upon the other by solid iron pillars,
and by the ship’s transverse bulkheads. '

Vessels are classed for various purposes, accord-
ing to the number of their decks, as ‘single-decked,’
‘two-decked,’ ‘three-decked ;’ and are otherwise
distinguished by terms. such as ‘spar-decked,’
‘ flush-decked,’ ‘awning-decked,’ according to the
deck which is most typically characteristic. A
spar deck is always the topmost or weather-deck,
and stretches flush or level from stem to stern.
Below it there is the main deck, on which the
heavy weights (e.g. guns in war-ships) are carried.
Next comes the lower deck, and below it again, in
very large ships, is the orlop deck. The space
between the several tiers of decks is conventionally
spoken of as ‘tween or between decks. Above the
main deck of two-decked, or the upper of three-
decked vessels, there are frequently partial decks
erected ; the forecastle or top-gallant forecastle
deck being at the fore end, the bridge or hurricane
deck about the mid-length, and the poop or quarter
deck at the aft end. An awning or shelter deck is
defined by Lloyd’s Register Rules as ‘a light
superstructure, fore and aft, on the main or upper
deck proper of the vessel, intended to shelter
passengers or cattle, or for the conveyance of
cargo either light in its nature or limited in
quantity.’ Other particulars about decks, their
construction, &e., will be found in the articles SHIP-
BUILDING, NAvy. For deck cargoes, see PLIMSOLL.

Decken, Kart KLAUS VON DER, an ill-fated
African traveller, was born 8th August 1833, at
Kotzen, in the Mark of Brandenburg, passed from
the gymnasium of Liineburg, and the cadets’
college at Hanover, into the Hanoverian army,
which he left after ten years’ service (1860) to
follow his bent towards travel. On Barth’s advice
he went to Zanzibar, and started thence on a
journey to Lake Nyassa, which failed through the
treachery of his Arab guide. Next year he started
on a second and successful journey to the moun-
tain-regions of Kilima-Njaro. In the following
year, with O. Kersten, he climbed that mountain
to the height of 13,780 feet. In 1863 he made an
extensive voyage along the east coast of Africa,
after which he returned to Europe to plan a great
expedition for the exploration of East African
rivers. This journey ended in disaster, and
Decken was murdered by a Somali on the 25th
September 1865. Only five Europeans and six
negroes of his company managed to reach Zanzi-
bar. See Kersten’s Von der Decken’s Reisen in
Ostafrika (4 vols. 1869-79).

Decker, Sir MArrHew, a political economist,
was born at Amsterdam in 1679. He came to
London in 1702, and having embarked in conimerce,
attained the greatest success; received a baronetcy
in 1716, and subsequently sat in parliament. He
died 18th March 1749. He published anonymously
two pamphlets which were much discussed: one
(in 1743) proposed to raise all the public supplies
from a tax upon houses; the other, on the decline
of Britain’s foreign trade (1744), contained many
good arguments for free trade.

Decker, THomAS. See DEKKER.

Declaration, in Criminal Proceedings. In
Scotland, the statement’ made by the ‘prisonet
before the magistrate is called his declaration. It
is the duty of the magistrate to take this declara-
tion immediately on the prisoner’s being brought to
him—that is to say, if the prisoner is in his sober
senses; but under the Criminal Procedure (Seot- _
land) Act, 1887, the magistrate has power to post-

one the examination to a time not later than
orty-eight hours after arrest, in order to give
opportunity for the legal adviser of the prisoner
to appear. Before the examination the prisoner —
is entitled to have a private interview with his
legal adviser, who may be present during the
examination. The magistrate must previously
inform the prisoner that it is entirely at his own
option to declare or not, but that if he chooses to
declare, the declaration may be used in evidence
against him on his trial. In practice the examina-
tion is generally conducted by the procurator-fiseal,
The declaration ought to contain the name, age,
and designation of the prisoner, the parish and
county in which the crime is said to have been
committed, and all similar particulars. When
completed it must be read over to the prisoner,
who, if he is able to write, signs every page of it
along with the magistrate. If he cannot or will
not write, the magistrate signs it in his stead.
There must, moreover, be two witnesses present,
who shall sign .the declaration, and who, if
necessary, can speak to the manner in which it
was taken. If the prisoner does not understand
English, a sworn ane age must be employed.
The declaration cannot be produced as evidence if
the magistrate has delegated the duty of taking it
to his clerk, or to any one not a magistrate. —

In the United States, when a person is arrested
for a felony, the magistrate before whom he is
brought takes the statement of the accused prior
to the commitment if he desires to make one,
The magistrate must act in person, and the
prisoner must understand that he may or may not
make the statement, and that it may be used
against him upon his trial. If he cannot write, or
refuses to write, the magistrate must not write
his name for him; if he signs it he must first have
the opportunity of reading it himself, but may
waive his right to read it and ask the magistrate
to read it to him. The magistrate may ask
questions to bring out the facts. The mode of
taking the statement or declaration is in general
regulated by statute, and may form a part of the
preliminary examination. It taken according to
the prescribed forms of law, and as a spontaneous
admission of guilt, it is termed a judicial confession
upon which an indictment may be found.

Declaration, in Common Law, was the plead-
ing in which the plaintiff in an action at law sets
forth his case against the defendant. Since the
Judicature Act of 1875, the Statement of Claim
(q.v.) takes the place both of it and of the former
Bill in Chancery (see BILL). In the United States
the declaration still retains many of the features
of the English common-law declaration, but this
form is gradually falling into disuse in obedience.
to the modern tendency to simplify judicial pro-
ceedings. Many of the states having adopted one
form of civil action, the courts of law have simplified
the common-law declaration and adapted it to this
form of action. The declaration substituted must
be entitled of the court, term, and number, the
venue laid, the names of the parties, and the facts
necessary to show jurisdiction stated. This is
followed by a concise statement in narrative form
of the entire ¢ause of action showing the right of
plaintiff to recover. ;

MATION, OATH,

DECLARATION

—_—

DECLINATION NEEDLE 725

Declaration, in lieu of an oath. See Arrir-
In the United States, the form
of an oath is immaterial, provided it be such as
the witness believes is binding upon his conscience.

_It is essential that the oath, declaration, or atflir-
_mation be administered in a manner prescribed by

law. Mere technical variations do not affect the
validity of an oath, and verbal deviations are im-
Perjury may be committed although the
person was improperly sworn. No person will be

permitted to make a declaration or affirmation
unless he has conscientious scruples against swear-

ing or taking an oath. Declaration in lieu of
an oath or affirmation is becoming very general
throughout the United States.

laration, Dyinc. The rule that second-
or hearsay evidence is inadmissible suffers an
exception, both in England and Scotland, in the
case of a declaration made by a person convinced
of his impending death, and who does not survive
the trial of the accused. In cases of murder, the
dying declaration of the victim as to the cireum-
stances of the crime is always admitted as evidence
on the trial of the prisoner, provided that it was
deliberately emit while the deceased was in
( ion of his faculties, and that it is proved by
credible witnesses. In Scotland, the dying declara-
tion of a witness is admissible even though he is
not himself conscious of the danger of death, and

‘in the United States a declaration is frequently
‘admitted, both in civil and in criminal cases, as

primary evidence, without regard to the immediate
apprehensions of death. In the same country,
declarations are also admitted as secondary
evidence under cireumstances in which the declar-
ant is either actually or presumed to be dead. The
principle under which the dying declaration is
admitted is that the awful situation of the dying
person is as powerful over his conscience as the
obligation of an oath, and does away with all motive
to disguise the truth. Accordingly the person
against whom a dying declaration is put in evidence
may be allowed to show that the deceased was not
of such a character as to feel the religious obliga-
tion of his situation. A dying declaration may be
adduced for as well as against a person accused of
crime; and there are cases on record in which

rsons charged with murder have been success-
ully exculpated by this kind of evidence. ‘

Declaration of Rights. See Ricuts.

Declar’ator, a form of action in Scotland.
See AcTION.

Declension, a grammatical term applied by
the ancient grammarians to the system of modi-
fications called cases, which in many languages
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives undergo to indi-
cate the various relations in which they stand to
other words. The word Case means ‘falling ;’ De-
clension, a ‘sloping down ;’ and were per use
that form of a noun used as the su “ba: of a sen-
tence was supposed to be represented by an upright
line, and the other forms by lines falling or sloping
off from this upright line at differentangles. Hence
a@ collection of the various forms which a noun
might assume formed the declension or sloping
down of the noun, The English language has no
proper declensions at all, having no cases but the
genitive, and some traces of a dative, while it has
no genders save in the pronouns of the third person.
The Sanskrit language again had eight cases ; Latin,
six; and Greek, five. Groups of nouns forming
their case-endings in the same way are called de-
clensions. Thus Latin nouns are said to be divided
into five declensions. The Latin cases are the
Nominative, which names the subject or actor ; the
Genitive, expressing the source whence something
proceeds, or to which it belongs; the Dative, that

to which something is given, or for which it is done;
the Accusative, the object towards which an action
is directed ; the Vocative, the person addressed or
called ; and the Ablative, that from which some-
thing is taken. The Greek has no Ablative case,
while the two additional cases of Sanskrit are an

Instrumental case, and a Locative case. In time
case-endings become rubbed off, and prepositions
are used in their stead, thus French and Italian

have lost all the Latin cases of nouns and adjee-
tives. Languages of the sqetutineting order have,
in general, a great abundance of cases. Thus
Finnish nouns have fifteen cases; and in pe
as many as twenty cases may be reckoned,
GRAMMAR and PHILOLOGY.

Declination. If a t circle be drawn
through the pole of the heavens and any star,
the declination of the star is the portion of the
circle intercepted between the star and the equator
(see POLE). The place of a point in the heavens is
determined by its right ascension and declination
just as a point in tle earth’s surface is determined

y its latitude and longitude.

Declination Needle, or D&EcLINOMETER.
The magnetic meridian ing through any place
on the earth’s surface is a vertical plane whose
direction is that in which a magnetic needle, free
to move about a vertical axis, comes to rest under
the influence of the earth’s magnetic force. In
general, the magnetic and geographical (or astro-
nomical) meridians are not coincident; the angle
between is termed the magnetic declination, or

Declination Needle.

(in nautical phraseology) the variation. It is east
or west, according as the magnetic is east or west
of the geographical meridian. Any ap tus for
the measurement of this angle is termed a declin-
ometer, and consists essentially of a means of ascer-
taining the two necessary elements—viz. the direc-
tions, at the place of observation, of the two
meridians. The accompanying figure represents
one such instrument, the declination needle or
compass. Upon a —— provided with levelling
screws, stands the pillar P, to which is fixed the
graduated circle CC. The compass-box B, with the
attached vernier V, moves on the azimuthal circle
by means of bo AA on the pillar P. Two uprights,
U,U, are fixed to the side of the compass-box, on
the tops of which rests the axis of the telescope T,’
A uated are, A, is fixed to the bottom of one of
the uprights, and the angle of elevation of the
telescope is marked by the vernier on the arm E,

726 DECOCTION

DECORATED STYLE

attached to the axis of the telescopé, on which is
hung the level L, for adjusting the instrument
‘previous to making an observation. Inside the
compass-box is another graduated circle F, the line
joining the zero-points of which is parallel to the
axis of the telescope. The compass-box and tele-
scope thus move round together on an axis passing
through the centre of the azimuthal circle. ‘When
an observation is made, the instrument is first of
all levelled, and the telescope directed to a star
which is either on the astronomical meridian or
whose position with respect to it is known. The
reading of the inner circle then gives the declina-
-tion at once, in the former case; if the latter—i.e.
if the star be not on the meridian, the reading of
the inner circle has to be corrected by adding or
subtracting, as the case may be, the position of
the star in azimuth, in order to give the declina-
tion. In order to obviate error due to the non-
coincidence of the magnetic and geometric axes of
the needle, a second reading is taken with the face
of the needle reversed ; the thean of the two read-
ings is taken as the true declination.

Tt is found, however, that this instrument only
gives results approximately correct, and has in
consequence been superseded in observatories and
magnetic surveys by a form of the unifilar magnet-
ometer. For an account of the determination of
declination by this latter instrument, see MAGNET-
OMETER. Details as to the value and secular change
of the declination at different places on the earth’s
surface will be found under MAGNETISM.

Decoction, the term applied in pharmacy to
the solution procured by boiling an organic sub-
stance with water.

Decolorim’eter, an instrument for determin-
ing the power of portions of bone-black or animal
charcoal to abstract colouring matter. See CHAR-
COAL.

Decomposition is the rather comprehensive
term applied to’ the breaking up of complex sub-
stances, or substances of delicate stability, into
others which are less complex or more stable.
Such breaking up is very familiar in many chemical
changes, and may result from increase of tempera-
ture, the action of light, the action of ferments and
micro-organisms, and so on. The ordinary process
of alcoholic fermentation is a good example of
decomposition, which takes place in the presence
of, and is dependent upon, the life and growth of
yeast in the saccharine solution. Similarly the
oxidation of nitrogenous ‘organic matters with
formation of nitrates, if not dependent upon, is
greatly accelerated by the presence of a micro-
organism.

The term decomposition is constantly applied in
chemistry to the changes which compounds undergo
in the most varied circumstances when subjected
to thange of conditions. See also CHEMISTRY,
FERMENTATION, PUTREFACTION.

Decomposition of Forces. See Composi-
TION.

Decorated Style of Gothic Architecture.
This style prevailed in England during the reigns
of the first three Edwards, or from towards the
close of the 13th till near the end of the 14th
century. Under GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE it will be
shown how the pointed style progressed, and was
naturally and logically developed in all its elements,
constructional as well as decorative, until skill
in execution exceeded originality in design, after
which the art gradually deteriorated. The Decor-
ated or second pointed style occupies the position
‘in which these two elements were in full ¢ gord and
completest development. Hence this isfesvariably
considered the perfect period of Gothic Architecture.

In the Decorated style the simple forms of the

into the ‘Flamboyant’ (q.v.).

early pointed became more complex. The simple
roll is divided into two parts, the mouldings are
more numerous and refined, and they are beauti-
fully grouped and proportioned. The pillars con-
sist similarly of clustered shafts or mouldin

arranged commonly on a lozenge plan (fig. 1). The
caps are usually carved in imitation of natural
foliage, and Merton s of the character of wreaths
growing round the caps, instead of springing from
the neck-moulding as in the preceding style (fig.
2). The buttresses are encircled with cbs et and

Fig. 1.—Column, Col-
legiate Church, Man-
chester, 14th century.

Fig. 2.—Decorated Capital,
York Cathie

canopies, and the latter are more elaborately
decorated than formerly. The drip-mouldings over
doors, windows, niches, &c. are crocketed and
formed into an ogee curve at the top, and
finished with a finial—in short, every detail is
elaborated and richly decorated. But this develop-
ment is most prominently marked in the tracery of
the windows. In the first pointed style this feature
is of the simplest character ; but in the Decorated

on ~ (7 “4

1{t¥!

Fig. 3.—Niche, Wal-
ole St Andrews,
orfolk, 14th cen-

tury. :

it becomes fully developed, and forms the most
prominent characteristic of the style. At first
the tracery consists of geometric figures, such as
circles, trefoils, &c. ; but in the later examples it
develops into flowing lines, which in France passed
This development
of the tracery led to the enlargement of the
windows, in order to afford space for its exhibi-
tion. Large circular windows, filled with tracery,
were also introduced. (see WINDOW). The ear:

DECORATION DAY

DEE 727

ornaments became refined, as, for instance, the dog-
‘tooth was enriched into a four-leaved flower, and
the ball-flower is also of frequent use. Segmental
_ arches and square lintels are occasionally employed.
In the beginning of the 15th century the Decorated
gradually passed into the Perpendicular style.

Decoration Day, or Memorial Day, in
the United States, is a day set apart, on which da,
‘the graves of soldiers are visited, and decorated wit
tlowers by surviving comrades and friends.

Decorations. See OrpeRS, MEDAL.

Decort, FRANs, a Flemish lyrical poet, born at
Antwerp, 21st June 1834. At first he was engaged
in trade, later he edited newspapers, was secre-
tary to a steamship company, and became in 1861
‘secretary to the general auditor in the Cour
Militaire at Brussels, where he died, 18th January
1878. Decort’s poetry deals mainly with the
ape joys and sorrows of the family hearth, but
it does not lack passion and power. For some
years he issued at Antwerp a very popular alma-
nac, Jan en Alleman. Various collections of his

ms were Liederen (2 vols. 1857-59), Zingza
1866), and Liederen (1868). In 1862 he publish
a fine Flemish translation of some of Burns’s songs.

Decoy. See WILD-FoWL.

Decoying of Children.
KIDNAPPING.

Decree, or, as-it is frequently called in Scot-
land, a Decreet, is a final judgment of a court,
whereby the question at issue is set at rest. In
paaand. it used to be commonly applied to the
fina sprements of courts of equity. For a decree
nisi, see DivoRcE. Decree in absence, in Scotland,
is equivalent to a judgment by default in a common-
law court.

_ In the United States, a decree is the order or
judgment of a court of equity, admiralty, or a
common-law court with equity powers. It may
be either final or interlocutory, and is conclusive
if all parties in interest have been served with
proper notice. It cannot be set aside by an act
of congress or the state legislature. By the
United States Constitution, the decrees of a com-
petent court having full jurisdiction in one state
are equally binding in every other state, and must

received in evidence in all the courts of the
United States.

Decree, in Theology. See PREDESTINATION.

Decrepitation is the term applied to the
crackling sound heard when a substance like
common salt is thrown upon a fire. A series of
minute explosions occur, owing to the water
between the plates of the crystalline particles
becoming expanded by the heat, and ultimately
bursting them.

Decrescent, a heraldic term by which the
wane of the moon is indicated. A moon decrescent
is a half-moon with her horns turned to the
(heraldic) sinister—i.e. the right of the spectator.

Decretals, collections of the Canon Law
(q.v.).

Dedication. See Book, PATRON.

Deduction, in Logic, as opposed to Induction
(q.v.), is the method of reasoning from generals to
particulars, as the latter is from particulars to
generals. Induction is the mode by which all the
materials of knowledge are brought to the mind and
analysed ; Deduction, the process by which the
knowledge thus acquired is utilised, and by which
new and more complicated inductions are rendered

ssible. Thus every step.in a deduction is also an
induction. See INDUCTION, LoaIc.

Dee, a Welsh and English river, issuing from
Bala Lake, in Merionethshire, and flowing NE.,

See ABDUCTION,

N., and NW. to the Irish Sea. Near Trevor it is
crossed by the Ellesmere Canal, on an aqueduct
1007 feet long and 120 high; and also by the
stone viaduct of the Chester and Shrewsbury Rail-
way, of 19 arches, each 90 feet span and 150
high. Below Trevor it winds first south-east, and
then north-east and north to Chester, which city it
nearly encircles, At Chester (q.v.) it is 100 yards
Sead, and thence runs alongside marshes in an
artificial tidal canal 7 miles long, which should
admit ships of 600 tons, but which in the autumn
of 1888 was reported to be rapidly silting up.
Near Connah’s Quay, between Chester and Hint,
where its width is 160 yards, it is crossed by the
great railway swing-bridge, whose first cylinder
was laid by Mr Gladstone on 16th August 1887.
The Dee ends in the Irish Sea, in a tidal estuary 13
miles long and 3 to 6 broad, and forming at high-
water a noble arm of the sea; but at low-water a
dreary waste of sand and ooze (Kingsley’s ‘sands
of Dee ), with the river flowing through it in a
narrow stream. Its whole course is 90 miles long,
and its chief tributaries are the Treveryn, Alwen,
mg Clyweddog, and Alyn. Canals connect
the with the rivers of central England. The
ancient Britons held its waters sacred; Milton
speaks of its ‘ wizard stream,’ and Spenser of the

Dee, which Britons long ygone
Did call divine, that doth by Chester tend.

Dee, a beautiful river of Aberdeen and Kincar-
dine shires, rising at an altitude of 4060 feet among
the Cairngorm Mountains, and running 87 miles
eastward, till it enters the German Ocean at Aber-
deen, where in 1870-72 a mile of its channel was
diverted for harbour improvements. It makes a
descent of 2084 feet during the first 2? miles of its
course ; at the Linn of Dee, 18 miles lower down,
tumbles through a chasm 300 yards long, and at one

int scarcely 4 feet wide; thereafter flows b

astleton of Braemar, Balmoral Castle, and Bal-
later ; since 1864 has supplied Aberdeen with water ;
and is still a good salmon river, though not what
it once was.—The Kirkeudbrightshire Dee issues.
from Loch Dee (750 feet above sea-level), and flows
38 miles south-eastward and southward, past
Threave Castle and Kirkeudbright, to Kirkeud-
bright Bay. Midway it is joined by the Water of
Ken, 28 miles long, a stream of greater volume than
its own. It, too, affords fine fishing.

Dee, Dr Joun, alchemist, was born in London,
13th July 1527, and educated there and at Chelms-
ford, till in 1542 he was sent to St John’s College,
perma a where for three years he studied
eighteen hours aday. One of the original fellows
of Trinity (1546), he earned the reputation of a
sorcerer by his mechanical beetle in a representation
of Aristophanes’ Peace, and next year he fetched
from the Low Countries sundry astronomical instru-
ments. This was the first of many foreign visits—
to Louvain and Paris (1548-51), where he lectured
on Euclid, to Venice and Presburg in Hungary
(1563), to Lorraine (1571), to Frankfort-on-Oder
(1578), to Bohemia (1583-89), and even, it is said,
to St Helena. He was imprisoned under Queen
Mary on suspicion of compassing her dea by
magic (1555); but Edward VI. had conferred two
church livings on him, and Elizabeth showed him
considerable favour, twice visiting him at his Mort-
lake home, and in 1595 making him warden of
Manchester College. He was constantly in diffi-
culties, though he claimed to have found in ,the
ruins of Glastonbury a quantity of the Elixir, one
grain of which transmuted into gold a piece of a
warming-pan. Indeed, he appar to have been as
much dupe as deceiver, the dupe of his own assist-
ant, Edward Kelly, during 1 . This knave,
who had lost Both ears in the pillory, professed to

728 DEED

DEEMSTER

confer with angels by means of Dee’s magic crystal
(see CRYSTALLOMANCY), and talked him into con-
senting to a community of wives. In 1604 Dee
petitioned James I. to let him clear himself by

ublic trial of the slander that he was a ‘caller of

ivels,’ but half a year later he was back at his in-
vocations. He died wretchedly poor, in December
1608, and was buried in Mortlake church» ‘A
mighty good man he was,’ ny Aubrey’s showing,
‘a great peace-maker, a very andsome man, with
fair, clear, sanguine complexion, and a long beard as
white as milke.’ His eldest*’son, Arthur (1579-
1651), was likewise an alchemist, a friend of Sir
Thomas Browne. Of Dr Dee’s seventy-nine works,
only thirteen have ever been printed : the rest are
in MS. at Oxford, Cambridge, and the British
Museum. They deal with logic, mathematics,
astrology, alchemy, navigation, eography, the
‘Rosie Crucian Secrets,’ and the vokeariasion of the
calendar (1583), in which at least he was much in
advance of hiscountrymen. See his Private Diary,
edited by J. O. Halliwell (Halliwell-Phillipps) for
the Camden Society (1842), and a thirteen. age
article in Cooper’s Athenew Cantabrigienses (vol. ti.
1861).

Deed, EXrcuTION oF, the performance of the
ceremonies required by law in order to make a
deed binding and effectual. These ceremonies in
England consist in signing, sealing, and delivering.
Signing is usual in practice, but it is open to doubt
whether it is strictly necessary in law. When a
party, from any cause, is unable to write, it is
usual for him to place his mark in the place of
signature. But a mark is unnecessary, and signa-
ture by another, at request of the party, is enough.
Sealing is the most ancient form of authentication
of deeds, and comes from the Norman usage. A
seal is absolutely essential to the validity of an
eagtah deed, but any species of seal is sufficient,
and in practice a common wafer is usually affixed.
Delivery is the third requisite. Delivery may be
made either to the grantee or to another person for
him. In the former case, the deed becomes abso-
’ lute ; in the latter, it is called an Escrow, and does

not yet acquire its full effect. Witnesses are not
absolutely required to a deed in England, but in
cee it is usual that one witness should attest.

efore execution, a deed must be read, if required,
by a party to it; and if not read, it is void as to the
party requesting. A will (except that of a soldier
or sailor in active service) must be in writing, and
signed by the testator or by some other person in
his presence and by his direction; and two wit-
nesses must attest the signature.

In Scotland, sealing was once essential, but has
long fallen into disuse. A deed is now probative
on the face of it (i.e. is received as the authentic
act of its grantor) if it is signed by the grantor on
each sheet, and attested by two witnesses who are
either designated in the deed itself, or in a designa-
tion added to their subscriptions before the deed is
recorded or founded on in court. In case the maker
of the deed cannot write, the deed is validly
executed by one notary public or justice of the
peace signing it for him in his presence and by his
authority, and reading it over to him, all in the
presence of two witnesses. A parish minister ma
act in his own parish as notary for signing a will.
Holograph deeds—i.e. deeds written throughout in
the handwriting of the grantor, are exempted from
the rules as to execution ; as also, out of favour to
trade, are mercantile writings, such as Bills of
Exchange.

In the United States, the formalities required for
the transfer of real estate are governed by local
laws. Generally throughout the states, signing,
sealing, attestation, acknowledgment, and delivery
are the essential requisites of a valid deed of con-

principle that land or property must

veyance. The usual form of attestation being
‘signed, sealed, acknowledged, and delivered in the
presence of us witnesses,’ then follow the names of
the subscribing witnesses. The grantor must him-
self sign the deed, or if it is signed by his agent he
must adopt the signature as his own in the presence
of the subscribing witnesses and the commissioner
or other qualified officer. In the United States,
a ‘deed,’ technically speaking, is an instrument
under seal ; hence a seal, although a mere formality, —
is essential, except in those states in which
seals have been abolished by statute—Alabama,
Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Kentucky, Kansas,
and Iowa. Neither wax nor wafer is nec
for a seal, although a wafer is generally used. ir
scroll with a pen inclosing the letters ‘L.8.’ is a
seal within the meaning of the law, if it is the
intention of the party appending it to adopt it as
his seal, and by its use a specialty is created, the
same as by the use of wax or wafer. It is not
necessary to refer to the fact of sealing in the
attestation clause. The number of witnesses re-
uired is governed by statutes in most of the states.
enerally two are required, but in some of the
states only one witness is necessary if the grantor
can read; and it is believed that in any state a
deed otherwise properly executed with but one
subscribing witness would be good as between the
arties themselves. It has also been held that
independent of any statute, a deed signed, sealed,
and delivered, without being acknowledged or
recorded, is valid as between the parties and
their privies, but the provisions of a local statute
as to the execution of a deed must be strictly
followed, or the deed is inoperative. Dee
although essential to the execution of a deed,
need not be formally made in the presence of
witnesses, but may be a matter of circumstance.
A deed takes effect from the date of actual de-
livery, or the date of record. Everywhere in the
United States it is the law that deeds of convey-
ance must be recorded either in the proper office of
the county in which the land lies—or if the convey-
ance be by grant or letters patent from the state or
United States, the record must be made in the land
office of the state or United States. The recording
of a deed has the force of seisin and possession
under the English law. Any estate less than a
fee may be conveyed by deed with single acknow-
ledgment, but if the estate sought to be conveyed
is a fee, the husband and wife must join in the
deed and acknowledge it separately. Deeds
of conveyance of lands sold at judicial sale,
or for taxes for several successive years and un-
redeemed made by the sheriff of the county, and
deeds made in pursuance of a decree of court by
the officer appointed for that purpose, are as
effectual as if made by the grantor and his heirs,
and must be executed with the same formalities
and recorded within fifteen days; neither is it
necessary to set forth in the deed as a part of the
title the proceedings which culminate in the decree
of sale. Federal decisions as to the formalities
necessary to the execution of a deed are apparently
conflicting. This arises from the application of the
governed by
the law of the place in which it is situated, and the
lack of uniformity of state laws upon this subject.
The United States laws are applicable only to
lands belonging to the United States and those
located within the territories. See also Con-
VEYANCING, CONTRACT, CHARTER, TITLE-DEEDS,
WILL, ERASURE, REGISTRATION, Xe.
Deemster is the title of the two chief judges
in the Isle of Man (q.v.). In Seotland, Dempster
or Doomster was the name of an officer formerly
attached to the High Court of Justiciary in Scot-
land, who pronounced the doom or sentence op

n
‘
Al
t

EXPEDITION, SEA, and SouNDING.

DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION

DEER 729

‘condemned persons. The office was held along with
that of executioner.

Deep-sea Exploration, See CHALLENGER

Deer { Corvider), a large family in the ruminant
section of even-toed Ungulates. Though doubt-
less of common ancestry, the antlered ruminants

or deer are definitely, though not very readily

Separated from the other great family of horn
ruminants or cattle. The common characters of
Cervidw and Bovide will be noted under the title
RUMINANTS (q.v.); only the chief peculiarities of
the Cervide need here be noticed.

General Characters.—If appendages are present

on the head, they are true bony outgrowths, famil-
_iarly known as antlers. Except in one genus, they

‘are confined to the males. There are two open-
ings to the duct of the lachrymal gland, situated
on or inside the orbit. A 1 cavity in front of
the orbit cuts off the lachrymal bone from articula-
tion with the nasals. The first molar tooth is short-
crowned, There are usually upper canine teeth in
both sexes, and these are often large in the males.
In addition to the functional third and fourth digits,
the second and fifth are very generally represented.
The placenta has few cotyledons or villous patches.
Except in Australia and Africa, the Cervidee are
distributed over the globe, usually living in oe or
herds in wooded and grassy regions, and feeding
upon herbage. About 100 living and extinct species
are known.

Genera.—Dr J. E. Gray classified the Cervide
into two groups, according to the position of a hair-
tuft on the lower part of the hind-leg. Professor
Garrod has divided them according to features in
the skull ; Sir V. Brooke has classified them accord-
ing to the state of the limbs. In their general out-
lines the three classifications agree ; that of Brooke
_is here followed,

A. Upper ends of the second and fifth metacarpals
-remain—Plesiometacarpi—e.g. Cervus. B. Lower
ends of the metacarpals remain—Telemetacarpi ;
within which the three genera Alces, Hydropotes,
and Capreolus are separated by other characters
from a more definite section, including Cariacus,
_Pudua, and Rangifer.

__ Important Forms.—As many of the important
deer will be gprs discussed under their com-
mon names, a list of the distinctive types is all that
is here are geR fi A. us muntjac, from
British India and the Malayan region, with large
canines in the males (see MUNTJAK) ; Elaphodus,

with very small unbranched antlers; Rusa, a sub-

genus of Cervus, from the Indian region, includin
some of the largest and smallest species—e.g. C.
aristotelis, OC. equinus; Rucervus, another Indian
sub-genus, with forms of small stature—e.g. C.
schomburgki ; Elaphurus, Axis (q.v.), Pseudaxis,
other sub-genera of Cervus; the genus Cervus, in
the restricted sense, | deer in Palearctic and
Nearctic regions, including the Red Deer (q.v.),
or Cervus elaphus, in Britain, Continental Europe
Algeria, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus, and C.
canadensis, in North America; Dama, another
sub-genus, including forms of medium size, from

. south-western Palearctic regions—e.g. the Fallow-
_ deer (q.v.), semi-domesticated in European

B. (1) The northern genus Alces, including the
Elk (q.v.), of large size, with great antlers ; the
Water-deer (q.v.), or Hydropotes, without antlers
in either sex; the genus Capreolus, including
the small Roe-deer (q.v.) (Capreolus caprea), in
Britain, Europe, North Palestine, &c. (2) The
genus Cariacus, in its strict usage, including the
Wirvinian Deer of the United States (C. virgini-
anus) and the Mexican Deer (C. Mexicanus); the

See Scott's notes to Old
Mortality avd Heart of Midlothian.

sub-genera of Cariacus— Blastocerus, Fureifer,
Coassus, from South America; Pudua, from the
Chilian Andes; and the Reindeer (q.v.), or Ran-
gifer, with antlers in both sexes.

Antlers.—Antilers are usually present in the male
deer, though absent in both sexes in Hydropotes,
and present in both in the reindeer, Their nature
as true bony outgrowths, their early covering with
sensitive vascular skin or velvet, the drying of this
to leave the horn a hard and insensitive weapon,
the basal constriction and detachment, and the
ne in the following year, have been already

erred to in the article ANTLERS (q.v.). The
different .parts receive technical names, but it is
only necessary to note the permanent ‘ pedicle’ or
stalk from which the regrowth starts, the main stem
or ‘beam,’ the branches, ‘ tines, or ‘ snags,’ and the
not infrequent flattened or ‘ palmate’ form. Antlers
are of special importance as weapons used by the
males in fighting or the possession of the females,
and have doubtless been perfected by Sexual Selec-
tion (q.v.). They are also of interest in the parallel
they iNnstrate between the life-history of the indi-
vidual and the evolution of the race. The figure
given of antlers at successive years in a stag’s life

will also suit for the evolution of antlers in succes-
sive historic periods. Young deer develop in the
first year small simple antlers, and the branches are
added on the annual regrowths. So the earliest
( Lower ee had no antlers, the Middle
Miocene species had simple, at most two-branche
processes, as in the second year of life, while in
the Upper Miocene three branches occur ; and in
Pliocene and Pleistocene the modern luxuriance
gradually appeais. Sir V. Brooke gives full details
(1) of the gradual evolution of antlers from very
simple to complex forms, tracing the history from
the earliest Dremotherium onwards; (2) of their
constant tendency to vary, as is well known in the
semi-domesticated species; (3) of ‘variation ex-
tending far enough to induce the partial atrophy
of one part of the antler to compensate for the
extra development of some other part ;’ (4) of the
transmission and establishing of such variations
by heredity. A t part of the theory of evolu-
tion can be beautifully read from antlers alone.

The flesh, skin, and antlers of deer are valuable,
but deer injure crops, eat the leaves, twigs, and
bark of trees, and damage forest trees by rubbing
their antlers against the trunks and branches.

See articles on the various kinds of Deer (Rep Drer,
&e.), Deer Forests, GAME Laws, POACHING, Staq-
HOUND ; Sir V. Brooke in Proce. Zool. Soc, (1878); J.G.
Millais, British Deer and their Horns (1897 ).

Deer, OLD, a vill of Buchan, Aberdeen-
shire, 36 miles N. of Aberdeen. Here, about 580
A.D., St Columba (q.v.) and Drostan, his nephew,
established a monastery, which William Comyn,
Earl of Buchan, refounded about 1219 for Cistercian
monks, Little remains of the monastic buildings ;
but in 1715 a Latin MS., a small octavo of 86
pages, which had belonged to the monks of Deer,
ound its way to the Cambridge University Library,

‘730 DEER-FORESTS

DEFFAND

though not until 1860 was the attention of scholars
directed to its great importance by Mr Bradshaw,
the librarian. It contains St John’s and parts of
the other three gospels (in mainly the Vulgate
version of St Jerome), the Apostles’ Creed, and a
fragment of an office for the visitation of the sick,
with a Gaelic rubric. On the blank leaves of the
MS., in the handwriting of the early part’ of the
12th century, are several Gaelic entries relating
to the endowments of the Columban monastery.
These notes are of the highest interest as the
oldest specimens of Scottish Gaelic, and only less
interesting is the Gaelic ornamentation enriching
the MS. See Dr John Stuart’s edition of the Book
of Deer (Spalding Club, 1869), and Dr Joseph
Anderson’s Scotland in Early Christian Times
(1881).

Deer-forests, tracts of country devoted to
the red deer or fallow deer, either for sport-
ing or for breeding purposes. The requisites of a
Scotch deer-forest are a great extent of quiet
ground, high mountain tops and corries, plenty of
moorland and pasture. ere is now little wood
in Scotch deer-forests, and almost all other game,
and cattle and sheep, must be excluded. One-
tenth of the heather in a deer-forest should be
burned every year, tle heather living ten or twelve
years ; and in each forest a sanctuary should be
provided. The forest of -Mar is 80,000 acres in
extent; Blackmount, 70,300; Reay, 64,600; then
come fourteen of from 51,000 to 30,000; whilst
the rest are smaller, some as low as 10,000 acres,
The requisites of an English deer-park, on the
other hand, are wood, lawn, with sutticient under-
wood, rough grass and bracken, in an inclosed
and undulating country of rich soil. In Scot-
land, deer-stalking has largely increased during
the 19th century. In 1812 there were only five
forests ; in 1888 there were 111. In England, since
1750, when fox-hunting superseded deer-hunting,
deer are kept chiefly for breeding and ornament,
being sometimes fed in stalls. There are, however,

several packs of staghounds which hunt the red deer

—e.g. in the high ground of Somerset and Devon.
Before the civil war there were 700 parks in Eng-
land ; now only 300, of which only 30 have red deer.
Among the great Scotch forests may be noted : in
Aberdeenshire, Ballochbuie, Mar, Glen Tanner, Glen
Muick ; in Inverness-shire, Abernethy and Glen-
more, Rothiemurchus, Ben Alder, Gaick and
Ruthven, Glen Feshie, Glen Strath Farrar, Guis-
achan, Invermarkie; in Argyllshire, Blackmount ;
in Perthshire, Athole, foslee Glen Bruar, Glen
Artney, Rannoch; in Ross-shire, Dundonnell,
Strathconan, Torridon, Kintail, Applecross, Wyvis,
Diebidale, Kinlochewe, Romer Kildermorie,
Glen Carron, Park; in Sutherlandshire, Dunrobin,
Glendhu, Loch Inver, Reay. The deer-forests
of Scotland occupy a space of nearly 2,000,000
acres. ‘They are occupied chiefly by English noble-
men and others, not the owners. The best-known
English parks are Eridge in Sussex, Talton in
Worcestershire, Northwich in Cheshire, Duncombe
in Yorkshire, Eastwell in Kent, Donington in Leices-
ter, and the royal park of Windsor. Originally,
in both England and Scotland, the king’s nobles
and the church held special forest jurisdictions of
the most oppressive kind. Thus, in Scotland, the
forester might forfeit cattle and other goods found
within the forest. In England, the Norman law-
a pretended that all game belonged to the king.
<ing John had 18 forests, 13 chases, 781 parks. A
chase was an open forest, not subject to special
forest law ; a park was an inclosed chase on the
land of the owner ; a purliew was an addition made
to an old forest. The Charta de Foresta dis-
afforested large tracts of land, and prevented the
arbitrary creation of forests. In Scotland, the

Stewarts passed many statutes for the protection
of deer, and so late as 1680, in the case of Fas-
kally, the Court of Session recommended the king
not to grant new forests, as hurtful to the lieges.
In 1850 the Duke of Athole claimed a right to enter
on the neighbouring estates to recover deer, but
this was not permitted. It is the opinion of many
that deer-forests have displaced crofters and sheep
in the Seotch Highlands. This was denied by a
Select Committee of the House of Commons, who
reported on the Game Laws in 1872. An act on
the valuation of deer-forests for purposes of assess-
ment was passed in 1887: there was a government
report showing the area and rents of the Scottish
deer-forests in 1891-92.

See Shirley, Forest Laws;.books on the ‘English
deer-parks by Shirley (1867) and Whittaker (1892);
Macdonald’s Cattle, Sheep, and Deer (1872); Macrae’s
Hundbook of Deer-stalking (Edin. 1880); the Report of
the Crofters Commission (1884); Johnston’s large map
of Scottish deer-forests (1888); and Grimble’s Deer-
Forests of Scotland (1896),

Deer Mouse ( Hesperomys), often called Vesper
Mouse, a genus of American rodents representing in
the New World the Old-World mice, from which
they differ only in trivial characters. The white-
footed or deer mouse (HH. /eucopus) is found over the
Renee part of North America in several varieties.

tis an animal about 3 inches in length, of a very

variable but frequently fawn colour; sometimes
arboreal, sometimes burrowing ; feeding chiefly on
corn and nuts, which it stores for winter. See
MOUSE.

Deer-stealing. See GAME-LAWS, POACHING.

Deés, a town of Transylvania, on the Szamos,
37 miles NNE. of Klausenburg by rail. Pop. 6191.

Defamation. See LIBEL.

Default. A party to an action is in default
when he fails to comply with the rules of procedure.
If the defendant, for example, fails to appear to
the writ, the plaintiff may have judgment against
him ; if the plaintiff fails to deliver a statement of
claim, the defendant may apply to have the action |
dismissed. Judgment by default may be set aside,
on such terms as to costs, &c, as the court thinks
just. In Scotland, a decree by default may be
recalled by reclaiming note, but after the time for
reclaiming has expired, an action of reduction must
be brought to set it aside. ;

Defeasance, DEED oF, in English law, an
instrument which defeats the force or operation of
some other deed or estate; and that which in the
same deed is called a condition, in a separate deed
is called a defeasance.

Defender ef the Faith, a title conferred in
1521 on Henry VIII. by Pope Leo X. as a reward
for writing his Assertio septem Sacramentorum, in —
answer to Luther. The title was afterwards con- —
firmed by parliament (35 Henry VIL. chap. 3), and
has ever since been used by the sovereigns of this
country. The corresponding title in Spain is ‘Most
Catholic,’ and in France was ‘Most Christian King.’

Defenders, a Catholic association in Ireland
(1784-98), the opponents of the Peep o’ Day Boys.

Deffand, Marie DE VicHy-CHAMROND, MAR-
QUISE DU, one of the most brilliant letter-writers of
the 18th century, was a member of a noble Bur-
gundian house, and was born in 1697. She was
educated in a convent in Paris, and as a girl became
famous for her wit, audacity, and beauty. In 1718
she married the Marquis du Deffand, from whom
she shortly afterwards separated. She led a life of
gallantry for a number of years, and became a con-
spicuous figure in the literary society of Paris, her

salon in the Rue Saint Dominique being a favourite

resort of the philosophes. She was a correspondent —

Re AE ee

Si Sey ae

" sehen and the
ei

DEFILADING

‘s. *

DEFOE 731

of Voltaire, Montesquieu, D’Alembert, and other
great men of letters of her day. In 1753 she be-
came blind, and in the aor year she invited
Mademoiselle de ’Espinasse to live with her and
help her to preside over her salon. The arrange-
ment lasted for ten years, when a quarrel broke
out through Madame du Deffand’s jealousy, and
Mademoiselle de |'Espinasse departed, taking awa

with her D’Alembert and others of the elder lady's
former admirers. From 1766 Madame du Deffand
carried on an interesting correspondence with
Horace Walpole, who held her in the highest esti-
mation, and pressed the use of his purse on her when
she fell into pecuniary troubles. ‘To say nothing
of her extraordinary parts,’ Walpole wrote, ‘she is

certainly the most generous friendly being upon
earth.

> As a matter of fact, however, she was as
‘selfish and spiteful as she was witty and shrewd.
She died at Paris, September 24, 1780. See Corre-
nee de Madame du Deffand (new ed. 5

vols. 1865-67); her Letters to Horace Walpole

and Voltaire (4 vols. Lond. 1810); and Asse,
err de Lespinasse et la Marquise du Deffand
Deflading, in Fortification (q.v.), consists in
determining the direction and height of the ram-
part, so that the interior of the work may not be
commanded by the fire of the enemy. To prevent
the lines being enfiladed, their prolongations must
avoid all places where hostile batteries could be
panels must be of sufficient

ght to protect the interior from frontal fire.

Definite Proportions, Laws or, in Chem-
istry. See ATOMIC THEORY.

Definition, the process by which we determine
the common qualities of the objects belonging to
any given class, so as to distinguish effectively that
class from other classes. Regarding the class as a
species, we give the proximate genus and the dif-
ference ; genus here denofing the distinctive quali-
ties belonging to all of the genus, while the differ-
ence marks out the part of the genus in question.

A good definition should state the essential attri- |

butes of the species defined, without containing the
name itself, and should be exactly equal in denota-
tion with it.

Deflagration is the term applied to the rapid
combustion of ignited charcoal when a nitrate (such
as nitrate of potash) or a chlorate (such as chlorate
of potash) is thrown thereon. As chlorates do not
occur naturally, it follows that deflagration with a
natural salt indicates a nitrate; and if the defla-
gration be accompanied by a violet flame, it is char-
acteristic of nitrate of potash (ordinary nitre or

‘saltpetre); and if by a strong yellow fare it is
indicative of nitrate of soda (cubical nitre).

Deflection, in Navigation, the departure of a
ship from her true course ; in Optics, a deviation of
ia rays of light toward the surface of an opaque

y-

Defluxion (Lat. defuvio), a discharge from a
mucous membrane, especially of the air-passages,
as in catarrh.

Defoe, DANIEL, immortal as the author of
Robinson Crusoe, was born most likely in 1661, in
the parish of St Giles, Cripplegate, London. His
family belonged originally to Northamptonshire,
and his father, James Foe, became a butcher in St
Giles’s, and was living so late as 1705. It was
Daniel who first changed his name to De Foe, or
Defoe, about 1703, for unknown reasons. He had
a good education at a dissenting academy, but soon
abandoned his early idea of becoming a dissenting
minister, and engaged in business, apparently as a
hose-factor, about the year 1685. Little is knoan
of his early life, but it seems he was out with Mon-

mouth, and it is certain that he volunteered into
King William’s army in 1688, travelled both in
France and Spain, and became bankrupt about
1692; his debts, or at least great part of them, he
paid up later with a scrupulousness most honour-
able to him. He next became accountant to the
enefsebd commissioners, and secretary to a Til-
ry pantile factory. His Essay upon Projects
— about 1698, and towards the close of
illiam III.’s reign he became noted as an able and
busy pamphleteer in support of the king’s policy.
His vigorous poem, The True-born Englishman, a
Satyr (1701), was an attempt to mg for the
king’s being a Dutchman by proving the English
themselves to be a most composite race. His rest-
less pen was active throughout the bitter struggle
under Anne between the High-Church party and
the dissenters, and his famous treatise, The Shortest
Way with the Dissenters (1703), made him a martyr
in the cause. Ostensibly written by a ‘ high-flyer,’
it advocated the extirpation of dissenters with a
masterly irony (pace Mr Saintsbury ), which at first
deceived and then infuriated his opponents, as, in
his own words in The Present State of Parties (1712),
it ‘cut the throat of the whole party.” The House
of Commons ordered the book to be burned, and a
reward of £50 was offered for his apprehension,
from which fortunately we have an exact descrip-
tion of his appearance as ‘a middle-sized, spare
man, about forty years old, of a brown complexion,
and dark brown-coloured hair, but wears a wig; a
hooked nose, a sharp chin, gray eyes, and a large
mole near his mouth.’ Tried at the Old Bailey in
July, he was sentenced to pay a fine of 200 marks
to stand thrice in the pillory, and to be imprisoned
during the queen’s pleasure. Accordingly, the
‘unabashed Defoe’ stood in the pillory the last
three days of July 1703, in the midst of a sym-
pathetic mob that protected him from insult, and
— bere his tore acc a be! he
suffered appeared his masculine Hymn to the Pi i
which concluded with a noble defiance to “the
Sethe ke ar a expressed in some of his finest lines.
uring his imprisonment in Newgate he continued
an incessant literary activity upon ‘ occasional con-
formity’ and other points at issue in the t
controversy, published a ‘true collection’ of his
writings, and started his Review (19th February
1704—11th June 1713), at first a weekly, after eight
numbers a bi-weekly, and after the eighth num-
ber of the second volume a tri-weekly newspaper,
‘ purged from the errors and partiality of news-
ao and petty statesmen of all sides.” This was
efoe’s ——— if not his most important work,
and indeed forms one of the greatest monuments of
literary industry ever reared by a single hand,
embracing as it does in more than five thousand
poe essays on almost every branch of
uman knowledge, and these written during but
nine years, in which also, according to Mr Lee, he
published no fewer than eighty distinct works,
themselves containing as many as 4727 Its
‘Scandal Club,’ which discussed minor matters of
manners, was distinctly the forerunner of the more
famous Jatlers and Spectators.

In August 1704 Defoe was released from prison
at the instigation of Harley, who, moreover,
procured for him pecuniary relief and employ-
ment, thus earning for himself the journalist's

unceasing ger After a short stay at Bury
St Edmunds, he returned to London, maintaining

at both places his activity in his Review, and
in such admirable pamphlets as Giving Alms
no Charity, and Employing the Poor a Griev-
ance to Nation, a masterly denunciation of
indiscriminate charity and national workshops—a
kind of socialistic scheme propounded by Sir Hum-
phrey Mackworth. Next year (1705) appeared 7/e

732

DEFOE

Consolidator ; or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions
From the World in the Moon, a political satire,
which some have supposed may have supplied a
hint for Gudiliver’s Travels; and the year after
(5th July 1706) his masterpiece of verisimilitude
and plausibility, The True Relation of the Veoia
tion of one Mrs Veal. Mr Lee, in his life of Defoe
(vol. i. pp. 127-8), disproves the old story that this
fiction was a mere tour de force, written to sell an
unsaleable book, Drelincourt on the Fear of Death,
by showing that Drelincourt’s book was already
popular. being then rapidly running through its third
nglish edition, while Defoe’s pamphlet was only
attached to its fourth edition by the author's con-
sent. His next work was his Jure Divino, a
tedious political satire, in twelve books of poor
verse. Kons the close of 1705 Defoe was sent b
Harley on a secret mission to the West of England,
and in October of the next year we find him sent to
Scotland by Godolphin, to whom Harley had recom-
mended him as a secret agent to promote the Union,
and here he lived for sixteen months. His History
of the Union appeared in 1709, and in the same year
Sacheverell’s famous sermon gave him the oppor-
tunity of a fling atanoldenemy. At the beginning
of 1708 Harley’s fall had made his fies position
somewhat precarious, but he found himself able to
be a staunch Whig under Godolphin’s government,
until the fall of the Whigs after tne error of Sache-
verell’s impeachment, and the return to power of
his old benefactor Harley (1710), left him under the
necessity of arguing that Englishmen should sup-
port the country even under a Tory ministry. In
the pages of his Review he did his best to preserve
the semblance of consistency, but not all his clever-
ness could save him from the contemporary reproach
of being a time-server and a renegade. It is itself
significant that his journalism was always anony-
mous from his second employment by Harley. e
played a difficult and dubious part in the strange
intrigues that preceded the accession of the House
of Hanover, with the result that at length he found
himself in a general discredit, which his apology,
entitled An Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715),
did not remove. Letters of his found in the State
Paper Office in 1864, and printed in Mr Lee’s intro-
duction, revealed the fact that in 1718 he was in
somewhat equivocal government service, subediting
Jacobite and High Church organs, as the Mercurius
_Politicus, Dormer’s News-Letter, and Mist’s Jour-
nal, in such a dexterous way that ‘ the sting should
be entirely taken out, although it was granted that
the style should continue Tory’ (second letter).
Further, in the same letter he describes his purpose
more fully, that these papers ‘ will be always kept
(mistakes excepted) to pass as Tory Papers, and
yet be disabled and enervated, so as to do no Mis-
chief, or give any Offence to the Government.’ He
describes himself further as ‘ for this Service, posted
among Papists, Jacobites, and enraged High
Tories—a generation who, I profess, my very Soul
Abhors. . . . Thus I bowin the House of Rimmon.’
Defoe was not exactly scrupulous in his point of
honour, but it is certain he never was a Tory, and
it would not be difficult for him to construct an
argument by which he could persuade himself that
by this dangerous and ambiguous means he was
doing good service to the cause of liberty and
religion.

Although Mr Lee maintains that he wrote busily
in the journals almost to the close of his‘ife, hence-
forward his interest for us is mainly literary. In
1715 appeared the first volume of the Family In-
structor, and four years later the first volume of the
immortal Robinson Crusoe, which at once leaped
into that popularity which it will never cease to
retain, The same year appeared the second volume,
and the year after the greatly inferior sequel.

Defoe’s realistic imagination worked most freely on

a basis, however slight, of fact, and this was found ~~

for him in the four years’ solitary residence of a
marooned sailor, Alexander Selkirk, on the island
of Juan Fernandez. Perhaps no man at fifty-eight
in the whole history of literature ever devised a
more splendid masterpiece of creative imagination.
than this marvellous story, which carries with it
the irresistible conviction of very truth. In 1720— ©
his most prolific year—he gave to the world the
Life and Adventures of Duncan Campbell ; the
famous Memoirs of a Cavalier, the most real and
truthful of all our historical romances, which the
great Chatham accepted as genuine history; and
Captain Singleton, a book of such brillianey,.
vigour, and interest as would alone have given a
reputation to any other writer. His next great
creative year was 1722, in which he issued The For-
tunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders, which is
at least a marvel of the novelistic art; The
Journal of the Plague Year, better known by the
title in the second etedon, A History of the Plaque,
a fresh masterpiece of. verisimilitude and reality ;
and the History of Colonel Jack, which, though
unequal throughout, and actually feeble towards
its close, is in its commencement, and in episodes
here and there, the most charming and, perhaps,
the greatest of all his books. Later works were

| Roxana, or the Fortunate Mistress (1724), a weaker

Se Flanders; A Your through the Whole Island
of Great Britain (1724-26); A New Voyage round
the World (1725); The Complete English Tradesman
(1725-27), a glorification of mere money-getting,
which Charles Lamb condemned for its ‘ vile and
debasing tendency; The Political History of the
Devil (1726), which may be grouped with his
System of Magic (1726) and Essay on the Reality
of Apparitions (1727). The only other works that
may here be mentioned are his Religious Courtship
(1722), and The Treatise concerning the Use and
Abuse of the Marriage Bed (1727), which reveal
the strangely limited and vulgarly profit-and-loss
character of his conception of religious duty. His
Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business (1725) is
an amusing diatribe upon the insolence of domestic
servants—a subject to which he frequently recurs.

Meantime Defoe had been prospering in his
affairs. He built himself ‘a very handsome house’
at Stoke-Newington, where he amused himself with
gertoning and the company of his three daughters.

mystery not yet satisfactorily explained hangs
around his last days. His affairs seem to have
fallen into confusion, one of his sons had behaved
undutifully, and he was under apprehensions of
some eoatls. which may, however, have been due
merely to a degree of mental derangement. He
died ‘of a lethargy’ in Ropemakers’ Alley, Moor-
fields, 26th April 1731, aaa was buried in Bunhill
Fields. :

Defoe remains one of our greatest English writers,
and his greatness is of a kind unlikely to be dis-
turbed by a competitor. His immense vitality and
energy, clearsightedness, and ready power of forcing

lain arguments either in prose or verse to an
uresistible conclusion, make him the typical
journalist—to be surpassed only by Swift at his
best; but it is to a much rarer quality than this
that he owes his fame—his incomparable realism
and faithfulness in fiction, the secret of which
must be looked for not in his singularly plain
and direct language, his simple-looking but
most effectively artistic digressions, or his perfect
though artless apn of dramatic propriety,
but in that subtle and mpelpabie genius which
informs his style. For his character he was shifty,
and perhaps somewhat low in his moral percep-
tions ; but with all his political inconsistencies he
remained true to the principles of the Revolution,

— = =

DEFORCEMENT

DEGAS 733

Bee the ae Oe corns Chalmers (1786), Walter

Wilson (1830), Chadwiek (1859), Lee (1869), and Wright

; tL); the studies by Scott, Lamb, Hazlitt, Forster,

Y Stephen, and Professor Minto. The best approxi-

mations to complete editions of Defoe’s works have been
those of Scott and Hazlitt,

Deforcement, in English law, includes abate-
it, intrusion, disseisin, or any other wrong where-
cis that has the right to a freehold is kept
out of possession. ‘Deforciant’ was formerly the
technical name of the defendant in the fictitious
os g called a Fine. In Scotland, the term
orcement is most commonly used to denote
forcible obstruction of the otticers of the law : this
is one of the cases in which the Court of Session
1a8 a criminal jurisdiction.
_ Deformities are variations in the form of the
y as a whole, or in one or more of its parts, con-
stituting a departure from the normal conditions of
Structure, and usually implying a corresponding
_ divergence from natural and healthy functions.
They may be divided into three groups, with refer-
ence to their vb oo hereditary, the congenital,
and the acqguir The first group is characterised
by a marked tendency to recurrence in the line of
direct descent from generation to generation, as in
those cases where the presence of extra fingers or
toes has become characteristic of many members of
one family (for a full record of an pede, case
in point, see Carpenter's Human Physiology).
Such hereditary tendencies to modification of form
along certain lines of descent constitute local
examples of the ‘ Natural Law of Variation,’ which
plays an important part in the Darwinian theory
of the origin of species. According to this theory,
modifications which are of value in the exigencies
of the struggle for existence will become _per-
ated, and supersede earlier and less favourable
conditions of conformation; while modifications
that do not such value, after repetition
through one or two generations, disappear again,
and these, since they are useless as well as aberrant
conditions, are properly included within the group
of hereditary deformities. In the second group,
that of congenital deformities, occur those much
more frequent abnormalities that result from dis.
turbing influences acting on the otherwise normal
embryo previous to its birth. These anomalies
occur chiefly as deformities by defective develop-
ment, and deformities by perverted development.
Arrested development may be general, affecting
the whole body, when a dwarf is produced; or
local, affecting individual organs or , pro-
ducing a great variety of obvious local deformities,
in disproportion or malformation of special regions
of the body. If the local arrest of development
is absolute, the defect caused by it is so great as to
constitute a Monstrosity (q.v.), where whole organs
may be absent, as the brain (ee , the
skull (acrania), the lower jaw (agnathia), all the
limbs (amelus), or one or more of them (mono-
brachius, monopus). Perverted development is
seen in cases where parts normally separate me
fused together, as in the ‘siren-monster,’ in which
both lower limbs are welded into one taperin
extremity. The causes producing these congeni
monstrosities and the lesser and more common
deformities of the same class are very varied and
often very obscure. Modern writers have, how-
ever, itiade them a subject of special study under
the name Teratology (teras, ‘monster,’ dogos,
‘science’), and have devised experimental con-
ditions which illustrate the subject. Thus, in the
ease of the embryo chick, Panum found that
deformities could be produced by varying the tem-
perature of the hatching apparatus, and varnishing
the egg shells ; while Dareste discovered that a like
result occurs if the eggs be placed vertically instead

of lying on their sides ; and Gerlach, by varnishin

the whole surface of the egg with the exception o
a Y-s streak on one side, succeeded in pro-
ducing a double-bodied chicken.

In the human subject the cause df the deformity
may FC yee on purely mechanical conditions, as
when the navel-string of the embryo becomes
twisted round a limb and causes its gradual
separation and destruction (so-called ‘intra-uterine
amputation’). In many cases, however, the cause
is much more recondite, and appears to depend
upon a variety of circumstances affecting the
maternal organisation. In an increasing propor-
tion of cases which are carefully investigated, it
a that maternal impressions, the result of
shock or unpleasant experiences, may have a con-
siderable influence in producing deformities in the
offspring. This has for long been a popular theory,
and it is one that recent scientific observation is
tending to confirm, but only in a comparatively
limited proportion of cases ; and it must be admitted
that the majority of cases cannot be explained on
es! theory of causation as yet suggested.

he chief varieties of malformation, coming
under the heading of congenital deformities, are
the following : (1) As regards the number of parts.
In the Siren, two lower extremities are fused
into one mass, but dissection shows that all the
constituent bones of the limbs may be present,
though much distorted, in the combined structure.
In the Cyclops, the eyes are similarly fused into one
irregular structure occupying the centre of the
face. (2) As Ss the size of parts. This may
involve the whole body, as in dwarfs, of whom
there have been some remarkable peripatetic speci-
mens : the Corsican fairy was only 2 feet 74 inches
high ; Mademoiselle Crachami, the smallest lady
who ever lived, died at ten hardy of age, only 20
inches in height. This kind of deformity is not
necessarily hereditary ; the father of Borowlaski,
who was only 39 inches when thirty years old, had
six children alternately short and tall ; and dwarf
women have brought forth infants as long, when
extended, as their mothers. One limb only may
be diminutive. Of course, deformities the ms ae
of these exist, such as giants, or instances of pre-
mature or excessive local growth. O'Byrne, the
Irish giant, measured 8 feet 4 inches when he died
at the age of twenty-two. Such individuals are
generally subject to premature decay. One finger
or one toe often grows to such abnormal dimen-
sions as to necessitate its removal (local hyper-
trophy). (3) As regards the shape and continuity
of parts. Distortion may occur from partial para-
lysis or irregular muscular action at an early stage
of development, giving rise to Club-foot (q.v.),
elub-hand, &c.; or natural fissures or apertures
which should close in the course of development
may — open, as in harelip, cleft palate, and

na

Acquired deformities arise in various ways as
the result of injury or disease at any period after
birth. Among injuries, burns, scalds, fractures,
and dislocations are the most fertile causes of
permanent deformity ; and among diseases, rickets,
and other diseases of bone, leprosy, and rheumatie
affections are common causes, nother group of
these affections, known as ‘ trade’ deformities, are
directly traceable to the special work done by the
person suffering from them.

Defregger, FRANZ, painter, was born at
Stronach, near Lienz, 30th April 1835. He studied
under Piloty at Munich, and himself became a
professor in the Munich Academy.

Degas, Hicarre-GeRMAIN EDGARD, one of the
test impressionist painters, born at Paris, 19th
uly 1834, See IMPRESSIONISM.

734 DEGENERATION

DEGREE

Degeneration, a biological term used to de-
scribe those not unfrequent cases where an entire
organism falls below the structural level of its

oung stages, or where an organ in the same way
eee its fullness of function, and becomes more or
less atrophied, abortive, and simplified. ‘Thus many
parasitic worms, crustaceans, &c. are emphatically
simpler than their free-swimming larvee, and the
sessile adult Ascidian shows only traces of the
vertebrate characters which are plain enough in
the active young. Thus, too, a crustacean which
starts with a well-developed eye, may exhibit
the gradual loss of this on assuming a dark
habitat. The term is best confined to cases
where a level of structure exhibited during
early life is more or less lost in the adult.
Degeneration must be distinguished (a) from
occasional abortion, (6) from Reversion (q.v.) to
an ancestral type, and (c) from the occurrence of
rudimentary and undeveloped organs where a
character possessed by ancestral types remains
more or less undeveloped, or shows itself only in
embryonic life. Degeneration may be due to the
environment, or to cessation of function, or to some
more subtle constitutional cause. Absence of food,
heat, light, &c. may mean the absence of the
necessary stimulus for the growth and maintenance
of the organs, or superfluity of food may cause one
system to preponderate over others. Nor can it be
doubted that cessation of function checks the food-
supply to a given organ, and in other ways helps to
bring about its degeneration. But on the other
hand, some less obvious cause—the fatigue of early
life, a constitutional sluggishness, &c. may share in
conditioning degeneration, as in the case of the
majority of the Tunicata. Weismann and others,
however, would explain degeneration by what they
call the non-operation of natural selection. On
this view, organs are not only developed but main-
tained by natural selection, and if it happen that
an organ is no longer an advantage in this struggle
for existence (e.g. eyes in dark caves), then natural
selection no longer maintains that organ, and it
disappears in the course of generations. Weismann
applies this ultra-Darwinian conception especially
to cases which might be called non-development
rather than actual degeneration—e.g. to the
slightly developed wings of the Apteryx. Most
cases of degeneration properly so called appear
hardly to require his subtle explanation, but find
a sufficient one in the nature of the environment,
in the effects of stopped function, and in the
constitution of the organism. The theory of the
degeneration of man from a high state (see ADAM,
FALL) has been superseded by the belief in a
development from low savagery (see ANTHRO-
POLOGY, ARCHAZOLOGY).

See Ray Lankester, Degeneration (1880); and Weis-
mann, Ueber den Riickschritt in der Natur (1887). Max
Nordau, Degeneration (trans. 1895). See also, for
instances, ASCIDIANS, CAVE-ANIMALS, CRUSTACEA, IN-
SECTS, PARASITISM ; also ENVIRONMENT, EVOLUTION, &c.

De Gérando, Joseri Marir, BARON, was
born 29th February 1772, at Lyons, of Italian
blood. Fleeing from Paris to Germany, he entered
(1797) Massena’s army as a private, and wrote a
treatise, ‘crowned’ by the Academy, Des Signes etde
Art de Penser (1800). In 1802 appeared his De la
Génération des Connaissances Humaines, a precursor
of his Histoire de Philosophie (1803), long reputed
the best. French work on the subject. It procured
him, in the following year, admission into the
Academy. He was appointed secretary-general to
the Ministry of the Interior by Napoleon. But
De Gérando is even better known by his philan-
thropie writings. His excellent work, Le Visiteur
du Pauvre (1820), obtained the Montyon prize, as
did also his Du Perfectionnement

oral (1824). !

—»

De Gérando: was elevated to the peerage in 1887,
and died 12th November 1842, vice-president of the
Council of State.

Deggendorf, a town of Lower Bavaria, on

the Danube, which is here crossed by two beldgees
39 miles NW. of Passau by rail, with man -
tures of paper, linen, woollens, stoneware, and

matches. Its church of the Holy Sepulchre is often —

visited by more than 30,000
Pop. 6446.

Degraded, in Heraldry, means placed upon
steps or degrees.

Degree, the 360th part of the circumference of
a circle; see CIRCLE, GRADUATION. A degree of
latitude is the length along a Meridian (q.v.), such
that the difference of latitude between its north
and south ends is one degree—i.e. from the two
poser the altitude of the same star is seen to

iffer by one degree (see LATITUDE).
definition is that two points on the earth’s surface
differ in latitude by one degree, when the verti-
cals at these points make angles with the plane
of the equator, differing by one degree.
the earth perfectly spherical in shape, this dis-
tance along a meridian would be exactly equal

pilgrims annually.

“<=

Another — i

Pi
é

ere 8

to si, of the whole meridian, and would be the A

same at all parts of the earth’s surface. But owing
to its oblately spheroidal shape it increases from
the equator, where the curvature is greater, to the
poles, where it is less curved. From geodetical
measurements made, it is found that at the equator
the length of a degree of latitude is 362746°4 feet ;
while at the poles it is 366479°8 feet.
ences between the length of the degree of latitude
in different latitudes, thus ascertained by actual

The differ- —

measurement, is one of the proofs that the figure of 7

the earth is not that of a sphere but that of an

oblate ellipsoid.
A degree of
two meridians that make an angle of one degree at

longitude is the length between

the poles, measured by the are of a circle parallel a

to the equator passing between them. It is clear
that this space is greatest at the equator, and

vanishes at the poles; and it can be shown ies Bs
@ F

varies with the cosine of the angle of latitude.
annexed table shows the lengths of a degree of

longitude for places at every degree of latitude from a

0° to 90°. It is computed on the supposition that

the earth is a sphere.

Degree} English || Degree} English |} Degree| English
lat. miles. lat. Iniles. lat. niles,
0 69°07 31 59°13 61 33°45
1 69°06 32 58°51 62 32°40
2 69°03 33 57°87 63 31°33
3 68°97 34 57°20 64 30°24
4 68°90 35 56°51 65 29°15
5 68°81 36 55°81 66 28°06 LU
6 68°62 37 55°10 67 26°96
7 68°48 38 54°37 68 25°85
8 68°31 39 53°62 69 24°73
9 68°15 40 52°85 70 23°60
10 67°95 41 52°07 71 22°47
11 67°73 42 61°27 72 21°32
12 67°48 43 50°46 73 20°17
13 67°21 44 49°63 74 19°02
14 66°95 45 48°78 75 17°86
15 66°65 46 47°93 76 16°70
16 66°31 47 47°06 i7 15°52
17 65°98 48 46°16 78 14°35
18 65°62 49 45°26 79 13°17
19 65°24 50 44°35 80 11°98
20 64°84 51 43°42 81 10°79
21 64°42 52 42°48 82 9°59
22 63°97 53 41°53 83 8°41
23 63°51 54 40°56 84 7°21
24 63°03 55 89°58 85 6°00
25 62°53 56 38°58 86 4°81
26 62°02 57 87°58 87 3°61
27 61°48 58 36°57 88 2°41
28 60°93 59 35°54 89 1:21
29 | 60°35 || 60 | 34:50 || 90 0-00 |
30 | 59°75 \ 4

FP a ae, -
a

2

‘DEGREES

DEISM 735

University, In its original sig-
nification a degree was simply a certiticate that
person who held it was qualified to take
in the public teaching of a university. In
fully developed medieval university ’ there
were the four faculties of arts, law, medicine,
and theology; and in each of these faculties
were special degrees of its own. These
degrees were the bacalaureate, the licentiate, and
the doctorate, though, strictly speaking, the first
was not a degree, since it did not confer the
right of public args For the attainment of
each degree certain subjects were prescribed for
examination, as also a fixed term of study in con-
nection with some university. Both the subjects
and the periods of study varied with the progress
of learning; but the different universities always
i to preserve a common standard. In Paris,
at the close of the 15th century, the terms of study
requisite to qualify for teaching in the different
faculties were the following: in arts, four years ;
in law, seven ; in medicine, eight ; and in theology,
fourteen. In modern times a degree in arts is
simply a certificate of a certain measure of
acquaintance with the subject to which it refers ;
but in the case of the higher faculties, that is, of
law, medicine, and theology, the degree also implies
a license to exercise the functions of the professions
that depend on these faculties. It was formerly an
indispensable condition to obtain a degree that the
knowledge it represented should have been acquired
at one or other of the legally constituted univer-
sities; but of late » ty certain universities, such
as that of London, have been founded, which grant
to persons who pass examinations on pre-
seribed subjects without the necessity of university
attendance. A still further departure from the
original import of the term is seen in what are
nown as ‘honorary degrees.’ Such degrees are
conferred by universities on persons who have dis-
tinguished themselves in spheres of life which have
no direct connection with the studies for which
they exist. Thus, eminent soldiers, artists, and
even merchants, have received the degree of Doctor
of Laws. Not a few scholastic ies are even
understood to grant degrees on purchase, or on
other such easy conditions that the original signifi-
cance of the de is completely lost. In the
middle ages the right to confer degrees was granted
by the pope, who was the recognised head of all the
universities; and at the present day he claims the
privilege of directly conferring degrees on whom he
pleases. In Protestant countries the right can be
granted an by the state. By an act of the reign
of Henry VIII, the Archbishop of Canterbury re-
ceived the right of conferring degrees ; but these,
known as ‘Lambeth degrees,’ never carried with
them the same privileges as those of Oxford and
Cambridge. In the medieval universities, music
made part of the curriculum of the faculty of arts,
and doctors and bachelors of music are still created
by some universities. The German doctorate in
yhilosophy corresponds in some respects to the
NLA. degree elsewhere. The degrees of doctor and
bachelor of science are of comparatively recent in-
stitution. For the usual abbreviations for degrees,
see ABBREVIATIONS. — See also UNIVERSITIES,
Doctor; and for the Chinese system of degrees,
see CHINA, p. 190.—For degrees of relationship,
see CONSANGUINITY.
De Gubernatis. See GuBERNATIS.
Dehiscence (Lat., ‘ gaping’), a technical term
applied to the mode of opening of certain ripe
fruits, those which do not open being termed
indehiscent. See FRUIT.
Dehra, the capital of the Dehra Diin district in
the North-western Provinces of India, is pleasantly

situated in a mountain-valley, 2300 feet above sea-
level, and 100 miles NE. of Meerut. Pop. (1881)
18,959 ; (1891) 25,684.

Deianeira, daughter of Gneus and Athea,
and sister of Meleager. She became the wife of
Hercules, but unwittingly caused his death by
sending him the mantle of the centaur Neasus,
which was said to have the property of preserving
love, but was really steeped in fatal poison. The
poison entering his frame, the hero suffered such
agony that he ordered a funeral pyre to be erected
in Mount Céta, and cast himself into the flames,
whereupon Deianeira hanged herself from grief.

Dei Gratia (Lat., ‘ by the grace of God’) is a
formula taken from several apostolical expressions
in the New Testament. It is believed to have been
first formally used by the bishops at the Council
of Ephesus, 431 A.D. Afterwards, it came to be
appended by archbishops, bishops, abbots, monks,
and even chaplains, to their titles, in letters, and
other documents, as a humble expression of depend-
ence on the Most High. After the middle of the
13th century, the higher clergy wrote Dei et
Apostolicae sedis gratia, * a! the favour of God and
the apostolic see.’ In the British Islands, this style
was generally dropped about the time of the Refor-
mation, but it was occasionally given to the Arch-
bishops of Canterbury and ay even after the
beginning of the 17th century. Many temporal

rinces, earls, and barons made use of the formula

ei Gratid ; William II. and Edward III. of Eng-
land employed it; and before the 15th century, no
idea of independence or of divine right seems to
have been attached to it. But in 1442 King
Charles VII. of France forbade its use by the Comte
d’Armagnae, and in 1449 obliged the Duke of Bur-
gundy to declare that he used it without prejudice
to the rights of the French crown. These instances
show that it had now begun to be regarded as
belonging exclusively to sovereigns who owed no
allegiance to any other earthly potentate or power.
In this way, what was originally a pious expression
of humility came to be looked upon as an assertion
of the doctrine of the ‘divine right’ of kings.

Deinotherium. See DinorHeRiuM.

Deipnosophists. See ATHEN Us.

Deira, an ancient Anglian kingdom, extending
from the Tees to the Humber, and westwards to
the borders of Cumbria. With its northern neigh-
bour, Bernicia, it was afterwards merged in the
kingdom of Northumbria, but later both were earl-
doms under the West Saxon kings.

Deir-el-kamar (‘convent of the moon’), a
town of Syria, formerly the capital of the Druses,
13 miles SE. of Beyrout. It is situated on the edge
of a deep and picturesque glen of Mount Lebanon,
on the opposite side of which stands the palace
Bteddin, the summer residence of the Christian
governor of Lebanon. Pop, 8000, mostly Maronites,

Deism properly means belief in a God, as
opposed to atheism; but the term used to ex-

ress this sense is Z/eism (q.v.). On the other
ae} Deism is generally understood to me the
denial of a revelation ; and a Deist is one who holds
the existence and providence of God, but grounds
his belief on reason and evidence, rejecting the
testimony of a revelation. The name is often used
vaguely by way of reproach.
he term Deists, or Freethinkers, is usually
employed to designate a series of writers who
ap in England in the 17th and 18th centuries,
and sought to establish Natural Religion upon the
basis of reason and free inquiry, in opposition to all
positive religions, and without reference to super-
natural revelation. They were critical, if not
hostile, in their attitude towards Scripture, and

736 - DEJAZET

DELACROIX

denied miracles, the Trinity, and atonement by
Christ ; and they may fairly be taken as consti-
tuting one movement, though they by no means
formed one school or agreed in the details of their
teaching. Thus some believed and others rejected
the immortality of the soul and human free-will,
and they did not all teach the same doctrine as to
the relation of God to the universe, some being
almost pantheistic. They were not for the most
part accurate scholars, and were rather acute than

rofound thinkers ; but though their influence on

nglish thought seemed for a time to be blotted
out, they contributed largely to the progress of
rationalism in Europe. The chief deists were Lord
Herbert of Cherbury, called the ‘ Father of Deism’
(died 1648), Blount, Tindal, Woolston, Toland,
Lord Shaftesbury, Lord Bolingbroke, Collins,
Morgan, and Chubb (died 1746). See thé separate
articles on these writers, also CHURCH HISTORY,
RELIGION, RATIONALISM; Leland, View of the
Deistical Writers (1754); Lechler, Geschichte des
Englischen Deismus (1841); Hunt, Religious
Thought in England (1872); Leslie Stephen, His-
tory of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century
(1876).

Déjazet, PAULINE ViRGINIE, a great French
actress, born at Paris, 30th August 1797. On the
stage before she was five years old, she grew up
playing children’s and boys’ réles with marvellous
precocity of intelligence and grace, but first awoke
to a sense of her real greatness in an engage-
ment at Lyons, where her playing of such parts as
were then known as souwbrettes endeared her to
the citizens. In 1821 she began to play at the
Gymnase, but her greatest triumphs were won at
the Théatre du Palais-Royal, whither she betook
herself in 1834. From 1844 to 1849 she played
at the Variétés, next at various Paris theatres,
in the pence. and at London, till 1859, when
she undertook the management of the Folies-
Dramatiques. She left the boards in 1868, next
year_received a pension of 2000 francs, and died
lst December 1875. See Lives by Lecomte (1866
and 1892) and Duval (1876).

Dekker, THomas, dramatist, was born in
London about 1570. He was a very prolific writer,
but only a few of his plays were printed. In 1600
he published two comedies, Zhe Shoemaker’s
Holiday, or the Gentle Craft, and The Pleasant
Comedy of Old Fortunatus. The first of these
pieces is one of the pleasantest of old plays,
and the second abounds in poetry of rare beauty.
Dekker’s next play was Satiromastix, or the untruss-
ing of the Humorous Poet (1602), in which Ben
Jonson was held up to ridicule. In Every Man out
of His Humour and Cynthia’s Revels Jonson had
made some satirical reflections on Dekker; and
in The Poetaster (1601) he had assailed Dekker
and Marston with bitter vehemence. Long
afterwards, in 1619, Jonson told Drummond of
Hawthornden that Dekker was a knave. Before
the quarrel Jonson and Dekker had worked in
harmony ; in 1599 they wrote together two plays
(which have not come down), Page of Plymouth
and Robert the Second. In 1603 Dekker published
a pamphlet entitled The Wonderful Year, which
gives a heart-rending account of the sufferings
caused by the plague. To the same year belongs
the very amusing tract The Bachelor’s Banquet, in
which he describes with gusto the ills to which
henpecked married men are forced to submit. His
most powerful writing is seen in The Honest Whore
1630. Middleton assisted him in the first part.
In 1607 he published three plays written in con-
junction with Webster, the anaes History of Sir
Lhomas Wyat (which has descended in a mutilated

(1604), of which the second ‘al was published in

state), Westward Ho, and Northward Ho. A
pamphlet entitled The Bellman of London (1608)
gives a very ape account of the vagabonds of
London ; and Dekker pursued -the-. neo ieg further
in Lanthorn and Candlelight (1608), which passed
through several editions. The most famous of his
pamphlets is The Gull’s Hornbook (1609), in which
the life of a town-gallant is racily depicted. The
Roaring Girl (1611) was partly written by Dekker ;
but Middleton must take the chief credit for that
excellent comedy. From 1613 to 1616 Dekker was
confined in the King’s Bench prison. Earlier in his
career he had spent some time in the Counter

rison. In each case his debts were the cause of
his imprisonment. With Massinger he composed
the Virgin Martyr ; and Lamb was doubtless right
in ascribing to Dekker the most beautiful scene’
(II. i.) in that play. The Sun’s Darling, licensed
for the stage in 1624, but not printed until 1656,”
was written in conjunction with Ford. A powerful
tragedy, The Witch of Edmonton Beene:
published in 1658), was written by Dekker, Ford,
and Rowley, We hear of Dekker in 1637, when he
republished his Lanthorn and Candlelight under’
the title of English Villainies, and then he drops
out of notice. His plays were collected in 1873
(4 vols.); and his pamphlets, which afford much
valuable information about English social life in
the early 17th century, were republished in 5 vols,
in Dr Grosart’s ‘ Huth Library.’

De la Beche, Str HENRY Tuomas, a well-
known geologist, was born near London in 1796.
He was educated at the military school at Great
Marlow, and entered the army in 1814. Three years”
after, he became a Fellow of the Geological Society,
of which he was afterwards made secretary, and
eventually president in 1847. In 1820, while resid-
ing in Switzerland, he published a paper on the
temperature and depth of the lake of Geneva. In
1824 he visited Jamaica, and published a paper on
the geology of the island. Other works are a Manual
of Ceotogs (1831), Researches in Theoretical Geology
(1834), and a Geological Observer (1853). He under-
took to form a geological map of England ; and soon
after he had begun, the government, sympathising
with his design, instituted the Geological Survey,
and ‘placed him at its head. He was founder of the
Geological Museum in Jermyn Street, and of the
School of Mines. In 1848 he received the honour
of knighthood; and in 1853 was elected a corre-
sponding member of the Academy of Sciences of
Paris. ‘He died 13th April 1855.

De la Borde, Henry FRANcors, Count, a
French general, born at Dijon, 21st December 1764.
The son of a baker, he enlisted at the outbreak of
the Revolution, and by 1793 had risen to be general
of brigade. He distinguished himself in Spain at
the Bidassoa (1794), next commanded a division on
the Rhine under Moreau, was governor of Lisbon in
1807, and was ennobled in 1808. He declared for
the emperor on his return from Elba. He died 3d
February 1833.

Delacroix, Evciner, a French painter, chief
of the Romantic school, was born at Charenton-
Saint-Maurice, near Paris, 26th April 1799. At the

age of eighteen he entered the atelier of Pierre ©

Guérin, a follower of David, and came under the
far more powerful influence of his fellow-pupil,
Géricault.
‘Dante and Virgil,’ the novel force of which
attracted much attention and won the praise of
M. Thiers among others.
was now at the head of the new school of youn

painters, produced the ‘Massacre of Scio,’ whic

was entirely repainted after the artist had studied
a work of Constable’s. The July revolution left its -
impress on Delacroix, and in 1831 appeared his’

In 1822 he exhibited his first work, ~

In 1824, Delacroix, who |

og

DELAGOA BAY

DELANY 737

‘Liberty directing the People on the Barricades.’
In 1832 he made a voyage to Morocco, where he
- familiarised himself with novel effects of light and
costumes. From this period, Delacroix continued
to send forth ae 9 after picture, besides decorat-

ing many public or Ta and churches, He also
executed a number of lithographs, including a series
illustrating Hamlet, and one dealing with Faust,
of which the wrote that he found ‘in these
images all the impressions of his youth.’ In 1857

ake chosen by the Institute to fill the place of
Delaroche. He died August 13, 1863. The most
striking quality of Delacroix’s art is its invention,
its impetuous pognative force and vitality. He
aimed at a powerful and dramatic expression of
_ passion and emotion, and in the pursuit of this aim
- asense of beauty was frequently lost. He was an
_ admirable colourist, and his admirers have ranked
him with Veronese and Rubens. His drawing,
sometimes incorrect, is always spirited and full of
vigour. See Lives by Moreau (1873 ), Burty (1880),
and Chesneau (1885); and his Journal (1898 ).

Delagoa Bay, a Portuguese possession, is a
large inlet of the Indian Ocean on the south-east
coast of Africa. Discovered by one of Vasco’
da Gama’s lieutenants in 1502, it was called.
Bahia da Lagoa, from a rumoured great lake
in the interior. Negotiations for the sale or
cession of it to Britain have always been rejected
by the Portuguese. In 1868 the Transvaal claimed
by proclamation the Maputa River, from its junc-
tion with the Pongola to its embouchure into
the southern part of Delagoa Bay. England and
Portugal resisted the claim and set up counter pre-
tensions, The matter was referred to the arbitra-
tion of Marshal MacMahon, who in 1875 declared
the southern portion of Delagoa Bay, including
the Maputa River up to the Lobombo Mountains,
to belong to Portugal. The bay stretches for 70
miles between 26° 20’ and 25° 30'S. lat. It is 25
miles wide, and for size and accommodation is the
finest natural harbour in South Africa ; in spite of
islands and shoals its navigation is safe and easy,
and the anchorage is commodious and well shel-
tered. The settlement of Lourenco Marques and
surrounding country have been notoriously un-
healthy ; but of late years some drainage and other
improvements have been carried out. The rivers
Maputa, Tembe, and Umbelosi ( joining to form the
English River), and the Komati, fall into Delagoa
Bay. The ergot of Delagoa Bay to the Trans-
vaal goldfields greatly increased its commercial
and political importance. For over half a century
there were intermittent attempts to establish com-
munication between the Transvaal and Delagoa
Bay. All failed till 1887, when a company was
formed in London to work a concession from the
Portuguese government for ninety years, for the
construction of a railway from Delagoa Bay to the
Transvaal (52 miles); but in 1889—through in-
trigues by the Transvaal—the Portuguese govern-
ment expropriated the company (largely English-
menand Americans). An internatiénal arbitration
was soon thereafter arranged, which did not report
till 1900, when Portugal was adjudicated to pay
£641,000, to the grievous cone epee of the
concessionaires, who had demanded over £1,500,000.
The lines connecting with Pretoria (350 miles by
rail from the coast) and with Johannesburg, Xc.,
were completed in 1890-95, and both before and
during the war of 1899-1900 proved invaluable to

Transvaal

the

See LourENco Marques, and works by Monteiro
(1891) and Montague (1899).

Delambre, JEAN JosEPH, astronomer, born at
Amiens, 29th September 1749, taught, and studied
physicsandastronomy under Lalande. Thediscovery

151

of Uranus by Herschel in 1781 gave him the first
opportunity of attracting the attention of the
learned world in general by preparing tables of the
motion of the new planet. Soon after, he com-
menced the construction of new solar tables, and
tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn. Alon
with Méchain, he was appointed by the Frene
government, in 1792, to measure the are of the
meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, which
was completed in 1799 (see M&rre, ARAGO),
He was elected member of the Academy, and in
1803 ~— secretary of the mathematical sec-
tion of the Institute. The result of his measure-
ments appeared in his great work, Base du Systéme
Métrique Décimal (1806-10). In 1807 he obtained
the chair of Astronomy at the College de France,
rendered vacant by the death of Lalande, his master
and friend. In 1814 he was appointed a member
of the Council of Public Instruction. He died at
Paris, 19th August 1822. Delambre received a
multitude of honours during his lifetime. He was
a member of most of the learned bodies in Europe,
and an officer of the Legion of Honour. His writ-
ings are very numerous. The principal are Traité
d’Astronomie (1814), Histoire de lAstronomie
Ancienne (1817), Histoire de l’Astronomie du

en Age (1819), Histoire de l'Astronomie
Moderne (1821), and Histoire de l Astronomie au Diz-
huitiéme Siécle (1827). Besides these, Delambre
wrote several excellent Mémoires.

Delane, Joun THADEUS, editor of the Times
newspaper, was the second son of a barrister, and
was born in London, llth October 1817. He
received the earlier part of his education in private
schools, and at King’s College, London, and finally
went to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he took his
degree in 1 At the university, he was more
famous for horsemanship than reading, and though
bright and active-minded, he never professed to
ascholar. After leaving Oxford he studied life in
many forms, walked the hospitals, was called to the
bar, and reported in the House of Commons and on
circuit. Mr Walter had early marked Delane’s
capable character, and soon placed him on the 7imes
staff; and in May 1841, not yet twenty-four, he
became its editor. For thirty-six years Delane held
this post, aided, however, for the greater part of
this period by his brother-in-law and college friend,
George Dasent (q.v.). Under his editorship, the
Times attained a prodigious cireulation, and an
influence unparalleled in the history of journalism.
He wrote no articles, but he contributed excellent
reports and letters. He merged his personality
in his paper, and the history of his later life is the
history of the extraordinary influence wielded by
the leading journal. His exposure of the railway
mania, his vehement attacks upon the man
ment of the Crimean war, and his strong opposition
to England's assisting Denmark in 1864, are among
his best-remembe acts. He was singularly
shrewd in weighing public opinion, re-
markable foresight, and seldom made a mistake,
Having resigned the editorship in 1877, he died
two years later, 22d November 1879. His successor
was Thomas Chenery. A Life of Delane by Sir G.
Dasent was announced, but abandoned in deference
to Mr Walter.

Delany, Mrs seeryr Granville), was born at
Coulston, Wiltshire, 14th May 1700. The niece of
Lord Lansdowne, she married first, in 1718, ‘ fat,
snuffy, sulky’ Alexander Pendarves (1659-1724) ;
and secondly, in 1743, the Rev. Patrick Delany
(1685-1768), an Irish divine, Swift's friend, and the
author of a dozen volumes. After his death she
lived chiefly in London, till her own death at
Windsor on 15th April 1788. Her much-admired
‘paper mosaics,’ or flower-work, have long since

6

738 DE LA RAME

DELAWARE

faded ; but she is remembered through her patron-
age of Miss Burney, and by her Autobiography and
Correspondence (6 vols. 1861-62), with its gossip of
the court and the literary society of her day.

De la Ramé, Louise. See OvuIDA.

Delaroche, HirpoLytTe, known as PAUL,
painter, the head of the modern Eclectic school of
art in France, was born at Paris, 16th July 1797.
He studied under Baron Gros, and between 1819
and 1823 acquired some note by painting scriptural
subjects, but first excited public admiration in
1824, by his ‘St Vincent de Paul preaching in the
Presence of Louis XIII.,’ and ‘Joan of Are before
Cardinal Beaufort.’ These exhibit the earliest
indications of that style for which he afterwards
became famous—a style which endeavoured to unite
the picturesqueness of the romantic with the dignity
of the classic school of art. In 1826 Delaroche pro-
duced his ‘Death of President Durante ;’ and in
1827 his ‘Death of Queen Elizabeth.’ These

ictures greatly increased his reputation, but the
ast is reckoned a failure by English critics. In
1831 he produced the ‘ Princes in the Tower,’ a work
of high merit; in 1833, ‘Cromwell contemplating
the Corpse of Charles I.,’ which is generally
regarded as one of the first historical paintings of
modern times. In 1834 appeared his ‘ Execution of
Lady Jane Grey;’ and in 1837 his ‘Charles I.
insulted by the Parliamentary Soldiers,’ and his
‘Strafford receiving Laud’s Blessing on the Way to
Execution.’ From this period until 1841 he was
engaged on what is probably his grandest work—
the series of paintings on the wall of the semicir-
cular saloon of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, in the
execution of which he was aided by Armitage
and other of his pupils. This composition, in which
the style is simple, lofty, and chaste, contains 74
figures, comprising the greatest sculptors, painters,
and architects in all history, according to Dela-
roche’s judgment. It was excellently engraved
by Henriquel Dupont, from a reduced copy made
by the painter himself. Among his later works
may be mentioned, ‘Bonaparte at St Bernard’
(1850); ‘ Marie Antoinette before the Revolutionary
Tribunal’ (1851); ‘ The Finding of Moses’ (1852) ;
‘Calvary’ (1853); ‘Christ in Gethsemane’ (1854) ;
“The Girondins in the Concierge ’ (1856) ; and, one
of his best-known works, ‘The Floating Martyr.’
He also executed some striking portraits, including
those of M. Guizot (1838), and M. Thiers (1856). He
died November 4, 1856. The characteristic excel-
lences of Delaroche are picturesqueness of con-
ception, precision of handling, and accuracy of draw-
ing. He has been accused, however, of want of
fire, imagination, and depth, and it must be
admitted that he very rarely, if ever, exhibits the
highest qualities of creative genius. Delaroche
was made a member of the Institute in 1832, and
professor of Painting in the Ecole des Beaux Arts
in 1833. See Rees, Vernet and Delaroche (1880).

De la Rue, WARREN, an eminent electrician,
was born in the island of Guernsey, January 18,
1815. He was educated at Paris, and early entered
his father’s business—the manufacture of paper-
wares—for which his inventive ability and scien-
tific knowledge enabled him to devise many new
machines and processes. He took an active part
in the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862 ; was a member
of the International Electrical Congress at Paris in
1861 ; and was president of the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society, and of the Chemical Society, and the
London Institution. In 1878 he succeeded Spottis-
woode as secretary of the Royal Institution, and in
1880 was elected a corresponding member of the
French Académie des Sciences in the department of
astronomy. His scientifie work, done at his observ-
atory at Cranford and at his private physical labor-

atory, was of the highest value in the departments
of astronomical photography and electricity, and its
results were communicated from time to time to the
Royal Society and the French Académie des Sei-
ences. Died in London, April 19, 1889.

Delaunay, Louis ARSENE, a French actor, was
born 2lst March 1826, at Paris, and made his début
in October 1846 at the Odeon.
first trod the classic boards of the Théatre Francais
in the réle of Durante, and here he soon procured
an engagement and became secretary to the theatre
in 1850. Till he retired (1887), he was one of the
most accomplished actors on the French stage. He
has found some of his greatest parts in the plays
of Hugo, Pailleron, De Musset, and Augiers.

Delavigne, JEAN FRANcoIS CASIMIR, drama-
tist, satirist, and lyrist, was born at Le Havre on
April 4, 1793. He became one of the most popular

writers in France, after the publication in 1818 of 4

his Messéniennes, satires directed against the mon-
archy of the Restoration. He then turned his
attention to dramatic authorship and produced Les
Vépres Siciliens (1819), a tragic piece, which was
followed by the comedies, L’Ecole des Vieillards
and Les Comédiens (1821). He was made an

“academician in 1825. As a lyrist and satirist,
he espoused the cause of the patriots in Italy, —

Greece, and Poland, and of the democratic party
in France, but although he appears to have been
a sincere politician, he failed to give natural
and original expression to his convictions. His
tragedy of Louis XJ., which was partly founded on
Quentin Durward, and an adaptation of which is
familiar to English playgoers, was brought out in
1833. Among his other dramas were Le Paria,
Marino Faliero, Les Enfants d’ Edouard, Don Juan
@ Autriche (1835), and La Fille du Cid (18389).
died on December 11, 1843. He had no true poetic
faculty ; neither was he a skilful dramatist, though
his plays, when first produced, gained considerable
popularity. In his day he was supported by the
opponents of the Romantic school, but his medi-
ocrity has come to be recognised by critics of all
parties.

Delaware, one of the original states of the
American Union, occupying pare of the peninsula
between the lower reaches of the | gopsrignt 1889, 1897, and
Susquehanna and- Chesapeake | 1900 in the U.s. by J. 3,
Bay on the west, and the Dela- | “PP ict Company.

ware River and Bay and Atlantic Ocean on the east.

The state is bounded on the N. by Pennsylvania
(the boundary there being an are of a circle), on

the E. by the Delaware River and Bay and the

Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. and W. by Mary-

land. With an area of 2050 sq. m., or little more

than that of Northumberland, it is the smallest

of all the states and territories, except Rhode

Island; in 1890 it was the forty-second in popu-
lation.

part a sandy region.
as

lies south of the hill-country ; and next southward
occurs a productive and fossiliferous greensand for-
mation, succeeded by a somewhat sandy belt, Jess
fertile than the greensand, although the greater

art of its extent is by no means unproductive.

he coast-region has many salt-marshes, some of —
them dyked, and thus rendered tillable ; and farther —
inland is a considerable body of extremely rich
The western border of the state is
generally well wooded, and in some places flat and
marshy. The rivers of Delaware are mostly small,

atl
By

alluvial soil.

In the year 1848 he |

He —

Save in a small hilly section in the north, —
nearly all the surface is low and level, and in the
extreme south there is much swampy land; while —
the most southern two-fifths of the area is in great
The hill-district in the north —
presents a stony surface overlying azoic rocks, such —
eiss and granite, with patches of serpentine
and limestone. A strip of highly fertile red clay —

‘sk

DELAWARE

DELHI 739

but many are navigable. In the north kaolin and
| ore are found, and bog ore or limonite occurs
to some extent in other parts. The state is divided
into three counties, New Castle in the north, Kent
in the centre, and Sussex in the south.
_ ' The state is well provided with railroad facilities,
and is crossed by a canal connecting the Delaware
and Chesapeake bays. The northern section has
; and varied amasactaring interests. Fishing
the taking of oysters and crabs are import-
ant industries in Sussex county, and along the
shores and tidal streams. Peaches and the various
small fruits, as well as market- en products, are
| g articles of export; the principal cereal
| grope are maize, wheat, and oats. Pop. (1870)
125,015; (1880) 146,608 (of whom 26,448 were of
pure or mixed African descent) ; (1890) 168,493.
. The principal towns are Wilmington (pop. in
‘1880, 42,478, in 1890, 61,437), New Castle (4010).
Dover, the state capital (3061), and Smyrna (2455).
’ Delaware’s first permanent white settlements
were made by Swedes and Finns who settled at
Christiana (Wilmington) in 1638; for a Dutch
settlement of 1630 at Hoornkill (now Lewes) was
destroyed a year later by the Indians, The colony
‘of New Sweden included a small part of Penn-
sylvania and a section of New Jersey. For several
years the Dutch and Swedes contended for the pos-
session of this region, till in 1655 it passed under
Dutch sway. After the transfer of New Amster-
dam (now New York) to the English rule in 1664,
laware became English also, being governed from
New York-until 1632, when William Penn became
pometery of the three Delaware counties, which,
ough attached to Pennsylvania, never formed any
part of that colony. In 1776 a constitution was
adopted, followed by another in 1791 ; and this was
revised in 1831. Delaware was the first state to
ratify (1767) the Federal constitution. It took no
oa in the secession movement, but retained its
ves until the passage of the 13th amendment. It
offers several curious survivals, such as its division
into hundreds, and the retention of whipping-post
and pillory. For map, see MARYLAND.

. Delaware, THomAs West, Lorp, the first

vernor of Virginia, arrived there from England
in June 1610, but nine months later was prostrated
by ill-health, and died in 1618.

Delawares. See AMERICAN INDIANS.

Del Crederé Commission, the higher rate
or allowance charged by a factor or agent, in
respect of which he guarantees the solvency of the

urchaser, and renders himself personally liable to

is principal in case of the purchaser's failure to
pay the price of the goods sold. It is not necessary
that the contract be in writing. The amount of
the premium is of course variable, but it is fre-
quently double an ordinary selling commission.

’ Deleb Palm, or ETHIOPIAN FAN-PALM ( Bor-
assus ethiopum), is very common and widely dis-
tributed throughout Central Africa, where it often
practically replaces the date palm in the domestic
economy of many negro tribes. Its large hard nut
is eaten fresh, but also largely planted until ger-
mination has fairly commenced ; the young embryo
thus laden with sugar, &c., is then eaten raw or
cooked.

Delectus (Lat., ‘a selection’), the old name
__ Often applied to a selection of from Latin
_ or Greek writers graduated in difliculty for the
use of young learners. None is so famous as

alpy’s.

_ Delegation (Ital. delegazione), the term for-
merly applied in Lombardy, Venice, and the States
of the Church, both to the governor and governing
court of a province and to the province itself. The

}

number of such provinces varied, but was at one time
nineteen, The delegate was always a prelate, and
rans appointed by the pope. If he was a car-
dinal, he was called a Legate, and his province a
Legation.

Delescluze, Lovis CHARLEs, French com-
munist, was born at Dreux, 20th October 1809.
His politics early drove him from France to jour-
nalism in Belgium, but the February revolution
opened to him a career in Paris, where his clever
and facile pen quickly made him popular with the
rabble, but earned him from the authorities im-

risonment and a fine of 10,000 frances. Again at

aris in 1853, he was sentenced to two years’ im-
prisonment, and was next transported to Cayenne,
where he remained till 1859. is experiences of
his sufferings he gave in De Paris a Cayenne ; Jour-
nal d’un Transporté (1867). After his return he
was quiet for some years, until his journal, Péveil,
started in 1868 to advocate the doctrines of the
International, brought him anew into trouble. In
the infamous history of the Paris Commune he
played a prominent part, and upon his head rests
In great part the guilt of its most execrable atro-
cities—the murder of the hostages, and the burning
of the public buildings of the city. He died on the
last barricade, 28th May 1871.

Delfshaven, an old town in South Holland on
the Maas, 14 mile W. of. Rotterdam, with which
city it was incorporated in 1886.

Delft, one of the most ancient towns of South
Holland, is situated on the Schie, 8 miles NW. of
Rotterdam by rail, and is intersected by numerous
eanals. Delft was noted from the 16th to the 18th
century for its delft-ware (see POTTERY), but has
now entirely lost its high reputation for this manu-
facture, and not more than a few dozen persons
are engaged in making earthenware. Of several
interesting buildings, one, the town-hall (1618), is
a picturesque and richly adorned edifice. The New
Church (1476) contains a monument, more ornate
than tasteful, to the memory of William I. of
Orange, who was assassinated here, 10th July 1584.
It also contains the tomb of Grotius, and the
burial-vaults of the present royal family of Hol-
land. The Old Church, a building of some note,
contains the tomb of the naturalist, Leeuwenhoek,
and of the great admiral, Van Tromp. Delft has
also a state arsenal, an East Indian college, a
polytechnic, and several hospitals. There are some
manufactures of fine carpets, casks, baskets. Pop.
(1876) 23,804; (1888) 27,591; (1895) 31,964.

Delhi (DeAli), an imperial city of Northern
India, and the chief commercial and industrial
centre of the Punjab, on the right bank of the
Jumna, 13 miles from the railway junction of
Ghaziabad, 113 NNW. of Agra, and 954 NW. of
Calcutta. It is walled on three sides, has ten
gates, and stands on high ground, the grand
series of buildings forming the famous palace
of Shah Jehan, now the Fort, looking out over
the river and a wide stretch of wooded and
cultivated country. To the north, about a mile
distant, rises the historic ‘ridge,’ crowned with
memorials of the Mutiny, and commanding a fine
view of the city, the domes and minarets of
which overtop the encircling groves. The ——
in the city, the suburbs, and the neighbouring
country, are all richly wooded. Delhi is the ter-
minus of the East Indian and Rajputana rail-
ways, the former crossing the Jumna by a fine
iron bridge. Fergusson describes in detail the
palace buildings, which are the splendid heritage
of Mogul sovereignty. Briefly, they comprise the
cathedral-like entrance hall, the diwan-i-khas, or
audience hall, the diwan-i-am, the rang mahal
(now a mess-room), and several lesser pavilions,

740 DELHI

DELIRIUM

covering in all an area of 1600 feet by 3200, ex-
clusive of gateways. The beautiful inlaid work
and carving of these buildings are the admiration
of the world, and the diwan-i-khas is worthy of
its famous inscription: ‘If there is a heaven on
earth, it is this—it is this!’ In the heart of the
city stands the Jama Masjid (‘great mosque’),
one of the largest and finest structures of the kind
in India, which also owes its origin to Shah Jehan.
Among the notable monuments in the neighbour-
hood are the imperial tombs, including that of
Hamayun, second of the Mogul dynasty ; the old
Kala Masjid, or black mosque; and the famous
Kutab Minar, 10 miles to the south.. The Minar,
erected by Kutab-ud-din, founder of a dynasty,
early in the 13th century, is 238 feet high, and
tapers gracefully from a diameter of 47 feet at
the base to 9 feet at the summit. It incloses a
winding staircase, and is garlanded with inscrip-
tions from the Koran. Modern Delhi is noted for
its broad main streets, the chief being the Chandni
Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock-tower,
and the institute and museum. The Delhi College,
once a famous oriental school, has been abolished,
government having withdrawn the collegiate staff
of teachers to concentrate the grant upon the cen-
tral institution at Lahore. Delhi has a large trade
in wheat and other produce, and its bazaars are
noted for gold and silver work, precious stones,
shawls, and costly fabrics. It is a great native
banking centre. Across the river is the ruined fort
of Salimgarh, and traces of an ancient city. Pop.
(1891) 193,580. more than half Hindus.

The name Dilli or Dillipur first appears in Ist
century B.C., and is connected with the famous
iron pillar of Raja Dhava, a solid shaft of metal,
set up in the 3d or 4th century, which is 16 inches
in diameter, and 50 feet long, and which is so
firmly planted that only half oF it is above ground.
This indisputable relic bears a Sanskrit inscription,
in which the name of the city is mentioned. elhi
was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan, and
afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It was taken
by a British army under Lord Lake, September 8,
1803, and has ever since—if we except the brief
period when it was held by the mutineers in 1857
—continued under British rule. In our own time,
Delhi has been rendered memorable by the events
of 1857. The march on the city of the mutineers
from Meerut; the terrible 11th of May; the ex-
eee of the powder-magazine by Willoughby and

is heroic band; the assault, when the city was
won (September 20) gate by gate and quarter by
quarter—a success saddened by the death of the
gallant Nicholson ; the subsequent daring capture
of the king of Delhi by Hodson of Hodson’s Horse ;
and the capture and shooting of his miscreant
sons by the same officer, are memorable events in
Indian history. A memorial to Willoughby was
erected by government.in 1888. In 1877 Delhi was
the scene of the famous Durbar at which the Queen
was proclaimed Empress of India. Delhi is now
the most Europeanised of all the cities in the
interior of India, and the removal of some of the
old gates was among the improvements con-
templated in 1888.—The district has an area of
1277 sq. m., and a pop. of 638,689. The trade and
mannfactures of the district centre in the town
of Delhi. There is a branch of the East Indian

Railway, and the Rajputana State Railway tra-

verses the district for about 13 miles. Of about
820 sq. m. under cultivation, over a sixth are irri-
Sai from government canals, and a smaller part

y private enterprise. To the south, the district
is rocky and barren. The soil along the alluvial
margin of the Jumna is fertile, but better crops
are pod in the tract artificially irrigated by
the Western Jumna Canal.—The division of Delhi

coniprises the three districts of Delhi, Gurgaon, and
Karnal, with an area of 5610 sq. m., and a pop,
of over two millions, nearly 75 per cent. of whom
are Hindus.

Delibes, Léon, a French composer, born in
1836 at St Germain du Val, in the Sarthe, entered
the Paris Conservatoire in 1848, and in 1855 pro-
duced an operetta, Dewx Sacs de Charbon. At the
Grand Opéra, where he became second director: in
1865, his music for the ballet La Source (1866)
met with great success, and his ballet-music for
Coppélia (1870), his finest work, secured his i-
tion as a composer. He wrote music for a third
ballet and for three comic operas, one of which, Le
Roi la dit (1873), became very popular. In 1880
Delibes was appointed professor in the Conserva-
toire. He died January 16, 1891.

Delilah (signifying, according to Bertheau,
‘the delicate ;’ according to Ewald, ‘ the traitress’),
the Philistine woman who betrayed Samson (q.v.).

Delille, JAcQuES, a writer extravagantly over-
rated in his lifetime, was born near Aigues-Perse
in Auvergne, on June 22, 1738. He was an ille-
gitimate child, and was brought up by charity.
Educated at the Collége de Lisieux in Paris, he-
distinguished himself as a scholar, and obtained a
professorship in Amiens. His verse translation of
the Georgics, published in 1769, had an extra-
ordinary vogue, and was extolled far beyond its
merits by Voltaire and other critics. Its author
was made an academician in 1774, and, after hold-
ing a canonry at Moissac, was presented by the
Comte d’Artois with the abbacy of Saint-Severin,
the income of which amounted to 30,000 livres a
year. Les Jardins, a didactic poem which Delille
published in 1782, found a vast body of readers,
and was generally accepted as a masterpiece. The
outbreak of the Revolution compelling Delille to
leave France, he. travelled in Switzerland and
Germany, and then removed to London, where he
occupied himself for eighteen months in translat-
ing the Paradise Lost. After his return to France
in 1802, he produced a translation of the Aneid
(1804) and several didactic and descriptive works
in verse—L’ Imagination (1806), Les Trois Réegnes
(1809), and La Conversation (1812). He became
blind in his old age, and died on May 1, 1813.
During his life he was. not only regarded by his
countrymen as the greatest French t of the
day, but was even declared to be the equal of
Virgil and Homer. His fame, however, suffered
a rapid eclipse, and his lack of poetic genius is
now generally admitted. He was merely a fluent

‘versifier, whose knack of turning out ingenious

paraphrases exactly suited the taste of his con-
temporaries. See Sainte-Beuve’s Portraits Litté-
raires, vol. ii.

Deliquescence is the term applied to the
property which certain substances have of absorb-
ing moisture from the air, and becoming damp, —
and even running into liquid. Caustic sotaeet |
and the chlorides of calclum and magnesium, —
are examples of substances which undergo this —
change.

Delirium is a condition in which there is —
perversion of the mental processes. In its essential —
nature this symptom is analogous to insanity; in-
sanity is, in short, a. similar state, unaccompanied
by the obvious conditions which are the causes of
delirium.

In health the mental processes correspond to —
present sensory impressions or to the memory of —
those which are past, but in delirium this corre-
spondence ceases, and the results of cerebral
activity bear no true relation to reality. De-
lirium has three well-known mental phenomena, —
any or all of which may be present in any indi- —

”

DELIRIUM TREMENS

DE LOLME 741

. coe nstence, The mind may be possessed by

eas or delusions ; senso

produce false pe

fictitious perceptions or hallucinations,

impressions may
reeptions or «dlusions; or there

j be
without the presence of any sensory impressions.

The more common causes of delirium are four.
(1) Loeal diseases of the brain or its envelopes,
as in the case of inflammation of the lining mem-
branes. (2) Toxic substances circulating in the
blood, which may have their origin within the
, ram as in the retention of waste products

during the final stages of kidney disease, or may

be introduced from without, such as the specific
poisons of the acute infectious diseases, or active
substances like aleohol, (3) High body ogg ok
tures, which may occur apart from any blood-
poison in a local inflammation of some distant
organ. (4) Inanition, which may often be seen
in the concluding periods of wasting diseases,

Delirium Tremens is the term employed to
denote one of the acute phases arising in the course
of chronic Alcoholism (4. v.). It is as a rule pre-
cipitated by a period of indulgence in excessive
drinking, and shows itself at first in the form of
— uneasiness and restlessness during the day,

llowed by sleeplessness, or disturbed sleep with
distressing dreams, at night. These initial symp-
toms usher in the stage of delirium, always accom-

ied by constant muscular tremors. The de-
irium almost invariably presents the three main
varieties of mental disturbance—illusions, halluci-
nations, and delusions—to which reference has
been made in the preceding article. An attack
goesly lasts about three days, but it may exist
or a period of six or seven days, and, so far as is
at present known, there is no means of shortening
its duration. The chief danger lies in the great
tendency to exhaustion which the disease shows.
One attack appears to have a power of predispos-
ing the individual who has suffered from it to
subsequent recurrence. The affection frequentl
induces some degree of mental weakness, and this
is more likely to be the case in those who belong
to families which have a hereditary tendency to
insanity. As above mentioned, no means is
known of cutting short an attack, and the em-
valor of drugs in this disease is of at least
oubtful utility. The only rational treatment
consists in the use of every expedient which can
tend to sustain the patient, and avert the great
tendency to exhaustion of the vital centres.

De Lisle. See Leconte, RovGeEr.

Delitzsch, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the
Lébber, 12 miles N. of Leipzig by rail, with manu-
factures of cigars, straw, leather, ivory, and wooden

Pop. 8342.

Delitzsch, FRANZ, a learned theologian and
Hebraist, born at Leipzig, February 23, 1813,
studied theology and orientalia at the universit
there, and became professor of Theology at Rostoe
in 1846, whence he was called to Erlangen in 1850,
and to Leipzig in 1867. Delitzsch’s vast learn-
ing and exegetical sagacity combined to give him
a foremost place among the more conservative
German theologians, while his great personal influ-
ence over a generation of Leipzig students, and a
long series of profoundly learned books, contrib-
uted enormously to extend a sound knowledge
of Old Testament exegesis not only in Sorigooaas be
but in England and America. His earliest works
were in the field of the post-biblical Jewish litera-
ture, followed by his commentaries on Habakkuk,
Song of Solomon, Genesis, the Psalms; and to the
complete commentary on the Old Testament,
edited jointly with Keil, Delitzsch himself con-
tributed the volumes devoted to Isaiah, Job, Solo-
mon’s Proverbs, Canticles, and Ecclesiastes. Later

works are his System der biblischen Psychologie
(1855), System der christ. Apologetil (1869), Jesus
und Hillel (1867), Jiid. Handwerkerleben sur Zeit
Jesu (1868). His commentary on Genesis (1887
made large concessions to the critical theory
the Pentateuch. He died 3d March 1890.—His
son, FRIEDRICH DELITZSCH, born 3d September
1850, has already made a great reputation as an
Assyriologist by his A . Studien (1874), his
translation of George Smith’s Chaldean Account o
Genesis (1876), his a Lesestiicke (1878), Wo
das Paradies? (1881), and his great Assyr.
Orterbuch (1887 et seq.).

Delius, Niko.avus, a distinguished German

Shakespearian critic, was born at Bremen, 19th
September 1813, and studied philology at Bonn
and Berlin, and in England and France. He

finally settled in 1846 at Bonn, where he became
extraordinary professor in 1855, and professor in
1863, and where he died 18th November 1888.
His early lectures were on Sanskrit and the
Romance tongues, but he afterwards devoted him-
self to the English language and literature, and
as a student of Shakespeare took a place that, in
the opinion of most scholars, was second to none.
Apart from excursions of lesser importance in other
fields of literature, he published Abhandlu mu
Shakspeare (1878), &c. ; and his edition of Shake-
speare’s works (Elberfeld, 7 vols. 1854-61; 5th ed.
2 vols. 1882) is an acknowledged masterpiece, its
notes a marvel of terse sagacity.

Delivery in Sale. See SALE or Goons.
Delivery of a Deed. See DEED.

Della Cruscan School. About the year
1785, a number of English residents at Florence
endeavoured to amuse their lagging hours by writ-
ing verses, which they published under the title of
The Florence Miscellany. The insipidity, affecta-
tion, and fantastic silliness of these productions
transcend belief; yet such was the tic poverty
of the time, that they soon found a crowd of
admirers and imitators. Taking the name of a
Florentine Academy (q.V-), the Della Cruscans
now me to print their eres lucubrations in
England, chiefly in two daily newspapers called
the World and the Oracle. ‘While the epidemic
malady was spreading from fool to fool,’ as Gifford
Exige says, one of the brotherhood, a Mr

bert Merry, came over from Florence, and
‘immediately announced himself by a sonnet to
Love.’ It was answered by one, ‘Anna Matilda’
(Mrs Cowley), who (as was the custom) praised
it immoderately in language even more absurd
than Merry’s own. ‘The fever now turned to a
frenzy : Laura, Maria, Carlos, Orlando, Adelaide,
and a thousand other nameless names, caught
the infection; and from one end of the kingdom
to the other all was nonsense and Della Crusca.’
But retribution followed, for Nemesis watches the
course of poetry as sharply as that of politics. In

1794 Gifford produced his Baviad, and in 1796
his Meviad. Rarely has literature witnessed such
a scalping. It completely killed the school, and,

indeed, it is only in these two poems that the
memory of most of the unhappy Della Cruscan
songsters has been preserved—an immortality
which may be compared with that conferred by
the Newgate Calendar.

Dellys, a port of Algeria, 50 miles E. of
Algiers, with a French garrison. Pop. 3564.

De Lolme, Joun Lovts, born at Geneva in
1740, was originally an advocate in his native
town, but about 1769 came to England where, in
spite of his literary activity, he lived for several
years in poverty, always in debt and re-
peatedly in prison. aving inherited a small

742 DELORME

DELPHI

7)

property, he returned to his native country in
1775, and died at a village in Switzerland, July
16, 1806. De Lolme’s principal work is The Con-
stitution of England ; or an Account of the English
Government ; in which it is compared both with
the Republican Form of Government and the other
Monarchies in Europe. It was first published in
French at Amsterdam in 1771; the English trans-
lation, by another hand apparently, did not appear
till 1775. The work, which flattered England,
threw no new light on the subject, long enjoyed
a high reputation, and reached a tenth edition
(with Life, 1853), but has long been superseded ;
its author was called by Isaac D’Israeli_ ‘the
English Montesquieu.’ In 1772 he also published
anonymously in English, A Parallel between the
English Government and the former Government of
Sweden ; ten years later, his History of the Fla-
gellants ; in 1796 an Essay containing Strictures on
the Union of Scotland with England, and numerous
political pamphlets. In 1816 Dr Busby tried to
prove that De Lolme was Junius.

Delorme, Marion, a famous Frenchwoman,
whose name figures too prominently in the history
of the 17th century. She was born 3d October
1613, in or near the town of Blois, and came at an
early period of her life to Paris, where her great
beauty and brilliant wit soon gathered a group of
wealthy and high-born lovers round her. Even
the great Cardinal Richelieu was not insensible to
her charms, and revenged himself for her contempt
by causing her to be separated from the ill-fated
young Cinq-Mars, her love for whom was the one
ennobling passion of her life. Among her lovers
were, in ‘succession, the Duke of Buckingham,
Saint-Evremond, the Due de Brissac, the Cheva-
lier de Grammont, and Emeri, the Superintendent
of Finance. During the first disturbances of the
Frondeurs, her house was the rallying-point of the
chiefs of that party, and in consequence Mazarin
was about to fling her into prison, when she
suddenly died in 1650. A curious tradition sprang
up in France during the next century, to the effect
that Marion had not died, but escaped to London ;
that she had married an English lord, had then
returned to Paris, and married first a robber-chief,
next a procurator of finance, and, finally, that she
died in 1706; or, according to another account,
even so late as 1741. Her story was treated by
Victor Hugo in a drama; by Alfred de Vigny in
his romance Cing Mars. See Eugene de Mire-
court’s imaginative Confessions de Marion Delorme
(3 vols. 1851).

Delos (called also in ancient times Asteria,
Ortygia), an island in the Grecian Archipelago,
the smallest of the Cyclades, is situated between
the islands Rhenea and Mykonus. According to
the mythological account it was at first a floating
island, but was fixed to the bottom by Zeus in
order that it might become a safe abode to Leto
for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. Its earliest
historical inhabitants were Ionians, and it appears
to have been the centre of a great periodical
festival held in honour of Apollo, both on the
mainland and in the islands. In 426 B.c. Delos
was purified by the Athenians, all the tombs were
removed from it, and it was declared pollution for
any birth or death to take place on it. Four
after they expelled the Delians from the island.
After 146 B.c., when Corinth fell, Delos became
the seat of extensive commerce. Its sacred associa-
tions, its great festival, its excellent harbour, and
its situation in the direct route from southern
Europe to the coasts of Asia, all combined to
render it a port highly favoured by merchants.
So great was the traffic of Delos that it is said
10,000 slaves changed hands kere in a single day.

ears |

After flourishing’ for a considerable time, it was’
devastated in the Mithridatic war (87 B.c.), and
from. this calamity it never recovered. Little more
than 1 sq. m. in area, it was noted for its palm-
trees, and also for its brass, and the brazen vessels
which it manufactured. The town of Delos, which
stood at the foot of Mount Cynthus, a granite crag
347 feet high, is now a mass of ruins. Still, how-
ever, the remains of the great temple of Apollo,
and of the colossal statue raised in his honour, ma
be distinctly traced. Since 1877 extensive investi-
gations have been prosecuted in its ruins by
Homolle for the French Archzeological Institute.
Delphi (now Kastri), an ancient Greek town
in Phocis, celebrated chiefly for its famous oracle
of Apollo, was situated about 8 miles N. of
an indentation in the northern shore of the Gulf
of Lepanto, at the southern base of Parnassus.
Its original name, and that by which Homer im-
variably speaks of it, was Pytho. It stood in the
centre of a district renowned for its classical
associations. Occupying the vale of the Pleistus,
it was seated in a semicircle like the area of a
grand natural theatre, backed towards the north
by two lateral spurs of Parnassus. These lateral
ranges extend east and west around Delphi, and
give rise also, from the point at which they ap-
proximate, to the famous fountain of Castalia,
the holy water of the Delphian temple. The
earliest inhabitants of Delphi are said to have
come from Lycorea, a town upon one of the slopes
of Parnassus, the inhabitants of which are sup-
posed to have been Dorians. From the Delphian
nobles were at first taken the chief magistrates
and the priests of the temple, while the Pythia or
priestess who delivered the oracle, at first always a
young maiden, but latterly always a woman not
younger than fifty, was usually selected from some
family of poor country-people.. In the centre of
the temple was a small opening in the ground,
whence arose an intoxicating vapour, believed to
come from the well of Cassotis; and the Pythia
having breathed this, sat down upon the tripod
or three-legged stool, which was placed over the
chasm in the ground, and thence delivered the
oracle, which, if not pronounced at first in hex-
ameters, was handed over to a poet, employed for
the purpose, who converted it into that form of
verse. As the celebrity of the Delphic oracle
increased, Delphi became a town of great wealth
and importance, famous not only in Hellas, but
also among the neighbouring nations. Here the
Pythian games were held, and it was one of the
two places of meeting of the Amphictyonic Council
(q.v.). The fourth temple, though the first built
of stone, was destroyed by fire in 548 B.c., and
during the succeeding century a fifth and last one
was built by the Amphictyons at the cost of 300
talents, or £115,000. It was hexastyle, fronted
with Parian marble, and adorned with statu-
ary by Praxias and Androsthenes. In 480 B.c¢.
Xerxes sent a portion of his army to plunder the
temple ; but as they climbed the rugged path that
led to the shrine, a peal of thunder broke over-
head, and two huge crags tumbling from the
heights crushed many of the Persians to death,
while their comrades, struck with terror, turned and
fled. It was plundered by the Phocians during
the Sacred War, and was attacked by the Gauls
in 279 B.C., who were said to have been repulsed
like the Persians by portents. The splendour of
Delphi area x git excited the rapacity of many
conquerors, and suffered severely by their attacks.
Nero earried off from it 500 bronze statues ; Con-
stantine also removed many of its works of art to
his own capital. - In the time of Pliny, the number
of statues in Delphi was not less than 3000, and
within the temple for a long time stood a golden

. XIV. The title-

DELPHINAPTERUS

DEMADES 743

statue of Apolio. The modern wwr of Kastri
now —— the site of Delphi, in the neighbour-
hood of the source of the still flowing Castalian
ign See A. Mommsen’s Delphika ( Leip. 1878),
vol. (1880) of Bouché-Leclerq’s Histoire de la
Divination dans lUAntiquité, and the Cornhill
Magazine (1882).

Delphinapterus. See BeLuca.

hin Classics, an edition of the Greek

and Roman classics (64 quarto volumes, 1674-1730)
ag by tirty-nine of the best scholars of the

me, under the editorship, originally, of Bossuet
and Huet, tutors to the dauphin, son of Louis
_ The ges bear the words, ‘In usum
Serenissimi Delphini,’ hence the name. Editions
in octavo of particular authors, as Virgil and
Horace, were often reprinted in England. The
Delphin Classics are now esteemed of little value.

Delphinidzw,. See Doiruin.
Delphinium. See Larkspur.

Delta is the alluvial deposit formed at the
mouth of a river from the deposition of the particles
which it has held in suspension or rolled forward
upon its bed, The term was originally applied to
the tract of land thus formed (mainly within
historical times) by the Nile, which, being inclosed
by two main branches and the sea, has the form
of the Greek letter A, delta. The formation of
deltas depends more’ upon the absence of opposing
currents at the mouth of the river than upon the
quantity of sediment held in suspension when it
reaches the sea. Deltas are consequently of almost
invariable occurrence in inland lakes, in the quiet
estuaries of the nearly tideless Mediterranean, and
in the sheltered bays and gulfs of other seas. When,
on the other hand, there are strong ebb-tides, or

werful oceanic currents, the detritus is carried off
into the sea.

Delta Metal is an alles consisting of copper
and zinc—in other words, brass—to which some
manganese has been added in the form of ferro-
manganese, or spiegel-eisen which contains man-
ganese. A little silicon is also used, but enough
of this is usually present in ferro-manganese. The
iron added by the use of these substances should
be kept small in quantity. Delta metal has
similar properties to phosphor-bronze, if, indeed,
some of it is not simply manganese-bronze. The
silicon and the manganese modify the properties
of copper in the same way as phosphorus fe in
the case of phosphor-bronze (see BRONZE). Delta
metal is used for parts of machinery and for orna-
mental work. See the patents of G. A. Dick, the
inventor of delta metal, No. 5914, December 1883,
and No. 6172, April 1884.

Deluc, JEAN ANDRE, geologist and meteorolo-
ist, was born at Geneva in 1727, Settling in Eng-
and in 1773, he was appointed reader to Queen

Charlotte, a post which he retained till his death at
Windsor, 7th November 1817. He was author of
thirteen works.

Deluge (through the French, from Lat. dilu-
vium, ‘a flood’). There is searcely any consider-
able race of men among whom there does not exist,
in some form, the tradition of a great deluge, which
destroyed all the human race except their own

rogenitors. The classical story of Deucalion and
Dyrtha is but a typical example of similar myths
found everywhere, and savages and fathers of the
church alike have argued that the shells, corals,
and other marine objects often found on the tops of
mountains, offered distinet proof of the historical
reality of a deluge. That the Noachian deluge
corded in Scripture covered the whole earth and
destroyed all mankind save one family, was the
universal opinion until towards the close of the 18th

century, and is maintained even in Dean Buck-
land’s Reliquia Diluvianw (1823). The organic
remains, on which the science of palwontology is
now founded, were regarded as its wrecks, and were
held to prove that it had covered every known
country, and risen over the highest hills. In the
progress of geology, it soon became evident that
most of the stratilied rocks demanded an earlier
origin than a few thousand years, and the influence
of the deluge was consequently restricted to the
slightly altered superficial deposits; but many of
these were, after a few years, found to belong toa
period vastly anterior to any historical epoch, and
to have been produced by long-continued and per-
sistent agencies, differing totall y from a temporary
cataclysm. The more common modern opinion
regards the flood of Noah as partial and local,
although the universality seems fairly enough to
be implied in the biblical description, and although
the old theory has been revived by Sir Henry
Howorth in his work, The Mammoth and the Flood
(1887). M. Lenormant, the most brilliant as well
as erudite of orthodox scholars, in his great posthu-
mous Histoire Ancienne de Orient, argues the
partial character of the flood from the absence of
all record of a deluge among the black races of the
world, as the negroes and Papuans; and another
Catholic scholar, M. ! Abbé Motais, in his interesting
and learned work, Le Déluge Biblique (1885), main-
tains that this opinion is quite consistent with the
exegesis of Scripture, with tradition, and the doc-
trine of the church, while it is the only theory that
avoids all the ethnological and linguistic difficulties
presented by the existence of the great negro and
yellow races marked off so distinctly from the
Noachian type. The deluge traditions of many
primitive races are connected with religious mys-
teries, and it is scarcely true, as has often been
asserted, that it is the Old Testament alone that
gives a moral reason for the deluge sent upon the
world. The Chaldean account discovered by George
Smith presents a striking resemblance to the
Genesis story, and agrees with it also in making
the flood distinetly a divine retribution for human
sin, although it of course differs from the Jewish
account in being polytheistic instead of monothe-
istic. The seated in which Xisuthros, the Chaldean
Noah, sails, is a ship guided by a steersman, and
others beside his own family are admitted into it.
The flood is seven days at its height, and Xisuthros
sends out in succession a raven, a dove, and a
swallow, The ship finally rests on Rowandiz, the
highest mountain of Eastern Kurdistan, and the
peak which supports the heavens, instead of upon
Ararat, the northern or Armenian continuation of
the range. Babylonian tradition also confounds
Noah with Enoch, for Xisuthros is taken to the
skies immediately after coming out of the ark.
Two deluge poems were amalgamated together in
an Akkadian epic, in twelve books, describing the
adventures of Gizdhubar. A translation of Haupt’s
version is given by Sayce in his Fresh Light from
the Ancient Monuments; and see Prestwitch, On
Certain Phenomena belonging to the Close of the
last Geological Period (1895).
De Lunatico Inquirendo,. See INSANITY.
Delungdung, a kind of Civet (q.v.).
Delusion, See HALLUCINATIONS, ILLUSIONS.
Delvino, a town of Albania, 45 miles WNW.
of Janina, with a trade in oil and fruit. Pop. 6000.
Dem‘ades, an Athenian orator, who, a bitter
enemy to Demosthenes, promoted eagerly the
Macedonian interest, and was sent away in safety
by Philip when taken prisoner at Cheronea (338),
but had not the grace to be honest even in his
anti-patriotism, and was put to death for his
treachery by Antipater in 318.

744 DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS

Demand and Supply. In Political Economy
demand has reference to the quantity of goods
asked for in the market, and supply has reference
to the quantity of goods offered. The laws of
demand and supply may be thus stated: when
the demand exceeds the supply, competition grows
stronger among the buyers, and prices rise, and
when the demand falls short of the supply; com-
petition grows stronger among the sellers, and
prices fall; or thus, falling prices tend to lessen
the supply and increase the demand, while rising
ie tend to increase the supply and lessen the

emand. A rise in prices tends to encourage pro-
duction, while a fall in prices tends to discourage it.
Conversely, consumption is promoted by falling
and lessened by rising prices. The result is that
demand and supply continually tend to equilibrium.
Under such a system it is assumed that buyers and
sellers or producers and consumers are free to fix
their own prices. In other words, the laws of
supply and demand prevail under a system of free
competition.

Demavend, Mount, an extinct volcano of
Persia, forming the loftiest peak of the Elburz
Chain, which separates the low shores of the
Caspian Sea from the high tableland of Persia.
The height hitherto has been usually marked as
14,700 feet, but has been fixed by the Russian
Caspian Survey at 18,600 feet.

Dembea, LAKE. See TZANA.

Dembinski, HENry, a Polish general, was
born near Cracow, 16th January 1791, entered the
‘Polish army in 1809, and fought under Napoleon
against Russia and at Leipzig. In the Polish
revolution of 1830 he so distinguished himself that
for a short time he was commander-in-chief of
the national army ; in 1833 he entered the service of
Mehemet Ali. On the outbreak of the Hungarian
insurrection, Kossuth appointed him commander-
in-chief of the Hungarian army. He drew up
a plan of the campaign, but was hampered by
the jealousy of Gérgei; and after the defeat of
Kapolna (February 26-28, 1849) he was forced to
resign his command. At Kossuth’s resignation
Dembinski tled to Turkey, but in 1850 he returned
to France, and died at Paris, 13th June 1864. He
was author of Mémoires (1833) and four other
works.

Deme (Gr. démos), a subdivision of ancient
Attica and of modern Greece. The démoi were
townships or hundreds, subdivisions of the phulai,
and were equivalent to the Dorian komai, Lat. pag ;
in the time of Herodotus they were 100 in number
(10 in each phulé), afterwards 170; their origin was
commonly referred to Theseus. The word démos
early came to be applied to the commons, and sur-
vives significantly in our democracy and demagogue.

Demembré, or DisMEMBERED, a heraldic term
to signify that the members of an
animal are cut from its body.
Dementia. See INSANITY.
Demerara, one of the three
counties of British Guiana (q.v.),
between the Abari and the Esse-
thet takes its name from the
emerara River, which rises in
the Maccari Mountains, in about
4° 40’ N. lat., and after a northerly
course of about 200 miles, enters
the Atlantic at Georgetown. The mouth is 14
mile wide, but is obstructed by a bar at low tides;
the stream is navigable for 90 miles, and has many
flourishing settlements on its banks.
Demesne was that portion of the lands of a
Manor (q.v.) which the lord of the manor reserved
for his immediate use and occupation.

Dismembered.

Demeter, the Ceres of the Romans, was one of
the chief divinities of the Greeks. She was the
earth-goddess, the patroness of agriculture and of
fruits, and her name itself most probably meant
Mother-Earth (gé métér). She was the daughter of
Cronus and Rhea, and was by Zeus the mother of
Persephone ( Proserpine), who was carried off while.
gathering flowers in the Nysian plain, in Asia, b
Aidoneus (Pluto), the go

daughter, and when she learned whither she had
been carried, quitted Olympus in anger, and dwelt
on earth among men, as at Eleusis, pimecig Spams
ings in her train. At length Zeus sent Hermes
to bring back Persephone, and both mother and
daughter then returned to Olympus, whereupon the
earth again brought forth her fruits. As Perse-
phone had eaten a part of a pomegranate in the
under world, she was obliged to spend one-third of
the year in the gloomy kingdom of her husband,
returning to her mother the remainder of the year.
Many later additions were made to this beautiful
story, in which it is not difficult to see an allegorisa-
tion of the burial and revival of the seed-corn within
the ground. The Latin poets made Enna, in Sicily,
the scene of Proserpine’s rape. The Eleusinia were
held every year at Athens, in honour of Demeter
and her daughter, as well as the Thesmophoria,
both there and in other parts of Greece. The
Athenians revered her especially as the originator
of civilised life and its arts, which all rest on the
basis of agriculture. In art Demeter is represented
fully clothed, a garland of corn-ears round her
head, in her hand a sceptre, corn-ears, or a poppy,
and sometimes with a torch and mystic basket.
The worship of Demeter, known as Ceres, reached
Rome from Sicily, and ultimately acquired great
political importance. Her chief festival there was
the Cerealia. See CEREs.

Demetrius, or Dmitri. See Russta.

Demetrius Phalereus, so named fron the
Attic demos of Phalerus, a seaport of Athens,
where he was born about 345 B.c., was distin-
Senet as an orator and politician. Though

escended from a family of neither rank nor
property, by his abilities and energy he rose to
the highest honours at Athens. He was educated
along with Menander in the school of Theo-
phrastus, entered upon public life about 325, and
soon made himself famous by his oratory. In 317
he was intrusted by Cassander with the govern-
ment of Athens, and discharged its duties for ten
years with such general satisfaction that the
grateful Athenians heaped all kinds of honours
upon him, and erected no fewer than 360 statues to
his honour. During the later period of his ad-
ministration he seems to have given himself up
to dissipation; and when Demetrius Poliorcetes,
king of Macedonia, approached Athens with a
besieging army in 307, Demetrius, having lost the
sympathies and co-operation of the Athenians,
was obliged to flee. All his statues were de-
molished except one. He retired first to Thebes,
but afterwards found refuge in the court of
Ptolemy Lagi, at Alexandria, where he lived for

many years, devoting himself to literary pursuits. -

On the death of his protector, Demetrius was
expelled from the court of Egypt, retreated to
Busiris in Upper Egypt, and die
bite of an asp in 283. Demetrius was the last of
the Attic orators worthy of the name.

however, in its luxuriousness an
effeminacy, the marks of a declining oratory.
list of his works (fifty in number) given

The

of the nether world.
‘Demeter wandered for some time in search of her

His style -—
was graceful, insinuating, and elegant; bearing,
tendency to

y Dio- |
genes Laértius shows him to have been a man of ~—
most extensive acquirements. eet

there from the

OT ORE a a

a alae

demiurge

DEMI-BASTION

DEMOCRACY 745

~ Demi-bastion, in Fortification, differs from a

Bastion (q.v.) in having only one
flank instead of two and no cur-

Demidoff, a Russian family
distinguished for wealth and
beneficence, is descended from
Nikita Demidoff, originally a
blacksmith at Tula, who in the
time of Peter the Great became
famous as a manufacturer of arms,
and amassed an immense fortune.
Of the numerous es of the line, perhaps

most famous is Prince Anatol (1813-70), born
at Moscow, but educated in France. He was
always remarkable for his enthusiasm in letters
and in the sciences ; his aarp age work being his
Travels in South-east Europe (4 vols. Paris, 1839-
49). It contains very valuable scientific observa-
tions, and is magnificently illustrated.

Demi-lion, Demi-rose, Demi-FLEUR DE LIS,
&ec., in Heraldry, means, when an animal is spoken
of, the upper half ; and with an inanimate object,
the dexter half parted per pale.

Demi-lune, in Fortification, is the name
formerly given to the work now called a Ravelin
(q.v.). See FORTIFICATION.

Demi-monde (Fr. demi, ‘half,’ and monde,
‘world,’ or ‘ society’), a term that came into vogue
from the title of a play by the younger Dumas
(1855), as applied to a class of women in lar,
towns, and especially Paris, whose disregard for the
proprieties prevents their being more than half
seed by society. The word covers women of
all degrees of disrespectability, provided only they
rare the elegancies of life. —Demi-rep is a similar
18th-century word, compounded clumsily enough,
for a woman of more than doubtful reputation.

Demir-Hissar (‘iron-castle’), a town of
European Turkey, on a tributary of the Struma,
45 miles NE. of Saloniki. Pop. 8000.

Demise. See LEASE.

Demisemiquaver, half a semiquaver, or the

part of a semibreve. See Music,

Dem‘iurge (from Gr. démos, ‘people,’ and
ergon, ‘a work;’ hence a ‘handicraftsman’) was
the name given in the cosmogony of the Gnostics to
the creator or former of the world of sense. He was
conceived as the archon or chief of the lowest order
of the spirits or zeons of the pleroma ; mingling with
chaos, he formed in it a corporeal animated world.
He created man, but could impart to him only his
own weak principle, the psyché or sensuous soul ;
therefore the highest, the really good God, added
the divine rational soul, Eee g But the power
of evil in the material y, and the hostile influ-
ence of the merely sensuous demiurge, prevented
the development of that higher element. The
olding himself to the highest God,
could not bring his creatures to the knowledge of
the true Godhead ; as the Jehovah of the Jews, he
gave them the imperfect law of Moses, which pro-
mised merely a sensuous happiness, and even that
not attainable ; and against the spirits of the hy/é,
or world of matter, he sent only a psychical, and
therefore powerless Messiah, the man Jesus. See
GNOSTICISM.

Demmin, an ancient town of Prussia, on the
Peene, which is navigable for small vessels to this
point, 29 miles 'S. of Stralsund by rail. It has

Demi-bastion.

' manufactures of machinery, bells, ironwares, sugar,

lime, and bricks, and a trade in grain, wool, coal,
and iron. Pop. (1885) 10,546; (1890) 10,852.
Democracy (‘rule of the ase ses from Gr.
démos, ‘ the people,’ and krateo, ‘ L rule’) is a form of
government in which power rests with the body of

the citizens, It is opposed to monarchy, the rule
of one; to aristocracy, the rule of the ‘best’ or
nobles ; and to oligarchy, the rule of the few. It is
government of the people by the people, and for
the ple, as opposed to government by a single
chief or a dominant class,

Democracy was a great force in the ancient
world, but as then prevalent it had certain charae-
teristics, which very clearly distinguish it from its
modern forms, In antiquity the democracy was
associated with the city. There was no system of
representation by which the ple spread over
extensive territories could send deputies to speak
and act for them in a common parliament. In the
ancient democracies, the people were, in the original
sense of the word, citizens, who personally —
and spoke and voted in the assemblies. Another
great feature in the ancient world was the exist-
ence of a great number of slaves who had no
political and few civil rights—i.e. a very large
and oe part of the population were not
reckoned among the citizens at all. Hence it will
be seen that the ‘ people’ in the ancient democracy
was limited in number, consisting of a city popula-
tion, and excluding the labouring class or slaves,
Thus constituted, the ancient democracy had a most
interesting history. It attained to its highest and
finest development in the Athens of Pericles before
the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war. Besides
being a conflict for the headship of Greece between |
Athens and eh that war was a struggle for
supremacy in the Hellenic world between the demo-
cratic and aristocratic principles, of which these
cities were respectively the representatives and
champions. It resul in the overthrow of the
Athenian democracy, but the struggle of the people
against the rich and privileged classes continued
in the Greek cities as long as they retained their
independence. At Rome, too, the history of the
city is to a large de the record of popular
struggle against the privileged and wealthy classes.
Quiescent for about two hundred years after the
reforms of the 4th century B.c., it broke out
afresh at the time of the Gracchi, and ended with
the triumph of a great chief of the democracy,
Julius Cesar. But this triumph meant the end of
the republic, and the permanent rule of a single
head, as consolidated under Augustus.

Among the Germanic tribes which overthrew the
Roman empire, as among most peoples at a similar
stage of development, the general body of freemen
had considerable power. But the term democracy
properly refers to communities in a com tively
advanced state of political evolution, and it would
be an anachronism to apply the theories and

roblems connected with the word to nations still
in the tribal stage.

With the growth of the republics of medieval
Italy, and of the cities of Flanders and Germany,
began a democratic movement similar in some re-
spects to that of ancient times. It was similar,
inasmuch as it was associated with city life, but it
differed from the ancient democracy, in so far as
slavery ceased to be an important factor, and the
development of the medieval cities was controlled
or affected by the great feudal states which had
now risen. As the t modern states have
become consolidated, the cities which played so im.
portant a part in medieval life have been absorbed
in them. The process has been a slow one, for
Venice was an independent republic till the close
of the 18th century. Hamburg was fully incor-
porated in the German empire only in 1 In
the city life which thus came to a close, the struggle
between rich and poor, between privileged classes
and the people, was more or less present.

The modern democracy differs essentially from
the ancient and medieval forms. The people no

746

DEMOCRACY

longer consist merely of a body of burgesses
limited. in number, but of millions of men inhabit-
ing extensive countries. A government on such a
basis is rendered possible through the representa-
tive system, by which the vast electorate choose a
convenient number of deputies, on whom the legis-
lative and other functions are conferred. Another
important point of difference is the abolition of
slavery, serfdom, and the other unfree conditions
which formerly prevailed. Freedom of conscience,
freedom in the choice of one’s residence and pro-
fession, have been more or less fully realised. We
must also note the progress towards the abolition
of all privileged classes, and towards equality before
the law.

The modern democracy, as we now see it, is the
result of a gradual process of development continued
through centuries amidst the severest struggles.
Such struggle will appear to be inevitable, when
we consider that democracies have grown up in
large states in which absolutism formerly prevailed,
th in which the military system prevails even yet.
Among the decisive steps in the modern struggle
of the people against the old classes and systems
should be noted the long contest of the Dutch
against Spain, the great English revolutions of 1642
and 1688, the war of American Independence in
1776, the great French Revolution of 1789, and the
revolutionary periods of 1830 and 1848. The English
revolutions of 1642 and 1688 established parlia-
mentary rule in England, though on a narrow basis.
Yet they had the important result of proving the
aaeed of a new type of government, which further

ecame a model for similar institutions in other
countries... The greatest event in the evolution of
democracy, however, was the French Revolution of
1789 ; though it failed for the time, it shook the old
system to its foundations; it everywhere spread
new ideas, and raised questions that could not
again be set aside. The revolution of 1830 showed
that the reactionary conditions prevalent after
Waterloo had no claim to permanency. The
revolutionary movements of 1848, which affected
France, Italy, Austria, and Germany, were appar-
ently a failure, yet they overthrew what remained of
the Feudal system in western and central Europe.
But the most significant thing connected with that
period is the fact that only a few years afterwards
universal suffrage was introduced in all the coun-
tries where its influence had been felt. Govern-
ments which had been most active in suppressing
the revolution found it expedient to adopt its
cardinal principles.

To England has been given the great historic
mission of working out the methods on which the
democracy has so far been realised. Her parlia-
ment, first constituted under Simon de Montfort

and Edward I. in the 13th century, was, as we have’

seen, firmly established by the long contest with the
Stuarts. After so many centuries of experience,
trial, and struggle, the English parliament has be-
come the mother of parliaments. England has not
been the first, however, to bring democratic institu-
tions to their full development. The Reform Bill of
1832 conferred the franchise on the middle classes ;
but it was not till the reforms of 1867 and 1885 that
she has approximated to universal suffrage. The
British government is now substantially a demo-
cracy, modified so far by older forms, the monarch)

and the House of Lords. In many countries whic

have adopted parliamentary institutions, the power
of the people is much more seriously curtailed ; in
Germany, for example, by a sovereign’ claiming to
be of divine right. The German emperor may be
regarded as wielding a power co-ordinate with that
of the people, and resting on the army. The
position of his chancellor does not depend on a
parliamentary majority—he is the servant of the

emperor; yet while not depending on a pariia-
mentary majority, he finds it expedient and even
necessary to have one. The government of the
United States, as also of the several states that
constitute the Union, is democratic.

As we have seen, the distinctive features of the
modern democracy are the widest personal freedom,
by which each man has the liberty and responsi-
bility of shaping his own, career; equality before
the law; and political power in the form of universal
suffrage, exercised through the representative
system. With these are associated universal educa-
tion, and on the continent of Europe universal
liability to military service. In Britain and the
United States universal liability to military service
exists also in theory as regards the militia. On
the European continent it is a momentous fact
imposed upon its peoples by the necessities of the
struggle for existence, which the moral develop-
ment of mankind has not yet been able so to regu-
late as to put an end to war. Anglo-Saxon coun-
tries are happily freer from such necessities. It is
an interesting fact, however, that Prussia, which
was the first great nation to adopt universal edu-
cation, was also the first to introduce universal
military service.

It is important to remember that the growth of
the modern democracy has gone hand in hand —
with the general development of the most advanced
nations of the world. The consolidation of the
political power of the people is the result of far-
reaching causes operating on a great scale through-
out the history of modern nations. The growth of
the democracy is intimately connected with the
growth of every other factor in the social life. For
example, the different stages in the rise of the
democracy could be paralleled by the improvements
in the art of printing. The development of the
democracy has on the one hand created the demand
for cheap literature and cheap newspapers, but it
has also on the other hand depended on the supply
of them. Further, the growth of the cheap news-

aper and of cheap literature depends on the
industrial development, on the improvement of our
technical capacities and resources, on man’s grow-
ing mastery over nature. To the production of
the daily newspaper a thousand technical appliances
are subsidiary. Steam and electricity are the great
forces that move the vast mechanism on which
society is now based. In fact the growth of the
democracy is intimately connected with an indus-
trial and technical development which has cul-
minated in the railway, the penny post, the electric
telegraph, and the steam printing-press. The
peculiar influence of the human voice has not been

superseded, yet it is chiefly through the telegraph —

and the printing-press that the modern democracy
obtains the education which the ancient democracy
received in their pee assemblies and in the
daily intercourse of the market-place.

Thus it will be seen that the democracy as we
now have it is an outcome of the general historie
movement of modern times, and that it is a fact
which is not yet accomplished, but is still in process
of making. What its ultimate results for good or
evil may be, no man can predict. Scarcely any one,
however, will deny that it has greatly raised the
average level of intelligence and morality in modern
nations. The life of the citizen from the day he
enters the elementary school is a continual process
of education, and it brings with it in abundant
measure the discipline of responsibility. It carries
with it also the safeguard of publicity. The public
interests are protected by incessant watchfulness
and public criticism. On the other hand, the
drawbacks of democratic government are obvious
enough. Such vast masses of electors are too
much controlled by governments, caucuses, and

ex
ousts

_ tenaci

bP merits, the advan
- democracy.

_ lived, however, to a

DEMOCRATS

DEMOISELLE 747

special interests; real interests are concealed
under party watchwords, and sacrificed to them.
‘passions are liable to upset the plans of
perienced policy, and the demayogue too often
the true statesman from his well-merited
position in the esteem of the people. It may be

added that in the administration of foreign affairs,

the ulness and publicity usually character-
istic of the democracy place it at a disadvantage
as compared with the secrecy, continuity, and
of a government like that of Russia.

Much has n written on the merits and de-
and disadvantages of the
It y perhaps concerns us more
‘to observe the fact that it is the inevitable

outcome of the prevalent historic forces, that it

a great function in modern history, and that
it is the duty of the citizen and statesman to do
their duty under it, and to adapt it to the material,
intellectual, and moral improvement of men.
* See the articles GovERNMENT, REPRESENTATION; De
ueville, Democracy in America (1862); Motley,
‘Historic Progress of American Democracy (1369);
py oe Politics (1873); Sir T. E. May,
in Europe (1878); Sir H. 8. Maine, Popular
overnment (1885) ; Bryce, The American Commonwealth
(1888) ; Lecky, Democracy and Liberty (1896).
- Democrats, a political party in the United
States. So early as Washington’s first administra-
tion, a party known variously as Republicans or
Democrats had already been formed, who desired to
limit the federal power, and to increase that of the
states and of the people; about 1808 the title of
Republicans as synonymous with Democrats dis-
appeared. See REPUBLICANS. Electing Jefferson
president in 1801, the Democrats remained in power
till 1841, and the administration was in their hands
also in 1845-49, in 1853-61, and in 1885-89. Demo-
eratic presidents have been Jefferson, Madison,
Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Jackson, Van Buren,
Polk, Pierce, Buchanan, Cleveland. For the posi-
tions taken by Democrats on the most prominent
issues, see the article UNITED States. During
President Cleveland’s term of office the party com-
mitted itself to the principle of a reform of the tariff.
Democritus, an illustrious Greek philosopher,
was born at Abdera, in Thrace, about 470 or 460
B.c. Of his life little is known. The statement
that he was first inspired with a desire for philo-
— knowledge by certain Magi and Chaldeans
whom Xerxes had left at Abdera, on his Grecian
expedition, is as untrustworthy as that which
represents him as continually laughing at the
follies of mankind. His extensive travels, how-
ever, through a great portion of the East, prove
the reality of this desire, as does also his ceaseless
industry in collecting the works of other philo-
sophers. Democritus was by far the most learned
thinker of his age. He had also a high reputation
for moral worth. He appears to have left a stron,
‘impression of his disinterestedness, modesty, an
simplicity on the mind of the community, for even
Timon the scoffer, who spared no one else, praised
him. The period of his death is uncertain. He
great age. Only a few frag-
ments of his numerous physical, mathematical,
ethical, and musical works are extant. These
have been collected by Mullach (Berlin, 1843).
Cicero praises his style, and Pyrrhon imitated it.
Democritus’s system of philosophy is known as
‘the atomic system, which is considered to have
been founded by Leucippus. Its essence consists
in the attempt to explain the different phenomena
of nature—not like the earlier Ionic hilosophers,
by maintaining that the original ¢ teristics
of matter were qualitative, but that they were
quantitative. He assumes, therefore, as the ulti-
mate elementary ground of nature, an infinite

multitude of indivisible corporeal particles, atoms
(see ATOM), and attributes to thee a prim
motion derived from no higher principle. This
motion brings the atoms into contact with each
other, and from the multitudinous combinations
that they form, springs that vast and varying
aggregate called nature, which is srepented to
our eyes. Democritus did not acknowledge the
presence of design in nature, but he admitted that
of"law. ‘The word chance,’ he says, ‘is only an
expression of human ignorance.’ He believed
strictly in secondary or physical causes, but not
in a primary immaterial cause. Life, conscious
ness, thought, were, according to him, derived
from the finest atoms; those images of the sensu-
ous phenomena surrounding us, which we call
mental representations, were, according to him,
only material impressions, caused by the more
delicate atoms streaming through the pores of our
organs. Democritus boldly applied his theory to
the gods themselves, whom he affirmed to be
aggregates of atoms, only mightier and more
powerful than men. His ethical system, spite of
the grossness of his metaphysics, is both pure and
noble. Such fragments of his writings as we pos-
sess contain beautiful, vigorous, and true thoughts
concerning veracity, justice, law, order, and the
duties of rulers; while, in a spirit not alien to
Christianity, he looks upon an inward of
and conscience as the highest good. Snlentes
(q.v-) and Lucretius (q.v.) developed his system.

Demodex. See Acarvs.

Demogeot, Jacques CLAUDE, a French
littérateur, born 5th July 1808 at Paris, lectured at
Beauvais, Rennes, Bordeaux, and Lyons, and was
appointed in 1843 to the chair of Rhetoric at the
Lycée St-Louis at Paris. Most of his books treat
of the history of literature ; the chief are Les Lettres
et les Hommes de Lettres au XIX. Siécle (1856);
Histoire de la Littérature francaise (1857), an
admirable hand-book; Zableau de la Littérature

neaise au XVII. Siéele (1859); and Histoire des
ittératures étrangéres (2 vols, 1880). His poems
are little known. He died 9th January 1894.

Demoiselle ( Anthropoides), a genus of birds in
the crane family (Gruide), differing from the true
cranes in having the head and neck quite feathered,
and the beak no longer than the head. The
Demoiselle (A. virgo) is about 3 feet in length

vy¥.e-—Demoiselle (A nthropoides virgo ).
from the —_ of the bill to the tip of the tail, and

the top of its head is about 34 feet from the ground.
It is remarkable, like its relatives, for elegance and
symmetry of form, and grace of deportment. The
feathers covering the upper part of the wing are
much elongated, as in the cranes. The general

748 DEMOIVRE

DEMONOLOGY

colour of its plumage is gray, but the sides of the
head are adorned with two slaueatt white tufts, and
the breast bears long blackish feathers. The
demoiselle is an African and Asiatic bird, but
visits Greece and other parts of the south of
Europe. To the same genus belongs the beautiful
Stanley Crane (A. paradiseus), a larger and taller
bird found in the East Indies.

Demoivre, ABRAHAM, a distinguished mathe-
matician, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, 26th
May 1667. A Protestant, he fled to England in
1688, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
and there long supported himself by private tuition
and public lecturing. The appearance of New-
ton’s Principia incited him to increased devotion to
mathematical studies, and at last he ranked among
the leading mathematicians of his time. He was
a member of the Royal Society of London, and of
the Academies of Berlin and Paris. The Philo-
sophical Transactions of London are enriched by
many contributions from his pen; and he was so
esteemed by the Royal Society that they judged
him a fit person to assist in the decision of the
famous contest between Newton and Leibnitz for
the merit of the invention of fluxions. He died in
London, 27th November 1754. Among his published
works are Annuities upon Lives (1725), Miscellanea
Analytica de Seriebus et Quadraturis (1730); and
The Doctrine of Chances (1718 and 1738), dedicated
to Sir Isaac Newton. Demoivre’s name is well
known from its association with a useful trigono-
metrical formula—viz. that, where & is any real
quantity, coské +csinké is always one value of
(cos 0 + csin @)*,

Demonetisation. See BimeTALLIsM.

Demonology, the doctrine that relates to
demons, a body of spiritual beings inferior in rank
to deities proper, but yet capable of influencing
human affairs. The earlier and more widely-
spread conception of the demon was merely that
of a more or less powerful and intermediate agent
between gods and men, at one time resolving
himself into a kind of special guardian or patron-
spirit, at another acting as the minister of the
divine displeasure. The gradual differentiation
between the beneficent and the malignant qualities
of demons resulted in the division into good spirits
or guardian-angels and evil spirits or devils; and
Christian theology, developing earlier Jewish ideas
—themselves powerfully modified by the influ-
ence of Persian dualism—worked up the one class
into an elaborate hierarchy of angels and arch-
angels, the other into a formidable host of fallen
angels or devils, considered as continually employed
in frustrating the good purposes of God, and mar-
shalled under one master-spirit, the devil proper or
Satan, the supreme impersonation of the spirit of
evil. The guardian-angel corresponds closely to
such conceptions as the Roman genius and even the
famous daimon of Socrates. To primitive man the
demon was but one of the thousand spiritual beings
who controlled every one of the causes of nature,
and whose favour must be purchased by constant
tributes of respect and worship. It was perfectly
consistent with primitive philosophy that the manes
or ghosts of the dead should continue after death
the influence they enjoyed in life, and thus should
pass into the higher class of deities. The essential
distinctions between the divine and the human
that seem so fundamental to modern minds did not
occur to those whose notions of the visible and
invisible universe alike were entirely animistic ;
- and thus we find that the savage makes no clear
distinction between ghosts and demons, and that
his conception of the demon is constructed on the
model of the human soul, of course with any
number of terrible and superhuman qualities

superinduced. It is not merely fagaily affection,
but actual fear and considerations of prudence,
that lead to the worship of ancestors and of
the dead; and the good or bad fortune of living

men is attributed to the direct interference of the

invisible spirits with which the whole air around
is swarming. These spirits may not only affect
the fortune of the individual, but may even enter
into his body, and cause internal
such other inexplicable phenomena as frenzy, wild
ravings, hysterical epilepsy, and the like. The very
etymology of such words as catalepsy and ecstasy
points plainly to a time when there was no meta-
phor in their meaning. Such is the explanation
of disease offered at the 2 str day by savage
man all over the world, and such was also
the belief of the semi-civilised ancient Egyptians
and Babylonians. Indeed, it disappeared but
slowly before the progress of scientific medicine,
and continued to reappear in survivals strangely
perplexing on any other explanation. Hence
the function of the exorcist arises naturally
as a means of effecting a cure by expelling the
demon, and we find him daily exercising his skill
in Africa, and even in China and India. A care-
ful distinction is made by sorcerers as to whether

the infesting demon possesses or obsesses his.

victim—i.e. controls him from the inside or the
outside, In early Christian times those demoniac-
ally possessed, or energumens, were ie into
a class under the care of a special order of clerical
exorcists, and after the time of St Augustine the
rite of exorcism came to be applied to all infants
before baptism. Indeed, exorcists still form one of
the ‘minor orders’ of the Catholic Church.
Reverting to the animistic theory of demonology,
we find how well it harmonises with widely-spread
notions in folklore of phantom-dreams—night-
mare (A.S. mara, ‘a crusher’); the Slavonic vam-
ires, or witch-ghosts, who suck the blood of
iving victims; incubi and succubi, like Adam’s
wife ‘Lilith in the rabbinical story (Assyrian /ilit,
‘a succubus’), demons who consort with women
and men in their sleep and by whose means children
may be engendered between demons and women ;
the Hindu rakshas, malignant and gigantic demo-
niacal ogres who can at will assume any shape ; and
witches, who have confessed a thousand times to
being possessed with a familiar spirit, and who
own allegiance in particular to the master-demon,
Satan. Other embodiments of the spirit of evil are
the Celtic and Teutonic Giants, and the Ogres of

southern romance, who destroy men and devour —

their flesh ; the Norse Trolls, one-eyed, malignant
but stupid monsters; the Drakos and Lamias of
modern Greece; the Lithuanian Laume; the Rus-

sian fiery and flying snakes, Koshchei the Death-

less, Baba Yaga, a hideous old hag who flies
through the air in a fiery mortar, propelled with
a pestle, and the Morskoi Tsar, or king of the
waters, with his daughters, the ubiquitous swan-
maidens of romance. No mythology is richer than
the Slavonic in malignant male and female demons
and fiends (chorti, ‘devils’), gloomy shadows of
old nature myths and degraded forms of the
great deities of an earlier religion, a combina-
tion of the most heterogeneous elements flung
together in the most perplexing confusion. Traces
remain of an original dualism between a great
black and a white god (Byelun); but besides this
and those fiendish forms already mentioned, Mr

Ralston enumerates the karliki, or fiendish dwarfs; ~

lyeshuie, silvan demons resembling the fauns and
satyrs of Greek mythology ; vodyanuie, or water-
sprites ; vozdushnuie, demons who ride the whirl-
winds; domovuie, or domestic spirits like the
Seotch brownies and the Lithuanian kaukas; and
the rusalka, a kind of Naiad or Undine.

iseases and

ig

‘

—

DEMONOLOGY

749

_ Demons with specialised functions exist in myth-
gy everywhere, as the Japanese Oni, who bring

on winds, themselves living at the centre of the

storm; the Chinese air-dragons, whose battles
bring on waterspouts ; the demons of floods in old
Egyptian and Akkadian mythology; the spectres
phantoms that infest the sea; the nixies of
Europe, and the kelpies of Scotland, who
haunt pools to drown unwary travellers, and natu-
rally hate bridges, although elsewhere many bridges
as well as other superhuman works have been
erected, usually in miraculously short periods of
time, by demons, often at the command of powerful
magicians like Michael Scott. Sometimes the devil
even consents to build a church for the reward of
the soul of the first that enters it. Others again
are those sirens who, by their unearthly beauty or
the charm of their singing, draw on unwary youths
to their ruin; most famous of these, the romantic
Lorelei of the Rhine. Again, particular animals,
chiefly those with power to harm man, are favourite
hosts for demons to inhabit, especially the serpent,
but also the cat, the hedgehog, the hare, the fox,
the he-goat, the raven, the wolf—the old Norse
Fenris, and the dog, especially if black in colour,
like the dog in Faust. The madness of dogs, with
its peculiar horror, itself opens up a strange chapter
in the history of demonology.

One of the most systematic of demonologies is that
elaborated by the Moslem theologians. The Jinn
(sing. Jinnee) were created two thousand years
before Adam, but sinned against God and were
degraded from their original high estate. The
greatest among them was Iblees ( Eblis), who was
cast out by Allah for refusing to worship Adam as
made of earth, he himself having been formed of
smokeless fire. The Sheytans form his host ; other
species of subordinate fiends are the Jann, the
least powerful, also ’Efreets (Afrits) and Marids,
the last the most powerful. Eminent among the
evil Jinn are the five sons of Iblees—Teer, who
brings about calamities, losses, and injuries ; El-
Aawar, who encourages debauchery; Sdét, who
suggests lies; Disim, who causes hatred between
man and wife; and Zelemboor, who presides over
places of traffic. Inferior demons are the Ghoul,
often in human form and devouring the bodies
of the dead like the Russian werewolves; the
Sealah, found in forests; the Delhan, living in
islands; and the Shikk, shaped like a human being
halved lengthwise. The Jinn assume various
shapes, sometimes as men of enormous size and
portentous hideousness. They live chiefly on the
mountains of Kaf, which encompass the whole
earth, and their evil influence may be averted by
talismans and invocations, and pre-eminently wise
magicians like Solomon may command their ser-
vices. They consist of forty troops, each troop
containing six hundred thousand. chapter il.
of Lane’s Arabian Society in the Middle Ages
(edited by Stanley Lane-Poole, 1883).

The subject of dualism, or the division of all the
invisible powers into two great armies of good and
evil demons, ranged under the supreme impersona-
tions of good and evil, will be diseu under
ZOROASTER, and here it is sufficient to say that

‘it modified the whole later Jewish and Talmudic

demonology, and reappeared in the Manichean
heresy. ‘To it is due the distinction between the
demon and the devil, a notion which seems funda-
mental to the modern moral sense, but was foreign
to the earlier demonology, according to which all
the specially malignant qualities and the love of
evil for its own sake become characteristic of the
latter. The Vritra and the other night-powers,
the Panis, of the Vedic hymns, are as yet hardl

more than personifications of — ppc evil,
not inherently and absolutely wic ; while the

Loki of the ancient Scandinavians, their nearest
4 emp mig te to a personification of evil, was
rather a demigod than a devil, not essentially
hostile to the other deities, although he works
them mischief enough; and the four archdemons
of the Rabbins, Samaé#l, Azazel, Asatl, and Mac-
cathiel, seem to have been originally nothing
more than personifications of the elements as
energies of the deity. Even the name Lucifer
(‘the light-bearer’), the fallen angel of the morn-
ing star, fits ill with a conception of a devil utterly
and hopelessly evil. The widely-spread belief that
demons are lame accords well with a supposed fall
from heaven and an original state of innocence. It
is not a little rage at anyrate to find the same
characteristic in Hep naistos, Wayland the Smith,
and the Persian Atshma—the Asmodeus of the
Book of Tobit, the ‘Diable Boiteux’ of Le Sage.
The sootiness of his abode and his blackness of
colour are istent characteristics, although,
indeed, some West African negroes have a
white devil. The usual cloven feet of the devil
in Euro folk-tales, often the last mark of
identification, when even the horns and the
tail are hidden, is a reminiscence of the Greek
satyr and the forest-sprites of old Teutonic and
other folklore. The ugliness of the medieval
representations of the devil in religious art, as
may be seen in the fantastic gargoyles of many
churches, was but a part of the early church's
policy of degradation to which the native deities
were subjected, and from which sprung the
medieval belief that the various i of the old
heathen world were the devils or degraded angels
of Scripture. This notion is familiar to readers
of Paradise Lost, although Milton makes an in-
genious poetic use of it that is all his own. And
even the medieval devil, with all his terror, had
strange limitations to his power, especially per-
haps in the folklore of the north. e is often
lu ously. outwitted, and his machinations foiled
by some obvious enough device or verbal quibble.
It is not merely the weakest saint upon his knees
that can baffle his infernal schemes, but some
country-fellow who beats him at his own weapons,
and whom afterwards he will have in hell at no
price. The old Scotch notion of Satan as grown so
much the more dangerous from the accumulated
wickedness and wisdom of six thousand years is
hopelessly inconsistent with the archfiend of Norse
folklore.

The early Christian idea of hell, the abode of
the demons, owed many of its features to the Jew-
ish Gehenna, with its 2p) ee fire, the horror of
its sacrifices, and its loathsome worm; and the
characteristics of Moloch and other primitive fire-
gods became associated with the devil, d
rom a fire-god to a mere powerful spirit. The
Jinn of Arabian mythology, who are slaves of
the lamp and ascend as clouds of smoke, serve also
to show how fundamental was the notion of a fire-
fiend which passed, though under degraded form,
into Christian theology. Consistent with this is
the widespread belief in Europe that the devil can-,
not touch or cross running water, of which poetic
use is admirably made in the magnificent phan-
tasy of Zam o’ Shanter. Again, the struggle be-
tween Balder and the deadly powers of winter in
the Norse mythology was spiritualised and ampli-
fied into Christ conquering Death and Hell and
releasing the spirits from prison ; and the old north-
ern ideas of wintry cold personified into a powerful
and malignant demon, under new influences
to swell the attributes of the Christian devil, whose
dreary abode provided those torments of frost as
well as fire familiar to readers of Dante. Herein is
the origin of the folklore notion that the home of
the demons was the north, and hence the inveterate

750 DE MORGAN

DEMOSTHENES

English preference for burial on the south side of a
church. No stories are nore common than those of
compacts with the devil, sometimes written in blood,
by which a man gave away his soul for wisdom,
wealth, power, or other gratifications to be enjoyed
for a certain number of years. The classical story
in this kind is that of Faust, which the genius of
Goethe has made an imperishable part of the intel-
lectual birthright of Europe.

Raising the devil or his inferior demons was a
feat within the power of the medieval sorcerers and
masters of the black art, and elaborate formulas for
the purpose are gravely given in the books of magic.
This unholy art was made punishable by death by
James I., and his law remained upon the statute-
book of England till the reign of George II. The
worship of the devil was a usual feature of the
witches’ sabbath, and the name is often applied
still to the strange dances and other religious rites
by which many tribes in India and elsewhere avert
the anger of malignant deities. It must be under-
stood that there is no conscious homage to the
principle of evil as opposed to good, as the objects
of worship are merely deities powerful for harm as
well as for help, considered almost as entirely out-
side any moral considerations, like the demons of
unmixed primitive religion every where.

See the articles ANGEL, ANIMISM, DEVIL, EvIt,
ExoroismM, HELL, SERPENT-WORSHIP, WEREWOLF,
‘WITCHCRAFT, ZOROASTER; also Horst, Demonomagie
(2 vols. 1818), and Zauberbibliothek (6 vols. 1821-26);
Ukert, Ueber Déimonen, Heroen, und Genien (1850);
Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte (3 vols. 1860);
Vylor’s Primitive Culture (2 vols. 1871) ; Roskoff’s admir-
ably learned Geschichte des Teufels (2 vols. 1869); and for

its tacts, Moncure D. Conway’s Demonology and Devil-lore .

(2 vols. 1879); also some of the older books, as Bodin,
De Magorum Demonomania (1581), and the like.

De Morgan, Avcustus, son of Colonel De
Morgan of the Indian army, was born in 1806, in
Madura, Madras Presidency. Educated at several
private schools, he ‘read algebra like a novel’
(novels themselves he devoured insatiably); but
after four years at Trinity College, Cambridge,
he graduated as only fourth wrangler (1827). As
a result of his revolt from his early evangelical
training, he did not take orders. He was appointed
first professor of Mathematics in University College,
London, after its foundation in 1828. In 1831 he
resigned this office, but was reappointed in 1836,
and continued in that capacity till 1866. An
energetic worker, he was secretary of the Astrono-
mical Society (1831-388 and 1848-54), and held
other offices therein. His writings are very numer-
ous. Besides being a mathematician of the first
order, he was extensively and minutely versed in
the history of the mathematical and physical
sciences. He also devoted himself to the develop-
ment of the Aristotelian or ‘ Formal’ Logic, to
which he has given so symbolical a shape as to
make it seem like a branch of Algebra, and wrote
on the calculation of Insurances and on the Decimal
Coinage. His works include Klements of Arith-
metic (1831); Algebra (1835); Numbers and Magni-
tude (1836); Trigonometry and Trigonometrical
Analysis (1837); Essay on Probabilities (1838);
Formal Logic (1847); Arithmetical Books (1847);
Book of Almanacs (1850); Budget of Paradoxes
(1872), reprinted from the Atheneum. De Morgan
also wrote treatises on the Differential and Integral
Calculus; and contributed largely to the Penn
Cyclopedia (850 articles). He died 18th March
1871. His library of about 3000 volumes was
i eet by Lord Overstone, and given to London

niversity. See the Life by his wife (1882), whose
reminiscences were published in 1895.

. Demosthenes, an able Athenian general, who
in 425 B.C. assisted Cleon to reduce Sphacteria,

and who in 413, being sent to Sicily to the relief
of Nicias, fell, fighting bravely, into the hands of
the Syracusans, and was put to death.

Demosthenes, the greatest orator of Athens
and of Greece, was born about 383 B.c. He lost
his father at an early age. The considerable
inheritance bequeathed to him was reduced by the
neglect or the fraud of his guardians, and when he |
came of age he proceeded to prosecute them. The
litigation was long and complicated, and though he
gained verdicts in his favour, most of his inheritance
was irretrievably lost. The importance of this
litigation was that it compelled Demosthenes to the
study of the law, gave the first exercise to that
doggedness and strength of will which was to mark
him through life, and by reducing him to poverty,
drove him to the pursuit of law as a means of living.
At Athens the parties to a suit were compelled to
plead their cause themselves, but they could not be
prevented from getting their speeches composed for
them by a professional ‘speech-writer’ or ‘logo-
grapher.’ Demosthenes became a logographer, and
soon acquired a lucrative practice. Up to the a,
of thirty Demosthenes confined himself to ‘ speech-
writing,’ and gained considerable reputation as a
constitutional lawyer. His most famous constitu-
tional law speech is one which he delivered per-
sonally in support of Ctesippus against Leptines
(354 B.C.). e seems to have lacked by nature
all the physical qualifications of a great orator,
and to have acquired them solely by indefatigable
self-discipline and training. At about the age
of thirty he made his first -appearance as a
politician ; he continued to practise as a logographer
until he was about forty, by which time he had
made a fortune sufficient to enable him to devote
himself exclusively to political life until he died, at
the age of about sixty-one.

At the beginning of his political career danger
threatened Greece / Baie the north, from Macedonia,
a country which though at that time considered
by the Greeks as semi-barbarous, and of no
account in Greek politics, was destined within
the lifetime of Demosthenes to destroy the
liberties and the political existence of Greece.
Demosthenes’ claim to fame as a statesman rests
on the fact that he foresaw the danger threatened
by Philip of Macedon from the beginning, and
that he from the outset advocated a policy
which might have saved Athens and Greece. The
three cardinal features of his policy were that the
rich should submit to direct taxation for the

urposes of the war; that the poor should submit,
or the same purposes, to a diminution of the publie
expenditure on national festivals ; and that rich and

oor alike should render personal military service
instead of employing mercenaries. Intelligent as
was the Athenian democracy, it was not intelligent
enough to see that Demostlienes’ forecast was right,
and his opponents’ wrong; and, consequently, it
was only when events justified Demosthenes, that
is to say, when it was too late, that his policy was
adopted. Philip’s attack on the state of Olynthus
gave occasion to the Olynthiacs, which, with the
orations against Philip, the Phdlippics, are the
greatest speeches made by Demosthenes. Athens
made war with Philip on behalf of Olynthus, but
having failed to save the city, found peace expedi-
ent. aetie the next few years (346-340) Demos-
thenes was engaged in forming an anti-Macedonian
party, and in indicting Atschines for betraying
Athens in the negotiations for the peace just con-
cluded with Philip. War again broke out in 340,
ending in the fatal battle of Chzeronea (3388), But
Athens, having learned to trust Demosthenes, did
not withdraw her confidence. The philo-Macedon-
ian party, however, were encouraged to seize on
a proposal to present Demosthenes with. a public

>

—————— << —

| saa
patriots. - In 323 Alexander

DEMOSTHENES

DEMULCENTS 751

as an occasion for his political destruction.
The trial was at length held in 330, when in the
famous speech On the Crown Demosthenes gloriously
vindicated himself against A’schines. In 324 Har-
us, the treasurer of Alexander the Great (who
succeeded Philip), absconded to Athens with
an enormous sum of money. This money was
in the state treasury, under the care of
enes and others, and when Alexander
demanded it, half was missing. Demosthenes was
ee eaned, and escaped from prison into
exile. The evidence does not seem to have war-
ranted the verdict, which was probably given on
gn grounds, Demosthenes having offended
the Macedonian and the extreme
ied, and Demosthenes
was recalled from exile to head a fruitless attempt
to throw off the Macedonian yoke. The battle of
Crannon ended the revolt. Demosthenes fled to
Calaureia, and being there captured by Macedonian
troops, poisoned himself, 322 B.c.

Demosthenes began life with a nervous, timid
nature, and, yer h as a poy was allowed
by his mother to shirk the physical exercises and
gymnastic training which formed part of the ordi-
nary education of the young Athenian. He grew
up with a tendency to effeminacy, which showed
itself in an affection for luxurious clothing, and still
more in his conduct as a citizen soldier; for
although at Chieronea he may have displayed no
more cowardice than did the other Athenians who
ran away, he was far from exhibiting the heroic
bearing which distinguished Socrates at Delinm.
His timidity made him unsocial, and his water-
drinking habits cut him off still more effectually
from society. His luxury may have reached the
point of extravagance: he was certainly lavishly
generous in the discharge of all claims on him,
public and private. hether his effeminacy
amounted to immorality, as was charged against
him, is a question which cannot be answered off-
hand in the negative. The natural defects which
were to be seen in his private life may be traced in
his public career; but here it is their conquest by
force of be oe sees Da ay casa iey A a lofty

urpose which has rightly given him his at
wirne: His nervousness and timidity disqualified
him for political life and public speaking; these
defects he combated till he conquered them. His
natural incapacity for amiability rendered him un-
sympathetic to the pleasure-loving Athenians ; he
compelled their ary 73% by his intellectual power
and the purity of his patriotism. The want of
sympathy, however, he never overcame, and so he
never obtained the hold over the Athenians which
it would have been good for them that he should

In all democracies every politician who
as led the masses at his own good-will has known
on occasion how, if not to flatter, at least to say
the ne that is pleasant; but Demosthenes’
nature did not permit him to say pleasant things.
Even this serious practical deficiency could not
prevent his contemporaries from eventually recog-
nising his force of character and steadiness of
noble purpose. Still less has it weighed with
posterity.

In the oratory of Demosthenes it is not difficult
to trace the character of the man reflected. His
resolute hard work and his infinite capacity for
taking pains are seen in the high finish which dis-
tinguished his speeches above those of every orator.
His moroseness is mirrored in the abuse of which
he was too great a master; his want of amiability
in the absence of humour. His nervousness betrays
itself in his over-anxiety to argue, in his lack of
ease and flow. But as in his life so in his speeches,
all faults are blotted out by his unaffected earnest-
ness, his entire devotion to his country, his intel-

lectual loftiness, and his high political morality.
These great a are the source of the dignity,
the pathos, the might, majesty, and dominion of
his political orations. Even these qualities, how-
ever, would not have raised him to the highest
pinnacle in the fane of eloquence had he not pos-
sessed the ear and the mind of the artist in words,
the former of which gave to his speeches the mar-
vellous melody ro possess, the latter the variety
of vocabulary, which is one of Demosthenes’
characteristics. Nor must it be forgotten that the
way for Demosthenes had been paved by great pre-
decessors. The summit on which he stands rests
on the labours of Lysias, Isocrates, and others.
Finally, oratory, to be great, must have great
themes, and it is not in every age that they are
forthcoming. Demosthenes had the lot, tragic but
triumphant, of saving, though all else was lost, the
honour of his country.

For the life of Demosthenes, A. Schiifer’s Demosthenes
und seine Zeit (2d ed. 1882) ecli all other works,
good as are the hand-books of Brodmbb (1877) and
Butcher (1881). The most exhaustive literary criticism
is contained in Blass’s Attische Beredsamkeit (1877).
The best text is that of Bekker (1854). Kennedy's
English translation (5 vols. 1852-63) is a monument of
scholarship.

Demotica, a town of European Turkey, on a
tributary of the Maritza, 31 miles S. of Adrianople
by rail. Itis the seat of a Greek bishop, and has
manufactures of silks and eo Pop. 8000.
Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from Feb-
ruary 1713 to October 1714.

Demotic Alphabet. See Hrerociypuics.

Dempster, THOMAS, a professor famous for his
learning, and a miscellaneous and voluminous
writer, was the son of Thomas, laird of Muiresk,
Aberdeenshire, and was born about 1579. He was
educated at Turriff, Aberdeen, Cambridge, Paris,
Louvain, Rome, and Douay. A zealous Catholic,
he was elected to several provincial professorships,
and at Paris he was for seven years professor in
the Colléges des Grassins, de Lisieux, and de
Plessy. ut a brawl resulted, it is said, in
Dempster’s having to retreat to England. He
soon returned to the Continent, bringing with him
a beautiful wife, and at Pisa in 1616 obtained a

rofessorship ; but his wife’s infidelities marring
1is e, he removed to Bologna, where he became
professor of Humanities, and where his wife com-
pleted her shame by eloping. Pursuing the fugi-
tives, he was stricken with sickness, and died at
Bologna, 6th September 1625. Dempster’s not
too veracious autobiography forms part of his
Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum (Bologna,
1627 )—an erudite work in which, however, his
desire to magnify the merits of his country often
induced him to forge the names of persons and
books that never existed, and to unscrupulously
claim as Scotchmen writers whose birthplace was
doubtful. It was edited by David Irving for the
Bannatyne Club in 1829, and the manuscript is still

reserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris,
ere is a selection from his Latin poetry in
Johnston’s Delitia Poetarum Scotorum.

Demulcents (Lat. demutceo, ‘1 soften’), bland
and lubricating liquid substances, taken by the
mouth, for the purpose of soothing irritation of the
mucous membranes, and promoting the dilution
of the blood, and the increase of the secretions.
Demulcents are chiefly composed of Starch (q.v.),
or Gam (q.v.), or of substances containing these,
dissolved in water ; sometimes also of oily matters,
or the white of eggs, and other albuminous or
gelatinous substances largely diluted. The de-
coction of althwa, or m -mallow, is a favourite
form of demulcent.

752 DEMURRAGE

DENBIGHSHIRE

Demurrage is an allowance made to a ship-
owner by the freighter, for the detention of the
ship in port beyond the specified time of sailing.
The demurrage is properly the delay itself, but the
term is generally used to signify the compensation
due for the delay. A certain number of days, called
lay-days or Heda, are allowed for receiving and
discharging cargo, and it is usually stipulated in
charter-parties that the freighter may detain the
vessel, either for a specified time, or as long as he
pleases, after the expiration of these days, on pay-
ing so much per diem for overtime. Whether the
days for which demurrage is due are working days
(i.e. with Sundays and holidays excepted ) or run-
ning days will, in the absence of special agreement,
depend upon the custom of the port. All the ordi-
nary causes of detention, such as port-regulations,
the crowded state of the harbour, and the like,
are at the risk of the freighter, and demurrage
must be paid, though it be proved that the delay
was inevitable. But demurrage is not due where
the delay arose from detention of the ship by a
public enemy, or from hostile occupation of the
port ; and it cannot, of course, be claimed where
the fault lay with the owners themselves, or the
master or crew of the vessel. The demurrage
ceases as soon as the vessel is cleared for sailing,
though she should be prevented from actually doing
so by adverse winds. When the days of demurrage
are limited by special contract, and the ship is
detained beyond them, the sum due as demurrage
under the contract will be taken as the measure
of the loss for the further time which may be
claimed in the form of damages. It will be open,
however, to both parties to show that the rate thus
fixed per diem is either too high or too low. When
the time allowed for loading and discharging ex-
pires, including the extra days if such be stipulated,
the master will be entitled either to sail or to claim
damage for detention.

The allowance of 14d. per oz. claimed by the
Bank of England for giving gold coin in exchange
for bullion is also called demurrage.

Demurrer, in English law, is a form of plead-
ing whereby a party, admitting, for the sake of
argument, his opponent’s allegations, says they
are not sufficient in law to support his opponent’s
case. A demurrer must be argued in court before
the pleadings can proceed further. Demurrer to
evidence and demurrer to a criminal indictment
are now obsolete. If a prisoner wishes to object
to the sufficiency in law of an indictment, his best
course is to plead to the indictment, and, if con-
victed, to move in arrest of judgment.

Demy’, a particular size of paper. In that of
printing paper, each sheet measures 22 inches by
173; drawing-paper, 22 by 17; and writing-paper,
20 by 153.

Demy (i.e. half-fellow), the name borne by the
scholars of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Denain, a town in the French department of
Nord, near the Scheldt and Selle rivers, 20 miles
NNE. of Cambrai by rail. It lies in the centre of
an extensive coalfield, and has important iron-
works, and with manufactures of beetroot sugar
and brandy. An obelisk marks the scene of
Marshal Villars’ victory over the allies under
Prince Eugene, 27th July 1712. Pop. (1872)
10,442 ; (1886) 16,115; (1891) 16,663.
_Denarius (deni, ‘ten each’), the principal
silver coin among the Romans, was equal to ten
ases, but upon the reduction of the weight of the
as, the denarius equalled sixteen of it. It was first
coined 269 B.c. Its weight at the end of the Roman
commonwealth is estimated at 60 grains, while
under the empire the weight was 52°5 grains of

silver. The value of the denarius under the republic’

was thus rather more than 84d., and of the later

Denarius of the earliest kind, actual size ;
weight, 60°6 grains.

period about 74d. From denarius come the Persian
dindr and the English slang deaner, ‘a shilling.’

Denary Scale. See Norarion.

Denbigh, a parliamentary and municipal
borough, the county town of Denies 30
miles W. of Chester by rail. It stands near the
middle of the vale of the Clwyd, on the sides and
at the base of a rugged steep limestone-hill. The
castle, whose imposing ruins crown this hill, was
built in 1284 by Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, on
the site of a fortress erected by William the Con-

ueror. The newer part of Denbigh was built at
the bottom of the hill, after the destruction and
desertion of a great part of the town on the top of
the hill, about 1550. Denbigh has manufactures of
shoes and leather ; but it is more a place of genteel
retirement than of commerce. Pop. (1851) 5498;
(1891) 6412. With Ruthin, Holt, and Wrexham,
Denbigh sends one member to parliament. In 1645
Charles I. took refuge in the castle after the battle
of Rowton Heath. The garrison surrendered to the

arliamentary forces after a siege of two months,

t was shortly afterwards dismantled. The fortifi-
cations have an area of a square mile in extent.
A lunatic asylum for the five counties of North
Wales was erected near the town in 1848. A noble
institution for the maintenance and education of
twenty-five orphan girls, and twenty-five day
pane was built here in 1860, with funds in the

ands. of the Drapers’ Company of London, from
money left to them in 1540 by one Thomas Howell,
a Welshman. :

Denbighshire, a county of North Wales, on
the Irish Sea, and between the Dee and the Con-
way. With 8 miles of coast, it is 41 miles long,
17 broad on an average, and 603 sq. m. in area,
being the sixth in size of the Welsh counties. The
surface is partly rugged and mountainous, with
some beautiful and fertile vales, as the vale of the
Clwyd, 20 miles by 7, and those of the Dee and Con-
way. In the north is a range of hills, convex to the
coast. The highest hill is Cader Fronwen, 2563
feet ; and many others rise above 1500 feet. The
rocks are chiefly Silurian clay and graywacke
slates, with some granite and trap, rf bands of

Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian strata.

There occur coal, iron, slates, flags, millstones,
limestone, lead, and copper. The chief rivers are
the Dee, Conway, Elwy, and Clwyd. The Rhaiadr
waterfall is 200 feet high in two parts. Llangollen
vale is famed for romantic beauty and verdure,
amid hills of savage grandeur. The climate is mild
in the lower parts, but cold and bleak among the
hills, where small hardy sheep and ponies are
reared. About two-thirds of Denbighshire are
under cultivation; its corn, cheese, butter, and
live-stock are greatly esteemed. It is also well
timbered. Salmon are caught in the rivers. The
chief towns are Denbigh, Wrexham, Ruthin, Holt,
Llangollen, Llanrwst, Abergele, and Ruabon. Pop.
(1801) 60,299 ; (1841) 88,478 ; (1891) 117,872. Den.
bighshire returns two members to parliament. It
was anciently occupied by the Ordovices, a powerful
tribe, not entirely subdued by the Romans till the

DENDERA

DENHAM 753

time of Agricola. Of British or pre-Roman remains
- » still exist tumuli, two kistvaens or stone cells
barrows, and forts. ‘l’o the times of the Welsh and
Saxon strugyles are referable the Pillar of Eliseg,
near Llangollen, and the dikes of Offa and Watt.
_ The dike of Otfa, king of Mercia, to keep out the
~ Welsh, was a ditch, with small forts on mounds at

intervals, and ran from Herefordshire to the estuary
of the Dee; Watt’s dike ran on the east side of
- Offa’s dike, and parallel to it. Wrexham Church
is one of the ‘seven wonders of Wales.’ Chirk
Sisal is a fine Edwardian stronghold, lately re-
8

Dendera (Gr. Tentyra ; Coptic Tentore, prob-
abl ater ag ag a the abode of Crago a
: 0 pper Egypt, once a nious town,
and the capital of the vixth nome oF the ‘southern
kingdom,’ situated near the left bank of the Nile,
in 26° 13’ N. lat., 32° 40’ E. long., is celebrated on
account of its temple, one of the finest and best pre-
served structures of the kind in Egypt, dating from
the period of Cleopatra and the earlier Roman
emperors. The temple measures 220 feet in
length by about 50 in breadth, and has a noble
portico or ayaa hall supported on twenty-four
columns. e walls, columns, &c. are covered
with figures and hieroglyphics, among which are
still to be seen the contemporary portraits in profile
of Cleopatra and her son; but the beauty of the
Egy tian queen is not apparent in her portrait,
which belongs to almost the most degraded period
of conventional art in Egypt. On the ceiling of
the portico is a zodiac, in which the crab is re-
resented by a scarab. Beyond the portico are a
ll of six columns and several rooms, which once
contained altars, the sacred boats, perfumes, vest-
ments for the religious ceremonies, and offerings of
first-fruits, and the like (Mariette, 7’he Monuments
_ of Upper Egypt ). There are several other sacred
buildings at Dendera, including a temple of Isis.
The temples stand within a wall of unbaked bricks,
1000 feet long on one side, and in some parts 35
feet high. The people of Tentyra were peculiar for
their detestation of the er ile, which led to a
violent religious war with the city of Ombos, where
the reptile was worshipped.

Dendermonde (Fr. Zermonde), a town of
Belgium, in the province of East Flanders, situated
at the confluence of the Dender and the Scheldt,
18 miles E. of Ghent by rail. The principal
buildings are the town-house and the iborch of
Notre Dame, containing two pictures by Van Dyck.
The manufactures are linens, cottons, and beer.
Louis XLV. besieged it in vain in 1667, but Marl-
borough succeeded in taking it in 1706. Its forti-
fications, destroyed in 1784, were restored in 1822.
Pop. (1890) 9654.

Dendrerpeton, a small lizard-like carbonif-
erous amphibian, found by Lyell and Dawson in
the interior of the hollow trunk of an upright sigi/-
laria in Nova Scotia. It belongs to the wholly
extinct order of Stegocephala or Labyrinthodonts
(q-v.) -

Dendrites, the name given to thin films of
mineral matter which assume branching shapes
that resemble moss or seaweed. These films occur
as coatings on the faces of fissures and joints in
~ rocks or on the surfaces of bedding-planes, and
have often been mistaken for fossils. The hydrous
oxide of manganese is the mineral that generally
assumes this form.

Dendrolites (Gr. dendron, ‘tree;’ lithos,
‘stone’), a general term sometimes applied to
fossil stems, branches, or other fragments of trees.

Dendrology is that department of botany
which deals with ‘the natural history of trees and

See ARBORICULTURE, TREE.
152

Dendrophis ((Gr.,‘tree-snake’ ), a genus of non-
venomous snakes in the sub-order Colubriformes,
They are tropical, and especially oriental, in their
distribution; diurnal, active, and arboreal in
habit; and feed chietly on tree-lizards. The head
is long and distinct from the neck, the gape is
wide, the body and tail are very slender, the
colours are vivid and like their surroundings.

D’Enghien. See Encuien.

Dengue, or BREAK-BONE Fever, also called
DANbY and Bucket Fever, is a disease first
certainly known to have occurred in 1779-80 in
Egypt, of the East Indies, and probably in
Philadelphia. Since that time there have been
— epidemics in India and Further India (1824—

), America and West Indies ( 1826-28), Southern
United States (1850), East Africa, Arabia, India,
and China (1870-73), besides numerous minor
outbreaks. The disease occurs almost exclusively
in the tropics, in hot weather, and in towns either
near the sea-coast or on large rivers. It is charac-
terised by sudden onset, with high fever, and ex-
tremely violent pains in the bones, muscles, and
joints ; by a remission, usually at the end of one
or two days, during which the patient feels almost
well ; and after one or two days more by a second

riod of fever, less severe than the first, which
asts for two or three days. Each attack of fever
is often accompanied by a well-marked skin-
eruption. Though often followed by much ema-
ciation and loss of strength, it is very rarely fatal
or succeeded by serious after-effects. It occurs
almost always in well-marked epidemics; but
observers are much divided upon the question
whether it is communicable directly from the sick
to the healthy. See Hirsch, Geographical and
Historical Pathology, vol. i.

Denham, Sir Joun, a Caroline poet, was the
only son of an Irish judge, himself of English
birth, and was born at Dublin in 1615. He was
educated in London and at Trinity College,
Oxford, where Wood tells us he was ‘a slow
dreaming young man, and more addicted to gam-
ing than study’—a taste from which his own
essay against gaming (1651) did not cure him.
In 1634 he married and went to live with his
father at Egham in Surrey, an estate to which he
succeeded four years later. At the outbreak of the
Civil War he was high-sheriff of Surrey, and he im-
mediately joined the king. He fell into Waller's
hands on the capture of Farnham Castle, and was
sent prisoner to London, but soon permitted to
repair to Oxford. In 1641 he produced Sophy, a
feeble tragedy which was acted with Ba applause
at Blackfriars. Next year was issued his long poem,
Cooper’s Hill, a poetical description of the scenery
around Egham, itself still read, but more famous
in the merits of its greater successors, Pope's
Windsor Forest, avowedly an imitation, and Garth's
Claremont. The final form of the poem is that pub-
lished in 1655, all the changes in which, accordin
to Pope, were made ‘with admirable iy bya
Here first appeared its finest lines—the famous
apostrophe to the Thames :

O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream

My great example, as it is my theme!

Though deep yet clear, though gentle yet not dull,
Strong without rage, without o’erflowing full.

In 1647 Denham was engaged in the performance
of secret services for Charles L., but these being
discovered, was obliged to flee to Holland
France. In 1650 he collected money for the
young king from the Scots resident in Poland, and

e made several journeys into England on secret
service. At the Restoration he was “yee
surveyor-general of works, and created Knight

the Bath. He was a better poet than architect,

754 ' DENIA

DENMARK

but he had Christopher Wren to his deputy. In
1665 he married a young girl, who soon showed
such open favour to the Duke of York that the
poor poet became crazy for a few months. Soon
after his recovery his wife died suddenly, not
without suspicion of poison—a charge, which
Pepys evidently believed. Denham’s last years
were miserable betwixt poverty and the satires
of Marvell, Butler, and others. He died early in
1669, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His
Elegy on Cowley, written in the short interval
between recovery from frenzy and his death, is
one of his most successful poems, and is much less
obscure and laboured, ungrammatical, and over-
laden with tedious moralising, than usual. His
other works, as the Destruction of Troy, a para-
phrase of part of the neid, and especially his
satirical doggerel verses, are comparatively worth-
less. ‘Nothing,’ says Dr Johnson, ‘is less exhilar-
ating than the ludicrousness of Denham; he does
not fail for want of efforts; he is familiar, he is
gross; but he is never merry.’ His fame rests
securely on Cooper’s Hill, but more securely still
on the commendations of Dryden, Pope, Swift,
and Johnson. He is especially eulogised for his
strength, as Waller is for his sweetness ; indeed,
Dryden’s critical judgment stands expressed in the
words that Cooper’s Hill: ‘for the majesty of its
style is and ever will be the standard of exact
writing.’

Denia, a port on the coast of the Spanish pro-
vince of Alicante, near Cape St Martin. It exports
grapes, raisins, and fruit, and has a population of
3623. -

Denina, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA, an Italian
author, was born 28th February 1731, at Revello,
in Piedmont, studied at Turin, and in 1756 became

rofessor of Rhetoric in the university of Turin.
n 1777 he published anonymously at Florence his
Discorso sull’ Impiego delle Persone, in which he
sought to show how monks might be transformed
into useful members of society. This cost him his
chair, and caused his banishment. In 1782 he went
to Berlin on the invitation of Frederick the Great.
Here he lived for many years, and wrote many his-
torical works. In 1804 he dedicated to Napoleon
his Clef des Langues (1804), and was in conse-
quence appointed imperial librarian at Paris, where
he died 5th December 1813.—Denina’s principal
works are Delle Rivoluzioni d'Italia (3 “oie 1770)
and Storia dell’ Italia Occidentale (6 vols. 1810),
besides works on ancient Greece, Frederick the
Great, and Prussia.

Denis, St, the traditional apostle of France and
first Bishop of Paris, who suffered martyrdom in the
3d century. He was sent from Rome about 250 to
4 ene the gospel to the Gauls. After various

etentions at Arles and other places, he arrived
in Paris, where he made numerous _proselytes.
The Roman governor of this part of Gaul ordered
Denis to be brought before him, along with other
two Christians. As they continued firm in their
faith, in spite of threats, they were cruelly
tortured, and afterwards beheaded, in 272 or in
290. Gregory of Tours, Fortunatus, and the Latin
martyrologists, state that the bodies of the three
martyrs were thrown into the Seine, but were
recovered and buried by a Christian woman. At a
later period, a chapel was built over their tomb.
In 636 King Dagobert founded on the spot an
abbey, called St Denis, which soon grew to be one
of the richest and most important in the whole
kingdom, and was long the sepulehre of the French
kings. The collection entitled the Acts of St Denis,
written about the end of the 7th or beginning of
the 8th century, has no historical value. The
Greek Church identifies St Denis with Dionysius

the Areopagite, first Bishop of Athens. The
Western Church celebrates his memory on the 9th
of October. For a long period his name was the
war-cry of the French soldiers, who charged or
rallied to the words ‘ Montjoye Saint-Denys !’

Denison, JoHN EvELYN, for fourteen years
Speaker of the House of Commons, and afterwards
Via dent Ossington, was born 27th January 1800,
at Ossington, Nottinghamshire. Educated at Eton
and Christ Church, Oxford, he entered parliament

‘in 1823, and was a Lord of the Admiralty 1827-28.

In 1872 he retired from the Speaker’s chair, and

shortly after was created Viscount Ossington. He
was a D.C.L. of Oxford ; and it was on his sugges-
tion that the Speaker's Commentary to the Bible

was undertaken. He died 7th March 1873.—His
brother, GEORGE ANTHONY DENISON, Archdeacon
of Taunton, was born in 1805, and educated at
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, in 1828 being
elected a Fellow of Oriel. In 1843 he became Vicar
of East Brent, Somerset; in 1851 Archdeacon of
Taunton. In 1854 proceedings were taken against
him for heresy, contained in three sermons on the ©
Real Presence, and he was condemned to be deprived
of all ecclesiastical preferments ; but on appeal to
the Court of Arches and the Privy-council, this
judgmee was quashed. He was a leader of the

igh Chureh party, opposed secular education, and
advocated confession. He was chairman of the
Committee of Convocation which condemned Essays
and Reviews and Bishop Colenso’s works, and
died 21st March 1896. See his delightful Notes of
my Life (2 vols. 1878-93).—Other brothers were
Edward, Bishop of Salisbury (1801-54), and Sir
William Thomas, Governor of New South Wales
and Madras (1804-71).

Denman, THOMAS, BARON, was born in
London, 23d February 1779, graduated at Cam-
bridge, and entered Lincoln’s Inn in 1806. He
was associated with Brougham in the courageous
defence of Queen Caroline (1820), and shared his
consequent popuinitys He sat in parliament from
1818-26, and was Attorney-general in Earl Grey’s _
administration in 1830-32; he succeeded Lord —
Tenterden as Lord Chief-justice of England in 1832,
and was raised to the peerage in 1834. He retired
from the bench in 1850, and died 22d September
1854. See Memoir by Sir Joseph Arnould (2 vols.
1873).—His fourth son, the RIGHT HON. GEORGE
DENMAN, was born 23d December 1819, studied at
Cambridge, and entered Lincoln’s Inn in 1846. He
represented Tiverton in parliament in 1859-65 and
1866-72; in 1872 he was raised to the bench of
the Court of Common Pleas, and in 1873 he became
a judge of the High Court of Judicature. He
retired in 1893, being made a Privy Councillor, and
died 21st September 1896.

Denmark (Dan. Danmark), the smallest of —
the three Scandinavian kingdoms, consists of the —
eninsula of Jutland and a group of islands in the —
Baltic, and is situated between 54° 33’ and 57° 45’ —
N. lat., and 8° 4’ and 12° 34’ E. long., excepting —
the small island of Bornholm, which lies in 15° 1
E. long. Denmark is bounded on the N. by the ©
Skagerrak ; on the E. by the Cattegat, the Sound, —
and the Baltic ; on the S. by the Baltic, Little Belt, —
and Sleswick; and on the W. by the North Sea. ©
The area of Denmark Proper is a little less, the ©
opulation a little more, than half that of Scotland.
he population of Denmark Proper in 1870 was
1,784,741; in 1890 it had increased to 2,182,380.
In 1890 the population of Copenhagen was 312,859 —
(with suburbs, 375,251); and there were besides —
five Danish towns with more than 10,000 inhabit- —
ants—viz., Aarhuns (33,308), Odense (30,277),
Aalborg (19,503), Horsens (17,290), and Randers
(16,617).

_

aa

DENMARK

755

r “atis following table gives the main divisions of

the kingdom, along with its dependencies :

Area in lation
Eng. 9q. miles. roe <
pte talands of esiand: Funes:
e nd, Fiinen,
| Laaland, Falster, &c., and 14,781 2,182,835
| __ the peninsula of Jutland...
The Faroe Islands............... 513 12,955
ENE a Wits 656% av0405 50 40,300 70,927
Greenland ye free from ice).| 83,885 10,516
Danish W. L. Islands—St Croix, } 138 $2,786
St Thomas, and St John.... .
89,567 2,309,519

Except in Bornholm (q.v.), the surface of Den-

mark is very similar in every part of the kingdom,

and is uniformly low, reaching its highest point in

Eiers-Bavnehéj, in south-east Jutland, which is
only 564 feet above sea-level. The country pre-
sents little variety, except in its low isolated hills,
but does not leave an impression of monotony ;
- in the islands and in the south-east of Jutland
the landscape is broken by noble forests, green
meadows, and fertile fields; and even in the west
and north of the mainland the wide stretches of
moorland are clothed with heather, and have a
solemn beauty of their own. The coast seldom
rises even to low clifis; generally it is tlat, skirted
by sand-ridges and shallow lagoons, especially
along the west side, where the dunes cover an
area of nearly 225 sq.m. The east coast is much
indented by bays, useful for navigation and valu-
able for their fisheries ; and here and in the islands
are many good harbours. Both the continental
portion and the islands are penetrated deeply b
numerous fjords, the largest being Limfjord, whic
intersects Jutland, and has insulated the northern
extremity of the peninsula since 1825, when it broke
through the narrow isthmus which had separated it
from the North Sea. There are about agg J light-
houses along the shores of Denmark, and seven
lightships (see SOUND). From its formation, the
om can have no rivers, properly so called ;
its streams, called Aa, are mostly large brooks.
There are several important canals, however, includ-
ing in Jutland works for the canalisation of the
Guden-Aa, its largest stream, and of the Limfjord ;
and lakes abound in all parts of the kingdom, the
most considerable being found in Zealand. The
centre and west of Jutland is nearly bare of wood,
but in the other parts of the peninsula the forests
cover about 215,000 acres, and in the islands over
291,000 acres. The beech, which flourishes more
luxuriantly in Denmark than in any other land,
is almost universally predominant, although three
centuries ago the oak, now comparatively rare,
was the characteristic Danish tree. Peat, which is
t in abundance from the bogs, brown coal or
ignite, and seaweed generally take the place
of wood as fuel. In minerals Denmark is
or. Porcelain clay and some coal are found
in Bornholm, and fuller’s earth, tter’s clay,
saltpetre, chalk, and a poor marble oecur in
several parts of the kingdom, while some amber
is collected on the west coast of Jutland. The
climate is modified by vicinity to the sea, and is
considerably milder, and the air more humid, than
in the more southern but continental Germany.
Mists are frequent, as are also sea-f on the
west coast; and rain, snow, or hail falls over the
country on 150 days on an average in the year.
The annual rainfall is 23 to 25 inches. Weaety
winds prevail; in the spring a cold, dry wind,
known as the skai, blows from the north-west,
and whirls clouds of fine sand from the coast
inland, frequently doing irreparable damage to the
crops. mean temperature ranges from 44° to

47° F. The transitions from winter to summer
are rapid, and scarcely broken by the intervention
of spring or of autumn. The climate is, however,
not unhealthy, except in the low-lying islands,
such as Laaland, where the short ial sudden heat
of the summer occasions fevers.

The soils of Jutland are generally light, but
those in the south-east part and in the islands are
stronger; about 80 per cent. of the area of Den-
mark is productive, and of the remainder about
one-sixth is in peat-bogs. Nearly half the popu-
lation is engaged in agriculture; the Jand for the
most is parcelled out into small holdings,
and this is encouraged by the laws, which since
1849 have prohibited the throwing of small farms
into large estates. In 1890, of 223,892 tenancies
not 2000 were over 144 acres in extent ; there were
150,000 cottars and labourers cultivating land of
from three to twelve acres; and the ‘peasant
farms,’ varying from 12 to 144 acres—the majority
under 50—numbered close upon 72,000. <A third
of the whole kingdom is arable, while over two-
fifths is in meadow, pasture, or fallow land.
Nearly four-fifths of the arable land is under oats,
barley, or rye, and little over a twenty-third part
under wheat. Flax, hemp, potatoes, and legu-
minous plants are also raised; lucerne has been
introduced, and the cultivation of the beet-root
has increased of late years. Barley is largely
exported, but the aports of breadstuffs greatly
exceed the exports. The raising of cattle is taking
more and more the place of arable farming in
Denmark, and has now become one of the chief
sources of wealth. Much progress has of late
been made in this direction owing to the efforts of
government and of various institutions; bull and
stallion shows have been promoted by royal grants,
breeding farms have been similarly encouraged,
and the farmers have been instructed by lectures
on the various forms of cattle disease and other
subjects. The stock of horses, cattle, and sheep is
very large, and in 1895-98 there were expo an-
nually 20,000 horses, 81,000 head of cattle, and 6000
sheep, mostly to Great Britain. Dairy produce has
also ly developed, owing to improved methods
and to the co-operative dairy system, which is now
worked successfully on a large scale. The value
of the butter exported to Great Britain rose from
£767,190 in 1870 to £7,309,831 in 1898, the value of
eggs from £67,654 in 1878 to £685,447 in 1898, and
in 1898 the value of bacon so exported was over
£2,700,000. The total value of the exports to the
United Kingdom in 1893 was £8,936,835, and in
1898 £11,703,384; while the value of the imports
from the United Kingdom was in 1898 £3,337,743.
Other exports to Britain are fresh beef, pork (fresh
and salted ), hides, fish, and fish-oil. Much brandy
and beer is produced. 7 q

About 25 per cent. of the inhabitants are
returned as engaged in manufacturing industries,
which, although not yet of great importance, show
a marked advance within recent years, Machinery,
porcelain and delf wares, and bricks are leading
manufactures; beet-root sugar refineries are in-
creasing, and the distilleries, though declining, are
still numerous; there are ironworks, over eighty
tobacco-factories, and several paper-mills in Copen-
hagen, Silkeborg, and elsewhere; and there are
many large steam corn-mills, Generally, in spite
of the scarcity of fuel in the country, steam-mills
are taking the place of the windmills, and though
the peasants still continue to manufacture much of
what they require within their own homes, linens
and woollens, as well as wooden shoes, are now
increasingly made in factories. The fisheries
(including the lobster and oyster fisheries) and the
mercantile marine employ less than 3 per cent. of

the people.

756

DENMARK

The principal articles of export are cattle, sheep,
swine, Satter hams, hides, wool, grain, fish, eggs,
meat, and wooden goods. Among the imports are
textile fabrics, cereals, and flour, manufactures of
metal and timber, coal, oil, salt, coffee, sugar, and
tobacco. About two-thirds of the export trade is
carried on in native vessels. The total value of the
imports in 1890-97 ranged from £17,057,000 to
£23, 155,000 ; and of the exports in the same period,
from £12,990,000 to £18,229,000. The bulk of the
foreign trade is with Germany, Great Britain, and
Norway and Sweden. The mercantile marine con-
sists of 3700 vessels, including 370 steamships,
with a total tonnage of 340,000. There are 1600
miles of railway open, of which about 1100 miles
belong to the state; and there are in all about
3700 miles of telegraph lines, of which nearly 3000
belong to the state.

Elementary education is widely diffused, although
in this regard Denmark is no longer so_ pre-
eminent as formerly ; it is compulsory for children
between the ages of seven and fourteen years,
poor parents paying only a nominal sum towards
the government or parochial schools, of which
there are about 3000. There are training colleges
for teachers, and classical and other higher edu-
cation is afforded by a large number of colleges
in the more important towns, with the university
of Copenhagen (1300 students) for the centre of
the entire system. Denmark has also a theo-
logical seminary, a royal surgical college, a veter-
inary and agricultural school, and numerous mili-
tary, technical, and commercial schools, while fift
‘people’s high schools’ provide instruction in agri-
cultural subjects. There are three public libraries
in Copenhagen, of which the Royal Library, with
500,000 volumes, is especially rich in oriental and
Icelandic MSS. The established religion is Luth-
eran, to which the king must belong ; but complete
toleration is enjoyed in every part of the ‘einige
The Reformation was introduced in 1536, when the
church revenues were seized by the crown. Den-
mark is divided into seven dioceses, in which there
are 1360 parishes. There are only 31,000 persons
not belonging to the Lutheran Church, of whom
4000 are Jews, 3600 Roman Catholics, 2300
Methodists, 1000 Mormons, 4600 Baptists, and
2600 Irvingites.

The poveromant of Denmark is a constitutional
monarchy, the king being assisted by a cabinet of
seven ministers. The crown was elective until
1660, when the people and clergy, impelled by
hatred towards the nobles, invested the sovereign
(Frederick III.) with absolute power, and declared
the succession to the throne hereditary. From
that time the crown exercised absolute rule till
1831, when a constitution was granted. This
proving unsatisfactory, was superseded in 1848 by
the form of government which, with some altera-
tions, Denmark now enjoys. The national assem-
bly or Rigsdag consists of the Folkething and
Landsthing, which meet annually, the members
receiving a fixed allowance during their sittings.
The Landsthing is composed of sixty-six members,
of whom twelve are nominated for life by the king,
while the remainder are elected for a term of eight
years by certain bodies representing the large tax-
peyere of the kingdom. The members of the

olkething, whose number is fixed by statute in
the proportion of one to every 16,000 of the popu-
lation, are elected for three years by practically
universal suffrage. To this body all budgets must
first be submitted ; but in the years 1877-87, when
the governs had a minority in the lower house,
the king was induced to give the royal ratification
to successive ‘provisionary budgets,’ which had
never received the assent of the Rigsdag. Never-
theless the financial condition of Denmark is sound

and prosperous. The total revenue in the period
1885-95 fluctuated from £3,000,000 to £3,200,000 a
year; while the expenditure has repeatedly exceeded
£3,600,000. Since the war of 1866, the government
has maintained a comparatively large reserve fund,
to meet any sudden emergency. That fund stood in
1887 at £990,000. The total national debt is over —
£10,000,000, or about £5 per head of the population;
but as the investments of the state (in telegraphs,
&c.) amount to nearly £5,000,000, this proportion is
reduced to less than £3. The decimal system was
introduced in 1875, the unit being the krone, or
crown, of 100 dre; the average rate of exchange is
18 kroner to the pound sterling. The Danish army
numbers 1200 officers and 46,000 men, inclusive of —
the landwehr; but only a sufficient establishment
for garrison purposes is maintained, and the peace
strength is 750 officers and 13,000 men. The
total war strength is about 50,000 men, to. which
an extra reserve of 14,000 could be added on
emergency. Conscription prevails, and the period
of military service is divided into eight years in the
line and reserve, and eight in the extra reserve.
The navy is recruited by levies from the coast
districts. The fleet comprises some forty steamers
(of which ten are Weariode but only one a first- |
class battleship). The navy numbered in 1888, 134
officers and 1477 men. here were in 1897, 290
officers and 1150 men. Besides Copenhagen (q.v.),
there are no defensible fortresses, though there are
antiquated forts at Helsingér (Elsinore) and Fred-
ericia. The arsenal is at Copenhagen.
History.—The early history of Denmark is lost
in the twilight of the saga-period, out of which
loom dimly the figures of its heroes, their brave
deeds, and daring voyages, Within its borders
the Celts had first their home, and from its
shores the Angles and Saxons sailed in the 5th
century to the conquest of England ; while in their
lace the Danes from Zealand settled on the
eserted lands, extending their sway as far south
as the Eider. One of their earliest kings, Harald
Hildetand, fell in battle against the Swedes in
695 ; and shortly afterwards a branch of the Yng-
linger occupied Jutland, where they held a footin
for two centuries. One of their kings, Harald
Klak, received baptism in 826 from Ansgar (q.v.) ;
but the introduction of Christianity did not at
once place any check on the long-accustomed in-
roads on Frankish territory, or on the piratical
expeditions of the Vikings, although the country
was soon torn by dissensions between the ad-
herents of the old and new faiths. Gorm the
Old, who drove the Ynglinger from the peninsula,
and first united the mainland and islands under —
one rule, was the bitter enemy of Christianity ;_
and although his death in 936 gave fresh vigour
to the diffusion of the new faith, yet even its ulti-
mate success was only insured by the zealous
support it received from Gorm’s grandson, Canute
(q.v.). On his death in 1035 the three kingdoms
of his Anglo-Scandinavian empire separated, and
his sister’s son, Svend Estridsen (1047-76), aseended _
the throne of Denmark, founding a princely line _
that flourished 400 years. Internal dissensions and _
external wars weakened the country, and the in- —
troduction of a feudal system raised up a powerful _
nobility, and ground down the once free people toa —

condition of serfdom. Waldemar I. (1157-82) added

Riigen to the other Wendish districts of Mecklen- _
burg and Pomerania, and extended his sway over —
Norway also. Under Waldemar II. the conquests
of Denmark extended so far into German and
Wendish lands, that the Baltic was little more than
an inland Danish sea. The jealousy of the German
princes and the treachery of his vassals combined —
to rob him, however, of these brilliant conquests,
and his death in 1241 was followed by a century of

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DENMARK

757

anarchy and inglorious decadence of the authority.
of the crown, during which the kingdom was
yught to the brink of annihilation. Under his
t dson, Waldemar 1LV., Denmark made a
ient recovery of the conquests of the older
Valdemars, rousing the jealousy of the Hanseatic
eague (g.¥,), and the national laws were codified.
_ From his death in 1375 till 1412, his daughter, the
_ great Margaret, widow of Hakon VI. of Norway,
4 ruled not only that country and Denmark, but in
course of time Sweden also, with so light yet firm
A that for once in the course of their history
_ the three rival Scandinavian kingdoms were con-
tent to act in eeory- Margaret's successor, Eric,
the son of her niece, for whose sake she had striven
tk give permanence, by the act known as the Union
«of C r (1397), to the amalgamation of the three
- her glorious work

_ govereignties into one, undi
with fatal rapidity, lost the allegiance and the
crowns of his triple kingdom, and ended his disas-
_ trous existence in misery and obscurity. After the
‘short reign of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria
(1 ), the Danes exerted their ancient right of
election to the throne, and chose for their kin
Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of the ol
royal family through his maternal ancestress,
Rikissa, the great-granddaughter of Waldemar II.
_ Christian I. (1448.81), who was at the same time
elected Duke of Sléeswick and Holstein, was the
founder of the Oldenburg line, which continued
unbroken till the death of Frederick VII. in 1863.
His reign was followed by half a century of inter-
natio struggles in Scandinavia. e insane
tyranny of Christian II. (q.v.) cost that monarch
his throne and freedom; the Danes chose his
- uncle Frederick I. to be their king, while Sweden
was for ever separated from Denmark, and rose
under the Vasas (see GusTAVUs I.) to be a powerful

te.
Under Christian III: (1536-59), the Reforma-
tion was established in Denmark. Christian LY.
(q.v.), after his brief share in the Thirty Years’
War, proved one of the ablest of all the Danish
rulers. His liberal and wise policy was, however,
cramped in every direction by the arrogant nobles,
to whose treasonable supineness Denmark owes the
reverses by which she lost (1658) all the posses-
sions she had hitherto retained in Sweden; and
with the relinquishment of these, and consequently
of the undivided control of the e of the
Sound, the country’s former international im-
rtance came finally to an end. The national
isgraces and abasement which followed led, in
1660, under Christian’s son, Frederick LII., to the
rising of the people against the nobles, and their
surrender into the hands of the king of the supreme
wer. For the next hundred years, chiefly marked
_ by wars with Sweden, the peasantry were kept in
serfdom, and the middle classes depressed ; but by
the end of the 18th century the peasants had
been gradually emancipated, while many improve-
ments had been effected in the mode of administer-
ing the laws, and the Danish kings, although
autocrats, exercised a mild rule. The miseries of
_ the reign of Frederick VL, who governed as regent
_ from 1784, brought the country to the verge of ruin.
- Denmark having joined Russia in a compact of the
- Northern Powers hostile to England, a fleet was
sent into the Baltic, and considerable injuries were
inflicted by an attack on Copenhagen, in 1801,
under Parker and Nelson. From this the country
rallied ; but in 1807 the British government, susp1-
cious of an intention on the regent’s to violate
his neutrality and take sides with Napoleon,
| demanded the surrender of the entire Danish navy,
| to be restored at the conclusion of peace, A refusal
was followed by the bombardment of Copenhagen
in September 1807, and the fleet was given up;

Die

but this treatment drove Denmark into Repstoens
arms, and with him the kingdom was obliged to
co-operate until the close of 1513.

By co of Vienna, Denmark was com-
pelled to cede Norway to Sweden. From this period
a spirit of discontent grew up in the duchies,
degenerating into mutual animosity between the
Danish and German population, which led to an
open rupture with Denmark in 1848, inimediately
alter the accession of Frederick VII. (For the
whole question, see SLESWICK-HOLSTEIN.) After
alternate hostilities and armistices, the war was
virtually concluded in 1850, by the victory of the
Danes at Idsted; but in 1863 the quarrel was
renewed. On the death of Freaerick in that year,
Prince Christian of Sleswick-Holstein-Gliicksborg
ascended the throne under the title of Christian
IX., in cout the act known as the Treaty
of London of 1852, by which the succession to the
Danish crown had been settled on him and his
descendants by his wife, Princess Louise of Hesse-
Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark.
A pretender, backed by German influence and help,
at once started up in the person of the eldest son
of the Duke of Augustenborg, who assumed the
title of Duke Frederick VIII. of Sleswick-Holstein ;
but his cause was speedily merged and lost sight of
by Prussia and Austria in their direct aim of incor-
porating the duchies with the German Confedera-
tion. nmark, unaided by England and France,
allies on whose support she had relied, was forced
to go agente into the unequal contest. After
a brave but utterly futile attempt at resistance, the
Danes found themselves fo: to submit to the
terms dictated by their powerful foes, and resign
not only Lauenbu —_ Sor ggae 4 the ane
crown-appanage 0 eswick. By the peace o
Vienna, Teed, the Danish king bound himself to
abide by the decision which ia and Austria
should adopt in regard to the destiny of the severed
Danish provinces. The dissensions between these
two great powers, which led to the Austro-Prussian
war of 1866, resulted in the triumph of Prussia,
and since then the duchies have remained an in-
tegral part of that state. Since the war, Denmark,
although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands
and Jutland, has recovered from its fall, and has
greatly prospered, in spite of the spread of social-
istic opinions, and the political dissensions that
have ranged the government and Landsthing, sup-
pore by the press of the capital, against the

‘olkething and majority of the people.

and statistics, the best Danish works
are those of v, Trap, Grove, Falbe-Hansen, O.
Nielsen, and Scharling: see also Both (2d ed. 2 vols.
1882-85), Miss Otté’s Denmark and Iceland (1881),
Murray’s Handbook (6th ed. 1893), and Denmark ; its
History and Topography, Language, dc., by various
specialists (Lond. 1891). For the history, works by
ludin-Miiller, Barfod, Fabricius, Allen, and Thorsde,

and Miss Otté’s Scandinavian History (1875).
rt 0 pak 255 AND ee
i sprung from the south-
eastern or Danish-Swedish ach of the dénsk
tunga (or lengua danica), which was the common
name by which the language of all the Scandi-
navians was designated in the middle ages by the
southern races of the Teutonic stock. From the
11th to the 13th century the Danish-Sw edish branch
of the Old Scandinavian became more and more
markedly distinct from the Norwegian: Icelandic
branch, through its replacing the old diphthongs
with single long vowels, and dropping the initial A
before 2, x, and r; while the latter became charac-
terised by a further modification of the a@ sound,
by the loss of v before 7, and by @ series of con-
tractions of consonants. In the provincial laws
of the 12th and 13th centuries, which (after

For the geograph

758

DENMARK

the Runic monuments) are the earliest specimens
of this Danish-Swedish language, there are three
dialects—that of Skaane (the southmost province
of Sweden) and those of Zealand and Jutland, the
first of which is nearest the old language, while
the last two have deviated from it by creaeeug
the final consonants from the old inflexional end-
ings and changing their vowels a, 7, u to a less
distinct e or @, retaining, however, the hard
mutes p, k, ¢ after vowels, as on the whole is
still the case in Swedish and spoken Norwegian.
The dialect of Zealand in the 14th and 15th
centuries forms the foundation of modern Danish.
The original vowels in almost all endings are there
replaced by half-vowels, and the dental aspirate p
by ¢ or d; p, k, t, when following long vowels,
are changed to 6, g, d; masculine and feminine
are merged in one common gender; nouns have
no other case-ending than the possessive s for both
numbers ; verbs cease to indicate person (except
in the imperative); and the singular number
begins to supersede the plural, as it does every-
where in the spoken language from the 16th century.
Danish, like Swedish, retains the suffixed definite
article, which is characteristic of the Scandinavian
languages. Its form is -e¢ in the neuter, -en in the
common gender, and -ne in the plural of both.

The influence of the Hanseatic League and the
Oldenburg dynasty (from 1448) brought in a great
number of Low-German words, especially relating
to navigation and trade; while that of the order
of St Bridget contributed a considerable Swedish
element. In the first half of the 16th century
the Danish language was chiefly used by religious
writers, and the translation of the Bible (1550) is
the first important monument of modern Danish.
After this period Latin became once more the
language of learning and culture, and for a
century and a half there was no Danish writer
of eminence. The influence of French was _pre-
dominant in the 17th century, and that of High-
German, which had been constant since the Re-
formation, culminated in the 18th century under
the Struensee administration, when it was the
language of government and public instruction.
The result is, that Danish is indebted to German
for fully one-third of its vocabulary. It was not
till Holberg that the Danish written language
began to be enriched from the stores of native
expression in the spoken tongue. From the end
of the 18th century revived study of Old Scandi-
navian and the development of a national poetic
literature unfolded the language in a hitherto un-
suspected richness and fullness, and since that time
Danish prose has to a considerable extent worked
itself out of its poverty and dependence. Danish
is the softest of the Scandinavian languages,
though less euphonious than Swedish. It is the
language of the educated class in Norway, where
it 1s considerably augmented from the native
dialect, and is et with a somewhat harder
pronunciation. The best histories of the language
are by Petersen (2 vols. Copenhagen, 1829-30) and
Molbech (2b. 1846); grammars by Rask (2d ed.
Lond. 1846), Likke, Munch, Lyngby, Jessen, and
Mobius (Kiel, 1871); and dictionaries by the
Danish Academy (Copenhagen, 1793-1881), and
Molbech (2d ed. 2 vols. 7b. 1859), who also pro-
duced a Dansk-Dialekt-Lexikon (ib. 1841) and a
Dansk Glossarium (ib. 1853-66) for antiquated
words. Ferrall, Repp, and Rosing’s Danish and
English Dictionary, in 2 parts (4th ed. Copen-
hagen, 1873), is the best for English students.

tterature.—After the Danish dialect had gradu-
ally separated itself from the Old Scandinavian as
a softer and simpler speech, with a strong infusion
of German ingredients, it was little used in writ-
ing down to the time of the Reformation. Saxo

-and Eve.’

Grammaticus (i.e. ‘the learned’) in the second
half of the 12th century wrote in Latin his
Historia Danica, the only literary production of
medieval Denmark that retains any interest.
The earliest writings in Danish are the church
laws of Skaane (1162),and Zealand (1170), and
the civil laws of Skaane (1160), Zealand (1170),
and Jutland (1241); and after these 2 num-
ber of chronicles, partly in verse, of which
the best known is bie Riimkrénike, which was
the first Danish book printed (in 1495). It is
essentially an abridgment of Saxo. The famous
Danish ballads called Kampeviser (‘hero-songs’),
some of which are said to belong to the latter
part of the 11th century, were handed down orally
from generation to generation, and were first
collected, to the number of 100, by A. 8, Vedel
in 1591. In 1695 Peder Syv published a new
edition with 100 more, and in 1812-14 appeared a
selection of 222, edited by Abrahamson, Nyerup,
and Rahbek. The most complete collection is in
Svend Grundtvig’s unfinished Gamle Folkeviser (5
vols. 1853-77). They are about 500 in number, and
treat of the adventures of heroes, love, enchant-
ment, spectres, and historical events. Doubtless
they were song to the dance, as is still the case
in the Farée Islands. They must have suffered
much by their not being written down till the 16th
and 17th centuries.

The Reformation only emancipated Danish cul-
ture from Latin to bind it fast to German,
which at the death of Frederick I. in 1533 was the
language of the upper classes. About that time
Christian Pedersen set ep a printing-press at
Malmé, at which he published a great number of
popular books, and finally in 1550 the first com-
plete translation of the Bible. Pedersen (1480-
1554) is justly called the father of Danish literature.
The hymns and translations of the Psalms by his
contemporary Tausen (1494-1561), as also by Kin
(1634-1703), Vormondsen (1491-1551), and Arre
(1587-1637), and the national history (10 vols.
Copenhagen, 1595-1604) of Hvitfeld (1549-1609) —
were well received; but the Danish language was —
still banished from higher society till the advent of
the Norwegian Holberg (1684-1754), the founder of
Danish comedy. He found Denmark on the point —
of being absorbed in Germany. ‘The common —
penile,’ he says, ‘had no histories but dry lists of

ates; no poetry but congratulatory verses; no
theology but homilies and funeral sermons; and —
for plays, nothing but old stories about Adam
He wrote histories of Denmark, of the
Jews, and of the Chureh; and the irresistible
humour of his comedies and satires covered with —
ridicule the imitators of foreign speech and —
manners. What Holberg did for Danish prose,
another Norwegian, Tullin (1728-65), di .
Danish poetry. Equally dissatisfied with the eur-_
rent imitations of the 17th century court-poetry —
of France, and with the poetic reform of Klop-—
stock (at Copenhagen from 1751), Tullin followed
the guidance of the English poets Pope, Young, —
and Thomson, and in this was followed by most
of his countrymen who were settled at Copen- —
hagen, while the Danes clung to German models. —
Ewald (1743-81), an ardent disciple of Klopstock,
was Denmark’s first great lyric poet and tragic
dramatist. His verse shows an unsurp
mastery of form, and is expressed in pure, clear, —
and noble language. Wessel (1742-85), by his”
‘tragedy,’ Love without Stockings (1772), a humor- —
ous parody of the Danish imitations of the classi- —
eal French drama, succeeded in laughing them
otf the stage. Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), preacher
and poet, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), ‘the Burns
of the Norwegians,’ Claus Fasting (1746-91), Jonas
Rein (1760-1821), Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), and

——— a ee

DENMARK

759

others, formed themselves (1772) into a ‘ Nor-

wegian Society’ at Copenhagen, under the leader-
ship of Wessel, It was the literary manifestation
of the Norwegian aspiration to separate nation-
ality, which afterwards led to the foundation of
the university of Christiania in 1811. From the
death of Wessel in 1785 to the beginning of the
resent century the literature became entangled
n rationalistic and political polemics, and pro-
duced little that is noteworthy. Its chief writers
were P. A. Heiberg (1758-1841) and Malte Kon-
rad Braun (1775-1826), both of whom were driven
into exile in 1799-1800, the latter afterwards
famous as a geographer ; the critic Rahbek (1760-
1830) ; the dramatists Samsé (1759-96) and Sander
(1756-1819) ; and the lyrist Thaarup (1749-1821).
The a and humorist Baggesen (1764-1826)
forms the link between the 18th century and the
early part of the 19th, when Danish literature
took an entirely new departure, partly owing to
the study of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, and the
influence of Schelling’s follower Steffens (1773-
1845); partly also to the strict censorship of the
press in force from the year 1799. ‘The educated
classes turned from their controversies on points
of literary criticism and theology to scientific
ingniry ; and the ple, whose national feeling
had been aroused by the French Revolution, by
the share of Denmark in the Napoleonic wars,
and especially by the events of 1801 and 1807, the
war with Sweden (1808), and the loss of Norway
(1814), welcomed with enthusiasm the rise of a
new school, led by the romantic see Oehlen-
sehliiger (1779-1850), who was equally distinguished
as a lyrical and dramatic writer, and is still
regarded by many as the greatest Danish poet.
Contemporary with him were the poets Schack-
Staffeldt (1769-1826) and Grundtvig (1783-1872),
afterwards more eminent as a theologian; Inge-
mann (1789-1862), long the most popular novelist
of Denmark; J. L. Heiberg (1791-1860), director
of the royal theatre at Copenhagen, writer of
numerous vaudevilles, and of the still popular
national play, Fives’ Hill (1828); Hauech (1791-
1872), dramatist, novelist, and critic; and Blicher
(1782-1848), who in his tales of Jutland was the
first worker in the field which has since been
cultivated in Germany by Jeremias Gotthelf and
Berthold Auerbach. Of the other novelists of this
inky the chief are Brosbéll (b. 1820); Fru Gyllem-
urg-Ehrensviird (1773-1856), mother of J. L.
Heiberg; Saint-Aubain, or ‘ Karl Bernhard’ (1798-
1865); and the still more popular Winther (1796-
1876), the charming poet of Danish country life.
Herz (1798-1870), from the time when his Ghost Let-
ters (1830) surprised the public with a poetic revival
of the muse o esen, has, now with his lyric
poems, now with his tales, now in romantic and
national tragedies, now in comedies and light
vaudevilles, provided his countrymen with artistic
and attractive works. Overskou (1798-1874) is a
skilful dramatist, and Hostrup (1818-92) a popular
author of comedies. All these writers are sur-
passed by Hans Christian Andersen (1805-75),
whose wonderful stories are known throughout
the civilised world. Less popular, but more pro-
found, was the versatile writer Fr. Paludan-Miiller
(1809-76), who from his play Love at Court (1832)
to his great epic poem Adam Homo (1841-48) has
wooed all the muses in succession. Here may be
mentioned Bergsée (b. 1835), writer of novels and
Opular works on scientific subjects ; Goldschmidt
1819-87), editor of the influential democratic
journals, The Corsair, North and South, and Home
and Abroad, and afterwards author of numerous
romances ; Holst (1811-93), a writer of pleasing
lyrics and tales; Kaalund (1818-85), with his two
collections of poems, A Spring and An Autumn ;

the erotic and piquant and sometimes frivolous
song-writer Aarestrup (1800-56); and Lembcke
(b. 1815), the translator of Shakespeare.

A great impulse was given to all branches of
science from the beginning of the 19th century.
The leading theologians were Grundtvig, the en-
thusiastic champion of the faith of his fathers
mgt rationalism, and advocate of a union of
the Scandinavian kingdoms, but with the church
separated from the state; Mynster (1775-1850),
Bishop of Zealand; Clausen (1793-1877), the
disciple of Schleiermacher, and theological op-
ponent of Grundtvig ; Martensen (1808-84), Bishop
of Zealand, and author of standard works on
systematic theology and ethies; and Kierkegaard
(1813-55), the most original thinker of Denmark.
The chief exponents of philosophy were Sibbern
(1785-1872), Nielsen (b. 1809), and Briéchner
(1820-76); and in natural science the greatest
names were those of Oersted (1777-1851), the dis-
coverer of electro-magnetism, the botanist Schouw
(1789-1852), the geologist and chemist Forch-
hammer (1794-1864), and the zoologist and arche-
ologist Steenstrup (b. 1813). uch has been
done for the study of Scandinavian antiquity by
the Sagabibliothek of Miiller (1776-1834), sank the
researches of Finn Magnusson (1791-1846) in
mythology, and of Thomsen (1785-1865) and

orsaae (1821-85) in archzeol The chief
19th-century writers of national history have been
Werlauff (1781-1871), Molbech (1783-1857), Allen
(1811-77), Schiern (b. 1816), and K. P. Paludan-
Miiller (1805-82); and of the history of the
national literature and lan e, Petersen (1781—
1862). In philology, Rask (1787-1831) and Mad-
vig (1 ) have a European fame.

About 1850 the enthusiasm for the national
past, which had been excited by Oehlenschliiger
in Denmark, and by Tegnér, Geijer, and others
in Sweden, together with the hatred of Germany
aroused by the war of 1848-50, rose to a pitch of
fanaticism. ‘The northern force which had con-
trolled the world’ was extolled by Ploug and
others as ‘the only means whereby the victory of
the Cause of Humanity could be achieved.’ After
Ploug (b. 1813) the chief exponents of this great
historic mission of the northern kingdoms were
C. K. F. Molbech (1821-88), a euphonious lyrist
and skilful dramatist, and translator of Dante;
and Erik Bégh (b. 1822), a fertile writer of
JSeuilletons and adapter of plays. A cosmopolitan
reaction set in about 1870, led by Georg Brandes
(b. 1842), who proved in his lectures on literature
that Denmark was only a side-chapel in the temple
of European thought and art, and that this over-
strained ‘Scandinavianism ’ was but the northern

hase of the reaction from the tendencies of the

8th century, which had been experienced in Eng-

land, France, and Germany many years before.
Brandes withdrew to Berlin for some years from
the storm of popular opposition. Not only in Den-
mark, but in Norway and Sweden also, his followers
are now the prevailing party. The most conspicu-
ous of these have been Jacobsen (1847-85), the
translator and adherent of Darwin, and author of
Mogens (1872) and other novels ; and (till in 1883
he ne a Conservative) Drachmann (b. 1846).
Of recent writers, the most noteworthy are Schan-
dorph (b. 1836), who is equally happy in his
sketches of the Zealand peasant and the Copen-
hagen snob; the versatile writer Hermann g
(b. 1858); and the dramatist Edvard Brandes (b.
1847), brother of Georg Brandes.

Of the three Scandinavian nations, the Danes
have shown the greatest aptitude for the imita-
tive arts, and their art is comparatively the most
independent. While the a of Norway have
been mostly trained at Diisseldorf, and those of

760 DENNERY

DENTALIUM

Sweden at Paris, the artists of Denmark have
been especially attracted to Rome. The sculptor
Thorwaldsen (q.v.) has left a great monument of
his genius in the works contained in the Thor-
waldsen Museum at Copenhagen. Of later artists
may be mentioned the painters Marstrand, Carl
Bloch, Exner, Kroyers, Henningsen, and Otto
Bache. Of music, the chief composers in the 19th
century have been Hartmann, Gade, and Heise.

See Nyerup and Rahbek, Den danske Digtekunsts
Historie, 4 vols. (1800-8), and Udsigt over den danske
Digtekunst under Frederik V.og Christian VII, (1819-28) ;
Nyerup and J. E. Kraft, Almindeligt Lriteraturlexikon
for Lanmark, Norge og Island (Copenhagen, 1818-20 );
Petersen, Den danske Literaturs Historie, 6 vols, (1853-
64); Overskou, Den danske Skueplads i dens Historie
(1859-74); G. Brandes, Ludvig Holberg og hans 7id
(1884); the general treatises in Danish by Thortsen
(1814; 6th ed. 1866), Heiberg (1831), Molbech (1839),
Strém (1871), Erikson (Christiania, 1878), Winkel-Horn
(18-0), and Hansen (1884 e¢ seg.); aud in German by
Strodtmann (1873), Wollheim de Fonseca (1874-77), and
Winkel-Horn (1880). See also a part of Kdmund W.
Gosse’s Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe
(1879).

Dennery, ADOLPHE PHILIPPE, a French dra-
matic writer of Jewish extraction, was born at
Paris on June 17, 1811. His first employment was
that of clerk to a notary ; but he soon became a
successful dramatic author, and was so_ prolific
that between 1831 and 1881 he produced, by him-
self or in concert with others, regular dramas, vaude-
villes, and operatic texts, about two hundred in
number. One of the most successful was the drama,
Marie Jeanne (1845). He was creator and mayor
(1898) of the well-known Norman watering-place,
Cabourg. Died January 25, 1899.

Dennewitz, a small village in the province of
Brandenburg, Prussia, 42 miles SSW. of Berlin.
Here was fought, on the 6th of September 1813, a
battle in which 70,000 French, Saxons, and Poles,
under Ney, were routed, after obstinate fighting,
by 50,000 Prussians, under Bulow.

Dennis, JOHN, critic, was born in London in
1657, the son of a prosperous saddler. He had
his education at Harrow, and Caius College, Cam-
bridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1679. After a
tour through France and Italy, he took his place
among the wits and men of fashion, and brought a
sufficiently rancorous pen to the assistance of the
Whig party. His acquaintance with Dryden and
Wycherley and other distinguished wits, as well
as his native bent, made him a playwright. His
plays had but little suecess. Of the nine, the two
most famous were Liberty Asserted (1704) and
Appius and Virginia (produced 1709). Pope’s
Essay on Criticism (1711) contained a contemptu-
ous allusion to the latter, answered by Dennis
next month in Reflections, Critical and Satirical,
which was the commencement of a long and em-
bittered feud between the poet and the critic.
Pope’s Narrative of Dr Robert Norris, concerning
the Strange and Deplorable Frenzy of. John
Dennis, an officer in the Custom-House (1713), was
a virulent, vulgar, and officious attack made on
Addison’s behalf, but in which that genial author,
through Steele, disavowed any complicity. Dennis
was poor and blind during his last years. A few
weeks after a theatrical performance, got up for
his benefit by Pope and some others, he died, 6th
January 1734. Dennis was embroiled in contro-
versy all his life, and his naturally impatient
temper became completely soured. He made
many enemies, and his name, which his own
writings could searce preserve, will live for ever
in their contempt and hate. He is one of the hest-
abused men in English literature. Swift lam-
pooned him, and Pope not only assailed him in

the Essay on Criticism, but finally ‘damned him

to everlasting fame’ in the Dunciad. Yet he was

no fool, and his Advancement and Reformation of

Modern Poetry (1701) and The Grounds of Criti-

cism in Poetry (1704) will still repay perusal.

‘Spite of the growling of poor old Dennis,’ says

Mr Lowell, ‘his sandy pedantry was not without
an oasis of refreshing sound judgment here and

there.’

Dénouement (Fr. dénouer, ‘to untie’), a
French term naturalised in England, applied gener-
ally to the termination or catastrophe of a play
or romance; but, more aie speaking, to the
train of circumstances solving the Tiots and hasten-
ing the catastrophe.

Dens, PETER, a well-known Roman Catholic
theologian, was born in 1690, at Boom, near
Antwerp. Little is known of his early life; but
from the epitaph on his tomb in the chapel of
the archiepiscopal college of Malines, it appears
that he was reader in theology at Malines for
twelve years, plebanus or parish priest of St
Rumold’s, and president of the College of Malines
for forty years. He died 15th February 1775, in
the eighty-fifth year of his age. The work which
has rendered Dens’s name familiar, even to the
Protestant public, is his Theologia Moralis et Dog-
matica. It is a systematic exposition and defence—
in the form of a catechism—of every point of ethies
and doctrine maintained by Roman Catholics, and
is extensively adopted as the text-book of the-
ology in their colleges. It appears to owe its popu-
larity more to its being a handy and usable com-
pilation than to any great talent exhibited by its
author. The casuistical parts of the work have
been severely criticised by Protestant moralists.
An edition was published at Dublin in 1832.

Density. When of two bodies of equal bulk
one contains more matter than the other, it is said
to have greater density than that other. Since
weight is proportional to mass, the same numbers
may be and are used to represent specific gravity
and density. Lithium is the least dense metal
known, its density being 0°59 if that of water be
called unity. Ordinary air ag be easily com-
pressed so as to be denser than lithium. Iridium
is probably the densest substance known, its density
being 22-4 times that of water. Osmium, however,
is very nearly if not quite as dense. The more
ordinary metals stand in the following order as
regards density : Aluminium, yeti zine, iron
(wrought), copper, ‘bismuth, silver, lead, gold,
platinum.

Dental Formula. See TEETH.

Dentalium (Lat. dens, ‘a tooth’), or Elephant’s
Tusk Shell, a remarkable genus of molluses, type
of a small class called Scaphopoda. The shell is
tubular, like an elephant’s tusk, open at both ends,
and lined by an almost completely tubular ‘ mantle.’

Dentalium, in natural position in sand.

The animal has an indistinct cylindrical head with
a mouth at its extremity, surrounded by a circle of
tentacles. Two pads at the base of the head and
above the foot bear ciliated contractile filaments
possibly respiratory. The ‘foot’ .is long and
divided into three at the end. The mouth includes

elias scent is

Oe ee gn ee eee
=

DENTARIA

DENTISTRY 761

| a rasper. There are no eyes, but an ear-sac is
regan Neither heart nor gills are developed.

sexes are similar and separate. The larva is
ciliated and free-swimming. The type is of much
os age interest, but its affinities are still un-
. The animal lives with the anterior end
plunged into the sand on the sea-coast, at depths
of ten to a hundred fathoms. By means of the
foot they can creep slowly. They feed on minute
animals, and have an almost cosmopolitan distri-
bution. The class includes two or more other
genera. D. entule occurs off British coasts; and
about forty ioe species are known. The genus
occurs as a fossil from Carboniferous strata (or
perhaps earlier) onwards. The shells are used for
currency and for ornament by the Indians of the
northern Pacific coast of America. See Lacaze-
Duthiers, Histoire des Dentales (1856-58).
- Dentaria, or CoRAL-ROoT (both names due to
knobbed root-stock ), is a small genus of Cruciferz,
represented in Britain by the rare D. bulbifera, in
which the upper leaves r Bulbils (q.v.), while
the pods rarely ripen. The root-stock being pun-
nt, was formerly dried as a remedy for toothache.
. diphylla, a North American species, is called
Pepper-root from the same property. The name
Coral-root is also eed to the orchid Corallorhiza,
while the true Toothwort (q.v.) is Lathrea squa-
maria.
Dentex, a genus of acanthopterous fishes near
perches. One species (D. vulgaris), the Dentex of
the ancient Romans, abounds in the Mediterranean,

Dentex.

and has occasionally been taken on the southern
shores of Britain. It is an excessively voracious
fish, with large sharp teeth, and attains a large
size, sometimes three feet in length, and 20 to 30
pounds weight. Great numbers are taken in the
mouths of rivers in Dalmatia and the Levant,
where they are cut in pieces, and packed in barrels
with vinegar and spices, just as the ancients used
to treat them.

Dentifrice. See Tooru-PowDER.

Dentine, or Ivory, the principal constituent
of mammalian teeth. See TEETH.

Dentirostres, a somewhat old-fashioned title
for one of the subdivisions of singing Passerine birds
or Oscines. The term, as equivalent to ‘ toothed-
billed,’ is used in opposition to Conirostres ( ‘ cone-
billed’) and Tenuirostres (‘slender-billed’), It
would include warblers, thrushes, chatterers, crows,
&c., but the character is purely adaptive to the
better securing of the prey and the like, and is of
little significance in classification.

Dentistry, the art of the dentist, or that of
treating disease in the teeth (Dental Surgery), and
of replacing these organs when lost (Mechanical
Dentistry). The art is a very ancient one. The
Laws of the Twelve Tables (5th century B.C.) pro-
vided for the case of ‘teeth bound with gold,’ it
being lawful in this connection to burn or bury

old with the dead person, An Etruscan skull
found in 1885 had a set of animal's teeth artificially

fixed in it. The dentistry of the United States has

in recent times become specially celebrated.

(1) Dental Surgery.—The disorders to which the
teeth are liable are those arising from defective
development, such as imperfections in form or
structure, irregularity of position, &e.; those,
again, constituting diseases more properly so called,
such as caries or dental decay, necrosis or death of
a tooth, inflammation of the soft tissues, such as
the gum, the central pulp or nerve, as it is popularly
called, neuralgic affections, Xe. ; lestiy, those
arising from accidents of various kinds, such as
blows, falls, and the like. For the constitution
and diseases of the teeth, see TEETH.

The object of the dentist, in treating decayed
teeth, is twofold ; he either attempts to arrest the
decay, and repair its rere or he removes the
diseased tooth altogether. These operations, along
with supplying artificial teeth when the natural ones
are lost, constitute the main offices of dentistry.

Scaling.—This is a little operation, by which the
accumulation of a substance termed ‘tartar’ is
removed from the teeth. Tartar or salivary cal-
culus is of different densities and colours, and is a
deposit from the saliva. It is most et aye
found at the necks of the teeth, and lodges in

test rege 8 most commonly behind the lower
nt-teeth. Where it accumulates it is generally
accompanied by absorption of the gums, whereby
the necks of the teeth are exposed, and they become
loosened. Its removal is effected by little hoe-
shaped steel instruments, bent in a manner to reach
more easily those situations in which the tartar
is found. Their mode of use is by inserting the
point of any one of them under the free edge of
the mass of tartar, at the gum, and lifting it away
from the backs of the teeth to which it is adherent.
The teeth are then freed from any particles still
sticking about them, and their surface smoothed
by being rubbed with pumice-powder or chalk.
In certain di conditions of the structures
about the necks of the teeth, considerable purulent
discharges occur, and tartar frequently mes
largely deposited.
equiating.—The teeth of the second, or per-
manent or adult set, are very liable to be crowded
and misplaced, one crerteppn x the other, or those
of the upper jaw falling behind those of the lower
when the mouth is closed, thus producing the pro-
minent condition of the under jaw denominated
‘under-hung.’ To remedy these defects, a variety
of means have been adopted by dentists ; the prin-
ciple upon which all of them act, however, being
that of pressing the displaced tooth or teeth into
the natural position. ris, of course, requires that
room or space should exist for them to be thus
adjusted ; and where this is not the case, the usual
procedure is to remove one or more of the back-
teeth, or any others which it is less desirable to
preserve. In other cases the dental arch itself is
malformed, and may be enlarged by lated
pressure so as to afford more accommodation for
the teeth, as well as to improve its contour, Some
considerable time is necessary to complete the
regulation of misplaced teeth ; and even after they
have assumed their proper position, they require
to be carefully maintained there, otherwise a
tendency to resume their former irregularity soon
manifests itself.

Stopping or Filling.—This is one of the most
important and delicate operations the dentist has
to perform. The first step to be taken in filling or
‘stopping’ a tooth, is to clear away all decayed
and decaying substance. For this purpose, a
number of slender digging and excavating steel
instruments, termed ‘excavators,’ are required.
The ‘dental-engine’ is another valuable means
of preparing the cavity for filling, and acts by
means of small drills and file-headed points rapidly
rotating, so as to cut away what is d of

762

DENTISTRY

the tooth substance. With these, the hollow in
the tooth is scooped out and thoroughly cleaned.
If pain be occasioned by this process, the obtund-
ing of the tooth’s sensitiveness, or ‘ destroying the
nerve,’ as it is called, had better at once be resorted
to. This is performed in several ways. Where
the tooth is single-fanged, as in front-teeth, the
nerve, or more correctly the pulp, may be removed
by passing a slender broach, or square and pointed
brad-shaped, or slender serrated steel probe up
into the central cavity of the tooth, with a slight
rotary motion, so as to break up and remove the
pulp. Where this cannot be done at once the best
plan is to destroy the pulp by some caustic applica-
tion, such as arsenious acid, chloride of zinc, car-
bolic acid, &e., carefully applied, a variety of other
substances being used for the same purpose.

The cavity being properly shaped and cleaned
out until its walls are of sound and hard tooth-
bone, is to be well dried, and the plug of stopping-
material inserted. Various substances are em-

loyed for this purpose, and the mode of using each
is somewhat different. For temporary stoppings,
pure gutta-percha is a serviceable material. A
quantity sufficient to fill the cavity, and somewhat
more, is to be gently warmed over a spirit-lamp—
not in hot water—and when quite plastic is to be
firmly pressed with a blunt-pointed stopping-instru-
ment or ‘plugger’ into all the interstices of the
hollow in the tooth—more and more being pressed
in, until the surface of the plug so formed is on
a level with the surface of the tooth, when all
oe re Mes portions should be removed, and the
solid plug smoothly finished. Osteo-plastie fillings
consist of varieties of the metallic oxychlorides and
phosphates. They are inserted in a soft condition
into the tooth, where they harden in the course of a
few minutes.

Another variety of stopping-material consists of
amalgams of different kinds. Many absurd state-
ments have been made regarding the evil effects of
amalgam stoppings, but the only real disadvantage
attending their use is shrinkage, and that many of
them get black in the mouth, and discolour the
tooth, while some that do not get black are friable,
and crumble away in a short space of time. Some
of those containing copper exercise a beneficial
action on the tooth-bone, but darken its colour
very much. The amalgam is rubbed up with mer-
cury to a firm, plastic consistence, and carefully
introduced into the dried cavity in the same way
as the gutta-percha plug.

Gold-stopping is an operation of a much more
complicated and difficult escription. The materials
used here are either gold-foil—that is, thick gold-
leaf-—or the peculiar form in which gold exists
known as sponge-gold ; or again, ‘pellets’ of gold
made up in a soft spongy condition of various sizes
ready for use. In stopping a tooth with gold, even
more care is necessary in preparing the cavity than
what has been already inculcated. Its shape and
condition must now be particularly taken into
account, and the nearer it approaches to a cylin-
drical form the better. Various modes of pack-
ing the gold are adopted according to two con-
ditions in which gold exists—namely adhesive,
where each portion can be welded to the other ;
or non-adhesive, where they are securely fixed
merely by tightly wedging them together. Non-
adhesive gold can be made adhesive by _heat-
ing it to redness. The surface of a gold plug,
formed in any of these ways, should be well con-
solidated by hard pressure with a blunt plugger,
or lightly hammered with a suitable mallet, and
the superfluous portion being removed, it ought to
he burnished until it assumes a brilliant. metallic
lustre.

Lemedies.—Many remedies, more or less service-

-of the root or fan

able, are in use for what is termed toothache
—a disorder which, however, is not always one
and the same in its nature. Their intention,
in general, is either to destroy the nervous fibres
existing in a tooth, or to narcotise and render them
insensible. Among those acting in the former
manner are such as creasote, arsenious acid, carbolice
acid, pepsine, chloride of zine, nitrate of silver,
alum, tannin, &c.; among those acting in the
latter mode are chicrueoriy danmenaaae ether, spirit
of camphor, menthol, cocaine, &c. In all eases the
decayed cavity should previously be well cleaned
out, otherwise the remedy employed may be alto-
gether prevented from reaching the spot where it
is intended to act.

Extraction,—This is the principal surgical opera-
tion falling to the dentist. It is performed by
means of instruments adapted to the special
peculiarities of the tooth requiring removal, or
to the circumstances in which it exists. The
great matter is, that each tooth should be ex-
tracted in accordance with its anatomical configu-
ration ; and to accomplish this of course requires
an intimate knowledge of the natural form proper
to each of these organs individually ; without this,
it is apne to extract any tooth upon a correet
principle. The tooth is grasped, as far as the
instrument can be made to do so, by that portion
which just emerges from, or
perhaps which is just within, the socket; it is
then loosened, not exactly by pulling, but rather
by moving it in a lateral or in a rotatory manner,
in strict accordance with the respective character
of fang possessed ; and finally, on its being thus
detached from its connection with the jaw, it is,
with very little force, easily lifted from its socket.

Anesthetics are employed in the extraction of
teeth in the same manner as for other surgical
operations, where it is desirable to abolish pain.
See AN&STHESIA. Neither ether nor chloroform
should be given by inexperienced hands, nor should
both the giving of the anzesthetic and the extraction
be attempted by one individual on any occasion.
Nitrous oxide or laughing-gas is of much service,
answering all the purposes of chloroform or ether
in short operations. A combination of two or
more of these anesthetics has been employed with
apparent success, such as nitrous oxide with ether.

reezing the gum, the injection into it of cocaine,
and other modes of inducing insensibility, local or
general, have been proposed from time to time, but
ey after another has been abandoned as unservice-
able.

(2) Mechanical Dentistry.—The various con-
ditions of the mouth requiring the adaptation
of artificial teeth, range from cases where only
one tooth may be wanting, to those where not a
single tooth remains in the jaw, above or below.
Accordingly, artificial teeth are spoken of as partial
or complete sets—a partial set being one for either
upper or lower jaw, where some of the natural
teeth still remain; a complete set being one for
either jaw, where none are left, or for both jaws,
when both are in such circumstances.

The transplantation of the teeth of another in-
dividual is a very old usage revived every now
and again, and equally often falling into desuetude ;
and implantation is a recent modification of the
process. : :

The simplest form of partial sets is what is
termed a pivoted tooth. This is an artificial tooth
fixed in the mouth upon the fang or root of one
whose crown has been lost by decay or otherwise.
The most usual mode of procedure is as follows :
An artificial tooth, as near as possible to the colour |
and form of that to be replaced, is selected. This
artificial tooth used to be the crown of a natural
human tooth corresponding, to that lost, but is

DENTISTRY

763

now one made in imitation of this, in a species of

ttery-ware called mineral teeth. Usually this
Noth accurately fitted to the root by means of a
Id pin, inserted into the open central canal exist-
in the root, the other extremity of the pin
attached to the substitute tooth,

ere more than one tooth is required, and

occasionally even where only one is necessary, a
‘plate’ or ‘base’ is very exactly fitted either to the
gum and palate as in ‘suction’ sets, or to the
remaining teeth where they are to be the supports,
more especially in what is called crown and bridge
work ; and to this base the artificial teeth required
are fitted and fixed.
_ This ‘base’ is erg made of gold, silver,
or platinum plate, of the thickness of card-board
of vulcanised caoutchouc or vulcanite, or of celluloid
—-a compound of camphor and gun-cotton. An
exact model of the gum and other parts upon
which the plate is to rest is obtained by intro-
ducing unset Paris plaster, beeswax, or other
modelling compound, softened by previous heat-
ing, into the patient’s mouth, and pressing it
forcibly upon those parts of which an impres-
sion is desired. On removing the wax or other
substance from the mouth, Paris plaster is poured
r. into the mould thus procured, and on its hard-
: ening, or ‘setting,’ this plaster-cast presents an
exact counterpart of the gum. It is upon this
;
;
|

plaster-model that all the subsequent operations

are performed in fitting the artificial set.
etallic-plate Sets.—Where the framework lying
+ ag the gum is to be of gold or silver plate, or the
like, it is necessary to Apap besides the plaster-
model, a metal one. This metal-model is generally
cast in zine, gun-metal, or some such material ; and
a counter-model of a softer metal, generally lead,
is taken from this again, so that a complete pair
; of dies is in this way procured. The gold or other
late, cut of a convenient size, is then stamped
tween the two metallic dies, until assuming the
precise form desired. It is then trimmed, and any
more delicate adjustments made upon it, such as
fitting and soldering bands or clasps to those parts
where it is to embrace any teeth remaining in the
mouth. The mode of fastening the teeth to the
plate varies. One kind of teeth has a tube ex-
tending along their whole length, and these are
fastened by means of a ey fixed to the plate, and
passing up the tube. The other kind is provided
with short platinum pins, fixed in the material of
the tooth during its manufacture, to which pins a
piece of gold or other plate is soldered, or a mass of
gold fused upon them, and this, again, soldered to

the framework of the set.

Another form of these plate sets or artificial
dentures is where the plate—generally of platinum
—has an arrangement suited for fusing a siliceous
material to it and the teeth, so as to form an

artificial gum. This is termed ‘continuous gum
work,’ and i bar 3 effective although it has its
disadvantages. metimes vuleanite sets are

| mounted with continuous gum work.

y Vulcanite Sets. —The first step in the manufacture
of a vulcanite set of teeth is to make a pattern set
in wax, with the mineral teeth fixed in the wax.
This pattern set is made upon and fitted to the
plaster-model, and is adjusted to the wearer’s mouth
precisely as if it were the set to be worn. When
everything is thus prepared, a duplicate of the wax-
set is made in vuleanite—the vulcanite replacing the
wax, and the mineral teeth being retained as they
were. The process by which the vulcanite is made
to take the place of the wax consists in imbedding
the pattern set in Paris plaster, so that the inclos-
ing mould of it, thus secured, may be separable into
at least two oir On these being taken asunder,
the wax of the pattern set is melted out with boil-

ing water, leaving the teeth in situ. The wax is
then replaced by raw vuleanite, which, on the
mould being reclosed, is subjected to the usual
rocess of vulcanising.

A base which is now sometimes used is cheoplasty,
or cast-metal, an alloy usually of tin and bismut
This base is especially adapted for mouths in which
the lower alveolar ridge is very flat, as its great
weight tends to keep the denture in position. The
method of construction is the same, in the pre-
liminary stages, as for a vuleanite set. After the
wax been boiled out, the two halves of the
mould are placed together, and the melted metal
is a in.

ental Appliances.—The manufacture of dental
apparatus is a very large and important one, and
is carried on principally in London and the United
States. A great many of the most important pro-
cesses are mainly due to American invention or
development. egg ag among these are the pro-
cess of vulcanising, the dental-engine, the oak na
dam, mineral teeth, the introduction of nitrous-
oxide gas, and perhaps also the great improvements
in the modern operating-chair. The introduction
of the vulcanite and mineral teeth has been
the means of bringing the benefits of dentistry
within the reach of thousands who could not
afford the expense of gold and silver plates. The
dental-engine is an ingenious little machine,
whereby the action of a treadle, conveyed through
a flexible arm, gives a rotary motion to a drill or
burr, for operating in the patient’s mouth. Eleec-
tricity has recently been introduced as a motor for
the dental-engine and other purposes.

To show how elaborately every possible require-
ment of the dentist is provided for by the manu-
facturers, we may give a few instances. Most
makers offer a choice from about a hundred
varieties of forceps for the extraction of teeth; the
number of drills and burrs for the dental-engine
provided by one maker for selection approaches
three hundred; while a manufacturer in Phila-
delphia keeps in_ stock nearly six hundred
varieties of the ‘plugger’ (instruments for stop-
ping teeth). There is besides an equally liberal
choice in excavators, scalers, &c., while the varieties
in the makes of teeth are innumerable. It has
been estimated that sixteen thousand ounces of
fine gold are annually used for filling teeth ; ten
millions of mineral teeth are annually disposed of
throughout the civilised world; and for the im-
plantation of these in the mouth, independent of
gold and other bases, sixteen tons of rubber are
annually required.

For a more detailed account of dentistry, we
must refer to the numerous and beautifully illus-
trated works specially devoted to the subject, such
as Litch’s System of Dentistry, Tomes’s Dental
Surgery, Taft's Operative Dentistry, Richardson’s
Mechanical Dentistry ; with the lesser works of
Coleman, Hunter, Oakely Coles, J. Smith, Sewill,
Rymes, and others. ?

Laws as to Dentistry.—In 1878 an act entitled
the Dentists Act was passed with a view of
amending the laws relating to dental practitioners.
In terms of this act, no one except qualified medi-
cal practitioners and those bon le engaged in
the practice of dentistry at the time of the act's

ng can take or use the title ‘dentist,’ or any
title signifying that he is registered, under a pen-
alty of £20. And in future any person desiring
to | Breather a dentist must undergo a certain course
of study, and have taken a degree or license. The
curriculum of study and the conduct of the exam-
ination are under the regulations of the General
Council of Medical Education ; and various dental
hospitals and schools have been established for the
instruction of the dental student. The degree in

764 ‘DENTITION

_ DENUDATION

Great Britain and Ireland is L.D.S. (Licentiate in
Dental Surgery). The only foreign degrees (both
American) qualifying for registration in Britain
are D.M.D. (Harvard) and D.D.S. (Michigan).
In 1888 there were in practice in Great Britain and
Ireland 977 licentiates under the new act, and 3889
practitioners registered as having been in practice
efore 1878.

Dentition. See TEETH, TEETHING, HORSE.

D’Entrecasteaux Islands, since 1884 part
of the British protectorate of New Guinea, lie north
of the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea.
With an area of 1083 sq. m., they comprise three
chief islands separated by narrow channels. They
are named after the French admiral and explorer,
Bruni D’Entrecasteaux (1739-93), who visited these
waters in 1792. His name is also preserved in
D’ENTRECASTEAUX POINT on the south-west coast
of Western Australia; and in D’ENTRECASTEAUX
CHANNEL, separating the south of Tasmania from
Bruné Island.

Denudation, in Geology, means the laying
bare of underlying rocks by the removal of super-
ficial matter, and also the process by which the
earth’s surface is broken up and the loose material
carried away. The more important agents of
denudation are wind, rain, running water (springs,
underground streams, brooks, and rivers), frost,
snow, ice (glaciers), the sea (waves, breakers,
currents), plants, and animals. The action of
wind is seen in the erosion of rocks produced by the
sand and grit which in certain dry bag is swept
by the winds against projecting rocks, an action
often resulting in the undermining of cliffs and the
downfall of rock-masses. The sand produced by
the superficial disintegration of rocks is carried
forward and heaped up in the form of dunes or
sandhills (see DRIFT). Rain is also a potent agent
of denudation, its action being both chemical and
mechanical. Rocks are more or less altered and
decayed, and the decomposed materials carried off
in solution by rain-water. The more soluble rocks,
such as rock-salt, gypsum, and limestone, readily
succumb, but there are very few rocks indeed
which are not more or less acted upon chemically
by rain. So that in many places the rocks are
thus ‘weathered’ to considerable depths, the
decomposed crusts varying in thickness from a
mere line up to many feet or even yards. The
mechanical action of rain consists chiefly in the
sweeping away of this disintegrated material,
which often accumulates in hollows, forming what
is called: rain-wash. Running water acts also
chemically and mechanically. Thus, the rain that
sinks underground and rises to the surface again in
springs, brings about many changes in_ rocks.
Immense quantities of mineral matter are brought
up in solution, and thus, in time, underground
cavities are formed, especially in the more soluble
rocks. In regions of calcareous rocks, the whole
drainage is sometimes conducted underground, the
ingulfed streams and rivers acting both chemi-
cally and mechanically, and giving rise to a large
series of subterranean tunnels (see CAVE.) The
action of underground water often brings about
local subsidences, falls of rock, and great landslips.
The denuding action of superficial terrestrial waters
is seen in the excavation of gullies, ravines, and
river-valleys, one of the most remarkable examples
of river erosion. being the Grand Cafion of the
Colorado (q.v.), which is a chasm nearly 400 miles
long, with approximately vertical walls rising to a
height of 4000 to 7000 feet above the bed of the
river,

Frost acts with gut intensity at high levels and
in high latitudes, but even in temperate regions its
action is very marked and productive of great disin-

tegration of rocks. Indeed, in the production of
the weathered crusts of rocks, frost is hardly less
active than rain. It is in arctic and mountain-
ous countries, however, that its action is most
conspicuous. The rocks under its influence are
ruptured and shattered to such a degree that
frequently the parent rock-masses become buried
under shivered heaps of their own debris. Glaciers
are likewise powerful denuding agents. They are
not only instrumental in transporting the rock-
rubbish which is showered down upon them from
overhanging cliffs, &c. (see BOULDERS), but by
means of the blocks and debris which they
drag forward on their beds, they grind, furrow,
and smooth the rocks over which: they flow.
The peculiarly muddy character of the water
that escapes from the terminal front of a
glacier shows how powerful this erosive action
must be, for the mud carried in suspension is
simply the fine flour of the rocks which has resulted
from the grinding action. The sea, again, acts
like a great horizontal saw, which is continually
rasping away the rocks along the coast. Cliffs are
in this way undermined, rock-falls take place, and
the tumbled rock-masses are by-and-by pounded
down into shingle, gravel, and sand, which are
hurled by the waves against the cliffs, and thus ere
long the latter is again undermined, and further
root falls take place.

The chief denuding agents have now been men-
tioned, but the destructive action of plants and
animals cannot be ignored. Thus plants aid in the
demolition of rocks by sending their roots into rock-
crevices and wedging the masses asunder, and hence
they aid the freer percolation of water, and prepare
the way for the better action of frost. Vegetation
also, by attracting rain, tends to increase the flow
and erosive action of streams and rivers, while
its decomposition yields to rain those organic
acids which so greatly increase the chemical
action of that agent. The destructive action of
animals, again, is seen in the weakening of rocks
on a sea-coast produced by the drilling and boring
of Saxicava, Pholas, &e., and by annelids, echini,
and sponges. Rocks so weakened fall more readily
before the battering of waves and breakers. Thus,
the whole surface of the land, from the summits of
mountains down to the sea-coast, is subject to
denudation. Little change may be perceptible in a
lifetime or even during many centuries, but an ex-
amination of the rocks shows that many thousands
of feet of solid strata have been gradually removed
from the surface of a country. Thus, in many
districts where faults occur, no inequality at the
surface betrays the presence of dislocations; the
whole area has been reduced by denudation to the
same level, hundreds or even thousands of feet of
strata having been removed from the upceast side
of the faults (see DISLOCATION). Some attempts
have been made to form a rough estimate of the
rate at which the general surface of the land is
reduced by denudation. As the sediment of gravel,
sand, and mud which a river carries down to the
sea represents the actual loss sustained by the sur-
face of the area drained by it and its tributaries, it
is obvious that if we could correctly estimate the
amount of sediment transported to the sea by the
rivers of any given area, we should at the same
time ascertain the rate at which that area is
denuded. Observation has shown that this denuda-
tion proceeds more rapidly in some regions than in
others, and, therefore, that the work of no in-
dividual river can be taken as a standard by which
to estimate the general rate of erosion all the world
over. Much depends on physical and climatic con-
ditions, and much on the geological structure of a
country and the compete: of its prevalent rock-
masses, Thus, the Mississippi is said to remove

CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE, GARDEN OF THE GODS.
Showing Denudation, the Result of Erosive Action.

Vol. IIl., page 764,

DENVER

DEPOSIT 765

from the general surface of its basin 1 foot in
6000 years, the Rhone | foot in 1528 years, the Po
1 foat-in 729 years, To the matter mechanically
So ger gee in the water or swept forward on the
of rivers we have to add the matter carried
in solution, which in many rivers is very consider-
able. Rivers like the Khine, the Danube, the
Elbe, and the Rhone, contain in every 6000 parts
Se, one of dissolved mineral substance.
These rivers, therefore, seawards their own
t of dissolved matter in 6000 years. Thus,
subaerial denudation progresses more rapidly than
we should at first be led to suspect, and those
geologists who have made a special study of this
uestion do not hesitate to assert that the action
the subaerial agents of denudation is far more
effective than that of the sea, for whereas the action
of the latter is confined to a narrow belt of land,
that of the former has no such limitation. The
whole land surface is exposed to attack, and the
loose material carried down to the sea far exceeds
in amount the waste of the coast-line by waves
and breakers. See Playfair’s J//ustrations of the
Huttonian Theory, as ’s Principles of Geology,
Croll’s Climate and Time, and the standard text-
books of geology.

Denver, the capital of Colorado, is situated on
the South Platte River, 922 miles W. of St Louis.
It lies on a level plain, 5196 feet above the sea,
beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and
deep blue shoulders of the Rocky Mountains.
Denver was founded on a barren waste, dry and
treeless, in 1858, and the close of the civil war
saw it a rising frontier town ; in 1870 the popula-
tion was 4759; in 1880, 35,629; in 1890, 106,713;
and in 1900, 133,859. In forty years the mining-
camp had been transformed into the ‘Queen
City of the Plains,’ with stately buildings of brick
and yellow stone, and wide, shaded streets, pro-
vided with the electric light, and with horse, cable,
and electric tram-cars; and it has become the
meeting-point of a great network of railways, with
four direct routes to the east. It has an abundant
water-supply, with 50 miles of distributing mains ;
many of the houses are heated by steam, supplied
by a company owning 5 miles of mains ; and through
the resident portion streams of water course past
the* unpaved foot-ways. The clear invigorating
air and dry climate of Denver are famous; the
mean annual temperature is 48° F., and the rainfall
17 inches. Among the chief buildings are the
city-hall, a handsome court-house and t-office,
high school (1887), Episcopal cathedral, and the
state capitol (commenced in 1886), 383 feet long
by 313 wide; the town has also more than sixty
churches, a university, and a number of public
schools. Denver is the centre of a great agricul-
tural and mining district, and has a large trade in
cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. The value of its
manufactures in 1890—cottons and woollens, flour,
machinery, carriages, &c.—was stated at $30,500,000
(as against $20,000,000 in 1886). It is chiefly, how-
ever, to its position as the centre of a great mining
region that Denver owes its marvellous progress ;
the discovery, in 1878, of the fabulous wealth of the
Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration
from all parts of the continent. It has a United
States assaying mint, and is an important ore
market; the daily receipts of ore in some years
amounts to near 600 tons, and the product of its
great smelting-works is valued at about $25,000,000,
while much of the machinery used throughout the
state is manufactured here. Denver has several
suburbs, by which the total aoe ay is consider-
ably augmented. See also the article COLORADO.

Deoband, a town in the North-west Provinces
of India, 15 miles N. of Muzaffarnagar by rail, with

manufactures of fine cloth, and a trade in grain, j
sugar, and oil, More than half the inhabitants are
Mohammedans. Pop. 19,500.

Deodand. A personal chattel which was the
immediate and accidental occasion of the death of
a reasonable creature, was, by the law of England,
forfeited to the crown, in order that it might be
applied to pious uses, or given to God (Deo dan-
dum), as the term implies. The law of deodand
was abolished by statute in 1846.

Deodar, a petty native state in the Palanpur
Superintendency, Bombay presidency, with an
area of 440 sq. m., and about 25,000 inhabitants.
It is a flat, open plain, with sandy soil and a hot
climate ; there are no rivers, and the numerous

nds are not employed for irrigation. Clarified

utter is the only export.

Deodar. See CEDAR.

Deodorisers are chemical substances em-
ployed for the purpose of absorbing or destroying
the odoriferous principles evolved especially from
decomposing animal and vegetable matter. Thus,
freshly burned charcoal is a powerful deodoriser
because it absorbs sulphurous acid gas, ammonia,
and other odorous gases. The long to the
classes of substances known as Antiseptics (q.v.)
and Disinfectants (q.v.).

D’Eon, See Eon DE BEAUMONT.

Deontology (Gr. deon, ‘that which is bind-
ing,’ and logos, ‘a discourse’ ), a term for the science
of duty, Ethics (q.v.).

Deori, a town in Nagpur district, 40 miles 8. of
Sagar, and 1705 miles above sea-level. Pop. 7414.

wWeoxidation is the term applied to the process
of withdrawing the oxygen from a compound, as in
the reduction of the native peroxide of iron in the
smelting-furnaces to the condition of metallic iron.
On the small scale, in experimental inquiries, the
srocess of deoxidation may be carried on before the

lowpipe (q.v.), Where the inner or reducing flame
is essentially a deoxidising one.

Department (Fr. département), a term used
to denote a territorial division in France. Previous
to the Revolution, France was divided into pro-
vinces; but in 1790 a decree of the Assembly
ordered the abolition of the old provincial divisions
(34 in number), and the redistribution of the land
into 83 departments. During the year 8 of the
Revolution, these were increased to 98 ; in 1814 the
Empire consisted of 130; and the war of 1870-71
reduced it from 89 to 87, including the sadly dimin-
ished department of Haut-Rhin. The departments,
each presided over by a prefect, are again sub-
divided into arrondissements. See FRANCE.

Dephlogisticated Air. See PHLoGIsTON.

Depilatories (Lat. depilo, ‘I pull out the
hair’) are chemical agents employed for removing
superfluous hair from the skin. They were exten-
sively used by the ancients, but are now restricted
in their employment to the face, and to the removal
of the hair from the scalp in the treatment of
certain diseases. They should only be used under
medical advice.

Deponent, a term in Latin Grammar applied
to si having a passive form but an active signi-
fication. They are so called because they, as it
were, lay down (Lat. depono) or dispense with the
signification proper to their form. Such verbs had
all originally a reflexive meaning, like the middle
voice in Greek verbs ; thus, vescor, ‘I eat,’ means
radically, ‘I feed myself."—Deponent is also used
for a person who makes a Deposition (q.v.).

Deposit, a term much used in Geology, to
characterise those rocks which have been formed
from matter that has settled from suspension or

766 ‘DEPOSIT

DE QUINCEY

solution in water. Thus, sandstone and shale are
rocks composed of materials which have settled
from suspension in water; while stalactites and
stalagmites have been precipitated from solution
in water. Deposits are characterised according
to the conditions under which they were formed,
as marine, lacustrine, fluviatile, chemical, ahd so
forth. See SEA, OozE, ABYSMAL ACCUMULATIONS.

Deposit, in English law, is a branch of bail-
ments, defined by Story to be ‘a bailment of
goads, to be kept by the bailee without reward, and

elivered according to the object and purpose of
the trust.’ See BAILMENT.

Deposition, the testimony of a witness set
down in writing. Depositions are taken either by
a judge or by a commissioner specially appointed
by him for that purpose. The questions to which
the depositions are answers are usually put by the
legal representatives of the parties to the suit,
under the control of the court or commissioner,
and the answers are taken down by the clerk of
court, or by a clerk specially appointed for the
purpose. It is a rule in the laws of evidence of all
countries that the deposition cannot be read where
the witness might be himself produced, because his
oral testimony is the best evidence, and secondary
evidence is never admissible.

Dep6t, in its military sense, is a place where
stores, horses, or men are collected before being
forwarded to the regiment or corps requiring them.
By the Military Forces Localisation Act of 1872,
the United Kingdom was divided into seventy
brigade depdts. These were afterwards called
regimental districts and re-numbered. See ARMY,
Vol. I. p. 435.

Depression, or Dir. See Horizon.

De Profundis (‘out of the depths’), the first
words of the Vulgate version of the 129th psalm
(A.V. 130th), which is one of the seven ‘ peni-
tential psalms,’ and forms a portion of the litur.
of the Catholic Church, and is sung when the
bodies of the dead are committed to the grave.
A tender melancholy pervades the psalm, which,
however, brightens at the close under the conviction
that with God there is ‘ plenteous redemption.’

Deptford, a town on the south bank of the
Thames, 44 miles below London Bridge, but prac-
tically a part of London, and represented in its
council by two members. In 1885 it was consti-
tuted a parliamentary borough, returning one
member. Of the two parishes, St Nicholas,
wholly in Kent, and close on the river-bank,
has a rateable value of upwards of £50,000, while
St Paul's parish, which is to a great extent modern
and residential, stretches partly into Surrey, and
has a total rateable value of close upon half
a million. A royal dockyard, dating from the
time of Henry VIII., was honoured by repeated
visits from Queen Elizabeth, who here knighted
Captain Francis Drake when he returned from his
voyage round the world. It was closed in 1869.
Twenty-one acres of its site were bought by the
corporation of London for £94,640, and were at a
further outlay of £230,000 fitted up as a foreign
cattle-market. Taking the year at 365 days, sheep
and cattle are killed here at the rate of 93 every
hour. The Royal Victualling Yard is also here,
and as a specimen of its capacity, it may be
stated that within a few hours of the official
notification, 1500 tons of provisions were de-
spatched for the relief of the starving inhabitants
of Paris on the capitulation in February 1871. The
Trinity House Corporation have property here ; and
for sixteen years before his death, the Duke of
Wellington as Master went in procession to St
Nicholas Church with the Elder Brethren. Since

then the ceremony has been disused, and the annual
celebration takes place at Trinity Hall, London.
Deptford was long famous for horticulture, but
the gardens have mostly been built over or
used for railway purposes. There is little ship-
building now, but the General Steam Naviga-
tion Company employ a great many men here,
and there are large and famous marine engineering ~
establishments. In 1888-89 the Electric Light-
ing Company spent hundreds of thousands of
ounds in erecting buildings and laying down plant
or supplying London with light. _Peter the Great
worked dare as a shipwright. Lord Howard of
Effingham, John Evelyn, author of the Diary,
Admiral Benbow, Grinling Gibbons, Captain Fen-
ton the associate of Frobisher, and other famous
ersons, lived here; and Christopher Marlowe the
dramatist, was killed here, and is buried in St
Nicholas churchyard. Deptford is divided from
Greenwich by the Ravensbourne, and over the
creek there is a bridge where formerly the depe ford
crossed the river. The lower portions of Deptford
were improved in 1888-89, at a cost of about
£100,000 ; the upper portions, New Cross, Brockley,
and Hatcham, abound in pleasant residences. The
population has grown rapidly, from 27,896 in 1851
to 76,732 in 1881, and 101,326 in 1891.

Deputy, one who exercises power which pro-
perly belongs to another who has placed him in his
stead. The appeabpeyt of a deputy does not free
the principal from responsibility. See SHERIFF.

De Sains THOMAS, author of Confessions
of an English Opium-eater, and of many volumes
of essays, criticism, and narrative, was born in
Manchester on 15th August 1785. His father,
Thomas Quincey, was a linen-merchant with a

| turn for literature ; his mother, whose maiden name

was Penson, was a woman of superior position and
culture. Of eight children, Thomas was the fifth.
An elder brother of imaginative temperament
exercised much influence over him; and he records
that he was profoundly impressed in childhood by
the death of an infant sister. His early years were
open at a mansion built by his father near Man-
chester, named Greenhay ; there his father died of
consumption in 1792, leaving his widow and family
well provided for. Thomas attended school first
at Salford, then at Bath grammar-school, later
at Winkfield, Wiltshire, and lastly at Manchester
grammar-school. He was an apt scholar; he
could converse fluently in Greek at fifteen. In
1802, when he was seventeen years of age, his
health failed; and as his guardians refused to
remove him from school, he ran away, to wander
and study in Wales. He was allowed a guinea a
week; but restlessness and want of books and
of social intercourse impelled him towards London.
There, failing to raise money on his expectations,
he underwent singular experiences and privations,
related with picturesque power in the Confessions,
Ultimately he was sent to Worcester College,
Oxford, on the inadequate allowance of £100 a
year. He disliked and perhaps despised the uni-
versity system, and left in 1807.

It was in Oxford that De Quincey first re-
sorted to opium to allay pain; the use of the
drug for that purpose, and also as a mental stimu-
lant, aubecq vente became an overmastering and
lifelong habit. His mother had now settled
near Bath, and at Bristol De Quincey became
acquainted with Coleridge’s family; and through
that connection visited Wordsworth and Southey
at the Lakes. In 1808 he revisited Oxford ; then
went back to London, where he associated with
Knight, Lamb, Hazlitt, and other men of letters.
In 1809, having provided himself with an ample
library, he settled to a literary career at Grasmere.

a Pe SEPT

made him famous.

final

-and marvellous mastery of

i
‘7 “=

~DERAJAT

DERBY 767

—-weekl r published at Kendal, and was an
Di aististingnist

red contributor to Blackwood's Maga-

gine, the Quarterly Review, and other periodicals,
till, returning to London in 1821, his Confessions

appeared in the London Magazine, and at once
His nom de plume, ‘The Eng-
lish Opium-eater,’ was used till he came to
known by his proper name, in writing which he
assumed the Norman prefix de. From London he
returned to his wife and family at Grasmere, but
left Westmorland in 1828, and settled in
Edinburgh ; and there, or at Lasswade, near Edin-
h, with only an occasional visit to Glasgow,
he lived and worked till his death, on 8th Decem-
ber 1859. Blackwood’s, Tait’s Magazine, and
latterly Hogg’s Instructor, were for upwards of
twenty years the successive receptacles of his
brilliant though often diffuse and discursive
pa The Logic of Political Economy (1844),
a philosophical contribution to that study, and a
romantie story or novel, Klosterheim (1839)—his
sole and not very successful effort in regular
fiction—were issued as books; all his other

writings appeared in magazines.
No * sriodical’ writer of the 19th century holds
a like

h and apparently permanent place in
English literature with De doincags of several
collected editions of his works, the first was one
issued in America (1852-55), in 20 vols. ; a second,
revised by De Quincey, in 14 vols. ; another, ex-
tended, in 17 vols. ; and a fifth, in 1889-91, in 14
vols., ed. by Prof. Masson. De Quincey’s writings
range over a vast field of literary and semi-philo-
sophical speculation and discussion ; and there, as
well as in his narrative, historical, critical, and bio-

hical essays, almost faultless refinement of style
phrase are conspicuous
and charming. In criticism he is original and
acute, if not exhaustive or profound; in narrative he
marshals facts and incidents in the most picturesque
garb and order ; in a! ee he is always subtle,
and often vigorous. His playful fancy and wealth
of whimsical and humorous allusion enliven almost
every topic, and the daring conception and gorge-
ous colouring of his opium-haunted dreams are
not less admirable than the pomp and _ refine-
ment of the language in which he clothes those
weird and wondrous visions, De Quincey is, how-
ever, often distressingly diffuse and provokingly
addicted to complex involutions of phrase and
statement—parenthesis within parenthesis. He is
therefore at his best when those tendencies are
under control, as in ‘certain passages in the Con-
fessions, or in the splendid apostrophes—examples
of what he himself calls ‘impassioned prose ’—tha
glorify such papers as ‘Joan of Are.’ See Page's
(A. H. Japp’s) Life and Writings of De Quincey
(1877), and Memorials (2 vols. 1891); Masson’s De
Quincey (‘English Men of Letters’ series, 1881),
Selections (2 vols. 1888); Personal Recollections, by
the present writer (1886); Hogg’s De Quincey and
his Friends (1895).

Derajat’, the fluvial portion of Daman (q.v.)
itself a comparatively narrow strip in the Punjab,
between the Suliman Mountains and the Indus,
and which, when duly irrigated, is singularly fertile.
It is divided into four districts, and has an area of
20,300 sq. m., and a popalesies (1891) of 1,643,600.
—Dera Ghazi Khan, the capital of one of the dis-
tricts, is about 2 miles W. of the Indus, Pop.
27,886.—Dera Ismail Khan, capital of another
district, is 44 miles W. of the Indus. Pop. 26,884.

Derayeh, a town of Arabia, on the caravan
route between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf,
450 miles NE. of Mecca, was formerly the capital of
the Wahabis, and had a population of 60,000 prior
to 1819, when it was taken and nearly mae pig Se
Ibrahim Pasha, The capital was removed to ‘
6 miles ENE.; and at present the place consists of
five walled villages, built among the ruins, with
about 1500 inhabitants,

Derbend’, or Dersent (‘gateway’), a port
and capital of the Russian district of Daghestan,
on the west shore of the Caspian, 140 miles NW. of
Baku. It is charmingly situated among vineyards
and orchards and fields of maize and madder, on the
declivity of a branch of the Caucasus, which here
approaches very close to the water's edge. Derbend
is surrounded by ancient walls. The nope city
forms the citadel, and contains the splend ace
of the ancient khans, now the residence of the
Russian governor. The harbour is inaccessible to
all but small vessels; but a considerable trade is
done at the four large markets held here yearly.
Silk and cotton fabrics, earthenware, and weapons
are manufactured, and saffron is cultivated. Pop.
14,500. Derbend was for long considered the
key of Persia on the north-west side. It was
captured by the Arabs in 728, by the Mongols
in 1220, and frequently changed hands before it
bib Agra incorporated with Russian Caucasia
in 1813.

Derby, 2 parliamentary, municipal, and county
borough and manufacturing town, the capital of
Derbyshire, on the Derwent, 92 miles SE. of
Liverpool and 129 NNW. of London. The Roman
station of Derrentiowas at Little Chester, a northern
suburb of Derby. It was a oy hs borough in the
time of Edward the Confessor. Many early charters
were granted to the bailifis and burgesses of Derby ;
but it was not till 1638 that it was placed under
the jurisdiction of a mayor. It has sent two
maces to Parliament since 1295. The tower of
All Saints (1509-27) is a grand example of Per-
pendicular architecture, 175 feet high, exclusive
of the pinnacles, or 21 feet higher than the cele-
brated tower of Taunton. The Roman Catholic
church of St Mary (1835) is a good specimen
of Pugin’s work. The ancient chapel of St
Mary-on-the-Bridge still exists. The municipal
buildings are unattractive. There is a good free
library and well-filled local museum, occupy-
ing handsome and suitable buildings, the gift of
Mr M. T. Bass, for thirty-five years M.P. for
Derby. The grammar-school is a modern erection
but was founded in 1162. The choicely-plan
arboretum (16 acres), near the central railway
station, was the gift (1840) of Mr Joseph Strutt.
Derby is the headquarters of the Midland Railway
Company; their vast offices, storehouses, work-
shops, and engineering establishments employ over

men. Derby being the centre of a great
railway system, access to all parts of the kingdom
is direct, speedy, and frequent. Its manufactures
are silk, cotton, elastic web, lace, hosiery, iron,
lead, shot, spar, porcelain, marble, colours, and
chemicals. Silk, one of its a manufactures,
was begun here first in England by John Lombe in
1719. The mill that he then erected sti]! stands
on an island in the Derwent. Porcelain was
manufactured here by the Duesbury family from
1756 till 1814; and the Derby Crown Porcelain
Company has recently revived this beautiful
industry with much success, Richardson, the
novelist, ‘Wright of Derby,’ the painter, and
Herbert Spencer, were natives; and — is
identified with the ‘Stoniton’ of George Eliot's
Adam Bede. Pop. (1841) 32,741; (1881) 81,168;
(1891) 94,100.

768 DERBY

DERBY DAY

Derby, Eart orf, a title conferred in 1485 on
Thomas, second Lord Stanley, two months after
Bosworth Field, where he and his family had greatly
contributed to Richmond’s victory. The Stanleys
were descended from Adam de Aldithley, who
attended Duke William to England, and whose

randson, having married the heiress of Thomas
Stanley, of Stafford, exchanged the manor of Thalk
in that county, which he had received as his wife’s
marriage-portion, for that of Stoneley, in the county
of Derby, and afterwards assumed the surname of
Stanley. In 1405 Sir John Stanley, who had
married the heiress of Lathom, got a grant of the
Isle of Man (q.v.), which he and his descendants
ruled till 1736. James, seventh Earl of Derby
(1606-51), fought on the royalist side throughout
the Great Rebellion, and, taken prisoner after
Worcester, was beheaded at Bolton ; his countess,
Charlotte de la Trémouille, is famous for her
heroic defence of Lathom House (1644) and of the
Isle of Man (1651).

EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, fourteenth
EARL OF DERBY, was born in 1799, at Knowsley
Park, Lancashire. He was educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, where, in 1819, he gained
the Latin Verse prize (subject, Syracuse). He was
elected member of parliament for Stockbridge in
1820 ; in 1825 he married the second daughter of
the first Lord Skelmersdale ; and in 1826 he repre-
sented Preston, but lost his seat in 1830, on becom-
ing Chief-secretary for Ireland under the adminis-
tration of Earl Grey. A seat was soon found for
him at Windsor. e took a distinguished part in
the debates in favour of the Reform Bill, and
signalised his Irish administration by two bold
measures—one for National Education in Ireland,
and another relative to the Irish Church Temporal-
ities, which resulted in ten Irish bishoprics being
abolished. The grievance of church-rates and first-
fruits was also removed, and a graduated tax upon
benefices and bishoprics substituted. In 1833 he
became Secretary of State for the Colonies, and in
the same year carried the bill for emancipatin
slaves in the West Indies. In 1834, being alarme
by the success of Mr Ward’s motion for appropri-
ating the surplus of the Irish Church temporalities
to secular purposes, Mr Stanley seceded from the
Whigs, carrying with him Sir James Graham, the
Duke of Richmond, and the Earl of Ripon. In
November, upon the dismissal of the Melbourne
ministry, he declined to join the Peel administra-
tion, and the Stanleyites maintained an independ-
ent position for several years. He accepted, how-
ever, the colonial seals in 1841, and held them for
four years. In 1844 he resigned his seat for North
Laneashire, for which he had sat since 1832, and
was called to the Upper House in his father’s
barony of Stanley of Wickerstatfe, having for ten
years before borne the courtesy title of Lord
Stanley, through his father’s succession to the
earldom of Derby. In December 1845, when Sir
Robert Peel determined to repeal the corn laws, he
retired from the cabinet. In 1846 he put himself
at the head of the Protectionists, who, headed in
the Commons by Lord George Bentinck and Mr
Disraeli, waged a stout but ineffectual opposition
to the free-trade measures of Sir Robert Peel. He
was now regarded as the leader of the great Con-
servative party.

In 1851, on the death of his father, he suc-
ceeded to the earldom. In February 1852, on
the resignation of Lord John Russell, he was
intrusted with the formation of an administra-
tion, which was, however, displaced in Decem-
ber following by a hostile vote of the House of
Commons condemnatory of Disraeli’s budget.
On Wellington’s death (1852) he was_ elected
Chancellor of the University of Oxford. In Feb-

ruary 1858, when the Palmerston government
resigned on the rejection of the Conspiracy Bill,
he again became First Lord of the Treasury. At
the meeting of parliament in the following year,
his government brought forward a measure of
arliamentary reform. A hostile amendment
having been moved by Lord John Russell, and
carried, he dissolved parliament, and appealed to —
the country. When the new House of pan oe
reassembled in June 1859, a vote of want of con-
fidence was carried against his government, and he
resigned. He returned to power in 1866, and, in
conjunction with Disraeli, passed the Reform
measure of 1867. In 1868 he resigned the premier-
ship in favour of Disraeli. His last speech in
arliament was made (1869) in opposition to the
isestablishment of the Irish Church. He died
at Knowsley Park, Lancashire, October 23, 1869.
Lord Derby was styled in his day ‘the Rupert of
debate,’ and stood in the very first rank of parlia-
mentary speakers. His power of invective was
almost unequalled, and his vehement contentions
with O’Connell on the Repeal of the Union did
much to diminish the influence of the Irish
agitator. Besides being an accomplished scholar,
he was a keen sportsman and a popular landlord.
But he cared little for office, and more than once
injured the fortunes of his party by declinin
to form a ministry, notably on the fall of Lor
Aberdeen in 1855. Lord Derby (who was offered
the crown of Greece in 1862-63) published in 1864
a blank-verse translation of Homer’s Iliad. See
Lives by Kebbel (1890), and Saintsbury (1892).
EDWARD HENRY SMITH STANLEY, fifteenth
EARL OF DERBY, K.G., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
eldest son of the above, was born in 1826, and edu-
cated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he took firsts in classics and mathematics,
In 1848 he was elected member of parliament for
King’s Lynn, and in 1852 was appointed Under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs in his father’s first
ministry. After declining to join Lord Palmerston’s
ministry in 1855, Lord Stanley became Secretary
for India in his father’s second administration
(1858-59), and carried the important measure which
transferred the government of India from the Com-
pany to the crown. He was Foreign Secretary in
the third Derby and _ first Disraeli ministries
(1866-68). He succeeded his father in the earl.
dom in 1869. In 1874 he again became Foreign
Secretary under Disraeli; but resigned in March
1878, when the majority of the cabinet determined
to support the tottering cause of Turkey by calling
out the reserves and occupying Cyprus. After
holding aloof from polities for several months, he
definitely joined the Liberal party in 1880, and was
Secretary for the Colonies from 1882 to 1885. In
1886 he declined to follow Mr Gladstone on the
question of Home Rule for Ireland, allying himself
with the Unionist party. Lord Derby, who was
Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1868-71, and
of Edinburgh University in 1875-80, died at Knows-
ley, 2st April 1893. His Speeches and Addresses,
privately printed in 1893, were published with a
Memoir by Mr Lecky in 1894. His speeches on
economicé Teatienes are profound and convincing.
Derby Day is the second day, the Wednesday,
of the Summer Meeting which takes pen at Epsom
in Surrey, usually towards the end of May, but
sometimes early in June. Upon this day, the most
important on the list, and that on which the best
horses run, the famous Derby stakes, instituted by
the Earl of Derby in 1780, are contended for.
When the first Derby was run for, there were only
36 subscribers at 50 guineas each (with 25 guineas
forfeit in case of non-starters); and for the first
half-century the subscribers never numbered 90;
but after 1830 there was a rapid increase, and in

DERBYSHIRE

DEREHAM 769

1879 (which completed the century) there were 278
_ subscribers, and the value of the stakes exceeded
£7000, Subsequently the numbers diminished till,
‘in 1888, there were only 158 subscribers, and no
more than nine horses ran, while the value of the
stakes was £3675. In order to increase the com-

tors in future, the conditions of the race were
altered. Since 1825 (when the subscription

was changed from guineas to sovereigns) the fee
has been £50 each, with £25 forfeit in case of non-
starters; and the value of the stakes has varied
with the number of subscribers. Under the new
regulations Koeating into operation with the Derby
of 1890) there is a fixed prize of not less than £5000
for the winner, and smaller prizes for second and
third; and any surplus from the entrance fees
will also go to the winner. The full subscription
is still £50, but there are two forfeits—viz. £10
only if the declaration of forfeit is made about
eighteen months prior to the race, or £25 if made
about six months before the race. The entries are
made about two years before the race, when the
animals are yearlings. The alteration of conditions
= attractive to racehorse owners, as the entries
r the Derby of 1890 rose to 238. The Derby Day
is a great English holiday. To be present at

Epsom on that occasion London empties itself, and
proceeds to the Downs by modes of locomotion the
most heterogeneous. For hours a continuous
stream of carriages, gigs, dog-carts, vans, and
vehicles of every description moves tumultuously
along the road to Epsom. The benches of parlia-
ment are deserted ; people of every condition come
in countless numbers from all districts, and huge
trains arrive every few minutes at the station,
bringing their thousands, until the entire Downs
are covered with a vast moving mass. At the
Derby in 1861, the course, which is a mile and a
half in length, was gone over in 2 minutes 43
seconds—the swiftest running, by 2 seconds, ever
known on that course up to that time. In 1864 the
race was run in the same time, although the horses
carried 3 lb. more weight than before. In 1887 and

in in 1888 the race was run in 2 minutes 43
seconds, although 4 lb. more had been added to the
weight. When the Derby was first instituted the
weights were 8 stone for colts, and 7 stone 11 Ib. for
fillies; but they have been raised several times,
until now colts have to carry 9 st. and fillies 8 st.
91b. It was run in 1896 in 2 minutes 42 seconds,

Derbyshire, an inland county of the north
midland district of England, lies between York-
shire on the north and Leicestershire on the south,
and is flanked on the east by Nottinghamshire, and
on the west by Staffordshire. The shire is of an
irregular triangle shape, with the apex to the
south; its test breadth is 34 miles, and its
length 56; its area extends over 1029 sq. m., or

658,624 acres. Pop. (1841) 272,202; (1861) 339,327 ;
(1881) 461,914; (1891) 520,886. Derbyshire is the
twentieth of the English counties in area, and the
nineteenth in population. The surface of the county
is much divetsihi
part flat, the east of a varied and undulating char-
acter, but the north exceptionally hilly and rugged.
The high land of the north, usually known as
the Peak (which is the name of a district and not of
any particular point or mountain), is the southern
termination of the Pennine chain, and forms the
watershed between the Trent and the Mersey. The
chief summits are Kinder Scout, 2082 feet; Axe
Edge, 1810 feet ; Blakelow Stones, Mam Tor, and
Lord’s Seat, all about 1700 feet. North Derbyshire
is justly celebrated for its picturesque scenery,
which chiefly centres in the valleys made through
the limestone by the rivers Derwent and Wye.
Matlock and Buxton, where there are warm
mineral springs, are the two chief places of resort.

153

affairs ; its chie

ed, the south being for the most |

Other chief towns are the four municipal boroughs
of Derby, Chesterfield, Glossop, and Ilkeston (1887)
and Ashbourne, Bakewell, Belper, and Wirksworth.
The county is divided into six hundreds: High Peak,
north-west; Scardale, north-east; Wirkseworth,
west; Appletree, south-west; Morleston and
Litchurch, east; and Repton and Gresley, south.
Derbyshire now returns nine members to parlia-
ment ; two for the borough of a ye and seven for
the county, who sit pespectivay or Chesterfield,
High Peak, Mid Derbyshire, Ilkeston, North-
eastern Derbyshire, Southern, and Western, The
county council consists of 80 members.

In addition to important coal-mining, chiefly in
the eastern division, Derbyshire is chaguterty
wealthy for its area in a diversity of minerals and
metals ; iron, lead, zinc, manganese, copper, e .
sum, pipeclay and chert for potteries, mar ie,
fluor-spar, and alabaster being all worked within
its boundaries. The chief manufactures are cotton,
silk, elastic web, worsted, metallic goods, porcelain
and pottery, and marble-spar ornaments. Thongh
more a manufacturing and mining than an agricul-
tural county, Derbyshire is not undistinguished for
its pastoral and earerens | cashper; The chief
crops are wheat, barley, and oats. Of the total
area, 78 per cent, is under crops of all kinds, bare
fallow, and grass, There is much permanent pas-
ture and Jarge sheep-walks in the Peak district.
Several dairies of repute are in the south of the
county, and their pene is chiefly taken by
recently established cheese-factories on the American
principle. LEcclesiastically Derbyshire is now an
archdeaconry of the new diocese of Southwell, and
is divided into nineteen rural deaneries, and into
140 parishes. There are ruins of abbeys at Dale
and Beauchief, and peculiarly fine churches at
Melbourne, Ashbourne, and Tideswell. The Saxon
crypt and chancel of Repton, and the churchyard
crosses of Eyam, Bakewell, Hope, &c., are the
oldest ecclesiastical remains. Of feudal and
domestic buildings may be named the castles
of Castleton, Bolsover, and Duffield, the manor-
house of South Winfield (ruin), Haddon Hall,
and Hardwick Hall. Chatsworth (q.v.), the
seat of the Duke of Devonshire, is unrivalled.
The caves and numerous tumuli or ‘lows’ have
yielded many evidences of prehistoric and Celtic
man; whilst the traces of Roman occupation are
numerous, Arbelow, near Youlgreave, is the most
important ‘stone circle’ in England next to Stone-
henge. Though a turbulent county in English
history, and ever taking part in all civil tumults,
Derbyshire has not furnished the site of any remark-
able battle nor pases any special part in national

historic association is the retreat
in 1745 of Prince Charles Edward, Derby being the
turning-point in his bold but rash err The
county claims as natives, Flamsteed the astrono-
mer, Richardson the novelist, Chantrey the seulptor,
and Brindley the engineer. Lombe first established
an English silk-mill at Derby in 1719, and Strutt
and Arkwright first made English calicoes at Crom-
ford in this county in 1773.

See Pendleton’s History of Derbyshire (1886); and the
works of Dr Cox, Guide to Derbyshire, Churches of Derty-
shire (4 vols, 1876-79), Three Centuries of Derbyshire
Annals (1891), and The Old Halls, Manors, and Families
of Derbyshire (1891) et seq.).

Derbyshire Neck is Goitre (q.v.).

Derbyshire Spar is Fluor Spar (q.v.).

Dercham, East, a pleasant, thriving market-
town of Norfolk, 17 miles (by rail 22) WNW. of
Norwich. Here, in 650, St Withberga founded a
nunnery. It was burned by the Danes, but after-
wards refounded ; and its cruciform church remains,
with a detached belfry (the ‘ New Clocker'), a fant
of 1468, a good south porch, St Withberga’s well,

770 DERELICT

DERVISH |

and the grave of the poet Cowper. Bonner was a
vicar, as Borrow a native. ereham has manu-
factures of agricultural implements. Pop. (1851)
3372; (1881) 5640 ; (1891) 5524.

Derelict, a term in English law, signifying
anything forsaken or left unoccupied, or wilfully
cast away. So where the sea has receded from
the shore, the land thus left uncovered is styled
derelict. If the sea has in such case receded sud-
denly, the land becomes the property of the crown,
but if gradually and imperceptibly, the gain goes
to the owner of the adjacent lands. °

A ship which has been wrecked is styled derelict,
and this is the common use of the term. But it is
necessary that the master and crew shall have
abandoned the ship, without hope of recovery.
The mere quitting of a ship for the purpose of
procuring assistance from the shore, or other
temporary cause, with the intention of returning
to her again, does not make her derelict. When
abandonment has occurred, the first-comers are
entitled to take temporary possession of the ship,
and to claim salvage, either from the owners, the
lord of the manor, or other person having right
to wrecks unclaimed by the owners, or in the
event of no claim from the crown. See SALVAGE,
WRECKS. ‘

Derg, LouaH, the largest lake expansion of the
river Shannon, between Tipperary and Galway and
Clare, is 24 miles long, with an average width of 2
miles ; greatest depth, 80 feet. Its surface is about
100 feet above the sea.—Another Lough Derg, in
the south of Donegal county, is 3 miles by 24,
has many small isles and rocks, and wild dreary
shores. Saint’s Isle contains the remains of a
pee Station Island, the reputed entrance to

t Patrick’s Purgatory, was long the most cele-
brated place of pilgrimage in Ireland.

Dermatogen, the embryonic epidermis-layer
of a plant embryo. See EMBRYO.

Dermatology (Gr. derma, ‘the skin,’ and
logos, ‘a discourse’), the science of the manage-
ment of the skin and of its diseases. See SKIN.

Dermatophytes (Gr. derma, ‘the skin,’ and

hyton, ‘a growth’ or ‘plant’), vegetable growths,
chiefly of the lowest Fungi moulds, &c., inhabit-
ing the cuticle or epidermis, and giving rise to some
forms of skin-disease, as Favus (q.v.), Pityriasis
(q.v.), Ringworm (q.v.), &e.

Dermestes, a common genus of beetles in the
section Pentamera, including several species of
formidable voracity. The most familiar of these is
D. lardarius, often called the
Bacon Beetle. In the open air
it lives on dead animals, and
is thus useful enough; but
within doors it attacks bacon,
cheese, dried meats, furs,
cabinet collections, &e, The
brown larve are: equally vora-
cious. The insect itself is
small, covered above with
close, fine, black hairs, with
the exception of the root of
the wing-covers, which form a
yellowish-brown band with
three dark spots on each side. Both adults and
larvee simulate death.
known on hides and the like. The larvz of some
forms are occasionally utilised to elean small skele-
tons. The neighbouring genera Attagenus and
Anthrenus also work great mischief.

Dermis. See SKIN.

Derrick, a kind of Crane (q.v.), so named
after Derrick, an English 17th-century hangman.

Derry. See LONDONDERRY.

Dermestes lardarius.

Many other species are.

Dervish, signifying ‘poor,’ is a Persian word

(derived from a root connected with ‘door,’ indi- |

cating the door-to-door mendicancy of the dervish)

of which the Arabic equivalent is Fakir (q.v.). It _

designates, in Mohammedan countries, a class of
devotees who correspond in their various aspects
with the monks, the mendicant friars, and the free-.
masons of medieval Europe. Some are wanderers,
depending upon alms, and often demanding charity
with insolence; others are settled for the most
part in convents, called Tekyas or Khankés, where
they observe special rites, or devote themselves to
solitary meditation and penance; others, again, are
more like freemasons—ordinary tradesmen and
labourers for most of the year, and exercising their
special ceremonies only on stated occasions ; whilst
some, again, form a class of religious entertainers,
who are hired out to chant their monotonous dirge
or Zikr at public and private festivals. They
belong to an infinity of orders or brotherhoods,
among which the best known are the Kadiris (com-
monly known in Europe as the ‘ howling dervishes,’
on account of their peculiar chant), founded 1165
A.D.; the Rifé’is (1182), formerly famous for their
feats of eating glass and live coals and swallow-
ing swords, and also for the ceremony, recently
abolished, of the Déseh, where the sheikh of one
of their sub-orders (the Sa’dis) rode over the pros-
trate bodies of the faithful in the streets of Cairo;
the Mevlevis (1273), or ‘dancing’—i.e. whirling—
dervishes; the Nakhshibendis (1319); Bekt&shis
(1357), whose founder blessed and named the famous
corps of Janizaries (q.v.); the Jemalis (1750); and
the Kalenderis, the ‘calendars’ of the Arabian
Nights, who are under a vow of perpetual tramping:
the names are taken from those of their founders.

Mevlevis, or Dancing Dervishes.

The various orders have distinctive dresses, and the
sheikh or pir who commands them is also dis-
tinguished from his followers by his robes. The
conical cap of the Mevlevi is well known. The
rites of the different orders when they meet to-
ether vary, but consist chiefly in prayers, religious
dances, monotonous recitations of the name of God
and of certain pious formulas. Frequently the devo-
tees work themselves into a state of spiritual frenzy
which is accompanied by extravagant, and, to the
vulgar, miraculous, feats of strength and endurance,
and not unfrequently terminates in an epileptic
seizure. The dervishes and their performances are
held in the deepest veneration by the people, and
sultans have often held them in high respect, and
bestowed large endowments upon their tekyas.

It is difficult to say when these religious orders
took their rise.
persons in the East have held it to be meritorious
to renounce earthly joys, to free themselves from
the trammels of sotreatie and social life, and to

From the earliest times, pious

———————

LF

1s

oy
y
we

DERWENT

DESCARTES 771

- devote their thonghts in poverty and retirement to

the contemplation of God. In this sense, poverty is
recommended by Mohammed in the Koran, though
‘monachism is distinctly repudiated. Tradition
refers the origin of these orders to the earliest times
of Islam, making the califs Abd-bekr and ‘Ali
found such brotherhoods ; but most of them are of
much later date. See Lane, Modern Egyptians,
chap. x.; Hughes, Dict. of Islam ; D’Ohsson's Tabl.
Gen. de l’ Empire Ottomane.

Derwent, the principal river of Tasmania,
— from ke St Clair, in the centre of the
d; flows tortuously to the south-east; and
enters Storm Bay at Hobart by an estuary 4

miles wide, after a course of about 130 miles. Up
to Hobart the Derwent is navigable for ships of any

en.

Derwentwater, « sheet of water, stretching
south from Keswick, the most beautiful of the
Cumberland lakés. Lying 238 feet above sea-level,
and engirt by rr. wooded e¢ and hills, it is
3 miles long by 1 broad, and 72 feet deep at the
‘deepest. Near its foot rises Castle Head (530 feet),
commanding an exquisite view ; whilst at its head
are the celebrated Lodore Falls and Borrowdale

-v.). This lake is an enlargement of the Derwent

ver, which traverses it in its course towards the
‘Trish Sea at i ecdan pep It has several wooded
isles, besides a remarkable floating isle (see FLOAT-
ING IsLANDs). Perch are plentiful in the lake.

Derwentwater, JAMEes RADCLYFFE, EARL
OF, one of the leaders in the rebellion of 1715, was
born in 1689, and educated in France. He suc-
ceeded as third earl in 1705, on the death of his
father, who had married Lady Mary Tudor, Charles
II.’s daughter by Moll Davis. On the eve of the
insurrection, at the close of 1714, warrants were
issued on suspicion against several gentlemen in
the north of England, and one, among others,
against the young Catholic earl ; but having been

reviously warned, he fled from Dilston, his seat in

orthumberland, and found refuge in the ite
of one of his dependents. He soon afterwards
papa himself at the head of a few retainers, under
he impression that the whole body of the Jacobites
either had risen, or were about to rise. From this
int the history of the Earl of Derwentwater
mes the history of the Rebellion of 1715 (see
JACOBITES), which ended in the disastrous en-
counter at Preston, where Derwentwater bore him-
self with the utmost heroism, but, with most of the
rebel leaders, was taken prisoner, and conveyed to
the Tower of London. Impeached of high treason
at the opening of parliament, he was brought to
trial in Westminster Hall, when he pleaded guilty,
and threw himself upon the mercy of the king.
His appeal was unavailing, and he was condemned
to die. Every possible effort was made by his kins-
folk and friends to obtain a pardon, but their exer-
tions were fruitless, and he was beheaded on Tower
Hill, 24th February 1716. His youth and amia-
bility, his rank and valour, combined to excite
t sympathy for the hapless earl. He is the
Mer of a touching ballad of the day, and of Dorothy
Forster, Sir Walter Besant’s charming romance.
Derzhavin, GasrieL RoMANoWICzZ, the great
t of the of Catharine, was born at Kasan,
3d July 1743 (0.s.), studied at the gymnasium of
his native city, and in 1762 entered the army as a
private soldier. His talents and superior education
soon procured him promotion. In 1791 he became
Secretary of State; in 1800, Imperial Treasurer ;
and in 1802, Minister of Justice. He died 9th July
1816. His poetry shows a vigorous imagination
and strong power of expression, though his imagery
at times verges on bombast. His lyric pieces are
full of fire. His noblest, as well as his most popu-

lar ode, is his Address to the Deity, which has been
translated into the western lan His col-
lected works have often been republished since 1798,

ade'ro (‘channel’ or ‘outlet’), the
name of various waters in South America, of which
ic oa a is the Rio Desaguadero in Bolivia
q.¥. *

Desaix de Veygoux, Lovis Cuartes Ay-
TOINE, a famous French general, was born of a
good old family at St Hilaire-d’Ayat, in Auvergne, °

ugust 17, 17 Entering the army at fifteen, in
1796 he covered himself with glory by his heroic
conduct in Moreau’s famous retreat through the
Black Forest. Behind the ruinous fortress of
Kehl, Desaix resisted the Austrian army for more
than two months, only capitulating in January
1797, when his ammunition was spent. His
est achievement was the conquest of Upper
Egypt, which he accomplished in 1799, after
an eight months’ campaign. His own soldiers
used to compare him to Bayard, while the inhabit-
ants named him ‘the Just Sultan.’ Desaix re-
turned from pt just in time to take part in
the battle of Marengo, in which he was killed by
a musket-bullet, June 14, 1800.

Desaugie MARC, a once papeies poet,
whom some critics have set above Béranger, was
born in 1772. After travelling abroad, he settled
in Paris, where he became a writer of songs and
vaudevilles. His subjects are generally love and
wine ; his verse is sweet and flowing. ‘He is,’
says Mr Saintsbury, ‘the best light song-writer of
France, with the single exception of Béranger.’
He died in 1827.

Desbarres, JOSEPH FREDERICK WALLET, mili-
tary engineer, was born 1722 in England, of Hugue-
not parentage, and in 1756 sailed as lieutenant
in the 60th foot for America, where he raised, and
for a time commanded, a corps of field artillery.
In 1757 he gained over the Indians who had cap-
tured Fort Schenectady ; and at the siege of Quebec
he was aide-de-camp to Wolfe, who was mortally
wounded while Desbarres was making a report.
He conducted the subsequent engineering opeta-
tions during the conquest of Canada, and was
S Spandaaleer rati tye in the expedition that retook

ewfoundland (1762). He made a survey of the
coast of Nova Scotia in 1763-73, and afterwards

repared charts of the North American coast for
rd Howe. He was lieutenant-governor of Cape
Breton (1784-1804), and of Prince Edward Island
(1805-13), having attained the rank of colonel on!
in 1798. He died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, 24th
October 1824, at the age of one hundred and two.
His principal publication was the Atlantic Neptune
(4 vols. 1777), a splendid collection of charts.

Des‘cant, in medieval music, was the art of
adding a part or parts toa melody or subject. The
latter being almost invariably given to the tenor,
descant came to signify generally the upper part, or
air, of a piece. See COUNTERPOINT.

Descartes, René (Latinised into RENATUS
CARTESIUS), generally regarded as the father of
modern philosophy, was born March 31, 1596, at the
village A La Haye, near Tours. He was sent at
the age of eight to the Jesuit College at La Fléche, —
where he soon became distinguished for his keen-
ness of intellect, and made great and rapid progress
in languages, mathematics, and astronomy. It
was not long, however, before he became dissatis-
fied with the doctrines and method of scholasticism
and felt it impossible to acquiesce in what had
hitherto been ro gee as knowledge. The first
thing that he did after leaving college, as we are
informed in his treatise on Method, was to a’
books, and endeavour to efface from his mind all

772

DESCARTES

that he had hitherto been taught, that it might be
free to receive the impressions of truth, whenceso-
ever they should come. In pursuance of his plan,
he resolved to travel, and soon entered the army as a
volunteer, serving successively in Holland, Bohemia,
and Hungary. It was while he was in winter-quar-
ters at Neuburg on the Danube (St Martin’s Eve,
1619, as he himself informs us) that there first
‘ dawned upon him the principles of the new method
which he afterwards applied in philosophy and for
the reorganisation of knowledge generally. So in
1621 he left the army, but continued to travel as
a private gentleman, with occasional residences in
Paris, till 1629. In that year he retired to Holland,
where he lived in great seclusion for twenty years,
devoted to the elaboration of his discoveries and
the publication of his chief works. In time his
doctrines attracted many disciples in the land of his
adoption, but involved him at the same time in bitter
controversy with the Dutch theologians. These
unpleasant encounters had probably their share in
inducing him to accept an invitation to go to
Sweden, addressed to him by Queen Christina, who
desired his learned intercourse and instruction.
He left Holland in September 1648, but his consti-
tution was not able to stand the rigour of the
northern winter and the exposure involved in wait-
ing upon the queen at five every morning for an
hour’s philosophical instruction. He died at Stock-
holm of inflammation of the lungs on February 11,
1650. Sixteen years later, his ‘body was brought
to Paris, and buried in the church of St Geneviéve-
du-Mont. In 1819 his remains were again trans-
ferred to St Germain-des-Prés, where they now
rest.

The grand object towards which Descartes
directed his endeavours was the attainment of
philosophical certainty. The way whereby he
sought to attain this end is explained in the
Discourse on Method ( Discours de la Méthode, pub-
lished in 1637). This small but extremely interest-
ing and aiperaae treatise contains a history of the
inner life of the author, tracing the progress of his
mental development from its commencement in
early years, to the point where it resulted in his
resolution to hold nothing for true until he had
ascertained the grounds of certitude. The author
also, in the same treatise, lays down the methodical
rules by which he resolved to guide his inquiries,
and by the observance of which he hoped to arrive
at absolute certainty, if indeed it were at all attain-
able. The results of his inquiries are indicated in
the Discourse, but are exhibited more particularly
in his Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (Amst.
1641), and the Principia Philosophie (Amst. 1644).
Doubt, according to Descartes, is the philosophic
starting-point, the solvent which we must bring to
bear upon all our inherited beliefs and opinions.
This doubt is to be distinguished from scepticism,
which is a permanent state of mind and involves
despair of truth. It is to be regarded simply as an
instrument of philosophical inquiry, and as such
has received the name of Cartesian doubt. Apply-
ing this test relentlessly to all that had hitherto
borne the name of knowledge, Descartes found one,
and only one proposition that seemed to him to
stand firm, and of which the truth could not possibl
be doubted : that proposition was that he tinted,
which he inferred from the fact of his possessin
consciousness. He could not doubt that he felt an
thought, and therefore he could not doubt that he,
the feeler, the thinker, existed. This relation be-
tween consciousness and existence he expressed by
the memorable words: Cogito, ergo sum.

uiring further into the ground of his certitude in
the case of this proposition, Descartes was able to
assign no further reason than that he saw very
clearly that in order to think, it is necessary to exist.

On in--

He formulated, therefore, the following criterion of
certainty—that whatever is clearly and distineél
thought, must be true. Amongst these clear an
distinct thoughts he soon recognised the idea of
God as the absolutely Perfect Being. This idea, he
reasoned, could not be formed in our minds by our-
selves, for the imperfect can never originate the
perfect ; it must be connate—i.e. part of the original
structure of our understanding, and implanted there
by the Perfect Being himself. Hence, from the
existence of the idea of perfection, Descartes inferred
the existence of God as the originator of it; he in-
ferred it also from the mere nature of the idea,
because the idea of perfection involves existence.
The latter is known as the ontological argument,
which Descartes thus reintroduced into modern
philosophy. But if God exist, then we have a guar-
antee, according to Descartes, of the Pa
determined ground of certitude, for God the Per-
fect Being cannot deceive, and therefore what-
ever our consciousness clearly testifies may be
ee ee believed.

The most general fundamental principle of the
philpeoeuiey system of Descartes is the essential

ifference or dualism of spirit and matter—the
thinking and the extended substances—a difference
so great, according to Descartes, that they can
exert no influence upon each other. Mind or spirit
is pure consciousness, and matter is mere extension ;
these attributes are mutually exclusive, and hence
these two ‘ created substances’ can be united (as we
find them, for example, in the human being) only
through the intervention of the infinite substance
or God. This doctrine led directly to the system
called occasionalism, the principle of which was
that body and mind do not really affect each
other, God being always the true cause of the
apparent influence of one on the other. A volition
on our part is merely the occasion of God’s produc-
ing a corresponding bodily motion, and similarly
the material processes in the nerves and brain are
only the occasion, not the cause, of the ensuin
mental result. This doctrine was further developer
by Leibnitz in connection with his doctrine of pre-
established harmony (see LEIBNITZ). The human
body being thus a mere machine accidentally united
to a rational soul, it was an immediate consequence
of the Cartesian doctrine that animals (in which
the rational soul is absent) are literally automata ;
their cries no more imply feeling than the creaking
of a machine. This ruthless product of logical con-
sistency unfortunately led to cruelty in practice.

Descartes did not confine his attention to mental
philosophy. His philosophy is in fact only the
introduction to an elaborate system of physics. In
this department it is noteworthy that he completely
discarded final causes and proposed to himself the
explanation of all physical phenomena from matter
and motion. His celebrated theory of vortices, de-
vised to explain the motions of the heavenly bodies,
held the field till it was superseded, after a stubborn
resistance, by the Newtonian theory of gravitation,
It was in mathematics, however, that Descartes
achieved the greatest and most lasting results. It
was Descartes who first recognised the true meaning |
of the negative roots of equations ; and we owe to
him the theorem, which is called by his name, that
an equation may have as many positive roots as
there are changes of sign in passing from term to
term, and as many negative roots as there are con-
tinuations of sign, and not more of either kind. . He
gave a new and ingenious solution of equations of
the fourth degree ; and first introduced exponents,
and thereby laid the foundation for calculating with
powers. e showed, moreover, how to draw tan- |
gents and normals at every point of a geometrical
curve, with the exception of mechanical or trans-
cendental curves ; and what perhaps was his highest

DESCENDANTS

DESERT 773

merit, he showed how to express the nature and the

_ discoveries. Editions of Descartes’ collected

ll i re ee -

aeertin of every curve, by an equation between
variable co-ordinates ; thus, in fact, originating
Analytical Geometry, which has led to the be ra
wor
were sey in Latin in 1697 and 1713, and in
French by Cousin in 1824-26. His chief philo-
sophical works have been translated into English
by Professor Veitch. See Millet, Descartes, sa Vie,
ses Travaux, ses Découvertes (2 vols. 1867-71);
Kuno Fischer, Descartes and his School (Eng. trans.
1887); and English works i W. nningham
(1877), Lowndes (1878), Mahatfy (1880), and Mar-
tineau (1885).

_ Descendants. See Herr, ConsANGuINity,

PEDIGREE, SUCCESSION.

Descent of Man.
‘THEORY.

mrechamps, EusTacuE, a French poet, who
was born at Vertus, in Champagne, in 1328. He
was educated at Orléans University, and was in
the course of his life a soldier, a magistrate, a court
favourite, and a traveller in Italy and Hungary.
He held several important posts in his native pro-
vince, but his ions were ravaged by the
English, and he seems to have been a poor man
when he died in 1415. He was both a popular and
voluminous writer. He composed 1175 ballades, a
multitude of rondeaux, virelais, and other lyrics,
besides a long poem of 13,000 lines, entitled the
Miroir de Mariage—his works in all amounting to
more than 100,000 lines. Deschamps was an ardent
patriot, in whose verse hatred of the English and
of the native oppressors of the French poor finds
repeated and bitter expression, and his style is as
a rule somewhat wanting in elegance and ease.
Occasionally, as in his lament for Du Guesclin,
his verse is both graceful and touching; and in
‘one at least of his pieces, an apologue exposing the
exactions of the rich, he gives proof of a grim and
‘trenchant satiric faculty. The edition of his Poéties
Morales, edited by M. Cropelet (1832), is superseded
by the complete edition for the Old French Text
Society by the Marquis de Queux de Saint-Hilaire
(1878-95). See the monograph by Sarradin (1878),
and Besant’s Early French Poets (1868).
Deseret, the name first adopted by the Mormons
for what is now Utah. See MorMoNs, UTAH.

Desert (literally, ‘a solitary place’) is the ing
graphical name applied to a barren. and uninhabit-
able portion of the earth's surface. Four classes of
desert may be distinguished.

(1) Ice-wastes occupy the central platean of Green-
land, the islands of the Arctic Sea, and probably
the entire Antarctic continent. The ground is
covered to an unknown depth by a vast ice-cap,
rough and hummocky on the surface, and movi
outwards to the coasts in a continual procession o

glaciers.

(2) Tundras are flat plains, little elevated above
sea-level, fringing the Arctic shores of the northern
continents, and specially characteristic in Siberia
(q.v.). The soil remains frozen toa depth all
the year round, thawing superficially when the
snow melts in summer, and becoming covered with
coarse moss and dwarfed Aretic plants.

(3) Arid wastes, or deserts in the popular sense
of the word, occur mainly in two zones encircling
the world, and corresponding to regions of minimum
rainfall (see CLIMATE). e more extensive ex-
tends from near the equator in an east-north-east
direction across the whole breadth of North Africa,
as the Great Sahara, Libyan and Nubian deserts,
over the peninsula of Arabia, through Persia,
Turkestan, the Gobi or Shamo Desert, in about
52° N. lat, to the Pacific Ocean (see ASIA).
The great Indian Desert in the Punjab is the

See MAN, DARWINIAN

only extension of this belt south of the Hima-
layas. The ring is completed by the Great
Basin of North America in 40° N. lat. The
southern zone, less complete, comprises the Kala-
hari Desert in south-west Africa, the interior of
Australia, and small districts in the Argentine
Republic and in the Andes. Deserts occur at all
elevations, from considerable depths beneath sea-
level to many thousand feet above it, and with
all varieties of surface, from a flat ex of
sand, where the view for days of travel is oseaad
by a sharp cirele as at sea, to rocky mountain-
slopes rent by rough defiles all bare and chiselled
by the driving sand. The essential character of an
arid waste is its rainlessness, and the scarcity of
water on the surface and of water-vapour in the
atmosphere. Radiation in the clear air is intense,
and desert climate is eameeraenny of an ex r
ated continental type. The sand in the rma
becomes heated to over 150° F. during the day, and
chilled below the freezing-point at night, while the
diurnal and seasonal extremes in the lofty deserts of
Central Asia are much greater. Thus desert-regions
are most effective in producing land and sea breezes
and monsoon winds in consequence of the marked
periodical ye in atmospheric density. Another
effect is the Mirage (q.v.), a phenomenon which,
combined with the indescribable horror of loneli-
ness that oppresses the occasional traveller, prob-
ably accounts for the widespread superstitions
tr en, deserts, above all other places, with evil
and malicious spirits. The dreaded sand-storm
or simoom is a kind of tornado or whirlwind
which raises the sand in tall rotating columns
sweeping over the surface with tremendous velocity.
Sand-dunes, sometimes several hundred feet in
en. are raised by steady winds, and gradually
shift their position, extending the bounds of the
desert to leeward. Desert vegetation is extremely
scanty, consisting mainly of hard prickly plants of
the cactus, euphorbia, and spinifex kinds, whose
glazed surface exhales little of the hardly-won
moisture. Animal life is correspondingly restricted
both in variety and number of individuals, The
Camel (q.v.) is par excellence the beast of burden
for conducting traffic across arid wastes. When an
overflowing river, such as the Nile, traverses a
desert, the land becomes richly fertile in its immedi-
ate neighbourhood, and wherever springs bubble
up through the sand there are Oases (q.v.) bearing
palm-trees and grass. Artificial irrigation, especi-
ally the sinking of artesian wells, has done much to
reclaim tracts of desert for agriculture in the Sahara
(see ALGERIA), and to a less extent in Australia.

Geological considerations show that arid deserts
are not permanent features of the earth's surface.
The most level expanses have once formed part of
the ocean-bed, or at least t inland seas. The
orographival changes which cut off these seas and
created inland drainage areas probably at the same
time modified the rainfall of the locality. Exces-
sive evaporation dried up the great lakes, leaving at
present a series of diminishing salt lakes without
outlet, receiving rivers which dwindle down by
evaporation as they flow. The only commercial
commodities yielded by deserts are the salts (com-
mon salt, borax, sodium carbonate, and sometimes
sodium nitrate) left in the dried-up lake-beds,
These salt lakes are subject to alternate long

inds of desiccation and flooding; during the
ormer the area of the desert extends, during the
latter it contracts, These periods have been
out in the case of the Great American Basin by a
series of most interesting researches on the part of
the United States Geological Survey.

(4) Temporary deserts, or steppe-lands, border
the Asiatic deserts to the north and west. The
saline steppes of the Caspian are true arid wastes ;

774 DESERTAS

DESMIDS

but the typical steppes in South Russia are luxuri-
antly clothed with verdure and flowers in spring.
In summer they form a dusty plain of withered
herbage, and in winter are wind-swept wastes of
snow. The grassy Jlanos of the Orinoco present
a similar desert appearance in the dry season $ in
the wet season they are inundated marshes which
burst into. blade and bloom as the water subsides.
The pampas of the Plate river-system under similar
but less marked seasonal. changes form a natural
transition to the fertile prairie lands which, although
naturally treeless, are always richly grassed.

Desertas, a group of three rocky islets in the
Atlantic Ocean, to the SE. of Madeira, visited at
certain seasons of the year by fishermen and herds-
men.

Desertion from the army or navy is the crime
of absence without leave, coupled with the inten-
tion of not returning to the service, or of avoiding
some important duty, such as embarkation for a
foreign station or alding the civil power, however
short the time of absence or the distance to which
the absentee may have gone. Under the Army
Act of 1881 the very common offence of quitting
‘one regiment to join another (formerly charged as
both ‘desertion and fraudulent enlistment’), in-
asmuch as it proves no intention to leave the
service, is punishable by Court-martial (q.v.) as
fraudulent enlistment only, but in the same way
as desertion when not on active service—viz. by
eon pre ate up to two years for a first offence,
and penal servitude for not less than five years for
a second or subsequent offence, together with for-
feiture of service, medals, &c., to which may be
added stoppages of pay for loss of kit, and dis-
charge with ignominy. By thus distinguishing
between desertion and fraudulent enlistment, the
number of soldiers annually convicted of the former
crime has been reduced by one-half; short service,
the abolition of Bounty (q.v.) on enlistment, and
better education have had the effect of still further
reducing this number. It is still, however, large
(about 3000); and, beyond a published description
of all absentees and deserters, recruiting officers have
no means—such as formerly existed, when tattooing
with the letter ‘D’ (erroneously called Branding,
q.v.) always formed part of the sentence—of detect-
ing a man who has been convicted of this crime
and discharged with ignominy, or who endeavours
to fraudulently re-enlist. Thus individual men
often join five or six regiments, deserting imme-
diately from each in turn and selling their kits,
which cost the country some £4 or £5 each. When
apprehended considerable further expense is in-
curred in bringing them to trial and maintaining
them in prison. ’

Desertion, or attempting to desert, when on
active service, or under orders for active service, is
much more rare, and is punishable with death. So
is the crime of inducing a soldier to desert under
those circumstances ; and a civilian who is con-
victed of it, if subject to military law because
accompanying a force in the field, as a newspaper
correspondent or a camp-follower, is liable to this
punishment. When not subject to military law,
six months’ imprisonment with hard labour may
be awarded by any court of summary jurisdiction
to a civilian who induces or assists a soldier to
desert. Deserters from the United States army
forfeit all pay and allowances due at the time of
desertion. If in time of war, the penalty is death ;
in peace, they suffer such penalty as a court-martial
may direct.

Desertion is equally a crime when committed by
aseaman of the royal navy. A sailor absent from
three successive musters is a ‘runaway ;’ and when
discovered and brought back, he is punished by a

deduction from his pay. If his absence is con-—
tinued, it amounts to desertion. All harbouring of
deserters by other — is punishable. In the
navy of the United States, a temporary absence
without leave with an apparent intention of return-
ing to duty, is regarded as ‘straggling,’ but an
absence of ten days constitutes desertion. In
either case the commanding officer decides the
points, and causes the proper entries to be made
on the ship’s books.

Desertion of the Diet. See Dirt.

Desertion of Wife and Children. See
HUSBAND AND WIFE, PARENT AND CHILD.

Desiccants, in Medicine, are substances with
astringent properties, which are serviceable in_
checking secretion and exhalation.

Desiccation is the process of drying by the.
employment of heat, dry air, or chemical agents
which have an affinity for water. Examples of
the class of desiccants or drying substances are
fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, fused car-
bonate of potash, and oil of vitriol. The latter is
employed as being placed in a separate vessel near
the substance to be ae and under a bell jar.

Not a few of the lower animals are said to
be able to endure drying up without losing the
power of recovery. Some of the Protozoa form
protective sheaths or cysts from which they
emerge on the return of moisture. Nematodes or
thread-worms (paste-eels) have been known to
revive after fourteen years’ desiccation, but trials
beyond this limit were unsuccessful. With those
animals the interesting fact has been noticed that
the longer the period of desiccation, the longer
the time required for recovery. Rotifers are
also described as reviving after prolonged and
thorough desiccation, but experiments have shown
that, in the case in question at least, only the
associated epee retained their life. The eggs
rapidly developed on the return of moisture, but
the adult organisms proved to be really dead.
The bear-animaleules or Tardigrades have been
thoroughly desiccated and even heated to a high
temperature without, it is said, losing power of
revivification. A state of latent life is also
assumed in consequence of cold, absence of stimu-
lus, &e., and a relative quiescence occurs natu-
rally in hibernation, or pathologically in trance.
Among the lower plants, resting spores, &c., ma;
survive desiccation ; and, among the higher, seeds
are well known to have a similar power. See
HIBERNATION, INSECTS, LATENT LIFE, Mup-
FISHES, MUMMY-WHEAT (under Wheat) RoTa-
TORIA, TARDIGRADA, THREAD-WORMS, TRANCE.

Design, ScHoots or. See, under ART, Art
Instruction, vol. i. p. 456.

Desira’de, a smail island of the West Indies,
belonging to France, and lying 4 miles E. of Guade-
loupe, with an area of 10 sq. m., and a population
of about 1600, engaged in fishery and the cultiva-
tion of cotton.

Desman. See Musk Rat.

Desmids (Desmidew) are a group of conjugate
Algeze (see ALGZ) related to diatoms, but readily
distinguished from these by their bright green
instead of brownish-yellow colour, their cellulose
instead of silicified walls, and their general form,
which is usually more or less deeply constricted in
the middle line. As with diatoms the lower forms
are, however, united in long chains, so indicating
a relationship to the lower and filamentous Conju-

atee (Spirogyra, &c.). About four hundred species
a been described, but these are often variable
and ill defined. All are inhabitants of fresh water,
but chiefly occur in the standing pools of heaths
and peat-mosses. They rarely form large aggrega-

DESMODIUM GYRANS

DESMOULINS 775

ut usually occur associated with filament-

diatoms, and other forms of microscopic
. On account of the singular beauty of their
general form they are much prized by the micro-
seopist ; their mode of division, too, is remarkable,
yet akin to that of diatoms, the two halves of the
cell being pressed apart at the median constriction

ary a

‘ inl

Desmids (mostly x 100):
@, Continuous filament of Sphwrozosma vertebratum; b, Micra-
_ Sterias rotata; c, M. denticulata, dividing; d, Zygospore of
boas same; ¢, Closterium lunula; f, Closterium fs conjuga-
by the development of two new bud-halves to com-
plete them (see fig.), two new desmids being thus
gradually formed, which become as symmetrical as
the original one, yet with the two apparently
similar halves of very unequal age. Conjugation
also oceurs, with formation of a resting spore ; the
eyst of which may have uliar markings or
hook-like prominences. Ralfs’ Desmidee ;
Micrographic Dictionary, &c.

Desmodium Gyrans. ‘See TELEGRAPH
PLANT, and (under Plants) MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.

Des Moines, the capital and | t city of
Iowa, is situated on the Des Moines River, at the
mouth of the Raccoon River, 174 miles W. of
Davenport by rail. The river, which rises in the
SW. part of Minnesota, flows generally SE. through
Iowa, and enters the Mississippi at the SE. ex-
tremity of the state, after a course of about 550
miles. Founded in 1846, the city has a fine state-
house ($3,000,000), a marble post-office and court-
house, a Baptist university, and a state library con-
Seining over 22,500 volumes. Half-a-dozen belies
over the two rivers connect the different parts of the
town, and there is a public park, with fine groves
of forest trees. The town contains several foundries
and planing and flouring mills, besides manufac-
tories of machinery, engines, boilers, railway cars,
&c. Pop. (1870) 12,035; (1880) 22,408; (1885)
32,469 ; (1890) 50,093.

Desmoncus, an American genus of climbin
oan which represent the rattans (Calanms) 0}

ast Indian forests.

Desmond, Earts or, a line formerly all-

werful in the south-west of Ireland, numbered
ifteen of the title, dating from 1329, and ended
with that Fitzgerald who rebelled inst Eliza-
beth’s government, sacked Youghal by night
and murdered the people, and was proclaimed a
traitor in 1579. He escaped the fate of the Spanish
garrison at Smerwick (1580), and carried on the
struggle for some time ; but driven at last from his
strongholds, he wandered about for over two years,

and was finally killed, in 1583, in a cabin in the
Kerry mountains, where his hiding-place
betrayed to the English.

Desmoulins, CAMILLE, a famous figure in the
French Revolution, was born 24 March 1760, at
Guise, in Picardy. He studied law along with
Robespierre at the College Louis-le-Grand, in
Paris, but never practised owing to a stutter in his
speech. His mind early became filled with lofty
but confused notions of classical republicanism,
which found vent on the eve of the Hevolution in
his phlets, La Philosophie au Peuple Francais

1788) and La France Libre (1789), the latter pub-
ished the day after the insurrection which destroyed
the Bastille, in promoting which its author played
a conspicuous and dramatic part. His next writing
was the brilliant and vigorous Discours de la Lan-
terne aux Parisiens, which procured him the sinister
title of ‘ Procureur-général de la lanterne.’ In
November 1789 he issued the first number of the
Révolutions de France et de Brabant, which appeared
weekly until July 1792 (No. 86), and which — com-
bined brilliancy of wit and irony, polemic force,
power of sarcasm, and of form, remains with-
out an equal in the whole range of journalism.
His next paper, the Tribune des Patriotes, died in
its fourth number. Camille had been a member of
the Cordeliers’ Club from its foundation, and early
clung to the mighty Danton in an affectionate
friendship of singular intensity. Elected by Paris
to the National Convention which followed im-
mediately after the march of the mob on the
Tuileries (August 10), he voted with his party for
the death of the king. In the struggle between
the Girondists and the Mountain he took an active
part, and in May 1793, urged on by Robespierre,
published his truculent Histoire des Brissotins, with
a gay heedlessness which had a terrible su
pa caused him soon afterwards the most profoun
remorse. Danton himself had thunde against
the Girondists, who made a fatal error in insisting
upon the ineffectual impeachment of Marat, but
his great heart filled with pity when their heads
fell under the guillotine of the relentless and tri-
umphant Mountain (October 1793). On the 5th
December of the same year came out the Vieuwr
Cordelier, a thrilling and eloquent expression of
Camille’s and Danton’s longing for clemency.
Robespierre, at first favourable, took fright at the
reception of the papers after the third, and aban-
doned his old fellow-student to a fate of which his
fragments of writings, as well as his letters and his
roms x wife’s journals and scrap-books, show us he
ad already a strange presentiment. It was only in
December 1790, after three years of love, that her
father had permitted him to marry the bright
young Lucile Duplessis, a girl of a fanciful and
romantic temperament, then hardly twenty years
old. Their brief married life was one of singular
happiness, and in their deaths they were hardly
to be divided. Meantime Hébert and his rane
assailed him, and his freedom of wit made fa
enemies of Billand-Varennes and Saint-Just. The
last number of the Vieux Cordelier that ap

in its author's lifetime was the sixth (February
1794). Already he had been twice accused before
the Jacobin Club, when on the night of the 30th
March 1794 he was arrested with Danton and a
group of their friends and isans, When formally
ot his age before the Revolutionary tribunal, he
replied : ‘J'ai lage du sans-culotte, Jésus, c’est-A-
dire trente-trois ans, Age fatal aux révolutionnaires.’
Camille’s sensitive temperament could not face
death with the boisterous heroism of the Titanic
Danton. But on the scaffold he recovered the
courage that had deserted him in the prison and on
the tumbril. ‘Thus then,’ he said, as he looked at
the blood-stained guillotine, ‘the first apostle of

776 DESNA

DESTOUCHES

Liberty ends ;’ and with the words, ‘Oh my poor
wife!” he laid his head under the fatal knife. A
fortnight later Lucile followed him to the same
doom, dying with the heroic courage of the martyr.
Their story is nobly told in Jules Claretie’s Camille
Desmoulins and his Wife (trans. by Mrs Cashel
Hoey, 1876).

Desna, a river of Russia, rising in the pro-
vinee of Smolensk, and flowing south-eastward to
Briansk, and then south-westward till it falls into
the Dnieper, almost opposite Kiev. It has a course
of 550 miles, navi able nearly throughout, and is
the channel of a large trade; its low banks are
frequently inundated in spring. Its chief affluents
are the Seim and the Snov.

De Soto, FERNANDO, Spanish discoverer, born
at Jeres de los Cavalleros, in Estremadura, about
1496, of a good but impoverished family, accom-
panied Pedrarias Davila to Darien in 1519, served
on the expedition to Nicaragua in 1527, and after-
wards assisted Pizarro in the conquest of Peru,
returning to Spain with a fortune of ‘an hundred
and fourscore thousand ducats.’ Charles V. now
gave him permission to conquer Florida at his
own expense, and appointed him governor of Cuba;
and in 1538 he sailed from San Lucar with a richly
equipped company of 600 men, 24 ecclesiastics, and
20 officers. Whe fleet anchored in the bay of
Espiritu Santo (now Tampa Bay) on 25th May
1539; the ships were sent back to Cuba, and the
long search for gold was begun. For three years,
harassed by hostile Indians, lured onward by
reports of wealth that lay beyond, the ever-
decreasing company continued their toilsome march
over a route that cannot now be very clearly traced.
In 1541 the Mississippi was reached and crossed,
and the third winter was spent on Washita River.
Returning to the Mississippi in the spring, De
Soto, worn out by disappointments, died of a fever
on its banks in June 1542; and that his death
might be concealed from the Indians, his body,
wrapped. in a cloak, was lowered at midnight into
the waters of the great stream he had discovered.
In the following year his companions, reduced to
half their original number, sailed down the river
in seven frail boats, and finally reached the town
of Panuco, in Mexico. See Lives by Wilmer ( Phila.
1858), Abbott (N. Y. 1874), andShipp( Phila. 1881).

Despard, Epwarp MARrcvs, conspirator, was
born in Queen’s County, Ireland, in 1751, and at
fifteen obtained an ensigney. From 1772 till 1790
he did good service in the West Indies, both as a
soldier and as superintendent of the new territory
of Yucatan. He was then recalled on the most
frivolous charges, which for two years were kept
hanging over him; nor, when they were dismissed,
could he get the least compensation. His com-
plaints brought him two years’ imprisonment (1798-
1800), on his release from which he engaged in
a crackbrained conspiracy to assassinate the king
and to seize the Tower and Bank of England. For
this, with six of his associates, he was drawn on a
hurdle, hanged, and beheaded, 21st February 1803.
—His brother, JOHN DESPARD (1745-1829), British
general, was present at twenty-four engagements,
mostly during the American War of Independ-
ence.

Despenser, HucH LE. See Epwarp II.

Des Périers, BONAVENTURE, one of the most
interesting prose-writers of the Renaissance period
in France, was born at Autun in Burgundy about
the year 1500. Little is known regarding his life
beyond the fact that he was a member of the court
of men of letters assembled by Marguerite of
Navarre. In 1537 he published the Cymbalum
Mundi, a work in dialogue, in which, under the
pretence of attacking the superstitions of the

ancients, he satirised the religious beliefs of his
own day. The book raised a storm of indignation,
against which Marguerite seems to have been
owerless to shield Des Périers, who, rather than
all into the hands of his persecutors, is said to
have killed himself in 1544. His Nowvelles Récréa-
tions et Joyeux Devis were published in 1558. —
They consist of 129 short stories, both comic and —
romantic, and are admirable examples of narrative
art, though the laxity of the Renaissance is
frequently apparent in the writer’s choice of sub-
jects. The style is vivacious and elegant; indeed,

es Périers is one of the greatest masters of French -

prose whom the 16th century produced. Besides _
writing the Cymbalum Mundi and the Joyeux
Devis, it is by many critics believed that Des
Périers was part author of the Heptameron associ-
ated with the name of Marguerite. See MARGARET
oF NAVARRE, and the edition of Des Périers’ works
by Lacour (2 vols. Paris, 1866). ;

Despoblado (Span., ‘ desert’), a treeless, un-
inhabited plateau, nearly 10,000 feet above the sea,
on the Bolivian and Argentine frontier to the north-
east of Antofagasta. '

Despoto Dagh. See RHODOPE.

Despreaux. See BorLeAu.

Dessalines, JEAN JACQUES, emperor of Hayti,
was born about 1758 in Guinea, Africa, and was at
an early age imported thence into Hayti as a slave.
He was bought by a French planter, whose name he
afterwards assumed, and early became a prominent
leader in the insurrection, second only to Toussaint
L’Ouverture. In the atragele with the French he
was always distinguished by his agility and swift-
ness of movement, as well as by his fearlessness

and ferocious cruelty. After the first compromise

he became governor of the southern part of the
island, but soon began the war anew, and, after
infamous cruelties, compelled the French to evac-
uate the island in October 1803. He was ereated

overnor in January 1804, when the people of the
island declared themselves independent, and on 8th
October had himself crowned as emperor of Hayti,
under the name of Jean Jaques I.; but his despot-
ism, debauchery, and cruelty soon alienated from
him the sympathy and support even of those who —
were formerly his firmest adherents. In 1806, while
trying to repress a revolt, he was cut down by
Christophe (q.v.), who succeeded him’ as emperor
of Hayti.

Dessau, a town of North Germany, capital
of the duch of Anhalt, is situated on the left
bank of the Mulde, not far from its junction with
the Elbe, 70 miles by rail SW. of Berlin. It
is in general well built. Among the principal
buildings are the ducal palace, a noble structure,
built in 1748, and improved in 1875, with a valu-
able picture-gallery and library; a town-hall, an
elegant theatre, and several churches. The PAii-
anthropinum of Basedow (q.v.) was here. The
manufactures are sugar, woollen cloth, machinery,
carpets, and there is a large trade in grain. Moses
Mendelssohn was a native. Leopold, Prince of
Anhalt-Dessau (1676-1747 ), a famous soldier in the
wars of the 18th century, i
der alte Dessauer (‘the old Dessauer’) ; his statue
adorns the market-place. Pop. (1890) 34,658.

Destouches, PHILIPPE, one of the chief comic
dramatists of France in the 18th century, was
born in 1680. He wrote seventeen comedies, two of
which, Le Philosophe Marié (1727), and Le Glorieux,
his masterpiece (1732), are of a very high order of
excellence. He died in 1754. His characters are
truthfully drawn, and his plots interesting. In his
style he imitated Boileau rather than Moliére, and —
his verse has occasionally a happy epigrammatic
turn. In his language he avoided the freedom

, is popularly known as

a eee ee

ne ee te re er

DESTRUCTORS

DETROIT 777

of the older comedians, but the moral tone of his

plays cannot be described as high.

Destructors. See Sewace.

. saenertnde, in Scots law, that repeal or revo-

of a legal enactment which is effected not

by a subsequent contrary enactment, but by the
establishment of a contrary use, sanctioned by the
of time and the consent of the community.

Neither the word nor the idea attached to it is

amiliar to the law of England—where the corre-

: cope Sato is non-user. The rule in England is,
a statute once formally enacted by the legisla-

ture, remains in force, however unsuited it may be
to the altered conditions of society, till it be repealed
by another statute. The repeal may be by implica-
, but here the law watches with a jealous eye.
Such repeal ‘is to be understood,’ says Blackstone,
eee when the matter of the later statute is so
clearly ne that it necessarily implies a
negative.’ far was this principle carried,
that it was formerly the rule, that if a statute
ing another was itself repealed afterwards,

the first statute was revived without any formal
words for that pu . But this rule was
changed by 13 and 14 Vict. chap. 21. In Scot-

land, an os Pa principle prevailed, and it is

still held that acts of pee iament made before the
Union may lose their force by disuse, without any
express repeal, or ‘go into desuetude,’ as it is com-
monly said. The same may be said of the general
orders (Acts of Sederunt, as they are called) of the
Court of Session. But by desuetude is meant
something more than mere non-use for a period of
time, however t. There must be contrary use
of a itive kind, inconsistent with the statute,
and of such a kind as to prove the altered sense of
the community; there must, in short, be con-
suetudinary law in a negative sense; and the so-
called desuetude thus amounts to a repeal of statute
law b arte gemma law.

Both rules are liable to objections. The result
of that followed in England has been that
statutes have remained on the statute-book with-
out formal repeal after their enforcement had
become morally impossible. A curious example
of this occurred in the early part of this century,
in which one of the parties to an ordinary civil
suit challenged his adversary to ‘ judicial combat,’
founding his claim to do so upon an_unrepealed
statute, and it was held that in point of form
his right could not be disputed (see DUEL). But
since 1869 the English statutes have been by the
Statute Law Revision Acts weeded to a great
extent of all obsolete and inconsistent enact-
ments, and a new edition of Revised Statutes has
been published, containing as far as possible only
such enactments as are in force. he rule in
Scotland is the same as the English as regards
all statutes made since the Union ; but as regards
the older Scotch statutes, the difficulty still exists,

in dealing with enactments more or less forgotten
or violated, how to determine what constitutes such
contrary use as to support the plea of desuetude.

The effect of the plea of desuetude has been curi-

ously illustrated in some modern cases, where the }

validity of certain old Scots acts against Sabbath
profanation was questioned. In two cases, in 1870
and again in 1887 (when a person was charged with
keeping open a pie and lemonade shop in contra-
vention of the Act of 1661), the plea of desuetude

was disregarded.

Detachment, in its Military sense, is a small
but indefinite number of troops, sent from the main
body of a regiment, brigade, division, or army, as
the case may be, to perform some special duty. In
the Royal Artillery the party of men who work
one gun is called a ‘gun detachment.’

Detective, See Potice, Vol. VILL p. 285.

Determinants, in mathematical analysis, a
symbolical method by which, inter alia, the solu-
tion of equations becomes a matter of mere inspec-
tion. The development of the method is due
mainly to the French mathematician Cauchy
(q.v.). The determinant is the sum of all the pro-
ducts that can be formed from a group of quantities
arranged as columns and rows in a square block ;
each product containing as a factor one from each
horizontal row and one from each column; the
sign being plus or minus, according as the arrange-
ment of rows from which it is taken requires an
even or odd number of transpositions to reduce

it to the arrangement in the + Ser The deter-
a c

minant of the third order | a’ b’ c’ | is equal to
a’ vy’

aucd-awed+ad We-dbcdtid be-dve.
Determinism, See WILL.

Detmold, capital of the German principality of
Lippe, on the Werre 47 miles SW. of Hanover by
rail. The chief buildings are the old castle, the
modern palace, and the theatre. Detmold has also
a museum, a public library, a hospital, a gymnasium,
and other schools. There are manufactures of to-
bacco, cards, and carved work in wood and stone,
and breweries. On a hill 2 miles from Detmold is
a colossal statue of Arminius (q.v.). Pop. 9735.

Detri tus, = in Geology to accumulations
formed by the disintegration of rocks, may consist
of angular and subangular debris, or of more or
less water-worn materials, such as gravel, sand, or

clay, or an admixture of these. See PLEISTOCENE.

Detroit, the chief commercial city and port of
entry of Michigan, and seat of justice of Wayne
county, is situated on Detroit | copyright 1888, 1997, and
River, about 125 miles by water, | 19 i» the U.S. by J. B.
or 178 by land, NW. of Cleve- ner
land, Ohio, with which it is connected by daily
steamers and by railway lines. Railways also con-
nect with Chicago, 284 miles distant, and by way
of Windsor, on the opposite side of the river, the
Grand ‘Trunk Railway of Canada affords direct
communication with the cities of the Dominion,
and a large number of vessels ply between this city
and the other ports on the Great Lakes. Its area
is about 30 square miles.

Detroit is substantiall

built, its streets are broad,
well paved, and shaded, and its 20 public —
cover about 900 acres. Chief among these is Belle
Isle Park, an island (area 700 acres) reaaar as.
situated in Detroit River and handsomely improved,
and stretching from the city, with which it is con-
nected by a drawbridge 3134 feet long, to Lake St
Clair. The city is well supplied with water from
the river. Its fire and police departments are ex-
cellent, and its 65 public schools with their 737
teachers afford accommodation and _ instruction
for about 30,000 pupils, the expenses for which
in 1896 were $508,781.87. The prinei manufac-
tures include iron products, railroad cars, flour,
malt liquors, cigars, leather, boots and shoes, stov
drugs, &e., with an annual value of $80,000,000, an
the mercantile transactions embrace a large trade
in grain (12,000,000 bushels annually), flour, live-
stock, lumber, wool, pork, copper, &e, The tonnage
of the shipping passing Detroit is over 36,000,000
tons; value of imports (1896) $3,383,163, exports
$11,228,120. Of its 300 vessels, 150 are steamers.
The streets are lighted with electricity (cost of plant
$630,141.72), and many of them are lined with trees.
The public buildings embrace a Catholic cathedral
and nearly 200 churches of almost all denomina-
tions, a city-hall erected at a cost of about $600,000.
a Board of Trade building, a convent, 3 general

778 DETTINGEN

DEVERON

hospitals and a United States marine hospital, 5
opera houses and theatres, a new Federal Building
(1889-97, costing $1,500,000), a Free Public Library
with 150,000 vols., numerous banks and. savings
institutions, and daily, weekly, and monthly peri-
odicals, several being in German. Detroit was held
by the French 1610-1762, and by the British 1763-
96, when it passed to the United States. It was
totally destroyed by fire in 1805. Incorporated as
a city in 1824, it was the capital of the state from
1836 to 1847, but was superseded by Lansing. Pop.
(1880) 116,340 ; (1890) 205,876; (1894, state census)
238,264 ; (1900) 285,704. DETROIT RIVER, so called,
is the strait extending from Lake St Clair to Lake
Erie, about 20 miles in length, with a depth suffi-
cient to float the largest vessels.

Dettingen, a village of Bavaria, on the Main,
10 miles NW. of Aschaffenburg by rail (pop. 657),
is noted as the scene of a battle diwing the war of
the Austrian Succession, when, on 27th June 1743,
George IT. (q.v.) of England, commanding English,
Hanoverians, and Austrians, defeated the larger
French army under the Due de Noailles. This was
the last time a king of England took the field in
person.—There is another Dettingen (pop. 3500) 10
miles E. of Reutlingen in Wiirtemberg.

Deucalion, son of Prometheus, and husband of
Pyrrha. When Zeus had resolved to destroy the
race of men by a flood, after the treatment he had
received from Lycaon, Deucalion built an ark or
ship, in which he and his wife floated during the
nine days’ flood which drowned all the other in-
habitants of Hellas. On the subsidence of the
waters the ark rested on Mount Parnassus. To
repeople the world Deucalion and Pyrrha were told
by the goddess Themis to throw behind them the
bones of their mother. This they did with the
stones of mother-earth, and from (Ben thrown by
Deucalion sprang up men, and from those by
Pyrrha, women.

Deuteronomy (Gr. deuteronomion, the
‘second’ or ‘repeated law’), the Greek name of
the fifth book of the Pentateuch. It presents the
third and latest phase of the development of the
Mosaic legislation. Its great aim is to check the
encroachments of idolatry, and to concentrate the
national worship in the great sanctuary at Jeru-
salem, especially at the hess annual festivals. It
is instinct with the prophetic spirit, and lays stress

on the great commandment to love and fear God,

with the whole heart as the sum of the whole law.
According to Kuenen and Wellhausen it was com-
posed in the reign of Josiah ; other crities think it
cannot be later than the reign of Manasseh. See
BIBLE, PENTATEUCH.

Deutsch, EMANUEL OscAR MENAHEM, was
born of Jewish parents at Neisse, in Silesia,
October 28, 1829. His education was begun at
the local gymnasium at the age of six, continued
by his uncle, a learned rabbi, to whom he owed
his mastery of Hebrew and Chaldee literature, and
finally pursued at the university of Berlin. In
1855 he came to England to fill an appointment in
the library of the British Museum, where ‘for
fifteen years with mighty ardour and magnificent
industry he studied and wrote, enjoying life among
his friends, yet more among his books ; shedding
sunshine wherever he went, attracting and attach-
ing not a few.’ He is best known to the outside
world by his brilliant article on the Tadmud in the
Quarterly Review (1867), to which he also con-
tributed an article on Islam (1869). He wrote
excellent articles on the Targum and the Samaritan
Pentateuch for Dr Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible,
and was a valued contributor to the first edition of
Chambers’s Encyclopedia, for which he wrote nearly
two hundred articles. His scholarship was seen

to great advantage when he wrote on Phoenician
antiquities; and his remarkable command of a
vigorous and poetic English style was shown in his
articles in the Zimes on the C&cumenical Council.
He died 12th May 1873 at Alexandria, whither he
had gone in the hope of recovering the health which
overwork had undermined. The dream of his life
was to have written an elaborate work on the
Talmud, of which his short essays and lectures
gave brilliant promise ; but a mortal disease, added
to official duties, deprived the world of the results
of his unrivalled Seeraiae A volume of his
Literary Remains, with a sketch of his life by
Lady Strangford, was published in 1874.

Deutschbrod, a town of 5436 inhabitants, in
the south-east of Bohemia, 15 miles from the Mora-~
vian frontier. Here in 1422 the Hussite general
Ziska defeated the Emperor Sigismund, h

Deutz. See CoLoGNnr.

Deutzia, a genus of Saxifragacese (sub-order
Philadelphacew), natives of the north of India,
China, and Japan. Some are favourite green-
house plants in* Britain, producing abundance of
beautiful white flowers. The commonest species
(D. scabra) is also becoming frequent in shrub-
beries.

Deux-ponts.

Deux-Sévres,

Devanag'ari (lit. ‘town-script of the gods’),
the character most widely understood by onde
scholars, in which Sanskrit works are usually
peated, unless when in Roman letters. See

ANSKRIT, ALPHABET.

Devaprayaga (better Deoprayag), a village in
the district of Garhwal, North-west Provinces of
India, on a mountain side, 2266 feet above the sea,
in the fork of the Alaknanda and the Bhagirathi,
which join to form the Ganges (q.v.). Devapra-
yaga possesses a notable temple, and is a favourite
place of pilgrimage for the Hindus.

Development is a term used in several special
or technical senses. In mathematies it means the
process by which any mathematical term is changed
into another of equivalent value or meaning: in
geometry specifically the unrolling of a cylindrical
or conical surface, the unbending of any curved
surface into a plane, is called development. The
word is sometimes used of the whole field of
Embryology (q.v.) and of Evolution (q.v.), but is
specially applied rather to the theories of Lamarek
(q.v.) than to the Darwinian Theory (q.v.); see
also the articles BioLoay, HEREDITY, MAN,
VARIATION, WEISMANN. The history of every
science, art, or invention is a history of progress
and development. (See ANTHROPOLOGY, ART, and
the relevant sections of the articles on sciences,
&e., throughout the work. The word has its gwn
meaning in Photography (q.v.); in music the de
velopment of a musical phrase or subject is the
unfolding of its capacities by modification of
melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, &e. (see
SONATA); and development of doctrine is dealt
with in the articles DoGMA (q.v.), CHRISTIANITY,
NEWMAN, and ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

Dev’enter, an old Hanse town of Holland, in
the province of Overyssel, on the Yssel, 11 miles
NN W. of Zutphen by rail. It has an 11th century
cathedral nae a fine town-house, and manufac-
tures iron, carpets, tobacco, beer, and gingerbread.
Thomas & Kempis died here, and here Erasmus
was educated. Pic 23,351 (5000 Catholics).

De Vere. See VERE.

Deveron, a beantiful salmon river of Aberdeen
and Banff shires, rising 3 miles SW. of the Buck
of Cabrach, at an altitude of 1847 feet, and thence

See ZWEIBRUCKEN.
See SEVRES.

DEVIATION

DEVIL 779

Floods (1830).

ae

es

ET

_ a
‘faceompanying legend, assumed

‘death as well as blessings.

_ the ‘Old Se
identified with Satan, although this interpretation

62 miles north-eastward, till it falls into
Firth at Bantl See Lauder’s Moray

Deviation. See Compass.

Device (late Lat. divisa, ‘a drawing’), if in

sense, ig to emblems on shields,
descri by Homer, is, in a more
use of the word, a decoration with
t by an individual
rather than a family, and for the purpose not of
eeeiolty, like the badge (with which it has some-

mes been confounded ), but of mystitication, with

_ eovert allusion to the circumstances of the bearer.
It is, in fact, a rebus or
legend allusive to it, as the

inted riddle, with a
knot borne by Sir

mas Heneage, of a shape suggestive of a heart,

with the inscription ‘ Fast though untied ;’ and the

heart borne by Lord Latimer, with the legend
‘Dieu et ma fiancée.’ See BADGE.

Devil, or Satan, the names applied in the
New Testament and in Christian theology to the
supreme impersonation of evil, considered as pos-
sessing an objective existence outside of man, and
placed at the head of a host of inferior evil spirits,
whose continual occupation is to thwart the good
roxio of God and the progress of his kingdom in

e hearts of men.. Other names merely suggest
the same essential ideas of his nature and function,
as the wicked one, the enemy, and the like. It seems

certain that this conception was foreign to the early

Jewish mind, with its strong grasp of the mono-
theistic idea in the person of the supreme Jehovah.
It is Jehovah himself who hardens Pharaoh’s heart,
and sends a lying spirit among the prophets of
Ahab, and it is he who is considered as the sole
source of all power, the sender of pestilence and
In the exegesis of later
days the serpent that tempted Eve in Eden, and
nt’ of the Apocalypse, were alike

certainly gains no support from the story in
Genesis, when the tempter is as yet hardly more
than a mere animal, although one of a family
almost everywhere specially associated with evil.
It is significant that the name Satan occurs but
five times in the Old Testament: thrice in Job,
where he presents himself among the ‘sons of God’
(Beni Elohim) before the Lord. Here he is the
willing messenger of evil, but yet he is not repre-
sented as Job’s ood enemy, nor yet as a distinet
impersonation of evil. He is hardly more than an
agent of one form of divine providence, by whose
means Job is tried and lifted into a higher spiritual
plane, and his energies hardly range out of the
region of mere physical into that of moral evil.
The Beni Elohim throughout are employed as the
messengers of Jehovah, and carry aut his mercies
and ar geese alike, both bearing messages of
consolation and promise to the patriarchs, and 7.
Saul’s mind with gloomy thoughts, appearing with
drawn sword to Balaam, or destroying in one night
a whole Assyrian host. The Jews had also their
demonology like all primitive peoples, as ma
seen in the seirim (satyrs, lit. ‘he-goats’) and the
shedim, both rendered by ‘devils’ in the authorised
version, and perhaps also in the Azazel of Leviti-
cus xvi.; but it was not till later that a special
angel became differentiated from his brethren in
the heavenly court, with the special function of the
accuser of men, like the personification of a guilty
conscience. In the vision of Zechariah we find
him considered formally as the accuser of Israel.
Undoubtedly also this conception had already
become greatly modified during the period of exile
by contact with Persian dualism. Of course such
a coneeption as Ahriman, the mighty author of
evil and the antagonist almost on equal terms of

Ormuzd, was completely foreign to Jewish mono-

theism, yet the Jewish Satan grew greatl both in
definiteness and in power under h chabow, and

henceforth it is from him directly that moral and
physical harm towards men proceeds. Yet it must
not be sup that this was due to direct borrow-
ing. and that the Jewish Satan was not substan-
tially an original evolution of the native Jewish
mind. ‘While Ahriman is physical evil that has
become moral evil also,’ says M. Réville, ‘Satan is
moral evil becoming physical evil.’

Persian influence appeess most plainly in the
apocryphal books of Tobit and Baruch, but the
growth of the conception of the devil is seen also in
the translation of the LXX., which renders his name
by diabolos, thus emphasising and perpetuating
his special function as the accuser. Now also
he becomes located in his gloomy kingdom of hell,
and is attended by troops of inferior fiends. He
wages warfare on mankind by inflicting physical
and moral evil, and is considered as the agent by
whose means man fell from his original state of
innocence. It was thus he who introduced death
with all its horrors into the world, and consequently
diseases, especially those of greater violence and
obscurity, are the work of himself or his minions.

In the New Testament the conception of the

rsonality of the devil and of a kingdom of

emons holds its ground, but the whole subject is
here treated with a kind of spiritual reserve, in a
teaching that emphasises our own hearts and their
inward temptations as the source of our evil
thoughts and deeds, and connects moral evil in-
separably with the earthly nature of man. The
which speak of a fall of angelic bein

(2 Peter, ii. 4; Jude 6) occur in scriptures of su
ordinate canonical rank; Jesus nowhere defines
concretely the function of the devil; and the few
positive statements about him—that ‘he was a
murderer from the beginning, and stood not in the
truth,’ that ‘he is a liar’ (John, viii. 44), and ‘ sin-
neth from the beginning’ (1 John, iii. 8), scarcely
furnish a sufficient foundation for a complete
doctrine on this subject. Yet the impressive
manner in which it is dwelt on by our Lord and
his apostles shows that it is a necessary part of
Christian teaching. The New Testament devil is
an enemy of the divine, but yet an inferior and
degraded spirit. He is the tempter of man, and
even of the Son of God, og his temptations fall
without effect upon upright purity, and through
the Saviour’s merits the individual Christian is
also saved from his power, in spite of all the
perilous temptations of his own flesh. Christ's
saving work is regarded as the virtual victory
over the power of Satan, and the grand drama
of the last decisive struggles and final subjuga-
tion of the kingdom of the devil forms the con-
clusion of New Testament prophecy.

The early theologians were more literal and less
spiritual in their conceptions, and in their horror of
heathen institutions came to identify the kingdom
of the devil in a particular manner with polytheism
and the persecution they suffered under the Roman
empire. Thus the devil again became a kind of
rival of God, wholly unequal but yet formidable.
The strength of the belief in a powerful personal
devil may be seen in the earliest heresies, those of
the Gnostics and Manichreans, a main feature in
which was an elaborate system of evil demons as
enemies to mah and almost rivals to God. The
early Christians considered the gods of heathenism
as indeed conquered by Christ, but yet not ren-
dered wholly powerless, for as degraded demons
and with intent to deceive they uttered oracles, and
were present at sacrifices, inhaling the sacrificial
incense—an idea in perfect harmony with the
growing materialistic conception of the devils,

780 DEVIL

DEVIZES

and of hell their residence, a place blazing with
eternal fire, and filled with every horror the im-
agination could suggest. The belief in the
objective personality of Satan was complete in
the literalistic explanation of the ‘descent into
hell,’ and the release of the ‘spirits in prison.’
It was a literal conquest over an enemy, although
by some it was explained almost as if due to
superior cunning rather than superior power.
ixaggerated ideas of the devil’s dangerous power
prevailed throughout the dark and middle ages,
whose deep melancholy faith and fantastic theory of
the universe generated saints naturally on the one
hand, and witches and sorcerers as naturally on the
other. It was an involuntary exercise of the poetic
faculty, through which the thoughts of their own
hearts and of their own time became spirits, which
they saw around them. Countless legends were
originated of actual contests between individual
saints and devils in one or other of a thousand
forms. Safety from the devil could be found
alone within the charmed ring-fence of the
church, fortified by the ordained sacraments and
by personal cleanness of life. Excommunica-
tion was synonymous with being ‘delivered
over to Satan,’ to whom the popular imagina-
tion transferred freely all the lingering rem-
nants of earlier demonologies, so that that
"sebuabiaa form and those particular attributes
ecame permanently associated with his appear-
ance which medieval art has fixed and handed
down to us. Lechery had ever been a persistent
quality of the devil (from the literal interpreta-
tion of Gen. vi. 2), and the popular imagination
working out this idea gave free play to a fearful
but prurient fancy, which revelled in multiplying
all the disgusting details of a witches’ sabbath.
Throughout the middle ages the devil was an
absorbing idea, and the constant familiarity with
him often brought with it a penalty of contempt.
In the old religious plays a principal part was
usually assigned to him, and indeed he principally
represented the comic element, as may still be seen
in the pastorales of the Basques. The auditors
might laugh for the moment to see the devil out-
witted and then beaten, but they had not shaken
off that fear which revenged itself in all the piti-
less cruelties of witchcraft—the darkest chapter
in the history of humanity.

The decadence of belief in the active external
power of the devil was mainly due to the indirect
effect of the Reformation and the progress of
science. To no man was the devil ever more
present than to Luther, but nevertheless it was
mainly the movement he inaugurated that has
driven the enemy back into the sphere of the
abstract and the ideal. In later generations the
sense of the supernatural has steadily decayed,
and with it almost all the terrors of the devil ; but
it cannot be said that with it has also disappeared
a genuine religious spirit. The Christian man in
the conscious weakness of his struggle against in-
dwelling sin feels that he has no need to conjure up
for himself an external suggester of temptation—
he has devils enough in the treacherous inclina-
tions of his own heart. And in assuming a per-
sonal devil to account for the evil side that there
is in nature and in life, there remains the question
to be answered whether we have not merely pushed
back the most puzzling of,all questions a single
stage, and whether we have contributed at all to
the insoluble problem of the genesis of evil.

Kant (in 1793) defined the devil as the personifi-
cation of ‘radical evil.’ Schleiermacher held that
symbolic reference to the devil might nd have a
pe in Christian discourse, but denied the possi-

ility of his real existence, and in this he has
been followed by Schenkel, Biedermann, Lipsius,

‘Pfleiderer, and others. Pfleiderer, estimating the
critical result of the doctrine, finds that—whilst a
twofold logical contradiction is involved in the idea
of devils as the substantial existence of wicked-
ness, and as supra-mundane creatures belonging to
this world—devils represent the obverse of religious
idealism, or empirical world-existence in its hostility _
to the Idea: in other words, the world on the side
of its opposition to God, or the working for itself
of finite and opposing existence as such, presenting
itself as the sum and substance of evil, That the
two forms of evil—the natural and the spiritual or
moral—stand in inward connection, and form a
universal (and accordingly metaphysical ) power in
the world, is the truth contained in the idea of the
devil that has significance for the practice of wor-
ship. On the other hand the orthodox view is
maintained more or less definitely by Liicke,
Von Hofmann, Luthardt, Rothe, Julius Miller,
Martensen, and Dorner, who holds that though
the doctrine cannot be completely constructed, it
yet forms part of a consistent whole, and is of
importance for the Christian, as distinguished from
the heathen and Jewish conception of evil, as well
as for the Christian life. See ATONEMENT, DEMON-
oLoGy, Evin, ExorcisM, HELL, WITCHCRAFT; also —
Roskoff’s adinirable Geschichte des Teufels (1869).

Devil-fish is a name used for the Octopus
(q.v.), also for the Angler (q.v.), and, in America,
for a gigantic species of ray (Cephalopterus vam-
pyrus), with very large pectorals. Of the latter
a specimen was fond in Delaware Bay, 174 feet
by 18 feet, and weighing 5 tons,

Devil’s Bit. See ScaBious.

Devil’s Bridge, a popular name in most
mountainous countries for bridges built over wild
chasms. The most notable are (1) a bridge over
the Reuss, in the Swiss canton of Uri, 1} mile W.
of Andermatt, on the St Gothard Road, where the

| river, 4593 feet above sea-level, forms a picturesque

cascade of 100 feet. The new granite structure,
built in 1830, spanning the stream with a single
arch of 26 feet, fell in in August 1888, and traffic
was for a time resumed on the old moss-grown
bridge 20 feet below, which witnessed some severe
fighting between the French and the Austrians and
Russians in 1799. (2) A double bridge in Cardigan-
shire (sometimes called Pont-y-Mynach), 10 miles .
ESE. of Aberystwith, across a gorge, 114 feet deep,
and over a mile long, traversed by the Mynach,
which makes within a short distance four falls of
from 18 to 110 feet. The lower bridge was con-
structed by the monks of Strata Florida in the
11th century, the upper (20 feet over it) in 1753,

Devil’s Coach-horse (Ocypus olens), a com-
mon British and European beetle, in the family
Staphylinide. It has very much reduced wing-
covers, and resembles many of its relatives in the
habit of curving its posterior body upwards, using
the tip to adjust the wings under their covers.

Devil’s Dyke. See CAMBRIDGESHIRE.

Devise, the conveyance of land by Will (q.v.).

Devizes, a municipal Boronge of Wiltshire,
near the Kennet at Avon Canal, 50 miles
WSW. of Reading, and 20 ESE. of Bath. It lies
high at the mouth of Pewsey Vale, between the
thinly peopled tracts of Salisbury Plain and the
Mnslbonee h Downs. According to Dr Guest, the
old name Divise or Ad Divisas marked the ancient
boundary between the English and Celts ; anne
as a town, Devizes owes its origin to a ee endid
castle built here by Bishop Roger of Salisbury
about 1132. It was stormed by Cromwell in 1645, |
and now is represented by mere fragments. There
are two churches with much interesting Norman
work ; a market-cross (1814), commemorating God’s

— ee ae

time til

Devonian System.

;
|

DEVONIAN SYSTEM

DEVONSHIRE 781

judy t on a perjuress in 1753; a fountain with

. e of Sothern Estcourt (1879); a good
museum; and a large corn exchange (1857). It
has manufactures of snuff and malt, and is the seat
of an een corn-market, From Henry VIIL's

about 1820 Devizes was a great cloth
mart; now its chief manufactures are snuff and
! tural implements. It returned two mem-

bers till 1867, then one till 1885, Pop, (1851 ) 6554 ;

(1891) 6426. See A History of Devizes (1859).

The name proposed
urchison and Sedgwick to replace the more
teristic and older term Old Sandstone,

____ because the slaty and calciferous strata in Devon-

hire contain a much more copious and rich fossil
fauna than the red arenaceous rocks of Scotland,
Wales, and Herefordshire, with which they are
believed to be upon the whole contemporaneous.
The physical condition under which the strata in
Devonshire were deposited differed greatly from
those which marked the accumulation of the Old
Red Sandstone, and there is still some doubt as to
the precise correlation of the two sets of strata.
Geologists, therefore, retain both names, and speak
of the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone system, or
Old Red Sandstone and Devonian system. See
OLD RED SANDSTONE.

Devonport (before 1824 called PLymMouTH
Dock), a parliamentary and municipal borough,
maritime town, and naval arsenal, in the south-west
of Devonshire, on the east shore of the estuary of
the Tamar (which is.4 miles long b Fg broad,
and called the Hamoaze), 2 miles W. of Ply-
mouth. It stands on high ground, and is separ-
ated from its growing suburbs of Stoke and Morice
Town by the glacis of its fortifications, once im-
portant, but now dismantled. The streets are
regular, and the footpaths of marble. Devonport
is supplied with water from Dartmoor by a circuit-
ous route of 30 miles. It owes its existence to the
dockyard established here by William III. in 1689,
and is one of the chief naval arsenals in Britain.
The government establishments now stretch for
nearly 4 miles along the left bank of the Ham-
oaze. The original dockyard, extended from time
to time until it contained six building-slips,
was supplemented in 1844 by the formation at
Morice Town of the Keyham Steam Yard and
Factory, which communicates with the dockyard
and gun-wharf (designed by Vanbrugh) by a tunnel.
Farther up the river are an engineers’ college, sea-
men’s barracks, magazines, and powder-works ;
and the Hamoaze itself contains many men-of-war
lying in ordinary, besides those in actual service.

he official residences of the admiral of the port
and of the lieutenant-governor of the western dis-
trict are at Mount Wise, which is fortified. Here
also are the chief barracks of the troops which
garrison the ‘three towns’ of Plymouth, Devon-

rt, and Stonehouse. The military hospital is on

tonehouse Creek. There are extensive commer-
cial wharves with railway communication on Stone-
house Pool. Pop. of municipal borough (1841)
$3,820; (1881) 48,939; (1891) 54,803; of parlia-
men borough, which includes the adjacent town-
ship of East Stonehouse, 70,204. Devonport returns
two members to parliament. ;

Devonshire, a maritime county, in the sonth-
west peninsula of England, between the Bristol
and the English Channel. Its greatest length is
70 miles; its greatest breadth, 65; and it contains
2586 sq. m., of which about three-fourths are under
cultivation. The coast-line approaches 150 miles.
The north coast is the boldest, with several hills
over 1000 feet. Its chief indentation is Bideford
Bay, 18 miles broad and 8 deep, into which fall the

Taw and the Torridge. The south coast is also

lined with cliffs, chief among them being the bold
a district of the Bolt Head and Start

‘oint, the western horn of the great bay of which
Portland is the eastern. Tor Bay is 3 by 34 miles,
Plymouth Sound, the combined estuary of the
Tamar and Plym, is one of the finest harbours in
the kingdom, the anchorage ground extending 7
miles inland from the breakwater (wee PLYMOUTH)
by which the outer roadstead is protected, Devon-
shire is hilly, the most elevated parts being the table-
lands of Dartmoor in the south-west, Exmoor in
the north-west, running into Somerset, and Black.
down in the east. These are mainly open moor:
lands. Dartmoor (qv) is very rocky; the lower
hills grassy. High Willhayse, on Dartmoor (2039
feet), is the highest point. vonian -~ Carbonif-
erous strata occupy the greater of the county ;
next in importance are the Mitic boss of Dart-
moor, and the Triassic rocks in the eastern quarter.
There are also archwan rocks, probably Silurian,
with greensand, chalk, a Miocene deposit at Bovey
Tracey, and many exposures of igneous rocks, in-
trusive and interbedded. Copper, tin, lead, iron,
and manganese occur in commercial quantities,
with ores of several other metals; china, terra-
cotta, potter's, and pipe clays; granites, marbles,
anthracite, lignite, gypsum, and other earthy
minerals. The rivers of Devonshire are numerous.
The Tamar, 59 miles, is the longest, and divides
Devon from Cornwall; the Exe, 54 miles, which
comes next, rises in Somerset. The other leading
rivers—the Dart, Polen. Taw, Torridge, and Plym
all from Dartmoor, have estuaries of commerci
importance, as have also the Exe and Tamar. The

deer still run wild on Exmoor, and are hunted.

The climate of Devon, especially in the south, is
mild and humid, and not liable to great extremes.
Hence, several of the towns on the southern and
eastern coasts have become famous as health-resorts
—notably Torquay ; and, on the north coast, Ilfra-
combe. Myrtles and aloes commonly flourish in the
open air; and in specially favoured spots oran
and lemons, with a little protection, will thrive and
fruit. The rainfall on Dartmoor is much greater
than elsewhere in Devon, and the winters colder
and more — The climate is so invigorating,
however, that the Moor is rapidly wing into
repute as a summer sanatorium, and that the con-
vict prison is ed as a health-station. The
county is most fertile, especially in the South
Hams, and on the ‘ red land’ of the Vale of Exeter.
The pastures are very rich, and dairy-farming and
cattle-breeding are prominent in its agriculture.
The red Devon cattle are one of the leading breeds;
and the sheep and ponies of Dartmoor and Exmoor
have more than a local reputation. ‘Clotted
cream,’ produced by scalding, is a special product
almost confined to Devon and Cornwall. There
are extensive orchards, from which great quantities
of cider are made; and various fruits are largely
cultivated in special localities and sent to London
and the Midlands by rail. The fisheries are exten-
sive and valuable, the chief centres being Plymouth
and Brixham. Though in the main agricultural,
Devon has a varied industrial character. Mining
and quarrying and clay-working are of considerable
importance ; and the manufactures include serges,
lace, gloves; extensive potteries; manure, chem-
ical, and soap works; paper-mills, breweries, and
distilleries. The chief towns are the city of
Exeter, Plymouth, ve thes “res Torquay, Tiverton,
Barnstaple, Stonehouse, Tavistock, Teignmouth,
Newton, Dartmouth, and Brixham. Pop. (1801)
$40,308; (1841) 532,959; (1881) 604,397; Hosea
631,767. nder the Reform Act of 1885 Exeter
returns one member, Plymouth and Meh oy two
each, and the rest of the county is divi into
eight single-member constituencies.

782 DEVONSHIRE

D’EWES

Devon adds to singular landscape charms, anti-
quarian attractions of a most comprehensive and
varied character, prehistoric and medieval. The
Romans had little to do with it beyond Exeter,
which was an important station; the Saxons did
not conquer it until the reign of Cynewulf; the
Danes ravaged it in the 9th and 10th centuries,
though they were at first repulsed with heavy loss ;
it was the scene of the western rebellion for the
restoration of Roman Catholicism in 1549; Ply-
mouth was the headquarters of the fleet which de-
feated the Armada in 1588, and the chief mainstay
of the parliament in the west of England in the
conflict with Charles I.; Brixham was the landing-
place in 1688 of William of Orange. No county
save Middlesex has given birth to so many eminent
men—Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, Marlborough,
Monk, Coleridge, Hooker, Sir Joshua Reynolds,
John Davis, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard
Grenville, Bishop Jewell, Gay, St Boniface, New-
comen, Wolcott, Kingsley. John Ford, among them.

Devonshire, DUKE oF. See CAVENDISH.

Devrient, a family of German actors, of whom
the most talented was Ludwig Devrient (1784-1832),
distinguished both in comedy and in tragedy, and
especially noteworthy as an exponent of Shake-
spearian characters.—His nephew, Carl August
(1797-1872), the eldest of the brothers Devrient,
played lovers’ parts, and was the husband of the
diva, Madame Schrider-Devrient (1805-60),—
Philipp Eduard (1801-77), the second brother, was
a delightful baritone singer in the early part of
the century, and afterwards became a painstaking,
though not a great actor. He was the author of a
number of plays, and of the valuable Geschichte der
deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leip. 5 vols. 1848-74) ;
and with his son Otto (1838-94) he prepared an
edition of Shakespeare. —Gustav Emil (1803-72), the
youngest and most gifted of the three brothers, was
most successful in tragic and emotional parts, and
became identified in Germany with such characters
as Hamlet, Tasso, and especially Posa.

Dew. The question of the origin of dew has
been discussed since very early times, and many
theories have been advanced on the _ subject.
Among more recent writers, Gersten, followed bh
Du Fay, held that dew rose from the ground.
Others believed that it fell from above, but no
Seay systematic treatment of the subject appeared
until the publication of Wells’s Essay on js in
1814. Wells combated the opinion of Du Fay and
Gersten, and showed that all the phenomena
described by them could be equally well explained
by his theory. He asserted that the dew was con-
densed out of the air in contact with surfaces below
a certain temperature. For every definite pressure
and temperature of the atmosphere there is a
definite amount of water-vapour per unit-volume
which can be held in suspension. ence, when air
containing a certain amount of water-vapour is
cooled below a particular temperature, the vapour
is condensed, this temperature is called the dew-
point of the atmosphere under the given conditions
as to pressure and quantity of vapour. At night
the earth and objects at its surface are being cooled
by radiation. If the rate of loss of heat by radia-
tion is sufficiently rapid, the temperature of the
earth’s surface, and consequently of the air in
immediate contact with it, may fall below the dew-
point. When this occurs, the moisture condenses
on the surface in the form of dew. This is Dr
Wells’s theory regarding the formation of dew.
He considered that the vapour had risen from the
groin during the peerions day, and that very
little dew was formed from vapour which had just
risen from the ground, although he admitted that
some might be so produced.

Wells’s theory of the formation of dew is un-
doubtedly correct, but, in a paper read in 1885
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Mr John
Aitken has adduced evidence which shows that the

reater part of dew is formed from vapour which
haa just risen from the ground and been trapped by
the grass and other objects. Mr Aitken was led to —
this conclusion by three independent experimental
methods. One of these consists in renioving at
sunset a portion of turf from the ground, placing it
in a shallow metal pan and weighing it. The turf,
still contained in the pan, is then replaced in the
ground in good heat-communication with it. When
reweighed after some time, it is invariably found to
have lost weight. If the turf be covered by a metal
tray so as to prevent rena of moisture, this loss
of weight is largely obviated. Similarly, it is shown
that moisture rises always during the night from
bare soil, from roads, and from the driest earth.

Certain atmospheric conditions are necessary for
the copious formation of dew. The sky must be
clear, otherwise the clouds will radiate back much
of the heat given off from the earth, and so will
eg the surface objects from cooling below the

ew-point. The atmosphere must be calm, or the
air in immediate contact with the ground will be
carried away before it is completely saturated.

When the temperature of objects falls below the
freezing-point, the dew is deposited in a solid state,
and is known as hoar-frost. See EVAPORATION,
METEOROLOGY.

Dewas’, 2 native state of Central India, under
British protection, held conjointly by two Rajput
chiefs. Area under both chiefs, 290 sq. m. ; pop.
152,100. The capital, Dewas, 20 miles NE. of
Indore, is a straggling town, with a pop. of about |

12,000.

Dewberry (Rubus cesius) is distinguished from
the Common Bramble (of which, indeed, many
regard it as a mere sub-species) by its weaker
and more prostrate glaucous stem, with scattered
prickles, but without bristles or glandular hairs,
also by the few large drupes, which make up its
fruit, and which have a characteristic dew-like
bloom, whence the name arises. The fruit is very
sweet and agreeable, and makes an excellent wine.
The dewberry of North America (2. procumbens),
abundant in the forests of Canada, is a delicious
fruit, much superior to the British fruit of the same
name, and more tart. The plant is of very humble
growth, scarcely rising above the ground.

D’ Ewes, Sir SIMONDS, antiquary, was born in
1602 at Coxden, near Chard, of Suffolk and Dorset
parentage, and was educated under four masters in
those two counties and in London, till in 1618 he
entered St John’s College, Cambridge. In 1623 he
was called to the bar, but three years afterwards
threw up his practice, married the rich child-heiress
Anne Clopton (1613-41), and received the honour
of knighthood. He now devoted himself to his
darling pursuits, numismatics and historical manu-
scripts, whence in 1640 he was called away to the
Long Parliament as member for Sudbury. A
Puritan but a moderate, he accepted a baronete
(1641), sided with the parliament on the outbreak
of the Civil War, was expelled by Pride (1648),
and, ‘withdrawing to Suffolk, died at Stowlang-
toft Hall, 8th April 1650. He published littie,
but his transcripts of manuscripts, which else had
perished, possess high value, as also do his Diaries,
especially the portions relating to the Long Parlia-
ment, which have been utilised by Mr Forster.
His monumental Journals of Queen Elizabeth's
Parliaments appeared in 1682; and his Corre-
spondence, with an incomplete AO OR eDE.
was edited in 1845 by Mr Halliwell (Halliwell-
Phillipps). .

a a

r

DE WETTE

DEY 783

De Wette, Wituetm Martin Leperecur,
critic, was born at Ulla, Weimar, 12th
January 1780. Studying from 1799 at Jena, under

Griesbach and Paulus, he early adopted the philos-

ophy of Fries, Extraordinary professor of Exe-
gesi at Heidelberg in 1807, and ordinary professor
1809, he was called to the newly-founded uni-

‘aed of Berlin in 1810; but he was dismissed and

from Prussia in 1819, in consequence of a

letter he wrote to the mother of Sand, the assassin

of Kotzebue. Retiring to Ulla, he completed his
Christliche Sittenlehre (3 vols. 1819-21), his edition
of the Briefe, Sendschreiben und Bedenken Luthers
(5 vols. 1 28), and the religious novel Theodor,
oder des Zweiflers Weihe (1822; Eng. trans. 1849).

_ In 1822 he was appointed professor of Theology at

, was honoured in 1829 with a seat in the
Council of Education, and died there 16th June
1849. His great reputation as a biblical scholar

rests on his Beitrdge zur Einleitung in das Alte

Testament (2 vols. 1806-7), his Lehrbuch der he-
briiisch-jiidischen Archiologie (1814 ; 4th ed. 1864),
and Aone his very useful Lehrbuch der His-
torisch- dischen Einlertung in die Bibel (1817 and
1826), of which the Old Testament part had in 1869
reached its 8th (Eng. trans. by Theodore Parker,
1843), and the New Testament in 1860 its 6th
edition (Eng. trans. 1858). His translation of the
Scriptures, undertaken in conjunction with Augusti
(6 vols. 1809-12 ; 4th ed. 1858) ; Commentar iiber die
Psalmen (1829; 5th ed. 1856); and Kurzgefasstes
Exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (3
vols. 1836-48), have been extensively used by stu-
dents, and the separate parts of the last-named
work, as revised repeatedly by later scholars, have
held their ground ever since. His works on dog-
matic theology, Ueber die Religion (1827), and Das
Wesen des Christlichen Glaubens (1846), are less im-
Oren See the estimates of De Wette by D.

henkel (1849), F. Liicke (1850), Hagenbach

_ (1850), Wiegand (1879), and Stihelin (1880).

Dewey, Grorce, American admiral, was born
at Montpelier, Vermont, December 26th, 1837. He
was uated from the Naval Academy (fifth in
his class) in 1858, and served two years on the Medi-
terranean station. As a lieutenant on the sloop-
of-war ‘Mississippi’ in Farragut’s squadron, he took
om forcing the passage of the lower Mississippi in

862. He continued in service after the war, and
was promoted commander in 1872, captain in 1884,
and commodore in 1896. Appointed to the com-
mand of the Asiatic squadron in 1898, on the out-
break of war with Spain he was ordered to proceed

to the Philippine Islands, and to capture or destroy

the Spanish fleet. This he did May Ist, 1898, de-
stroying the Spanish vessels without losing one of

_ his own men, for which exploit he was immediately

romoted to be rear-admiral, receiving a sword of

onour and the thanks of congress ; in 1899 he was
made admiral, a rank held previously only by Far-
ragut and Porter. He took part in the capture of
Manila, and served on the P rire commission,
returning to the United States in 1899.

De Witt, JAN, a celebrated statesman of Hol-
land, born at Dort in 1625, was the son of Jaco
de Witt, from whom he inherited a hatred of the
office of stadtholder, and of the family that filled
it. He was carefully educated, and early exhibited
remarkable ability. Sent by the States of Hol-
land in 1652 to Zealand, as one of the deputies to
dissuade that province from adopting an Orange
policy, he there secured complete confidence by his
eloquence. Becoming the head of the oligarchic
republican party, composed of the nobles and
wealthier burgesses, De Witt opposed violently the

ular Oran rty (which upheld the youn
Petase, afterward -Wihiam IIL.), striving to abolis n

the office of stadtholder, and to strip the House of
Orange of all power. During the minority of the
prince, the advantage was with De Witt and his

y, and in 1654, on the conclusion of the war
between England and Holland, a secret article was
inserted in the treaty drawn up between De Witt
and Cromwell, by virtue of which the House of
Orange was to deprived of all state-offices.
After the restoration of Charles IL, De Witt
leaned more to the side of France, all the more
when hostilities were renewed between England
and Holland in 1665. During the two years’ war
De Witt’s influence declined, but his star paled
altogether when the designs of Louis XIV. u
the Spanish Netherlands beeame manifest.
Oran y carried their point in the elevation
of William to the family dignity of stadtholder ;
and on the invasion of the Nethitlends by Louis
XIV. in 1672, the Prince of Orange was appointed
commander of the Dutch forces. The first cam-
paign proved unfortunate, which did not improve
the temper of the people towards De Witt, who
had previously resi his office of grand pension-
ary. His brother, Pecndline, ace of conspirin
against the life of the stadtholder, was imprison
and tortured. De Witt went to see him on his
release. When they were coming out of prison,
they were attacked by an infuriated crowd, and
were both murdered, August 20, 1672. The States-
general demanded an investigation, and the punish-
ment of the murderers, but the stadtholder did not
take the necessary steps. De Witt was personally
a man of upright character. Among his writin
are his Memoirs (1709) and his Letters (6 vo
1723-25). See the Lives by Simons ( 1832-36 ), Knot-
tenbelt (1862), J. Geddes (vol. i. Lond. 1879), and
Pontalis (Eng. trans. 2 vols. 1885).

Dewsbury, a manufacturing town and munici-
pal and parliamen peconge in the West Riding
of Yorkshire, on the Calder, 32 miles SW. of York;
it is connected with Liverpool and Hull by the
Calder navigation. It has a chamber of commerce
(1861), an infirmary (1883) which cost £17,000, a
new town-hall (1888) which cost £30,000, new
county-courts, and St Augustine’s grammar-school.
It manufactures extensively blankets, carpets, and
yarns, and with Batley (q.v.) is the centre of the
shoddy trade ; it has also foundries and minor indus-
tries. Dewsbury obtained a municipal charter in
1872. Pop. of he borough (1861) 18,148;
eae 29,639 ; (1891) 29,847. ‘The parliamentary

rough was formed in 1867, and includes Batley
and Soothill. Pop. of par. borough (1881) 69,531 ;
(1891) 72,986. It returns one member to parliament.

Dexter, in Heraldry, that side of a shield or
armorial figure or composition which is to the left,
not the right, of the spectator, because it covers the
right side of the warrior who carries it.

Dextrine (syn. ‘British gum,’ ‘torrefied starch’).
When starch is carefully heated to 392° (200° C.),
it becomes soluble in cold and hot water, and loses
its gelatinous character ; it has also the property,
when viewed by polarised light, of turning the plane
of polarisation to the right > benes itsname. Starch
may be converted into dextrine by the long-con-
tinued action of dilute acids ata high temperature
also by theaction of Diastase (q.v.). Dextrine an
starch are isomeric, both being composed of CoH 100s;
but they may be distinguished by the dingy purple
tint which dextrine gives with ‘iodine, instead of
blue. More pliable and less brittle when dry than
gum-arabic, dextrine is often substituted for it in
calico-printing, and for stiffening different goods ; it
is also applied to the back of postage-stamps.

Dey (Turkish dai, ‘a maternal uncle’), a name
applied to the governor of Algiers before its

784 DHAR

DIABETES

conquest by the French. The name was formerly
given to elderly people, espevially among the
Janizaries ; hence came to be commonly applied at
Algiers to the commanding-officer of that corps,
who frequently became afterwards pasha or regent
of that province. See BEG.

Dhar, a town of Central India, lying at an
elevation of 1908 feet above the sea, 33 miles W. of
Mhoy. It has over 15,000 inhabitants, and pre-
serves, in two large mosques of red stone and a fort
defended by a high rampart and twenty-six towers,
traces of bygone magnificence. It is the capital
of a nrcteod state of the same name, with an area
of 1740 sq. m., and 169,474 inhabitants.

Dharmsala, a hill-station in the Punjab,
110 miles NE. of Lahore. Pop. 5500.

Dharwar, a town and district in the southern
Mahratta country, in Bombay Presidency, separated
by the river Tungabhadra from Madras. ‘The town
has no manufactures of importance, but a good
deal of trade. Pop. 32,841.—The district has an
area of 4600 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,051,314,
mostly Hindus. The most interesting feature of
the country is its suitableness for the growth of
American cotton, which now occupies a third of
the total acreage devoted to cotton. Cotton and
silk cloth are manufactured in the district. The
prevalent language is Canarese.

Dhole, the wild dog of India. See Doe.

Dholka, a town of India, in Bombay Presi-
dency, 22 miles SW. of Ahmadabad, with a reputa-
tion for the weaving of women’s robes. It is
surrounded by a mud wall 4 miles in circuit, and
lies amid the ruins of noble palaces and tanks,
many dating from the early Hindu period. Pop.
18,500.

Dholpore, a native state of Rajputana, in
Central India, on the northern bank of the Chum-
bul, with an area of 1200 sq. m., and a pop.
of 279,890, mostly Hindus. Capital, Dholpore, on
the Chumbul, 34 miles 8. of Agra by rail. <A large
fifteen days’ fair is held here in October, and iwo
religious fairs are held every year at Machkund, a
lake 3 miles to the west, with no fewer than 114
temples on its banks.

Dhuncehee, or DHANCHI [ “schynomene (Ses-
bania) aculeata), an annual herbaceous plant culti-
vated in Bengal on account of its coarse hemp-like
fibre. It is steeped and prepared very much like
Sunn (q.v.). Other species are of similar use.

Dhwalagiri (Diwdlagiri), once supposed to
be the highest peak of the Himalayas, but now
ascertained to be at most only the third in point of
altitude, has a height of 26,826 feet above the sea.
It is in Nepal, in 29° N. lat., and 82° 30’ E. long.

Diabase. See BAsatr. :

Diabe'tes (Gr., lit. ‘a syphon,’ from diabainé,
‘I go or flow through’), a disorder of the general
system, of which the principal symptom is a
greatly increased flow of urine. Diabetes is of two
distinct kinds: the one, diabetes insipidus, is a
mere exaggeration of the water-excreting function
of the kidneys, accompanied by extreme thirst, and
hence called polydipsva (Gr., ‘excess of thirst’) by

some authorities; the other is a more complex dis- '

order of the assimilation, consequent on the forma-
tion first, and the excretion by the kidneys after-
wards, of an enormous excess of animal sugar
(see SuGAR), the sugar being found in excess
not only in the renal excretion, but in the blood,
and in nearly all the secretions which have been
examined. ‘The pathology of this disease, called
diabetes mellitus (Lat. mel, ‘honey’), is very
obscure, notwithstanding the numerous recent
physiological researches which tend to throw light
on the development of sugar in the animal organ-

‘farinaceous food. ‘T

ism, especially in the liver, and which must
undoubtedly be regarded as bearing on the solution
of the problems connected with this disease,
Unhappily, the cure of it is still entirely unknown
except in so far as it may be controlled or retarde
by good management of the diet, drink, and cloth-
ing. The course of the disease, however, is very
ditterent at different periods of life. Before middle
age it is severe, progressive, and almost invariably
fatal. After that period precisely similar symptoms
often appear, especially in gouty persons, but are
so eraek less dangerous, and so much more easily
controlled, that many authorities are unwilling to

lace them in the same class as true diabetes. All

iabetics are subject to progressive emaciation, and
they often become subject to a chronic disease of
the lungs, closely resembling true tubercular Con-
sumption (q.v.); it is chiefly in Neches off this
termination, or some other more quickly fatal, and
in mitigating the symptoms of the malady, that
the medical art can be of service.

The first fact observed in cases of diabetes is
usually the increased flow of urine, when it
becomes so great as to amount to a practical
inconvenience ; and also a considerable increase
of the appetite, and an wunquenchable thirst,
which darely fail to accompany the disease from
the beginning, but often do not attract atten-
tion, or at least suggest the idea of anything
wrong, till an advanced stage of the disorder.
When the patient demands medical assistance he
is usually somewhat thin; the pulse is quiet, the
skin cool, the heat of the surface, indeed, habitually
rather low and easily depressed. There is often a
complete absence of perspiration, which gives a
navuilar feeling of harshness to the surface, espe-
cially of the palms of the hands. With these
symptoms the first approaches of pulmonary disease
may concur. In the very last stages there is some-
times dropsy of the feet; and the urine may be
natural in quantity, or even diminished. For
the other characters of diabetic urine, see URINE.
Diabetic persons bear excitement and fatigue,
either mental or bodily, extremely badly ; and im-
a in this respect is not unfrequently followed

y sudden or rapid collapse and death. The treat-
ment consists mainly in removing from the diet, as
far as consistent with comfort and due nourishment,
everything which easily turns to the formation of
animal sugar in the system, ag all excess of

he complete suppression of
sugar-forming food, however, as recommended long
ago by Rollo, has not been found possible in prac-
tice in the majority of cases. Bread composed of
gluten of wheat without starch, or bran-cakes baked
with eggs, or biscuits made of almonds, have been
strongly recommended ; and in most of the great.

{ capitals, as London and Paris, bakers may be found

who regularly furnish bread suitable for this un-
fortunate class of sufferers ; indeed, any intelligent
baker who will take the trouble may, under
medical direction, be got to manufacture such
bread when required ; or it may be ordered in the
form of cakes and biscuits, in quantities at a time,
from London houses. It is of importance, however,
that it be ascertained that the bread or flour
supplied is really suitable; for Dr Pavy, one of
the chief authorities on this disease, ascertained
that some of the so-called foods for diabetics
contain little less starch than ordinary bread.
Saccharin (q.v.) has lately been of great service to
diabetics, as it supplies the flavour of sugar without
its objectionable properties. Medicines proper
should be used only under the advice of the
physician. There is no specific, and the unguarded
use of strong remedies is to be condemned. Of all
medicines that have been used, however, opium
and morphia have been found most frequently use-

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DIABLERETS

DIAL AND DIALLING 785

ful in delaying the progress of the disease, Flannel
should be worn next the skin, and the languid
function of the cutaneous perspiration aided by the
warm bath, especially, perhaps, the vapour bath—
e.g. that form known as the Russian bath. The
Turkish bath, which abstracts a | uantity of
water through the skin, is less suitable to such

cases,
_ Diablerets, a remarkable mountain of the

4 _ Bernese Alps, Switzerland, on the frontiers of Bern

and Valais, with a height of 10,651 feet above the

sea, The Diablerets, with their four main peaks,
_ are composed of limestone strata, the lower beds of

are so soft and shaly that they are easily
di ted, and masses falling down into the
valley from above cause the most terrible catas-
trophes, as in 1714 and 1749.

- Diacaustic. See Causrics.
Diachylon. See PLAster.
Diadochi. See Greece, Vol. V. p. 388.

‘ Dizvresis (Gr., from diaireéd, ‘I divide’ ), a term
used in Grammar to signify the resolution of a
Re or of a contracted syllable, into two
syllables; as Lat. aure into aurai. The name is

so given to the mark ** placed above a vowel
letter to indicate that it is to be independently
pronounced, and not in conjunction with a pre-
ceding vowel ; as in the above example, or in the
word aérial, See UMLAuT.

Diagnosis (Gr., from dia, ‘through,’ and gnésis,
‘knowledge’), in Medicine, the discrimination of
diseases. It includes the study of all the vital
phenomena of diseases, and also of their appear-
ances after death, in so far as this can aid their
discovery during the life of the patient. It is usual
to speak of rational or physiological diagnosis, or
diagnosis by symptoms—i.e. changes chiefly fune-
tional, observed by the patient; and of physical
diagnosis, or diagnosis by signs—i.e. objective
phenomena appreciable by the senses of the
observer. The latter method of diagnosis has
been much enlarged in scope and increased in
importance by the modern methods in medicine of
Auscultation (q.v.) and Percussion (q.v.), and also
by the great advances made in physiological chem-
istry, and by the use of the microscope. Skill in
diagnosis is one of the highest gifts of the physi-
cian, and nothing distinguishes the man +f long
experience from the tyro more than this unerring
insight into some unseen disease. See STETHO-
SCOPE, LARYNGOSCOPE, OPHTHALMOSCOPE, &c.

Diagonal Scale. See ScALes (MATHEMA-

TICAL).
Dia‘goras (surnamed the ‘ atheist’), a Greek
poet and philosopher, was born in Melos, an island

of the Cyclades. He is said to have been a disciple
of Democritus of Abdera, and he is alluded to by
Aristophanes in the Clouds (424 B.c.). He seems
to have been witty and fearless, and probably
treated the superstitions of the popular religion
with contempt. He was formally accused of im-

iety in 411, and only saved his life by flight to
Pal ene, and afterwards to Corinth, where he died.
He wrote lyrics and a philosophical work, none of
which have been preserved.

Dial and Dialling. A sun-dial is an instru.
ment for measuring time by means of the motion of
the sun’s shadow cast by a stile erected on its sur-
face. It is an instrument of very great antiquity,
and before clocks and watches became common, it
was in’ general use as a time-keeper. Some old
sun-dials are very elaborate—e.g. that at Glamis
Castle, Forfarshire ; and many bear quaint mottoes
Leisure Hour, 1870, p. 413; and Mrs Gatty’s

ook of Sun-Dials, new ed. 1889). Dial-making was

154

then an important branch of mathematical study ;
now it is more an object of curiosity than utility.
A dial consists of two partsea—the stile or gnomon,
usually the edge of a plate of metal, always made
parallel to the earth's, axis, and pointing towards
the north pole; and the dial-plane, which may be
of any hard substance, and on which are marked
the directions of the shadow for the several hours
of the day, their halves, quarters, &e. Dials receive
various names, according mostly to the positions
which they are constructed to oceupy. hen the
dial-plane is on the plane of the horizon, the dial is
called a horizontal dial ; when perpendicular to that
plane, a vertical dial. An equinoctial dial is one
whose plane is parallel to the equinoctial plane.
The south dial, north dial, east dial, west dial, polar
dial, ee are named from the position
of the dial-plane. The cylindrical dial is a dial
drawn on the curved surface of a cylinder. The
= dial is an ingenious small portable dial, but
rather a curious toy than a philosophical instru-
ment. <A night or nocturnal dial is an instrament
for showing the hour of the night by the shadow of
the moon or stars. Moon-dials may be constructed
relative to the moon’s motion ; or the hour may be
found by the moon’s shadow on a sun-dial. But
because of the irregularity of the moon’s motion,
due to its varying speed at different parts of its
orbit, the time so found is subject to considerable
error.
Dialling.—The stile of a dial mom. parallel to
8 axis, those familiar with spherical trigo-
nometry will readily see that the problem of con-
structing a dial resolves itself into that of ascer-
taining where the hour-lines cut a given circle, with
a view to the graduation of the dial-plane. Suppose
Pep (fig. 1), a hollow and transparent sphere, as
of glass, to represent the earth; and suppose its
equator divided into 24 equal parts by the meri-
dians a, b, c, d, &e., one of them ing through a
given place, say London (see HoRIzon), at the
point a. If the hour of twelve be marked at the
equator, both on the latter meridian and that
opposite it, and all the rest of the hours in order on

the other meridians, those meridians will be the
hour-circles of London, because, as the sun appears
| to move round the earth in 24 hours, he will

from one meridian to another in one hour. Then,
if the sphere has an opaque axis, as Pep, terminat-
ing in the pores P and p, the shadow of this axis
would fall, in the course of the day, on every par-
ticular meridian and hour, as the sun came to the
plane of the opposite meridian, and would thus
show the time at London, and at all other places

786 DIAL AND DIALLING

DIALECT

on the same meridian as London. If the sphere
were cut through the middle by a plane ABCD, in
the rational horizon of London, and if straight lines
were drawn from the centre, E, of the plane to
the points where its circumference is cut by the
hour-circles of the sphere, those lines would he the
hour-lines of a horizontal dial for London ; for the
shadow of the axis would fall upon each particular
hour-line of the dial, when it fell upon the like hour-
circle of the sphere. Similarly, if we suppose the
sphere cut by any other plane facing the meridian,
the Roarsinoles of the sphere will cut the edge of
the plane in those points to which the hour-lines
must be drawn straight from the centre ; and the
axis of the sphere will cast a shadow on these lines
at the respective hours. The like will hold of any
plane, whether it face the meridian or not, provided
it do not coincide with it, or do not coincide with a
plane through the poles, and perpendicular to the
plane of the equator. In the latter case, the axis
would have no elevation above the plane of the
dial; in the former, the shadow would not move
circularly.

The universal dialling cylinder, an invention of
Ferguson's, is represented in fig. 2. ABCD is a

lass cylindrical tube, closed at both ends with

rass plates, on the centres of which a wire or axis,
EFG, is fixed. The tube is either fixed to a hori-
zontal board, H, at an angle equal to the latitude
_ of the place, or moves on a joint, so that it may be
elevated till its axis is paraifel to the earth’s at any
latitude. The 24 hour-lines are drawn on the out-
side of the glass, equidistant from one another, and
parallel to the axis. The XII next B stands for
midnight; the XII next the board, for noon.
When the axis is adjusted for the latitude, and the
board levelled, with the line HN on the meridian,
and the end towards the north, the axis EFG, when
the sun shines, will serve as stile, and cast a
shadow on the hour of the day among the parallel
hour-lines. As the plate AD is parallel to the
equator, and EFG perpendicular to it, right lines
drawn from the centre to the extremities of the
pee will be the hour-lines of an equinoctial

ial, and the axis will be the stile. A horizontal
pate, ge, 1£ put into the tube, with lines drawn

rom the centre to the several parallels cutting its |

edge, will be a horizontal dial for the given lati-
tude; and similarly a vertical plate fronting the
meridian, and touching the tube with its edge, with

lines drawn from its centre to the parallels, will be
a vertical south dial, the axis of the instrument in
both cases serving for the stile; and similarly for
any other plate placed in the cylinder. If, instead
of being of glass, the cylinder were of wood, any of
these dials might be obtained from it by simply

cutting it in the planes of the plates, and drawing

the lines on the surface of the section.

Dialling sometimes occurs as a term for surveyin
by help of a compass with sights, such as is called
a ‘miner’s dial,’ and is used especially in under-
ground surveys and mine-surveying.

Dialect, in popular language, a local form of
speech which differs from the general or received
speech of the country, but is manifestly related to
it. Still more popularly, dialect is considered to
be a ‘corruption’ of received speech, due to ignor-
ance or carelessness, and is stigmatised as boorish.
Both definitions are untenable. The last is so
extremely wrong that it would be more correct
to term received speech an artificial (as distinet
from a natural or organic) ‘corruption’ of some
local form of speech which gsi or literary
circumstances have imposed upon the whole
country. The first definition labours under the
disadvantage of supposing that there was from
the first in any country a received form of speech
which ‘broke up’ into dialects, just as the Latin
language scinatly broke up into the Romance
languages of to-day. And this leads to the ques-
tion, How does a dialect differ from a language?
Are the so-called Romance languages not rather
dialects of Latin? Is not English collectively a
dialect of Low German? Was not Latin itself a
dialect of that original Aryan speech which we
only know in such dialectal forms as Sanskrit,
Greek, Latin, Gothic, &c.? This is a question
merely of the meaning we assign to words. It
is well fitted for arguing, as Gil Blas argued
(chap. i.), but it is of no practical value.

Without going into the very vexed question of
the origin of language, we find that wherever two
human beings are thrown together a spoken means
of communication or language grows up; that
wherever a family is isolated a family language
is generated; that when the family separates
into many distinct families they carry with them
some general and various particular forms of the
original family speech; that where these families

| again separate the same process goes on, till the

one original speech is broken up into a variety of
local forms which differ but slightly from each
other, and are usually, though strange, mutually
intelligible. Wars, especially civil wars, conquests,
defeats, changes of environment due to immigra-

tion and emigration, contact with others deriving |

from a different original family, produce harsher
changes, till the groups become mutually unin-
telligible. It is at this point that the old dialects
may be considered to become languages. We have
not to go far to seek examples. The slang of each
nursery, school, college, profession, and handicraft

illustrates the first ; the history of Europe furnishes

abundant examples of the second. We may there-
fore have dialects or diversities of related speech
without having a received speech at all. In the
flourishing time of Greece, Herodotus wrote in
Ionic and Thucydides in Attic. There was not

even a word for Greek, which, as separate from —

its dialectal forms, was unknown till long after-
wards. In England the author of the first English-
Latin dictionary, the Promptorium Parvulorum,
apologises for writing in East Anglian, as bein

the only form of speech he knew. It was not ti

political domination called forth a court speech
that the seed of a received speech was sown; but
centuries of writers, each touching up the artificial
changeling in his own way while using it to express

DIALECT

787

English speech,
t, however, is b

z apo thought, were required to build up our
_~ Dialee

no means yet extinct,
even in England, though railways and _ school.

threaten its cag annihilation. The
writer, who has been led to investigate the
subject during the last twenty years, finds that
we have still six great forms of local speech—
Southern, Western, Eastern, Midland, Northern,
and Lowland Scotch—further divisible into forty-
two districts, each of which has generally numer-
ous varieties. His object was to determine the
pronunciation as at _—— existing all over that
art of England and Scotland which is not still

Celtic ; hence his distinctions are mainly

on
unciation as referred to the oldest English

of literary speech, the West Saxon or Wessex,
which, however, never prevailed over the whole
country, and is not even the foundation of modern
lite: speech. Of this pronunciation he was
obliged to omit one striking and characteristic
part—viz. the intonation or singsong of speech,
which generally strikes a stranger first and most
strongly, because he could not invent any practical
means of expressing it, and it was very seldom
indeed that he could hear it from native un-
educated peasants. The two other points to
which we must look for distinctions are vocabu-
lary and construction. Vocabulary is the point
most generally considered, but it is often delusive
as a means of separation, because it is so difficult
to trace the area over which certain words prevail
as distinct from those where they are not known.
The nature of the investigations and their difficulty
is well shown in Mr Thomas Hallam’s ‘ Four Dialect
Words, Clem, Lake, Nesh, and Oss [ = to starve,
to play, tender, to offer], their modern dialectal
meaning, pronunciation, etymology, and

oes gh literary use’ (English Dialect iety,

1885). With unusual wo
with unusual significations, most glossarists con-
sider that they are chiefly concerned, while at the
same time the difficulty the writers feel in express-
ing the sounds of the words—i.e. speoperly speaking,
in actually conveying the words—renders their
identification uncertain. This is different for
literary a he, jg where there is a conventional
orthography and pronunciation. The last charac-
teristic mark of dialects is their grammatical con-
struction. It is surprising how little this point is
attended to in most glossaries, so that the reader
is generally left to discover the construction from
the examples, and these in many cases are not
sufficiently trustworthy for that purpose. It is the
more satisfactory, then, to refer to such glossaries as
Elworthy’s West Somerset, with its separate gram-
mar; Darlington’s Folk-speech of South Cheshire ;
Miss Jackson’s Shropshire Word-book ; and Robin-
son’s Mid-Yorkshire Glossary, in which pronun-
ciation and grammar are well attended to, and
examples are numerous and trustworthy.

In making the above division of English dialects,
considered as new local forms of speech referred to
one old local form, the Wessex, without any regard
to received speech or spelling, the following are the
principal distinctions relied upon, and the areas
over which they extend.

(1) Southern takes in the whole south of England
from Cornwall to Kent, extending northwards on
the west to the north of Worcester, south of
Warwick and Northampton, eastwards to the
boundary of Oxford, and all south of the Thames.
The marked characters are found in the western
half, which die off eastwards, while westwards they
exhibit signs of Celtic influence. Wilts, Dorset,
Somerset, and Gloucester show this form in its

rime. These were the seat of the West Saxon
ikes, and best preserve the mark of their origin.

, however, or words

The main character of all the southern division is
the pronunciation of r, especially where not before
a vowel,-as in there, sir! The tongue, in the prin-
cipal region, is reverted, that is, turned with its
underside to the hard palate, and its point directed
towards the throat. This is the English form of
the (different) glottal r of the Low German district.
It is not only strong in Wilts, Dorset, and Somerset,
but also in Devon (where French «u may likewise
be heard ), though it dies out through Cornwall, and
in west Cornwall, which has comparatively recently
become iy has become that of received
speech. In Hampshire and eastwards it becomes
milder, but on the whole it is still well marked
even in Kent. Itis the parent of received English
r, which is little different from an imperfect d when
it does not become a simple vowel or 1s lost. Initial
J and s in Saxon words me v and z, In con-
struction the speech is peculiar in the general use
of I be for I am, and we am, you am, for we are, you
are; in the general prefix of a to the past participle
—as I’ve a-done; the periphrastic form of the
present tense, as J do go for simple J go, without
any implied emphasis; the use of the accusative en,
from Wessex ine, which is replaced by the dative
him in literary speech ; and in one part of Somerset
(near to, but west of, Yeovil) the use of utch for
the first personal pronoun J. In the east of Sussex
and in Kent de, dis, dat, &c. may be still heard
for the, this, that, &c., but this is a comparative
modernism. ~

(2) Western comprises most of Monmouth, Here-
ford, and Shropshire, and shows the influence of
the Welsh, which in early times prevailed over
them ; and Shropshire especially preserves a trilled
Welsh r which is in remarkable contrast to the
southern and midland r.

(3) Zastern extends over the whole of the counties
lying north of the Thames but east of Oxford and

icester and south of Lincoln, embracing also the
East Anglian peninsula of Norfolk and Suffolk,
which two counties generally have a pronunciation
of to, do, soon, as if the vowel were nearly French wu,
much the same as in Devonshire. But this does
not extend to the rest of the eastern, which bears
a remarkable resemblance to received speech,
being indeed that part of the country from which
it originated. Essex is especially remarkable for
tmapronairg per like piper, a practice which of
ate years (subsequently to the time of Dickens and
Thackeray ) has crept into London, and may be heard
from most newsboys. Over Kent, Essex, Suffolk,
and Norfolk extends the land of Wee, where w is
used for v, but not conversely, as wine for vine, wan
(rhyming man) for van, and so on.

(4) Midland occupies the whole middle region of
England from the north of the three last named to,
roughly speaking, a line drawn from Laneaster Bay
on the west to the Humber on the east. The
speech of the large tract of country thus included
is by no means ey ee og But the Southerner
is at once surprised by the difference in the pro-
oe - short “¢ and « in come, “Ps and similar
words, which in the greater of this n
resembles the German 0 or Prong. eu with a Tash
of oo in foot, being really a transitional form
between the well-known southern and Lowland
Scotch sound and the oo in foot, This last sound,
however, prevails in Lincolnshire and the south
of Yorkshire. Lincolnshire is remarkable for its
fractured or divided vowels, which Lord Tennyson
writes with @, but which really sound to a Londoner,
and even to a native Lincolnshire man, both of whom
vocalise their r, as if an r were annexed, as sair,
sairnts, deerd, doarnt, for Lord Tennyson's sady,
sadints, dedd, dodnt ( = say, saints, dead, don’t), and
soon. In the extreme north of Lincolnshire ow is
pronounced 90, a8 N00, Coo, for now, cow,

788 DIALECT

house, which is not found at all in the other
midland counties, but is an old form now character-
istic of northern speech. In the western midland,
mid and south Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire,
one of the most striking pronunciations arises from
the treatment of ow, whieh is pronounced ow in the
south only, at the south-east of Lancashire and
north-west of Derby, becoming the prolongation of
a in bat, cat in the south-west of Lancashire, of a
in father in the south of Yorkshire, and south Derby,
and like eye nearly in Cheshire and north Statford-
shire. The word for she is hoo in south Lancashire,

north Derby, and Cheshire, and shoo in south York- °

shire. The definite article south of Cheshire,
Derby, and Nottingham has the usual English
form, but in Cheshire, north Derby, and Lancashire
becomes the ¢h in oath without any vowel,
though often assimilated to a preceding ¢, and in
south Yorkshire is reduced to a simple ¢ without
any vowel. In construction the most remarkable
feature is the verbal plural in -en in the present
tense, often singularly contracted. Thus an yo?
is have-n you? dun they (with the peculiar «) is
do-en, ‘do they ;’ they known, they know-en, ‘ they
know,’ and so on. This prevails in Lancashire,
Cheshire, Derbyshire, and the parts of Yorkshire
adjoining, but is lost in most of south Yorkshire.
It has disappeared recently in Nottinghamshire,
is rare in the south midland, and practically dis-
appears in Leicester. J am is used in this region,
in contrast to the southern J be. The r is very light
and quite different from the southern reverted 7 and
the Scotch strongly trilled r.

(5) Northern extends from the northern boundary

of the midland to Scotland. Here ow becomes oo
completely in most of Yorkshire, but remains in
the first stage of transition from oo to ow in
Cumberland and Westmoreland, The short w in
but, cut, is oo in foot. The vowels are much
fractured or divided throughout north Lancashire,
Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Yorkshire, but
differently from the forms found in Lincolnshire,
the sound of ¢e or ea in beer, bear, being prefixed.
In the south-eastern part long 7 becomes @ in father,
which is not the case in the south-western part.
The definite article becomes simple vowelless ?’
(being quite lost in Holderness, Yorkshire) up to
a sinuous line through north Cumberland and south
Durham, after which the usual form the is resumed
and continued to the Scotch border. Instead of
I am, I is is regularly used, at least till the is
restored, and then generally J am is heard. In
Northumberland a transition occurs from the short
oo in foot in such words as cut, up, through asound
more resembling German 6, and only slightly
different from midland short wu, to the regular
southern and Scotch form which is established
about Wooler. But the great peculiarity of
Northumberland is the uvular (or as it is usually
called, guttural) pronunciation of 7, almost as in
the north of France and Germany. This is
apparently of recent origin, and hardly overlaps
the county border on the south, while it is not
heard beyond Berwick on the north. The neigh-
bouring Scots cannot pronounce it.

(6) Lowland Scotch pervades all Scotland where
Gaelic is not the common language—i.e. generally
the south and east, including the Orkneys and
Shetlands. Historically, the English language
was transplanted into Scotland from the east of
Yorkshire and Northumberland, but it now differs
materially from the speech there used. The speech
in the south of Scotland is probably the most
ancient form. (See Dr J. A. ne Murray’s Dialect
of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873), which
is the classical work on the subject.) Phonetically,
tne southern form is remarkable for retaining ow
when not followed by a consonant, and using 00

when a consonant follows, as cow, hoose, whereas
in the rest of Scotland they have coo, hoose, as
in Yorkshire. Grammatically, it is remarkable
for distinguishing the present participle from the
verbal noun, both confounded as -ing in modern
English, as ‘danstin in dansin shoes.’ As the

English proceeded north to Edinburgh and round

to the north of the Forth, this and other dis-
tinctions were lost. It is the middle Lowland
Scotch, which subsequently spread to the west
and south, that is usually known as Scotch by
Englishmen, through Burns and Scott in modern
times. It was a highly cultivated variety, but was
always considered to be English by its older writers.
North Lowland Scotch lies north of the Tay, and
has the well-known peculiarity of using f for wh,
and in Caithness th ;
definite article to its vowel e alone. The Orkneys
and Shetlands are Lowland Scotch engrafted on
Norwegian, or Norn, as they term it—i.e. old
Norse, which has occasioned many peculiarities
both of pronvnciation and construction, of which
the general, but not universal, use of d, ¢, for the
two sounds of th in the, teeth, need only be men-
tioned. For the evidence on which the above divi-
sions are founded, with complete details and ex-
amples, the reader is referred to Alexander J.
Ellis’s Existing Phonology of English Dialects
(1889), forming Part V. of his Early Enylish Pro-
nunciation.

The above remarks refer to the existing forms
of speech. Dr Morris in his prefaces to Hampole,
Alliterative Poems, Dan Michel, &c., has endea-
voured, from the MSS., to determine the charac-
teristics of our dialects in the Early English
period. He admits only three—southern, midland,
and northern, but divides the midland, ‘which
presents us with no one typical form,’ into west
and east midland,

All languages present a variety of local forms,
which has just been partially illustrated for
English; and in many of these the discrepancies
are much greater than in English. Prince Louis-
Lucien Bonaparte has done much not only with the
English, but with the Basque, French, and Italian
forms ; for the last, see also Papanti’s collection, I
parlari Italiani in Certaldo (1875). The dialects
of Low German have been treated by J. Winkler
in his Dialektikon (1874). The Swedish dialects
are being especially studied now. The High Ger-
man and Swiss dialects have received much atten-
tion. Schmeller’s Bavarian Dialects (Mundarter
Bayerns, 1821) is a remarkable work. And so on.

Now to what end or purpose is this study of
dialects pursued? They possess comparatively no
literature having any attraction in itself. The
modern forms are spoken only by the illiterate,
and sound uncouth and harsh to an educated ear.
They are not pursued for the ideas which they con-
vey, but for the manner in which they convey them.
They lead us to understand how a received or literary
language was formed. They contain multitudes of
‘missing links,’ which serve to explain relations
which might otherwise entirely bafile the student
of language. Thus, thete are two old forms, then
pronounced as the present ag. ee and oo, which
now appear as long z and ow. ow did this come
about? It is evident that the people could not
have suddenly left off one and taken up another.
Now the actual transitional forms still exist, like
fossils, in dialectal speech. Modern philology
obliges us*to leave the merely written forms and
study living usages. This is only possible by study-
ing existent local forms of speech, in other words,
dialects.

There is a considerable literature of modern
English dialects, but it labours under the dis-
advantage of generally not being genuine—i.e. not

ere is the reduction of the

—_ se

DIALECTIC

DIAMOND 789

due to dialect speakers themselves, and when s0
due, as in Burns's poems, it is too apt to be unduly
___ mixed up with modern received speech. Naturally,
____ the born dialect speaker is not a literary man, as
the writer of dialect works inevitably is. Some of
the best pieces of Cumberland speech (Gibson) and
I Furness dialect (Piketah = Barber) have
¥ been written by men who had lived only a few
X _ in the country, and had been attracted by
ae curious forms of the speech among which they

Ame
came. Others seem to have been written purely
b, ‘from the fun of the thing,’ such as the ped
«Tiptree Fair’ and ‘ John Noakes and Mary Stiles,’
% ‘and the Kent ‘Dick and Sal.’ One of the few
modern books written with a desire to show the
better side of the dialect as distinguished from its
-__ Judicrous side is the late Rev. W. Barnes’s Dorset-
i poems. There are also many serious Cumber-
a anpeos given by Gilpin. Nathan Hogg’s
Baird’s) poems and the Lxmoor Scolding, as edited
Elworthy, with the pronunciation and notes,
deserve study as the work of natives. The legion
of Lancashire and Yorkshire books is chiefly rol-
licking. But Zim Bobbin has become a classic.
In Northumberland the Pitman’s Pay takes a
similar position. Both have influenced the ortho-
graphy used by other writers. In Scotland, besides
rns and Scott, must be mentioned the excellent
Aberdeenshire Johnny Gibb of Gushetneuk, and the
same writer's Life among my ain Folk, Dennison’s
Oreadian Sketch Book is also first-rate.
The Bibliographical List of works relatin
including both glossaries and examples, published by the
English Dialect Society, which was founded in 1873,
contains 200 pages; and the English Dialect Dictionary
(1898 et seq.\, edited by Professor Joseph Wright, is based

’ on the Society’s publications and collections.

Dialectic is a Greek word which signified
originally ‘the art of rational conversation,’ but

came to have a technical signification in the lan-
guage of philosophy. At first it implied a regular
and scientific method of treating general concep-
tions or general terms —a sort of anatomy of names,
and gn them of the things denoted. In the
Socratic philosophy, and more especially in that of
Plato, dialectic was thus the method of the highest
and deepest kind of speculation. Aristotle gave
another signification to the word. ee oeding to
him, a scientific proof or deduction is different from
a dialectic proof, which is only a probable deduc-
tion. After this, dialectic came round to imply a
kind of fencing in words, the art of so using the
forms of reasoning as to confound your opponent,
and make fallacies pass for truth. Dialectic is
sometimes used as synonymous with logic. The
Hegelian philosophy regards dialectic as at once
the patie of knowledge and of the evolution of
the universe itself.
- Diallage (Gr. diallagé, ‘interchange ;’ so
called frome its changeable colour), a icant aaeety
allied to Augite (q.v.), and by some r ed as a
variety of it. Its chemical composition is essen-
tially the same. It is seldom found perfectly
crystallised, but usually massive, granular, or dis-
seminated, and is characterised by its markedly
laminated structure. It is brown, pray or green
in colour, but shows a kind of metallic lustre when
broken across the cleavage. This is due to the
resence of microscopic tubular inclusions or leaf-
ets, which are disposed parallel to the cleav
planes or laminew. Diallage is a rock-forming
mineral of some importance, occurring as a primary
constituent of Gabbro (q.v.).

Dialogue, a conversation between two or more
persons, implying, however, greater unity and con-
tinuity of subject than an ordinary conversation.
The ancient Greek philosophers were fond of this

to dialects, |

way of conducting their investigations and convey-
ing their faptrectieen, The Socratic dialogue or a
conversation in the form of question and answer, so
contrived that the aes questioned is led hinwelf
to originate those ideas that the questioner wishes
to bring before him. The dialogues of Plato are,
as it were, philosophical dramas, in which the
Socratic method of investigation is brought to bear
upon speculative subjects. One of the greatest
masters in this form was Lucian, whose keen-ed
and brilliant wit was especially adapted to it.
dialogue is but ill adapted to the exposition of
modern science, although elementary hand-books in
the form of question and answer are still useful as
supplying the student with aseries of concrete facts
tersely exp . Of the more eminent modern
writers of the literary forms of dialogue, we may
mention Erasmus in Latin; Lessing, Herder, and
Wieland among the Germans; Petrarch and
Machiavelli in Italy; Fénelon, Fontenelle, and

Diderot in France; and in En , Berkeley,
Swift, Hurd, Harris, Helps, and Landor in
Imaginary Conversations, Dialogue combined with

action gives us the drama.
Dia'lysis. See Osmose, Dirrusion.

Diamagnetism, Bodies such as iron, when
ss in a field of magnetic force, tend to move
m places of weaker to places of stronger force.
The opposite is true of bismuth and other sub-
stances. Such substances are said to be diamag-
netic. For further information, see MAGNETISM.

Diamantina, an episcopal town, of mean
appearance, in the Brazilian state of Minas
Geraes. It is the centre of a rich diamond district.
and has manufactures of cotton and goldware.
Pop. 13,000.

Diameter, in Plane Geometry, is generally a
straight line bisecting any system of parallel chords
of a conic section. The lines which it bisects are
oe Low ordinates. Bey the ote mgt , and

per a, every diam rT passes throug e centre
= | the curve, and is there bisected ; but it is only
in the case of the circle that all diameters are
equal. In the parabola, since the centre of the
curve is at an infinite distance, all diameters are
parallel to the axis.

Diamond pri from adamant, q.v.), &
natural form of crystallised carbon, highly valued
as a precious stone, but of much less value than the
ruby. The diamond crystallises in the cubie or
monometric system, its common forms being the
regular octahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron, and
the six-faced octahedron. The faces are often
curved, and the general form of the crystal is more
or less rounded. Cleavage is perfect, parallel to
the faces of the octahedron—a fact which is often
taken advantage of in splitting off fragments for
the pu of removing flaws. The suriace of the
diamond frequently exhibits striw and triangular
impressions, while the interior may contain micro-
scopic cavities and various inclusions, A distinetly
lamellar structure is by no means uncommon.

The lustre of the diamond is peculiar to itself,
and hence termed ‘adamantine,’ In a natural con-
dition, however, the surface often presents a dull
lead-gray semi-metallic lustre. The high refractive
and dispersive powers of the diamond produce
when the stone is judiciously cut, a brilliancy and
‘fire’ unequalled by any other stone. The mean
index of refraction is 2-4, and the angle of total
reflection about 24° 24’; the latter accounts for the
roportion of the inci-

lustre, inasmuch as a large
nond reflected from

dent light is in a well-cut d
the inner surface of the stone. The diamond,
especialiy when coloured, is highly phosphorescent,
that is to say, after exposure to brilliant illumina-
tion it emits the rays which it has absorbed, and

790

DIAMOND

thus becomes self-luminous in the dark. Under
the electric discharge in a highly-rarefied medium
it exhibits. beautiful phosphorescent phenomena,
as pointed out by Mr Crookes.

he specific gravity of the diamond is about
3152, a its degree of hardness greater than that
of any other mineral, being indicated by 10 in the
ordinary scale. The excessive hardness serves to
distinguish the diamond from other gem-stones :
any stone which readily scratches ruby and oe .
must be a diamond. Notwithstanding its hardness
the diamond is brittle, and hence the absurdity of
the ancient test which professed to distinguish the
diamond by its withstanding a heavy blow struck
by a hammer when placed on an anvil.

Regarded formerly as a peculiar kind of rock-
crystal, the chemical composition of the diamond
remained for a long time extremely obscure. It
was shown by the Florentine academicians Averani
and Targioni, about 1695, that the diamond could
be volatilised at a high temperature, their experi-
ments having been made at the cost of the Grand-
duke Cosmo III.

Newton in 1704 expressed the opinion that the
diamond, from its high refrangibility, was probably
an unctuous body coagulated. In 1751 the Emperor
Francis I. performed an experiment which showed
that diamonds strongly heated in a furnace com-
pletely disappeared. Towards the latter part of
the 18th century several French experimentalists,
including Darcet and Macquer, examined the
behaviour of diamonds at a high temperature ;
but it was reserved for Lavoisier in 1772 to demon-
strate that while the diamond is extremely refrac-
tory if heated with total exclusion of air, it is
readily combustible at a moderate temperature
in the presence of air or oxygen, with production
of carbonic acid gas. In 1797 the English chemist
Smithson Tennant satisfactorily showed the iden-
tity of diamond with carbon. In recent years
highly refined researches on this subject have been
made by Dumas, Stas, Roscoe, and Friedel, all
tending to prove that the diamond is practically
pure carbon. Chemists have generally experi-
mented, for sake of economy, with impure speci-
mens, and have thus obtained on combustion a
considerable amount of ash, the nature of which
has not been well ascertained. It has been shown,
however, that the purer the diamond the smaller
is the proportion of ash left on its combustion.
Gustav Rose, shortly before his death, subjected
diamonds, inclosed in a vessel free from air, to the
intense heat of the voltaic are produced by a

owerful dynamo constructed by Siemens of Berlin.

nder these circumstances the gems became gradu-
ally incrusted with a dark coating of graphitic
matter, and in some cases triangular depressions
were developed on the faces, similar to those often
observed in the South African diamond in its
natural state.

As the chemical composition of the diamond is
well known, it has often been supposed that carbon
might be induced by artificial means to assume the
characters of the gem. In 1880 J. B. Hannay
of Glasgow announced that he had succeeded in
producing artificial diamonds by inclosing a mix-
ture of paraffin spirit and bone-oil distillate, with
metallic lithium, in a strong wrought-iron tube,
and exposing it to prolonged heat in a reverbera-
tory furnace. Specimens of diamantoid carbon
were thus obtained, but of small size, and it was
found that these, when placed on the wheel, imme-
diately crumbled. As the experiments offered no

romise of commercial success, and were of so
ifficult and dangerous a character, they have not
been repeated.

It is notable that the occurrence of diamonds
has been recorded in a meteorite. Jeofeiff and

Latchinoff in examining the meteorite which fell
on September 22, 1886, near Novi-Urei, govern-
ment of Penza, South-east Russia, detected the
presence of about 1 per cent. of diamantoid carbon.

An imperfect variety of diamond known as bort,
or boart, occurs in the form of small spherical con-
cretions with erystalline texture.
for use as an ornamental stone, it is employed
when ground as an abrading agent; and the powder
mixed with oil serves to feed the lapidary’s wheel
when cutting hard stones. Much of the bort of
commerce is not the mineralogical variety, but
consists of splinters, rough fragments, and imper-
fect crystals of ordinary diamonds. The diamonds
used by the glazier for cutting glass are ordinary
crystals with rounded faces, and are known as
vitré diamonds. The cut, though only to the
depth of about the ,},th of an inch, is sufficient
to determine with daoaie the direction in which
the glass shall break.

Carbon, or carbonado, is the name applied to an
opaque, black, granular, or imperfectly crystallised
variety of diamond found only in Brazil, where it
was discovered in 1843. While its density is less
than that of crystallised diamond, its hardness is
much greater, and hence it is used in the arts,
especially for mounting in the steel heads or crowns
of the rotary diamond drills for rock-boring.

The art of cutting and polishing the diamond is
said to have been discovered in 1456 by Louis de
Berguem of Bruges. As now practised, the stone
is first, if necessary, cleaved or split, and then
‘bruted’ or rubbed into shape. The faces of the
stone thus ‘cut’ are ground and polished on flat
metal discs, fed with diamond dust and oil, and
revolving with great rapidity by steam-power.
Amsterdam is the chief home of this industry, and
the trade is chiefly in the hands of Jews; but
diamond cutting and polishing are also now exten-
sively carried on in London, Antwerp, &c. The
common form of the diamond is either the brilliant
or the rose cut. The brilliant resembles two trun-
cated cones, base to base, the edge of the junction
being called the girdle, the large plane at the top

Fig. 1.—Square-cut Brilliant.

is the table, and the small face at the base the
culet; the sides are covered with symmetrical
facets. Fig. 1 shows a square-cut brilliant, and
fig. 2 a round-cut brilliant. The rose has a flat

io @s G

Fig. 2.—Round-cut Brilliant.

base, with sides formed of rows of triangular facets
rising as a low pyramid or hemisphere; but this
form of diamond is daily becoming less fashionable,
and is therefore of comparatively little value. It
is illustrated by fig. 3.

India was formerly the only country which —

yielded diamonds in quantity, and thence were
obtained all the great historical stones of anti-
quity. The chief diamond-producing districts are

Although unfit —

those ( 1) in the Madras presidency, on the Kistna
and Godavari rivers, commonly though improperly
termed the Golconda region; (2) in the Central

Fig. 3.—Rose-cut Diamond.

Provinces, including the mines of Sumbulpur; and
(3) in Bundelkhand, where the Panna mines are
situated.

At present the diamond production of India is
insignificant. It is notable, however, that in 188]
a fine diamond, weighing 67§ carats, was found
near Wajra Karur, in the Bellary district, Madras.
The stone was cut into a brilliant weighing 248
carats, and is known as the ‘ Gor-do-Norr.’

Brazil was not regarded as a diamond-yielding | India and Brazil, is a striking peculiarity.

country until 1727, when the true nature of certain

erystals found in the gold washings of the state | 83 carats was obtained from a Boer.

of Minas Geraes was first detected. Diamonds
occur not only in this state, but also in Bahia,
Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and Parand. The geological
conditions under which
of late years been care-
fully studied by Pro-
fessors Derby, Gorceix,
and Chatrian. The dia-
monds are found in the
sands and gravels of
river-beds, associated
with alluvial gold, spec-

ular iron ore, rutile,
anatase, topaz, and
tourmaline. In 1853 an

extraordinary diamond
was found by a negress
in the river Bogagem,
in Minas Geraes. It
weighed 2544 carats, and
was cut into a brilliant
of perfect water, weigh-
ing 125 carats (see fig.
4, 6). This brilliant,
known as the ‘Star of
the South,’ was sold to
the Gaikwar of Baroda
for £80,000.

Both the Indian and
the Brazilian diamond-
fields have of late years
been eclipsed by the re-
markable discoveries of
South Africa. Although
it was known in the last
century that diamonds
occurred in certain parts of South Africa, the fact

was forgotten, and when in 1867 they were found |

near Hopetown, the discovery came upon the world

as a surprise. The principal mines are situated in | c
| from the name of its

Griqualand West, but diamonds are also worked
in the Orange River Free State, as at Jagersfontein.
The stones were first procured from the ‘ river dig-
sings’ in the Vaal and Orange rivers. These sources
fae occasionally yielded large stones; one found
in 1872 at Waldeck’s Plant on the Vaal weighed
988% carats, and yielded a fine pale yellow brilliant,
known as the ‘ Stewart.’

It was soon found that the diamonds of South |
| ducer.

Africa were not confined to the river gravels, and
‘dry diggings’ came to be established in the so-
called ‘pans.’ The pee mines are those of
Kimberley, De Beer’s, Du Toit’s Pan, and Bultfon-
tein.

DIAMOND

|
|

the mineral occurs have | property of the Countess of Dudley.

|
|

At these localities the diamonds occur in a |

791

serpentinous breccia, filling pipes or ‘chimneys,’
venerally regarded as voleanic ducts, which rise
rom unknown depths and burst through the sur-
rounding shales. The ‘blue ground,’ or voleaniec
breccia containing fragments of various rocks
cemented by a serpentinous paste, becomes altered
by meteoric agents as it approaches the surface,
and is converted into‘ yellow earth.’ At Kimberley
the neighbouring schista, or ‘ reefs,’ are associated
with sheets of a basaltic rock, which are pierced by
the pipes. In the year 1887 the production of the
principal mines was as follows :

Weight in Carats, Value
Kimberley........+.-++0. . 1,333,832 £1,410,207
De Beer's ........ TTITiTi ty? 1,01<,048
Du Toit’s Pan... .0cccccss» 606,576
ol ae 602,246
St Augustine ...........-..- 197

3,646,899 £4,053 580

The great number of large stones found in the
mines of South Africa, as compared with those of
In the
earliest days of African mining a diamond of about
This stone
when cut yielded a splendid colourless brilliant of
464 carats, known as the ‘Star of South Africa,’ or
as the ‘ Dudley,’ since it afterwards became the
Some of the

Fig. 4
a, Great Mogul ; b, Star of the South ; ¢, Koh-i-nur; d, Regent; ¢, Orloff—all actual size.

‘off coloured ’—i.e. of pale
yellow or brown tints ; but a large gem of singular
purity was found at Kimberley in 1880. This is the
famous ‘ blue-white’ diamond of 150 carats, known
possessor as the ‘ Porter
Rhodes.” See CAPE COLONY.

It has long been known that diamonds occur in
Australia, but hitherto the Australian stones have
been all of small size, and it is notable that these
are much more difficult to cut, being harder than
other diamonds. Although Victoria and South
Australia have occasionally yielded diamonds, it is
New South Wales that has been the principal pro-
The chief diamond localities have been near
Mudgee, on the Cudjegong River, and near Bingera,
on the river Horton.

Borneo also yields diamonds.
as the ‘ Matan "is said to have been found in |

African stones are

The stone known
787 in

792 DIAMOND

NECKLACE

DIAMOND

the Landak mines, near the west coast of Borneo.
It is described as being an egg-shaped stone, in-
dented on one side, and weighing, in its uncut state,
367 carats. Great doubt, however, exists as to the
genuineness of this stone, and the Dutch experts
who examined it a few years ago pronounced it
to be simply rock-erystal. Among other diamond
localities: may be mentioned the Ural Mountains
and several of the United States. The largest
diamond yet recorded from North America was
found at Manchester, Chesterfield county, Vir-
ginia. It weighed 23? carats, and yielded, when
cut, a brilliant known as the ‘ Ou-i-nur,’ which
weighed, however, only 11? carats. F

A few special diamonds, from their exceptional
size or from the circumstances of their history,
deserve notice. Of all the great diamonds, the
‘Koh-i-nur’ is perhaps the most interesting (see
fig. 4, c). While tradition carries it back to
legendary times, it is known from history that
the Sultan Ala-ed-din in 1304 acquired this gem
on the defeat of the Rajah of Malwa, whose family
had possessed it for many generations. In 1526 it

assed by conquest to Humaiun, the son of Sultan

aber. When Aurungzebe subsequently ereupeng
this stone, he used it as one of the eyes of the pea-
cock adorning his famous peacock throne. On the
conquest of Mohammed Shah by Nadir Shah in 1739,
the great diamond was not found among the Delhi
treasures, but learning that Mohammed carried it
concealed in his turban, Nadir, on the grand cere-
mony of reinstating the Mogul emperor on the
throne at the conclusion of peace, offered to ex-
change turbans, in token of reconciliation, and by
this ruse obtained possession of the gem. It was
when Nadir first saw the diamond on unfolding the
turban, that he exclaimed, ‘ Koh-i-nur,’ or ‘ Moun-
tain of Light,’ the name by which the gem has ever
since been known. At Nadir’s death it passed to
his unfortunate son, Shah Rokh, by whom it was
ultimately given to Ahmed Shah, the founder of
the Durani Afghan empire. By Ahmed it was
bequeathed to his son, Taimur Shah ; and from his
descendants it passed, after a series of romantic
incidents, to Runjit-Singh. On the death of Run-
jit, in 1839, the diamond was preserved in the trea-
sury of Lahore, and on the annexation of the
Punjab by the British in 1849, when the property
of the state was confiscated to the East India
Company, it was stipulated that the Koh-i-nur
should be presented to the Queen of England. It
was consequently taken in charge by Lord Dal-
housie, who sent it to England in 1850. After the
Great Exhibition of 1851, where it had been ex-
hibited, it was injudiciously re-cut in London by
Voorsanger, askilful workman from Messrs Coster’s
factory at Amsterdam. The re-cutting occupied
38 days of 12 hours each, and the weight of the
stone was reduced from 1867, to 1067; carats. The
form is that of a shallow brilliant, too thin to dis-
lay much fire. According to Lady Burton, it is
elieved to bring ill-luck to its possessor.

Another famous Indian diamond is the ‘Great
Mogul’ (fig. 4, a), which appears to have been found
about 1650, in the Kollur mine, on the Kistna. It
was seen by the French jeweller Tavernier at the
court of Aurungzebe in 1665, and is described as a
round white rose-cut stone of 280 carats. Its sub-
sequent history is unknown, and it is probable that
at the aay of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739 it
was stolen and broken up. Some authorities have
sought to identify the Great Mogul with the Koh-i-
nur, and others with the Orloff.

The ‘Orloff’ (fig. 4,¢) is an Indian stone which was
porch at Amsterdam in 1776 by Prince Orloff

or Catharine II. of Russia. The stone at one time
formed the eye of an idol in a temple in the island
of Seringham, in Mysore, whence it is said to have

been stolen by a French soldier. It weighs 193
carats, and is mounted in the imperial sceptre of
the Czar.

The ‘Regent’ is a famous diamond preserved
among the national jewels in Paris. It was found in
1701, at the Parteal mines, on the Kistna, by a slave,
who escaped with it to the coast, where he sold it —
to an English elippets by whom he was afterwards
treacherously killed. Thomas Pitt, grandfather of
the first Earl of Chatham, at that time governor of
Fort St George, purchased the stone, and had it
re-cut in London, whence it is often known as the
‘Pitt.’ Its original weight was 410 carats, but it was
reduced in cutting to 1362; the result, however,
was a brilliant of fine water and excellent propor-
tions. Pitt sold it in 1717, through the financier
John Law, to the Duke of Orleans, then Regent of
France during the minority of Louis XV. The
pace paid was £135,000, and its value has since

een estimated at £480,000 (see fig. 4, d).

The large ‘Sancy’ is an historical diamond, about
which many contradictory stories have been told.
It appears that the Sancy was an Indian stone, pur-
chased about 1570 by M. de Sancy, French ambas-
sador at Constantinople. It passed temporarily
into the possession of Henry rae and Henry IV. of
France, and was eventually sold by Sancy to Queen
Elizabeth of England. By James II. it was dis-
posed of to Louis XIV., about 1695, for £25,000. At
the beginning of the 19th century it passed to the
Demidoff family in Russia, and by them it was sold
in 1865 to Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. In 1889 it
was again in the market, the price asked being
£20,000.

Of coloured diamonds there are a few possessing
historical interest. Diamonds occur of all tints,
and when the colour is well pronounced, they are
prized as fancy stones. A pale green diamond,
weighing 48} carats, is preserved in the Green
Vaults at Dresden. But one of the most superb
coloured diamonds at present known is the sapphire
blue brilliant termed ihe ‘ Hope’ diamond, valued at
£20,000 to £30,000. This gem formerly belonged
to Mr H. T. Hope, and weighs 448 carats. It is
believed to have been cut from the large blue
diamond, weighing in the rough 112} carats, sold
by Tavernier to Louis XIV., which disappeared
aiid the troubles of 1792. The two most wonder-
ful coloured diamonds known after the Hope are
an emerald green diamond of 6 grains, which is
valued at £1000, and a ruby red diamond of 5
grains, valued also at £1000.

For further information on historical diamonds, see
The Great Diamonds of the World, by E. W. Streeter
(1882); and on diamonds generally, consult Precious
Stones and Gems, by the same author (4th ed. 1884);
Le Diamant, by H. Jacobs and N. Chatrian ( Paris, 1884) ;
and Le Diamant, by E. Boutan (Paris, 1886).

Diamond Beetle. See WEEVIL.

Diamond Harbour, a port and telegraph
station on the Hugli, 38 miles SSW. of Caleutta
by rail, 41 by river. Formerly, the Company’s
ships anchored here; now there is not even a
village at the spot, but a customs establishment
is maintained, and shipping movements are tele-
graphed to Calcutta.

Diamond Necklace, THE, a wonderful piece
of jewelry, made in Paris about the year 1775,
newt intended for Madame Dubarry, the favourite
of Louis XV. She, however, was excluded from
court on the death of Louis (1774), before the neck-
lace was finished. After being made, this beauti-
ful ornament, adorned with 500 diamonds, was
found to be so costly that no one could pur-
chase it. It was valued at 1,800,000 livres, equal
to about £80,000 of modern money. an’

The Prince Cardinal de Rohan, a wealthy, vain,

was desirous of obtainin

>

Bit
7.
uae

i
i

and

a — “Ay a girl who closely resembled her.

was a

DIAMPER

DIAPHRAGM 793

igate man, persuaded by an adventuress
De Lamotte, who waited about court, that

the queen (Marie Antoinette) regarded him with
_ favour, became completely infatuated with the

One night in August 1784 the r du

r had the happiness of a moment's interview in the

ueen in eo
had stated to the cardinal that the queen

around Versailles with the

this glorious necklace,

and that not having sutlicient money just then,

sign an agreement to purchase it if

she ~wou
___, the cardinal would become security. The cardinal

consented. The agreement was approved of and
gee with the = signature, as also with that
of the cardinal, who, on the Ist February 1785,
carried off the treasure from the maker to Ver-
sailles, where it had been eed the queen
should send for it. In a few days De Lamotte

and her husband, having disappeared from Paris,

were busily engaged in selling the separate dia-
monds in the necklace. The whole transaction

had been a trick; the messages from the queen,

oral and written, were without foundation, the
latter, indeed, being forged by a soi-disant valet,
who was skilled in imitating handwriting. The
ony was discovered by means of the maker of
e diamond necklace, who, not receiving any
money when the period of the first instalment had
arrived, went to court, demanding to know if the
necklace had been delivered to the queen. In a
few months the cardinal found himself in the
ille, where some of those by whom he had
had already been lodged. In May 1786

the trial of the prisoners was brought to a close.

De Lamotte was branded on each shoulder with
the letter V (for voleuse, ‘ thief’), and was sentenced
to perpetual imprisonment. Her husband, who had
fled to England, was sentenced in his absence to
the galleys for life. The cardinal and the girl who
had one capga the queen were dismissed without
unishment. ‘The queen was falsely supposed by
he populace of Paris to have had a part in the
plot, and the odium resulting from it was heaped
upon her, even at the last, when she sat on the
tumbril that bore her through a raging and cursing
mob to the guillotine.

See Carlyle’s study, in his Essays; Vizetelly’s oe
of the Diamond Necklace (new ed. 1880); and Fre
works by Campardon (1863) and D’est Ange (1889).

Diamper. See THOMAS (CHRISTIANS OF ST).

Diana, an ancient Italian divinity, identified
by the Romans with the Greek Artemis. She
goddess of light, and she represented the
moon, just as Dianus (Janus) did the sun. It
is said that Servius Tullius was the first to intro-
duce her worship at Rome, and apparently she
was first worshipped by patricians only. See
ARTEMIS.

Diana (1) oF Porrrers, a favourite of Henry
IT. of France, was born in 1499, the eldest danghter
of Jean de Poitiers. Married at thirteen, she be-
came a widow at thirty-two, and ere long attached
the affections of the nineteen years younger dauphin
strongly to herself. On his accession as Henry II.
(1547) Diana enjoyed at influence, did much to
reform the court, and brought its influence to bear
strongly against the reforming y. She was
made Duchess of Valentinois in 1548, retired from
court to her castle Chateau d'Anet on the king’s
death in 1559, and died in 1566, The splendid
Chateau de Chenonceaux (q.v.) was given her
by the king, but after her death was taken by
Catharine Se’ Medici. It still contains many
memorials of its most famous mistress.—(2)
DIANA OF FRANCE, Duchess of Angouléme, was
bern in 1538, natural daughter of Henry II. and

a Piedmontese lonsenting to others, of Diana of
Poitiers), was agree, egitimised, and married
first to a son of the Duke of Parma, next to the
eldest son of the Constable de Montmorency. She
enjoyed great influence at court under Henry IV.,
superintended the education of the young prince,
afterwards Louis XIIL, then retired from court,
and died without issue in 1619.

Dianthus. See Carnation, Prxx.

Biaps'sen (Gr.), a term in music by which the
ancient Greeks designated the octave. French
use the term as equivalent to pitch. Diapason is

also the English name given to the fundamental

stops of the Organ (q.v.).

Diaper, a term “pried to certain forms of
flat or slightly relieved ornament. Any pattern
formed of a floral, leafy, geometric, or other device,
repeated over a flat surface, is called dé or
diaper work; but according to some authorities
the device should be free from bounding lines
ores Ly erp as a pattern of this nature should
rather be called checker or checker work.

In textile fabrics the term ap to have been
iven at one time to silk fabrics with almost any
ind of repeated pattern upon them. It is an
older name for figured silk than Damask ( +)
The Byzantine Greeks called a silk with
—- and ground of one colour diaspron, and the
uatins, following the Greeks, named such a fabric
diasper, which by a slight change became the Eng-
lish word diaper. Chaucer refers to ‘cloth of gold
diapred wele’ (see Textile Fabrics, by the Rev. D.
Rock, _— Any kind of textile fabric, paper, or
leather, with a more or less enriched geometrical

ttern is, in a general way, said to be diapered.

ut as s textiles the term diaper nowadays
is almost confined to undyed linen with a woven
diamond pattern, although cotton imitations are
made. According to the size of this pattern the
stuff is called bird’s-eye, pheasant's-eye, fish-eye,
or Russia diaper.

In Architecture, diaper-work, or diapering, is a
kind of decoration applied to plane surfaces, and
consists of a small repeated pattern either of con-

ventional flowers, leaves, or other devices, carved.
The flower, or other object, is gener-

SIAN

i Tan? 1
SEA

or painted.
ally inclosed by lines,
fillets, or slender mould-
ings, which constitute
in themselves a sort of
metrical diapering.
hen the pattern
carved, it is generall
sunk; and when painted,
it consists of a darker
shade of the same colour
as the plane surface, by ©
which the effect of shadow
is communicated to it.
The accompanying illustration, from Bloxam's
Gothic Architecture, exhibits a very beautiful
example of Decorated English diapering. It is
taken from Canterbury Cathedral. In essor
Willis’s book on this building other examples are
given. *
Diaphoretics, See Suporrrics.

oO

Diaphr or MiprirF (Gr. diaphragma,
‘a ition’), is the name applied a ee to
designate the musculo-tendinous partition which in

man and the mammalia generally separates the
cavity of the thorax from that of the abdomen. Its
general form is that of a dome directed towards the
chest, the lower part and sides being muscular
while the central or highest portion consists of
an expanded tendon. The muscular fibres have
an extensive origin from the erence of

794 DIAPHRAGM

DIARRHGA

visceral peat eros posteriorly, a vertebral portion
arising from the lumbar vertebrae by two Ape pro-
cesses, or crura, of unequal length, and from two
fibrous bands, or arched ligaments, on each side
of the bodies of the vertebre: laterally, a costal
portion arising from the cartilaginous and adjoining
osseous parts of the lower six ribs; anteriorly, a
: sternal portion

arising from the
ensiform cartil-
age of the ster-
num, or breast-
bone. From
these various
points the mus-
cular fibres con-
verge to the cen-
tral, trefoil, or
cordiform ten-
don, which
forms the high-
est part of the
diaphragm, and
as its name in-
dicates, consists
of three Jobes.
The diaphragm
resents three

arge perfora-
tions or fora-
Mina; one,
quadrilateral,

The lower part of the Thorax, opened placed in the
to show the upper side of the Dia- }johest part of
phragm from before : the tendinons

a, Ae oe naga none: b, oe ianber centre for the
vertebra; c, ensiform cartilage ; «

aorta; e, cesophagus; jf, opening for ape passage

inferior vena cava. 1, 2, 3, trefoil ten- O the inferior

don; 4, 5, central portions of diaphragm; vena cava ; one

6, right, and 7, left crus of diaphragm. oval in form,

surrounded by
muscular fibres derived from the ecrura, for the
passage of the cesophagus and pneumogastrice
nerves; the third, situated in front of the verte-
bree and bounded by tendinous fibres of the crura,
transmits the aorta, thoracic duct, and large azygos
vein,

The upper surface of the diaphragm is in relation
to the pleural membranes which inclose the lungs,
and the pericardium which incloses the heart. e
latter membrane is intimately connected with the
central tendon, which thus forms a fixed floor for
the support of the heart. The lower surface, deeply
concave in form, is lined by peritoneum, and has in
apposition with it the stomach and spleen on the
left side, the convex upper surface of the liver on
the right side, and the kidneys, supra-renal capsules,
and duodenum posteriorly.

When the diaphragm contracts, the arched portion
becomes flatter, and the cavity of the chest being
thereby enlarged, air rushes in to fill the vacuum,
and expands the lungs during the act of inspiration.
It is thus an inspiratory muscle, and in ordinary
quiet breathing the central tendon on which the
heart rests takes no share in this movement. Every
contraction of the diaphragm must diminish the
abdominal space and compress the abdominal
viscera, and hence it aids in the expulsion of the
feeces and urine.

Spasmodice action of the diaphragm produces
hiccough and sobbing. Stoppage of the action
of the diaphragm, whether from great external
pressure or from paralysis, is very speedily fatal.

DIAPHRAGM, a partition with a hole in it,
employed not only in landscape and portrait lenses
for photography, but also in telescopes, micro-
scopes, and other optical instruments, for the
purpose of cutting off the superfluous rays of light,

| or even agonising in character.

and producing greater intensity or sharpness of the
image, as well as to correct aberration.

Diarbekir, a town of Asiatic Turkey, capital
of a province of the same name, is situated on
the right bank of the Tigris, 390 miles NW. of
Bagdad. The town is surrounded by high strong
walls, and commanded by a citadel built on a
high basalt rock, against which the flat-roofed
houses rise above each other in terraces. The
population has dwindled to 40,000, mostly Kurds
and Armenians. The city is the residence of a
pasha, and the seat of a Greek bishop, as also
usually of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch. It
has 27 mosques and 12 churches, and numerous
bazaars, fountains, baths,
although the last are now falling into decay.
Indeed, only in the centre of the town are any of
the buildings handsome; elsewhere ruins meet one
at every step. Stagnant pools, weeds, and filth
eombine to produce fevers. Diarbekir had formerly
extensive manufactures of silk and cotton goods,
and an active commerce with Aleppo and Bagdad;
and it still has considerable trade in raw products.
The roads to the coast are equally bad and insecure,
and the traffic with Bagdad is mostly by raft. The
principal exports are wool, mohair, sheep and
goats, copper ore, butter, gall-nuts, goat and kid
skins, and furs; the imports include cotton and
woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar, buffalo-hides,
petroleum, and soap. Diarbekir occupies the site

‘of the ancient Amida, which was fortified by the

Emperor Constantine. It was captured by the
Persians in 359, and retaken by Justinian; but in
502 the Persians once more became masters, and
put 80,000 of the inhabitants to the sword. In 640
it fell into the hands of the Arabs of the Bekr tribe,
whose name became identified with the district ;
but the Turkish official title is still Kara Amid
(‘Black Amid,’ from the colour of its basaltic
walls). After many vicissitudes, the town passed
into the hands of Sultan Selim in 1515.

Diarrhee’a (Gr. dia, ‘through,’ and rhed, ‘I
flow’) is the name applied to an increase in the dis-
charges from the bowels, which are usually unduly
liquid, sometimes overcharged with bile, and some-
times the contrary, and is, properly speaking, a
symptom rather than a disease. hus it often
occurs in the course of diseases of the liver and
spleen, of some forms of heart-disease, of many
fevers and other acute diseases, and is a common
complication of the advanced stage of Consumption
(q.v.). Frequently, however, it is the most pro-
minent, perhaps the only symptom of ill-health ;
and it may then take rank as a disease, or rather
as the generic name of a group of diseases. In this
aspect the subject will be discussed here.

iarrheea is either simple, bilious, or choleraic ;
the last form has already been discussed (see
CHOLERA). The ancients applied the name lientery
to a diarrhoea in which the dejections consisted of
matters not digested, or very partially so; this
form is, however, very unusual, at all events in
Britain. Dysentery (q.v.) is also a form of
diarrhoeal disease ; as is the form of Fever (q.v.)
called gastric, typhoid, or enteric fever. Simple
and bilious diarrhea probably often differ only
in degree; they are both distinguished from the

/advanced stages of cholera and dysentery by the

resence of abundance of biliary colouring matter

‘in the stools, and by the absence of the distinctive

features of the other two diséases as described
elsewhere. Diarrhcea is almost always accompanied
at first by pain in the abdomen, sometimes severe
According to its
cause and treatment, it may pass off in a few hours,
or may persist for a few weeks or months; or it
may even prove fatal.

and caravanserais, —

ee

-
ps

DIARRHG@A

DIASTASE 795

; voreatf porat of view.

- shown that the decomposition of o

_ Diarrhea has many
‘but the whole tribe of more or less

diarrheal diseases present certain relations in

common, which have been studied of late years to
a erable extent from the preventive or
; Thus it is o ed of all
iseases, without exception, that they are
apt to proradl during summer and autumn
during the earlier seasons of the year; and it
is also well established that their prevalence is to a
eat extent dependent on the intensity of the solar

os be that a temperature above 60° F. seems to
be almost essential, under ordinary circumstances,
to their epidemic diffusion. Moreover, it has been
E ic matters
in the neighbourhood of human dwellings, and the
introduction of the products of decomposition into
the food, drink, or air used by the healthy, has
been a direct exciting cause of diarrhea in a t
number of instances where the disease has been
locally epidemic; from which it is inferred that
the real source of diarrhceal diseases is usually to

be found in a morbid poison closely associated with

the process of putrefaction, although not, perhaps,
necessarily generated during that process. It has
been noticed that cold and wet seasons are the least
favourable to the production of diarrhea, which is
explained on the theory above alluded to by the
rapid removal in such seasons of all organic debris ;
and there is little doubt that this explanation is
correct, as the converse is equally true, the com-
bination of heat with long-continued drought bein

‘almost sure to waken into life the epidemic seeds of

diarrhea. Again it is noticed that where drainage

_ is imperfect and drinking water impure, diarrheal

diseases are specially apt to oceur (see CHOLERA) ;
the class of the population most apt to be affected
being those who occupy low levels, or who are
otherwise exposed to the influence of this aqueous
or ms poison. Infants are especially apt to
suffer from diarrhea, and a large number of the
infantile deaths in many English towns are caused

either directly by this disease, or by the abuse of
stimulants and narcotics for its cure.

Besides these epidemic diarrhceas, isolated cases
of simpler and more obvious origin are very

uent. In some persons diarrhcea is the usual
result of catching cold—i.e. they suffer from catarrh
of the digestive, instead of, as is most usual, the
respiratory 0 But far more frequently
diarrheea results from unwholesome or indigestible
food or drink, or from excessive indulgence even in
what would otherwise not be hurtful. In all such
cases the diarrhea is to be regarded as beneficial ;
in fact it is the natural effort of the intestines
to rid themselves of their objectionable contents,
and should be encouraged rather than arrested.
Diarrhea occurring as an incident in prolonged
constipation is to be explained in the same way,
as due to irritation of the intestines by th
hardened contents.

Acute diarrhea should almost always be treated
first by an aperient, as the unaided action of the
intestines is often insufficient to expel irritating
material. A full teaspoonful of Gregory’s powder,
or a tablespoonful of castor-oil with ten or fifteen
drops of laudanum are especially useful. The food
taken should be small in amount, and as easil
digestible as possible. Milk, arrowroot, &c., beet-

toast, plain biscuits, are among the most suit-
able articles of diet. Pain may be alleviated by poul-
tices or fomentations sprinkled with landanum. A
small dose of brandy often checks both the pain and
the diarrhea. Should the disease not yield to these
measures, opium, carminatives, and astringents
should be administered. In some cases, especially
of febrile diarrhea, an emetic of ipecacuanha at the
very ing will sometimes remove the disease

medical advice.

remarkable rapidity; and in most formes of
diarrhaa it may be alleged that this medicine (in
doses of from one to five or even ten grains) is well
borne. Sometimes it is combined with — in
the form of Dover's powder. In chronic
(not the consequence of serious organic disease)
careful lation of the diet is of prime import-
ance, and is generally accompanied by the adminis-
tration of astringents. But such cases are often
very intractable, and no rules can be laid down
that would apply to all. In a very large class of
cases, espec ly of infantile diarrhoea, depending
upon a too acid state of the secretions, the leading
remedy is chalk, either in powder or in the very
serviceable form of the mistura crete (mixture of
chalk) of the pharm ias, from one to three
dessert-spoonfuls of which may be given after every
disturbance of the bowels. Lime-water, mixed
with milk in the proportion of one to four or five,

‘is easily given to very young children, and serves

nearly the same purpose.

The astringents useful in diarrhwa are very
various. Those of Mig reed origin are usually first.
employed, alone or combination. The most
important are galls, oak-bark, kino, catechu, log-
wood. The mineral astringents are chiefly salts of
the heavier metals, iron, bismuth, copper, lead, &e. ;
but also chalk and lime, and alum. Opium, one
of the most powerful remedies, owes its usefulness
to other than astringent properties, and is very
frequently given in combination with astringents
—e.g. in chalk and opium steed compound kino
powder, lead and opium pills. In many states of
the system in which di a occurs, however, it is
dangerous. It must never be given to young
children, or in doses to any one, without
n some forms of diarrhca,
especially in children, antiseptics are very useful
—e.g. carbolic acid, creasote; and it is probably
to its antiseptic properties that corrosive sub-
limate (bichloride of mercury) owes its value when
administered in minute doses.

Diary ( Lat. diarium, ‘a daily allowance for
soldiers,’ ‘diary,’ from dies, ‘a day’) means simply
a daily record of events or observations made by an
individual. In it the man of letters inscribes the
daily results of his reading or his meditations; to
the mercantile man it serves the purpose of an order
or memorandum book ; while the physician finds it
indispensable as a register of engagements. Diaries
in many forms and sizes are issued every year,
containing also so much miscellaneous information
that in one book we have at once a diary and an
almanac. The Ephemeris of the ancients was
originally a military record or journal, a day-book
or acon nt-book, hao . collection of takie —_
ing the position of the heavenly t
into Baaetars to mean a collection of records of
what has happened on the same day in various
years, or a mere general name for any form of
periodical books or m ines. od tad ?

Diaries have often furnished the historian with
invaluable material, supplying the absence of _—
records, and furnishing minute and intimate details
of manners and of motives that do far more to help
us to understand the past than more f
Such documents as Robert Baillie’s Journals, the
Diaries of Pepys and Evelyn, and the Journals of
Greville are among the most valuable sources of
real history. Bacon says ‘in een pee where
there is nothing to be seen but sky sea, men
make diaries ; but in land-travel, wherein so much
is to be observed, they omit it,’ but unhappily this
no longer holds of modern travellers.

Diastase isa — ferment devel during
the germination of all seeds. An vate actetien

of diastase may be procured by adding one part of

796 DIATHERMANCY

DIATOMS

hot water to two parts of ground malt (see BEER),
or freshly germinated barley, and, after standing
for a short time, straining through a cloth. The
proportion of diastase in malt is not more than
1 part in 500 parts, and yet it performs important
functions. Thus diastase has a powerful action
upon starch, and at a temperature of 150° F. one
part is considered powerful enough to change 2000
parts of starch into dextrine, and then into maltose,
a variety of sugar. When obtained separately,
diastase is a white tasteless substance, soluble. in
water and in weak alcohol, and having no action
on gum or sugar. A similar principle is found in
the saliva of animals, the action of which on starch
is identical with that of diastase. When bread is
masticated, the saliva is rapidly secreted, and the
animal diastase converts the starch into sugar. See
GERMINATION, COOKERY, DIGESTION.

Diathermancy. See HEAT.

Dia'thesis (Gr. dia, ‘through,’ and tithémi,
‘I place or arrange’), a Greek word signifying a
disposition or arrangement, and applied by the old
‘medical authors to the predisposition or constitu-
tion of the body which renders it. prone to certain
diseased states. By recent writers the term is
applied to the general constitutional tendency of

an individual, to indicate not merely the class of |

diseases to which he is most likely to be liable,
but also in many cases the manner in which his
normal functions, both bodily and mental, are
carried on ; and is thus opposed to Cachexia (q.v.),
an unhealthy condition associated with actual
disease. Though the study of diathesis apart
from existing disease is very apt to lead to over-
refinement and the pursuit of intangible abstrac-
tions, yet a proper appreciation of a person’s con-
stitutional proclivities or diathesis often enables a
medical man to advise him how to regulate his
life and habits to the best advantage—what to do
and what to avoid—and may furnish important
guidance as to his treatment in disease. The

iatheses most usually recognised are the sanguine,
the nervous or neurotic, the bilious, the lymphatic,
the strumous, and the hemorrhagic. umerous
mixed varieties are also described by some writers.

Diatoms (Diatomacee) are a group of alge
which, on account of their microscopic interest
and geological importance, have acquired an un-
usual share of scientific and even popular atten-
tion. They were discovered by Leeuwenhoek in
1702, and their movements by O. F. Miiller eighty

ears later ; their thorough investigation, however,

as only become possible with the development of
the compound microscope.

The reader who wishes to view the diatoms
other than as mere microscopic marvels must
begin with a clear grasp of the structure and
mode of life of the filamentous conjugate alge,
such as Spirogyra, and next observe that of those
higher members of the group which we know as
Desmids (see ALG&, DEsmIps). These simpler
forms understood, let him next imagine a desmid
(in which the characteristic division of the uni-
cellular body into halves is distinctly but not too
deeply marked) to become somewhat unequally
ae a next let these be pressed together so
that the larger half slides a Fittle way over the
smaller, much like the lid of a canister or the
halves of a pill-box. Let the two halves or shells
of the cell-wall now become strongly silicified,
the cellulose only remaining unaltered and flex-
ible round the narrow ‘girdle band’ connecting
them ; next let variation arise in the general shape
so that the original box-shape becomes elliptical
or wavy, squared, or more often pointed, or even
unsymmetrically curved; finally, let the siliceous
shells become covered with the most delicate

. siliceous she

striations and markings, and these characteristi-
cally varied, not only from group to group, but
from species to species. A gelatinous envelope
may also be developed, or this may be secreted at
one pole only, forming a stalk.
The living protoplasm shows less variation than
might pears have been expected; it lines the
1, leaving a large central sap-cavity,
often traversed by protoplasmic filaments. Very
commonly, however, this is divided by a lar;
central mass of protoplasm usually containing the
nucleus, while similar accumulations may be formed

Fig. 1.
Pinnularia viridis: 1. a, Optical section through the unequal
valves; 0, side of one valve, showing markings and longi-
tudinal slit.
2. Diagrammatic transverse section ;
ing endochrome-plates, ep; g, girdle
shaded, the left showing depressions due to markings,

Fig. 2.

, protoplasm contain-
nd. Valves left un-

at the ends. The colouring matter may occur in
minute granules, or be collected into one or two
large ‘endochrome-plates ;’ it consists of chloro-
phyll, masked by a closely allied yellow pigment
(phycoxanthin). Starch is absent; oil is fre-
quently present, either in minute vacuoles or
collected into a single large drop.

The mechanism of th
rather gliding movements has long baffled investi-
gators; these, however, are not due to diffusion
currents as some have maintained, nor to the
agency of any ordinary cilia or pseudopodia, but
seem to be effected by means of a locomotor band
of protoplasm which is said to be protruded
through a longitudinal slit in the surface of the
siliceous shells (see fig. 1),

The mode of oe go nce is primarily by
division, and is effected on the same principle as
in Desmids (q.v.). Thus the two halves of the
diatom are not only of unequal ages, but since the
new half is always formed within the previous
one, a continuous diminution of size takes place.
At a certain limit, however, division stops, and
rejuvenescence may occur, with formation of a
resting spore; more frequently, however, this is
preceded by conjugation as in desmids, though
sometimes complete union may not take place.
The resultant ‘auxospore’ has a continuous cellu-
lose coat, but develops within it, by rejuvenes-
cence, a two-shelled diatom of the largest size,
which issues to divide in turn,

Of the 2000 species, 400 are fresh-water, the
remainder marine. Their distribution is ubiqui-
tous, and the genera and even species seem little
dependent upon temperature or climate, many
being apparently cosmopolite, and some having
been, described as occurring in glacier water, yet
also in hot springs. Their minute size and resist-
ance to drying favour their distribution in. the
form of dust; hence the calcination of the dust

e peculiar creeping or_

j
q

=

om

Zz
mt
Se

4)

14

Diatomaceous deposits were found in Skye in 1886.

DIATONIC

DIBDIN 797

which falls apes ships in mid-ocean has been
she to yield an appreciable diatom residue.
soil which is overflowed teems with them
notably, therefore, that of Egypt; harbour mud
often contains one-fourth to one-half its volume
of diatom shells, while in many parts of the world
there occur strata of pore diatomaceous origin,
vast area and considerable

which ee renuonsly )

thickness. These are in all states of preservation
_ ,and hardness, from the loose Ber
and Lapland (which still contains so much un-

of Siberia

decom organic matter as to be mixed with
flour in times of scarcity) to building stone, and
even the extremely hard polishing slates of Tripoli.

The diatomite may be used for making dynamite,
siliceous ee paints, steam-pipe casings, &c.
Diatoms live in enormous abundance at the surface
‘of the sea in cold, temperate, and arctic latitudes,
and the mud of the sea-bottom is hence very
largely com of the shells of dead diatoms,
which are falling from the surface in a gentle but
unceasing rain (see 00ZE). Kieselguhr, or infusorial
earth, is useful for making Dynamite (q.v.), patent
lamp-wicks, for lining safes or ice-stores, antiseptic
preparations, filtration, &c. See the Challenger
report on the Diatomacee (1885).

Diatonic (from the Greek) means ‘by tones,’
or ‘from tone to tone.’ The diatonic species of the
ancient Greeks—as distinguished from their chro-
matic and enharmonic species—formed the foun-
dation of their whole system of music, and was
arranged in tetrachords (embryo sca/es) composed
of one semitone and two whole tones. In modern
music, the term is applied to (1) the natural or
normal scale, major or minor, which proceeds
mainly by whole tones; (2) the different species
of intervals (usually reckoned as fourteen in
number) occurring between the various notes of
that scale; and (3) music written wholly or for
the most part in that scale.

Diaz, or Dias, BARTOLOMEU, a Portuguese
navigator of noble birth who flourished during
the latter half of the 15th century. His residence
at the court of King Jobn II. brought him into
contact with many scientific men, among others
the German cosmographer Behaim {av}. Diaz
took a pee interest in graphical discovery,
and in August 1486 the king gave him the com-
mand of two vessels with a view to following u
the discoveries already made by Forhgoey ed-
venturers on the west coast of Africa. Diaz soon
reached the limit which had been attained in
South Atlantic navigation, and first touched land
in 26° S. lat. Driven by a violent storm, he sailed
round the southern extremity of Africa (see CAPE
or Goop Hore) without immediately realising the
fact, and discovered Algoa Bay. The discontent of
his crew compelled him sorrowfully to return; and
arriving in Tisboa, December 1487, he was at first

with enthusiasm, but soon saw Vasco da
Gaia referred before him, and was compelled to
act under the latter in the grand expedition of
1497. Vasco da Gama even sent him back to
Portugal after they had reached the Cape Verd
Isles. Three years after, he joined the expedition
of Cabral, the ‘discoverer of Brazil, but was lost in
a storm, 29th May 1500.

Diaz, Porrrrio, President of Mexico. See

MEXxIco. " _

iaz de la Pena, Narcisso VIRGILIO,
WN ds was born at Bordeaux in 1807, of Spanish
parentage, and, left an orphan at the age of ten,
was educated by a Protestant clergyman at Belle-
vue, where a snake-bite occasioned tie amputa-
tion of a leg. At the age of fifteen he was
apprenticed to a porcelain-painter, but he was

ambitious of working in oils, and about 1831
began to exhibit in the Salon. Abandoning his
unsuccessful efforts in the direction of history and
genre, he in time won fame by his lanc

which he peopled with nymphs, loves, and satyra.
These figures are badly drawn, but as a colourist
Diaz ranks highly among the painters of the
Romantic school in France, and to colour he was
content frankly to sacrifice form. He was also
an exquisite painter of flower-pieces. He died at
Mentone, 18th November 1876.

Diaz del Castillo, Been, the historian of
the conquest of Mexico, was born about the end
of the 16th century, and was one of the handful of
heroes who accompanied Cortes to Mexico in 1519.
He fought through the whole struggle, and after-
wards accompanied the heroic om Sandoval on
his expedition northwards, and Cortes himself in
his expedition to Honduras to punish the defection
of his trusted lieutenant, Christoval de Olid. He
died in Mexico about 1560. His Historia verda-
dera de la conquista de la Nueva Espaia (3 vols.
Madrid, 1632) is invaluable to the historian as a
sincere narration by an_ eye-witness and sharer in
the events narra With all the ignorance and
superstition of its age, it reveals great powers of
observation and of vivid and vigorous description ;
while the rare romantic interest of the story itself,
the heroism of Cortes and his companions, and
their wonderful deeds and often tragic deaths,
make the book a real epic.

Dibdin, CHARLES, musician and poet, was
born at Southampton in 1745. He early attracted
notice by his singing, and, still a boy, made his
literary début in don, by writing and compos-
ing an opera called The Shepherd's Artifice, produced
at Covent Garden Theatre in 1762. He subsequently
lived an unsettled life as an actor and com
of stage-music. In 1788 he commenced giving a
series of musical entertainments in the city, which
acquired a great celebrity ; the first of these was
entitled The Whim of the Moment. After several
vicissitudes he withdrew from public life in 1805,
the government in 1803 having granted him, in con-
sideration of his literary merits, a pension of £200,
The pension was afterwards withdrawn by the
Grenville government in_ 1807, which occasioned
Dibdin to return to public life with unfortunate
financial results. He died 25th July 1814. Dibdin
was an admirable writer of sea-songs, of which he
com nearly a hundred. Neptune, and not
Apollo, seems to have inspired him. Though his
work nowhere reaches the higher regions of poetry,
and even his seamanship has impugned, yet it
is hardly too much to say that he is our first writer
of sea-songs, one or two of which have even been
taken to the heart by the mariners of England.
His verses smack of the briny deep, and reflect
with astonishing felicity the easy, childlike virtues
and the fearless courage of the conventional British
tar. It is known that they helped to man the
navy during the great struggle with France, and
as he himself says in his autobiography, ‘they
have been quoted in mutinies to the restora-
tion of order and discipline.’ Among Dibdin's
happiest pieces are Poor Jack and Tom Bowling,
or Poor Tom as it was originally called. See his
Professional Life (4 vols. 1803), and for his son
the inaccurate edition by G. H. Davidson, wi
Life by George Hogarth (1842). Dibdin wrote
nearly seventy dramatic pieces.—Two of his sons,
CHARLES Dipprn (1768-1833) and Tomas JoHN
Drevin (1771-1841) wrote songs and dramas,

The Dibdins, by E. R. Dibdin (1888).

Dibdin, Tuomas FRoGNALL, the bibliographer,
was nephew of Charles Dibdin, the writer of sea-
songs, and was born at Calcutta in 1776. He lost

‘798 DIBRANCHIATA

DICK

both parents when hardly four years of age, his
father’s death at sea having given Charles Dibdin
the subject for his famous song, Tom Bowling.
He was brought up by a maternal uncle, studied
at St John’s College, Oxford, tried law, but_took
orders in 1804. He proceeded D.D. in 1825. Of his
preferments the chief were the vicarage of Exning
near Newmarket, and the rectory of St Mary’s,
Bryanston Square, London. He died 18th November
1847. His first contribution to bibliography was
an Introduction to the Greek and Roman. Classics
(1802), which was followed by an unfinished new
edition of Ames and Herbert’s Typographical Anti-
ioe (4 vols. 1810-19) ; Bibliomania (1809) ; The

ibliographical Decameron (1817); Bibliotheca
Spenceriana (1814-15); Bibliographical, Antiqua-
rian, and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany
(1821); The Library Companion (1824); Biblio-
phobia (1832); Reminiscences of a Literary Life
(1836); and Bibliographical, Antiquarian, and
Picturesque Tour in the Northern Counties of Eng-
land and Scotland (1838). All Dibdin’s books are
valuable and interesting, but whimsical and flip-
ant in style, and unhappily abounding in errors.

r Dibdin was one of the founders of the ‘ Rox-
burghe Club’ (1812).

Dibranchiata, See CEPHALOPODA.

Dice (plural of die), small cubes of ivory marked
on their sides with black dots, from one to six.
The points on the opposite sides of the dice should
always sum seven—i.e. ace should be opposite to
six (pronounced size) ; deuce to cinque (pronounced
sanke); and trey to quatre (pronounced ater).
Two dice are called a pair.

By 13 Geo. II. chap. 19, ‘all games invented or
to be invented with one or more die or dice’ were
prohibited, except backgammon and games played
on a backgammon board. Ilence hazard is illegal,
and also raffles with dice, the latter being also
forbidden as lotteries even if dice are not used.
By 9 Geo. IV. chap. 18 (1828), a duty of twenty
shillings was imposed on every pair of dice; in
1862 the duty was abolished.

The invention of dice is attributed to Palamedes
(circa 1244 B.c.). But the use of eubes with num-
vert sides for gambling purposes is probably much
earlier.

Dicentra, a genus of Fumariacee, of which
one species, the ‘ Chinese lantern plant,’ D. specta-
bilis (described by Linnzeus in 1753, but only intro-
duced from Asiatic into British flower-gardens in

Dicentra spectabilis.

1846), has become a universal favourite on account
of its long racemes of drooping, delicate, rosy-pink
flowers. In America it is commonly known as
‘Bleeding Heart.’ It is a herbaceous perennial of

easy propagation. There are several other North
American species, one of which, D. formosa, is a
favourite and very showy garden-plant. Owing,
in the first instance, to a misprint, Dicentra has
been as frequently called Dielytra, the original
mistake having become consecrated by habit.

Dichlamy deous, a term in botany applied b7
De Candolle to distinguish those dicotyledonous
flowers possessed of both calyx and corolla from his
Monochlamydee, in which not more than one floral
envelope is present.

Dichogamy. See (under Flower) FERTILISA-
TION OF THE FLOWER, Vol. IV. p. 692.

Dicho'tomous (Gr., ‘divided into two equal
arts’), a term formerly vaguely used in botanical-
escription to designate any appearance of branching

by forking. Thus the stems of some phanerogams
—e.g. mistletoe, doum palm, and many inflorescences
—e.g. Caryophylleze, Begonias—appear forked,
while an ordinary fern-frond has no such appear-
ance. The progress of morphological research has,
however, shown that true dichotomy—i.e. com-
plete division of the growing point into two lateral
meting is really as characteristic of the development
of the fern-frond as of such obviously dichotomous
vegetation as that of Selaginella ; while conversely
the appearance of forking in phanerogams comes
about simpl by the suppression of the growing
point, and the development of two new axes from
opposite lateral buds. Outside the cryptogams,
indeed, no case of true dichotomy has been de-
scribed, with the doubtful exception of the roots
of cycads. See CRYPTOGAMIA, FERNS, INFLORES-
CENCE, Cycaps, &c.

Dichroism (Gr. dis, ‘twice,’ chroma, ‘a
colour’) is a term chiefly used in Crystallones hy
to designate the property which many doubly
refracting crystals possess of exhibiting different
colours when A. in different directions. It, or
the allied term Dichromatism, has also been applied
to those fluids which appear of different colours
when viewed by reflected and refracted light ; when
seen in thick or thin layers, &c. For example,
venous blood, or any blood impregnated with car-
bonie acid, hydrogen, or nitrogen, appears, when
seen in moderately thin layers, to be of a purple
colour; while in extremely thin layers it appears
green.—For Dichroite, see CORDIERITE.

Dick, JAmeEs, a West Indian and London mer-
chant, who was born at Forres, Morayshire, in
November 1743, died 24th ig | 1828, and left over
£113,000 to promote higher learning among the
parish schoolmasters of Elgin, Banff, and Aber-
deen shires. Examinations were instituted, and
those schoolmasters who showed a satisfactory
knowledge were awarded from the bequest a sum
of money and an annual stipend as long as they
remained efficient. The annual value of the bequest
exceeds £4000, allowing a payment of about to
each teacher participating.

Dick, Sir RoBert, major-general, was born at
Tulliemet, in Perthshire, about 1785, fought in Sicily
and Egypt, held a command at Busaco, Torres-
Vedras, Ciudad Rodrigo, Salamanea, and Burgos,
at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, and fell heading the
assault at Sobraon, 10th February 1846.

Dick, Rospert, a self-taught Scotch ee
and botanist (1811-66), was a native of Tullibody
in Clackmannanshire, and from 1830 a baker in
Thurso. His life was written by Dr Smiles (1878).

Dick, THomMAs, a popular religious and scientific
writer, was born 24th petra HS 1774, near Dundee.
At a very early age he became devoted to the study
of astronomy, and at twenty went to the university
of Edinburgh with a view to the ministry in the
Secession Church. Licensed in 1801, he preached

he received a crown

DICKENS

799

some time; next kept school for ten years at
Methven, and for ten years more at Perth. Mean-
time he laboured laudably to promote popular
education by ‘ Literary and Philosophical Societies’
corresponding closely to the Mechanics’ Institutes
of later days. His first book was The Christian
Philosopher (1823), which quickly became popular.
Tts success led Dick to devote himself to astronomy
and literary work in a cottage near Broughty-Ferry,
where he set up an observatory. His many Soaks
ht him great popularity both in England and
America, but very little pecuniary return. In 1847
n pension of £50, supplemented
a local subscription. He died at Sr
_ Ferry, 29th mag 1857. His degree of LL.D. was
given him by Union College, New York. Other
works were Celestial Scenery (1837), The Sidereal
Heavens (1840), and The Practical Astronomer
(1845).
' Dickens, CHARLES, was born at Landport,
now a great town, but then a little suburb of
Portsmouth or Portsea, lying half a mile outside of
the town walls. The date of his birth was Friday,
February 7, 1812. His father was John Dickens,
a clerk in the navy hip Rerun and at that time
attached to Portsmouth dockyard. The familiarity
which the novelist shows with seaports and sailors
is not, however, due to his birthplace, because his
father, in the year 1814, was recalled to London,
and in 1816 went to Chatham. They still show the
room in the dockyard where the elder Dickens
worked, and where his son often came to visit him.

The family lived in Ordnance Place, Chatham, and |

the boy was sent to a school kept in Gibraltar
Place, New Road, by one William Giles. As a
child he is said to have been a great reader, and very
early be to attempt original writing. In 1821,
Charles being then nine years of age, the family
fell into trouble; reforms in the Admiralty deprived
the father of his s paws and the greater part of his
income. They had to leave Chatham and removed
to London, where a mean house in a shabby street
of Camden Town received them. But not for long.
The unfortunate father was presently arrested for
debt and consigned to the Marshalsea, and Charles,
then only ten years of age, and small for his age,
was placed in a blacking-factory at Hungerford
Market, where all he could do was to put the
labels on the blacking-bottles, with half a dozen
rough and rude boys. The d ation and
misery of this occupation sunk deep into the
boy’s soul. He could never bear to speak of this
time; it was never mentioned in his presence.
Not only were his da: in this wretched
work, but the child was left entirely to himself
at night, when he made his way home from
Hungerford Market to Camden Town, a distance of
four miles, to his lonely bedroom. On Sundays he
visited his father in the prison. Of course such a
neglected way of living could not continue. They
presently found a lodging for him in Lant Street,
close to the Marshalsea, where at least he was near
his parents, and his father shortly afterwards re-
covering his liberty, they all went back to Camden
Town, and the boy was sent to school again. It
was to a private school in the Hampstead Road,
where he remained for three or four years of quiet
work. It must have been then, one suspects, rather
than at Chatham, that he became so great a devourer
of books. But he was never a scholar in any sense,
and the books that he read were novels and plays.
That the family fortunes were still low is proved by
the fact that when he was taken from school no
better place could be found for him than a stool at
the desk of a solicitor. Meantime his father had
obtained a post as reporter for the Morning Herald,
and Charles, feeling small love for the hopeless
drudgery of a lawyer's oflice, resolved also to attempt

the profession of journalist. He taught himself
sho d with the resolution—even the rage—
which he always threw into everything he under-
took ; and he frequented the British Museum daily
in order to supplement some of the shortcomings of
his reading. In his seventeenth year he became a
reporter at Doctors’ Commons, At this period all
his ambitions were for the stage. He would be an
actor. All his life, indeed, he loved acting and the
theatre above all things. As an actor one feels
certain that he would have succeeded. He would
have made an excellent comedian. Fortunately, be
was saved for better work.

It was not until he was two-and-twenty that he
succeeded in getting permaaent employment on
the staff of a London paper as a reporter. In this
capacity he was sent about the country to do work
which is now mainly supplied by local reporters.
It must be remembered that there were as yet no
railways. He had to travel oa stagecoach, by post,
by any means that offered. ‘I have been upset,’ he
said years afterwards, speaking of this time, ‘in
almost every description of vehicle used in this
country.’

About this time he the real work of his
life. In December 1833 the Monthly Magazine
published his first original paper, called ‘A Dinner
at ch agen Walk.’ Other papers followed, but pro-
du nothing for the contributor except the
gratification of seeing them in print, because the
magazine could not afford to pay for anything.
However, they did the writer the best service

ible, in enabling him to prove his power, and
e presently made an arrangement with the editor
of the Evening Chronicle to contribute papers and
sketches regularly, continuing to act as reporter
for the Morning Chronicle, and getting his salary
increased from five guineas to seven guineas a
week. To be making an income of nearly four
hundred pounds a year at the age of two or three
and twenty, would be considered fortunate in
any line of life. Sixty years ago such an income
represented a much more solid success than would
now be the case. The sketches were collected and
published in the beginning of the year 1836, the
author receiving a hundred and fifty pounds for the
copyright. He afterwards bought it back for eleven
times that amount. In the last week of March in
the same year appeared the first number of the
Pickwick ee three days afterwards Dickens
married the daughter of his friend ee i Hogarth,
editor of the oor g Chronicle ; his early
struggles were finished.

No article, however short, treating of Charles
Dickens, can avoid entering into the details of his
early history with a fullness which would be out of
all proportion to what follows, but for the remark-
able fact that the events of his childhood and his
youth impressed his imagination and influenced
the whole of his literary career so profoundly, that
to the very end of his life there is not a single work
in which some of the characters, some of the places,
are not derived from his early recollections. Man
other writers there are who have passed the
childish days among the petites gens, but none who
have so remembered their ways, their speech, and
their modes of thought. The M prison of
Little Dorrit is the place where for two years he
went in and out. The Queen’s Bench and its
Rules were close to the Marshalsea ; Bob Sawyer's
lodgings in Lant Street were his own; David
Copperfield, the friendless lad in the dingy ware-
house, was himself; the cathedral of Edwin
Drood was that in whose shadow he had lived;
Mrs Pipchin is his old landlady of Camden Town ;
the most delightful features in Mr Micawber are
borrowed from his own father; the experiences
of Doctors’ Commons, the solicitors’ clerks, the

800 DICKENS

life in chambers, are all his own; while of in-
dividual characters the list of those which are
known to be portraits more or less true to nature
might be indefinitely extended. And yet, while he
was always drawing on these early recollectiqns,
while they constantly farnished him with scenes
and characters, he could not bear to speak of them,
and no one except his friend and biographer,
Forster, ever knew that he was, himself, with all
the shabby, mean surroundings in early life, exactly
such as David Copperfield.

The rest of Dickens’s life has the interest which
belongs to success after success. It was a jong
triumphal march. He had no failures; he sufferec
no defeats. There were times when his hand was
not at its best, but never a time when his hand
lost its power. This indeed seems the crowning
happiness of a successful and singularly happy life,
that when he was cut off—he died June 6, 1870
—after fifty-eight years of continuous work, his
brain was still as vigorous, his eye as keen, his
hand as sure as in the first fresh running of
his youth. It was indeed more than literary
suecess which he achieved; he conquered the
whole English-speaking world. This world, which
now numbers nigh upon a hundred millions, loves
him; all who can read his books love him, and
shall continue to love him. This love cheered
him in his life, and will keep his memory green.
Of the solid wealth which he acquired, the honour
he enjoyed, the friends who gathered round him,
and the brave and resolute front which he always
showed, there is no space here to speak.

The following is the list of Dickens’s works
in their order of appearance, omitting certain farces
‘and pamphlets which belong to a more extended
notice: Sketches by Boz (1836), The Posthumous
Papers of the Pickwick Club (1837), Oliver Twist
(1838), Nicholas Nickleby (1839), The Old Curiosity
Shop (1840-41), Barnaby Rudge (1841), American
Notes (1842), Martin Chuzzlewit (1843), The
Christmas Tales—viz. The Christmas Carol, The
Chimes, The Cricket on the Hearth, The Battle of
Life, The Haunted Man, and The Ghost’s Bargain
(1843, 1846, and 1848); Pictures from Italy (1845),
Dombey and Son (1846-48), David Copperfield
(1849-50), Bleak House (1852-53), The Child’s
History of England (1854), Hard Times (1854),
Little Dorrit (1855-57), A Tale of Two Cities (1859),
The Uncommercial Traveller (1861), the Christmas
numbers in Household Words and All the Year
Round, Great Expectations (1860-61), Our Mutual
Friend (1864-65), The Mystery of Edwin Drood
(unfinished). This long roll by no means represents
the whole work of this most active of mankind.
Public readings both in this country and in America,
private theatricals, speeches, letters innumerable,
journeys many, pamphlets, plays, the conduct of a
oad magazine—first called. Household Words
and then Al/ the Year Round—and an ever-present
readiness to enjoy the society of his friends, fill up
the space when he was not actually writing. That
he could do so much was mainly due to his orderly
and methodical habits, to his clearness of mind,
and to a capacity for business as wonderful as his
genius for fiction. He knew no rest from the
day when he first attacked shorthand to the day
when he fell from his chair in the fit from which
he never recovered. He was incomparably the
most active man, the hardest-working man of his
age. In the history of letters there are many
who have produced more work in bulk; there
is not one who led a life so varied, so full, so
constantly busy, so active and so rich.

It is as yet too early to speak with certainty as
to the lasting popularity of his work as a whole.
Very much of it owed its general success to the
faithful delineation of manners already passed away.

He was the prophet of the middle class, and the
manners of that great section of the community
have greatly changed since the days when Charles

Dickens lived among them and observed them. |

With the decay of these manners some part of
present popularity must certainly pass out of his
work : already a generation has appeared to whom
a great deal of Dickens’s work proves of no interest,
because it portrays manners with which they are
not familiar. They do not laugh with those who
laughed fifty, forty, twenty years ago, because the
people depicted have vanished. ut when the
second quarter of this century shall belong so truly
to the past, that not one survives who can remember
it, then these books will become a precious store-

house for the study and the recovery of part, and —

that a large part, of its life and manners. .

Again, it is the essential quality of genius to
create the type. In this Dickens has been more
successful than any other novelist, ancient or
modern. With him every leading character stands
for his class. Squeers is the representative of the
schoolmaster, then too common, ignorant, brutal,
and grasping ; Winkle is the Cockney sportsman ;
it is impossible to think of red tape without nam-
ing Mr Tite Barnacle ; and so on through all the
books. If he sometimes too plainly labels his
characters with their qualities and defects, it is
a fault caused by his own clearness of conception
and of execution. It is another note of genius to
suffer every character to work out its own fate
without weakness or pity, and though Dickens
deals seldom with the greater tragedies of the
world in his domestic dramas, necessity pursues his
characters as grimly and certainly as in real life.
The villaif Quilp and his tool make us forget, in
the amusement which they cause, their own base-

ness. But their creator is not deceived. He makes”

them bring their own ruin upon their heads. To be
true, not only to the outward presentment and
speech and thought of a character, but also to the
laws which surround him, and to the consequences
of his actions, is a rare thing indeed with those who
practise the art of fiction, Further, in this art there
are permissible certain exaggerations, as upon the
stage. There is exaggeration of feature, exaggera-
tion of talk, exaggeration of action. There are
degrees of exaggeration, by which one passes through
tragedy, comedy, farce, and burlesque; but in all
there must be exaggeration. Dickens was master
of se coon: it ts sometimes carried it too far,
he produced farce, but never burlesque. As for
selection, which is perhaps the most important

oint after exaggeration, it came to him by instinct;

e knew from the very outset how to select. It is
by selection that the novelist maintains the interest
oh. his story and develops his characters. There are
countless things that are said and done in the pro-
gress of the history which have little interest and
small bearing on the things which have to be told ;
and it is the first mark of the bad novelist that he
does not know how to suppress irrelevant scenes.
In the constructive branch of his art Dickens con-
tinually advanced. His earlier stories seem, like
the Pickwick Papers, to be made up of scenes.
Nicholas Nickleby is along series of scenes bril-
liantly drawn, in which new characters are always
appearing and playing their disconnected part and
disappearing. But as he grew older his conception
of the story itself grew clearer, and his arrange-
ment more artistic. It is however in description
that Dickens proved himself so great a master.
He laid his hand by instinet upon the salient and
characteristic features, and he never failed in find-
ing the right—the only—words fit for their illus-
tration. In description he is never conventional,
always real, and yet he allows himself, here as in
his scenes of character and dialogue, a certain

DICLINOUS

DICTATOR 801

ox
oe. ae : tion which produces the happiest effects.
. In the hands of his imitators it becties grotesque
sand intolerable.
As to his great and splendid gallery of portraits
‘* difficult to speak briefly. The whole of London
life—the life of the streets, of the city, of the
middle class—seems at first sight depicted in this
gallery. Here are merchant, shopkeeper, and clerk,
_ lawyer and client, moneylender and victim, dress-
‘Fey , actor—one knows not what. Yet there are
great omissions. The scholar, the divine, the
statesman, the country gentleman are absent, partly
because Dickens had no sete op of them, and
Se y because he forebore to hold them up to the
_ ridicule which he loved to pour over his characters.
His methods imposed upon him certain limitations ;
he aimed at commanding his readers’ attention by
“ahs ~~ eae laughter and tears, but especially
laughter.

j a

d He who can command neither the one
nor the other is no true artist in fiction. But in his
Jaughter and in his tears one feels always the
kindly heart as well as the skilful hand. It is for
the former—for the deeply human heart—even more
than for the latter that the world will continue to
love the memory of Charles Dickens.

See his Letters, edited by his daughter (1880-82) ; his
Life by Forster (1871-74) ; the little Life by Marzials
(1887 ), with bibliography by Anderson ; Charles Dickens
in Pen and Pencil, me . G. Kitton (1889); Zhe Child-
hood of Dickens, ar Langton (1891) ; his Letters to
Wilkie Collins (1892) My Father as I Recall Him, by
Miss Mamie Dickens (1897) ; and the study by G. Gissing
41898). See articles CRUIKSHANK, BRownE ( Hasvor K.).

jiclinous, a Linnzan term for flowers possess-
Nygeeeen or pistils only—Monecia Diecia, and
Polygamia,

Dicotyle‘dons,. The fact that the majority of

young seedlings exhibit two small -leaves or
_ «cotyledons on germination must have been familiar

__ from time immemorial, while the classificatory im-

portance of this character in broadly separating the

oy flowering plants into two great groups of
dicotyledons and monocotyledons was thus natu-
rally one of the earliest eit grag of systematic
botany, having been adopted by Linnzeus from

Ray, and doubtless by him in turn from earlier

writers. We now distinguish phanerogams into

Gymnosperms (cycads, conifers, and gnetums), and

Angiosperms characterised by the possession of a

closed ovary: of these the monocotyledons and

dicotyledons are the main alliances, the latter bein

on the whole the more evolved. The embryo o

dicotyledons , With rare exceptions ( usually

due oe degeneration—e.g. Dodder, q.v.),

; two cotyledons facing each other, and more or less

f£ embracing the plumule, while the albumen is

generally proportionally less in quantity than in

. monocotyledons, and, in fact, is frequently absorbed

3 altogether; these differences being explained

; through a more precocious acceleration of develop-

ment (see OVULE, SEED). The cotyledons usually
develop equally, but one may be more or less com-

pletely arrested. ,

1 ‘The fibro-vascular bundles of dicotyledons are

open and collateral, with few exceptions arranged

% in a reticulated cylinder, which thus oe a

sh single circle in transverse section. e@ paren-

chyma in which they lie is thus divided into two
main regions—the cortical layer or cellular en-
velope, and the pith; while the intermediate
spokes of parenchymatous tissue connecting the
pith and cortex through the meshes of the cylinder
are the medullary rays. While the fibro-vascular
bundles of dicotyledons arise like those of
eryptogams and monocotyledons, by the differen-
tiation into wood and bast of a special strand of
primitive embryonic tissue continuous with that
of the growing point, they differ in a marked
1

tendency to embryonic persistence of a central
layer of this as the Cambium (q.v.), and henee in
80 many groups of dicotyledons there arises that
association of perennial habit and continuous
growth of stem to which we owe our familiar
shrubs and trees. See VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY,
Woop, BARK, Bast. Since the cambium lies
between the wood and bast, the new layers of wood
are external to the older ones, but t of bast
internal to their predecessors: hence Lindley's
name exogens was apt to be misleading. The soft-
ness and delicacy of the cambium layer leads, when
force is applied, to the easy separation of the bast
elements of the fibro-vasculay bundles, along with
the cortical parenchyma and epidermic layer, as the
bark—a structure, or rather juxtaposition of struc-
tures, unknown in Monocotyledons (4-v.}

The reticulated character of the bundles of the
stem is similarly present in the leaf, which thus
presents a marked contrast to the usually parallel
venation of the monocotyledons. The leaf also

resents far greater variety of form and adaptation
(se Liar nae frequently its parts

e flower most uently its

in whorls of five, although aio also a not uncom-
mon number; hence another very obvious distine-
tion from monocotyledons, in which a 3-merous
symmetry prevails. The outer perianth whorl is
most frequently green, as a calyx. See FLOWER,
PHANEROGAMIA, and VEGETABLE KINGDOM ; also
ANGIOSPERMS, and MONOCOTYLEDONS.

Di‘cranum, a genus of mosses, of which some
ty among the commoner British forms. See
OSSES.

Dictamnus, See Dirrany.

Dicta'tor, in the earliest times, was the name
of the highest magistrate of the Latin Confedera-
tion, and in some of the Latin towns the title was
continued long after these towns were subjected to
the dominion of Rome. In the Roman Republie
the dictator was an extraordinary istrate, irre-
sponsible and endowed with absolute authority,
whose original name was magister populi.
frequency of crises, or critical periods, in the quick,
squrenive fre of the Roman state, necessitated
such an office, The first dictator (T. Larcius or
M. Valerius) was appointed 501 B.c., nine years
after the expulsion of the Tarquins. According
to Livy, the immediate cause of this dictatorshi
was a formidable war with the Latins. In gene:
no one could be appointed dictator who not
been previously consul, and this condition was very
rarely dispensed with. Niebuhr is of opinion that
the dictator was go mmg. created or elected by
the curia, like the kings, but it is more probable
that the senate a decree ordering one of
the consuls to name or proclaim (dicere) a dictator.

Originally, of course, the dictator was a patrician ;
the desk lebeian who filled the office being C.
Marcius Rutilus, 356 B.c., who was nominated

by the plebeian consul M. Popillius Lenas. The
dictatorship could not lawfully be held longer
than six months, nor was it ever so, except in
the cases of Sulla and Cwsar, which were —_—
liar. It must not be =e that during
a dictatorship the functions the other magis-
trates were positively suspended. The consuls and
other regular authorities continued to disc
their proper duties, but in subordination to
dictator ; being for the time simply his officers. The
superiority of his power, when compared with that
of the consuls, appears chiefly in these three ta:
he was far more independent of the senate; he had
a more extensive power of punishment, without any
appeal ; and he could not called to account after
his abdication of the dictatorshi
he had done during the period of

for

is office. The

802 DICTIONARY

DICTYOGENS

limits of his power were as follows: he could not
touch the treasury ; he could not leave Italy ; and
he could not ride through Rome on _ horseback
without previously obtaining the permission of the
people. While the consuls had only twelve lictors,
the dictator was preceded by twenty-four, bearing
the secures and fasces. 'To hin also belonged the
sella curulis and the toga pretexta. The last legally
elected dictator was M. Junius Pera, who entered
on his office 216 B.c. From this time nominal
dictators were frequently appointed for the purpose
of holding the elections, but even these finally
disappeared, 202 B.C.

Dictionary (late Lat. dictionariwm), a book
containing the words of a language alphabetically
arranged, with their definitions and significations
set forth more or less fully. In this respect it
differs from a mere list or index, that it contains
explanations about each word included within its
scope, except where it is more convenient, by a
cross-reference, to refer the reader for a part or the
whole of the account of one word to what is said
under some other word. There are several other
terms that are used synonymously, or nearly so,
with dictionary. The Greek word Lexicon is in
common use for a dictionary of languages. It is
not entirely so limited, however, in practice, as may
be seen in such works as the Lexicon Juridicum
of Calvinus or Kahl, which is just a dictionary of
Roman and feudal law of the same kind as Sir
Edward Tomlin’s Law Dictionary is of English
law. The word Encyclopedia has generally a wider
meaning ; but in actual use we find books of refer-
ence of exactly the same kind styled indifferently
dictionaries and encyclopedias. The terms Glos-
sary and Vocabulary are nearly synonymous with
a dictionary of a language; and Thesaurus, Cata-
logue, Directory, Gazetteer, and Index are some-
times used as titles where dictionary might be not
inapplicable.

ictionaries may be divided into two classes—(1)
those whose object is to explain words and phrases ;
and (2) those that aim at giving information about
things.

(1) Dictionaries of language are, again, divided
into various sub-classes or species. The most com-
mon kind—what, indeed, is understood by the
term dictionary (and the equivalent Greek term
Lexicon) when used by itself—is an alphabetical
list of the words composing any language either
explained in the same language, or interpreted
by the corresponding words of one or more other
languages. 0 indicate that all the words of
the language are included, the name Thesaurus
(‘Treasury’) is sometimes used, as in the great
Hebrew dictionary of Gesenius. The words used by
particular authors or classes of authors are often
explained in special dictionaries or lexicons, such
as those to Livy, Cicero, Tacitus, Homer, Sophocles,
Shakespeare, and the like. A Glossary is a
dictionary of unusual terms, as archaic, provincial,
or technical terms. An etymological dictionary
is one in which the derivation of words is the sole
or a prominent object.

(2) Dictionaries of things (Ger. Realwérterbiicher ),
or of information, are also of various kinds. hen
the whole field of human knowledge is embraced,
we have an alphabetical Encyclopzedia or Conversa-
tions-Lexicon. The name Encyclopedia or Cyclo-
pedia is sometimes given to dictionaries of special
departments of knowledge, as Anatomy and Physi-
ology ; but in all such cases dictionary seems the
correcter term, as in the well-known dictionaries
edited by Sir William Smith, which cover the
whole ground of Bible terms, Greek and Roman
biography and mythology and antiquities, Chris-
tian antiquities, and Christian biography.

There is no kind of information, within wide or

narrow bounds, that may not be thrown into the
dictionary form. Dictionaries of apt quotations
from the classics, the Scriptures, or the fathers
were not unknown in the 17th century. There are
dictionaries of biography, of geography, of nautical
terms, of dates, of architecture, of cookery, of
political economy, of heraldry, of fortification
—in fact, of every object of human knowledge
and practice.

Dictionaries of language, in our sense of the
word, are of modern origin. The Greeks and
Romans had no idea of a book embracing all the
words of their own or any foreign tongue. Glos-
saries, however, of unusual words and phrases were
early current. The earliest work of the kind
extant (though much interpolated) is the Homeric
Lexicon (Gr. Lexeis Homerikai) of Apollonius, an
Alexandrine grammarian of the time of Augustus.
More extensive compilations, such as the Lexicon
of Suidas (q.v.), and the Etymologicum Magnum
(q.v.), were made in the middle ages. <A real dic-
tionary became first possible after the invention of
printing. A broad and sure basis for Greek lexico-
graphy was laid by Henry Stephens (q.v.) in his.

hesaurus (1572), on which the school of Hemster-
huis built further, and which has been greatly
extended by the labours of Schneider, Passau
Seiler, Jakobitz, Rost, and Pape. The well-known
work of Liddell and Scott (7th ed. 1883) is based
on the great German one of Passow. The The-
saurus (1531) of Robert Stephens inaugurated
Latin lexicography, which has been extended
by Joh. Matth. Gesner, Forcellini, Ducange
(medieval Latin), Scheller, Freund, Georges,
Miihlmann, and Vanitek, and is well represented
in English by Riddell and White, Andrews, Smith,
and the Americans Lewis and Short. The earliest.
standard dictionaries of modern tongues were the
Italian Vocabulario della Crusca (1612); the Dic-
tionary of the French Academy (1694); and that
of the Academy at Madrid (1726-39). The great
German Dictionary, begun in 1854 by the brothers
Grimm, is still unfinished. Littré’s French Diction-
ary (4 vols. and supplement) appeared in 1863-78.
The materials collected by the Philological Society
formed the main foundation for the great New
English Dictionary, of which vols. i. and ii. were
edited by Dr Murray (1888-93), in conjunction with
Henry Bradley in vol. iii. and onwards. This splen-
did work follows a strictly historical method, and
aims to give all the significations of every English
word during the last seven hundred years, with a
series of quotations illustrating its usage. English
dictionary-making in its larger sense began with
Dr Johnson (q.v.), the basis of whose work was an
interleaved copy of Nathan Bailey’s Dict. (1721-7).

The best complete English dictionaries at present in
use are Richardson’s, Worcester’s, Webster's Latham’s:
edition of Johnson, Annandale’s edition of Ogilvie’s.
Imperial Dictionary, and especially the Centwry (6 vols.’
New York, 1889-91, edited by Whitney), and the Stand-
ard (2 vols. New York, 1893-95); for Scotch words,
Jamieson (1808-25; ed. Donaldson, 1879-87); for
etymology, those of Wedgwood, Edw. Miiller (German),
and Professor Skeat. The great Eng. Dialect Dictionary
(ed. Wright) began in 1896, superseding Halliwell, T.
Wright, &c. For older English: words, the chief are
Ailfric’s Glossary (about 975), Way’s edition (1843-65) of
the Promptorium Parvulorum (about 1440), Bosworth’s
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (ed. Toller ), Stratmann’s Middle-
English Dictionary (ed. H. Bradley, 1891), Grein’s Sprach-
schatz der Angelstchsischen Dichter, and Mitzer’s Alt-
englische Sprachproben, &c. ; as well also the Eng. words in.
Cotgrave’s French-English Dict. (1611), Minsheu’s Guide
into Tongues (1617), &c.—See BrogRaPHy, ENcycLo-
P&DIA, DIALECT, ENGLISH, and articles on the various
languages ; also Vater’s bibliography of dictionaries (2d
ed., by Jiilg, 1847). Wg

Dictyogens, a term proposed by Lindley for
Monocotyledons (q.v.) with reticulated leaves.

<2. o

the title Ephemeris Belli Trojani.
R relates how the narrative,
charac

DICTYS OF CRETE

DIDEROT 803

s a Dletys of Crete, a follower of Idomeneus in

an war, whose name is attached to a pro-

Oh )
fessed journal of the leading events of the contest,
~ which Ree -

come down to us in Latin prose, under
An introduction
ribed in Pheenician

ters on bark-paper, was found in a coffer

of tin in Dictys’s tomb, which had been burst
\ eeghed an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and
Ww e

emperor caused it to be translated into

_ Greek; this is accompanied by a letter from one

tus Septimius, who claims to have pre
the condensed Latin version that follows. This

dates probably from the 4th century A.D., and

h of no intrinsic value, was a chief source of
the romances of the middleages. The best editions
are those of Dederich (Bonn, 1832 and 1837) and
Meister (Leip. 1872). See vgs Dictys-Sep-
timius: tiber die urspriingliche Abfassung u. di
Quellen der Ephemeris ( Dresd. 1878).

Dicyemidie, a family of very low]
cellular organisms, parasitic in habit. They are
found in cuttle-fishes, while related organisms
known as Orthonectida occur in a brittle-star and
in a Nemertean worm. Professor E. van Beneden
has ineluded them all under the title Mesozoa in
contrast to the lower (single-celled) Protozoa on
the one hand, and the higher ( many-celled ) Metazoa
on the other. The largest species of the genus
Dicyema measures 5-7 millimetres; the smallest
is ten times less, These organisms hardly rise
above the level of the embryonic gastrula, and
some seem hardly to attain it, but it is still uncer-
tain how much of this simplicity is primitive, and
how much the result of degeneration. See E. van
Beneden and ©. Julin, Archives de yee oy (1882) ;
Whitman, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel (1883); Braun,

blatt Bacteriol. (1887).

Dicynodon, an important type of Triassic
reptile, usually included in the order Anomodontia.
They have been unearthed in Africa, India, and
the Ural region, and more recently remains have
been found in the Elgin Trias of Scotland. Our
knowledge of them is largely due to Owen. They
were terrestrial animals, and in some ways suggest
affinities with tortoises, in others with mammals.
In Dicynodon the lower jaw was incased in a
horny beak, but the upper bore two huge teeth. In
Oudenodon no teeth were present. See CHELONIA,
REPTILES.

Didache. See ApostLes (TEACHING OF THE
TWELVE).

multi-

Didactic Poetry, that kind of poetry which
aims, or seems to aim, at instruction as its object,
making pleasure entirely subservient thereto. It
has been disputed whether or not the existence of
a kind of poetry especially entitled to the name
didactic is consistent with the very nature and
object of the poetic art. For it is held that, to

int out instruction as the uliar object of one
<ind of poetry, is to overlook the high aim of all
poetry; and that a poem may be in the —-
sense didactic, which yet is epic, dramatic, or lyric
in its form; and the k of Job, the Psalms, and
other poems contained in the Sacred Scriptures, are

uoted as examples. In the poems generally called
idactic, the information or instruction as Rac in
verse is accompanied with poetic reflections, illus-
trations, and episodes. The Georgics of Virgil has

been the model for most didactic ms, and no
subject is so unpromising that it not found
some one to select it as a poetic theme. Examples

of admirable success as combinations of argument
and poetry are the Ars Poetica of Horace and the
Essay on Criticism of Pope. The great poem of
Lucretius, again, stands the masterpiece of the
philosophical poem, which is represented in our

own language by poems like the Nosce Teipeum of
Sir John Davies, pa the Essay on Man a Pope.
See Porerry.

Didelphia. See Marsurtats.
Didelphis. See Orossum.

Diderot, DEN1s, was born on October 15, 171
at Langres, in Champagne, where his family
for two centuries been engaged in the manufacture
of eutlery, An eldest son, he was intended for the
church, and received his early training at the Jesuit
school in his birthplace. After studying at the

Collége d'Harcourt in Paris, he offended his father
by refusing to become either a lawyer or a physician,
and was in co uence flung upon his own

resources. From 1734 until about 1744 he led a
life of haphazard, ill-paid toil as a tutor and a
booksellers hack. In 1743 he married Annette
Champion, a young sempstress, inst the wishes
of her friends, and without the knowledge of his
family. After she had borne him a son, he per-
suaded his wife to remove with the child to Langres,
where she brought about a reconciliation between
Diderot and his father. His marriage, however,
did not prove a happy one. During his wife's
absence in Champagne he formed a liaison with a
Madame Puisieux which lasted for several years;
and later in life he became attached to a financier's
daughter, Mademoiselle Voland, to whom he
remained devoted until her death in 1774. His
Pensées Phi hiques were burned by order of the
Parliament of Paris in 1746, and three years after-
wards he underwent imprisonment for the opinions
expressed in his Lettre sur les Aveugles. His
Ae to the editorship of an ene —
which the bookseller, Le Breton, had resolved upon
publishing, assured him of a lar income, and
ve him a commanding position in the world of
etters. Le Breton’s intention had been merely to
issue an expanded version of the English Cyelo-
pedia of Ephraim Chambers, which had appeared
in 1727. But in Diderot’s hands the character of
the work was transformed. He enlisted nearly all
the important French writers of the time as con-
tributors, and in place of a storehouse of useful
information, produced an engine of war for the
philosophe party (see ENCYCLOP2DIA). For some
twenty years he stood at his post in spite of dangers
and drawbacks, before which even a strong man
might pardonably have flinched. The book was
in and again threatened with prosecution ; its
e was more than once prohibited; its editor
ran a constant risk of imprisonment or exile.
D’Alembert, at one time co-editor with Diderot,
forsook him in despair at the obstacles to be over-
come. But his marvellous energy, his varied know-
ledge, above all, his faculty of rallying and inspirit-
ing his fellow-workers, enabled Diderot to carry
his vast undertaking to a successful conclusion.
The first volume appeared in 1751; the last, in
1765. In his later years Diderot fell into niary
difficulties from which he was rescued by Catharine
II. of Russia, who purchased his library, but
allowed it to remain in Paris, and installed him at
a yas its caretaker. In 1773 he paid a visit
to his benefactress, by whom he was most cordially
received. He returned to Paris after spending five
months in the palace of the empress at St Peters-
burg, and four months at the Hague as the Feet
of Prince Galitzin. During his old age he lived
rincipally in his study at the corner of the Rue
aranne, spending his days in reading and medita-
tion, in directing the studies of his daughter—the
only survivor is four children, in the giving of
1 counsel, and the doing of works. He died
rom a stroke of apoplexy on the 30th July 1784.
One of the most prolific and versatile, Diderot
was also one of the most careless of writers. He

804 DIDEROT

DIDOT

worked in almost every department of literature.
He was a novelist and a dramatist, a satirist, a
philosopher, a critic of pictures and books; while
as a letter-writer he was surpassed by none of his
contemporaries. His published works are far from
embodying the results of his labours as an author.
He was ever ready to contribute without reward,
often without acknowledgment, to the writings of
others; he has been well termed the munificent
prodigal of letters. His efforts in fiction include a
story in the manner of Crébillon, described by
Cathyis as ‘the beastliest of all past, present, or
future dull novels;’ La Religieuse, a powerful
story written with the object of exposing the evils
of conventual life; and Jacques le Fataliste, a
collection of short tales of which some are good and
others indifferent, while one of them is a little
masterpiece. Le Neveu de Rameau, an imaginary
conversation between the author and a parasite of
the great, is probably the strongest as it is the
most curious of all Diderot’s works. In the course
of this dialogue, which was translated by Goethe,
the follies and corruptions of society are laid bare
with sardonic humour and piercing insight.
Diderot’s plays were somewhat unsuccessful
examples of what was then known as tragédie
bourgeoise, or of what we should now term melo-
drama. His happiest dramatic efforts were two
short pieces which were never acted, La Piéce et la
Prologue and Est-il Bon? Est-il Méchant? The
letters which he addressed to Mademoiselle Voland,
and which were first published some fifty years
after his death, form the most interesting section
of his voluminous correspondence. They give an
entertaining and wonderfully vivid picture of the
life that was led in the Baron d’Holbach’s country-
house at Grandval, the headquarters of the most
advanced members of the philosophe party. As a
critic Diderot stood far in advance of his con-
temporaries, and anticipated the Romanticists in
advocating a return to nature and in seeking to
free the drama from the trammels which had been
imposed on it by the classical school. His criticisms
bear the marks of over-hasty production, but their
originality, shrewdness, and abounding vivacity
more than atone for the lack of literary finish.
His Salons, remarks on pictures exhibited at
different times in Paris, are the earliest example of
zesthetic criticism in modern literature. His philo-
sophical works include Pensées Philosophiques, La
Promenade du Sceptique, Lettres sur les Sourds et
Muets, Lettre sur les Aveugles, La Réve d’ Alembert,
Essai sur la Vie de Séneque, L’Interprétation de la
Nature, and a long criticism on Helvétius’s trea-
tise De Homme. Diderot has been frequently
described as an atheist ; whether justly or not is a
matter very hard to decide. He was at one time
deeply influenced by the naturalistic religion of
Shaftesbury, and that writer’s influence upon his
mind was never wholly effaced. In certain passages
he appears to write as a pantheist. But he never
AY forth his philosophy in consistent and systematic
orm.

Diderot is so unequal a writer that his works
must be read in the mass before a just estimate can
be formed of his extraordinary gifts. His keenest
sayings, his most pregnant thoughts, are frequently
imbedded in dullness. An indefatigable worker, he
yet never took his work seriously enough. He lacked
the faculty of concentration and the artist’s master-
ing sense of form. His prose is not sustained at a
high level of excellence; he sins grievously against
good taste ; his thoughts are not seldom crude and
shallow; his mannerisms—notably his abuse of
apostrophe—his ‘sensibility’ and his philosophe
cant are not a little trying to the reader. But
with all their defects his writings are wonderfully
alive—fertile in original ideas—racy with a stimu-

lating flavour which is all their own ; abounding in
careless felicities of phrase and in sayings whi
flash a new light into human nature; rich with the
sap of a humour which resembles the humour
of no other Frenchman, and which Carlyle has
likened to the humour of Cervantes. Inferior to
Voltaire and Rousseau as a literary craftsman, he
was a deeper thinker than either; his knowled
of men was profound, and his learning was truly
encyclopedic. Ardent and generous, though lack-
ing in self-restraint, he was one of the best of
friends and the most charming of companions. In
the opinion of his contemporaries his powers as a
conversationalist eclipsed his gifts as a writer.
He appears to have possessed an unrivalled faculty
of improvisation ; to judge from the testimony of
shrewd critics who listened to him, his talk was as
pointed and pregnant in its substance as captivat-
Ing in its eloquence. ‘He who knows Diderot only
in his writings,’ said Marmontel, ‘does not know
him at all.’ hie
The most complete edition of his works is that by
Assézat and Tourneur (20 vols. 1875-77). See the study
by Rosenkranz (Leip. 1866); John Morley’s Diderot and
the Encyclopedists (2 vols. 1878); E. Scherer’s stud:
(1880); Sainte-Beuve’s Portraits Littéraires, Carlyle’s
Miscellanies ; and French monographs by Reinach (1894),
Collignon (1895), Ducros (1895), and Tourneux (1899).
Dido, or ELissa, the legendary founder of
Carthage, was the ng spe of the Tyrian king
Belus or Agenor, and the sister of his successor,
Pygmalion. Pygmalion murdered her husband and
uncle, Acerbas or Sichzeus, a priest of Hercules,
With the treasures of Sichzeus, which Pygmalion
had sought for in vain, and accompanied by ~
many Tyrians, Dido escaped to sea. e landed
in Africa, not far from the Pheenician colony of
Utica, and built a citadel called Byrsa (Gr. Bursa,
‘the hide of a bull’), on a piece of ground which
she had bought from the Numidian king Hiarbas.
The meaning of the word Byrsa gave rise to the
legend that Dido purchased as much land as could
be encompassed with a bullock’s hide. Once the
agreement was concluded, she cut the hide into
small thongs, and thus inclosed a large piece of
ground, on which she built the city of Cart
o avoid being compelled to marry Hiarbas, she
stabbed herself on a funeral pile, which she had
caused to be erected, and after her death was
honoured as a deity by her subjects. Virgil
ascribes the death of Dido to her unrequited pas-
sion for Aineas; but many of the ancient writers
conceived that the poet had committed an ana-
chronism in making her contemporary with the
Trojan prince. In the common chronology, more
than three hundred years separated the fall of Troy
(1184 B.c.) from the founding of Carthage (853).
Didot, the name of a celebrated family of
French printers and publishers.—FRANCcOIS DipoT
(1689-1757) was the first of the family that
attained eminence. His principal professional
achievement was the publication of the Voyages
of his friend the Abbé Prévost, a work in 20
volumes, perfect as regards the text, and enriched
with a great number of engravings. Two of his
sons, FRANCOIS AMBROISE (1730-1804) and PIERRE
FRANCOIS (1732-1795), also acquired distinction as
rinters, the former publishing editions of the
elphin classics, while the latter improved the
typefounding and paper-making arts.—HENRI
(1765-1852), eldest son of Pierre Francois, made
himself famous as an engraver and letter-founder,
roducing very beautiful ‘microscopic’ types.—
Prep, eldest son of Francois Ambroise (1760-
1853), still further increased the fame of the family.
His Louvre editions of Virgil, Horace, Racine, and
La Fontaine are magnificent; and he it was who
published Boileau’s works and Voltaire’s Henriade.

.
:
;
|
;

~
ie 1

_ colour, with a yellowish tin

DIDUNCULUS

DIE-SINKING 805

yg I le was himself an author.—His brother, Frnmix
_ (1764-1836), as a printer, and es ly as an
engraver and founder, raised the family name to

the pinnacle of professional eminence. The perfect
SBocman characters, used in the Louvre elitions
printed by his elder brother, were engraved and
ides ping d produced singular!
ste ping process, an u r-
foot edit hy and.

the classics.—Firmin’s sons, AMBROISE FIRMIN
_ (1790-1876) and HyACINTHE FIRMIN (1794-1880),
aided by their sons, sustained the credit of the
Paris house as Firmin Didot Fréres; and the
business still thrives under the present representa-
tives. See the books on the family by Werdet
(1864), Brunel (1871), and Wallon (1886).

Didunculus. See SAMOA.

Didymium is a very rare metal found in the
mine Cerite, Allanite, &c. Its symbol is Di,
its atomic weight 142, and its specific gravity
65. It is found associated with Cerium and
Lanthanum, and as the salts of the three metals
have closely similar properties, their separation is
very difficult. The salts of didymium are generally
soluble and rose-coloured.. The hydrated oxide is
a gelatinous precipitate resembling alumina. Its
compounds have nothing specially characteristic in
their properties except the absorption bands in the
spectrum. The metal, which has an iron-gray
, tarnishes in the air,
and burns brilliantly when held in a flame.

Diebitsch, Joun CHARLES, Count, a Russian
field-marshal, was born in Silesia in 1785, and made
the campaigns of 1805 and 1812-14. In the Turkish
war of | his forcing a passage of the Balkans
(Kulevtcha, &c.) by dint of hard fighting was com-
memorated in the surname conferred on him of
Sabalkanski (‘crosser of the Balkans’). He died
of cholera in February 1831, while endeavouring to
suppress the insurrection in Poland.

Diedenhofen. See THIONVILLE.

Diefenbach, LORENZ, a t philologist, was
born at Ostheim, in the qrand date of Hesse, 29th
July 1806, studied theology and philosophy at
Giessen, travelled much, and was twelve years
pee and librarian at Solms-Laubach. In 1848

e settled at Frankfort-on-Main, where he was
second city librarian 1865-76. He died at Darm-
stadt, 28th March 1883. His literary industry
was enormous, embracing poetry and romances, as
well as those more ponderous works by which his
name will live. His greatest books—monuments
Okey. and learning—are Celtica (3 vols.
d ); Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Gotischen
SS (2 vols. 1846-51); Glossarium Latino-

ermanicum medic et infime etatis, a supplement
to Ducange’s well-known Glossary (1857) ; Origines
Eu ce; Hoch- und Niederdeutsches Worterbuch
(with Wiilcker, 2 vols. 1874-85).

Dieffenbach, JoHaNN FRriepricu, surgeon,
was born at Kénigsberg, Ist February 1794, and in
1832 became extraordinary, in 1840 eae re
fessor of Surgery at Berlin, where he died, 11th
November 1847. He was distinguished as an
operator, especially in the art of forming by trans-
plantation new noses and lips. He wrote several
works of no great importance on surgery, being
little more than a brilliant operator.

Diego Garcia, an island of the Indian Ocean,
in 7° S. eo are Ligh E. - ‘perm ‘* an
irregular horseshoe shape, an iles long,
embracing between its extremities three or

islets (the Chagos Islands). It contains a spacious
bay, and is very convenient for coaling pu

The group has about 700 inhabitants, J one
dependency of Mauritius.

Diego Suarez, the name of a fine bay at the
north end of Madagascar (q.v.), ceded to France
by treaty in 1885,

Diely'tra. See Dicenrra.

Diepenbeck, A®kAHAM VAN, painter and
draftsman, was born at Bois-le-Due in 1607, or,
according to other accounts, in 1596. He studied
under Rubens in Antwerp, and after a residence in
Italy, returned to be an assistant of that painter.
He first devoted himself to glass-painting ; but he
soon turned to oil-painting and designing. Ex-
—_ of his work in oils are in Paris, I en,
and Vienna. His plates to Marolles’ Tableaux du
Temple des Muses (1655), engraved by Cornelis
Bloemaert, were much admired. He visited Eng-
land in the reign of Charles L., where he pees
some windows, and was much employed by the
Duke of Newcastle, for whom he executed various
portraits and views, and drew the plates for that
nobleman’s famous folio on Horsemanship (1657).
These plates are valuable not only for their excel-
lence, but for the number of portraits they contain.
He was elected president of the Antwerp Academy in
1641, a post which he retained till his death in 1875.

Die a seaport in the French department
of eee ieiisemee sam the English Channel, 40
miles N. of Rouen by rail. It is situated among
chalk cliffs, at the mouth of the river Arques,
and is ly built. It has a castle (1433),
now occupied as barracks, commanding the town
and the harbour, which admits vessels of 600 tona.
Dieppe has a college and a school of navi
tion, and there is a fine Gothic church of the 13th
century, as well as a handsome bathing establish-
ment and casino. Being one of the principal
watering-places of France, the town has a great
accession of visitors during the summer months. It
manufactures clocks, lace, and tobacco; and its
carved articles of horn, bone, and ivory have |
been famous. There are also shipbuilding y
and distilleries; and the fisheries, which are im-
portant, employ almost the whole of the population
of Pollet, one of the two suburbs of the town. In
1066 Duke William sailed from Dieppe to the con-
quest of England. It was then a mere village, but
its importance steadily increased, until it reached
the heyday of its prosperity in the iod between
the middle of the 14th century and the end of the
17th. Expeditions sailed hence for the west coast
of Africa, where Petit Dieppe was founded at the
mouth of the Gambia; and many of the earl
voyages to Canada were made from this port.
terrible bombardment by the English Dutch,
however, destroyed all but two or three buildings
in 1694; and though rebuilt, the town never
recovered its importance, and even before the rise
of Havre had already sunk to a pavormgad ox.
Nevertheless, packets still ply larly to New
haven. The town is a favourite landing-place of
English tourists, and its import and ex trade
is chiefly with England and Norway. I (1872)
19,757 ; (1886) 22,599 ; (1891) 21,

Die-sinking, the art of engraving the die or
stamp used for striking the impression on coins and
m and for stamping thin plates of metal into
various shapes. The method of sinking the dies
used for coins or medals will serve to illustrate the
general method of die-sinking. Sup the coin
to be of the size of a shilling : a cylindrical piece of
carefully selected steel, about three or four inches
in length, and two in diameter, is pre by
slightly rounding one end of the cylinder, then
turning and smoothing upon the middle of this a

806 DIE-SINKING

DIET

flat face equal to the size of the coin. This blank
die, which is carefully softened by the process of
Annealing (q.v.), is then engraved with the device
of the coin in intaglio. This is a very delicate and
artistic operation, and is effected by.a great num-
ber of careful touches with small and very hard
steel tools. The face of the die is now protected
with a thin coating of lampblack and linseed-oil,
and then placed with its face downwards in a
crucible containing animal charcoal. In this posi-
tion it is raised to a cherry-red heat, then taken out,
and hardened by being plunged into water. When
properly tempered, it is in a state to be used for
stamping the coin; but dies of superior workman-
ship, from which many impressions are required,
are not thus directly used, as the expense of
engraving is very great, and the risk of breakage
considerable. This first engraved die, called the
matrix, is therefore reserved only for making other
dies. An impression in relief is made from this
matrix on a small block of soft steel, which is called
the puncheon ; this is retouched and hardened, and
from it the dies directly used for striking the coins
or medals are impressed. When the engraving is
not very costly, a small number of impressions re-
quired, or a soft metal is to be stamped, as in livery
buttons, for example, the work is stamped directly
from the engraved die or matrix. See MInrT.

Die-engraving is a very ancient art, and was per-
haps first suggested by the closely allied art of
engraving gems. Notwithstanding the great num-
ber of ancient Greek coins which have been pre-
served, it is stated by Mr R. S. Poole, of the
British Museum, that only one of the many dies
which were used for these has ever been found, or
at least only one believed to be of undoubted
authenticity. The Greek coins struck between the

ears 415 and 336 B.C. show that the art of engrav-
ing dies had then reached the highest point of
excellence which it ever attained either in ancient
or modern times. As works of art, the Italian
medals of the 15th and 16th centuries come next in
merit to Greek coins, but none of these of the
15th, and only the smaller sized ones of the 16th
century time were struck from dies. All the others
were cast either from wax models or from patterns
made in other materials. The art of cutting dies,
in the comparatively deep intaglio required for
medals, consequently dates from the beginning of
the 16th century. Since then, or soon after it,
Germany, France, Russia, and England, as well as
Italy, have all had many more or less famous die-
engravers.

he engraving of dies for medals is perhaps that

branch of the art which gives the greatest scope for
artistic skill, although the work on those required
for coins is nearly identical in its character. Com-
paratively few dies of new design are, however,
required for coins, while many hundreds of medal
dies are annually made in England. The medals
struck from these are used for such purposes as
awards at exhibitions, colleges, and schools; for
prizes at various games, and in commemoration of
various events. Copper, bronze, and tin are the
metals most commonly employed for medals, the
copper being usually ‘ bronzed’ on the surface. A
copper medal w‘th a head in moderately high relief
requires half a dozen blows in the screw-press to
bring up a sharp impression ; but some in very bold
relief require to be struck with as many as thirty
blows. The medal requires to be frequently an-
nealed during the process. Coins are finished at
one blow, so that the devices upon them are only in
slight relief. When a coin or a medal is being
struck, a steel collar, accurately fitted to the die, is
used to prevent the metal from spreading.

Dies have been extensively applied in Birming-
ham and cther places to the manufacture of many

kinds of objects in sheet-metal. These are of all
sizes, from those required for parts of jewelry up to
dies weighing more than a ton. Large and heavy
dies are, however, cast, and only in some cases
finished with the graver—those for such articles as
curtain-pole and cornice ornaments being among
the largest kinds worked up and finished with the
die-cutter’s tools. Dies have recently been used in
America in the stamping or pressing of solid pieces
of wood into lion’s heads, rosettes, and other orna-
ments, in high relief, to imitate wood-carving. B
the same process similar ornaments, in bas-relief,
are made in pieces of wood formed of several layers
of veneers.

Dies Irz, the name generally given to the cele-
brated Latin hymn on the Last Judgment, from the”
first words of its first stanza : ,

Dies ire, dies illa

Solvet seeclum in favilla,

Teste David cum Sibylla.
This incomparable hymn consists of seventeen such
stanzas, with an eighteenth of four lines, and is
based on the prophetic passage, Zephaniah, i. 14-18.
It is probably the work of the Franciscan, Thomas
de Celano, who died about 1255. The sublimity
and force of its thoughts are well matched with the
impressive solemnity of the verse, its stanzas of
three lines, each with the same double rhyme,
making the inmost soul tremble, ‘as with three
blows of a hammer,’ says Guericke. It is said to
have first appeared in the missals made at Venice
about 1250, and is one of the five ‘Sequences’
that have been universally used in the Roman
Catholic Chureh since the Council of Trent. Its
place is in the Missa in commemoratione omnium

delium defunctorum. The Tridentine text, pub-

ished in 1567, is somewhat different from that in
the old missals, and another and considerably in-
ferior version appears on a marble tablet of unknown
date, in a Franciscan church at Mantua. The Dies
Ire has been the subject of musical compositions
by Palestrina, Haydn, Cherubini, and Mozart, and
no religious poem has been more frequently trans-
lated. There are English translations by Crashaw,
Macaulay, Lord Lindsay, Isaac Williams, and
others. The opening stanzas are paraphrased in
the Lay of the Past Minstrel, canto vi.

See Julian’s Dictionary of Hymnology (1892); ‘ Fifty
Versions of the Dies Ire’ in the Dublin Review (1882);
a list of ninety-two versions in the Atheneum (July
1890); and C. F. 8. Warren, The Dies Ire (1897).

Diest, a town and fortress of Belgium, in the
pres of Brabant, on the river Demer, 37 miles

E. of Antwerp by rail, with manufactures of
woollen goods, beer, and gin. Pop. (1890) 8572.

Diet. The different classes of food-stuffs, and
the value or potential of different foods, are
described in the article Foop. In the article
DIGESTION the changes which the food undergoes
in the alimentary canal are treated. It is here pro-
posed to describe the quantity and quality of food
which experience has shown to be required in order
to preserve the body in health and vigour. Ofcourse,
no two individuals are alike, and the assumption
will in the first place be made that an average
healthy man of ordinary height and weight, and
doing ordinary work, is alone under consideration.

In order to understand the requirements of the
body in respect of food, it is necessary to bear in
mind how complex the body is. Its chief activities
are muscular and nervous, and not only have the
brain and the muscular system to be fed, but in
addition the various glands, cartilages, bones, and
other tissues are all constantly requiring nourish-
ment. If we examine all these tissues under the
microscope, we see that although all are alike in
some respects, yet that they differ one from another

i &

DIET

80T

considerably in others. Their work, too, is differ-

_ @nt; and we should expect, and experiment shows,

i that they require different food.

___ for these parts. The body has frequently been
com to a steam-engine, but, as we have seen

the
rather be

neither burn

Just as the life of the whole body is the sum of

lives of the different parts (cells) of the body,
food must contain that which is necessary

y is complex, and the comparison should
’ between it and a collection of steam-
nes, each one differing from the other in its
og rn, use, and the kind of fuel required to stoke
t. A steam-engine requires a store of fuel (con-
taining the potential-power), by the combustion of
which it moves. It also requires its to be
repaired, and sometimes a new boiler or piston is
. In addition, it requires other things,
so that it may work well, such as oil, which is
nor used to build up the machine.
the same way the body, and each of it,
equires first, a store of fuel, from the combus-
tion of which its ene or activity is obtained ;
secondly, material by which its wasted parts may
be repaired; and, thirdly, substances such as
water, salt, &c., which are uired by the body,
but which are neither burned nor used entirely
in forming tissue. The term ‘food’ may then be
spotted to all that the body requires from without ;
and following out our comparison, corresponds with
the stoking, mending, and oiling of a number of
steam-engines. ;

Let us consider in the first place the food, which,
like the fuel for the engine, the body requires in
order to manifest its own peculiar activities. The
coal of an engine contains carbon and hydrogen,
which become oxidised by the oxygen of the air.
As a result of this oxidation, we have heat and
mechanical motion. In like manner the body
receives food containing quantities of carbon
and hydrogen. At the same time oxygen is absorbed
by the blood as it passes through the lungs. The
digested food and the oxygen are taken by the
blood to the tissues—muscles, brain, &c.—and within
these tissues a slow oxidation takes place, givin
rise to the heat of the body as well as mechani
and other activities. Just as the steam-engine
requires a sufficiency of coal, so the body requires a
certain quantity of food. In both cases the supply of
oxidisable material must have what may be termed
a sufficient ‘potential ’—that is to say, it must
have the power oe prodeeng a certain amount of
heat and mechanical motion. Some coals and some
foods burn better than others, and their potential
in that case is greater. Fat among the food-stufts
has the greatest ee carbohydrates and albu-
mens have less. It is obvious then that one cannot
speak of the body requiring a certain weight of
food per diem. is would mean nothing, for the
value of different food-stuffs varies considerably,
a pound of one kind of food being equivalent
potential, say, to twenty pounds of another. In
arranging a diet one must carefully consider not
only the quantity of food given, but in addition one
must calculate its pags ial. The steam-engine
may be driven at full or at half power, and in the
latter case the amount of fuel required will be
diminished. In the same way an individual doing
hard work requires food with more potential, or, as
we say, more nutritious food, than another living an
easy and uneventful life, and still more than one
confined to the house or to his bed.

There is yet another important point to be con-
sidered. In a steam-engine the production of heat
is not what is sought as a result of the combustion
within the steam-engine ; the engineer constructs
the machine with a view to obtaining the result of
the combustion not in heat, but in mechanical
motion. In the best machines, one-tenth of the

tential is converted into work, while the rest, nine-

nths, is rejected into the atmosphere as heat. The
human mechanism can convert as much as one-fifth
of the ntial of its food into work, and ¢
Sap Fae — = the case of the human
m ¢, however, heat is very necessary, especial!
if the body be ill clothed or surrounded by a
medium. The powerlessness of the when
numbed with cold will illustrate the necessity of
a requisite temperature. Warm clothing actually
saves food. Not only is the temperature of the body
maintained in a cold climate by ae its con-
duction and radiation from the body by use of
warm clothing, but 7 ary A ee the consump-
tion of a large quantity of food, an — those
kinds that contain great potential. Eskimos
devour ere supplies of fat blubber, and t are
even said to prefer the taste of rancid oil to that of
the less combustible sugar.

It has been found experiment that a man
of average height and weight, well clothed, in a
temperate climate, and doing a fair day's work,

uires such quantity of food that the combustion
of it, were it all converted into mechanical work,
would raise 4000 tons one foot high, or, as it is
expressed, 4000 foot-tons. This result has been
arrived at by varying the diet until the minimum
but sufficient quantity has been arrived at which
will preserve the health and vigour. The poten-
tial of the diet can be calculated by an instrn-
ment called the calorimeter, which will give the
heat ger ae: during the burning of any com-
bustible substance, and from the heat produced
the potential in res to mechanical work can
be calculated. In the subjoined table the poten-
tials of one ounce of each of three important food-
stuffs are given :

Foot toma,
Fats toes Gee iviadccdea sched axacde cosavutecese as 15136
TLORIONIG DD ia Ce nadk cbs ccavatécs oddececum 165°2
Carbohydrates (starch) ....... 26.0.0 e0ceeeeeeeee 15106

It will at once be seen how readil
culate the amount of food-stuff capable of fu

the body with fuel for twenty-four hours. All

is re norys Bhery be to divide 4000 by the number of
foot-tons which correspond with the article selected ;
the quotient is the number of ounces req

Thus 11 ounces of fat, or 24 ounces of albumen, or
26 ounces of starch would contain the necessary

potential. :

From what has already been said regarding the
complexity of the bodily mechanism, it may be
surmised that a single food-stuff (even if a quantit
be taken which provides a sufficient potential)
incapable of stoking the body. Numerous experi-
ments, such as those conducted by the Gelatine
Commission, by Dr Hammond, and others, indi-
cate that the body is unable to maintain its
natural vigour on a diet consisting solely of

atine, or of starch, of albumen, or of fat, &e.

nimals fed on asingle food-stuff waste rapidly, and
will refuse their food after a few days with marked
dislike, dying eventually of starvation. At least
two staple articles of food must be given, mixed,
even in this case, with many such as
various salts, aromatic substances, &c., in order
that health may be maintained.

Lay Sram the muscular work of the body

results from the oxidation of ecthy ey matter
(albumen, both animal and e), bat it is now
known that all the classes of stuffs the
— aor rahe used by bens! — bef
theless proteids (nitrogenous are essential, as
we see on ex mtal grounds, and from
the fact that in the dietary of every nation, proteid
matter is always presen combined at anyrate
with fat, senerally with ydrates as well.

In many parts of the world man subsists with-

808

DIET

out the use of carbohydrates. The Eskimo and
the North American Indian live entirely on the
produce of the chase. The flesh of animals is rich
in proteids and fats, but contains practically no
carbohydrate. In the same way the Arab of the
desert lives upon the flesh and milk of the camel, in
districts where the date is not to be found. The
use of carbohydrates is extensive in most temper-
ate and tropical climates. Many of the inhab-
itants of India and Ceylon live chiefly on rice.
Wheat, potatoes, and other vegetable foods, rich in
carbohydrates, are staple articles of food both in
Europe and America. In fact, within certain
limits, man, like every other animal, is capable of
adapting himself to the food produced by the
district in which he lives. The French and Spanish
peasants eat little meat, living on carbohydrates
and vegetable proteids, and supplying necessary
otential by an abundance of oil. The Sussex
abourer consumes his beans, rich in vegetable
proteids, and bacon, and does a good day’s work on
them. The Scotch labourer of a former generation
lived on porridge and skimmed milk, with meat
but once a week. The Arab of the Sahara,
together with his family and his horse, subsist
almost entirely on the date, while the Arab of the
Nubian Desert hardly ever touches vegetable food.
The diet of every man, under whatever circum-
stances, invariably contains proteids, although this
may vary in its quantity. The universal use of
proteid matter in some form or other suggests its
importance, and this is fully borne out by the
evidence of direct experiment. If proteid food be
withdrawn from the diet altogether, nitrogenous
matter continues to be eliminated from the body by
the urine, although its supply is cut off. At the
same time the body wastes, and death finally occurs.
The experiments of Fick, Wislicenus, and Parkes
show that during muscular exertion the body does
not excrete any excess of nitrogen ; and the writer’s
own researches show that urea—the most important
excretion which contains nitrogen—is not found in
abnormal extent in muscular tissue after exhaustive
exercise. It would appear, therefore, that nitro-
genous matter is not used by the tissues for fuel,
and that when proteid food is consumed, the
muscles burn a non-nitrogenous substance which
is formed from it. The nitrogen, in the form of
urea, &c., is carried by the blood to the kidneys,
and at once excreted. We must look elsewhere
than in the ordinary combustion of a muscle or
brain cell for a use for the nitrogen which, as we
have seen, is so necessary an article of food in the
form of a proteid substance. In the child, the
tissues which contain nitrogen in definite pro-
ps are continually growing, and it will readily
e seen that here, at anyrate, we have an import-
ant use for proteid diet—namely, to furnish the
necessary nitrogen for the new tissue. Even dur-
ing adult life we have tissue change and growth.
The skin is continually growing in its deeper layers
to replace its surface layers worn away by constant
friction. In the same way the cells of the blood
are always being broken down, and their places
taken again by new ones continually forming.
Although it is hardly probable that such complete
changes take place in all the tissues of the body,
yet, without the entire breaking down of individual
cells, there are no doubt changes both integrating
and disintegrating, which are constantly taking
place. As a result of disintegrating changes nitro-
genous matter in an effete form is being given off
by the system, and it has to be replenished from
without in a form which the body can use. The
proteid food-stuff provides nitrogenous pabulum for
the tissues which they assimilate, and build up new
tissue material. For this reason proteid matter is
indispensable. At the same time sf system obtains

from the proteid food non-nitrogenous fuel to be
burned by the tissues; this property of supplyin

tissue fuel is shared with the carbohydrate Pets
fatty food-stuffs. It has been found ky experiment.
that an ordinary diet should contain one part of
nitrogenous matter (proteids) to about four of non-
nitrogenous diet (fat and carbohydrates). If less.

nitrogenous matter be given, the tissue conan 4
Ya

tion of nitrogen will not be supplied, and the b
will waste. If a much larger quantity of nitro-
genous food be taken, a nitrogenous surfeit occurs,
and the body is called upon to digest this excess,
and to eliminate an unnecessary quantity of the:
useless nitrogenous compounds which result.

We have seen then that an ordinary diet must
contain sufficient potential, and in addition one ~
part of proteid to four of non-proteid material
should be present. The following table from Dr
Parkes shows the proper proportions of solid water-
free food-stuffs in ounces required as daily food by
an adult man :

At Rest. Ordinary Work. Hard Work.

Proverds ...0, wsctetenewelas 2°5 46 6 to 7

Fats) nt oc moan 1 3 35 to 4°5

Carbohydrates .......... 12 14:4 16 to18
Total water-free food. .15°5 22-0 25°5 to 29°5

Taking the diet table for a man performing”
ordinary work, we have 4°6 of proteid, and 17°4, or
nearly four times as much non-proteid matter. It
contains sufficient potential, for if the number of
foot-tons which result from the combustion of an
ounce of proteid, of fat, and of a carbohydrate be:
multiplied by the number of ounces of these sub-
stances given in the ordinary diet, it will be seen
to amount to 4000. This, as we have already seen,
indicates a sufficient. potentiality.

It now becomes an easy matter to construct a.
diet table of articles of food. Most of these have.
been analysed, and the amount of water, proteid,.
carbohydrate, or fat in each calculated.

TABLE FOR CALCULATING DIETS (Parkes).

Articles of Food. | Water, |Proteids.| Fats. |, Ca™P0.| salts, |

Uncooked beef F Pa |
oars \ 75 15 8-4 Bs 16 |,

Fat pork........ 89 9°8 48°9 “= 28 |
Dried bacon .... 15 88 73°3 sa 29 |
Smoked ham.... 27°8 24 36°5 we #101
White-fish...... 78 18°1 2°9 a 1:0) ff
Poultry ........ 74 21 3°8 =a 12 |
White bread.... 40 8 15 49°2 13. Ff
Wheat-flour..... 15 11 2 70:3 13
Barley-meal 11°3 12:7 2 71 30 |
BV OS . hich ahem le 13°5 131 2 69°3 phe SN
Biscuits... ..... 8 15°6 1°3 73°4 LY.
pS ACT Aah eee 10 5 8 83°2 5
Oatmeal........ 15 126 56 63 3
Maize) ocics i 13°5 10 67 64°5 14 |
Macaroni....... 131 9 3 768 Bs
Arrowroot...... 15°4 8 rt 83°3 27 |,
Dry peas.........| 16 22 2 53 24 7
Potatoes ........ 74 2 16 21 2
Oarrota. 25.255: 85 16 25 84 1
Cabbage........ 91 18 "6 58 tts
Buttersci cscs. 6 3°3 88 a 27
OBE eke se ws'e 73 13°5 11°6 1
Cheeseé.......... 36°8 33°5 24°3 mf: 5:4
Eile augsico his 86'8 4 3-7 4°8 by f
Cream .....6050% 66 27 26°7 2°8 18
SAGA oe asks 3 5 a 96°5 *B

Many articles of food owe their chief importance:
to their action as stimulants. Such are alcohol, tea,
coffee, and beef-tea. Alcohol is no doubt burned
within the body, and is a source of energy. Only a.
small quantity, however, can be so utilised, perhaps
one ounce in every twenty-four hours in the case of
an ordinary individual. As a source of energy,
therefore, it is of little value, and such substances
as fat, meat, bread, are capable of supplying the

| Potential at a ve

DIET

809

much smaller cost. Alcohol

___ taken with other food stimulates the secretion of
_- Bastric juice, assisting in that way the digestive

pro At the same time, however, the gastric
lice is unable to act quite so readily upon the

_ food, though this is mp the case with diluted
spirits, which form more wh

olesome beverages than

or beer. No two individuals are the same,

A wines
and while alcohol, in moderate doses, promotes

digestion in most persons, others suffer from its use.

_ (See the article on the action of alcohol, Vol. I.

_ Ura
r

i eee

vw

—————— ee =——— or

p. 135). It should never be given in collapse and
weakness without giving at the same time easily
ted food when that is possible. It excites the

y to great and often unnecessary activity, the

potential for which it does not supply. After-

wards greater weakness ensues from want of the

fuel, which has not in the meanwhile
been forthcoming. One should never drink without
eating. Tea and coffee are both nervous stimulants,
and at the same time they retard both gastric and
salivary digestion.

Beef-tea is generally regarded as a food-stuff of
high nutritive value. This is, however, not the
ease. It contains nothing besides salts and ex-
tractives, and has a very slight potential indeed.
It has a stimulating effect, however, both on diges-
tion and on the nervous system. From the mis-
taken ideas generally held.as to the nutritive pro-
perties of this substance, thousands of invalids are
annually starved to death (see BEEF-TEA). Beef-
tea made by infusing the beef in tepid water is
more nutritious, especially if the beef be finely
minced and eaten as well.

In addition to the stimulants that we have
already considered are many substances known as
condiments, such as mustard, pepper, pickles,
sauces. These are of utility in gratifying the

alate, and in addition they probably stimulate

he secretory juices. Sufficient information has

not as ve n —— as to — action -
gastric and pancreatic digestion. ey certainly
stimulate the flow of salitn. although the acid
condiments will prevent the perfect action of the
salivary ferment.

Common salt is a condiment, and at the same
time it plays many other important in the
animal organism. So necessary is it that both
man and animals suffer great hardships if it be not
supplied in sufficient quantity. It is necessary for
the formation of the gastric juices it is present in
the blood and in all tissues of the body.

Inorganic salts, such as sulphates, phosphates,
are a for the formation of the skeleton, and
salts of iron for the colouring matter of the blood.
Organic salts, such as citrates and tartrates, are
also of importance. That food should be easily
digested is a matter of great importance. The
rapidity of digestion will depend upon the amount
and aeeres of the digestive juices, the kind of
food, and the Seats in which the food is on
Rice, tripe, whi eggs, sago, tapioca, ey,
milk, boas as parsnips, potatoes, hashes of
chicken, fish, are all conliy inated substances.
Beef, mutton, pork, roast fowls, bread, veal,
oysters, are digested more slowly. Inasmuch as
perfect digestion can only be accomplished when
the digestive — have acted for some time on all
—_ of the food taken, it follows that fine sub-

ivision of food is very essential. On this account
liquid food rapidly disappears from the stomach,
which retains for a longer time solid masses upon
which the gastric juice acts with greater difficulty.
When food is cooked it swells, its fibres and_ solid
particles are separated one from another, and it is
more readily permeated by heed ee and pan-
creatic juices. In addition, becomes gelat-
inous, and in that form is easily digested by the

saliva and pancreatic juice. The diet of earl
infantile life differs from that of the adul ieee
as it should contain no starch. Milk, natural
food of the infant, is rich in fat, proteids, and a
sugar called milk-sugar. There is in milk, how-
ever, an entire absence of starch, an article of food
which the infant is destined to consume in such
large quantities in later years. Moreover, during the
first few months of its extra-uterine existence the
child is unable to assimilate starch given with its
food. On no account, therefore, must it be supplied
with bread, potatoes, rice, or other vegetable food
until the cutting of the teeth suggests a more solid
diet. If the mother’s milk be not in sufficient
plenty, cow’s milk diluted with one-third of water,
with a pinch of sugar, may be given, or condensed
milk diluted with twelve to twenty parts of water
(see MILK). Condensed milk, owing probably to
its very uniform composition, cannot be given alone
for more than a few weeks together. It may, how-
ever, be given once or twice a day for months, and
children thrive on it, when they in addition are
supplied with good cow’s, or still better, with their
own mother’s milk.

In conclusion, it may be well to consider the
results which follow the neglect of the most
obvious rules of dietetics. As the result of defi-
cient food, one finds loss of muscular and nervous

wer, wasting of the tissues, and anemia. If the

eficiency be very great, feverish symptoms and
great prostration result.

Many persons consume | quantities of food
guns out of proportion to their size or activity.

n this case, owing to a ‘ habit of digestion,’ mach
of the food may pass through the digestive tract
without being digested or assimilated. Under
these circumstances the hearty eater is a wasteful
eater, and is using for his own bodily needs only
a fraction of the food he consumes. In addition
dyspepsia in various forms, constipation, and
diarrhea are apt to follow, indicating functional
derangements of the digestive apparatus. There
is often a tendency, especially in advanced years,
to absorb more nourishment than is necessary for
stoking the body and for replenishing ordi
tissue waste. The excess is stored up in the form
of fat, which accumulates under the skin, chiefly
under that of the abdomen. In addition, the
muscles and internal organs are loaded with fat,
the minute globules of which may be seen in the
ultimate cells of which the tissues are composed,
Hereditary tendency is well marked in cases of
corpulency. In addition to corpulency, an excess
of food is apt to engender various gastric troubles,
engorgement of the liver, plethora, and an excess
of effete extractions in the blood and urine. It is
probable that humanity suffers more from an excess
than from a deficiency of food. An excess of
animal is more serious than an excess of rae
food. The nitrogenous extractions, derived from
the incomplete assimilation of meat, when present
in large quantity, cause many symptoms, most of
which are extremely obscure in their nature.
These are provisionally spoken of as symptoms
of gout. e ill effects which follow surfeit are
more severe in those leading a sedentary and
inactive life, bodily activity producing more effi-
cient oxidation of the food taken. A thy and
abstemious og ee tastes have med been en-
slaved by the culinary art instinctiv =
his food i the requirements of his No

cold of winter prompts the choice of substantial
and energising food, while the heat of summer
suggests a lighter dietary. After a country holi-
day, on returning to a sedentary life one at once
vidas one’s allowance of beef, or expects to
pay the penalty that a disordered is
certain to exact. During the ages in which

810 DIET

DIFFERENCE

humanity has been evolving, there has been a
constant adaptation of taste and desire to the
needs of the economy. The natural gustatory
inclinations as a rule are a good indication of the
bodily wants. As a rule wholesome things have
a pleasant taste, and the reverse also holds good.
It is all-important, however, that the satisfaction
of mere gustatory pleasure be not allowed to mono-
olise too much of the energy of any individual.

nder these circumstances a surfeit is certain to
result. There is a well-known law in physiology
to the effect that greater and greater stimuli have
to be applied in order to produce a series of equal
sensations. It follows that the excesses of the
glutton and drunkard are out of all proportion to
the actual pleasures these excesses produce, the
wise man drinking and eating only in modera-
tion.

See the articles on CooKERY, Foon, DicgEstion, INDI-
GESTION ; also Pavy, Food and Dietetics (1874); Sir H.
Thompson, Food and Feeding (1880); Sir W. Roberts,
Lectures on Dietetics and Dyspepsia (1885); Fothergill,
Manual of Dietetics (1886).

Diet (Lat. dies, ‘day’), a meeting of delegates
or of dignitaries, held from day to day, for legisla-
tive or ecclesiastical purposes ; the title was after-
wards extended to such bodies themselves. The
term is applied to the sessions of church assemblies
in Scotland, but its chief use is as the specific title
of the administrative assemblies of the German
empire and some other continental states (see
GERMANY).

Desertion of the Diet, in Scots law. The pro-
ceedings under a criminal libel are in Scotland
spoken of technically as a diet, and when the libel
is abandoned by the public prosecutor, or where he
fails to appear, he is said to desert the diet. The
effect of a judgment of the court declaring that the
diet has been deserted, is to free the accused from
prosecution under the particular libel or writ, but
not to prevent a new process being raised on the
same grounds.

Dietrich of Bern. See THEODORIC.

Diez, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN, the greatest of
Romance philologists, was born at Giessen, 15th
March 1794, and educated at Giessen and Géttin-
gen, with one short interval in 1813 of campaign-
ing asa volunteer. In April 1818 he saw Goethe at
Jena, and was directed by the sage to the lectures of
Raynouard and the study of the Provencal tongue.
From 1822 he lived at Bonn as a privat-docent,
and in 1830 was there appointed professor of the
Romance Languages, se there he died, May 29,
1876. His first work, Altspan. Romanzen (1821),
was followed by a series of valuable works on the
Romance languages, of which the greatest are his
Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen (3 vols.
1836-38; 5th ed. 1882), and the Etymologisches
Worterbuch der Romanischen Sprachen (2 vols.
1853; 5th ed. by A. Scheler, 1887; Eng. trans.
1864). These works discussed these languages for
the first time from the comparative historical
standpoint, and thus formed a sound foundation
for all subsequent Romance philology. See the
books on Diez, his life and work, by Sachs (1878),
Breymann (1878), and Stengel ( 1883-94).

Difference, CatcuLus or Finite DIFFER-
ENCES. Ditference implies two quantities of the
same kind, and means in arithmetic that quantity
which must be added to the smaller in order to
produce the larger, and in algebra that quantity
which must be added to either to produce the other.
Thus if the quantities be the numbers 5 and 7,
their arithmetical difference is 2, while their
algebraical difference may be either +2 or — 2,

he difference - 2 arises from the fact that we
may in algebra ask the question what must be

added to 7 to produce 5? and the answer to this
is — 2.

In certain groups of problems, chiefly relating to
series, differences considered in a particular manner
are of peculiar importance, constituting in fact a
branch of higher algebra, which took its origin in
Brook Taylor’s Methodus Incrementorum (1715),
and is now called the Method of Differences or the
Calculus of Finite Differences. This method we
shall briefly illustrate. eis

Suppose it were required to discover the law of
formation, and thence to continue the series of
numbers :

4, 8,0 0, UE 20" 30, ae eee

It would be wrong to assume that only one law of
formation will produce these eight numbers, just
as it would be wrong to assume that only one eurve
could be drawn through eight given points; but
for the full discussion of the difficulty here raised
the reader must be referred to.the chapter on Inter-
polation in any text-book on the subject. We
shall, however, show how to find one law of forma-
tion, and use our figures to illustrate the elemen-
tary notation of the subject. The process is to
take the difference between each term and the
succeeding one, and so get the first series of differ-
ences, or, as it is called, the series of first differences ;
the process is repeated on the first differences, and
so on, as follows:

No. of term, } 2) Ged) SiGe ae
413° 0° 1° 18 30 88 165
Ist Differences, { “4 “8 1 aa _ pry) ve
2d Differences, { ae aia arin ove “ous at

3d Differences, { ne eG Al's ws, Py

Given Series,

The line of third differences suggests a law of
formation, and enables us to continue the series
as follows :

28 34
6 6 6 6
It could further be shown that if wz be the xth term
of the series above, then
Uc = x — Tx? + 13H - 3.
The operation indicated by 4 is defined by the
following equation, where wz means any function

of x:

Ay = Un, — Ux (1)
or, if we denote the 1 added to 2 by az, by the
equation

AUa Ua — Ua

Pr oaee | (2)
or with the appearance at least of greater gener-
ality by

Aug _ Utsn — Un
ne gee (3)
Ax h
As a final example let us suppose wz = 2 Then
we have, using equation (1) above,
AU, =(x% +1) - 2
= 2+1
This is a case of the direct problem of the calculus,
but there is also the inverse problem: Of what
function is 27 + 1 the difference? The solution to
this is denoted by the symbols: i

(2a +1) = 2%,
or, strictly speaking, for reasons which we need
not give, by
(Qa +1) =2?+C; ~
and x? + C is said to be the integrate of 2x + 1,

DIFFERENTIATION

DIGAMMA 811

____ Between the Calculus of Finite Differences and

the Differential Calculus (see CALCULUS) (a title
_ Which means the calculus of infinitesimal differ-
—) there are many important points of con-
trast and of similarity, which would be not less
clearly “p reciated if the names were changed, as
Boole all but suggested, the former to Calculus of
Z, Differences, the latter to Calculus of Limits.
~The methods of the Calculus of Differences are
im vogue among actuaries and others in dealing
____ With statistics such as mortality tables; and from
this ealeulus are derived man eemveiie of approxi-
____ ‘mation of great practical value, such as the rules
= bd finding the area of surfaces bounded by curved
4 f es.

xd

e Differentiation, that io ap pro which
occurs when certain parts of a uniform whole
become structurally different from the others, or
- when, in other words, the homogeneous becomes
heterogeneous. Inequality in internal and external
a conditions of life brings about restriction of certain
_____ Vital processes and the predominance of others,
and as this division of function is established,
diversity of structure results. Differentiation is
the structural change which is associated with the
perenogical ‘division of labour,’ and the process
essentially the same whether it find expression
in cells, tissues; organs, or entire organisms.
Division oF LABouR, EVOLUTION, VARIATION, &c.
Diffraction. In general, light is propagated in
straight lines in a homogeneous medium ; but, if it
be caused to pass through an opening which is not
ral in comparison with the wave-length of the
light, the law no a holds. Such phenomena
are said to be due to diffraction. The subject will
be found treated at greater length under LicHrT.

Diffusion. The particles of all material
bodies, except such as may be totally devoid of
heat, are in rapid motion. In the case of solid
bodies the excursions of any one particle are
limited to a small space; but in fluids a particle
may move more or less freely throughout the whole
space occupied. This intermixture of molecules
may occur also when different fluids are placed in
contact with each other, but it may be prevented
by the existence of tension at the common surface
(see SURFACE-TENSION and CAPILLARITY). When
it a occur, the fluids are said to diffuse into each
other.

Diffusion of Liquids.—The diffusion of dissolved
salts may obviously be considered under this
rarer The phenomenon may be conveniently
studied by introducing a strong solution of some
highly-coloured salt, such as bichromate of potash,
into the bottom of a tall glass cylinder nearly
filled with water. The rate of diffusion varies
with the nature of the liquids, Graham was the
first to investigate the subject carefully. He filled
a number of similar glass vessels with solutions of
different salts. The mouths of these vessels were
carefully ground so that they could be closed by
means of glass plates. The different vessels were
then placed in equal glass jars, and covered with
water to a definite extent. Next the glass covers
were cautiously withdrawn, and the diffusion was
allowed to go on for a certain time. The rate at
which each liquid diffused was thus obtained.
Graham found that, for ght one solution, the rate

aes 7

i *

Li
3
e

2

is proportional to the ient of concentration—
i.e. to the rate at which the quantity of salt
" dissolved per unit-volume varies per unit-length.
™ Thus the law regulating diffusion of liquids is

analogous to that which lates the conduction
, of heat in a homogeneous solid. Hence the equa-
z tions obtained by Fourier in his Théorie de la
4 Chaleur apply to the problem under consideration.
4 Graham found also that rise of temperature

rong increases the effect. He divided substances
to two classes, Colloids and Crystalloids, the
members of the first class diffusing very much
more slowly than those of the second. His inves-
igations have been much extended by more recent
observers employing various methods of observa-
tion,

If two miscible liquids be separated by a mem-
brane of bladder or of parchment paper, &e.,
diffusion takes place through the septum at rates
which are usually very different for different
liquids. This phenomenon is known as Osmone
(q.v.). It was first shown by Nollet that, if a
vessel filled with alcohol be closed by a piece of
bladder and placed in water, the diffusion of the
water is so much more rapid than that of the
alcohol that the bladder is burst because of the
increase of the contents of the vessel which it
closes. By this means the various constituents of
a mixture of colloid and crystalloid substances
may be te creer to any desired extent. The rate
at which liquids diffuse into each other through
a septum depends greatly upon the molecular action
between them and the septum.

Diffusion of Gases.—lf two flasks, each filled
with a different at a given pressure
temperature, be placed in communication with
each other, the gases will be found to interdiffuse.
The rate of interdiffusion is shown by theory to
be nearly in inverse proportion to the square root
of the product of the densities of the two
and the experimental results are in acco
with the theory.

Effusion of Gases.—This is exhibited in the

of a into vacuum under constant

pressure through a small opening in a very thin
plate otherwise impervious to it. The work done
in the of a given volume of the gas is
hc Pag to the pressure, and the equivalent

inetic energy is proportional to the product of
the density and the square of the speed of effusion.
Hence the speed for a given pressure varies in-
versely as the square root of the density. Graham
showed that this result of theory is closely realised
by experiment. He showed, further, that when a
discrepancy exists, it is due to the finite thickness
of plate. . if . 1 ae

ranspiration of gases is the term

of aoe under pressure through a fine capillary
tube. This subject was also investigated by
Graham, who found that the rate of oa
not affected by the material of the tu is
seems to indicate that the tube becomes coated
internally with a thin film of gas, so that the
opposition to the flow of gas is due to Viscosity
(q.Vv.).

The rates at which different gases pass th
fine unglazed earthenware are inversely as
square roots of their densities. Hence we have a
means of separating the densities of which
are different (see ATMOLYsIS). If the septum be
made of caoutchouc, which is not porous, the pas-
sage of still occurs. The seems to com-
bine with the matter of the —. on the one side,
ll a5 +g h it, and fi ,

e other side, he passage of some such as
carbonic oxide, through hot cast-iron . analogous.

Digamma is the name given by the :
marians of the Ist century to eaw, the sixth Totter
of the primitive Greek alphabet, which had
come obsolete, and was only known to them
inscriptions. The name was given owing
fancied resemblance of its form / to a
gamma. _ Its sound was something like tl
ourw. It is found in Peloponnesian
as late as the ~ —— a it
appeared from phabet tuica
date of the oldest inscriptions—ie.

fiers

H

if
ref

812 DIGBY

DIGESTION

middle of the 7th century B.c., although, as
Bentley has proved, it must have been in use at
the time when most of the Homeric poems were
composed. It appears as the letter F in the Latin
alphabet, which was derived at a very early period
from the alphabet of Eubcea. In later Greek,
though discarded as a letter, it is retained in the
form > as the numeral for 6. See the articles on
F and V.

Digby, a small seaport of Nova Scotia, on St
Mary’s Bay, reputed for its curing of a variety of
small herrings or pilchards (‘Nova Scotia sprats’ ).
There was a great fire in February 1899. Pop. 1951.

Digby, Str KENELM, was born at Gayhurst,
near Newport Pagnell, llth July 1603. His
father, Sir Everard Digby (1578-1606), in 1592
came into a large estate, but seven zene later
turned Catholic, and was hanged for his part in
the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.). Kenelm himself was
bred a Catholic, but in 1618, after a half-year
in Spain, entered Gloucester Hall, Oxford (now
Worcester College). He left it in 1620 without
a degree, and spent nearly three years abroad,
in Florence chiefly. At Madrid he fell in with
Prince Charles, and following him back to Eng-
land, was knighted, and entered his service. In
1625, after a singular courtship, he secretly married
‘ that calebratel beautie and courtezane,’ Venetia
Stanley (1600-33), who had been his playmate in
childhood. With two privateers he sailed in 1628
to the Mediterranean, and on llth June van-

uished a French and Venetian squadron off
Soanlenanis On his beloved wife’s death he with-
drew to Gresham College, and there passed two
hermit-like years, diverting himself with chemistry
and the professors’ good conversation. Meanwhile
he had professed the Protestant faith, but, ‘look-
ing back,’ in 1636 he announced his reconversion
to Archbishop Laud; and his tortuous conduct
during the Great Rebellion was dictated, it seems,
by his zeal for Catholicism. He was imprisoned
by the Parliament (1642-43), and had his estate
confiscated; was at Rome (1645-47), where he
finished by ‘hectoring at his Holiness ;’ and thrice
revisited England (1649-51-54), the third time
staying two years, and entering into close rela-
tions with Cromwell. At the Restoration, how-
ever, he was well received, and retained his office
of chancellor to Queen Henrietta Maria. He was
one of the first members of the Royal Society
(1663), and died 11th June 1665.

‘The very Pliny of our age for lying,’ said
Stubbes of Digby, whom Evelyn terms ‘an arrant
mountebank.’ Yet he was a friend of Descartes
and Sir Thomas Browne (q.v.) ; he could appreciate
the discoveries of Harvey, Bacon, and Gali eo. In
the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xv.
1888) Mr S. L. Lee points out, that ‘as a philo-
sopher—an Aristotelian—Sir Kenelm undoubtedly
owed much to Thomas White ;’ and he questions
whether his much-vaunted ‘powder of sympathy’
was not really invented by Sir Gilbert Palbot.
This powder—Digby professed to have learned the
secret from a Carmelite who had travelled in the
farthest East—was made of vitriol, and applied to
a bandage, not to the wound itself. Anyhow,
Digby’s Discourse thereon (1658), like his Treatise
of Bodies and of Man’s Soul (1644), contains much
that is curious, if little of real value; whilst in
his Discourse concerning the Vegetation of Plants
(1660), the chief of his other twelve works, he ‘is
said to have been the first to notice the importance
of vital air or oxygen to plants.’ See his bom-
bastie Memoirs, dealing with his courtship (ed.
Nicolas, 1827); his Scanderoon Voyage (Camden
Society, 1868); and his Life ‘by one of his de-
scendants’ (1896).

Digby, KENELM HENRY, was born in_ 1800,
youngest son of the dean of Clonfert. Having
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, he took his
B.A. in 1819, and three years later published the
Broad Stone of Honour—‘ that noble manual for
gentlemen,’ as Julius Hare called it, ‘that volume
which, had I a son, I would place in his hands,
charging him, though such admonition would be
needless, to love it next to his Bible.’ It was much
altered and enlarged in the 1828 and subsequent
editions (the latest 1877), its anthor having in the
meantime turned Catholic. He died in London,
where most of his long life was spent, on 22d
March 1880. Of fourteen other works (32 vols.
1831-74) all the last eight were poetry.

Digest, a name often given to the Pandects
(q.v.) of the civil or Roman law, because they.
contained ‘ Legalia preecepta excellenter digesta.’

Digester, PAprn’s, is a strong boiler with a
closely fitting cover, in which articles of food may
be boiled at a higher temperature than 212° (100°
C.). As its name implies, it was invented by Papin
(4.v.), and a common form is the Autoclave, fig. 1,
where the lid can be turned round under clamps or
ears, and thus be rendered steam-tight. Another
form is given in fig. 2, where a portion of the side

Papin’s Digester.

is removed to exhibit the interior. The lid, A, is
fastened down by a screw, B, and the steam gener-
ated in the boiler is allowed to escape at a stop-
cock, C, or by raising the weighted valve, D. The
increased pressure to which the contents of the
boiler are exposed causes the boiling-point of the
water to rise to 400° (204° C.), and occasionally
higher. The digester is of great value as a means
of preparing soups of various kinds, and especially
in the extraction of gelatin from bones.

Digestion is the change which food undergoes
in inter to prepare it for the nutrition of the animal
frame, and is carried on in the higher animals in the
DIGESTIVE SysTEM. In some of the lowest forms
of animal life (amcebee) ee care of food may be
drawn into the body (which possesses no special
organs at any part of its surface), and may then
be digested. In higher organisms, however, parts
have become Walved! which serve more especially
the function of digestion. Thus in the common
sea anemone there is a simple pouch which leads
inwards from the centre of the cluster of ten-
tacles. Into this fish and other food are drawn
and digested, while the undigested parts are after-
wards voided through the same aperture by which
they entered. In still higher organisms, man him-
self included, this ge pouch is changed into a
complex and greatly elongated tube, which is pro-
vided with one aperture (the mouth) by which food
enters, and another aperture (the anus) through
which undigested matter leaves the body. The
whole digestive system is lined with a sols mem-

‘/

9

3 .
*

i

4 F
a
'
oe

x

DIGESTION

813

brane, which is richly supplied with blood-vessels.
This membrane is called the mucous membrane,

- and from it is secreted by the glands which it con-

tains a viscid substance called mucus. If the
finger be thrust into the back of the mouth, and
the mucous membrane gently scraped, the fluid
which will adhere to the finger is seen to be viscid ;
it is secreted by the glands of the mouth. Not
only mucus, but many other substances useful in
digestion are formed by little glands in the mucous
membrane, so that the whole are system is
bathed during digestion with fluid having a diges-
tive action on the food. In addition there are

_ other glands, such as the salivary, the liver, and

the pancreas, which we may look upon as glands
of the mucous membrane which have enormously
peered. To so great an extent have they in-

in size that they have got far outside the
digestive system, and have become situated in neigh-

bouring parts of the body, only connected with the
digestive system by their ducts or elongated mouths.

Fig. 1.—Section through Mouth, Nose, &c. :
a, sphenoid bone; b, Eustachian tube; c, soft palate; d, uvula;
¢, nasal passege; J, upper jaw; g, lower jaw; h, epiglottis;
m, mout

Through these ducts their secretions, like that
of the microscopic mucous gland, pour into the
cavity of the digestive system. Outside the mucous
coat we have the muscular coat, the function of
which is to move the food onwards in its course,
and to mix it with the digestive juices. In the
mouth, throat, and the upper part of the gullet,
the muscles which move the food onwards, as in
swallowing, are, when examined by the microscope,
seen to be transversely striped, and like other striped
muscles their contraction is rapid. In other parts
of the digestive system, however, the muscular coat
consists of smooth muscle, and like all other
smooth muscles this coat contracts slowly. On
this account the food rapidly swallowed passes
very slowly along the rest of the digestive system.
aving shown that the digestive system is a muco-
muscular tube, we may now consider it more in
detail. The mouth (fig 1, m) is lined with mucous
membrane, and into it is poured the secretion of
three pairs of salivary glands—the parotids, situ-

ated in front of the ear; the submaxillary, within
the ony of the lower jaw; and the sublingual,
under the tongue. The mouth in most animals is
provided with hard tissues—teeth, beaks—for the
subdivision of food before it is swallowed. Vege-
table feeders, eating tough grains, roots, and fibres,
have large molar or grinding teeth, while the car-
nivora have these same teeth modified so as to
present a cutting edge, with which and their
pointed canines meat is torn and ent into

ieces, which are then swallowed (see Trern).

he mucous membrane of the mouth is covered
externally by the muscles of the cheek and
lips. Into its cavity the muscular tongue projects.
On looking into the mouth with a looking-glass,
one sees back into the throat. The entrance to
the throat will be observed to be bounded at the
sides by two muscular curtains passing downwards
obliquely to the sides of the root of the tongue.
These are termed the anterior pillars of the fauces,
and behind them, one on each side, are masses of
lymphoid tissue, subject to enlargement, called
the tonsils. Above, another curtain hangs down.
It is called the soft palate, and separates the mouth
from the hinder part of the nasal cavity. Project-
ing from its centre is a little cone called the uvula
(fig. 1). The cavity of the pharynx, or the interior
of the throat, is another cavity lined by mucous
membrane, with muscular walle. These muscles
constrict it (constrictors). Below, the cavity passes
into the gullet or csop , and in front of this
tube runs the windpipe which communicates with

the pharynx throug

the larynx, or organ ——
of voice. Food will / \
pass through the

pharynx into the S

llet ; and air, dur-
ing respiration, passes
through the pharynx
on into the larynx
and windpipe; a
valve, called. the epi-
glottis, partly closes
the aperture of the
larynx. The pharynx
is common, therefore,
both to the digestive
system and the re-
spiratory passages,

bove, the pharynx
communicates, as be-
fore described, with
the mouth and also
with the nose. One
can demonstrate this
latter fact by drawing
ee nen
and expelling it
the cabietin This
communication is
closed during the act
of swallowing, and
also during the sing-
ing of pure vowel-
sounds, such as 4, da,
and the closure is
effected chiefly by the
elevation of the soft
palate, which acts as
avalve, The pharynx
communicates in ad-
dition with the mid-
dle ear by the Eustachian tubes, and this may
be rendered evident if the mouth and nose be
closed, and a violent expiratory effort made at
the same time. As the pressure of air within the
throat is increased, the Eustachian tubes which

4, traneverse colon; j,
ing colon ; &, rectam,

814

DIGESTION

previously were collapsed now become distended,
and a little wave of air at high pressure is forced
into the middle ear, causing a buzzing sound.
Occasionally the middle ear communicates with
the external air through congenital or acquired
apertures in the membrana tympani. In these
cases smoke may be propelled from the throat out
of one or both ears.

The gullet or cesophagus (figs. 1, 2, and 3) is a
long tube passing from the pharynx to the stomach.
Its mucous coat is loaded with very large mucous
glands, which secrete a quantity of very viscid
mucus. Its muscular title contain striped fibres
in the upper, unstriped in the lower part. The
stomach itself is a greatly dilated part of the
digestive system. Its shape is indicated in the fig.
It may be said to consist of two parts, even in the
human subject; a more complex arrangement is
found in many animals, such as the ruminants.
The large dilated portion into which the gullet
opens is termed cardiac, and the opening the
cardiac or cesophageal opening. The narrow part
opening into the duodenum is the pyloric part,
and the opening the pyloric opening. The
whole is lined with mucous membrane, which,
in the empty stomach, is thrown into projecting
folds or rugz, but these folds are effaced when
the organ is distended with food (fig. 3). In the

Fig. 3.—Section of the Stomach :

a, ducts of liver; b, pylorus; c, bile duct; d, pancreatic duct;
e, cardiac orifice.

membrane are innumerable glands, which secrete
the digestive juices of the stomach (fig. 4). If the
surface of the membrane be examined with a strong
poe iene, the apertures of these little glands may
e seen. They run down from the surface into the
deeper parts of the mucous membrane. They are
lined by secreting cells. The greater number of
glands situated in mucous membranes have the
simple structure diagrammatically represented in
fig. 4. Each gland has a mouth or short duct lined
by cells. Below this the little tube is lined b
cells which secrete the juice peculiar to the gland.
This secreting part sometimes branches. Outside
the gland blood-capillaries ramify, which supply
the gland with nourishment, paehiine it to manu-
facture the substances which it secretes. The
gastric juice is acid, and the chief acid secreted
is hydrochloric acid. This is formed at the car-
diac, but not at the pyloric end. The substance
called pepsine, which is necessary for digestion,
is secreted by the whole of the glands. The
cardiac glands therefore secrete both substances,
and they possess two sorts of cells, those which
form the hydrochloric acid being bigger and, more
; Siege than the other sort which secrete pepsine.
he pyloric glands secreting pepsine have only one
kind of cell similar to the pepsine-secreting cell of
the cardiac end. Outside the vascular and glandu-
lar mucous coat, and united to it by a loose delicate

layer—submucous coat—is the muscular coat. This
is similar to that of the rest of the alimentary
canal, except that there are in addition to the
circular and longitudinal fibres, many oblique
fibres. The circular fibres are
very thick indeed at the pyloric
aperture, forming a circular
sphincter band, which contracts
and keeps back the food in the
stomach until gastric digestion
is nearly completed.

The food, now called the
chyme, passes into the small
intestine, a tube some 20 feet
long. This tube, besides the
muscular and mucous coats,
possesses in addition an ex-
ternal coat of loose fibrous
tissue, covered by a single layer
of flat epithelial cells. his
coat is prolonged into, and
helps to form the mesentery,
a membrane connecting the
intestine with the abdominal
walls, which are lined with a
similar fibro-epithelial coat.

This membrane is called the Fig. 4,
peritoneum, and is sometimes 8, cardiac gland from
inflamed (peritonitis) as a result the middle of the
of cold, injuries, &. Thesmal] human _ stomach,

magnified about 150
diameters: a, wall
of the tube, lined
with large oval nuc-

intestine is somewhat arbitrarily
divided into three portions—the
upper (duodenum), the middle

(jejunum), and the lower Jeated ells; ty me
(ileum). In all parts the mus- ¢, nucleated cells of
cular coat is similar to that of oorninnas poe

i i ium, occu e
the rest of the digestive system. sep lipn vie of the

The mucous coat contains glands
very like the pyloric glands of
the stomach, called Lieber-
kiihn’s follicles. These, however, rarely branch.
They secrete the intestinal juice. In the duo-
denum, one finds in addition highly-branched
glands called Brunner’s. These extend right down
into the submucous coat. Little is known con-
cerning their function. In both the mucous and
submucous coats, and generally involving both
layers, are found masses of tissue—lymphoid—
similar to that found in a lymphatic gland (fig. 6).
These are termed solitary flenda: but it must
be understood that they do not secrete any
juice concerned in digestion. Their function is
probably connected with the blood and the blood-
corpuscles. Collections of these solitary glands,

tubes; d, blind ex-
tremity of the tube.

Fig. 5.—The under surface of the Stomach and Liver,
which are raised to show the Duodenum and Pancreas :
st, stomach; p, its pyloric end; J, liver; g, gall-bladder; d,
duodenum, extending from the pyloric end of the stomach to
the front, where the superior mesenteric artery, sm, crosses the

intestines ; pa, pancreas; sp, spleen; a, abdominal aorta.

forming oblong patches about two inches long,
are called Peyer’s patches. These are affected in
typhoid fever. In addition to the follicles of

DIGESTION

Lieberkiihn and the glands of Brunner, there are
two very important glandular structures, the liver
d the pancreas, which pour their digestive juices
to the small intestine (fig. 5). The bile, which
s the secretion of the liver, is formed continual!
by that organ, but the amount thus formed
a a peety influenced by the kind and quantity of
food taken. It passes out of the liver by the two
hepatic ducts, and much of it passes by the cystic
duct into the gall-bladder, where it is stored up.

SUR,

lf,

Fig. 6.—Section of Intestinal Mucous Membrane :
L, lacteal in centre of villus; E, epithelium covering villus;
B, blood-vessels represented ; F, ‘ollicle of Lieberktihn; 8,
part of a solitary gland; M, muscular fibres.

From this the bile into the common bile
duct, which joins the duct of the pancreas, and the
two open into the duodenum by a common aper-
ture. The bile is to be looked upon not only as a
_ digestive juice, but as a drain or channel of excre-

tion, whereby effete and useless matters are re-

moved from the bere The flow of bile is easily
restrained, as by inflammation of the duct, or the

presence of a tumour pressing on the duct, or a
gall-stone. In this case, the bile already formed is
reabsorbed with the blood, through the lymphatics,

and we have jaundiee due to absorption of the

colouring matter of the bile. The secretion of bile

goes on before birth ; the meconium of infants con-

sisting chiefly of biliary matter. The pancreas is

very similar in structure to a salivary gland. It

secretes the pancreatic juice which pours with the

bile into the digestive system. The mucous mem-

brane of the small intestine contains, in addition to

the structures already mentioned, little projec-

tions called villi (fig. 6). These are not, to any

great extent at least, secretive, but they are im-

portant absorbants. This property they share

. with the whole of the digestive system, through
+, any part of which, and especially through the walls
| of the stomach and small intestine, digested matter
- into the numerous blood-capillaries which
- em everywhere a dense network. The villi are
uliar, however, for each one contains, in addi-
tion to blood-vessels, a small lymph-vessel or
lacteal. Nearly all the fat absorbed by the diges-
tive system is taken up by the little cells of the
villi, and on into the lacteals, and thence
to the blood (fig. 7). If some osmic acid, which
blackens fat, be poured into the intestine of a milk-
rabbit, killed during active digestion, and if the
villi be examined with a microscope, they will
be seen to have been blackened, especially at their

tips, while the rest of the intestine will
On further

have
served its ordinary colour. pans
tion it will be seen
that the fat has been
n up in micro-
scopic globules by
the cells covering
the villi, and that
they are ing, in
a way which is as
yet not definitely
settled, into the

central lacteal.

The small intes-
tine is a tube of
great importance,
and in order to in-
crease its total area,
the mucous mem-

Fig. 7.-The Top of a Villus :
Fat globul ted
ing through one of the epithelial

r Is, F, through tiesue
brane is elevated, fhe "villus, I, into the central
in the upper ports lacteal, L.
into transverse folds

(the valvule conniventes, fig. 8).

The unabsorbed food, mixed with the various
secretions we have mentioned, now passes into the
large intestine, when both digestion and absorption
go on, although to a less extent. The intes-
tine is only 5 feet in length, but its girth is much
greater than that of the small intestine. It com-
mences with the cecum, a dilated part, into which
5 a little blind canal (the vermiform appen-

ix), a la and important structure in some
animals. e food remnant (fecal matter) is pre-
vented, under ordinary circumstances, from i
back into the small intestine, by a double fold
mucous membrane (the ilio-cwcal valve, fig. 9).
The large intestine ascends on the right side ( ascend-
ing colon), crosses over to the left side (transverse
colon), and descends in (descending colon ), and
makes a bend (sigmoid flexure), and finally ter-
minates in a somewhat enlarged portion (rectum).

Fig. 9.—Cecum inflated, dried,
istended and opened to show the arrange-

and hardened b ment of the valve :
alcohol, and laid a, termination of the ileum ; b, aseend-
open to show ing colon; ¢, emcum; d, a trans-
e valvulz con- verse construction ing into
tes. the cecum: ¢, lips of the valve
mves separating the 1 from the large

intestine; g, the vermiform appeu-
dix of the cecum

The anal aperture is closed by muscles, an internal
sphincter of non-striped, and an external of striated

re. The mucous membrane of the | intestine
differs from that of the small intestine in contain-
ing no villi, or Brunner glands. Lieberkiihn’s and
eolltery glands are present, but the aggregation of
<e Peyer's patches is nowhere to be

816 DIGESTION

Movements of Food in the Alimentary Canal.—
When food is taken into the mouth it is at once
swallowed, unless it isin the solid form. In this
case it is chewed or masticated ; the use of which
._ is to divide the solid fragments taken into a con-
venient size for swallowing, for which purpose it, in
addition, is mixed with the viscid saliva and juices
of the mouth. The chewed food, moreover, is more
easily digested, inasmuch as the gastric and other
juices can act more readily upon finely divided
than upon larger masses of food. Many animals
can hardly be said to masticate; such are the
carnivora (dog, cat, &c.), and they are not pro-
vided with grinding teeth. In most animals living
on vegetable food, which frequently consists of
hard grains, roots, and fibres, large flat grinding
molars are found. In these animals, not only is
the food finely divided in the mouth, but the food,
largely consisting of starch, is partially digested by
the saliva. In mastication, the head is firmly fixed
by the powerful muscles of the neck, while the
lower jaw is moved upon the upper. The lower
jaw is approximated to the upper by powerful
muscles (the temporal, masseter, and internal ptery-
goids), which pass upwards, and are attached to
the side of the head and face. Their contraction
may be felt by placing the hand in front of the ear
and voluntarily contracting the jaws. The lower
jaw is depressed by muscles which pass down the
front of the neck. Most of these spring from the
hyord bone, which may be felt deep in the tissues
of the neck above the ‘Adam’s apple.’ Rotating
movements and those of protrusion and retraction
of the jaw are produced chiefly by the action of the
pterygoid muscles. It is obvious that during masti-
cation the food would naturally tend to escape from
between the grinding surfaces of the teeth, and
would collect within the mouth and outside the
gums. This is prevented, however, by the muscles
placed in the aetitanee of the cheeks ( buccinators )
and lips (orbicularis oris). These keep the cheek
and lip walls closely opposed to the outside of the
teeth. On this account food will only escape from
between the grinders into the interior of the mouth,
from which it is collected and pushed back between
the teeth by the muscular tongue.

The very complex muscular movements just
described result from very perfectly co-ordinated
nervous impulses, which pass from the brain to the
muscles, and cause and regulate their contractions.
One can masticate ‘at will’—that is to say, one can
consciously cause the muscles to contract. In
order that the mastication may be effective, how-
ever, it is necessary not only to know the sizes, but
also to be aware of the ever-changing positions of
the particles of food. This is effected by sensory
nerves, which pass to the brain from the mucous
membrane of the mouth. Although mastication is
frequently voluntary, yet, like most other volun-
tary actions frequently performed, it can be per-
formed reflexly. In this case the sensory impulses
pass from the mucous membrane to the brain, and
initiate appropriate motor impulses which pass to
the muscles, without exciting attention and special
volition in their passage.

As a result of mastication, the food is gathered
in the form of a round moist bolus on the upper
surface of the tongue (see fig. 1). It isnow ready to
be swallowed. In the first place, itis pushed back-
wards by the tongue, and seized by muscles, many
of which are attached to the hyoid bone, which can
be felt to move during their contraction. According
to the most recent investigation, the bolus is pro-
pelled with great rapidity through the pharynx and
gullet into the stomach. If the finger be placed
upon the hyoid bone, or Adam’s apple, and the ear
placed against the upper third of the back of a
patient, the movement of the hyoid bone indicat-

ing the commencement of swallowing is almost co-
incident with the passage of food down the gullet,
which produces a very audible sound. Following
the propulsion of the food downwards, there is
a wave of contraction, which, commencing in the
harynx, travels downwards through the gullet.
his, however, is comparatively slow. It is seen
then that swallowing is not due to the falling of
liquids down the throat. A horse drinks ‘up
hill,’ and the jugglers, or indeed any one, can
mers or swallow with the head vertically down-
wards.

When the food has reached the back of the
mouth, the rest of the act of swallowing oceurs
irrespective of the action of the will. The nerves,

which commence in the mucous membrane of the ~

pharynx and gullet (sensory branches of vagus),
carry impressions to the brain, which disengage of
themselves the appropriate muscular movements
without necessarily involving either the will or con-
sciousness. Thus, in alcoholic stupor, or fainting
from drowning, in both of which conditions con-
sciousness is suspended, food and liquid placed at
the back of the mouth are at once swallowed.

There is a possibility that during swallowing
the food may go the wrong way—i.e. it may pass
into the larynx and windpipe. It will be seen
from the diagram that the food in its passage to
the gullet must actually pass over the aperture of
the larynx. It is prevented from passing into it
by the elevation of the larynx (this can be felt by
the hand placed on the throat), which pushes its
aperture against and under the back of the tongue,
which at the same time is pushed backwards. In
addition, there is a valve called the epiglottis,
which is pushed down over the larynx by the move-
ment just described, and by muscular fibres, which
act upon it for that especial purpose. If the
epiglottis be destroyed, as by ulceration, gun-shot
wounds, &c., it is necessary for the patient to have
the food he takes carried over the aperture of the
larynx into the gullet by a feeding-tube. It is
obvious that one cannot speak with the larynx
shut, and with the larynx open we cannot aalely
swallow. Food is prevented from passing into the
nose by the elevation of the soft palate which meets
the constricting pharynx, and shuts off the cavity
of the nose like a valve (fig. 1).

The walls of the tome and intestine are, like
the gullet, provided with muscular fibre. An ex-
ternal layer passes in the length of the gut, and
within this is a circular layer. These muscles,
unlike the muscles of the limbs, contract slowly on
stimulation, and they are outside the domain of
voluntary action. During digestion they contract
pereheliice’y urging the food towards the rectum.

he peristaltic waves may begin in any part of the
gut and pass slowly downwards, followed at vary-
ing intervals by other waves. It is probable that
what is called antiperistaltic waves may occasion-
ally occur, tending to bring the food back towards
the mouth, for bilious matter is frequently vomited,
the bile having in all probability passed upwards
into the stomach by antiperistalsis from the duo-
denum.

Eructations are frequently caused by antiperis-
talsis, and by a movement of this kind food is
brought back into the mouth for further chewing
in the ruminants (sheep, oxen, &c.). The peristalsis
is particularly active during digestion, and is pro-
duced in great part by the food stimulating the
mucous membrane. If a portion of the intestine or
the stomach be removed from the body, peristalsis
may continue or may be produced artificially, espe-
cially by irritating the mucous membrane. In the
body the canal is under the influence of additional
nerves (vagus), through which fibres the digestive
processes are chiefly regulated among themselves.

ee

«

of zine, and alum are administered.

DIGESTION .

817

The in the stomach is combined by
churning movements.
s act of vomiting is a reflex nervous act. It

ean be excited by stimulating the branches of the

one, which are distributed to the stomach,
as indigestible and irritative food is taken ; or
emetics, such as mustard, hot water, or a hot
saline solution, tartar emetic, se a sulphate
ticklin

the back of the throat with a feather, the ones
nerve is stimulated, and vomiting may

roduced, It is of frequent occurrence

when ul irritation of the uterine nerves in preg-
nancy, of the nerves of the liver and kidneys during
the pemens of a hepatic or
renal stone, or indeed when
irritation of any sensory
nerves takes place. Nerve-
impulses may pass to the
brain through any one of
these channels (fig. 10), or
may be excited in the brain
itself by the sight or smell
or even the thought of any-
thing disgusting, and they
produce, if the person be con-
scious, a feeling of nausea.
In any case there is a dis-
char of nerve-impulses,
which, as a result of this
stimulation, to the
glands of the mouth through
the chorda tympani nerve,
and produces a rapid flow
of saliva. In addition, motor
nerves carry impulses to the
muscular walls of the ab-
domen, and to the walls of
the stomach itself. As a
result of the muscular con-
traction which follows, the
contents of the stomach are
x propelled upwards into the
mouth. Just before vomit-
ing an inspiration generally
occurs, and the aperture of
the larynx ( glottis) is closed.
The diaphragm—the muscle which separates the
thorax from the abdomen—then becomes pressed
down upon the abdominal contents, and assists in
the act of vomiting. Cases in which irritating or
— substances are swallowed are so frequent,
t every one should be aware that a large quan-
tity of hot liquid, especially if it contain much salt,
or some mustard, forms a safe and s y emetic.
Ice is a valuable sedative, and often prevents
vomiting. The undigested food when it reaches
the lower part of the intestine heager ), excites
sensory nerves which carry impu to the brain
and spinal cord. A feeling of distension results,
and voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles
and of the re ge inspiration usually
taking place—expels the undigested matter. This
voluntary effort is aided by the contraction of the
bowel itself, and by the relaxation of the band of

Nerves come to vomiti
centre V, through s

‘muscular fibres (sphincters) which, during the in-

tervals between evacuations, remain cont ;

In many animals, such as the sheep, ox, and
camel, the stomach consists of several cavities com-
municating with one another. In the ox and shee
both the cardiac and the pyloric portions are eac
subdivided into two compartments. The cardiac

consists of a very dilated cavity, the paunch

rumen), into which the food is as soon as

swallowed. In addition there is a smaller part, the

reticulum (honeycomb), so called from the folds of

ining mucous membrane which intersect, forming

a sl The pyloric half is divided into two
56

parts, The psalterium (maniplies), so called from
the lamellated appearance of its mucous pembrane,
communicates with the last division, the rennet
stomach (abomasum, fig. 11).
Fluid passes either into the first, seeond, or third
= of the stomach, and thence on into the fourth.
lid matter, such as grass, roots, &¢., passes either
into the paunch or reticulum. This is mixed with
the saliva swallowed with it, and in addition it is
mixed with juices formed by the mucous membrane
of these cavities. When the animal has finished
feeding, it lies down and rumination commences.
Due in part to the contraction of the abdominal
muscles and diaph , the food is propelled in the
form of round llets from the paunch and reti-
culum 2 into the mouth. The pellets are there
thoroughly masticated, and are returned in a pulpy
condition to the stomach. Now, however, the food
into the psalterium, and finally into the
rennet stomach. It will be seen, therefore, that
the consistency of the food determines into which
part of the stomach it The walls of the
stomach near the gullet are thrown into two folds

ie eet

tomach of Ox:

a, wsophagus; b, rumen, or
paunch; c, reticulum, or ventriculus, or secre’
second stomach ; d, omasum, stomach ; d, or
or third stomach ; ¢, abom- turating stomach; ¢, intes-

asum, or fourth stomach ;

J, the duodenum. cecal tubes indicating the

theoretical commencement
of large intestine.

or lips which, when in contact, form a tube leading
from the gullet into the terium. Along this
tube the masticated and fluid food can The
mouthfuls of grass which are first swallowed
between their lips, and find their way at once into
the paunch or reticulum. ‘ y

In the bird some interesting modifications in the
structure of the alimentary canal are seen (fig. 12).
The gullet at about the middle of its course is E
vided with a pouch or crop. Into this the food
passes, and is fathed by a secretion formed by its
glands. It is then propelled onwards into a dilated
cavity, the proventriculus, and is acted on b —
tive juices. Thence it passes into the gizzard. This
cavity is provided with muscular walls of enormous
thickness in the case of birds that are vegetable-
feeders. It is lined by thick and corneous epithe-
lium, and in its interior are generally found pieces
of stone, chalk, &. The gizzard is a ree
mill, which grinds the food into a soft pulp, Be
se the Figestive juices can readily act (see

IRD).

818

DIGESTION

The Action of the Digestive Juices.—By digestion
is meant that process by which food is rendered
capable of passing through the walls of the digestive
system into the blood-vessels and lymphatics,
in such a form that it may be of use to, the
economy. The most sos es | change which food
undergoes is one of solution. Albumen, starch,
fat, and other food-stuffs are quite insoluble in the
circulating fluids of the body, and were they in-
jected into the blood they would simply block up
the smaller blood-vessels. During digestion these
pass either into nearly allied chemical substances
which are readily dissolved in water, or in the case
of fat partly into a soluble soap, and partly into a
state of microscopically minute subdivision. It is
not sufficient, however, merely to have a soluble
food-stuff in order that it may be absorbed and
used by the body. Cane (table) sugar is soluble in
water, but it is of no use as cane-sugar to the body.
If injected into the blood-vessels, it is at once
secreted by the kidneys. During digestion it is
converted into another sugarless soluble, but in a
form which can be used by the economy.

It must clearly be understood that food intro-
duced into the stomach is not received into the
system. It is still ‘outside the body.’ It is only
when it has become absorbed, and has passed in a
suitable form, carried by the blood, to the tissues
of the brain, muscles, &c., that it is made use of in
so-called vital manifestations. The relief and stay
that a meal gives is chiefly due to nervous action,
the result of gastric distension. Clay and other
non-nutritive matter may be swallowed, and will
bag Big. produce the same effect.

The digestion of food is brought about by the
action of juices, the saliva, the gastric, pancreatic,
intestinal, &c. These are mixed with the finely
divided food by the movements of the aliment-
ary canal. The digestive juices are in all cases
secreted by the microscopic cells which line the
various glands opening into the digestive system.
The digestive juice, whatever be its source, con-
tains either an acid substance or an alkaline one,
and in addition a substance termed an unorganised
ferment. -These ferments differ in many particulars
from the organised ferments (bacteria, micrococci),
found in putrefaction, diseases such as anthrax,
scarlet fever, cholera, &c. The latter are whole
living cells, having definite parts or organs. They
live and multiply, consume, and excrete in the fluid
they inhabit. The digestive ferments are not
whole cells, they are the products o cells. The
are not the broken-down useless substances, suc
as carbonic acid, water, &c., which all cells give
out, and which an animal, like man (an aggrega-
tion of cells), excretes. They consist of very com-
plex active matter, of which we know almost
nothing, and which we class with some other sub-
stances of which we know little more, under the
head ‘albuminoids.’ These ferments in fact possess
many of the qualities of cells themselves. They
are killed by the temperature of boiling water, like
all other living things. They have a certain range
of temperature, within which alone they evince
activity, and within the limits of that range they
are more active the higher the temperature. Then
again they require the presence of water, in which
fluid they are soluble. In their action they seem
to be hydrolytic, that is, they produce important
changes in the substances they attach by, amongst
other things, adding the elements of water. These
digestive ferments, together with the other constit-
uents of the digestive juices, are secreted by the
cells of the digestive glands. If we study these
glands and their cells with the microscope, they all

resent several points of similarity. Fach gland
nas a duct, which, as in the case say of the salivary
glands, divides into several branches. The duct,

or its branches in the latter case, terminate in the
secreting tubules of the gland. These are. little
tubes, which are lined by the secreting cells, leaving
only a small cavity in the centre of each tubule for
the escape of the secretion into the duct. Outside
the tubule there is a dense network of fine blood-

capillaries, from which the liquor of the blood

escapes, bathing the gland and the cells within it.
These imbibe the liquor, and they have almost cer-
tainly the power of selecting such constituents of
it as they require. The substances derived from
the blood are used by the cells, which manufacture
the juice which they excrete. The constituents of
the excretion are not found, it will be observed,
in the blood ; they result from chemical processes
which go on within the cells, which use blood as a
raw material. The cells are very small, being about
zeyoth to yy/spth of an inch across. They have
each a very thin envelope, within which the finely
granular contents of the cell are seen. In the
centre is a kernel or nucleus. During digestion
the cell enlarges, and granules appear in it. These
are the manufactured products : they are discharged
into the duct of the gland.

We have now to consider how it is that the glands
are regulated in their secreting powers, how it is
that at certain times, and in sufficient quantity, the
secreting juice is poured into the digestive system.
This is brought ahaa by the action of the nervous
system. Although in some cases—e.g. the stomach,
local nerve-cells placed in the walls of the digestive
system itself, seem to regulate in bik the secretion,
yet in all cases nerve-cells placed in the brain are
chiefly concerned. It was thought at one time that
the brain acted by causing the blood-vessels of the
gland to enlarge, and in consequence the food-
supply and secretion of the gland to become greater.
That this is not the whole truth, is shown by the
administration of belladonna. If a rather large
dose of this drug be taken, the mouth becomes very
dry and unpleasant, and it is difficult to speak and
to swallow. In other words, the cells of the salivary
glands are paralysed, and the customary flow of
saliva is for the time being at an end. It is found,
however, that during this condition the blood-
vessels are by no means contracted. This experi-
ment, together with others, suggests that although
during the secretion of a digestive juice the blood-
vessels dilate, the activity of the secreting cells is
not always associated with the condition of the
blood-vessels. The latter are undoubtedly under
the influence of nerves (vaso-motor) which regulate
their condition, and it is probable that the secreting
cells are themselves under the influence of other
nerves, which are special secreting nerves. We
have already seen that in the case of the movements
of the digestive system, the motor-impulses which
started from the central nervous system were called
into action by sensory impulses starting from the
mucous membrane of the digestive system. So in
like manner the nervous impulses which pass to the
blood-vessels and the glands are caused, in the first
instance, by sensory impulses from the mucous
membrane. If food be taken into the mouth, espe-
cially if it be ‘ tasty,’ a secretion of saliva rapidly
follows, and even the tickling of the mouth by a
feather, or the stimulation of the mucous membrane
with electricity, will produce the same result. In this
case sensory impulses pass to the brain through such
nerves as the lingual and glossopharyngeal, and
reflexly excite the glands through the medium of
the brain, the outgoing impulses passing through
nerves such as the chorda tympani (fig. 13). See
BRAIN. In the case of salivary secretion, the
smell or sight of food may excite a secretion. In
this case the sensory impulses — from the nose
or eye along the nerves of these organs to the
brain. When the thought of food produces a flow,

‘ Bi Mile is due to the recal
=. i

Sar

DIGESTION 819

of previous t and
ressions in the brain. nigh

eb im:
“a When food is passed into the stomach, secretion
- oecurs, This too may result from mechanical

, as when through an o fistula) the
mucous membrane is eeuhed Lara omen In

' all cases the stomach, pale before, becomes suffused

= blood, and
the gastric juice
is poured or
The flow of the
intestinal juice,
the pancreatic
juice, and bile,
all follow the
stimulation of
the mucous
membrane, and
in all cases the
blood-vessels en-
] so as to
give the cells a
me supply of
ood, although,
as we have seen,
they themselves
actually. pass
into a condition

of activity, as a

result of the in-

Fig. 13,—Nervous Mechanism of fluence of special
Secretion : secreting nerves.

B, brain; C, spinal cord; 8, nerve pass- We have now
ing from mucous membrane of mouth tg consider the
to brain; ae we passing to cell in digestion of food-

stuffs, and the

parts that the

_ various glands play in this important process. For

our present pu it is sufficient to speak of
foods as belonging to four classes: (1) teids
—albumens, globulins, &c.—e.g. the white of ee,
the chief constituent of meat, the gluten of bread.
(2) Carbohydrates—starches, sugars, gums—e.g.
potato-starch, cane or grape men. (3) Fats and
oils—e.g. suet, marrow, olive-oil. (4) Minerals—
e.g. water, table-salt, iron, phosphates. See also
Diet, Foop.

Some few substances are absorbed without being
digested at all; they do not need to be. Such are
— owe the minerals, althou — many of

ese undergo some ehenge or other. Grape-sugar
is absorbed, and probably proteids too ri often
absorbed to some extent at least. Fat is profoundly
modified during digestion, although not as the
result of any digesting ferment. It may be said,
however, that the great mass of food-stuff which is
classed under the heads of proteids and carbo-
hydrates is all digested by the action of ferment-
like bodies. The saliva, of which about 30 ounces
are secreted during the 24 hours, contains a ferment
termed ptyalin, which is capable of turning starch
into a soluble sugar called grape-sugar, or accord-
ing to other observers, into another soluble sugar
termed maltose. This can easily be demonstrated
in the following manner: Take a tiny pinch of
ordin starch powder, and shake it up with a
tablespoonful of water. It will not dissolve. Then
boil it, when the starch will swell up, forming a
thin starch Dilute a few drops of tincture
of iodine with several volumes of water, and add a
drop of this to a small quantity of the starch paste.
It will become of a rich blue colour. This is the
test for starch. Now add to some of the origi
starch about one quarter of its volume of
saliva from the mouth, and keep the mixture by
the fire at a temperature pleasant to the hand. In
a minute or so take out some of the starch in order
to test it again. The iodine no longer gives a blue

colour, but produces a beautiful mahogany brown.
This shows that the starch has d : , the
brown colour being the reaction given by erythro-
dextrine into which the starch has been converted.
After a little time another portion tested in a
similar way ~~ no reaction whatever, the erythro-
dextrine having in its turn disappeared. The starch
is now converted into sugar, mixed with a little
unconverted dextrine. his being an achroo-
dextrine, uncoloured like the erythro-dextrine by
tincture of iodine,

Starch. Water. Grape-sugar.
CoH,,0, + H,O = C,H we

The ptyalin may be extracted from the saliva or
from the yrenploat tovcem a ree does not
ap to be much exhaus uring its activit
at has the general characters already Frade f
of uno ised ferments. The saliva is alkaline
and the starchy food is no doubt partly converted
into sugar during its sojourn in the mouth and
gullet by its action. When the food has reached
the stomach and the acid gastric juice has mixed
with it, the saliva is unable to act, and is probably
killed. Any undigested starch is subsequently
converted into sugar when the food reaches the
small intestine by the pancreatic juice.
When the f es the stomach it causes
a reflex secretion of trie juice. This is but
slowly produced when insipid heavy food, such as
white of ee boiled meat, sago, &e., is
eaten, but flows y when soups, broths, and
fluids containing salts and extractions in abund-
ange are taken. Thus we have a scientific reason
for commencing a dinner with soup, preserving the
piece de résistance until the stomach has secreted
gastric juice for its digestion. The tric juices,
several pounds of which are secreted daily, is aci
in reaction containing free hydrochloric acid. In
addition lactic and butyric acids are formed during
the progress of digestion. The ferment peculiar to
the stomach is termed pepsine, and it requires,
unlike the ptyalin of the saliva, an acid medium
for its action. Pepsine and hydrochloric acid convert
roteids into substances termed peptones. The latter
ies are soluble in water, and are not lated
by boiling like many of the proteids. In addition
they pass readily through an animal wegen
and are therefore easily absorbed. The protei
does not pass directly into the peptone, but hike the
starch is — into at least one intermediate
body. In the first case the proteid becomes con-
verted by the hydrochloric acid into what is called
syntonin, or acid protein, and it is this syntonin
which alone the pepsine has power to change into
peptone. The syntonin becomes a peepepeees
which is intermediate in its properties between a
proteid and peptone itself. It is very probable that
the whole change from proteid to peptone consists
in some simple change in the molecular character
of the proteid, together with the addition of water,
A peptone may be termed therefore a hydrated
roteid, and the pepsine a hydrolytic ferment.
Within the stomach, and capable of being readily
extracted from the stomach of a calf, is a ferment
called the milk coagulating ferment (rennet). This
causes milk to coagulate, and form a clot or curd.
It subsequently contracts and squeezes out some
fluid termed the whey. It is difficult to assign any
use to this ferment, for the acid of the gastric juice
would cause of itself the milk to curdle.
more difficult is it to explain the existence of
a similar ferment in the juice, for
we cannot suppose that any milk can even
the stomach to be subjected to its
The milk indeed often forms dense clots which
cannot afterwards be di , and which cause
considerable gastric irritation. Milk when drank is

820 DIGESTION

DIGIT

frequently found to disagree with some stomachs ;
but even in such cases it may often be ‘sipped’
with impunity. In this case the formation of
large clots is prevented. Lime-water causes the
mille to coagulate in small soft clots. ;

The products of digestion, peptone and sugar,
together with water and many soluble salts,
are absorbed into the blood-vessels which ramify
in the gastric mucous membrane. When gastric
digestion is over, the undigested food (chyme)
passes through the relaxed pyloric — sphincter
into the small intestine. The chyme. consists
of some proteid and starchy matter, together with
fat and oil and indigestible substances such as
vegetable fibre, pure wax, cartilage, &ce. mixed
with gastric juice. Intestinal digestion is an
alkaline one, and all the digestive juices of
this part of the digestive system are alkaline in
their reaction. They soon counteract the acidity
of the chyme, which now becomes alkaline. The
proteids which remained undigested by the stomach
are now acted upon by a ferment called trypsin
found in the juice of the pancreas. This converts
the proteids into peptones through an intermediate
ropeptone. The pancreatic juice contains other
erments which operate during digestion, notably
a hydrolytic ferment, similar in its action to
ptyalin, whereby the remaining starch is converted
into sugar. The juice itself is thick and viscous.
It is strongly bikcaline and secreted in rather small
quantity. It is said to possess a ferment capable
of splitting oil and fat into glycerine and fatty acid,
which it does by adding water to the fat, which is
then decomposed. The fatty acid unites with the
free alkali present, and a soap is formed which is
subsequently absorbed. The alkaline contents of
the ahinenesy canal also emulsify fat—i.e. they
cause it to become very freely divided, forming
a milky fluid. The minute microscopic globules
which result pass readily through the walls of the
alimentary canal into the lymphatics (lacteals),
The emulsification of an oil can readily be shown
by adding about half its volume of carbonate of
soda (3 per cent.) solution to cod-liver oil. The
latter becomes at once very similar to milk in its
med venue

he intestinal juice, the secretion of Lieberkiihn’s
follicles, is strongly alkaline. It assists in the
digestion of starch and of proteid matter. In
addition an important ferment called ‘invertin,’ is
found. This has the power of changing cane into
rape eager and an allied substance, levulose.
oth these bodies have the same formula, but
differ from one another in their action on polarised
light,
Cane-sugar. Water. Grape-sugar. Levulose.
C,,H..0); + H,O = C;H,.0, + C5H.0¢.

The importance of this ferment will be appreciated
when we consider how large a quantity of food is
taken in the form of cane-sugar, and. that cane-
sugar introduced into the blood is not of any use to
the body, and is eliminated at once by the kidneys.

The bile may be looked upon both as an»excretion.

from the body and as a digestive juice. The
colouring of the feeces and urine is due in part to
a pigment hydrobilirubin (urobilin), which is an
altered bile pigment.
the feeces are dark in colour, and they may

white owing to deficient excretions. Many sub-
stances such as mucin, cholesterin, &c. found in
the bile are excreted to form part of the feces. On
the other hand many bile constituents, such as the
bile salts, are reabsorbed and used again in the
economy. Bile has an important action in digestion,
as may be shown by making biliary fistula in dogs,
whereby the bile leaves the body at once through
an aperture in the abdomen. In this case the

If bile is excreted rapidly, .

animal loses flesh; the fat which it takes with

its food passes unabsorbed through its digestive
system, and its excretions are offensive. The bile

seems then to assist in fat absorption, and to have
some antiseptic action whereby putrefaction is
revented or lessened within the digestive system.

ile assists in the absorption of fat not only by
assisting in its emulsification, but also by helping
in some way or other the epithelial cells, covering
the villi to take up the minute fatty particles. In
addition it is supposed to stimulate minute muscular
fibres within the villi, which by their contraction
ump the absorbed fat on into the larger
ymphaties.

ithin the small intestines most of the food a 4

undigested by the stomach is rendered fit for
absorption. This takes place through the tissue
of the mucous membrane ; much of the sugar and
peptones find their way into caper blood-vessels,
Absorbed products, and notably fat globules, pass
into the lacteals, and thence into the blood, cir-
culating through the veins at the root of the neck.
The contents of the lacteals during absorption are
called chyle. ‘The contents of the small intestine
pass into the large intestine, where. digestion
occurs to a very slight extent. Absorption is, how-
ever, more rapid, and the contents become far more
solid as they pass towards the rectum, due to the
deprivation of water and soluble substances. The
absorptive power of the large intestine is imporeat
to remember; for injections per rectum of liquid
food, ne Sipe if it has already been artificially
digested, may frequently sustain life for long
periods.

Artificial Digestion.—The digestive juices are
occasionally defective in amount or in quality, and
in this case they may be supplied artificially. All
the digestive ferments may tse separated by very
simple processes from the glands which secrete
them, and many may readily be obtained in the
market. Pepsine and hydrochloric acid, taken with
or before a meal, are often of great service, the
most reliable preparations of pepsine being the
ordinary pepsina porci. Food may be digested
outside the body before its administration. — Beef-
tea and milk-gruel may be prepared in the follow-
ing way : To bring the food:to the proper tempera-
ture, boil half of it, mix it with the other half, and
keep warm near the fire. To this add a prepara-
tion of the pancreatic ferments in the proportion
given in the directions which invariably accompany
the bottle containing the substance. The f
should now be kept warm for an hour or so, and
then boiled in order to prevent any further action
of the ferment. It may be taken by the mouth or
administered as an enema. Preparations of the
pancreas are alone to be used in’ peptonising food
outside the body, as pepsine preparations produce
a bitter and unpleasant taste... Pancreatic prepara-
tions on ‘the other hand are useless when taken
with the food, as they are destroyed within the

stomach.

See many separate articles throughout this work, such
as those on BLoop, CHyLE, LympH, Bing, Sativa, PEP-
SIN, ABDOMEN, GLANDS, Diet, Foop, CookERy, ALCo-
HOL, INDIGESTION, &c.; and, the physiological hand-
books of Huxley, Foster, and Landois.

Digging. See SPADE-HUSBANDRY.

Digit (Lat. digitus, ‘a finger’), a term applied
to the ten symbols of number, 0, 1, 2, &c. to 9;
thus, 305 is’said to be a number of three digits.
Numbers were originally indicated by the fingers,
and hence the name. Astronomers use digit to
signify a twelfth-part of the diameter of the sun or
moon, and speak of an eclipse of seven digits,
penne that seven-twelfths of the diameter is
covered. :

other conditions.

DIGITALIS

DILAPIDATION 821

ta'‘lis, a genus of Scrophulariacem, natives
npn the south of ero ted! nae, rm gt
of One only, the Common <r. ove (q.¥.),
= purpurea), is a native of Britain. Other species
ve been introduced, notably D. lutea and grandi-
with yellow flowers. The botanical name
is (late Lat. digitale, ‘ the finger of a pers)
like the popular English name, to the form of
the flowers.

_ The leaves of the Digitalis purpurea, collected
before the expansion of the flowers and dried, are
largely used in medicine, either in the form of
powder, or as tincture or infusion. Digitalin gran-
ules, containing minute quantities of a mixture of
the active pees are also employed. The
leaves owe their activity to the presence of certain
bodies, which have been named digitalin, digitalein,
digitoxin, and digitonin, the three first mentioned
having the characteristic digitalis action, while the
fourth is entirely different, and closely resembles
_ saponin in its effects. The leaves and their a
tions have a bitter taste. When abr af oses
by the mouth, they produce violent vomiting and
purging; this may prevent their absorption into
the blood, but if absorbed, they may cause death by
paralysing the heart’s action. en the leaves
are administered in medicinal doses, a peculiar
action is exerted on the muscular substance of
the heart and blood-vessels, causing the former to
beat more slowly, ly, and powerfully, and
contracting the latter. By this combined action the
blood-pressure is raised, and if dipper be present, a
diuretic action is exerted. Digitalis is also used in
many organic forms of heart-disease, in nervous
and functional irregularity of the heart’s action,
in cardiac weakness from long-continued disease,
in edema. of the lungs, internal hemorrhages, and
en taken for a long time it
may cause nausea and other digestive disturb-
ances, and in a very few cases sudden and serious
Sng tegen of poisoning come on. This constitutes
so-called cumulative action of digitalis. In
therapeutic doses digitalis should slow the pulse;
if too large doses be given, the pulse becomes rapid

and irregular.

Digitaria. See MILLET.

Digi See CARNIVORA.

Digne, a cathedral city in the French depart-
ment of Basses-Alpes, on the Bléonne, 70 miles NE.
of Marseilles. Pop. 5414.

Dihong. See BRAHMAPUTRA.

Dijon, chief town in the French department of
Cote-d’Or, formerly capital of the old duchy of
meager lies, spread out on a fertile plain at the
foot of Mont Afrique (1916 feet), at the junction of
the Ouche and Suzon, and on the C de Bour-
gogne, 196 miles SE. of Paris by rail. Its import-
ance as a railway centre has rendered it of conse-

uence in the inner line of French defences towards
the east, and strong forts now crown the neighbour-
ing hills. The environs are exceedingly beautiful,
and the town is well and regularly built; the
streets are broad, the open squares numerous, and
the old walls have been turned into tasteful boule-
vards. Of the medieval defences, the Gothic castle
built by Louis XI. still remains, employed as a
gendarmerie barrack; formerly it was a state
prison, in which, among others, Mirabean, Tous-
saint L’Ouverture, and General Mack were con-
fined. Among the public buildings, which are
numerous and imposing, the chief are the cathedral,
a massive Gothic structure, dating from the 13th
century, with a wooden spire (1742), 301 feet high ;
the churches of Notre Dame (1252-1334), St Mic el
(1529), and others ; a handsome theatre ; the palais
de justice; and the former palace of the Dukes of
Burgundy, which, commenced in 1366, is now used

as the town-hall, and contains a rich museum,
besides a library of 80,000 volumes and 900 manu-
=. Dijon is also the seat of an institute
with three faculties—law, science, and letters—and
in addition, a theological sem a
ie garden, and an academy of art.
manufactures include beer, brandy, woollen cloth,
blankets, mustard, candles, and pottery, and there
is a noteworthy trade in flowers and agricultural
produce ; but Dijon’s chief commercial importance
1s as the centre of the Upper Burgundy wine trade.
Pop. (1872) 40,116; (1891) 78,794. The Dibia of
the Romans, Dijon in the 5th century passed from
the Burgundians to the Franks, in the 9th was ruled
by counts of its own, under the suzerainty of the
bishops of Langres, but in 1007 was united to the
duchy of Bu dy, of which it became the capital.
On the death of Charles the Bold it came with
Bogeney into the possession of France in 1477.
In October 1870, after a sharp en t before
the city, Dijon capitulated to a Games force,
There was again severe fighting here in Jam
1871. Charles the Bold, billon,
Rameau were natives, and close by is the -
lace of St Bernard, of whom there is a statue
ouffroy (1847). See the work by Chabeuf (1895).

Dike. See Dyke.

Dilapidation, in English law, is where an
incumbent suffers his parso -house or outhouses
to fall down, or be in decay, for want of n
reparation ; or pulls down or destroys any of the
outhouses or buildings belonging to his living; or
destroys woods, trees, &c.; for it is said to extend
to committing or suffering anf wilful waste on the
inheritance of the church. Dilapidation is a species
of the legal injury known as Waste (q.v.). A
rector or vicar is bound to keep his residence and
the chancel of the church in repair, but not to
supply or maintain anything in the way of orna-
ment, as painting, white-washing, or papering. An
ecclesiastical person suffering the church-property
to get out of repair is subject to an action for
dilapidation at the instance of his successor; and
the money so recovered must be applied to the
repairs. By 5 and 6 Vict. chap. 108, being an act
to empower ecclesiastical corporations to grant long
leases, it is provided that the incumbent shall not
be liable for dilapidation occurrin — such
leases. By 34 and 35 Vict. chap. 43, amended by
35 and 36 Vict. . 96, a surveyor of dilapidations
is yk hae in diocese. Such surveyor, when
so ordered by the bishop, may inspect on
the buildings of a benefice which is not vacant.
But the bishop can issue such orders only on receipt
of a complaint from the archdeacon, the rural dean,
or the patron of the benefice, that the buildings of
the benefice are dilapidated; and must give a
month's previous notice to the incumbent, who is
entitled to state written objections to the po nels
within a month, whereupon the bishop may ei
call in another surveyor to report on issues
facts, or take counsel's opinion on the issues of law,
the incumbent paying the cost of such proceedings,
and being obliged to comply with the bishop's final
decision. The incumbent must execute the works
specified in the report, as settled by the pene he:
the manner and within the time therein prescribed,
or such longer time as the bishop may appoint in
writing. Or he may, with consent of the bishop
and the a, and the surveyor'’s approval, sub-
stitute other works for them. The act also aries
to cases of dilapidations in vacant benefices.
sum for re named in the bishop's order in those
cases is a debt due from the late incumbent, his
executors and administrators, to the new incum-
bent, and is recoverable at law or in equity. For the
corresponding Scottish law, see Herrror, MANSE.

822 DILATORY PLEAS

DILLINGEN

Dilatory Pleas. See PLEA.

Dilemma. A true dilemma is defined by
Whately as ‘a conditional syllogism with two or
more antecedents in the major, and a disjunctive
minor.’ The following dilemma, of the kind ealled
destructive, will perhaps convey a clearer notion
than any definition. ‘If this man were wise, he
would not speak irreverently of Scripture in jest ;
and if he were good, he would not do so in earnest;
but he does it, either in jest or earnest; therefore,
he is either not wise, or not good.’ There being
two conclusions, one or other of which your
opponent must admit, he is in a manner caught
between them; hence we speak of the horns of a
dilemma.

Dilettanté (pl. diletianti, Ital.), in its original
sense, is synonymous with an amateur, or lover of
the fine arts.
proach, to signify an amateur whose taste lies in
the direction of what is trivial and vulgar, or of a
critic or connoisseur whose knowledge is mere
affectation and pretence. It is sometimes assumed,
in a spirit of self-depreciation, by those who are
unwilling that their critical acquirements, or
artistic productions, should be judged by the rules
which would be applied to those of persons who
had made a professional study of art. It was in
this sense that it was assumed’ by the Dilettanti
Society, a body of noblemen and gentlemen by
whose exertions the study of antique art in Eng-
land has been largely promoted. ‘The society was
founded in 1734, and thirty years later it sent out
an expedition to make drawings of the most re-
markable artistic monuments of antiquity, under
Chandler, the editor of the Marmora Oxoniensia ;
Revett, joint-author with Stuart of a great work,
Athenian Antiquities ; and Pars, as artist.
returned in 1766; and four splendid folios on the
Antiquities of Ionia Sipeanct in 1769, 1797, 1840,
1881. Other publications were Specimens of Ancient
Sculpture (1809-35), Bronzes of Siris 1836 , and
Athenian Architecture (1851; new ed. 1889). See
Lionel Cust’s History of the Society (1898).

Diligence, in the Law of Scotland, is a term
used in various significations. (1) It means the
care incumbent on the parties to a contract with
regard to the Seon of the subject matter.
In this sense the term is also used in English law,
which recognises three degrees of diligence—(a)
common, such as men in general exert in managing
their own affairs ; (6) high, such as great prudence
demands ; and (¢) low, such as persons of less than
common prudence take in connection with their
own affairs. (2) The warrants issued by courts for
enforcing the attendance of witnesses and the pro-
duction of writings. (3) The process of law by
which person, lands, or effects are attached either
on Execution (q.v.) or in security for debt. In the
second of these senses, it corresponds to the
English swbpena; and in the third, generally to
execution.

Diligence, the name given in French-speaking
countries to a public conveyance of the nature of a
stagecoach.

Dilke, CHARLES WENTWoRTH, an English
critic and journalist, was born December 8, 1789,
graduated at Cambridge, and served for twenty
years in the navy pay-office. In 1830 he became
proprietor of the Atheneum, and from that year
until 1846 he filled also its editor’s chair. “ He
established the Daily News in 1846, and edited it
for three years. He died at Alice Holt, Hants,
August 10, 1864. A collection of his articles con-
tributed to the Athenewm and Notes and Queries
between 1848 and 1863 appeared in 1875 as The
Papers of a Critic: with biographical sketch by
his grandson, Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, Bart.,

It is often used as a term of re-_

They |

M.P. (2 vols.); the first volume treating Pope, Lad:
Mary Wortley Montagu, and Swift; the secon
Junius, Wilkes, the Grenville Papers, and Burke.
He is known also by his Old English Plays (6 vols.
1814).—StR CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE, only
son of the preceding, was born in London, Feb:

18, 1810, and educated at Westminster School, and

Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He studied law, gradu-
ating as LL.B. in 1834, but did not enter upon the
practice of his profession. One of the most active
originators, as well as member of the executive
committee, of the Great Exhibition of 1851, he was
offered a knighthood by the Queen and a large
pecuniary reward by the royal commission, but both
offers he declined. In 1853 he was sent as a com-
missioner to the New York Industrial Exhibition,
and in 1862 he was one of the five royal com-
missioners for the second exhibition, in the January
of which year he accepted a baronetcy. In 1865
he was returned to parliament for Wallingford,
and in 1869 he was sent to Russia as the repre-
sentative of England, to the horticultural exhibi-
tion held at St Petersburg. Here he died sud-
denly, 10th May of the same year.—Sir CHARLES.
WENTWORTH DILKE, son of the receding, was.
born at Chelsea, September 4, 1843. He studied
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1866, being soon after called to the bar.
travels in Canada and the United States, Australia.
and New Zealand, he described in his Greater

Britain: a Record of Travel in English-speaking

Countries during 1866-67 (2 vols. 1868). e was.
returned to parliament for Chelsea in 1868. He is.
a doctrinaire Radical in polities, and was once at.

least an avowed Republican, yet he held office as

Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs, and afterwards.
President of the Local Government Board under
Mr Gladstone. In 1885 he married the widow of
Mark Pattison, herself the author of Claud Lorrain,
sa Vie et ses Euvres (Paris, 1884), and The Shrine
of Death (1886), a collection of stories. About the
same time his name was much before the public in
connection with a divorce case, and this led to his.

defeat at the Chelsea election in 1886, and sub-

sequent compulsory retirement from public life.
He still continued, however, to influence publie
opinion indirectly through the press. - His Position
of European Politics (1887) was a collection of

~

His. .

striking essays that had appeared anonymously in

the Fortnightly Review.

Dill (Anethum), a genus of Umbelliferee. The

Common Dill (A. graveolens) is an annual or bien-
nial plant, which grows wild in cornfields in the
East and in the countries around the Mediter-
ranean, but is quite hardy in Britain. It has from
a very early period been in general cultivation
as an aromatic, stimulant, and carminative, bein
used in cookery like anise, and in medicine as di
water, &c. A. Sowa is similarly cultivated, and
used in Bengal, &c.

Dilleniacez, a tropical and subtropical order
of thalamifloral dicotyledons, allied to Magno-
liaceze in habit as well as structure, and often
of no less beautiful foliage and flowers. There are
about two hundred species, generally astringent,
and hence frequently useful in medicine and tan-
ning; many yield excellent timber, and some also:
fruit, that of Dillenia speciosa being especially
eaten in India.

Dillingen, a town of Bavaria, on the Danube,
51 miles WSW. of Ingolstadt by rail, with two.
monasteries, a royal high school, a seminary, and
a girls’ deaf-and-dumb institution. In the old
castle the bishops of Augsburg formerly resided,
and here they / RT a university (1554-1804),

which from 1564 was an active Jesuit centre. Pop..

5860.

DILLMANN DIMORPHISM 823

D CHRISTIAN Frrepricn Avaust, a | the adjective—diluvial—is employed by modern
Oo ewa born 25th April 1823, at Illingen, | writers, it is to characterise those accumulations of
Wiirtemberg. Already as a student at Tiibingen vel or angular stones which have been fein

his studies under Ewald’s influence had been
turned to orientalia, and in 1846-48 he visited the
libraries at Paris, London, and Oxford, cataloguing
the Ethiopic MSS. at the last two, and returning
to Tiibingen to join its teaching staff. In 1854 he

accepted a call to Kiel, where he became professor
of Oriental Lan in 1860, but was transferred
in 1864 to the ir of Old Testament Ex is at

Giessen, which in 1869 he resigned to me
Hengstenberg’s successor at Berlin. Dillmann was
beyond question the first authority in Europe on
the Ethiopie lan The best books for the
student in this obscure department of aba ot
his Grammatik der Aethiopischen Sprache (1857),
Lexicon Linqgue Aithiopice (1865), and his Chresto-
mathia Aithiopica (1866). Other works are his
German translations of the Book of Enoch (1853),
of the Book of Jubilees or the ‘Little Genesis’
(1849-51), and the Book of Adam (1853) in Ewald’s
Jahrbiicher, as well as editions in the original of the
first two; and an edition of the ancient Ethiopic
translation of the Old Testament, Biblia Veteris
Testamenti Aithiopica (2 vols. 1853-72). His con-
tributions to pure evainig “f are Ueber den Ursprung
der Alt-testamentlichen Religion (1865), Ueber die
Propheten des alten Bundes (1868), and fresh editions
for the ‘ Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch’ of
Hirzel’s commentary on Job (1869), as well as of
Knobel’s commentaries on Exodus and Leviticus
(1880), and on Genesis (1882). Dillmann became
in 1877 a member of the Berlin Royal Academy of
Sciences, and contributed many papers to its issues.
He was president of the fifth International Congress
of Orientalists, and edited its Ag dr (3 vols.
1881-82). Other works (1879-84) deal with the
history of the Ethiopic kingdom of Axum (q.v.).
He died 4th July 1894.

Dillon, Joun, the son of John Blake Dillon
(1816-66), who was a prominent member of the
Young Ireland party, and member for County
Tipperary in 1865-66. Born in New York in 1851,
he was educated at the Catholie University of
Dublin, after which he became a doctor. He early
identified himself with the Parnellite movement,
and in 1880 was returned for County Tipperary.
In the House of Commons Dillon soon sect
prominent for the violence of his lan e, while
speeches delivered by him in Frlant | led to his
imprisonment in 1881, 1881-82, and 1888. From
1883 to 1885 he was absent from political life on
account of ill-health; but in the latter year he
reappeared, and was elected for East Mayo.
‘Honest John Dillon’ was one of the most promi-
nent promoters of the ‘Plan of Campaign.’ In
1896-99 he was Justin M‘Carthy’s successor as
chairman of the main section of the Nationalists.

Dilman’, « town of Northern Persia, in the
Sharleen of Azerbijan, 75 miles W. of Tabriz.

‘op. 6000.

Diluents, medicines for diteting the blood
-and increasing the excretions, especially the urine.
The simplest and best of diluents is water; but
all watery fluids, such as lemonade, soda-water,
beer, infusions, tea, milk, &c., are diluents. See
DEMULCENTS.

Diluvium, « term formerly given by geologists
to those strata which they believed to have
formed by the Deluge, and more particularly to the
boulder clay. The altered opinions as to the origin
of these beds have caused the word to fall into
disuse in Britain. It is still used on the Con-
tinent, however, not in its original sense, but pe
as a general term for the glacial and ronan i
accumulations of the Pleistocene system.

y sudden or extraordinary currents of w

Dime, a silver coin, the tenth part of a United
States dollar (see DoLLAR), equal to about
fivepence English.

Dimension. In Geometry, a point, since it
has merely position, is said to have no, or to be of
zero, dimensions ; a line, straight or curved, is of
one dimension—viz. length; a plane surface has
two—length and breadth ; while a solid is said to
be of three dimensions—length, breadth, and thick.
ness. Thus it will be seen that by the term dimen-
sion is meant a direction in which extension may
be reckoned or measured. The three last-named
dimensions are found suflicient to determine all
known forms of extension. Hence space is tri-
dimensional. The possibility of space of higher
dimensions existing has been much discussed.
Since points, lines, and surfaces in general generate
by their motion lines, surfaces, and solids respect-
ively, so it is held that some analogous generation
of a fourth dimensional figure by one of three
dimensions is conceivable. The subject, al
interesting, is wholly speculative.—In Algebra,
term dimension is employed in much the same
sense as degree, to express the sum of the indices of
those letters with reference to which the term con-
taining them is considered—e.g. xy, z*, are both of
two dimensions, or of second degree; zy, z*, are
of three dimensions, or third degree, Kc.

Dimidiation, in Heraldry, a mode of mar-
shalling arms, adopted chiefly before quartering
and impaling according to the modern practice came
into use, and subsequently retained to some extent
in continental though not in English heraldry. It
consists in cutting two coats of arms in half by a
vertical line, and uniting the dexter half of the one
to the sinister half of the other. Coats of husband
and wife were often so marshalled in England in
the 13th and 14th centuries.

Dimity, a stout, figured cotton-fabric, used
chiefly for porerpegs ig and window-curtains. The
figure or stripe is distinctly raised. Originally
dimity was commonly white or of a single colour ;
but variegated dimities are now largely made; one
band or stripe of the cloth having a woven pattern
in white alternating with a plain band—Le. the
fabric is all white as it comes from the loom. A
war ge is afterwards printed in colours on the plain

Dimorphism (Gr. dis, ‘ twice ;’ morphé, ‘shape
or form’), a technical term applied in Biology to cases
where an organism appears in two different forms.
Thus in a colony of hydroids there may be ‘dimorphi
persons '—respectively nutritive reproducti
and yet fundamentally the same in structure
origin. So too when the two sexes are marked]
different, the term sexual dimorphism may be b
Or the organisms may be different at certain seasons
and in certain conditions, as in summer and winter
Butterflies (q.v.), or in the two kinds of common
Primrose (q.v.) and cowslip. Sometimes three
different forms of butterfly are known in the same
species, and to such cases the term trimorphiem is
conveniently — The same is true of the
common flower Lythrum salicaria. In hydroid and
medusoid colonies (e.g. Hydractinia Siphono-

hora) the development of multiple forms result-
ing from ‘Division of Labour’ (q.v.) is described
as ism. The same term is obviously
appli to the different forms exhibited by some
social Ants (q.v.). The same set of terms may
ey

same m wer, Fer
tilisation of the Flower ; saa onmamaee

824 DIMSDALE

DINGLE

An inorganic substance is in a somewhat
analogous manner said to be dimorphous when
it is capable of crystallising in two different
forms or systems (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). A
large number of substances have this property, of
which sulphur, carbon, carbonate of lime, and
iodide of mercury are the best examples. Thus
carbon, as the diamond, crystallises, in the regular
system, as octahedra, while as graphite, or Black
Lead (q.v.), it forms hexagonal erystals belonging
to the rhombohedral system. In some cases there
is a great tendency for the one form of crystal to
change spontaneously into the other form. The
-red iodide of mercury is a striking example of. this.
When heated, this substance is volatilised, and
may be condensed on a glass plate as a yellow
crystalline crust, consisting of rhombic plates.
When this is rubbed, or even scratched, an imme-
diate change takes place, the rhombic plates _be-
eoming broken up into octahedra, while the colour
at the same time alters from yellow to a brilliant
scarlet. So also when sulphur is crystallised from
its solution in bisulphide of carbon, it yields
transparent amber-coloured octahedra; but when
melted sulphur is cooled, prismatic crystals are the
result. In the course of a few days the prisms
become opaque, owing to their being broken up
into small octahedra, while conversely the octa-
hedra, when heated to 230° (110° C.), are changed
into smaller prismatic crystals.
such as sulphate and selenate of nickel, which
erystallise in three systems, are said to be ¢ri-
morphous.

Dimsdale, THomaAs (1712-1800), an English
physician who wrote several works on inoculation,
was famous as an inoculator (making journeys in
1768 and 1784 to Russia to inoculate the Empress
Catharine and other magnates), and sat for Hert-
ford in two parliaments.

Ina eer pepical of a district in the Rajshahi
division (Kuch Behar) of Bengal, stands 221 miles
N. of Calcutta by rail, on the Purnabhaba River,
which, through the Mahananda, enters the Lower
Ganges. Pop. 13,200.—The district has an area of
4118 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 1,555,835, almost
entirely rural, and mainly of aboriginal descent.
The Mussulmans slightly outnumber the Hindus,

Dinan, a very old town in the French depart-
ment of Cdétes-du-Nord, on the Rance, 30 miles
NW. of Rennes, and 148. of St Malo. The situa-
tion of Dinan, on the summit of a steep hill of
granite, and with the Rance flowing through a
valley 250 feet below, is romantic in a high degree.
The valley is crossed by a fine granite bridge of ten
arches, ‘The town is still partly surrounded by its
old ivy-covered walls. The old castle of the Dukes
of Brittany is now in part used as a prison. In the
older district the streets are crooked, narrow, and
steep ; in some parts, the overhanging houses, and
areades resting on carved granite fis. present
many picturesque architectural features. The
church of St Sauveur, a fine Romanesque church,
contains the heart of the famous French warrior
Bertrand du Guesclin, who here had a famous
encounter with an English knight. The terraces
around the town afford very charming views.
Many English reside here. Pop. 9704. Four miles
off lies the village of Corseult, on an old Roman
site, where many antiquities have been found.

_Dinant, a town of Belgium, oceupying a narrow
site between the Meuse and a limestone hill, 17
miles S. of Namur by rail, and consisting mainly of
one narrow street. On the cliff above stands the
citadel (1530), and the Gothic church dates from
the 13th century. There are manufactures of
cotton, paper, leather, iron, &c., with black marble
quarries; and the gingerbread of Dinant, com-

Those substances, |

posed of rye-flour and honey, has an extensive
sale. The pias was formerly noted for its copper
wares, familiarly known as Dinanderie. Pop. 6773.
Dinant, which dates from the 6th century, has
suffered greatly from frequent sieges. The present
fortifications date from 1815.

Dinapore (Dédndpur), military headquarters
of the district of Patna in Bengal, on the anges
12 miles W. of Patna city by a road lined with
houses throughout. It is divided into two parts,
the Cantonments and the Nizamat, or city proper.
Pop. (1891) 44,419, of whom 25,000 resided witli
the Nizamat. In the mutiny of 1857 the three
sepoy regiments stationed here rose in July, and |
escaped into Shahabad district, where they attacked
Arrah (q.v.).

Dinaric Alps, the name applied to the

mountains connecting the Julian Alps with the

Balkan system. The main range stretches from —
north-west to south-east, separating Dalmatia
from Bosnia and Herzegovina, as far as the
mouth of the Narenta; and a minor chain ex-
tends through the Dalmatian coast country. The
mountains are principally calcareous; the highest
summits are Orjen (6225) and Dinara (5940), and —
the mean height is 2300 feet.

Dindige’ a town in the presidency of Madras,
40 miles NNW. of Madura by rail, with an old
fort, still in good preservation, commanding the
approaches to Coimbatore from the south. It has
a trade in hides, tobacco, coffee, and cardamoms.
Pop. (1891) 12,865, mostly Hindus.

Dindorf, WILHELM, a famous Hellenist, born
2d January 1802 at Leipzig, where his father Gott-
lieb Immanuel Dindorf (died 1812) was professor
of Oriental Languages. In 1817 he began his
studies in philology at Leipzig, under Gottfr.
Hermann and Chr. Daniel Beck, declined a call
to Berlin in 1827, and next year accepted an
extraordinary professorship at Leipzig, which he
resigned in 1833 to devote himself entirely to his
literary activity. Here he died, lst August 1883.
Dindorf’s long life ee many contributions of the
first value to Greek scholarship, especially in the
region of dramatic poetry. Among his works
were the preparation of vols. 7-13 of the great
Invernizzi-Beck edition of Aristophanes (1820-34),
editions of Aristophanes, with notes and scholia
(1835-39), of A’schylus (1841-51), Euripides (1834-
63), Sophocles, with notes (1832-36), and a second
vol. of the series of scholia to Sophocles, edited by
Elmsley (1852), also an edition with annotations
and scholia of Demosthenes (1846-51), all printed
at Oxford. Other works are those on the metres
of Aischylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristo-
phanes (1842) ; the lexicons to Sophocles (1871)
and Atschylus (1873-76); his edition of the text of
Homer (1855-56), and of the scholia to the Odyssey
(1855) and the Jiiad (1875-77). With Hase and
his brother Ludwig (1805-71) he edited the
Thesaurus Grece Lingue of Stephanus (1832-65).

pengelstedt, FRANZ VON, German poet, born
near Marburg in 1814, was royal librarian at
Wiirtemberg in 1843-50, intendant of the court
theatres at Munich, Weimar, and Vienna in 1850-
71, and afterwards director of the Burg Theatre
in Vienna. He was ennobled by the Austrian
emperor, and died 15th May 1881. Besides several
volumes of poems, displaying great versatility and
considerable power, he published a series of novels,
one fine tragedy (Das Haus der Barneveldt),
essays, and translations and studies of Shake-
speare. His collected works fill 12 vols. (1877).
Dingle, a seaport on the north side of Dingle

Bay, in County Kerry, Ireland, 27 miles SW. of
Tralee railway station, and 30 WNW. of Kil-

DINGO

DIOCESAN 825

ig The chief exports are corn and butter.
The harbour is landlocked. Pop. 1833.

Di Canis dingo), a variety of dog found in
Australis, both ina Wild and a Secebbleoied state.
As marsupials are believed to be the only indigenous
Australian mammals, it is probable that this dog,
which is found in a semi-fossil state in some of the
caves, was introduced by or with the earliest human

Dingo, or Australian Dog ( Canis dingo).

inhabitants. ‘The dingo has an elongated flat head,
which is carried high ; the ears are short and erect,
and are kept in that position when the animal
runs; the fur is soft and predominantly tawny ;
the tail is bushy and kept low down. It is a very
muscular, fierce animal, tamable if taken young.
In the wild state it seldom barks. The wild forms,
joined doubtless by recent runaways from domesti-
cation, used to work very great havoc among the
sheep, but vigorous endeavours have vastly reduced
a numbers and minimised their ravages.

OG.

Dingwall (Scand., ‘court hill ;’ see Tuna),
the county town of Ross-shire, near the head of the
Cromarty Firth, and at the entrance to the valley
of Strathpeffer, 134 miles NW. of Inverness (by rail
184). It has the county buildings (1845), a publie
park, a small harbour, and an obelisk, 57 feet high,
which marks the grave of Sir George Mackenzie,
first Earl of Cromarty. A royal burgh since 1226,

it unites with Wick and four other towns to return

one member to ie ge Pop. (1861) 2099;
(1881) 1921; (1891) 2283.

Dinkelsbii an ancient walled town of
Bavaria, on the Wérnitz, 19 miles NNW. of Nérd-
lingen by rail, with manufactures of cordage,
hosiery, straw-hats, pencils, brushes, &c. It was
formerly a free city of the empire, and suffered
much during the Thirty Years’ War. Pop. (1880)
5186; (1885) 4457; (1890) 4496; (1895) 4577.

Dinocerata (Gr. deinos, ‘terrible,’ and ‘eras,
‘horn’), an extinct order of mammals, approaching
the elephant in size and movements, remains of
which have been found extensively in the Eocene
lacustrine sediments of southern oming. The
dinocerata include three genera —Uintatherium
(most primitive type), Dinoceras (intermediate
form), and Tinoceras (youngest and most special-
ised). About at more or less distinct forms
have been recognised. The feet were plantigrade
the fore-foot being larger than the hind-foot, and
having five digits; the limbs were massive and
heavy, but shorter than in the elephant; the skull
was long and narrow, su Corby on top three
separate transverse pairs of high osseous protuber-
ances or horn-cores, while the canine teeth were
enormously developed in the male, and formed
short, trenchant, decurved tusks; the nasal bones
were elongated so as to form nearly half the length
of the 1, though, as the neck was long enough

to allow the head to reach the ground, there was
probably no proboscis ; finally, the brain was propor-
tionately smaller than in any other known mammal,
and even Jess than in some reptiles. See Professor
O. C. Marsh's admirable monograph, Pore by
the United States Geological Survey (1884).
Dinornis. See Moa.
Dinosauria (Gr., ‘terrible lizards’), an im-
—- group of Mesozoic pies, known partly
their skeletons, partly by their footprints
ey were gigantic forms, some of them at least
80 feet in length, and many of their characters lead
on to birds. Thus in the hip-girdle the pubie bones
were in many cases turned, not forwards as in
other reptiles, but backwards as in birds; the legs
were also in part bird-like; the fore-limbs were
less develo than the legs; some of the bones
apparently contained air-cavities, Ke. Atlanto-
saurus (q.v.), Stegosaurus, Iguanodon (q.v.), and
Megalosaurus (q.v.) are important types. They
in Triassic strata, become very prominent
in the Jurassic fauna, continue well represen
in the Chalk, and then terminate. A large number
have been found in America, and our knowledge
of them is mainly due to the researches of Pope
and Marsh. They were terrestrial animals, though
some, such as Iguanodon, frequented marshy
ong Some —e, = have been pie
others vegetarian. e group is a an
varied Ph ually becoming more defined in
its limits and characters. The relations to other
fossil reptiles will be discussed under REPTILES.
Dinotherium (Gr., ‘terrible beast’), a
remarkable extinct animal, the cranial bones of
which are found in the Miocene formations of
Germany, France, &c. The animal was _pro-
vided, like the elephant and the walrus, with a
pair of long tusks; but these projected from the
end of the lower jaw, which is deflected down-
wards at a right angle to the body of the jaw.
Both jaws possessed a series of pre-molars and
molars, the crowns of which were traversed by
strong transverse ridges. The nasal cavity was
large, apparently su plying attachment for a
trunk, as in the elephant. Very little is known

Dinotherium, as restored by Kaup.

of the skeleton except the skull (one example of
which is 34 feet long); and hence the true posi-
tion of the dinotherium has not been satisfactorily
determined. Cuvier and Kaup have referred it to
the neighbourhood of the tapir, supposing it to
have been an inhabitant of large lakes.

Dinwiddie, Ropert, colonial governor of
Virginia, was in Scotland about 1690, and
was governor of Virginia from 1752 to 1758, when
he was recalled, after ag “pee the French and
Indian war, and by his ill-temper, avarice, and
incompetence, rendering himself generally unbear-
able to the Americans. He died in 1770.

Dio Cassius. See Dion Cassius.

Dio'cesan is a bishop viewed in relation to his
own clergy or flock.

826 DIOCESAN COURTS

DIODATI

Diocesan Courts. See CoNsisToRY and

CoMMISSARY.

Diocese (Fr., from Gr. diotkésis, ‘administra-
tion’), the territory over which a bishop exercises
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The term occurs as early
as the time of Demosthenes, to signify the treasury
or department of finance. It is found in Cicero,
both as a Greek and as a Latin word, as the
special designation of districts in Asia Minor.

t this time, the area denoted by this term was
but a small one, for Cicero mentions that three
dioceses were included in the single province of
Cilicia. But in the organisation of the Roman
empire introduced by Constantine the Great, the
designation diocese was applied to the larger
divisions, which were subdivided into provinces or
ot eater About the middle of the 5th century,
the dioceses of the empire were—the East, Asia,
Pontus, Thrace, Macedonia, Dacia, Illyria, Italy,
Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. The city of
Rome, with its seven ‘suburbicanian’ provinces,
constituted a diocese in itself, and was not included
in that of Italy. The dioceses were governed
collectively by four Praetorian Prefects, each of
whom had several such territeries under his juris-
diction, and singly by officers’ styled Eparchs,
Counts, or Vicars. The provinces (numbering one
hundred and seventeen) were under Exarchs or
Rectors. The government of the Christian church,
as established by Constantine, was assimilated to
this division, and the term diocese and others
es, over to. ecclesiastical matters. At first a

iocese meant an aggregate of metropolitan
churches or provinces, each under the charge of an
archbishop, which had previously been called a
parish, into a single jurisdiction under an exarch
(Balsamon, ad Can. ix., Conc. Chalced.); and the
actual distribution in the 4th and 5th centuries
was founded on, and closely corresponded to, the
civil division. The four (later five) patriarchates
corresponded to the four pretorian prefectures ;
and the diocese of the Orient contained fifteen pro-
vinees, all under the Patriarch of Antioch, till the
erection of the patriarchate of Jerusalem in 450,
when Palestine, Pheenicia, and Arabia were with-
drawn from Antioch to constitute the new juris-
diction ; Egypt, under the Patriarch of Alexandria,
had six provinces; Asia, eleven; Pontus, eleven ;
Thrace, six; Macedonia, six; Dacia, five; Italy,
seventeen, of which seven were in the diocese of
Rome; Illyria, six; Africa, six; Spain, seven;
Gaul, seventeen; and Britain, five. In a later
stage of the church’s history, the term diocese is
applied to a single metropolitanate or province
(Greg. Mag. oot VII. ii. 17), and lastly it came
to signify the local jurisdiction of any one bishop
(a meaning alread applied to it as early as the
second Council of Cart age, in 390 A.D., canon v.),
of whatever rank. It does not appear in England
till the writings of Matthew Paris in the middle of
the 13th century; Bede, for example, using only
the terms episcopatus, provincia, ecclesia. On
the other hand, it is found as the equivalent of
‘parish’ in canons of the councils of Agde
(506 A.D.), Epaon (517), Orleans IV. (541), and
also in the capitularies of Charlemagne, VII. c.
360. England and Wales are divided ecclesiastic-
ally into two provinces—viz. Canterbury and York,
the former being presided over by the Primate of
All England, ahd the latter by the Primate of
England. Each of them is subdivided into dioceses,
and these again into archdeaconries, rural deaneries,

and parishes. See BISHOP.

Diocletian. VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS,
Roman emperor (284-305 A.D.), was born of
humble parentage near Salona, in Dalmatia, in 245.
He inherited from his mother, Dioclea, the name

of Diocles, which he afterwards enlarged inte

Diocletianus, and attached as a cognomen to —

Valerius, a name of the most patrician associa-
tions. He adopted a military career, and served
with distinction under Probus and Aurelian,
accompanied Carus on his Persian campaign, and
finally, on the murder of Numerianus having been
discovered at Chalcedon, he was _ proclaimed
emperor in 284 by the army on its homeward
march. The suspected assassin of Numerianus,
the prefect Arrius Aper, he slew with his own
hands, in order, it is alleged, to fulfil a prophecy
communicated to him, while still a lad, by a
Druidess of Gaul, that he should mount a throne
as soon as he had slain the wild-boar (aper).

Next year he commenced hostilities against Cari- _ 4

nus, the joint-emperor along with the deceased
Numerianus, who, although victorious in the
decisive battle that ensued, was murdered by his
own officers, thus leaving to Diocletian the undis-
puted supremacy. His first years of CWbteoes
were so molested by the incursions of barbarians,
that, in order to repel their growing aggressiveness,
he took to himself a colleague—namely, Maxi- —
mianus—who, under the title of Augustus, became —
joint-emperor in 286. Diocletian reserved for him-
self the charge of the eastern empire, and gave the
western to Maximian. Still the attacks of the
barbarians continued as formidable as ever. The
empire was menaced by the Persians in the east,
by the Germans and other barbarians in the west ;
and in order to provide for its permanent security,
Diocletian subjected it to a still further division.
In 292 Constantius Chlorus and Galerius were pro-
claimed as Czesars, and the distribution of the
Roman empire was now fourfold ; Diocletian tak-
ing the East, with Nicomedia as his seat of govern-
ment; Maximian, Italy and Africa, with Milan
as his residence; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and
Spain, with Tréves as his headquarters; Galerius, -
Illyricum and the entire valley of the Danube,
with Sirmium as his imperial abode. It was upon
his colleagues that most of the burden of engaging
actively in_ hostilities fell, as Diocletian seldom
took the field in person. Among the conquests, or
rather re-conquests, that were made under his rule,
may be enumerated that of Britain, which, after
maintaining independence under Carausius and |
Allectus, was in 296 restored to the empire; that
of the Persians, who were defeated, and compelled
to capitulate in 298 ; and that of the Marcomanni,
and others of the northern barbarians, who were
driven beyond the Roman frontier. Diocletian,
after twenty-one years’ harassing tenure of govern-
ment, desired to pass the remainder of his days in
tranquillity. Accordingly, on the Ist of May 305,
he abdicated the imperial throne at Nicomedia, and
compelled his reluctant colleague, Maximian, to do
likewise at Milan. He sought retirement in his
native province of Dalmatia, and for eight years
resided at Salona, devoting himself to philosophic
reflection, to rural recreation, and to horticultural

ursuits. ‘Two years before his abdication, he was.
instigated by his colleague, Galerius, to that
determined and sanguinary persecution of the
Christians for which his reign is chiefly memorable.
He died in 313.

Dio dati, JEAN, a Calvinistic divine, was born
at Geneva, 6th June 1576, became pos of
Hebrew there in 1597, pastor of the reformed
church in 1608, and in 1609, on the death of Beza,

rofessor of Theology. He was a preacher at
sepa from 1614 to 1617, and at the Synod of Dort
was representative of Geneva. Diodati, whose
family was originally of Lucca in Italy, tried in

vain to introduce the reformed doctrine in Venice.~

He is remembered chiefly through his Italian trans-
lation of the Bible, issued (without imprint) at

DIOMEDE ISLANDS 827

a is

is Annotationes in Biblia (1607) are also of
value. He died at Geneva, 3d 1
Budé, Vie de Jean Diodati (Geneva, 1869).—A
~ mephew, CHARLES DIoDAT! (circa 1608-38), is re-
membered as the friend of Milton. Son of a doctor
who had settled in England, he was educated at St
Paul’s School, and Trinity College, Oxford, and for
the last nine years of his life practised medicine
near Chester and in Blackfriars.

Diodon, See GLose-risu.

Diedo'rus Sic’'ulus, a Greek historian, was
born at Agyrium, in nop & Little is known of his
life beyond what is told by himself. He lived in
the times of Julius Cesar and Augustus, travelled

z

irty years. This
istoriké, was a history of
the world, in forty books, from the creation to the
Gallic wars of Julius Cesar. It was divided by
_ the author into three parts—the first of which, in
- six a5 Soma all the Greek and forei
HB ' mythical history down to the Trojan war; the
‘ second, in eleven books, contains the history from
the year 1184 B.c. to the death of Alexander the
_ Great ; the third, in twenty-three books, continues
the narrative of-events from that date to the year
60 B.c. Of this great work, the first five books are
extant entire ; the next five books are wholly lost ;
the next ten are complete ; and of the remainder of
the work, considerable ts have been pre-
‘in served in the — in Fray ipa and in mee
1 Ecloge prepared command o nstantine Por-
& shivoavniies. Had Diodorus Siculus any
; ; powers either of criticism or of arrangement, his
ee, Se work would have been of the greatest importance ;
ae 2 but he was in both respects so deficient, that his
history has no practical value beyond what belon
to an immense mass of raw and now scarcely avail-
able material. His narrative is colourless and
monotonous, and his diction, generally clear and
simple, holds a sort of middle place between the
re Attic and the colloquial Greek of his time.
e best editions of Diodorus Siculus are Wes-
seling’s (Amst. 1746), L. Dindorf’s (1828-31), and
Bekker’s (1853-54) ; re-edited by Vogel (1888-93).
Diee'cious (Gr. dis, ‘twice ;’ and oikos, ‘a
habitation’), a term applied by Linnzus to plants
: in which separate individuals exclusively produce
. male and female flowers ng Toagtg F reat im-
portance was attached to this in the artificial

in all ps of plants wo geri nd

EE |
’

however
| ‘ y, herma-
. hrodite forms occur in of tyregandiny diccious
| y ing the com-
oat of evolu-

SEX, REPRODUCTION).
diecious plants ma.
willow, or in the pink or white Lychnis ( L. diurna
and L, vespertina), or the Common Nettle ( Urtica
dioica). Amongst cultivated plants, hemp,
spinach, and the date-palm may be instanced.
Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher, was a native
of Sinope, in Pontus, where he was born about 412
B.C. is father, a banker named Icesias or Icetas,
was convicted of swindling, and so the young
Diogenes had to leave Sinope and go to Athens.
His youth had been that of a spendthrift and a
rake, but at Athens his interest was arrested by
the character of Antisthenes, who, however, re-

oe

pelled his first advances. But not even blows
could restrain the enthusiastic ardour of the
young disciple, and at length Antisthenes, moved
boone sag | gp consented a 5 ee
rom an extravagant debauchee,
La once became an ascetic of the extremest
austerity. He would roll in hot sand during the
heat of summer; in winter, he would embrace a
statue covered with snow. His clothing was of
the coarsest, his food of the plainest. His bed was
the bare ground, whether in the open street or
under the porticoes. At length he found himself a
rmanent residence in a tub which belonged to the
etroum, or the temple of the Mother of the Gods.
His eccentric life did not cost him the respect of
the Athenians, who admired his contempt for com- -
fort, and allowed him a wide latitude of comment
and rebuke. Practical good was the chief aim of
his philosophy ; for literature and the fine arte he
did not conceal his disdain. He laughed at men of
letters for reading the sufferings of Ulysses, while
neglecting their own; at musicians w t in
stringing their lyres the time which w have
been much better employed in make. ee own
discordant natures harmonious ; =? i
for gazing at the heavenly bodies, while sublimely
incognisant of earthly ones ; at orators who studied
how to enforce truth, but not how to practise it.
He was seized by pirates on a voyage to ak
carried to Crete, where he was sold as a slave.
When asked what business he understood, he
answered : ‘How to command men.’ His -

was appointed tutor to the children, and
old age as one of the household. It was here that
he had his interview with Alexander the Great.
The king opened the conversation with: ‘I am
Alexander the Great,’ to which the
answered: ‘And I am Diogenes
Alexander then asked him in what way he
serve him, to which Diogenes rejoined : ‘ You
stand out of the sunshine.’ Alexander is said
have been so struck with the Cynic’s self-posses-
Autonder, Teen te Diogenes’ The Saar
exander, I w ogenes.
pher lived at Corinth till his death at the
ninety, 323 B.c. See Hermann, Zur Geschichte
und Kritik des Diogenes ( Heilbronn, 1860).
Diogenes Liiertius seems to have been born
at Laerte, in Cilicia, and to have taken his surname
from that town. Little is known of his

which he divides the philosophy of the Greeks
into the Ionic—beginning with Anaximander, and
ending with Chrysippus and Epicu : :
Italian, founded by P) ras, and ending with
Epicurus. The Socratic school was a of the
Ionic philosophy ; to the Italian belong the Eleatics,
with Heraclitus and the Sceptics. is work con-
tains a great mass of interesting information regard-
ing the private lives and habits of the most eminent
philosophers of antiquity. Though it is utterly
worthless in respect of plan, coherence, or criticism,
it yet contains so many piquant anecdotes, se
many valuable quotations from lost works, that
Montaigne’s wish was perhaps a justifiable one—
that instead of one Laertius, we had had a dozen.
The best editions of Laertius are those of Hubner
(Leip. 1828-31) and Cobet ( Paris, 1850).

Diomedea, See ALBATROSS.

Diomede Islands, « group of three small
islands (Fairway, Krusenstern, and Ratmanoff) in
Behring Strait, forming, as it were, stepping-stones
between Asi America.

828 DIOMEDES

DION CHRYSOSTOMUS

Diome'des, the bravest, after Achilles, of all
the Greeks who took part in the Trojan war. The
son of Tydeus, he is constantly called by his

atronymic, Tydides. _He vanquished in fight
actor and Agneas, the most valiant of the Tro-
jans; and even Ares and Aphrodite, when they
took the field on the Trojan side, were attacked
and wounded by him. In the games instituted by
Achilles in honour of Patroclus, he gained the
prize in the chariot-race, and worsted the mighty
Ajax in single combat. Along with Ulysses, he
carried off the Palladium, on which the fate of
Troy depended, On returning to Argos, to the
crown of which he had succeeded after the death of
Adrastus, he found that his wife had proved un-
faithful in his absence, whereupon he sailed away
to Italy, there married the daughter of King
Daunus, and lived to a good old age. The towns
of Beneventum, Venusia, Canusium, and Brun-
disium claimed to have been founded by him.

Dion, a Syracusan, whose sister became the
second wife of the elder Dionysius the Tyrant,
while he himself was married to a daughter of
Dionysius, his own niece. His close connection
with the tyrant brought him great wealth, but his
austere manners and devotion to philosophy made
him hateful to Dionysius the Younger, who under
the guidance of Philistus and his party disregarded
the advice of Plato, and banished Dion, here-
upon he retired to Athens to devote himself to the
study of ee under the guidance of Plato.
His expedition to ehcuse resulted in his making
himself master of the city (356 B.c.), but his severity
made him unpopular among its luxurious citizens,
and a plot was formed against him through which
he was murdered in his own house three years
later. His life was written by both Plutarch and
Cornelius Nepos, and he is the subject of a noble
poem by Wordsworth.

Dionze’a, a very curious and interesting genus
of Droseracez. Only one species is known, D.
muscipula, sometimes called Venus’s Fly-trap and
- the Carolina Catchfly Plant. It grows in marshy

places in North and South Carolina. The remark-
able insect-catching and digestive powers exhibited
by the leaves are described under INSECTIVOROUS
FLANTS,

Dion Cassius, surnamed Cocceianus, from the
orator Dion Chrysostomus Cocceianus, most likel
his maternal grandfather, a celebrated Cheek

historian, was born at Nicza, in Bithynia, 155 A.p, _
About 180 he went to Rome, held successively all
the high offices of state, was twice consul, atts en-
joyed the intimate friendship of Alexander Severus, ~
who sent him as legate to Dalmatia and Pannonia.
About 229 he retired to his native city, where he

assed the remainder of his life. He is best known

y his History of Rome, from the landing of Aineas
in Italy down to 229 A.D., in eighty books, of which
but nineteen, from, the thirty-sixth to the fifty-
fourth, have reached us complete. These embrace
the history from the wars of Lucullus and Pompey
against Mithridates, down to the death of Agrippa,
10 A.D. The first twenty-four books exist only in
the merest fragments ; of the last_ twenty we have
only the Eh nee epitome of Xiphilinus. The
Annals of Zonaras followed Dion Cassius so closely,
that we may almost consider that work as an
epitome. The position of Dion Cassius gave him
free access to the national archives, and his work
has considerable value for the imperial epoch of
Roman history. His model was Thucydides, and
he need not be abused because he did not equal his
original. The best editions of his History are those
of Sturz (1824), Bekker 1849, and L. Dindorf
(5 vols. 1863-65 ; revised by Melber, 1890).

Dion Chryso’'stomus (‘the golden-mouthed’),
an eminent Greek rhetorician, surnamed Cocceianus
from his intimate friendship with the Emperor
Cocceius Nerva, was born at Prusa, in Bithynia,
about 50 A.D. His father, Pasicrates, paid great
attention to his education, which was perfect by
travel. He came to Rome under Vespasian, but had —
afterwards to leave the city, having had the mis-
fortune to excite the suspicion of Domitian. He
next visited—in the disguise of a beggar, and on
advice of the Delphic oracle—Thrace, Mysia, and
Seythia. On the accession of Nerva (96 A.D.) he
returned to Rome, and lived in great honour under
that ruler and his successor Trajan till his own
death, about 117 A.D. As many as eighty of his
orations are still extant, with fragments of fifteen
others. They are, however, treatises rather than
orations proper, discussing questions in politics,
morals, and philosophy. These are well reasoned,
clear, and eloquent, and are written in pure Attic
Greek. Dion Chrysostomus was ‘the first writer
after Tiberius,’ says Niebuhr, ‘that greatly con-
tributed towards the revival of Greek literature.’
Good editions are by Reiske (1784), Emper (1844),
Dindorf (1857), and Von Arnim (1893-95),

END OF VOL. IIL

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