Rip cme kara oa fies <% ih Ua et 4} Leh, cae L ie oy ¥ Lae ee ee »' ae et ae “r : ay =X Line. * . 7 ~ a : ee Je Ls f wee eit ae Qn wy) { : v Aust © , 4 yi Pe a “ é ‘ s ‘ a7 Me! : : rey 7 ‘ oe = . 7 L- = ‘ ~ sr ‘ i. é ee a alae F oy . £ Digitized by the Internet Archive ‘ | in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation * ge archive.org/details/chambersencycl Wy) {] Ute WY SS SSS SSS SS SSS | \ CHAMBERS'S ‘a ENCYCLOPAEDIA. OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE NEW EDITION VOL V FRIDAY ro HUMANITARIANS ! J ¥ Y ~.._| aw or | 5 LZ 1 " Md . a it f \ ‘ns WILLIAM & ROBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED LONDON AND EDINBURGH i J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA & 1902 All Rights reserved % 0 } dy) “ 4) it ov ae "i } a j \ al i ; ‘| are Copyrighted by J. B. Lrpprncorr asics. in 1897 sud 1900, in th States of America: Grorer, Henry. Harter, Francis Brer. GEORGIA, | . Harvarp Unrversiry. Grant, Untysses SrmMpson. Hawrnorne, NATHANIEL. — Harrison, BENJAMIN. Homes, OLtveR WENDELL. » — ns, . Rae a e ; & ; , : xs Nae ae ph: a Copyright as above od tt 187 by J.B. Livescore Come \ < iepreiens as above Busia 1900, by es B. Lirrrscorr Conran. a } E : "at ee: + a 24, FRIENDS................ aves Pavir ; Funat............ POU ee Eee eee Se eee » eeere * ;H a MINEO, 5s cc0.scs sseveoseess Pee Fee eRe e eee neee SMAMRTOR......2....0-000+s00: Gas; Gas-LIGHTING... GAS-ENGINE...........08... Gay; GoLDsMITH....... Grog. DisTRiBvrion ... GEOGRAPHY ............... GEOMETRY ..............00 Germ THEORY............ GIBBON ; FULLER........ GIBBONS, ORLANDO.... GLACIAL PERIOD........ GLACIERS ; GEYSERS... ; _ GOVERNMENT............. Grant, Utyssss 6. .... GRAVITATION.............. ‘Great Brirain— Geology.............. baie Climate............. mittee Statistics ...... sevalaneee GREECE Rey. J. Frome WILKINSON. James G, SMeEAL. Professor Parrick GeppEs. R. B. Anperson. Rev. Wentworta WEBSTER. Henry PoLanp. Canon Isaac TAYLOR. - Professor MACKINNON, J. M. Gray. Sraniey Lang-Poo.e. G. Barnert Smira. . R. D. Brackmore. Luioyp C. SANDERS. R. W. Lowe. Dr ALFRED DANIELL. Professor Ew1na. Austin Dosson. G. G. CHIsHOLM. Joun 8. Kextie, F.R.G.8, Professor JAMES GEIKIE. J. 8. Mackay, LL.D. -W. Fraser Rak. Henry GEORGE. ©. Jones, LL.D. W. R. Morri.y. FinpLay MvurrHeaD. Dr R. W. Purp. Tuomas Davipson. Sir GzorGE GRovE, Professor JAMES GEIKIE, Joun GuNN. . Justin M‘Carruy, M.P. Principal WILLIAMS, James Paton. . H. Cuance. WitiiaM Morris. Rey. A. P. Davipson. F. Hixpes GRooME. . Professor Epwarp Dowpgn. Cc. G. W. Look. Cuar.es E. 8. CHAMBERS. . Colonel Sir W. F. Butter. Frank E. BepDArp. Rey. J. SUTHERLAND BLACK, D. MacGrBgon. Henry BRADLEY. Cuar.es I, Exton, M.P. Louis Barsé. ALFRED Nutr. Dr Joun PEILE. General James Grant WILSON. Professor A. C. MiroHEL1, Professor JAMES GEIKIE. Dr Bucuan. M. G. MULHALL. . F. B. Jevons, D. Macorsson, His Excellency Joannes GENNADIOS. Among the more important articles vn this Volume are the following: GUN.....000c000 Sasa febaat ls is . W. W. Greener, GUNNERY, &e,............ Lieut.-Colonel Duwtor, R.A. GunrowneRr, &e,,........ Major-General Ansurunor. GUNPOWDER PULOT...... T. Graves Law. GYMNASTIOS.......... «eee Dr Cuances W. Catucart. GUPOUGE, 56 ec Aa . ‘CA . ; ts i Tes Ys : ; / ye he ate i Ria nd - rae a ni. Pee) eae ae do, a ) reo CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPADIA A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE (Lat. Dies Veneris, Fr. redi, Ger. Freitag, Swed. Fredag), the sixth day of the week, takes its name from the goddess Frigga, the wife of Odin, to whom it was con- | secrated. The word is, however, | often connected with Freyja, the goddess of love, to which notion the Latin name is due. As the day of the week on which the Crucifixion of our Lord took (peo it has had a special sanctity among most hristian peoples, and Roman Catholics still hold The Friday in Holy Week is the day on which the Passion is celebrated, and as such is the most solemn of the fasts and festivals of the Christian church. Almost every- where within the range of Christendom, Friday is a day of proverbial ill-luck, on which it is not wise to put to sea, to marry, or commence any import- ant undertaking. In some places other days are unlucky for particular enterprises, but Friday holds its character everywhere and for undertakings of all kinds. Among no class of men is this notion more persistent than among mariners, who, whether Spaniards, Italians, Bretons, Finns, or English- men, alike manifest the same disinclination to put to sea that day; and recount many a story of ~ y = aS MSA S, y | it as a weekly fast. . disaster that has followed some too greatly daring crew, the memory unconsciously retaining the few confirming cases, while the many exceptions are easily forgotten. A persistent but not localised tradition in both England and Ameriea tells of a ship, the keel of which was laid on Friday, that was ched on Friday, with the name of Friday, and Sent to sea on Friday, under a Captain Friday, but which deservedly was never heard of again. Ship- ping statistics still show a smaller number of sail. ings upon that than upon any other day—it may be well for sailors to be reminded that Columbus both.sailed and discovered land on Friday, and that “3 Pilgrim Fathers touched land on the same y- 209 Although the Russian name for Friday, Pyatnitsa (pyat, ‘five’), has not a similar mythological signi- cance with Friday or Vendredi, the day was con- secrated by the ancient Slavonians to some goddess similar to Venus or Freyja. Afanasief explains the Carinthian name Sibne dau as indicating that it was once holy to Siva, the Lithuanian Seewa, the Slavonic deity corresponding to Ceres. In Christian time the deity presiding over Friday became merged in St Prascovia, and is now addressed under the compound name of ‘ Mother Pyatnitsa- Prascovia.’” She wanders about the house on her holy day, and is displeased to see sewing, spinning, weaving, and the like going on, revenging herself by plagues of sore eyes, whitlows, and agnails. pecially must the house be clean of dust on the Thursday evening, so that she may not be offended on her visit the next day. Frideswide, St, the patroness of Oxford, was born there early in the 8th century, the daughter of Dida, an ealdorman. She preferred the re- ligious life to marriage with Algar, a great ercian noble, who, coming in search of her, was struck blind. She died on 14th November at Oxford (q.v.), and was formally canonised in 1481. Catherine, Peter Martyr’s wife, was buried beside her pillaged shrine in 1552, exhumed by Cardinal Pole, but reinterred there in 1561, when the remains of the virgin saint and of the ex-nun were in- dissolubly mingled together. See F. Goldie, 8.J., The Story of St Frideswide (1881). Friedensville, a small post-village of Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, 6 iuiles SE. of Allentown, with a rich zinc mine and a famous pump, that raises nearly 30,000,000 gallons of water daily. Friedland, a town of East Prussia, on the Alle, 26 miles SE. of Kénigsberg, with 3182 in- habitants. It is famous as the scene of Napoleon’s victory, on 14th June 1807, over the Russian and Prussian forces under Bennigsen, which brought about the Treaty of Tilsit.—FRIEDLAND is also the name of a town in the north-east of Mecklenburg, 2 FRIEDLAND FRIENDLY SOCIETIES with 5502 inhabitants, and of a manufacturing town in the north of Bohemia, on the Wittig, 16 miles N. of Reichenberg by rail, with a pop. of 4817. The last gave name to the duchy from which Wallen- stein (q.v.) took his title of Duke of Friedland. Friedland, VALENTIN, a remarkable educa- tionist, generally called Trotzendorf, from his birthplace, near Gérlitz, in Prussian Silesia, was born 14th February 1490. At Leipzig he studied Latin under Peter Mosellanus an Uiséek under Richard Crocus, and he began his career as a teacher in the school at Gérlitz. On the dawn of the Reformation he proceeded to Wittenberg, and studied under Luther and Melanchthon. Settling at Goldberg, in Silesia, as rector of the gymnasium there in 1531, Friedland introduced into his school a novel system of instruction and. of dis- eipline, which soon spread the fame of the institu- tion through all the adjoining countries of Europe. The principal feature of the disciplinary system was that the preservation of order and decorum was left in the hands of the boys themselves. Instruction was imparted through the medium of academic discussions, coupled with frequent repe- titions and examinations. Friedland died, 26th April 1556, at Liegnitz, whither he had removed his school two years before. See the biographies by Herrmann (1727), Frésch (1818), Pinzger (1825), Kohler (1848), and Liéschke (1856). Friedrich, JOHANN, a Catholic theologian, a leader with Dollinger in the Old Catholic move- ment. Born in Franconia in 1836, he became a professor of Theology at Munich in 1865; assisted at the Vatican Council in 1870; and subsequently, in life and labours, has been identified with the Old Catholics (q.v.). _ Friedrichroda, a town of Thiiringen in the charming Schilfwasser valley, 13 miles SW. of Gotha by rail, is a favourite summer-resort, receiv- ing some 7000 visitors yearly. Here is the Duke of Gotha’s beautiful country seat, Reinhardsbrunn, on the site of the old abbey of that name, destroyed in the Peasant War. Pop. (1895) 4248. Friedrichsdorf, «a town in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus, 3 miles NE. of Homburg. It was founded in 1687 by thirty-two Huguenot families, and its 1200 inhabitants still speak French. Friedrichsruh, the castle and estate of Prince Bismarck, in Lauenburg, 16 miles SE. of Hamburg. Friendly Islands, or TonGA Group, lie 250 miles ESE. of Fiji (q.v.), number 32 inhabited and about 150 small islands, and consist of three sub-groups, with a collective area of only 385 sq. m. Tonga-tabu (130 sq. m.) is the largest ; and next in importance are Eooa, Vavu, Namuka and Lefuka, Tofoa, Late, and Kao. The great majority are of coral formation ; but some are volcanic; there are several active voleanoes, such as Tofoa (2781 feet) and Late (1787); and earthquakes are frequent. During a severe volcanic disturbance in October 1885 a small island 20 miles north-west of Honga Hapai was upheaved, and named Sandfly Island, after the government schooner which first visited it. A treaty was concluded with Germany in 1876, with Great Britain in 1879 ; the convention between Britain and Germany in 1886 provided for the neu- trality of this archipelago, and in 1899 Germany renounced all her rights here in favour of Britain. The Friendly Islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643, but received their collective name from Cook, who visited them in 1777. Both these navi- gators found the soil closely and highly culti- vated, and the people apparently unprovided with arms. The climate is salubrious, but humid; hurricanes are frequent. Among the products of the islands are tropical fruits, copra, coffee, sponges, cocoa-nuts, and arrowroot. The imports in 1894 amounted to £82,831, and the exports to £67,633. The flora resembles that of the Fiji group; but the native animals are very few. In the south part of Tonga-tabu there is an ancient monument of two - FRIENDLY I* | English Miles | ————SS perpendicular rectangular blocks of stone about 40 feet high, with a slab across the top, and thereon " stone bowl. The stones must have been brought sea. ‘The Friendly Islands were first visited by mis- sionaries in 1797. In 1827 the work of evangelisa- tion fell into the hands of the Wesleyan Methodists, and, after a lengthened and perilous struggle with the savage paganism of the inhabitants, it was crowned with success. Almost all the islanders (who, unlike the Fijians, belong to the fair Polynesian stock) are now Christians; many can speak English, and schools are numerous. In mental development, skill in house-building, &c., © they are superior to other South Sea islanders. They are, however, decreasing in numbers; once estimated at 40,000 or 50,000, they had dwindled to 17,500 in 1893. The various islands used to be governed by independent chiefs, but in 1845 they were brought under the rule of King George (1818- 93), whoin 1862 gave the islands a ‘ constitution” and summoned a parliament. He was succeeded b his great-grandson, George II. See H. 8. Cooper’s Coral Islands (1880), and Basil Thompson’s Diver- sions of a Prime Minister (1895), Friendly Societies. The prototype of the modern friendly society has been found in the medieval trade or craft tig? and there is some connection between the older specimens of the village benefit club and these guilds, which were the friendly societies of their day. During the nonage of Edward VI. the craft guilds were disestablished and disendowed -(their. revenues becoming the prey of greedy courtiers); but there - are traces in some rural districts of England that the convivial, if not the beneficial, aspect of the old guilds survives in the annual feast of the village club. The germ, however, of the present system of mutual provident associations under the friendly society form is contained in Defoe’s Essays on Several Projects (1696), in which the author of Robinson Crusoe advocated the promotion of ‘societies formed by mutual assurance for the relief of the members in seasons of distress . . ._ by which not a creature so miserable or so poor but should claim subsistence as their due, not ask it of charity.’ Indeed, it would seem as though Defoe was only seeking to extend the operations of FRIENDLY SOCIETIES 3 a species of thrift institution already in existence, since we find a London society founded in 1687 among the dozen known survivors of benelit clubs established during the last quarter of the 17th and _ the first half of the 18th century. The Ancient Order of Free Gardeners is of considerable antiquity in Scotland, the oldest known lodge being that of Dunfermline, the charter of which dates from 1715. This form of provident insurance is peculiar to the English-speaking race, and is the invention of the industrial classes of Great Britain, as the means whereby they have supplied their economic needs for themselves by themselves, ‘no man showing them the way, not by prescription of law, not by influence of superiors.’ In 1793 the legislation first recognised the expediency of protecting and encouraging friendly societies, and enacted ‘that > should he lawful for any number of persons in Great Britain to form themselves into and to establish one or more society or societies of good fellowship, for the purpose of raising from time to time, by subscriptions of the several members, a stock or fund for the mutual relief and mainten- ance of all and every the members thereof, in old , sickness, and infirmity, or for the relief of the widows and children of deceased members’ ( Rose Act). And a parliamentary committee of 1825 excellently gives the raison d’étre of the mutual friendly society as compared with the individualistic savings-bank : ‘ Whenever there is a contingency, the cheapest way of providing against it is by uniting with others, so that each man may subject himself to a small deprivation, in order that no man may be subjected to a great loss. He upon whom the contingency does not fall does not get his money back in, nor does he get for it any visible or tangible benefit ; but he obtains Pigg inst ruin, and consequent peace of mind. He upon whom the contingency does fall gets all that those whom fortune has exempted from it have lost in hard money, and is thus enabled to sustain an event which would otherwise overwhelm him. The individual depositor, not the contributor to a common fund, is really the speculator. If no sick- ~ attacks him during his years of strength and activity, and he dies before he is past labour, he ' j‘has been suecessful in his speculation; but if he / fall sick at an early period, or if he live to old age, he is a great loser, for his savings, with their accumulations, will support him but a short time in sickness.’ What the Rose Act of 1793 was to societies that existed in the last decade of the 18th century the enabling enactment of 1829 ed Geo. IV. chap. 56) was to societies which longed & to a more developed period of history. _ Mauch of the efficiency and working of this _ act was due to the new departure taken by its ¥ r, Lord Portman, then M.P. for Dorsetshire, _ in putting himself into communication with repre- sentatives of those bodies for which he pu to _ legislate. The Act of 1829 ‘forms the transition from the system of local to that of central registration,’ and the supplementary Act of 1834 carried central- isation a step further. Prior to the date of the former act a provincial system of registration and returns prevailed, each clerk of the peace hold- ing the office of registrar for his several county, the rules being certified and the scales of contribu- _ tions passed by the county magistrates. But henceforth three registrars of co-ordinate authorit for England, Scotland, and Ireland were ponelatel. The provision requiring justices to be satisfied that the tables of contributions and benefits might be ‘adopted with safety to all parties concerned ’ was repealed ; but, in view of existing imperfect and inefficient data in the matter of vital statistics, societies were under the obligation of making quinquennial returns of their sickness and mortality experience, The following privileges of the Act of 1793 were confirmed: power to recover funds from defaulting officers by summary proceedings ; abe of claims for moneys on the assets of any eceased or bankrupt officer or trustee ; power to determine disputes by arbitration, and of justices to enforee compliance with the ruling of the arbitrators ; exemption of stamp duty on bonds. The Victorian era was contempotaneous with the financial period in the history of the friendly society system. Hitherto societies had been rather benevo- lent than benefit, more convivial than financial, in their status. But with Mr Charles Ansell came the dawn of actuarial light on the friendly society world. The passy scientific principles laid down by Mr Ansell were rectified and extended by Mr eison the elder, in his magnum opus, Contribu- tions to Vital Statistics (1845). Five years later appeared Observations on the Rate of Mortality and Sickness amongst Friendly Societies, &e., with a series of tables showing the value of annuities, sick ifts, assurance for death, and contributions ‘to paid equivalent thereto, caleulated from the experience of the Manchester Unity of Oddfellows, by Henry Ratcliffe, corresponding secretary. The outcome was the famous ‘ Ratcliffe Tables,’ subse- uently corrected by the compiler, and endorsed by the Royal Commission of 1871-74 as the soundest and most reliable tables extant. Thus twenty-five years prior to the Friendly Societies Act of 1875 (which embodied the recommendations of the com- missioners), making a valuation of assets and liabilities compulsory, the late secretary and actuary of the Manchester Unity laid down the true principles of financial security, and prepared the way for a process of self-reform in the society which it would be difficult to match in the history of any other public and corporate body. The classification of. the various trades of members occupied Mr Ratcliffe from 15 to 17 hours per day, and 1,321,048 years of life were brought under observation. It was not until 1850 that the affiliated class of friendly society received legal recognition under a temporary act, which became, five years later, a permanent measure (18 and 19 Vict. chap. 63). Prior to this date they had been illegal combinations, coming under the clauses of the Corresponding Societies Act (39 Geo. ILI. chap. 79) and of the Seditious Meetings Act (57 Geo. IIL. chap. 19). The legal recognition was, however, of little use to the affiliated societies, since the then newly-appointed registrar, Mr J. Tidd Pratt, in oppo- sition to the spirit as well as the wording of the act, refused to allow the registration of branches of the orders, except as separate and isolated societies —a misruling which was not corrected, so far as branches registered under this act and not registered under the Act of 1875 were concerned, till 1886 (Supreme Court of Appeal : Scholfield and others v. Vause and others). e only other altera- tions of importance were the requirement of an actu- arial certificate in the case of societies granting an annuity or superannuation benefit, and the abolition of all fees for registry. The Act of 1855 failing to bring about the beneficial results hoped for by its promoters, in 1871 a Royal Commission of Inquiry was appointed, with Sir Stafford Northcote (the late Lord Iddesleigh) for chairman and J. M. Ludlow, Esq., secretary. The labours of the Com- missioners extended over a period of four years, and the recommendations of their final report (1874) were embodied in the act now in force (38 and 39 Vict. chap. 60), which, owing to the above-mentioned ruling of Mr J. Tidd Pratt, had to be supplemented by a short Amendment Act (1876), under which societies with branches (i.e. affiliated orders) could be istered as such. The following are amon the principal alterations effected by the Acts o 4 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES 1875-76: one chief registrar and three assistants, instead of three separate registrars for England, Scotland, and Ireland with co-ordinate authority ; special clause (30) dealing with collecting societies ; deposit of rules by unregistered societies no longer allowed; annual audits required; valuation of assets and liabilities required every five yeatss public auditors and valuers to be appointed by the treasury, but their employment not compulsory ; the number of members who can apply to the registrar for an award of dissolution reduced ; further powers given to the registrar on this point. Alterations in friendly society law subsequent to 1876 have been unimportant, and generally intro- duced ‘to declare the true meaning’ of some clause in the Act of 1875. Note, however, should be made of 50 and 51 Vict. chap. 56, which empowers juvenile societies and branches to retain member- ship till the age of twenty-one years, the former limit being sixteen years. Societies and branches consisting wholly of members between three and twenty-one years of age may be registered, pro- vided (1) they are in connection with some adult society registered under the act, or a branch of any such society, or (2) in connection with some institution or school. Owing to technical legal difficulties, the registry office is unable to sibply accurate information as to the present numerical and financial strength of the friendly society position ; but the writer, from returns specially made to him, is in a position to give the following estimate (which will be found approximately correct) of the principal types of society, registered and unregistered : No. of Members, Funds, (1) Affiliated Societies ............. 2,024,000 £13,103,000 3) General with County Societies... 300,000 1,500,000 3) Peculiar Trade Societies— (a) Railway Group.......... 57,000 144,000 (b) Miners’ Permanent Relief Funds........... 230,000 258,000 (4) Loeal Societies, inclusive of } Dividing Clubs............ 1,000,000 . 2,090,000 (5) Collecting Societies............ 8,590,000 2,286,000 3 Societies of Women............. 10,000 +h 7) Juvenile Societies.............. 200,000 190,000 Total....7,411,000 £19,476,000 (1) The affiliated societies are broadly dis- tinguished from their competitors for public favour by being before all things ‘friendly’ fraternities, in which the social element is the motor of action— sick and burial clubs, and something more. Long ago this type of society crossed the seas and accom- anied the emigrant to his new home in ‘ Greater ritain.’” In constitution and government the orders, as they are termed, are pure democracies. First comes the individual branch—lodge, court, tent, or senate—possessing an independence of management (subject only to general law), and retaining its own sick fund. Then succeeds the district (the limbs, as it were, of the body), a local gathering of branches within a certain given area, in which the funeral allowance is reinsured ; and, lastly, the central body itself, called by some distinctive name (as Annual Movable Committee, High Court Meeting), an annually or biennially elected parliament of delegates, carrying out its rules pee regulations through a working executive. The far and away largest bodies are the Oddfellows (Manchester Unity) and the Ancient Order of Foresters, appropriating between them 1,313,721 members out of the grand toti« for the class and £10,495,000 of the funds. Other important orders are United Order of Oddfellows (150,806), Temper- ance Order of Rechabites (75,000), Ashton Unity of Shepherds—the strongest order in Scotland— (71,000), and Order of Druids (58,216). The average cost of management is 7 per cent. of the annual contributions. (2) Is a development of the purely local class to meet the altered needs of the day. The class consists of societies of divers degrees of merit, but all possessing a common central fund. The giant among them is the Hearts of Oak (London), with its 115,284 members and capital of close on one million sterling. The county societies are the ‘old established houses’ belonging to the ‘ patronised’ group, and are being — deserted for the better known of the orders. (3) This class is specially devoted to insurance against the fatal and non-fatal accidents of hazardous occupations, and is of interest as being largely used by workmen to contract themselves out of the Employers’ Liability Act (1880). There has been a recent development of peculiar trade societies, and certain of the professions have established benefit institutions—e.g. Medical Sickness and Annuity, and Clergy Friendly Societies, the former possessing a membership of over 1000 and funds to the value of nearly £25,000. (4) Local societies are fast disappearing before the onward march of a better class of mutual provident association. But the low type of friendly society which periodically divides its funds, and is always beginning afresh to run in the thrift race, is sadly too prevalent; the increasing liability to sickness with ee years is altogether ignored ; a blind eye is turne on the future. (5) Societies which gather in their weekly or fortnightly pence by means of collectors calling from door to door. The bulk of member- ship is composed of the most necessitous poor, and robably two-thirds are women or children. No enefit beyond an insurance at death is given. The actual number of societies forming the class is a small one compared with the total number; for England only 47 out of about 24,000 different bodies registered as societies or branches; in Scotland 5 out of 900; in Ireland none out of some 400. The largest societies are the Royal Liver (1,211,259) pie the Liverpool Victoria Legal (1,003,787). The expenses of management, with commissions, range from 20 to 52 per cent. of the annual premiums. The numerical increase of the class is only surpassed by that of the Industrial Assurance Companies. (6) Societies of women are but poorly represented in the voluntary thrift army, and the few that exist were mostly established in an unfinancial age. An order which aims to be national in its area of membership was, however, established in 1885 b a clergyman of the Church of England (Rev. Frome Wilkinson), which has already opened branches in several counties (one in Scotland), and should meet the ever-increasing economic needs of women. The society is registered as the United Sisters’ Friendly Society (Suffolk Unity). (7) Juvenile societies are the thrift ‘nurseries’ of the adult societies, and are mostly confined to the affili- ated class, the largest number of branches being in connection with the Foresters, Manchester Unity, and Rechabites. There is a steady increase in the popularity of juvenile friendly society membership. ests of Financial Security and Good Manage- ment.—Registration, ‘not because registry of itself can make any society safe, but because its position must be always unsafe without registry.’ tes of contribution for benefits, both sick and funeral, on a graduated or sliding scale, according to age on entry, which rates themselves shall be held by actuarial authority sufficient to carry benefits con- tracted for. Record of yearly sickness and mor- tality experience kept, so that the valuer may-be in possession of sufficient data by which to estimate the society’s or branches’ liabilities. Yearly audit and five-yearly financial overhaul or efficient valu- ation of assets and liabilities. Effect given, without undue delay, to remedial measures recom- mended by valuer, should liabilities exceed assets. The several insurance funds kept separate, and FRIENDLY SOCIETIES FRIENDS 5 expenses of management provided for, Sick benefits insured till sixty-five, at which age a pension or deferred annuity shall commence, and continue for remainder of life. Reserve funds to realise a clear tage of interest, equal to that on which ties, or scales of contributions have been cal- culated, generally 3 per cent. Candidates refused who cannot ‘pass’ the doctor, or who have exceeded years the maximum limit of forty-five, forty being preferred. Efficient supervision of sick pay- ments to guard against ‘ malingering’ or fictitious claims. iety not to be of local isolated type, dependent solely on its own resources, but associ- ated with other branches of one and the same _ organisation, or of the centralised type. Means to be taken, in seasons of distress or loss of work, whereby membership may be retained. Provision, if desired, for juveniles, widows, orphans, and decayed members. : We would strongly endorse the subjoined authoritative warning : ‘A word of caution may be added against forming too hasty conclusions adverse to friendly societies, if it should turn out that the valuations in many cases show an estimated deficiency in the funds to meet the liabilities. It would be strange if it were otherwise, when for the first time scientific tests are applied to contracts that have been‘in opera- tion without a scientific basis for a long series of years. It must be borne in mind, however, that nothing is more elastic than the contract made by a friendly society with its members ; no error more easy of remedy, if found out in time, than one existing in the original terms of such a contract. Hence the words “insolvency,” ‘‘ rottenness,” and the like, which we sometimes hear freely used as describing the general condition of friendly societies, are utterly out of place. Of friendly societies in general it may be said that, as there are no associa- tions the benefits of which are more important to their members, so there are none that are managed with greater rectitude, and few with equal success.’ —Introduction to W. Tidd Pratt’s Law of Friendly Societies (1881), by E. W. Brabrook, F.S.A. For further information, the following authorities may be consulted: Dr Baernreither’s English Associations of Working Men (1889); the present writer’s Friendly Society Movement (1886) and Mutual Thrift (1891); Year Book of Friendly Societies Registry Office ; Annual Re- Chief Registrar. Also Ratcliffe’s Hxperience of the anchester Unity ; Mr Francis G. P. Neison’s Foresters’ i i ; and the same eminent actuary’s Observa- tions on the Efficient Valuation of Friendly Societies. Friends, Soctery or, the designation proper of a sect of Christians, better known as Quakers. Their founder in 1648-66 was George Fox (q.v.). In ‘spite of severe and cruel persecutions, the a Friends succeeded in establishing them- selves both in England and America. They have, indeed, never been puperivally powerful (having at no time exceeded 200,000 members) ; but the purity of life which from the beginning has so honourably distinguished them as a class ia unquestionably exercised a salutary influence on the public at large; while in respect of certain great questions affecting _ the interests of mankind, such as war and slavery, they have, beyond all doubt, originated opinions and encies which, whether sound or erroneous, are no longer confined to themselves, but have widely avened the mind of Christendom. Eminent Friends have been George Fox, Robert Barclay, Thomas. Ellwood, William Penn, Elizabeth Fry, Mrs Opie, J. J. Gurney, Bernard Barton, Dalton the Eyer, John Bright, Birket Foster, &e. ; ‘un- friendly’ Friends were Benjamin Robins, who rev- olutionised the art of Gunnery (q.v.), Tom Paine, and Sir Richard Church. (1) Doctrine.—It is perhaps more in the spirit than in the letter of their faith that the Society of Friends differ from other orthodox Christians. They themselves assert their belief in the great fundamental facts of Christianity, and even in the substantial identity of most of the doctrinal opinions which they hold with those of other evangelical denominations. The Epistle addressed by George Fox and other Friends to the governor of Barbadoes in 1673 contains a confession of faith not differing materially from the so-called Apostles’ Creed, except that it is more copiously worded and dwells with great diffuseness on the internal work of Christ. The Declaration of Christian Doctrine put forth on behalf of the Society in 1693 ex- oresses a belief in what is usually termed. the rinity, in the atonement made by Christ for sin, in the resurrection from the dead, and in the doctrine of a final and eternal hae nase and the Declaratory Minute of the yearly meeting in 1829 asserts the inspiration and divine authority of the Old and New Testarbent, the depravity of human nature consequent on the fall of Adam, and other characteristic doctrines of Christian orthodoxy, adding : ‘Our religious Society, from its earliest establishment to the present day, has received these most important doctrines of Holy Scripture in their plain and obvious acceptation.’ It is nevertheless certain that uniformity of theological opinion cannot be claimed for the Friends, any more than for other bodies of Cliristians. As early as 1668 William Penn and George Whitehead held a public discussion with a clergyman of the English Chureh, named Vincent, in which the maintained that the doctrine of a tri-personal God, as held by that church, was not found in the Scriptures, though in what form they accepted the doctrine themselves does not appear; and some time later Penn published a work himself, entitled the Sandy Foundation Shaken, in which, among other things, he endeavoured to show that the doctrines of vicarious atonement and of imputed righteousness do not rest on any scriptural foun- dation. But in general the Society of Friends, in the expression of their belief, have avoided the technical phraseology of other Christian churches, restricting themselves with commendable modesty to the words of Scripture itself, as far as that is possible, and avoiding, in particular, the knotty points of Calvinistic divinity (see Barclay’s Cate- chism and Confession of Faith, published in 1673, where the answers to the questions—to avoid theo- logical dogmatism—are taken from the Bible itself). This habit of allowing to each individual the full freedom of the Scriptures has, of course, rendered it all the more difficult to ascertain to what extent individual minds, among the Society, may have differed in their mode of apprehending and dogmatically explaining the facts of Chris- tianity. Their principal distinguishing doctrine is that of the ‘Light of Christ in man,’ on which many of their outward peculiarities, as a religious body, are grounded. The doctrine of the internal light is founded on the view of Christ given by St John, who, in the first chapter of his gospel, describes Christ—the Eternal Logos—as the ‘life’ and ‘light of men,’ ‘ the true light,’ ‘ the light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world,’ &e. Barclay taught that even the heathen were illumined by this light, though they might not know—as, indeed, those who lived before Christ could not know—the historical Jesus in whom Christians believe. In their case Christ was the light shining in darkness, though the darkness comprehended it not. The existence of ‘natural virtue’ (as orthodox theologians term it) amon the heathen was denied by Barclay, who regard all such virtue as Christian in its essence, and as proceeding from the light of Christ shining through 6 FRIENDS the darkness of pagan superstition. These opinions would seem to be somewhat freer than those ex- ressed in the General Epistle of the Society pub- ished in 1836, wherein they refuse to acknowledge ‘any principle of spiritual light, life, or holiness inherent by nature in the mind of man,’ and again assert that they ‘believe in no principle whatso- ever of spiritual light, life, or holiness, except the influence of the Holy Spirit of God bestowed on mankind in various measures and degrees through Jesus Christ.our Lord.’ But, on the other hand, in a little treatise published by the Society in 1861 it is affirmed that ‘the Holy Spirit has always been afforded in various measures to mankind ;’ while stress is also laid on the statement of St Paul, that ‘the grace of God (understood by Friends to signify the ‘operation of the Divine Spirit’) that bringeth salvation hath appeared to all men.’ And another exponent of their views, Mr T, Evans, of Philadelphia, states that ‘God hath granted to all men, of whatsoever nation or country, a day. or time of visitation, during which it is possible for them to partake of the benefits of Christ’s death, and be saved. For this end he hath com- municated to every man a measure of the light of his own Son, a measure of grace or the Holy Spirit, by which he invites, calls, exhorts, and strives with every man, in order to save him ; which light or grace, as it is received, and not resisted, works the salvation of all, even of those who are ignorant of Adam’s fall, and of the death and sufferings of Christ, both by bringing them to a sense of their own misery, and to be sharers in the sufferings of Christ inwardly, and by making them partakers of his resurrection, in becoming holy, pure, and righteous, and recovered out of their sins.’ Hence it may be safely asserted that they hold a broader (or, as others would say, a more latitudinarian ) view of the Spirit’s working than any other Christian church or society. In America, about the year 1827, Elias Hicks, a Friend of very remarkable powers, created a schism in the Society, by the promulgation of opinions denying the miraculous conception, divinity, and atonement of Christ, and also the authenticity and divine authority of the Holy Scriptures. About one-half of the Society in America adopted the views of Hicks, and are known as Hicksite Friends ; their opinions, of course, are repudiated by the rest of the Society, who may be described as Orthodox Friends. The Hicksite schism thoroughly alarmed the latter, both in England and America, and a movement was begun in favour of education, of a doctrinal belief more nearly allied to that of the so-called ‘ Evangelical’ arty, and of a relaxation in the formality and iscipline of the Society. The leader of this move- ment was Joseph Jolin Gurney, of Norwich. This new tendency, however, excited considerable oppo- sition among some of the Friends in America ; and the consequence was a division among the Orthodox Friends themselves, and the formation of a new sect, called ‘ Wilburites,’ after the name of their founder, John Wilbur, who are noted for the strict- ness with which they maintain the traditions and peculiarities of the Society. Some slight indica- tions of theological differences have manifested themselves in England also. (2) Practice. —It is in the application of their lead- ing doctrine of the ‘internal light’ that the peeuli- arities of the Friends are most apparent. Believing that it is the Holy Spirit, or the indwelling Christ, that alone maketh wise unto salvation, illumining the mind with true and spiritual knowledge of the deep things of God, they do not consider ‘human learning’ essential to a minister of the gospel, and look with distrust on the method adopted by other churches for obtaining such—viz. by formally train- ing after a human fashion a body of youths chosen on no principle of inward fitness. They believe that the call to this work now, as of old, is ‘not of men, neither by man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father,’ and that it is bestowed irrespectively of rank, talent, learning, or sex. Consequently, they have no theological halls, professors of divinity, or classes for ‘students.’ Further, as fitness for the ministry is held to be a free gift of God through the Holy Spirit, so, they argue, it ought to be freely bestowed, in support of which they adduce the recept of the Saviour—‘ Freely ye have received, reely give;’ hence those who minister among them are not paid for their labour of love, but, on the other ated, whenever such are engaged from home in the work of the gospel, they are, in the spirit of Christian love, freely entertained, and have all their wants supplied : in short, the Friends maintain the absolutely voluntary character of re- Deous obligations, and that Christians should do all for love, and nothing for money. It also follows from their view of a call to the work of the ministry that women may exhort as well as men, for the ‘spirit of Christ’ may move them as powerfully as the other sex. The prophecy of Joel as ap lied. by Peter is cited as authority for the rented of women : ‘On my servants and on my handmaidens I will pour out in those days of my Spirit, and they shall prophesy.’ They also adduce the New Testa- ment examples of Tryphena, Tryphosa, the be- loved Persis, and other women who appear to have laboured in the gospel. Their mode of ‘conducting public worship likewise illustrates the entireness of their dependence on the ‘internal light.’ In other religious bodies the minister has a set form of worship, through which he must go, whether he feels devoutly disposed or not. This seems objec- tionable to the Friends, who meet and remain in silence until they believe themselves moved to speak by the Holy Ghost. Their prayers and praises are, for the most part, silent and inward. They prefer to make melody in their hearts unto God, consider- ing such to be more spiritual than the outward service of the voice. The doctrine of the ‘internal light’ has also led the Friends to reject the ordinances of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper as these are observed by other Christians. ey believe the Christian baptism to be a spiritual one, and not, like the Jewish and heathen baptisms, one with water; in support of which they quote, among other passages, the words of John the Baptist himself : J baptise you with water, but there cometh one after me who shall baptise you with the Holy Ghost and with fire.’ Similarly do they regard the rite of the Eucharist. It is, say they, Inward and spiritual, and consists not in any symbolic breaking of bread and drinking of wine, but in that daily communion with Christ through the Holy Spirit, and through the obedience of faith, by which the believer is nourished and strengthened. They believe that the last words of the dying Redeemer on the cross, ‘ It is finished,’ announced the entire abolition of symbolic rites, that, under the new spiritual dispensation then introduced, the necessity for such, as a means of arriving at truth, ceased, and that their place has been abundantly supplied by the Comforter, the Holy Ghost, whose office it now is to lead and guide men into all truth. The true Christian supper, according to them, is set forth in revelation— ‘Behold I stand at the door and knock : if any man hear my voice and open the door, I will come in unto him, and will sup with him and he with me.’ For the same reason—viz. that the teaching of the Spirit is inward and spiritual—the Friends ignore the religious observance of days and times, with the exception of the Sabbath. The taking or administering of oaths is regarded by Friends as inconsistent with the command of - they hold FRIENDS 7 Christ, ‘swear not at all,’ and with the exhorta- tion of the apostle James—‘ Above all things, my thren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath: but let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay; lest ye fall into condemnation’ (see AFFIRMATION). They also refused to pay tithes for the maintenance of what to be a hireling ministry, believing that Christ put an end to the priesthood and ceremonial se instituted under the Mosaic dispensation, and th \ at he substituted none in their place. In consequence, all consistent Friends were regularly _ muleted of plate, furniture, or other goods, to the value of the amount due. The conversion of tithe into rent-charge (see TITHE), however, has, in the opinion of many Friends, largely removed objec- tions to the payment to this ecclesiastical demand. In “Sate to the civil magistracy, while they respect and honour it, as ordained of God, they are care- ful to warn the members of their Society against thoughtlessly incurring its responsibilities, involv- ing as it does the administration of oaths, the issuing of orders and warrants in reference to eccles- iastical demands, the calling out of an armed force in cases of civil commotion, and other duties incon- sistent with the peaceful principles of the Society. The Friends have likewise consistently protested against war in all its forms; and the Society has repeatedly advised its members against aiding and assisting in the conveyance of soldiers, their bag- gage, arms, ammunition, or military stores. They regard the profession of arms and fighting, not only as diametrically opposed to the general spirit of Christ, whose. advent was sung by angels in these words : ‘Glory to God in the highest, and on earth — good-will toward men;’ but as positively orbidden by such precepts as—‘ Love your enemies, bless them that cursé you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you ;’ also, ‘ Resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also ;’ and, while they acknowledge that temporary calamities may result from adopting this principle of non-resistance, they have so strong a faith in its being essentially the dictate of divine love to the Christian heart that they believe God, by his wise and omnipotent etme al, could and will yet make it ‘mig ty to the pulling down of the strongholds of iniquity.’ The world, they believe, will by-and-by confess that the e-makers are most truly the children of God. The efforts of the Society for the emancipation of the slaves are a part of modern British history. They may most certainly lay claim to having cultivated the moral sense of their fellow-countrymen in regard to this important question. As early as 1727 they com- menced to ‘censure’ the traffic in slaves, as a prac- tice ‘neither commendable nor allowed,’ and gradu- ally warmed in their opposition, until the whole nation felt the glow, and entered with enthusiasm on the work of abolition. In respect to what may be ed minor points, the Friends are also very scrup- ulous ; they object to ‘ balls, gaming-places, horse- races, and playhouses, those nurseries of debauchery and wickedness, the burden and grief of the sober ek of other societies as well as of our own.’ The rinted Epistle of the yearly meeting of 1854 con- tains a eg Sag indulging in music, especi- ally what goes by the name of ‘sacred music,’ and denounces musical exhibitions, such as oratorios, as essentially a ‘profanation’—the tendency of these thin being, it is alleged, ‘to withdraw the soul from that quiet, humble, and retired frame in which prayer and praise may be truly offered with the spirit and with the understanding also.’ The object, besides, to ‘the hurtful tendency of read- ing plays, romances, novels, and other pernicious books ;’ and the yearly meeting of 1764 ‘recom- mends to every member of our Society to discourage and suppress the same.’ A similar recommenda- tion was issued by the Society in 1851 for the benefit of ‘younger Friends’ in particular, who would meg to have been tasting the forbidden fruit. 1¢ Printed Epistle of the yearly meeting of 1724 likewise ‘ advises against imitating the vain custom of wearing or giving mourning, and all extravagant expenses about the interment of the dead,’ and this advice has been repeatedly renewed. A multitude of other minute peculiarities, which it would be tedious to note in detail, distinguish the Friends from their fellow-Christians, but one or two of these may here be referred to, The Friends have from their rise, by example and precept, urged upon their members ‘plainness of speech, behaviour, and apparel,’ and hence, in the matters of dress and Be ress, have arisen certain outward peculiarities by which a ‘Friend’ could always be distinguished. In speech they invariably make use of ‘thee’ and ‘thou’ in addressing a single person, without respect to rank, station, or authority, and in support of this they plead correct grammar and the example of Seripture. They also felt called to cease from denoting the several months of the year and days of the week by the names usually made use of in designating them. Instead of January, February, &c., or Monday, Tuesday, &c., they adopted ‘ First Month, ‘Second Month,’ ‘First Day,’ ‘Second Day,’ &e. For their practice in this respect they asserted that the names of the days and months used by others were given to them in honour of ‘ heathen deities,’ and this they resolutely refused to coun- tenance. Though there is not now the same uni- formity of practice throughout the body in some of the minor peculiarities, they are to a consider- able extent retained and adhered to. (3) Discipline.—By the term discipline the Friends ciierctand ‘all those arrangements and regula- tions which are instituted for the civil and religious benefit of a Christian church.’ The necessity for such discipline soon began to make itself felt, and the result was the institution of certain meetings or assemblies. These are four in number: the first, the Preparative meetings; second, the wages meetings; third, the Quarter! meetings ; and, fourth, the Yearly meetings. The first are usually composed of the members in any given place, in which there are generally two or more Friends of each sex, whose duty is to act as overseers of the meeting, taking cognisance of births, marriages, burials, removals, &c., the conduct of members, &c., and reporting thereon to the monthly meet- ings, to whom the executive department of the dis- cipline is chiefly confided. The monthly meetings decide in cases of violation of discipline, and have the power of cutting off or disowning all who by their improper conduct, false doctrines, or other gross errors, bring reproach on the Society, although the accused have the right of appeal to the quarterly meetings, and from these again to the yearly, whose decisions are final. The monthly meetings are also empowered to approve and acknowledge ministers, as well as to appoint ‘serious, discreet, and judici- ous Friends, who are not ministers, tenderly to encourage and help young ministers, and advise others, as they, in the wisdom of God, see occasion.’ They also execute a variety of other important duties. The quarterly meetings are composed of several monthly meetings, and exercise a sort of general supervision over the latter, from whom they receive reports, and to whom they give such advice and decisions as they think right. The yearly meeting consists of select or representative members of the Seeey meetings. Its function is to consider generally the entire condition of the Society in all its aspects. It receives in writing 8 FRIENDS answers to questions it has previously addressed to the subordinate meetings, deliberates upon them, and legislates accordingly. To it exclusively the legislative power belongs. Though thus constituted somewhat according to Presbyterian order, yet any member of the Society may attend and take part in the proceedings. Women have also a special sphere of discipline allotted to them: they inspect and relieve the: wants of the poor of their own sex, take cog- nisance of proposals for marriage, deal with female delinquents privately, and under certain restric- tions may even do so officially, though in the ‘testimony of disownment’ they have always the assistance of members of the other sex. The Society of Friends, in the multitude of its regulations, has not forgotten the poor; charity in its narrower, as well as in its breader sense, has always been a beautiful feature of its. members. The care of the poor was one of the earliest evi- dences which Christianity afforded to the Gentiles of the superiority and divine character of its prin- ciples ; and it is honourable to the society that a similar Meats for those united to them in reli- gious fellowship appears to have been one of the earliest occasions tf their meetings for discipline. Nevertheless, in accordance with their ruling prin- ciple, that all Christian duty should be left for its fulfilment to the spontaneity of Christian love, and not performed under compulsion of any kind, ‘the provision for the poor is purely voluntary ;’ yet their liberality is proverbial throughout Britain and America, Their number amounted in 1896 to 107,908, of whom three-fourths belonged to the United States. See Fox’s Journal; Sewel’s History of the Quakers (1722); Besse’s Sufferings of the Qurkers (1752); Gurney’s Observitions on the Peculiarities of the Society of Friends (1824); Neale’s History of the Puritans; Rowntree’s Quakerism Past and Present (1859); Joseph Smith’s Descriptive Cataloyue of Books by Friends (2 vols, 1867); Book of Christian Discipline of the Society of Friends (1883); F. Storrs Turner, Zhe Quakers: a Study, Historical and Critical (1890). Friends of the People, an association formed in 1792 in London to obtain parliamentary reform by constitutional means. Among _ its members were Lords Lauderdale, Kinnaird, John Russell, and Edward Fitzgerald, and such com- .Moners as Grey, Mackintosh, Malcolm Laing, Dudley North, Erskine, Samuel Rogers, and Sheridan. Fries, ELIAs, a Swedish botanist, was born, 15th August 1794, in the district of Femsjé in Smaland, and studied at Lund, where he early taught botany. In 1834 he was ealled to the chair of Practical Economics at Upsala, with which in 1851 that of Botany was conjoined. Fries introduced into Sweden the morphological theory in his Systema Orbis Vegetabilis (1825). His Systema Mycologicum (3 vols. 1820-32) was long the standard work on the classification of fungi, of which he gave a relatively com- plete catalogue in Summa Vegetabilium Scandi- navic (2 vols. Stockholm, 1846-49). He wrote a series of useful books on the Hymenomycetie, on lichens, and on the flora of Seahdthey in, more particularly of Sweden. Among his monographs the Symbole ad Historiam Hieraciorum (Upsala, 1848) deserves especial mention. In 1851 Fries was appointed director of the botanical museum and garden at Upsala, and in 1853 rector of the university. He resigned in 1857, and died there, 8th February 1878. Fries, JAKOB FRIEDRICH, the founder of a philosophic school in Germany, was born at Barby, in Prussian Saxony, 23d August 1773, studied at Leipzig and Jena, and in 1805 was called to Heidel- FRIEZE berg as professor of Philosophy and Mathematies. In 1816 he accepted a call to the chair of Specula- tive Philosophy at Jena, but was deprived of his professorship on account of his participation in the democratic disturbances of 1819. In 1824, however, he was appointed to the chair of Physies and Mathematics, which he occupied till his death, 10th August 1843. Amongst his more important books are System der Philosophie (1804); Neue Kritik der Vernunfe (3 vols. 1807); System der Logik (1811); Handbuch der psychischen Anthro- pologie (1820-21); Die Lehren der Liebe, des Glaubens, und der Hoffnung (1823); and Geschichte der Philosophie (1837-40). Taking the Kantian philosophy for his starting-point, Fries demon- strated that intuitive psychology must be the basis of all philosophising. Thus, through inner experience a@ posteriori we learn to know the sub- jective a priori conditions of knowledge; and through intuitive presentiment or faith we derive our certainty of the reality of things themselves. From inner assurance of the essential worth and personal dignity of men flow the definitions and sanctions of ethics, and from the same source origi- nate our zsthetic and religious feelings. See Henke, J. F. Fries (1867). Friesland, or VRIESLAND (ancient Frisia), in its widest sense, as the country of the Frisian race, included the modern provinces of Zealand, North and South Holland, part of Utrecht, Friesland proper, and Groningen in Holland, together with Prussian East Friesland and a part of Oldenburg, the western coast of Sleswick between the Eider and the Tondern, and the islands of Sylt, Féhr, Nordstrand, and others. The province of Fries- land proper in the Netherlands is bounded N. by the German Ocean and W. and SW. by the Zuider Zee. It is sometimes called West Friesland to distinguish it from East Friesland. Area, 1282 sq. m.; pop. (1875) 311,246; (1894) 337,765. ‘The land is flat, in some parts below the level of the sea, and is cut up by canals and streams. The lowlands are protected by artificial banks or dykes. Lakes and marshes are numerous. The dykes, sluices, and canals are under the care of a special board, and are kept up at the local expense. The inland and sea waters abound with fish. Rich astures cover a third part of the surface. The Sores: cattle, and sheep are all of excellent breeds. Large quantities of peat are dug. The capital is Leeuwarden, and the chief port Harlingen, whence are shipped cheese and butter (mostly to London), horses, cattle, leather, and wool. The climate is moist and misty, but not raw. The inhabitants, who are descended from the ancient Frisians, speak a peculiar dialect. The industries are unimportant. citnct Friesland, with an area of 1200 sq. m., and a pop. amounting (1885) to 211,825, formerly a principality of Westphalia, now forms the Hano- verian district of Aurich ; chief towns, Emden and Aurich. It is bounded N. by the German Ocean and W. by the Netherlands. Like West Friesland it is low and flat. With the help of the Prussian government the moors are being reclaimed and cul- tivated. Fishing and agriculture constitute the chief employment of the inhabitants, who are Frisians. This province has frequently changed owners since 1744, when the family of Cirksena, in whose possession it had been for 300 years, became extinct. Jt was first ceded to Prussia, next incorporated by Napoleon with Holland and France; in 1813 it was restored to Prussia; in 1815 it was ceded to Hanover, along with which it again forms part of Prussia. See FRISIANS, and H. M. Doughty’s Friesland Meres (1889). Frieze, in classical architecture, the central portion of the Entablature (q.v.). Vitruvius also ee OULU FRIGATE FRISIANS 9 calls it the Zophorus (‘ life-bearing’) from its being frequently ornamented with sculpture. Similarly, the term frieze is sometimes applied to any enriched horizontal band. Frigate (Fr. frégate, Ital. fregata), formerly a long, narrow vessel propelled by oars and sails, used in the Mediterranean on occasions when speed was requisite. The name then came to be applied to men-of-war, of a class smaller than line-of-battle ships, and carrying from twenty to fifty guns, which were distributed on the main and upper decks. They were employed in the great wars of the 18th and early part of the 19th centuries, as scouts and cruisers. The frigate was usually swift, oy, managed, and capable of beating well to windward. She became, therefore, the favourite org in war-time, and bore off a large dav nee of the prize-money. Frigates also served to obtain information as to the movements of hostile fleets, and to guide the sailing of their own; but it was unusual for them to join in the line of battle, their exploits ordinarily occurring in engagements with single ships of their own class. With steam and the growth of the royal navy in later times igates were mevetoped more than any other men- of-war, and many of the largest ships in the navy belonged to this class, such as the iron-plated Warrior, of 6000 tons, three times the burden of any ship of the line in Nelson’s fleets. Now, how- ever, these are all ships of the past, incapable of contending with the turreted monsters which carry modern artillery, and the name frigate itself has disappeared from the Navy List, the term ‘cruiser’ —armoured or unarmoured—having taken its place. This is true also of the United States navy. Frigate Bird, or MAN-or-war Birp (Tachy- petes aquila), a tropical marine bird, placed near _ pelicans and cormorants in the order Stegano- podes. In flight it is extremely powerful, and makes use of its swiftness and strength to force other birds to surrender their prey. The food con- sists of fish, which, if not stolen, are caught at the surface. Flying-fish are said to form an important constituent of its diet. It may be seen out at sea 100 miles from land, but nests and breeds on the coasts of the tropical Atlantic and Pacific—e.g. off Honduras, where vast ‘rookeries’ have been described. The bird is large, measuring about ong wings and tail. 4 feet in length, with very A \ Wiig! ! Frigate Bird ( Tachypetes aquila). The beak is hooked, and almost twice as long as the head. The prevalent colour is brownish- black ; the female has a white breast, and, like the young birds, differs in minor points from the adult male. In some parts it is said to become half- _ tame, and even to be available for letter-carrying. a, in northern og ont the wife of Odin, who seems to have occupied an analogous ition to that of Venus in Roman mythology. she was also the goddess of the ae and of marriage, and was frequently confounded, and latterly quite identified, with Freyja (q.v.). She was the only Scandinavian deity placed amongst the stars; Orion’s belt is called in Swedish Frigga’s distaff. From her Friday takes its name. Frilled Lizard. See CHLAmyposavrvs. Fringe Tree (Chionanthus), a genus of Oleacez, of which the common species or Fringe Tree or Snowflower (C. virginica), found in the United States from 39° lat. to the Gulf of Mexico, is a large shrub with very numerous snow-white flowers in panicled racemes. The limb of the corolla is divided into four long linear segments, whence the name fringe tree. The fruit is an oval drupe. The tree is frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant. The root bark is narcotic. Fringillidz. See Fixcu. Frisches Haff (‘ Fresh-water Bay’), a lagoon on the coast of Prussia, south-east of the Gulf of Danzig, about 50 miles in length, 4 to 11 miles broad, and 332 sq. m. in area. It was once entirely walled off from the Baltic by a narrow spit of land, through which a passage, 1247 feet wide and 144 feet deep, was cut in 1510 during a violent storm. The Haff is 10 to 16 feet deep. Frisians, a people of Teutonic stock, who, Tacitus says, when the Romans first came into contact with them, occupied the maritime region extending from the Schelit to the Ems and Weser. They submitted to the Roman power in the reign of Drusus, and were loyal and helpful tributaries until stung into revolt in 28 A.D. by the extortions of a Roman provincial officer. From that time onwards they rendered only sullen submission to the empire, and more than once revolted and maintained their independence for some years. They were sea-rovers, as well as herdsmen and husbandmen, and took part along with the Angles and Saxons in the conquest of Britain. We next read of them as offering a stubborn resistance not only to the introduction of Christianity, but also to the encroachments of the Frankish power from the south; in fact, in spite of the efforts of Wilfrid of York, the first missionary among the Frisians, and his successors Willibrord anc Boniface, the Christian religion does not seem to have obtained footing in Frisia beyond the actual limits of Frankish dominion until the com- plete absorption of the Frisians’ land in the empire of Charlemagne. In the meantime they had waged an almost continuous war against the Franks. Their king Radbod, although driven out of western Frisia (from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee) in 689 Sf Pepin, so far turned the tables after the death of this king that he sailed up the Rhine to Cologne, and defeated Charles Martel, in 716. Their last independent prince, Poppo, was defeated and slain by arles Martel in 734, and the conquest of the risians was completed by Charlemagne. At the partition of the Frankish empire made at Verdun in 843 Frisia became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine. In 911, however, when Lotharingia seceded from the eastern to join the western Frankish empire, the districts of eastern Frisia (from the Zuider Zee to the Weser) asserted their independence, and formed themselves into a sort of democratic confederated republic, until in the first half of the 15th century they became virtually a count- ship, being ruled by the dynasty of the Cirksena down to the extinction of the family in 1744, when Prussia took possession of it. feanwhile the western half of Frisia had for the most part been absorbed in the bishopric of Utrecht and the 10 FRIT FRITILLARY ‘countship of Holland, though not without a most stubborn resistance on the part of the Frisians, a resistance which had not wholly died out by the end of the 15th century. In fact in 1457 the Emperor Frederick III. recognised their immediate dependence upon the empire. And it was only in 1498 that their staunch love of liberty was finally crushed by Albert of Saxony, whom Maximilian had appointed hereditary imperial governor of Frisia. From 1523, when the governorship fell to Charles V., Frisia became virtually a part of the Netherlands, and from that time onwards shared their destiny. The Frisian language is a member of the Low German family, coming intermediate between Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon. Its most striking eculiarity is the modification of * and g into ts efore the letters e and 7. The oldest existin Tegra of the language do not go back beyond the 14th and 15th centuries, and consist principally of the old Jaw codes and similar official documents (collected in Richthofen, Friesische Rechtsquellen, 1840). The celebrated Lex Frisionum, although it belongs probably to the period of Charlemagne, is composed in Latin, and contains a very meagre sprinkling of Frisian terms. At the present day pure Frisian is spoken only by the peasantry in the west of Dutch Friesland and in one or two isolated districts of Prussian East Friesland, and is cultivated by a small coterie of men of literary taste in Holland. Corrupt forms are spoken in Heligoland and in parts of Jutland and Sleswick. Gysbert Japiex occupies the first place amongst Frisian writers, having published in 1668 a volume of poems entitled Friesche Rijmlerye. Other books held in great esteem by the Frisians are a comedy, Waatze Gribberts Brilloft, dating from the begin- ning of the 18th century, and the popular work, It Libben fen Aagtje Ijsbrants (1827). Het Ocera Linda Bok, of which an English edition appeared in 1877, though purporting to be of vast antiquity, was really written by a ship-carpenter, Over de Linden (1811-73). Besides these, quite modern works have been written by E. and J. H. Halbertsma, Salverda, Posthumus, Windsma, Dykstra, Deketh, Van der Veen, Van Assen, and others. The most important production in northern Frisian, the corrupt dialect of Jutland and Sles- wick, is Hansen’s comedy De Gidtshals. A society was founded at Franeker in 1829 for the study of the Frisian language and history. The most complete accounts of Frisian literature are perhaps to be found in Mone, Uebersicht der nieder- tdndischen Volkslitteratur dilterer Zeit (1838), and Winkler, Allgemeen nederduitsch en friesch Dialecticon (1872). For the study of the language, see grammars by Rask, Grimm, Heyne, and A. H. Cummins (2d ed. Lond. 1888), grammars, dictionaries, &c. by Richthofen (1840), J. Halbertsma (1874), Cadovius Miiller (died 1725), Ten Doornkaat-Koolman (1877-85), Dirksen (1889), Outzen (1837), Bendsen (1860), and Johansen (1862). Frit (Chlorops frit), a small black Dipterous corn-fly, common in North Europe, not known in Britain, doing great damage especially to barley (see CORN INSECTS). Frith. See Firtu. Frith, Joun, reformer, was born about 1503 at Westerham, Kent, and from Eton passed to King’s College; Cambridge, whence in 1525 Wolsey sum- moned him to his new foundation at Oxford. A twelvemonth later, however, suspicion of heresy drove him a fugitive to the young Protestant uni- versity of Marburg, and during his¢ive years’ stay here he saw much of Tyndale and Patrick Hamilton, and wrote several Protestant treatises. — back to England in 1532, he was seized and lodge in the Tower, and on 4th July 1533 was burned at Smithfield. He has been called the author of the Anglican doctrine of the Eucharist. Frith, WiLL1AM PowELL, R.A., was born at Aldfield, Yorkshire, on the 9th January 1819. He © studied art at Sass’s Academy, London, and in the schools of the Royal Academy; and in 1840 exhibited his ‘Othello and Desdemona’ in the British Institution. He painted portraits, and his early subject-pictures were scenes from the English and French classics. His ‘Coming of Age in the Olden Time’ first brought its painter into notice, and his celebrity was increased by ‘Ramsgate Sands’ (1854); ‘The Derby Day’ (1858); and ‘The Railway Station’ (1862). His later works include ‘Charles II.’s Last Sunday’ (1867); ‘Before Dinner at Boswell’s Lodgings’ (1868), which in 1875 sold for £4567; the gambling sub- jects entitled ‘The Road to Ruin’ (1878); and ‘A Private View, a Scene at the Royal Academy’ (1883). His produe- tions, while desti- tute of the finer art- istic qualities, have been extremely popu- lar on account of the interest of their sub- jects and their obvi- ous dramatic point, and have become widely known _ by means of engravings. He waselected A. R.A. in 1846, R.A. in 1852, and put on the retired list in 1890. His popu- lar picture, The Rail- way Station, sold for £5250, was resold in 1890 for £315. His Autobiography (3 vol- umes) was published in 1887-88. Frithiof. See A TEGNER. Common Fritillary Frit‘illary ( Fri- (Fritillaria meleagris), tillaria), a genus of the Liliacee, eoeely allied to the lily and tulip, are herbaceous and ulbous-rooted plants. About Crown Imperial (Fritillaria imperialis) : a, flower enlarged. twenty species are known, all palzearctic. All of them have drooping flowers; some of them are — beautiful. r . a a FRITILLARY FROEBEL 1] One species only is a native of Britain, the Common Fritillary (7. meleagris), also called Snake’s Head, Chequer-tlower, &c., which is found in meadows and pastures in the east and south of England, flowering in April or May. They are on plentiful in the Magdalen water-meadows, xford. The flowers are pale or dark purple, tesselated with dark markings, sometimes cream- white. Many varieties are in cultivation —This genus includes the Crown Imperial (7. wnperialis), which was brought from Persia to Constantinople in the 16th century, and thence introduced through the imperial garden at Vienna into western Europe, where it soon became a constant inmate of the her- haceous border. The bulb of the common species, but still more of this one, is poisonous. Fritillary, a name given to a number of butterflies (Argynnis, Melita, &c.), some of which are common in Britain, from the resemblance of the colouring on the upper surface of their wings to that of the flowers of the common fritillary. Friuli (Ger. Friaul, Lat. FYorwm Julii), the name of a district formerly governed by inde- ndent dukes, lying at the head of the Gulf of Venice. With a total population of about 700,000, and a total area of some 3470 sq. m., it is divided between Austrian Friuli, embracing the districts of Gérz, Gradisea, and Idria, and Italian Friuli, including the province of Udine and the district of Portogruaro. Friuli is rich in corn and wine, and has much metallic wealth and numerous mineral springs. The inhabitants, called Furlani, are mostly Italians, some of them speaking a peculiar dialect containing several Celtic elements. Friuli constituted one of the thirty-six duchies into which the Lombards divided the north of Italy, and shared the vicissitudes of its neighbour states. Frobenius, JoANNEs, the learned printer, was born in Franconia in 1460, founded a printing- office at Basel in 1491, and published a Latin Bible, editions of Cyprian, Tertullian, Hilary, Am- brose, and the Greek New Testament (1496). As correctors to the press he employed such men as (Ecolampadius and Erasmus; and between 1491 and 1527, the year of his death, he issued 300 works _ (including all those of Erasmus), well printed and wonderfully free of error. Frobisher, Str MArrIN, one of the great Elizabethan seamen, was born in Yorkshire, either at Altofts (near Wakefield) or at Doncaster about 1535. Sent to sea as a boy, he traded to Guinea and elsewhere, and seems at an early age to have become possessed by his fife-long dream of a north- west passage to Cathay. After long solicitations he was enabled, chiefly by help of Warwick, to set sail northwards round the Shetland Islands, 7th June 1576, with the Gabriel and the Michael of 20 tons each and a pinnace of 10 tons, with a total complement of thirty-five men. The pinnace was soon lost in the storms that followed, and the Michael deserted, but Frobisher held on _ his adventurous course, was almost lost on the coast of Greenland, and reached Labrador on the 28th July. From -Hall’s Island at the mouth of Frobisher Bay his men carried away some ‘black earth,’ which was supposed in London, whither he arrived on October 9th, to contain gold. Next year a new expedition was fitted out with much enthusiasm, the queen herself supplying from the royal navy a vessel of 200 tons. The country around Hall’s Island was formally taken and named Meta Incognita, and abundance of the black earth was brought to England. Yet another and well-appointed expedition was despatched in 1578, but was harassed by storms without and dissensions within, and returned home with a great cargo of the ore, from which, however, no more old could be extracted. Of Frobisher we hear yut little during the next few years, but in 1585 he commanded a vessel in Drake’s expedition to the West Indies, did good service in the prepara- tory task of hampering the designs of Spain, and in the struggle with the Armada covered himself with glory by his conduct in the 7riumph, and was rewarded by the honour of knighthood. Frobisher next married a daughter of Lord Wentworth, and settled down as a country gentleman, but was soon again at the more congenial task of scouring the seas for the treasure-ships of Spain. At the siege of Crozon near Brest in the November of 1594 he received a wound of which he died at Plymouth on the 22d of the same month. His Three Voyages were edited by Admiral Collinson for the Hakluyt Society (1867). There is a Life by Rev. F. Jones (1878). Frobisher Bay, an inlet opening westward near the mouth of Davis Strait into the territory called by Frobisher Meta Incognita, at the southern end of Baffin Land. It is about 200 miles long by above 20 wide, with rugged mountainous shores. It was till Hall’s voyage called Frobisher Strait, being erroneously regarded as a passage into Hudson Bay. Froebel, FrrepricH WILHELM AvGuST, Ger- man educational reformer, was born at Oberweiss- bach in Thuringia, 21st April 1782. His studies at Jena being interrupted by the death of his father in 1802, he was compelled to shift as best he could for a living, until in 1805, at Frankfort-on- the-Main, he found his true voeation in teaching. The next five years he spent partly at Frankfort, partly at Yverdon in Switzerland, at the latter place in close intimacy with Pestalozzi. Then for a couple of years he resumed his studies, this time chiefly in the natural sciences, at Géttingen and Berlin. But again they were interrupted: the War of Liberation broke out, and Froebel joined Liit- zow’s corps. Two years after the conclusion of ae he got his first opportunity to realise his ong-meditated principles of education ; he made a start at Griesheim in hutiigie, but in the follow- ing year (1817) transferred his school to Keilhau, where he was shortly afterwards joined by his devoted friends and disciples, Langethal and Middendorff. At this time the characteristic idea of his teaching was that the root of all educational development is action, which has for its ultimate aim not only mere physical exercise, but also the unfolding and strengthening of the mental powers ; and underlying this was the conviction that the real purpose of education should be to encourage the child to grow naturally and spontaneously, unfolding all its powers according to the inner organic ews of its being, just as grow plants and animals and crystals. In 1826 he expounded his views in a work entitled Die Menschenerziehung. With the view of extending his system, Froebel in 1831 established a branch institution in the canton of Lucerne in Switzerland, which, however, could never make headway against the opposition of the Roman Catholic clergy. Hence, after starting an orphanage at Burgdorf in Bern, where also he began to train teachers for educational work, Froebel returned to the centre of Germany, and in 1836 opened at Blankenburg, not far from Keilhau, his first Kindergarten (q.v.) school. The rest of his life was spent in the advocacy of kindergarten schools and in organising them; but along with these labours he cianiined the training of teachers to carry on the system he had devised. He died on 2lst June 1852 at Marienthal in Thuringia. Froebel’s works were collected and pret by Wichard Lange in 1862-63 (new ed. 1874), also by Seidel in 1883. See Autobiography of F. Fribel 12 FROG Shirreff (Lond. 1886); Life of Froebel, by Kea | = y Moore (Lond. 1887); and his Letters, translated and Michaelis (1890). Frog, a genus (Rana) of tailless Amphibians ; but the name, usually with some prefix or other, is often extended to the members of related genera or even of related families—e.g. to the obstetrie frog (Alytes), to the tree-frogs ( Hylide ), or to the peep- | ing frogs (Hylodes). The common frog in Britain is Rana temporaria, distinguished from the edible frog, FR. esculenta, which has been introduced into Britain, by slight differences in colouring, by the pesente of a dark, triangular patch extending ackwards from the eye, and by the absence of the dilatable sacs (at the back corners of the mouth) which intensify the croaking of the ‘ Cambridge- shire Nightingales.’ The general shape is an elongated oval, of which the head oceupies about a third ; a hump on the back marks the end of the distinct vertebree and the beginning of an un- segmented portion known as the urostyle. The tail has completely disappeared, the young animal having literally lived upon it during part of its Common Frog ( Rana temporaria). metamorphosis. The arms are short, the fingers four and unwebbed, and the innermost is swollen in the males ; the hind-legs are long and muscular, well adapted for both leaping and swimming, with an elongated ankle, five webbed toes, and an internal ‘tarsal tubercle’ like a hint of a sixth. The skin is soft and glandular, with pigment cells admitting by their changes of a slight altera- tion in colour. The external nostrils are situated near the tip of the snout; the eyes have a movable lower lid; the tympanum or drum of the ear is readily seen somewhat farther back. General Life.—The frog, aquatic in its youth, generally remains near water. In dry weather it hides itself, and great numbers are often seen to issue forth on the weleome return of rain. Their leaping and swimming deftness need no remark. The adults feed upon living animals, insects, and slugs. These are caught on the large viscid tongue, which being fixed in front of the mouth and free behind, can be thrown rapidly outwards, and even more rapidly retracted. In winter the frog ‘ hiber- nates’ or lies torpid, buried in the mud at the bottom of the pool, and great numbers of in- dividuals may be dug up in winter all clustered together. During this season certain ‘ fatty bodies,’ situated on the top of the reproductive organs, and apparently degenerate portions of the kidney, be- come reduced in size, being probably the ovaries and testes, which become functional in the month of March. Then it is that the frogs congre- gate together for breeding purposes, and that the males with their vigorous croaking serenade their more weakly-voiced mates, preceding the birds in announcing the approach of spring. The titles bull- frog, blacksmith-frog, sugar-miller, &c., applied to certain species, obviously refer to their notable vocal powers, The frog generally contains some interesting parasites—a hermaphrodite threadworm or Nema- tode (Angiostomum nigrovenosum) in the lungs, a fluke or Trematode with many suckers (Polystomum integerrimum) in the bladder, and a ciliated In- fusorian with many nuclei (Opalina ranarum) in the hindmost part of the alimentary canal. Life-history.—The eggs of the frog are familiar to almost all; each is a little dark ball enclosed in a glutinous sheath which swells in the water into a clear round globe. The egg has most black pig- ment in its upper half, the heavier yolk sinking for the most part to the lower hemisphere. They are fertilised just as they leave the female, which the male is at the same time embracing. The division of the ovum is complete but unequal, the ‘upper hemisphere with the ‘formative protoplasm’ soon exhibiting a larger number of smaller cells than the lower portion, which chiefly consists of olk to be gradually absorbed by the embryo (see MBRYOLOGY ). - By the tenth day after the eggs are laid the Wend: body, and tail of the young frog may be dis- tinctly seen. Following the lines of its ancestral history (why or how is a difficult question), the animal becomes fish-like, witha long tail and with three pairs of external gills on its neck. About a fortnight after the laying the young tadpoles are hatched, and, jerking themselves out of the gelatin- ous mass, ‘swim freely in the water. They are still mouthless, and live on their still unexhausted capital of yolk. They have a paired sucker under- neath their head, by means of whicl: when tired they attach themselves to water-weeds or other objects. In a few days, however, they gain a mouth, ‘bordered by a pair of horny jaws, and fringed with fleshy lips provided with horny papille.’ The whole arrangement reminds one of that of the lamprey. As the tadpole hungrily feeds on fresh-water weeds (algee, &c.), the hitherto short alimentary canal becomes elongated, furnished with a liver and pancreas, and, when the animal is big enough to dissect, may be readily seen coiled u like a watch-spring. About the time when mout and anus have been opened the four gill-slits or clefts, opening from the pharynx to the exterior, may also be seen, and very soon the original ex- ternal gills shrivel, and are replaced by an internal set. As the latter develop, a fold of skin grows over them, forming a gill-€hamber which by-and-by closes so much that only a single exit aperture remains, and that on the left side. Through this the water taken in for respiration by the mouth passes to the exterior, after washing the gills on its way. The tadpole thrives on its vegetarian diet, and rapidly grows bigger and stronger ; the large tail is a powerful why agus organ, and the adhesive suckers are less and less used. The limbs bud forth, but the anterior pair, hidden by the gill- covers above referred to, are longer of becomin distinctly visible. By the end of the second mont the tadpole has attained to the level of the double- breathing fishes or Dipnoi (see FISHES) ; in other words, the lungs become useful, the gills for a while persist, but, as the animals get into the habit of coming oftener to the surface to breathe, these latter organs gradually degenerate. Two or three weeks more, and a remarkable change—a metamorphosis—occurs, in which the tadpole rises above the fish level and becomes a distinct amphibian (see AMPHIBIA, for figures, Wc. ). The tadpole ceases to feed upon alg, and begins to live at the expense of its tail, from which tien Seis, 4 eel FROG FROHSDORF 13 wandering blood-cells or ‘leucocytes’ carry the nutriment to other parts of the body. A casting of the outer layer of skin takes place ; the gills are finally lost; ‘the horny jaws are thrown off; the large frilled lips shrink up; the mouth loses its rounded suctorial form and becomes much wider ; the tongue, previously small, increases sree ecb & in size; the eyes, which as yet have been beneath the skin, become exposed ; the fore-limbs appear, the left one being pushed through the spout-like opening of the branchial chamber, and the right one forcing its way through the opercular fold, in which it leaves a ragged hole’ (Milnes Marshall). As these momentous changes progress, and as the supply of food afforded by the tail begins to be exhausted, the animal recovers its appetite, but this time carnivorously, feeding on available animal matter, or even on its fellows. At this on gd tadpoles will clean a skeleton beautifully, and Buckland describes them as eget a great avidity for animal food, crowding round a dead kitten, and nibbling at the toes of little boys who wade in pools where they abound. With the change of diet the abdomen shrinks, stomach and liver enlarge, the intestines become both narrower and shorter. The tail shortens more and more till it is completely absorbed ; the hind-limbs lengthen ; and eventually the animal leaps ashore—a tiny . Fora considerable time the tadpole appears to neither male nor female, but differences in nutrition, &e. decide the question of sex. In ordinary cireumstances there are about as many males as there are females, but Jung has shown that by increasing the quality of food from fish to beef, from beef to frog flesh, he could increase the percentage of females to about ninety. See Em- BRYOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT, REPRODUCTION, SEX; while for details of life-history, Milnes Marshall’s book should be consulted. Distribution and Related Species.—The common Brown Frog (2. temporaria) is widely distributed in Europe and Asia; ‘it is the most northerly of known species, ranging in Norway to beyond the seventieth parallel of fatitude. In the Alps it still frequents the waters at an elevation of feet.’ It is of course abundant in most parts of Britain, and is common enough in Ireland, where, however, it is said to have been introduced in 1696. Of wider distribution is the Green or Edible Fro (R. esculenta), which also occurs in Britain, thoug not believed to be indigenous. Its habitat extends from Scandinavia to North Africa, from France to Japan. Widely distributed in the United States are two forms—the Shad- or Leopard-frog (R. hale- cina) and the Wood-frog (2. sylvatica)—which some regard as identical with our common species. The common Bull-frog of North America (R. catesbiana) is often brought to European zoological gardens, has an oie big enough to engulph a Sparrow, and a croa ing power proportionate to its large size. Like the edible frog on the Continent, it is not unfrequently cooked. A large Indian species (2. tigrina), another relatively huge, toad- like species (2. rsa) from tropical Africa, a single species from West Australia (2. papua), and another solitary form (2. /refftii) from the Solomon Islands deserve to be mentioned. The genus is unrepresented in the southern parts of South America and in New Zealand. Related Genera.—The family of true frogs or Ranide includes about two hundred species, ranked ineighteen genera. They have always teeth in the upper jaw, and a certain technical peculiarity in the breastbone. One of the most curious forms (which have always teeth in the upper jaw) is the arboreal nus Rhacophorus, the ‘flying frog’ described by allace, in which the webs between both fingers and toes are much developed. The tips of the fingers are dilated, and serve for attachment to smooth or vertical surfaces. The arboreal habit is a resource which brings with it several physiological adaptations, which must not be too much insisted upon in classification, for, as Huxley observes, the common brown frog ‘at a year old will climb up the vertical side of a glass vessel, flattening out the ends of its toes, and applying its belly against the surface of the glass, like a tree-frog.’ Frogs, like other amphibians, are usually unrepresented in oceanic islands, but, besides the species of Rana already mentioned as occurring in the Solomon Islands, three forms of Cornufer, ranked among the Ranidz, ought to be noted on account of their habitat in the Fiji Islands. The Dendrobatide form a family of small tree-frogs nearly allied to the Ranide, but without teeth. From one species (D. tinctorius) the savage tribes of some parts of South America are said to extract a deadly poison for their arrows. Less nearly allied to the Ranide are the toothless toads ( Bufonidz ), the horned toad (Ceratophrys), the true tree-frogs (Hylide), the : midwife-toad * or obstetric frog (Alytes obstetri- cans), the tongueless Surinam toad (Pipa ameri- cana), Which are separately discussed (see TOAD, TREE-FROG, &e.). The use of frogs for food is regarded with un- necessary prejudice in Britain, but is very common on the continent of Europe. The species chiefly used is the edible frog (2. esculenta), which greatly abounds in ponds and slow streams in France, southern Germany, and Italy. They are taken for the market by nets and by a kind of rake, and are sometimes specially fattened in preserves. The hind-legs are most frequently cooked, but other muscular parts may be utilised. They are usually dressed with sauces, and in flavour and tenderness are comparable to chicken. The African species (2. adspersus) is said to be much used by the native tribes, and the gigantic bull-frog figures as a rarity in the transatlantic menu. 1e frog furnishes a very convenient vertebrate type to the comparative anatomist, embryologist, and physiologist, and is in this connection much more useful than on the dining-table. See AMPHIBIA, BuLL-FROG, NEWT, TOAD, TREE-FROG ; and for showers of frogs, SHOWERS. See also St George Mivart, Zhe Common Frog (* Nature’ series, Lond. 1874); A. Milnes Marshall, The Frog: an Introduction to Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology (3d ed. 1888); Ecker and Wiedersheim, Anatomie des Frosches (3 parts, 1864, 1881, 1882; trans. by Haslam, 1889); for figures, G. B. Howes, Atlas of Practical Elementary Bioloyy (1885); Bell’s British Reptiles (1839); Leydig’s Anura Batrachia d. Deutschen Fuuna (Bonn, 1877) ; Hoffmann in Bronn’s Thierreich, VI. (1873-78); British Museum Catalogue of Amphibia; and Hatchett Jackson and Rolleston, Forms of Animal Life (1888). Frog, FisHinc. See ANGLER. Frogbit (Hydrocharis morsus-rane), a small aquatic plant of the order Hydrocharidacex, allied to the water-soldier (Stratiotes), but with floating leaves. Frogged, a term used in regard to uniforms, and aprhied to stripes or workings of braid or lace, as ornaments, mostly on the breast of a coat. Frogmore, an Fagen royal palace and mau- soleum in the park of Windsor, Berkshire. The palace, purchased by Queen Charlotte in 1800, after 1861 was one of the dwelling-houses of the Prince of Wales. The mausoleum, a Romanesque edifice, cruciform in shape and surmounted by an octagonal dome, is consecrated to the memory of the Prince Consort, whose remains were transferred to it on 18th December 1862. Frog-spit, or Cuckoo-spit. See FROTH-FLY. Frohsdorf, a village in Lower Austria, 30 miles S. of Vienna, on the river Leitha, and near 14 FROISSART FROMENTIN the frontiers of Hungary. It is celebrated for its splendid castle, which acquired a kind of political importance from having from 1844 till 1883 been the rendezvous of the elder Bourbon party and the residence of the Comte de Chambord (q.v.). Froissart, JEAN, was born at Valenciennes about 1337. His father was a painter of armorial bearings. He was educated for the church, but spent his youth in gaiety and dissipation, being, by his own confession, a dear lover of dances and carolling, of minstrelsy and tales of glee. ‘My ears, he says, ‘quickened at the sound of un- corking the wine-flask, for I took great pleasure in drinking, and in fair array, and in delicate and fresh cates.’ When he was twenty years of age, he began, at the command of his ‘dear Lord and Master, the Sieur Robert of Namur, Lord of Beau- fort,’ to write the history of the wars waged during his days in France, England, Scotland, and Spain. The first part of his Chronicle, which deals with the events of the years 1326-56, was principally com- piled from the writings of one Jean le Bel, Canon of Liége. Having completed this section of his work in 1360, Froissart set out on his long travels in quest of adventure and good company, and that brilliant spectacle of martial and courtly pageantry. in which all through his life he found unsating delight. The first country which he visited was England, where he received a gracious welcome from Philippa of Hainault, the wife of Edward III. Philippa appointed him her secrétary or clerk of her chascher, a post which he held for some years, but which he resigned on account of a hapless passion for a lad of Flanders. In 1364 he travelled through part of Scotland, riding, he informs us, on a grey palfrey with his valise behind him, and having a white greyhound as his only com- anion. is reputation as a poet and historian, is gay and courteous converse, secured him an honourable reception in Scotland as elsewhere. He was the guest of King David Bruce, and was entertained for fifteen days at Dalkeith Castle by William, Earl of Douglas, the exploits of whose house he has frequently celebrated in his Chronicle. In 1366 he journeyed to Aquitaine in the retinue of the Black Prince, who would not, however, allow him to accompany the Spanish expedition, but sent him back to his patroness, Queen Philippa. Two years later we find him in Italy, where he was present, along with Chaucer and Petrarch, at the marriage of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III., with Jolande of Milan, the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. For a time he settled at Lestines, in the diocese of Liége, where he obtained a curacy, and where he confesses 500 francs ve quickly passed from him to the vintners. ‘It may be conjectured,’ says Sir Walter Scott, ‘that they were more obliged to his attention than any of his other parishioners.’ Before 1384 he had attached himself to Wenceslas, Duke of Brabant, whose verses he collected along with certain pieces of his own, under the title of Meliador, or the Knight of the Golden Sun. On the death of Wenceslas, Froissart repaired to the court of Guy, Count of Blois, who persuaded him to devote himself to his Chronicle. The second volume of the work was finished about 1388, and about the same date its author set out from Blois on a visit to Gaston Phébus, Count de Foix. This journey, of which he has left a very entertaining record, he erformed in the company of the good knight spaing de Lyon, who told him of the deeds of emprise that had lately been done at the various towns and castles by which they passed in the course of their wayfaring. After making a long sojourn at Orthez with the Count de Foix, of whose court he has left us a description which is equally vivid and charming, Froissart, about the year 1390, settled for a while in Flanders, and resumed work on his Chronicle. In 1395 he again yielded to the old roving impulse. He revisited England, was cordially welcomed by King Richard IL, and remained abroad for about three months. He then returned to Chimay, where he had obtained a canonry, and where he ended his days in 1410. Froissart’s famous book deals with the period between 1326 and 1400. Mainly occupied with the ‘affairs of France, England, Scotland, and Flanders, he likewise supplies much valuable information in regard to Germany, Italy, and Spain, and even touches occasionally on the course of events in Hungary and the Balkan peninsula. Except in the first part of the work, he made little use of the writ- ings of others, An historian-errant, he gathered his materials in courts and on highways, from the lips of the lords and knights, the squires and the heii whom he encountered. The charm of his book is perennial. He is of all medieval chroniclers the most vivid and entertaining. ‘ His history,’ says Sir Walter Scott (who called the work his liber carissimus), ‘has less the air of a narrative than of a dramatic representation.’ He was a born story- teller; his pages glow with colour; his narrative glides easily and gracefully along; and he is, on the whole, accurate and impartial in his state- ments. ‘In certain of his battle-pieces,’ says Ville- main, ‘ Froissart’s style is truly Mecrint and the tribute is justly merited. The main defects in his work are the frequent repetitions and the negli- gent arrangement of the facts. He has been re- roached for not having espoused the cause of the rench against the English, as if it were to be expected that a Flemish priest, in his youth the favourite and secretary of Edward III.’s queen, should share the burning patriotism, the intense hatred of England that animated such writers as Alain Chartier and Eustache Deschamps. More plausibly might he be arraigned for indifference to the sufferings of the townsmen and peasants. He is enamoured of the pageants of chivalry, engrossed in the deeds of nobles and knights. Few historians have been less critical or so uniformly delightful. The chronicle was edited by Buchon (15 vols. 1824-26) and Luce (8 vols. 1869-88 ) ; translated by John Bourchier, second Lord Berners, 1467-1533 (published 1523-25; ed. by Utterson, 1812, and modernised by G. J. Macaulay ; new trans. by Colonel Johnes, 1803-5). Buchon edited Froissart’s ballades, rondeaux, virelais, &c., which intro- duced a Provengal element into northern French litera- ture, in 1829: Méliador was discovered in 1894. See monographs by Kervyn de Lettenhove (Paris, 1858), Weber (German, 1871), and Mme. Darmesteter (Paris, 1894; trans. 1895). Frome, or FROME SELWOoD, a market-town of Somersetshire, on the Frome, a branch of the Avon, 12 miles 8S. of Bath (19 by rail). The surroundin country is very picturesque, and the town, unti modernised early in the 19th century by the forma- tion of two wide thoroughfares, was a quaint old place, with narrow, crooked, steep streets. Its parish church is a fine Decorated building splendidly restored by the late Rev. W. Bennett (q.v.), with a spire 120 feet high, stations of the cross, and the grave of Bishop Ken. Frome’s specialties are broadeloths and other fine woollens, and it also roduces cards for dressing cloth, ale, silk, &e. Pon. (1881) 9376; (1891) 9613. ‘Till 1885 Frome returned one member to parliament. The once celebrated forest of Selwood was in the vicinity. Fromentin, EvuGine, painter and author, was born at La Rochelle in 1820. He studied under Cabat the landseape-painter; and from 1842 to 1846 travelled in the East, which is the scene of almost all his works. His pictures: are raeongss: 4 true in their local colouring, and reproduce wit _ lay siege to Paris, soon turned the tide. FROND FRONTO 15 t spirit the free nomad life of the Arab and Datec. Among his more important works are * Arabs attacked by a Lioness’ (1868), ‘ Halt of the Muleteers’ (1869), ‘A Souvenir of Esneh’ (1876), and ‘The Nile’ (1876). His ‘ Couriers,’ ‘ Countr of the Ouled-Nayls,’ ‘Springtime’ (1861), and his ‘Falconry in Algiers: the Quarry’ (1863) are in the Louvre. But he was no less prolifie with his pen than with his brush, He published an account of his travels in Le Pays, under the titles of ‘Visites Artistiques’ and ‘Simples Pélerinages’ (1852-56); and ‘Une Année dans le Sahel’ (1858) recorded the results of his investigations for the Committee of Historic Monuments. He also pro- dueed a successful romance, Dominique (1863). English translations of his Les Maitres d Autrefois 1876), an admirable criticism upon the Dutch and lemish painters, as well as of his Life by Louis Gonse (1881), have been published in America. He me a ‘chevalier’ of the Legion of Honour in 1859 and an ‘officier’ in 1869; and died at St Maurice, near La Rochelle, 27th August 1876. See Gonse, Lugéne Fromentin ( Paris, 1881). Frond, in Botany, a term often used to desig- nate the leaves of cryptogamous plants. It was originally introduced ‘as distinctive of organs in which the functions of stem and leaf are combined. The term leaf is now ve enerally used even of mosses, ferns, &c., and the term thallus is applied to liverworts and lichens. In the case of many Algze the term is often used to designate the whole plant except its organs of reproduction. Fronde, the name (indicating the sling used by the boys of Paris in their mimic fights) given to certain factions in France during the minority of Louis XIV., which were hostile to the court and the minister, Mazarin, and gave rise to a series of civil dissensions from 1648 to 1654. The grasp- ing and despotic policy of Mazarin, to whom Anne of Austria, the queen-regent, had abandoned the reins of government, had given offence to all classes. The entire nation was aflame with dis- content: the nobles were jealous of the employ- ment of foreigners in the chief offices of state; the people kicked against the oppressive taxation ; the parliaments resented the wilfal disregard of their. authority. At length the parliament of Paris refused to register the royal edicts, more especially the financial measures increasing the burdens of taxation. Mazarin in retaliation ordered the arrest (26th August 1648) of the president and one of the councillors, Peter Broussel. Thereupon the people took up arms. The court fled to Ruel in October, but early in 1649 removed to St Germain. The populace and parliament were joined by the dis- contented nobles, Conti, Longueville, Beaufort, Turenne, and De Retz. But the arrival of Condé, the champion of the royal party, who proceeded to An agree- ment was therefore come to between court and rliament at Ruel on Ist April 1649, the people ing released from the obnoxious taxes, whilst Mazarin and the foreigners were allowed to retain their offices. This ends the movement called the Old Fronde, a contest carried on in the interests of the people. The New Fronde was at bottom a struggle between Condé and Mazarin. The nobles, especially Condé, were far from being satisfied with the compact of Ruel, and opened negotiations with Spain for assistance from the Netherlands. But on the 18th January 1650 the queen-regent suddenl arrested Condé, Longueville, and Conti. This arbitrary “rege! roused the provinces. The Duchess of Condé stirred up the south of France. The Duchess of Longueville (Condé’s sister) won over Turenne, who threatened Paris, but was defeated at Rethel. Nevertheless the storm was 80 great that Mazarin was obliged to release the princes, and flee from the country. Now, however, a kaleidoscopic movement changed the relations of the principal actors in the affair. Condé withdrew to Guienne; De Retz was bribed by the gift of a cardinal’s hat; Turenne went over to the court; and Mazarin was recalled and rein- stated in power. Meanwhile, Louis XIV., who, having now attained his fourteenth year, was declared to be of age, endeavoured to induce Condé to return; but the latter, mistrusting these overtures, commenced a regular war against the court, until he was defeated by Turenne near Paris on 2d July 1652. Condé found refuge within the capital; but the citizeus, grown weary of the whole business, opened negotiations with the king, only demanding the removal of Mazarin to return to their allegiance. This demand was complied with and a general amnesty proclaimed (1653). Condé, who refused to enter into the compact, repaired to Champagne; but, finding no one dis- posed to take up arms in his cause, he entered the Spanish service. Shortly afterwards Mazarin was once more recalled to Paris, and aghin entrusted with the reins of government. The parliament of Paris was completely humbled, so much so that its political existence was virtually suspended for a century and a half. Thus the royal power came forth victorious from the contest. See Ste-Aulaire’s Histoire de la Fronde (2d ed. 1860), Bazin’s France sous Louis XIII. (2d ed. 1846), Fitz- patrick’s Great Condé and the Fronde (1873), the work by Capefigue (1835), and two by Chéruel (1880 and 1882). Frontenae, Louis DE BUADE, COMTE DE, governor of New France, was born in 1620, entered the army in 1635, and at an early age became brigadier. In 1672 he was appointed governor of the French possessions in North America, to be recalled ten years later, in consequence of endless quarrels with his intendant and the Jesuits; but in spite of his violent temper he had gained the confidence of the settlers and the respect of the Indians, and in 1689, when to the horror of constant attacks from the Iroquois the misery of a war with England was added, he was again sent out by the king, as the only man who could rouse the despairing colonists to hope and action. During the next nine years he loosed his savage allies on the defenceless villages of New England, repulsed a British attack on Quebec, and so broke the power of the Iroquois that they were never again a terror to the colony. He died at Quebec in 1698. See Francis Park- man’s Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. (Boston, 1877). Frontinus, Sextus JuLius, a Roman author and administrator who flourished in the second half of the Ist century. In 75 A.D. he was appointed governor of Britain, where he conquered the Silures, and vigorously maintained the imperial authority. He was twice consul in the course of his life, and in 97 was made superintendent of the water-works at Rome. He died about 104. Several works are attributed to Frontinus, only two of which are cer- tainly genuine, the Strategematicon, a treatise on the Art of War, in four books, and the De Aquis Urbis Rome, in two. His works have been edited by Dederich (Leip. 1855). Fronto, Marcus Cornetius, Latin rhetori- cian, was born at Cirta, in Numidia, about 100 A.D. In consequence of his reputation as an orator and pleader, he was entrusted by Antoninus Pius with the education of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. In 148 he was consul. He died about 170. The two series of Fronto’s letters to Marens Aurelius, discovered by Mai in 1815, do not bear out the reputation for eloquence and_ intellectual force ascribed to the rhetorician by his contemporaries. 16 FROSINONE FROST-BITE A critical edition was published by Niebuhr in 1816, and another by Naber in 1867. Frosino’ne (Frusino of the Volscians), a town of Italy, 60 miles SE. of Rome by rail, with re- mains of an ancient amphitheatre. Pop. 7018. Frost. The term frost is used to describe the condition of bodies containing moisture when their temperature is below 32° F., the freezing-point of water. When the substance in question is the air, everything exposed to its influence and not otherwise heated passes also below the freezing- oint. Inno part of the British Isles, within 1000 eet of sea-level, is the average ype gsc at any time of the year below 32°; and therefore the frosts experienced in Britain, though often lasting several days or even weeks, are essentially sporadic and of the nature of interruptions in the general character of the weather. It may be noted in passing that when severe frosts do occur, covering the rivers and lakes with ice, the weather is usually settled, there being a high barometer and little wind; so that the air over the British Isles or those pafts of them where the frost prevails is not liable to be mixed with air from the warmer regions above the seas around. Loch Ness is one of the few lakes in Britain never known to freeze: its great depth prevents the cold having time to cool the whole mass of the water even in the longest and severest frosts that have occurred within the memory of man. Other large but shallower lakes, such as Loch Lomond, on the contrary get sufficiently frozen over to bear skaters and curlers during every exceptionally cold winter. A frequent and dis- agreeable effect of frost is the bursting of water- ipes, due to the expansion of water in the act of reezing. The breakage is not usually noticed till a thaw sets in and the water again circulates in the pipe, hence it is sometimes erroneously supposed that the thaw has burst the pipe. Local low temperatures are often found in valleys when the air at a little height up is considerabl warmer, producing what is known as an ‘up-ban thaw.’ This is caused by the air chilled by radia- tion from the sides of the hills settling down from its greater weight, and occurs on every night when there is not enough wind to mix the different layers together. n fact, on calm mornings a stream of cold air flows down valleys like their rivers, and often indicates its presence by the fog caused by its coming in contact with the damp air above the watercourses. In choosing sites for houses or gardens a less liability to great cold and damp fogs will be secured by placing them on knolls or a little up the sides of the hill than if they are lanted in the bottom of the valley, and thus in the influence of this cold current. A position directly opposite the mouth of a valley is also to be avoided. rost may be present on the ground or on plants when the air is several degrees above the freezing- point. This hoar-frost is due to cooling by radia- tion (see HEAT, p. 609)—i.e. to the ground, leaves, &e. radiating their heat away faster than it can be replenished from the air around. Hoar-frost is most. liable to occur on clear nights, clouds acting as a screen to check radiation, and is more common in country districts than in towns, where the smoke serves a similar purpose. It is the frost most dangerous to vegetation—coming as it does in clear weather when the air is otherwise warm, the days often hot from strong sunshine, and the tissues of the plants full of sap. It may sometimes be fore- told by observing the hygrometer ; if the dew-point (see DEW) is below 32° in the afternoon, hoar-fros may be expected at night. At the same time it is frequently a sign of warm days, as the low dew-point indicates that little moisture is present in the air to check the sun’s rays. Hoar-frost being wholly due to radiation, it is a common custom to protect plants by spreading some light covering over them, or even by burning leaves, brushwood, &c. to make a smoke of sufficient density to act as a screen. This is usually effeetual, but may fail either from the air cooling below 32°, in which case the covering is almost useless; or by injuriously checking the circulation of air and confining a small quantity immediately over the plants, which, getting cooled ie et with the ground below the temperature of the free moving air around, may pass below 32° and allow the vegetation to be frost-bitten. A well-known form of frost, closely allied to hoar- frost, is the crystalline deposit seen when the mois- ture in the air of a warm room condenses on tlie glass of the window. It takes most beautiful and varied forms, owing to the tendency of ice deposited in this manner to form hexagonal crystals. Another form of deposition is fog-erystals, which appear whenever a frosty fog is accompanied b: wind, the fog drifting along and depositing spicules of ice on all surfaces exposed to it. As frosty fogs _ in low-lying districts occur usually in calm weather fog crystals are not often observed there, but are of frequent occurrence on hills, where the driving mists cover all projecting stones, trees, &c., with great masses of loose feathery‘crystals, often reaching a thickness of several feet. Great damage is some- times caused to trees and shrubs by rain falling immediately after frost, before the ground and the air near it has time tothaw. The rain freezes as soon as it touches any objects, and gradually encrusts them with solid ice, until even large branches of trees break down under the weight. For other matters connected with freezing and its effects, see IcE, TEMPERATURE, THERMOMETER, GLACIERS, HaliL, SNow, FREEZING MIxTuREs, &c. Lists of the most memorable frosts on record will be found in W. Andrews’s Famous Frosts and Frost-fairs in Great Britain (1887), and in C, Walford’s paper on ‘Famines’ in Journal of the Statistical Society (1878). Fairs were held on the ice on the Thames in 1564, 1607-8, 1620, 1683-84 (especially celebrated), 1688-89, 1715-16, 1739-40, 1788-89, 1813-14. The western parts of the Baltic were frozen, and in most years passable for men and horses, in 1294, 1296, 1306, 1323, 1349, 1402, 1459-60, 1548, 1658, 1767. Flanders and Holland were visited by unusually severe frosts in 1468, 1544, 1565, 1594, 1622, 1734, and 1785. Besides these, other memorable frosts occurred in the years and countries mentioned in the subjoined table : 401, 763-4. Seas near Con- | 1737. Italy and Spain. stantinople. 1740, Denmark and Prussia, 859-60. Mediterranean and | 1745. Russia. Adriatic. 1760. Germany. 1035. On Midsummer Day in | 1763. Germany and France. England. 1766. Naples, Lisbon, Bavaria, 1076-77. England. and France. 1234. Mediterranean. 1767. Italy and North Europe. 1420. Sea near Constantinople. | 1783-84. Central Europe. 1438, Germany. 1812. Russia. 1594, Adriatic at Venice. 1815. Canada. 1622. Hellespont. 1849. Norway. 1670. Rhine frozen. 1873. France. 1691. Austria. 1888. Blizzard (q.v.) in U.S. 1693. Italy and Germany. 1895. Great Britain. Frost-bite is caused by cold depressing the vitality of a part or the whole of the body. The frost-bitten part is at first blue and puffy, from the current of blood through it being much retarded ; then, should the cold be continued, it becomes pallid, and the painful tingling gives place to numbness and insensibility, and finally to actual death or mortification, with a dark livid appearance of the part. Although a sudden violent application of cold may cause death of the tissues, by reducing the temperature to a degree incompatible with animal life, the most common cause of the destructive effects of frost-bite is undoubtedly the excessive FROTH-FLY FROUDE 17 reaction which occurs on sudden removal of the cold, or the application of heat; this is especially ease with moist cold. Baron Larrey believed that ‘cold was merely the predisposing cause of frost-bite, and mentions that after the battle of Eylau the French soldiers did not experience any pee sensations during the severe cold varying from 10° to 15° below zero of Réaumur’'s thermometer; but, when the temperature rose from 18° to 20°, they felt the first sensations of eold, and applied for succour, complaining of acute in their feet, and of numbness, heaviness, and prickings in the extremities. The parts were searcely swollen, and of a dull red colour, In { some cases, a slight redness was perceptible about the roots of the toes, and on the back of the foot; in others, the toes were destitute of motion, sensi- bility, and warmth, being already black, and, as it were, dried.’ Those of the men who indulged in the warmth of the bivouac fires suffered from frost- bite in much larger proportion than their more - hardy comrades. But ‘ the extent of disaster from this cause even in modern campaigning may be ; judged from the fact that in the French army before bastopol 2800 cases occurred in two nights, and of this number 900 subsequently died.’ In Great Britain cases of frost-bite are compara- tively rare. Occasionally, in severe winters, cases — themselves at the hospitalsin the persons of ouseless, ill-nourished unfortunates, whose consti- tutions have in many instances been enfeebled by spirit-drinking. The treatment of frost-bite consists in coaxing 3 back by degrees the vitality of the part; this is most prudently effected by rubbing the part in a cold room, at first with snow, then with water at ordinary temperature, and when warmth returns by enveloping it in cotton-wool or flannel without epplying eat. As the coldness subsides, the pain- tingling returns, then redness and heat; in a short time the latter will be above the natural standard, and, if the reaction is severe, the part will inflame, and perhaps mortify. It is well to remember that the part need not have been actually frozen for these symptoms to occur. he person with languid cireulation who, coming home with cold wet feet, places them before the fire, or in warm water, may be ‘frost- bitten’ to all intents and purposes. Froth-fly, also called FROTH-HOP- PER, FROG-HOPPER, FROG-SPIT, common names for numerous insects parasitic on lants, on which the arvee and pupee are found surrounded by a frothy spittle. They are included in the family Cica- dellidz in the order Homoptera, and are related to the Aph- ides, Cicadas, and Lantern-flies. |The family is a very large one; the members are = parasites, mostly small in size, often ——— Frog-hopper _ (Aphrophora spumaria) : @, larva ; b, perfect insect, with - covers closed ; c, perfect insect, in a of flight; d, the froth ona very beautiful in form and colour, The young stages, which are very like the adults, except in the absence of developed wings, suck their plant hosts, and thereupon surround themselves with the familiar froth which issues from the hind end of the gut. The froth is popularly called cuckoo- spit or frog-spittle, from fancies entertained as to its origin. It is sometimes so abundant, on willows for instance, that it drops from the branches. In some cases it may be helped by an exudation from the wounded plants. The adults have long hind- legs, and are able to hop about with some activity. The commonest British species, Aphrophora spumaria, is a yellowish-green insect, towards half an inch long, particularly addicted to willows; another com- mon green form, Tetti- onia viridis, is _ prevalent in meadows; Cercopis san- guindenta, in red and black, also occurs; while Typlo- cyba, Jassus, and Ledra are abundantly re- penis in Europe. In tropical countries the icadellidee are still more plentiful and beautiful. The nearly-related family Membracide includes many most extraordinary insects (see fig.)—e.g. in the genera Bocydium and Centrotus, with bizarre outgrowths from the first segment of the thorax. Froude, JAMES ANTHONY, an eminent English historian, was born at Dartington, near Totnes, Devonshire, 23d April 1818. The youngest son of the Archdeacon of Totnes, he was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, took a second-class in classics in 1840, and in 1842 was elected a Fellow of Exeter College. He took déacon’s orders in 1844, and was sometime under the spell of Newman’s influence, but ere long his opinions underwent a fundamental change, as re- vealed to the world in 1848 in his outspoken book, The Nemesis of Faith, a work in which the solem- nity and sadness of religious scepticism are relieved by a singularly tender and earnest humanity. The book was written with great and even startling power, and not only cost Seauks his fellowship, but also an educational appointment in Tasmania. For the next few years he employed himself in writing for Fraser’s Magazine aad the Westminster Review, and in 1856 issued the first two volumes of his History of England from the fall of Wolsey to the defeat of the Spanish Armada, comple in 12 vols. in 1869. In this work Froude shows supreme literary ability—no reader can ever forget his narrative of the death of Mary Stuart and the disasters that befell the great Armada. In the art of making history as fascinating as fiction Macaulay is his only rival. But like him he is a man of letters first and an historian afterwards, and the defects of his merits have sadly impaired the permanent value of his work. As has been said with truth, he taught himself history by writing it; still his use of his materials never becomes critical, and his views of men and motives are always distorted by being seen through 19th- century spectacles, and these, moreover, spectacles of his own. Natural love of paradox and the faculty of seeing easily what he wished to see helped him to make a hero of Henry VIII.—the greatest blot upon his history. Four volumes of remarkabl brilliant essays and papers, entitled Short Studies on Great Subjects, appeared between 1867 and 1882. Froude was elected rector of St Bocydium cruciatum. 18 FROZEN STRAIT FRUIT Andrews University in 1869, and received the degree of LL.D. Fora short time he was editor of Fraser’s Magazine. His next history, The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (3 vols. 1871-74), showed the same merits and the same defects as the greater work, and the same may be said of his Cesar: a Sketch (1879), a subject for the treatment of which he possessed but one qualification—consummate style. In 1874, and again in 1875, Froude visited the South African colonies on a mission from the home govern- ment, and published his impressions in 7’wo Lec- tures on South Africa (1880). As Carlyle’s literary executor, Froude edited his Reminiscences (1881), Mrs Carlyle’s Letters (3 vols. 1882), and Carlyle’s own Life (4 vols. 1882-84); and by giving to the world the copious personal criticism and family details contained in these works, he suggested grave doubts as to his editorial discretion. Later works are Oceana (1886), a delightful account of an Australasian voyage; The English in the West Indies (1888—assailed by West Indians as quite misleading) ; The Two Che of Dunboy (1889), an Irish historical romance ; The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon (1891); and The Spanish Story of the Armada, and other Essays (1892). Minor works were Calvinism (1871), Bunyan (1880), Luther (1883), and Beaconsfield (1891). In 1892 he was appointed Professor of Modern History at Oxford, in succession to Freeman, and he died at Saleombe }. in Devonshire, 20th October 1894. The Life and Letters of Erasmus (1894) and Lectures on the Council of Trent (1896), both delivered as lectures at Oxford, exhibit his unique merits and his char- acteristic defects—a power and skill of statement that rank him with the very greatest masters of English prose, a partisan spirit on great issues, ret a carelessness about accuracy in details and not unimportant facts. See Skelton’s Zable-talk of Shirley (1895).—His elder brother, RICHARD URRELL FROUDE, a leader in the Oxford Tracta- rian movement, was born at Dartington, in Devon- shire, 25th March 1803. After graduating atOxford in 1824 he became Fellow and tutor of Oriel College. Tracts 9 and 63 were from his pen. He died on 28th February 1836. His Remains were published three years after his death by Keble and Newman. —Another brother, WILLIAM FRouDE, born in 1810 and educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, was trained to be a civil engineer, and in 1838 became assistant to Brunel. Retiring from professional work in 1846, he devoted him- self, down to his death at the Cape, 4th May 1879, to investigating the laws of naval construction. Frozen Strait, an Arctic passage, 15 miles wide, separating Southampton Island from Melville Peninsula. Fructidor (‘fruit-month’) was the name in the French republican calendar for the period 18th August-16th September (see CALENDAR). On the 18th Fructidor of the year 5 (4th September 1797) there was:a coup d’état by the Directory. Fructification, the reproductive system or the ‘fruit’ of eryptogams. See FUNGI, SEAWEEDS. Fructose (Lzvulose), See SUGAR. Frugoni, Caro INNOcENZO0, an Italian poet, was born at Genoa in 1692, and taught rhetorie at Brescia, Genoa, and Bologna, and died in 1768. He belonged to the ‘ Arcadian’ group, and wrote odes, epistles, and satires, and was famous with his contemporaries for versatility and elegance, but is now all but forgotten. Fruit. In popular language, the term fruit is very vaguely employed. When extended beyond the common limitation of usefulness to man or beast, it tends to be applied to any plant-structure, phanerogamic or eryptogamic, which contains the erm of the new individual—to all the organs of ructification in short. But, as common observa- tion deepens into botany, we find ourselves gradu- ally led to the more precise restriction of the term fruit to the ovary of angiosperms (monocotyledons or dicotyledons) after fertilisation (see FLOWER, | OVARY). — The numerous and interesting adaptations of different fruits to the preservation and distribution of the seed will be more conveniently outlined * under SEED, while the periodic rhythm between vegetative and reproductive growth to which the uestion of fruit attracts our attention must be discussed under the more general head of RkE- PRODUCTION. The special structure and physiology of fruits here remain to be considered. Since the dawn of modern botany, the multi- farious forms of fruit have led to many attempts at their classification. Yet the student 1s more apt to be overwhelmed by the resulting disorderly and redundant nomenclature of the subject than im- pressed by its systematic clearness. If, however, we keep fast hold of the elementary conceptions. of vegetable physiology, morphology, and evolu- tion, the difficulty of enumerating and classifying the various forms of fruit’ becomes greatly dimin- ~ ished. We must of course assume a knowledge of the general morphology of the Flower (q.v.). Starting then with those -simplest flowers in which all the carpels are separate, we find the stigma and style usually withering back as no longer of service, and the ovary enlarging, as the fertilised ovules grow up into seeds. But in many such simple flowers more ovules are produced than are fertilised, and generally also more fertilised than can be developed up to maturity ; hence the reduction of the ovules is exceedingly common. The alternative of reducing the number of carpels also commonly appears : hence in the same order of Ranunculaceze we have on the one hand the anemone with its multitude of small ovaries which only mature a single ovule, and on the other the lark- spur or monkshood with few carpels, but these many-seeded. This process of reduction of the number of carpels or ovules, or of both, has not only taken place in the process of past evolution of the great majority of plants, but is still frequentl to be observed in the development of the individual, as is well seen by comparing the characteristically one-celled and one-seeded acorn with a section of the three-celled and six-ovuled ovary from which it actually arose in spring, or, more simply, by recall- ing to memory the abortive ovules and the corre- sponding abortion of one or two of the original tise divisions of the ovary in the fruit of the horse-chestnut. A second common-sense ‘principle of fruit- making,’ as we may call it, is reached through ‘keeping clearly in mind the nature and origin of the ovary ; for, however the upgrowth of the axis may in perigynous or epigynous flowers conceal this (see FLOWER), we know the ovary primarily to have arisen from one or more carpellary leaves, of which the individual developmegt has been so greatly checked (doubtless through the precocious develop- ment of their sporangia—i.e. ovules), that so far from becoming expanded like all other appendages, they remain closed upon the ovules, and frequently even coalesce with each other from the base upwards, so forming a many-celled ovary, often even with united styles or even stigmas. Yet the tendency to their individual expansion is not lost; in many monstrosities, and normally a few types, such as the common mignonette, the carpellary leaves éarly begin to expand, so opening the ovary and exposing the seeds long before ripeness. ar more fre- quently, however, this final development of the i sy FRUIT . 19 q . carpellary leaves is delayed until the growth- of the seed and fruit have ended, and it R therefore accompanied, or even preceded, by their death; the separation often indicating the lines at once of leaf-margin and leaf-fall. In the best developed carpellary leaves, such as those of the more floral Ranunculacew, we natur- ally find the ovary ‘dehiscing along the ventral suture’—in more simple and less empirical lan- / goege, the carpellary leaf opening along the line z u nited ovule-bearing margins, This is what is termed a follicle (fig. 1, /). Since, however, the ovules are on the united margins, the midrib tends to become mechanically - unimportant, and to interpose little or no resist- ance to a tendency to split or tear along its fold, as well as to open along the united margins. Such ‘dehiscence by both dorsal and ventral suture’ ves us the modification of the follicle known as a or pod (fig. 1, e). A very familiar type, which must not be confused with onal ape is the siligua (or when shortened and broadened the silicula) of Cruciferee. Here the on edges of two united “pee develop a sverse septum which divides the fruit (fig. 1, 2); and this is left when the lobes split away, as so familiarly in Honesty. Among united ovaries which readily split open at the united margins sage ) we may note that of Gentian (q.v.), while the more familiar three-celled ovary of a violet (fig. 1, 6) or rock rose with its parietal placentation gives a charac- teristic example of dehiscence along the midribs of the united carpels, so opening the loculi (/ocudi- cidal). In the five-celled capsule of the Geranium (q.v.) the carpellary leaves separate not only at the Fig. 1. J, follicle; e, legume; d. silicula; c, capsule of henbane ; b, of violet ; a, of poppy. sides but also at the base, so curling inwards and jecting the seed. In Colchicum, white hellebore (Veratram ), and their allies (Melanthacez) the ehiscence is characteristically septicidal, the carpels separating instead of the loculi opening : the remaining majority of Liliacee are loculicidal.. Where, however, the placentze remain more or less completely upon a central column from which the valves are detached, the dehiscence is said to be septifragal. Tn henbane (fig. 1, c), Anagallis, &e. the dehis- cence is circular (circumscissile); the ible ex- planation of this as a disarticulation of the united carpels by their leaf-bases is, however, rendered difficult through the separated portion being a mere lid. Many-celled capsules are numerous in which the leaf-opening or dehiscence is greatly reduced from completeness, witness the valvular and porous dehiscence of the Lychnis and of the poppy (fig. 1, a) respectively. Such cases clearly point us to those of carpels which do not open at all. Such inde- fruits, produced from carpels so persistently embryonic, are, as we might expect, usually few or one-ovuled, and, for the most part, little specialised. Thus the follicle of the Ranun- culacew of more specialised floral character becomes shortened into the one-seeded indehiscent achene of the anemone or buttercup (fig. 2, e, f). In the achene of the (which similarly repre- sents the capsule of the ancestral lilies) the thin dry pete becomes inseparable from the seed-coat (hence the term caryopsis, fig. 2, c, d); in many trees (e.g. hazel) it becomes hardened and thickened as a nut, In composites (fig. 2, a, 6), too, the achene is cg negerkd a nutlet, although often (on account of its being inferior) termed a e,f, achenes of buttercup ; c, d, caryopsis of oat ; a, b, achenes with pus ; ¢ ‘lomentum ;’ i, h, nutlets and ovary of borage ; , k, umbelliferous type of schizocarp. cypsela. Less extremely reduced representatives of the various multicellular ovaries to which such fruits correspond are afforded us by borages or labiates, in which the two-celled ovary of the primi- tive solanaceous type becomes, as in thorn-apple, &e., subsequently divided into four parts: these (see fig. 2, 7, 4), however, are here so arrested as only to develop a single ovule in each loculus (of which the aikwoattons growth brings about the ao rata appearance of the ‘gynobasic’ style). he four ripe ‘ nutlets’ into which the four-lobed ovary of these forms commonly breaks up were not unnaturally mistaken by the old botanists for naked seeds. In Umbelliferee we have another charac- teristic form of schizocarp, as all such fruits are termed which split up without truly carpellary de- hiscence, although the tendency to this can be seen still to have some influence. Here the separate portions (or mericarps), each resembling an achene or nut, are two in number, and when ripe swing off upon the ends of a forked carpophore (fig. 2, 1, ). In exceptional cases we have the pod of some Leguminose and the siliqua of some Crucifers—e.g. radish, snapping off into one-seeded een instead of dehiscing longitudinally in the regular way. This simply comes about where the swellings correspond- ing to the seeds become unusually large, leavin narrowings between them, and thus giving the y a strength of form too great for the usual tension of ripeness to overcome (fg. 2,g). To confuse such distinct types of fruit under a common term (/omen- tum), and to separate them from the normally dehiscent capsules to which they really belong, and to place them among the purely ‘schizocarpous’ fruits we have been describing, although still too customary, are merely examples of the reasoned mistakes inseparable from a purely descriptive anatomy, but from which the evolutionary stand- point is at length delivering us. So far all our fruits haye been dry; but a new physiological ‘ principle of fruit-making’ is neces- sary to comprehend those in which the pericarp is succulent. For, just as the effect of fertilisation is seen in many animals to extend beyond the mere ovum to the parent organism, and also in many of 20 FRUIT the lowest plants, so it is in the case before us. Even in fruits which are dry on ripening we have seen that the ovaries or loculi, on Ghivk no demand is made for the growth of fertilised ovules, become reduced or disappear. Sometimes it may be merel the coats of the seed (as in the pomegranate ) whic undergo the complex histological and chemical changes which we sum up as those of succulence and ripening ; at other times largely their placentas, as in the gooseberry and currant. Yet, as in these, the innermost tissue of the ovary may become suc- culent as well. In the orange also the familiar succulent tissue in which the seeds are immersed are the enlarged succulent cells of the endocarp ; the grape too gives a characteristic example of soft endocarp. These may all be classed as berries or baccate fruits, for the distinction of the succulent product of an inferior ovary as a berry, from that of a superior one, as a wva or grape, need hardly be allowed to increase our nomenclature. 7 ‘ FUAD PASHA ad Pasha, MEHMED, a Turkish statesman and littérateur, was born at Constantinople, 17th January 1814. He was the son of the celebrated t, Izzet-Mollah, and had already begun to make lf known as an author, when the exile of his father, who had fallen into disgrace with the Sultan Mahmud, compelled him to choose a profession. He studied medicine, and for some years was Admiralty physician, but in 1835 abruptly forsook medicine, and employed himself in the study of diplomacy, history, modern languages, the rights of nations, and political economy. In 1840 he became first secretary to the Turkish embassy at London, and in 1843 was at Madrid. It was almost impos- sible to believe him to be a Turk, he spoke French so marvellously well. On his return to Constantin- ople he was appointed to discharge the functions of grand interpreter to the Porte, and in 1852 became minister of foreign affairs. On the question of the ‘Holy Places,’ Fuad Pasha, by his attitude, and by a brochure very hostile to the pretensions of ussia, gave great dissatisfaction to the czar. In 1855 he received the title of Pasha, and was again appointed minister of foreign affairs. From 1861 to 1866 he held the office of Grand Vizier. He died in 1869. To him especially it is said Turkey owes the hatti-sherif of 1856. See TURKEY. Fuca, or JUAN DE Fuca, STRAIT, a passage ae the State of Washington from Vancouver Island, and connecting the Pacific Ocean with the Gulf of Georgia. It contains several islands, one of which, San Juan, became the subject of a dispute between Great. Britain and the United States, the question being whether it belon to Washington (then a territory) or to British Colum- bia. In 1872 the emperor of Germany, as arbiter, decided that the line of boundary should be run through the Strait of Haro, west of San Juan, thus awarding that island to the United States; and it and several neighbouring islands now form a county of Washington. The county of San Juan had in 1880 a population of 948 ; in 1890, 2072. Fa-chau. See Foocnow. Fuchsia—named in 1703 by Plumier after Leonhard Fuchs (1501-66), who with Brunfels and Bock (see BOTANY) was one of the founders of German botany—a genus of Onagracez containing me ae a, Fuchsia Riccartoni; 5, a garden variety. about fifty species, small shrubs or trees, natives of the Pacific coast of South America, whence a few have ranged northwards to Central America, and others to New Zealand. The usually pendulous flowers are of characteristic appearance and often striking beauty; they are very easily propagated by cuttings and grow freely, especially near the sea- FUCUS 23 coast. Some, notably F. discolor and F. Riccartoni, are capable of withstanding our winter so well that fuchsia-hedges are a common ornament of gardens on the west coast of Scotland. . Others can be treated as herbaceous plants; and most if not indeed all will flower well in the open air durin summer, Cultivators recommend keeping hack plants, so that when planted out in May they shall only then begin to put out their leaves. The commonest species is usually known as F. coccinea (but is said to be only a variety of F. globosa, and this again of F. macrostemma, while the true /’. coccinea, with nearly sessile leaves, is rare); I’. conica, corallina, fulgens, gracilis, &c. are also well known, as well as the hardier species above named, while the florists’ varieties and hybrids are innumerable. There are also many dwarf species of characteristic habits. The berries of many species are eaten with sugar in their native countries, and when they ripen are occasion- ally preserved even here. The Soon | of some species . also employed in South America as a black ye. Fuchsine. See Dyerna. : Fuchs’s Soluble Glass, See under Glass (page 245), SOLUBLE GLASs. Fucino, LAKE oF, or LAGO DI CELANO (ancient Fucinus Lacus), a lake of Italy, in the province of Aquila, with an area of 61 sq. m., is situated 2172 feet above sea-level. Being only 75 feet deep and having no constant outflow, it was subject to sudden risings, which on more than one occasion inundated the surrounding regions. To obviate this danger the Emperor Claudius cut a subter- ranean channel, nearly 3 miles in length, through the solid rock of Monte Salviano, 30,000 men being engaged in the work from 44 to 54 A.D. This tunnel, however, soon became obstructed and long remained so, notwithstanding various attempts to clear it. As the lake had been steadily rising from 1783, a new canal was made (1852-62) by the Swiss engineer De Montricher. By 1875 the lake was dry ; it is now under cultivation. Fucus, the generic name of the various species of brown sea-wrack which form the main vegetation of rocky shores between tide-marks. Commonest of all upon European coasts (save in the Mediter- ranean), and abundant also in the North Pacific, is F. vesiculosus (Bladderweed, Black Tang, Sea- ware, Kelp-ware, Xc.), easily distinguished by its entire edges and paired air-vesicles. In scarcity of better fodder, oxen, sheep, and deer will eat it from the rocks, and in North Europe it is sometimes boiled for hogs with a little coarse flour. On account of the very large proportion of ash (up to 23 per cent. of the dry weight), it forms a valoahie manure, and, although very imperfectly utilised in most paces, is regularly astiabed as ‘varec’ or ‘vraic’ by the farmers of the Channel Isles and their kinsmen of the adjacent mainland. The chemical composition also made it the staple of the industry of kelp- burning (see KELP), once so important as a source of raw material to the soap-boiler and glass-maker. Even more esteemed for these purposes, although unfortunately abounding nearer low-water mark, was the kindred F. nodosus (Knobbed Wrack) with its solitary air-vesicles in the line of the absent midrib. F. serratus (Black Wrack), also very common and easily recognised by its serrated fronds without air-vesicles, was least valued. With these are gathered other less common species, as well as the Laminaria (see SEAWEEDS), =e by the lowest tides. Besides manure, the only direct chemical utilisation of the Fuci is for the prepara- tion of iodine; and the important proportion of iodine present justifies their ancient medicinal repute in the treatment of scrofulous diseases, the 24 FUEGO FUEL Quercus marina of ancient pharmacy being F. serratus, and the Althiops vegetabilis the charred residue of this and its allies. An alcoholic extract is also frequently advertised for the treatment of corpulence. ‘ The genus Fucus and a few closely allied genera (e.g. Fucodium, Himanthalia, Cystoseira, and notably Sargassum, specially described under GULF-WEED), form the family Fucacez, which are the highest, and with the allied Lamin- ariacee, also the most familiar representatives of the large alliance of brown seaweeds (see the article SEAWEEDS). The vegetative body is usually a thallus, yet in Sargassum, &c., a distinction of this into stem and leaves is very complete. The branching of Fucus is dichotom- ous in one plane. Of the inner or medullary cells of the thallus, the outer wall becomes mucilagin- ous, while the less superficial of the rind cells develop filaments which grow inwards, so surround- ing the inner cells within a network of filaments. The bladders are formed by the simple separation of portions of the tissue, the cavities becoming . distended by air. A sexual multiplication may be said to be absent, but sexual reproduction is easily observed. A large area at the end of the frond becomes covered with small depressions, which are overgrown until they are spherical flasks with only a minute opening on the surface. The cells linin this flask or conceptacle proceed to divide, an many form barren cellular filaments which, how- ever, instead of turning inwards, as in vegetative growth, grow into the cavity of the flask or even project beyond it as a tuft of hairs. But man are arrested in division while still only two-celled, and the upper of these cells enlarges greatly. In some forms (Cystoseira, Himanthalia) this becomes the ovum, but in others its contents divide into two, four, or in Fucus eight ova; hence it is termed the oogonium. Other filaments again not only lengthen, but branch freely. Their terminal cells become antheridia—i.e. their protoplasm divides into a multitude of spermatozoids. Fer- tilisation takes place when the ripe fertile fronds are left bare by the tide, the change of specific gravity through evaporation doubtless being of importance in aiding the escape of the sexual roducts. The outer membrane of the oogonium, ike that of a medullary cell, becomes mucilaginous and gives way, and the groups of eight ova, still, however, enclosed within the inner wall, escape from the conceptacle ; the antheridia, too, break off and escape to the opening of the conceptacle (per- haps helped by the slight contraction of the volume of this which evaporation must tend to produce). When the tide returns, both ova and spermatozoids break completely free and fertilisation takes place. Cross-fertilisation, always possible even where, as in F. platycarpus, the same conceptacle develops ova and spermatozoa, becomes perfect in the more familiar species, of which the greater prevalence thus becomes more intelligible. The fertilised ovum soon develops a wall, becomes attached, and pro- ceeds to divide and lengthen, soon forming a root- like attachment at one end, a growing point at the other. See SEAWEEDS; also special articles above mentioned. Fuego, FUEGO. Fuel. The chief mode of artificially producing that condition of matter which is called heat is by burning certain substances in air. These substances contain earbon and hydrogen, which during the chemical change implied by burning unite with the atmospheric oxygen, and as the temperature rises emit light as well as heat. Since these two elements are very widely distributed in nature, the TIERRA DEL. See TIERRA DEL classification of all the compounds which may be termed fuels is somewhat difficult. After usin wood for long ages men at last laid the minera kingdom under requisition, but the fuels thence derived were soon recognised to be undoubtedly. of vegetable origin. Some writers include all these under the term natural, and distinguish such derivatives as coke, charcoal, and combustible gases as artificial. Popularly, fuels are a large class of compounds, all of vegetable origin except the animal oils and fats, which produce heat and light when raised to ‘ kindling temperature.’ Thus, besides coal and coke, wood and charcoal, and peat or turf, we must reckon tallow, wax, alcohol, coal and other gases, petroleum, creasote or ‘ dead-oil,’ and others as fuels. To be exhaustive, we should further refer to a sub-class called ‘ patent’ fuels. The ordinary solid fuels fall under two heads: those containing water in a large proportion—e.g. wood, turf, and most coals—and therefore pro- ducing, when burned, hydrogen as well as carbon ; and secondly, those which are purely carbonaceous —coke, charcoal, and anthracite. In recent times, since metallurgy has assumed such proportions in all countries, and especially since the application of steam-power, the coking of coal has been more and more perfected, in order to concentrate the carbon and present a fuel capable of producing a higher temperature. Wood as a fuel is either light and soft, as deal, or heavy and hard, as oak; but neither kind is now applied in metal-working, unless in the concentrated form of charcoal. Wood contains so large a proportion of water as to reduce its heat-giving quality both in quantity and in- tensity, and contains less than half its weight of carbon (see table). Charcoal is formed by condensing the carbon of wood and expelling the hydrogen and oxygen, just as coke is a concentration of coal by an analogous process. When the wood has been packed and so closed in as to prevent access of air, by raising the whole to a temperature of about 300°, the watery and gaseous particles are entirely expelled, and a mass of almost pure carbon remains. Similarly from coal we have coke, prepared by ‘dry distillation ’ or imperfect combustion, so as to retain the carbona- ceous part in a concentrated state and set free the volatile ingredients and part of the sulphur. A special property of coke for metallurgy, as compared with coal, is that, when exposed to high tempera- tures as in iron-blast furnaces, it does not become pasty. Turf or peat is an agglomeration of decayed vegetable matter, such as is frequently found on the sites of ancient forests. It is remarked that no instance of its formation occurs within the tropics ; though Lyell describes the Great Dismal Swamp between Virginia and North Carolina to. be a mass of black peat-like matter, 15 feet deep. Some peaty sediment has also been noted in a Cashmere lake. From holding so small a percent- age of carbon, turf is of little use in the arts; but in Bavaria it has been utilised for locomotive engines after being compressed into bricks, and in some districts it has been converted into a species of charcoal. Superior to the peat fuels, though still inferior in carbon to coal proper, are the lignites or brown coal, which occur in geological deposits of more recent formation than the true coal-measures. _The lignites contain a larger proportion of water than coals properly so termed; and are of so many varieties as gradually to pass into the bituminous class, which are known by their smoky flame and derive their name, not from any bitumen in their composition, but from the well-known tars which they produce. With the bituminous must be reckoned the ‘coking coal’ and the ‘cannel (ie. FUEL candle) coal.’ The last-mentioned variety, more- over, includes the Edinburgh ‘parrot coal’ (so named from its crackling) and the ‘horn coal’ of South Wales, which is characterised by a smell like that of burnt horn. At the head of this class of fuels is the anthracite coal, holding over 90 _ cent. of carbon, and therefore of special value r some purposes in metallurgy and otherwise. Anthracite is very compact, somewhat brittle, and does not stain the ge like ordinary coal. For comparing as fuels some leading types of coals the following table—which is an abstract from various returns—will be of use, presenting the percentage of carbon, of hydrogen, and the ash left after combustion ; Fuel. Carbon. Hydrogen, Ash. RMORL | ida ov iwa eas cakdrvind 91-3 33 16 NE ks d nawede eee 90°7 8-9 9 WODUSVIVANIS .......cccrcccrese 89°2 2°4 4°7 NMG s sn sh ecventexcacactss 86°8 52 14 oy RP EOE SER PRO ere ON 83-0 3°3 61 MEMURDENO: 5.5 i, 5 sk Uowee eee + « 82°6 57 26 ESTO To. Gis. bo vinw tad bic weds os 81°2 3°83 4°5 BRIE =, Vue ah Soe laser adie 76°4 52 2°3 meee hs sdb: g emca Ghinb auitbns 73°4 2°9 50 Lignites (B. renee éaltgeaaas 691 5°2 30 Asphaltum (Mexico) .......... 781 9°3 28 Peats Sirereae A ata a eat aammnaee 57°2 59 50 Wood (average)...,........... 45-49°6 58 20 In primitive times the scarcity of wood in some parts of Egypt and India suggested the use as fuel of sun-dried cakes of the dung of camels and oxen. A similar practice exists to-day in the trackless steppes of Central Asia; and so, too, in various countries of Europe much refuse, especially of a on pute nature, is utilised which in coal or wi producing districts is rejected as absolutely worthless. In eastern France, for example, and Germany all the spent bark from tanneries is formed into cakes for fuel, and estimated as worth about three-fourths the same weight of wood. Where coal is not found or cannot profit- ably be conveyed, the preservation of forests is of manifest importance; and in certain parts of Europe, for example, trees are systematically arty in hedgerows and otherwise to provide el. For the same reason pollarding is resorted to, the branches being regularly cut, and the trunk left to grow fresh fuel. The scientific world, with as good a reason as the primitive races, have recently found means to largely supplement the natural supply of vegetable and mineral fuels by fluid or gaseous substances. Thus, in smelting iron, for example, the carbonic oxide, which formerly was carried off in the smoke from the blast-furnace, is now sometimes collected and conveyed in pipes to be utilised as fuel under steam-boilers. atural is also used to gree urpose, notably in the ke Erie district of the United States, where in many instances it is transferred for miles for heating furnaces. In the same district petroleum is a recognised liquid fuel, as well as naphtha. Another liquid fuel is creasote-oil, derived from coal-tar, which is reported to possess, weight for weight, at least twice the power of coal for raising steam. The United States chemists and metallur- gists are agreed that not only is a ‘higher, steadier, and more even heat’ produced by liquid fuel, but that, for heating iron more especially, a smaller quantity and shorter time suffice to obtain the same results. Baku petroleum is used as fuel for locomo- tives and steamers in South-east Russia. See Gas. Under this head we subjoin some figures from a report of a Royal Commission drawn up in 1871 by Professor Rankine. The first column (A) shows the quantity of heat units generated by the fuel ; the second (B) the pounds of water heated from 60° to 212°, and then, of course, converted into steam; and the third column (C) gives the comparative temperature of the fire or e: FUERO 25 Fuel, A. B. C. POISON cee adbieeedesxets 20,000 15 4646 | a ae eee 20,000 15 4646 Oil from CoA]... .0++seeeeeceeee 20,000 15 4646 OCROMNOOE ic veverGeare ccelscse 16,026 3 4495 Coal { from 13,890 895 2600 dhs putadanetaeaise to 14.833 9°67 2500 The three points noted in as a fuel chemi- cally are the intensity of the heat, the quantity of heat developed in combustion, and the luminosity. The last of these, however, affords but an imperfect measure of the temperature, because it is mainly due to the presence of solid particles. Instead of the second some writers use the term ‘ calorific power.’ In ordinary coal combustion there are two steps of the process: (1) the carbon is separated from the hydrogen in light particles, which, unless burned, appear as soot or smoke ; (2) the hydrogen becoming ignited heats up the carbon particles, which therefore appear as flame. For the complete combustion, therefore, of a typical hydrocarbon we _ require not only air in sufficient quantity, but also intensity of heat above the fuel. In a good furnace the supply of coal should by mechanical contrivance be rendered as regular and uniform as that of air; _and the body of the furnace should be so protected ‘so as to constitute a large branch of industry. from the boiler surface and other cooling agents as to steadily maintain a temperature sufficient for thorough ignition of the flame. What are called ‘ patent fuels’ arise mainly from the desire to utilise the refuse arising from the pro- duction or wasteful use of coal. Such artificial fuel, however, is by no means an entirely modern device, since the Chinese have for ages been accustomed to mix coal-dust with clay and bituimen, so ms ne most common form of ‘ patent fuel’ is a mixture of the small coal which accumulates at the pit mouths with sand, marl, or clay, or of some bituminous or resinous substance with sawdust. A second kind has dried and compressed peat as its basis, and is sold in the form of a dense brown solid. Another is an attempt to utilise small coke and the refuse ‘ breeze,’ which is well known in charcoal burning. The ‘ charbon de Paris’ is a combination of the dust of anthracite charcoal and similar refuse with coal- tar, so as to form a paste and be moulded into small eylinders of about 4 inches in length. Briquettes (q.v.) are compounds of waste coal-dust and pitch. See Report of Royal Commission on the Coal of the United Kingdom (1871); Report on the Coals suited to the Steam aes (1848); Rumford’s Works, vols, ii., iii. ; Williams, uel: its Combustionand Economy (3d ed. 1886); Phillips, Fuels: their Analysis and Valuation (1890). Fuente Alamo, a town of Spain, 20 miles S. of Murcia. Pop. 7900. Fuente hall! a a small walled town of Spain, 45 miles . of Cordova. Pop. 7937. Fuenterrabia. See FonTARABIA. Fuentes de Onoro, a small village of Sala- manca, Spain, on the Portuguese frontier, 15 miles WSW. of Ciudad Rodrigo, was the scene of an im- rtant battle of the Peninsular war on the 5th ay 1811, when Wellington defeated Massena. The English lost 2000, the French 5000. Fuero (Span. ; Portuguese, foral, foraes; Gali- cian, foro; ‘op ai fors; Lat. forum), a term used in different senses. (1) The title of a law code, Fuero Juzgo, the so-called legislation of the Gothic kings of Spain ; Fuero Real, &c. (2) The municipal charters of privileges granted by kings, lords, and monastic bodies to inhabitants of towns—Leon (1020), Najera (1035), Sahagun (1085), &c., espe- cially to towns dese or recaptured from the Moors, or those used for frontier defence—e.g. Oloron, in Béarn (1080). Sometimes these charters were offered especially to foreigners, Fueros Francos, 26 FUERO FUGGER Charters granted to attract settlers and those iven by the royal power must be distinguished ais others ; fueros based on legislation long ante- cedent and flourishing, e.g. those of Lerida (1228), were compiled ‘de statutis scriptis et non scriptis, et moribus et usaticis, etiam legibus Goticis et Rom- anis.” The term is also applied to the capitulations granted to Moors and Jews, the oldest of which is that of Huesca (1089). (3) Modes and tenures of property. succession, &c., nearly equivalent to the rench coutumes, usages, or customary law—e.g. El Foro de Galicia, Los Fors et Costumas de Béarn, &e. The date of the writing down of this class of fueros is no measure at all of their real antiquity. (4) The whole body of legislation and the constitution of certain practically autonomous states and communities in northern Spain and south-western France—e.g. the fueros of the pro- vincias Vascongadas, Biscay, Alava, and Guipuzcoa; in a slightly less degree of antonomy, the fueros of Navarre ; and of a still less, those of Aragon, of Béarn, &e. Groups 1 and 2 we may pass over to be studied in the documents special to each case. Group 3 is of far greater importance.. In it we find traces of customs and tenures which have long disappeared from other codes, and the origin of which ition to the tribal or pastoral condition of society. There are also anomalies not to be fully explained by our present knowledge, as the derecho consuetudinario of Upper Aragon, identical with the house com- munity of the southern Slavs, though there is no apparent racial or other connection with the Slavs. In the chief region of these fueros, from the borders of Catalonia to Santander, there is no trace in the foral. legislation of Gothic or Teutonic influ- ence. Within the states of class 4, and outside them in the same region, were various kinds of autonomies, or local self-governments, muni- cipalities, federations of towns, valleys, districts, communes, each with its own special fuero. The term republicas, republiques was often applied to these communities in transactions between them- selves, as also by the kings of Spain in the Cortes of Navarre, to the Basque provinces, and to the separate valleys and communes down to the French Revolution. The chief provision of the fueros, whereby these communities preserved their autonomy, was a freely elected legislative body, chosen according to the methods customary in each district, meeting at a given place at given times. This assembly was called the junta in the separate Basque provinces, with the Junta General meeting at the, oak of Guernica in Biscay, Cortes in Navarre, Etats in Béarn, Bilzaar in the Labourd, Cort, Tilhabet, &c., in the lesser communities. In these assemblies the right of taxation was jealously guarded. The con- tribution to the king was the last vote taken, after all grievances had been redressed and petitions heard, and then only as a voluntary gift. The repartition of taxes to individuals was in the hands of each separate community. Freedom of com- merce existed, with few or no customs-duties. The levy and command of the military forces of the states remained in their own power; the number of soldiers was fixed, with no compulsion to serve beyond the confines of the province, unless with consent of the juntas, &c., and for payment guar- anteed. This dia not prevent voluntary service of individuals. Jurisdiction of all kinds was in their own power. In all matters relating to property, land-tenure, inheritance, &c., even in_ particular families, the local customs or fueros overrode both the general fueros and the general laws either of Spain or of France; only the nobles or Infanzones were subject to these. Under this constitution the Basque provinces flourished, and supported the ‘ .berg and the lordshi largest population per square mile in Spain, with the exception of Galicia, until the middle of the present century. On the death of Ferdinand VII. (1833), the liberal regency hesitated to confirm the fueros. Don Carlos, the late king's brother, raised the standard of revolt. The seven years’ war was ended by the Convention of Vergara, 30th August 1839, and Isabella confirmed the fueros. on Carlos, grandson of the first, headed the second Carlist war (1872-76). It resulted in the loss of the fueros of the provinces, which will gradually become assimilated to the rest of Spain. In France, save for the management of the communal property in some parishes, the fors were swept away by the Revolu- tion and the Code Napoleon, though some traces still remain in the habits and customs of the people. See the article BasQuEs, and the following special books: Marichalar y Manrique, Historia de la Legislacion Civil en Espana (vol. ii. 3a ed. Madrid, 1868); Mufiozy Rivero, Coleccion de Fueros Municipales ( Madrid, 1847); Catalogo de Fueros y Cartas-Pueblas de Espana (R. Academia de Historia, Madrid, 1852); Mazure et Hatoulet, Fors de Béarn (Pau, 1842); G. B. de Lagréze, La Navarre Frangaise ( Paris, 1881) ; the last editions of the separate Fueros published in each province at Zaragoza, Pam- plona, Tolosa, Bilbao. Fugger, a remarkable Swabian family, which rising by industry and commerce founded lines of counts and even princes. The ancestor of the family was John Fugger, master-weaver, born in 1348 at Graben, near Augsburg. His eldest son, John Fugger, acquired by marriage, in 1370, the freedom of Augsburg; he died in 1409. But the real founder of the house was John’s second son, Jacob Fugger, who died in 1469, and was the first of the Fuggers that had a house in Augsburg, and carried on an already extensive commerce. Of his seven sons, three, Ulrich, George, and Jacob IL., by means of industry, ability, and integrity, ex- tended their business to an extraordinary degree, and laid the foundation for the palmy days of the family. They married into the noblest houses, and were raised by the Emperor Maximilian to the rank of nobles. The emperor mortgaged to them, for 10,000 gold guldens, the county of Kirch- of Weissenhorn. Ulrich Fugger (1441-1510) devoted himself specially to commerce with Austria. Jacob Fugger (1459- 1525) farmed the mines in Tyrol, accumulating immense wealth ; he lent enormous sunis to various otentates, and built the magnificent castle of uggerau, in Tyrol. But it was under Charles V. that the house attained its greatest splendour. Jacob having died childless, and the family of Ulrich being also extinct, the fortunes and splendour of the house rested on the sons of George Fugger, who died in 1506. His two younger sons, Raimund and Antony, carried on the business, and became the founders of the two chief and still flourishing lines of the house of Fugger. The two brothers were zealous Catholics, and with their wealth supported Eck in his opposition to Luther. During the diet held by Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530 the emperor lived in Antony Fugger’s splendid house in the Wine Market. On this occasion he raised both brothers to the rank of counts, and invested them with the still mortgaged properties of Kirch- berg and Weissenhorn; and a letter under the imperial seal conferred on them the rights of princes. The Emperor Ferdinand II. raised the splendour of the house of Fugger still higher by conferring great additional privileges on the two oldest of the family, Counts John and Jerome. The Fuggers continued still as nobles to carry on their commerce, and further increased their im- mense wealth. They attained the highest posts in the empire, and several princely houses prided FUGITATION | FUGUE 27 ree a their pean with the — of r. e pete the most extensive libra- ies and art A ections, maintained painters and musicians, and liberally encouraged art and science. Their houses and gardens were master- a0 of the architecture and taste of the times. hile thus indulging in splendour, they were not less bent on doing good, Jacob (the second of the name) bought houses in one of the suburbs of Augsburg, pulled them down, and built 108 ler houses (called the ‘Fuggerei’), which he let to poor citizens at a low rent. The race is still continued in the two principal lines of Raimund and Antony, besides collateral branches. The domains are chiefly in Bavaria, See Klein- schmidt, Augsburg, Niirnberg, und ihre Handels- JSiirsten (1881). Fugitation, the Scottish equivalent of Out- lawry (q.v.) in England. tive Slave Law. The constitution of the United States of America having recognised slavery, or ‘service,’ as it was termed, provided that persons held to service or labour in one state, under the laws thereof, and escaping into another, should be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such service or labour might be due, An act by congress in 1793, providing for the reclamation of fugitives, was superseded by a more stringent act in 1850, containing many obnoxious provisions ; a larger fee, for instance, was paid to the judicial officer when the person arrested was adjudged to be a slave than when he was declared free ; and all citizens were required, when called upon, to render the officers personal assistance in the performance of their duties. Any assistance rendered to a fugitive, or obstruction offered to his arrest, was eso and many persons were re- manded under the act; but the increased hostility to slavery which it engendered actually led to assistance being given in a larger number of escapes than ever before, mainly through the organisation known as the ‘underground railroad.’ The act was repealed after the outbreak of the civil war; and, since slavery has been abolished, the constitutional provision has lost all importance. Fugleman (Ger. fliigelmann, ‘a man placed at the end of a file;’ from fiigel, ‘a wing’), an intelligent soldier posted in front of a line of men at drill, to give the time and an example of the motions in the manual exercises. Fugue is the form of musical composition in which all devices of counterpoint, or the art of combining independent ideas in music, find their most fitting use. The laws which govern it are as strict as numerous, and can only be very generally summarised. The ‘subject’ chosen as the basis of the composition should present a complete and dis- tinct individuality, which to be readily recognised in its permutations should be well marked. It is given out by any one part, and immediately taken up by a second—its follower or pursuer (fuga, ‘a flight’). This ‘ answer,’ as it is called, is identical in form with the subject, or slightly modified in accord- ance with a rule which requires the upper division of the octave (G to C in the scale of C) to correspond to and ‘answer’ the lower (C to G). During the Answer. rary ~ | , em | a ae 2 -2- , ed Tse : Subject. ‘answer’ the first part supplies an accompaniment or ‘ counter-subject,’ which should be a figure of con- trasted character, and interesting enough to enable Counter-subject. Subject in notes of double length. it to play its important part in the subsequent development. A third part joins by enouncing the subject, while a fourth, fifth, even a sixth part may be added, entering alternately with the answer, subject, and answer. The introduction of all the parts constitutes the first section, and is called the ‘exposition.’ During the development, which finds its place in the second section, the composer should show his skill in the use of imitation, canon, &c., and 80 a his material that the intricacy and interest ually increase. Before the conclusion of the fugue he should present a stretto, in which parts press on and overlap each other in their enunciations of the subject. — 28 FUHNEN FULHAM A ‘pedal point’—a bass note held while the upper parts move in as skilful a complication as the composer can devise—usually precedes the final cadence. ‘ Episodes,’ or matter connected or in character with the subject, ey be introduced throughout the development to afford variety, but these must be short, and must not be allowed to distract the attention. When two or three sub- jects are treated simultaneously the fugue is called, double or triple. Formulated early in the history of modern musie, the vocal fugue was elaborated during the ‘golden age of counterpoint’ in the end of the 16th century. A new world was opened to it by Frescobaldi, who freed it from the limitations of the human voice, and first wrote instrumental fugues. Sebastian Bach, in his vocal and instrumental fugues, shows a genius which has never been rivalled. Mendelssohn was peculiarly gifted in this branch of composition, and many vocal fugues with most briliant and effective instrumental accompani- ments are to be found in his oratorios. Although fugues in composition and performance have always been more or less ‘caviare to the general,’ the opinion of sound musicians in the present as well as the past is unanimous as to their value, interest, and the beauty of those by the standard writers. Details in construction have continually changed and déveloped during the three centuries of the existence of es and text- books are as numerous as teachers. Those by Sir F. Gore Ouseley (prescribed at Oxford University) ; Jadassohn and his predecessor, Richter, of Leipzig Conservatorium ; and Dr Higgs’ Primer are prob- ably of more use to-day than the famous works of Albrechtsberger, Reicha, &c. Bach’s Art of Fugue is a collection of fifteen fugues, four canons, &c. on one subject—a practical and in- valuable illustration from the hand of the greatest master of counterpoint. See article ‘ Fugue” in Stainer and Barrett’s Dictionary of Musical Terms. Fithnen. See FUNEN. Fuji-san. See FustyAmMa. Fu-kian, or FO-cHIEN, an eastern maritime province of China (q.v.). Fulahs, also FULBE, FELLANI, FELLATA, and PEULHS, a people of the Soudan, extending from Senegal in the west to Dar-Far in the east, and from Timbuctoo and Haussa in the north to Joruba and Adamawa in the south. Their ethnographic relations are not yet defini- tively settled, some allying them with the Soudan negroes, some with the Nuba of the Nile region, others regarding them as an isolated race. We first read of them about the beginning of the 14th century in Ahmed Baba’s History of Soudan. After that century large bands of them left their home on the confines of Senegambia—i.e. Fuita- Jallon—and, proceeding eastwards, spread them- selves over the greater portion of the Soudan. There appear to be two distinct branches, a dark-skinned division, having its centre in Bornu and Adamawa, and an olive-skinned division, occurring chiefly in Sékoto. All are strong and well-built, with long hair and regular Caucasian features. They are very intelligent, have a frank, free bearing, are trustworthy, possess considerable self-respect and decision of character, and are devoutly religious. They probably number 7 to 8 millions altogether. The Fulahs are a conquering race, not a homo- geneous nation ; and have founded several king- doms throughout central and southern Soudan, as those of Sékoto, Gando, Massina, and Adam- awa. The numerous tribes belonging to their stock are generally divided into four groups or families—the Jel, the B‘ad, the Sé, and the Bert. Most of them became converted to Mohammedan- ism about the middle of the 18th century; in 1802, under the Imam Othman, they commenced a religious war on the surrounding pagans, which terminated in the establishment of the great Fulah empire of Sdkoto. The Fulahs are an industrious people: they practise agriculture, rear cattle, and carry on trade; they also work iron and silver, manufacture with great neatness articles in wood and leather, and weave various durable fabrics. They have mosques and schools in almost all their towns. See Crozals, Les Peulhs (Paris, 1883). Fulcrum, in Mechanics, is the prop or fixed point on which a lever moves. See LEVER. Fulda, a town of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, 67 miles NE. of Frankfort-on-the-. Main by rail, and on the river Fulda, is an irregularly built old town, still partially sur- rounded by its ancient walls. It is principally celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, founded by St Boniface (q.v.), the ‘Apostle of Germany,’ in _the 8th century, which subsequently became a great centre of missionary enterprise as well as a notable seat of theological learning. Towards the end of the 10th century its abbot was made primate of all the abbeys of Germany. Having become corrupted and subject to many abuses, the monastery was thoroughly reformed in the early part of the 10th century by the introduction of new monks from abroad. The cathedral, six times destreyea b fire, was rebuilt in 1704-12 on the plan of St Peter’s at Rome. It is 324 feet long, and covers the crypt of St Boniface. The Romanesque church of St Michael (1822) was restored in 1854. In the library is Boniface’s copy of the Gospels, besides other valuable MSS. and early printed books. The town has manufactures of various textiles, with dyeing, tanning, and the making of wax candles. Bow (1875) 10,799; (1890) 13,125. Fulda, which owed its existence to the abbey, was created a town in 1208, and from the 16th century onwards had a very eventful history, being taken in the Peasants’ War, the Thirty Years’ War, and the Seven Years’ War. From 1734 to 1804 it possessed a university. During the Kulturkampf it was one of the strongholds of the German Ultramontane party. See works by Gegenbaur (1874) and Schneider (1881). Fulgurites (Lat. fulgur, ‘lightning’), tubes due to the action of lightning. They have been most frequently observed in loose sandhills, but have often been detected also in more compact rock. They are formed by the actual fusion of the materials through which the lightning passes. The internal surface of the tubes met with in sand- hills is completely vitrified, glossy, and smooth— the thickness of the wall varying from 4th to ~,th of an inch, while the diameter of the tubes ranges up to 24 inches. They usually, but not always, descend vertically from the surface, sometimes dividing and subdividing, and rapidly narrowing downwards till they disappear. Tralarthes have often been detected on mountain-tops. In some cases the rocks attacked by lightning have the appearance of being covered with a black scoria- ceous plaster, which looks as if it had ‘run’ or dri pee In other cases the rocks are described as being drilled—the holes produced by the light- ning being lined internally with dark glassy sub- stance. Sralentites were first observed in 1711 by the pastor Herman, at Massel, in Silesia, and have since been found in many places; but their origin was first pointed out by Dr Hentzen in 1805. Fulham, formerly a village, but now a suburb of London, in the south of Middlesex, on the left bank of the Thames, 44 miles SW. of Charing Cross. Here since 1141 has been the palace of the bishops of London, but the present building is FULGENTIUS FULLER 29 mostly not more than a century old, The chureh eontains the tombs of many of the bishops ; and the place also has memories of Bodley, Florio. Richardson, Hallam, Crotch, and Albert Smith. Fulgentius (468-533), bishop of Ruspe in Numidia, was banished to Sardinia, and there wrote against Arians and Pelagians. Fuller, ANDREW, an eminent Baptist theo- logian and controversialist, was born, the son of a small farmer, at Wicken, Cambridgeshire, Febru- 6, 1754. He had his education at Soham free school, but at an early age had to turn to farm- work. In his seventeenth year he became a mem- ber of a Baptist church at Soham, and soon began to speak with such acceptance that in 1775 he was chosen pastor of a congregation there. His small stipend of £21 per annum he endeavoured to in- crease by keeping, first a small shop, and then a school. In 1782 he removed to a pastorate at Kettering, in Northamptonshire. His treatise, The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation (1784), involved him in a warm controversy with the ultra-Calvin- ists, but showed him already a theologian of rare ity and insight, and still rarer fearlessness and sincerity. On the formation in 1792 of the Baptist Missionary Society by Dr Carey and others, he was appoin its secretary, and he devoted henceforward the whole energies of his life to its affairs. His controversial treatise, The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems examined and compared as to their Moral Tendency (1793), was attacked by Dr Toulmin and Mr Kentish ; but Fuller replied vigor- usly in his Socintanism Indefensible (1797). works are The Gospel its own Witness (1797), an onslaught on Deism, and Expository Discourse on the Book of Genesis (1806), besides a multitude of single sermons and pamphlets. He died May 7, 1815. His complete works were collected in 1831, and re-issued in 1845 with a memoir by his son. Fuller, GeorGce, an American artist, was born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1822. As early as 1857 his work attracted attention, and during the last years of his life his pictures were warmly admired by many for their richness of tone and peculiar handling, though they never appealed to the popular taste. He died 21st March 1884. An exhibition of his paintings was held in Boston in that year, and a costly memorial work on his life and genius was published there in 1887. Fuller, Saran MaArGaret, MARCHIONESS LI, author, was born at Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, May 23, 1810. She received much of her early education from her father, Timothy Fuller, a hard-working lawyer and congressman, _ after whose death (1835), intestate and insolvent, she assisted her pally by school and private teach- ing. In Boston the leaders of the transcendental movement were her intimate friends; here she edited The Dial, translated from the German, and wrote Summer on the Lakes (1843). In 1844 she published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, and in the same year she proceeded to New York, on the invitation of Horace Greeley, then editor of the Tribune, and contributed to that journal a series of miscellaneous articles, which afterwards appeared in a collected form as Papers on Litera- ture and Art (1846). In 1846 she went to Europe, where she made the acquaintance of many eminent omg and in 1847, at Rome, she met the Marquis li, to whom she was married in December of that year. She entered with enthusiasm into the struggle for Italian independence. In 1849, during the si of Rome, she took the charge of a hospital; and on the capture of the city by the French she and her husband, after a period of hiding in the Abruzzi, and a few months at Florence, sailed with their infant from Leghorn Other | for America, May 17, 1850. The vessel was driven on the shore of Fire Island, near New York, by a violent gale in the early morning of July 16; the child’s body was found on the beach, but nothing was ever seen afterwards of Margaret Fuller or her husband. Her Autobiography, with memoirs by Emerson, Clarke, and Channing, appeared in 1852 (new ed. 1884); there are also Fives 1 Ward Howe (1883) and T. W. Higginson (Boston, 1884, *‘ American Men of Letters’ series). Fuller, THOMAS, divine, historian, and wit, was born in 1608 at Aldwinkle St Peter’s, Northampton- shire, elder son of the painful preacher, its rector and prebendary of Sarum, and of his wife, Judith Dave- nant. At his baptism (June 19) his godfathers were his two uncles, Dr Davenant, president of Queens’ College, Cambridge, and Dr Townson, both of whom became in succession bishops of Salisbury. The boy early showed striking promise, and was in 1621 entered at Queens’ College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1625, and M.A. in due course three years later. Being unaccountably passed over in an election of fellows of his college, he was trans- ferred in 1628 to Sidney Sussex College, and in 1630 received from Corpus Christi College the curacy of St Benet’s, where he preached those Lectures on the Book of Job which he published in 1654. Next year his uncle gave him a prebend in Salisbury, in 1634 he was appointed to the rectory of Broad- winsor in Dorsetshire, and in 1635 he proceeded B.D. Already in 1631 he had published his first work, an ingenious but indifferent poem of 124 seven-lined stanzas, in three parts, entitled David's Heinous Sin, Hearty Repentance, and Heavy Punish- ment ; and here he fulfilled faithfully the duties of a parish priest, married happily, and compiled his first ambitious work, the Sharatterwtinally bright, vigorous, and quaint History of the Holy War (1639), embracing the story of the Crusades, as well as The Holy and Prophane States (1642), a unique collection of essays and characters, full of shrewdness, wisdom, and kindliness, lightened u on every page by the most unexpected humour, an by marvellous felicity of illustration. In 1640 Fuller sat as proctor for Bristol in the Convocation of Canterbury, and was one of the select committee appointed to draw up canons for the better govern- ment of the church. In the same year he published his Joseph’s parti-coloured Coat, a comment on 1 Cor. xi. 18-30, with eight sermons full of the true Fuller flavour. Soon after he removed to London to become an exceedingly eagved lecturer at the chapel of St Mary srenge f n the exercise of his function he strove to lay the bitterness of party-feeling, but when the inevitable war broke out he adhered with fearless firmness to the royal cause, and shared in its reverses. Yet his characteristic moderation of tone offended the more hot-headed among the royal- ists, who misread his temperance into lukewarmness. He saw active service as chaplain to Hopton’s men, and printed at Exeter in 1645 for their encourage- ment his Good Thoughts in Bad Times, a manual of fervid and devout ack prayers and meditations, which was followed in 1647 by a second, Better Thoughts in Worse Times, and by his twenty-one short dialogues, The Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience. In the same year he — again to preach, at St Clement's, tcheap, but was soon suspended. His enforced leisure he gave with in- domitable industry to study and compilation, being helped the while by patrons who knew his merit. One of the kindest of these was the Earl of Carlisle, who made him his ny yeas and presented him to the curacy of Waltham Abbey, which Fuller managed to keep throughout the troubles by pass- ing the ordeal of Cromwell's Tryers. In 1650 he published his great survey of the Holy Land, full of maps and engravings, A Pisgah-sight of Palestine, 30 FULLER FULLERS EARTH where for once geography became a peg whereon to hang alternate wit, wisdom, and edification. The very rocks and deserts are fertilised by his fancy, and not one of his 800 pages is dry or tedious. In 1651 appeared Abel Redivivus, a collection of religious biographies, of which Fuller himself wrote seven. His first wife had been already dead ten years when in 1651 he married a sister of Roper, Viscount Baltinglass. In 1655 he published in a folio volumes his long-projected Church History of Britain, from the birth of Christ till the year 1648, divided into eleven books—a twelfth being a History of the University of Cambridge. The early books are divided into centuries, the later into sec- tions, and in both the paragraphs are duly labelled and numbered with much ostentation of method, despite the perpetual digressions into heraldry and the like ‘for variety and diversion. . . to divert the wearied reader.’ Each book is dedicated to some noble patron, and a dedication is prefixed to every century or section. Altogether there are no fewer than 75 dedicatory epistles, addressed to 85 patrons or patronesses, of whom many, he tells us, ‘invited themselves on purpose to encourage my endeavours.’ The work was bitterly assailed by Dr Peter Heylin with no less than 237 several ‘ Animadversions’ in his Hxamen Historicwm (1659), as a rhapsody rather than a history, full of ‘impertinenciés’ as well as errors, and still worse marred by partiality to Puritanism. Fuller at once replied in The Appeal of Injured Innocence, in which he gives his animadvertor’s own words in their entirety followed by his own replies seriatim. Nowhere is his strong sense sharpened into bright and stinging wit more conspicuous than here. Moreover, broad, open-minded can- dour and large toleration to all honest opinion and fair argument, wedded to intense personal loyalty to his own church, are characteristic notes throughout, while it would be dittficulf to find a nobler example in our literature of mag- nanimous Christian charity tremulous with pathos than the concluding epistle to his antagonist. Bishop Nicolson, in The English Historical Library (2d ed. 1714), failing with one-eyed vision to see that he had before him an English classic, and one sui generis moreover, laménts the lack of ‘the gravity of an historian,’ and the weakness for ‘a pretty story’ and for ‘pun and quibble,’ yet in his superior manner admits that, ‘if it were pos- sible to refine it well, the work would be of good use, since there are in it some things of moment hardly to be had elsewhere, which may often illustrate dark passages in more serious writers.’ Fuller had been presented by Lord Berkeley in 1658 to the rectory of Cranford in Middlesex, and at the Restoration he was reinstated in his former preferments. In that year he published his Miat Contemplations in Better Times, was admitted D.D. at Cambridge by royal mandate, and appointed chaplain-in-extraordinary to the king. Apparently also he would have been made a thes had he lived. Hedied in London after a few days’ illness of the ‘new disease ’—a kind of typhus fever, 16th ‘August 1661, and was buried in the chancel of Cranford church. The Latin epitaph inscribed on a mural tablet there is not so brief as his own suggestion—‘ Here lies Fuller’s earth,’ but contains a conceit worthy of his own pen, how that while he was Jabouring to give others immortality he obtained it himself. His great work, The Worthies of England, \eft unfinished, was edited by the pious care of his son, and published in 1662. Fuller tells us elsewhere of his ‘ delight in writing of histories,’ and we know that the preparation of his greatest work covered nearly twenty years of his troubled life. At the outset he sets forth his five ends in the book—each one sufficient in itself: ‘to gain some glory to God, to preserve the memories of the dead, to present examples to the living, to entertain the reader with delight, and to procure some honest profit to myself.’ The first four were most to Fuller, and all these he gained. The Worthies is a magnificent miscellany of facts about the counties of England and their illustrious natives, lightened up by unrivalled originality, spontaneity, and felicity of illustration, and aglow with the pure fervour of patriotism—the very apotheosis of the gazetteer. The earliest and anonymous biographer of Fuller tells us that his stature was somewhat tall, ‘ with a proportionable bigness to become it,’ his counten- ance cheerful and ruddy, his hair light and curly, his carriage such as sould have been called ‘ majes- tical’ but for his complete lack of pride, his deport- ment ‘much according to the old English guise.’ Such also is the Berkeley portrait, reproduced in Bailey’s Life. His genial disposition, the charm of his company, and his marvellous feats of memory are mentioned by Pepys and all who have since written of him. Of the judgments passed upon his genius, best known and hardly exaggerated is that of Coleridge: ‘Wit was the stuff and substance of Fuller’s intel- lect. It was the element, the earthen base, the material which he worked in ; and this very cireum- stance has defrauded him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the thoughts, for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great men.’ His wit is fast wedded with wisdom and strong sense, and with all its freedom is never unkindly or irreverent—he ‘never wit-wantoned it with the majesty of God.’ He lays a spell of quite a peculiar kind upon his reader, who will either return to him often or neglect him altogether. His style shows admirable narrative faculty, with often a nervous brevity and point almost new to English, and a homely direct- ness ever shrewd and never vulgar; while ‘ his wit,’ says Charles Lamb, ‘is not always a lumen siccwm, a dry faculty of surprising; on the contrary, his conceits are oftentimes deeply steeped in human feeling and passion.’ The pen that described negroes as ‘the images of God cut in ebony’ was that of a good man as well as a great writer. See the fine 17th-century anonymous eulogy reprinted in vol. i. of J. 8. Brewer’s edition of the Church History (Clarendon Press, 6 vols, 1845); Rev. Arthur T. Russell’s Memorials of Dr Fuller's Life and Works ae Henry Rogers’ Selections and Essay (1856); J. E. Bailey’s Life of Thomas Fuller (1874), his article in Encyclopedia Britannica, and his edition of the Collected Sermons (1891); the Life by Rev. Morris Fuller (2d ed. 1886) ; and Jessopp’s selections (1892). Bailey’s unique collec- tion of books relating to Fuller was acquired by the Manchester Free Library in 1889. Fuller’s Earth, a mineral consisting chiefly of silica, alumina, and water, with a little mag- nesia, lime, and peroxide of iron. The silica is about 53, the alumina 10, and the water 24 per cent. of the whole. It is regarded as essentially a hydrous bisilicate of alumina. It occurs in beds, associated with chalk, oolite, &c.; is usually of a greenish-brown or a slate-blue colour, sometimes white ; has an uneven earthy fracture and a dull appearance ; its specific penn from 1°8 to 22; it is soft enough to yield readily to the nail; is very greasy to the touch; scarcely adheres to the tongue ; falls to pieces in water with a hissing or puffing sound, but does not become plastic. It has a remarkable power of absorbing oil or grease ; and was formerly very much used for fulling cloth (see WooLLEN MANUFACTURE), for which purpose it was considered so valuable that the exportation FULLER’S HERB FULTON 31 of it from England was prohibited under severe : ee it is still used to a considerable extent. — The annual consumption in England is said to have at one time exceeded 6000 tons. It is found at Nutfield, near Reigate, in Surrey, in cretaceous strata, where it forms a bed varying in thickness from less than 8 feet up to 12 feet or more. The lower part of this bed is blue, but, owing to the ation of iron, the upper portion is buff- coloured—the change being brought about by the infiltration of water. It is also found in ford- shire, Nottinghamshire, Kent, Surrey, and else- where. There is a considerable deposit of it at - Bath, where the group of associated blue and yellow clays and marl has received the name of the Fuller's Earth Series,’ belonging to the Jurassic system. It is also found at Maxton in Scotland, and at various places on the Continent, as in Saxony, Bohemia, and near Aix-la-Chapelle. Fuller’s Herb or Teasel. See TEASEL. Fullerton, Lapy GrorGIANA, writer of reli- gious novels, daughter of the first Earl Granville, was born at Tixall Hall, Staffordshire, 23d Septem- ber 1812, and in 1833 married Alexander Fullerton. Two post after publishing her first story, Ellen Middleton (1844) she became, under the influence of the Tractarian movement, a convert to Catholi- cism. The rest of her life was devoted to charitable works and the composition of religious stories : Grantley Manor (1847 ), Constance Sherwood (1864), A Stormy Life (1864), Mrs Gerald’s Niece (1871), Gold-digger and other Verses (1872). She died at Bournemouth, 19th January 1885. See her Life by Father Coleridge, from the French of Mrs Craven (1888). Fulmar, or FULMAR PETREL (/'u/marus), a nus of sea-birds, in the family Procellariide, ide the albatross, the storm petrel, and the pen, and near the gulls (Laridz). The genus cludes some forty species, which are widely dis- tributed and strictly oceanic. The members agree in general features with the petrels proper ( Procel- laria), and all possess strong hooked bills. The neral appearance is gull-like ; the wings long and the flight powerful; the- tail short; the hind-toe reduced to a sharp clawed wart. They are said to defend themselves from attack by disgorging an ill- flavoured oily secretion from the alimentary canal. The best-known species, the common Fulmar pear ), frequents the northern seas in num- so immense that Darwin awards it the to P Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), oe somewhat unverifiable credit of being the most abundant of birds. It is a rarity on British or indeed European coasts, but nests or at least used to nest in St Kilda, Skye, Barra, and Foula, and is common farther north in the Faroes, Iceland, Spitzbergen, and similar localities. The bird is about the size of a duck, has the general colouring of the common gull (Larus canus), and is well known as the Greedy Molly-mawk, which, with beautiful gliding flight, follows whalers and other vessels after they get north of Shetland, It feeds on fishes, molluscs, jelly-fish, on the offal of the Newfoundland cod- fisheries, on the debris thrown from the successful whalers, and is in fact an indiscriminately car- nivorous bird, with a preference for blubber. On a dead whale they are said to glut themselves till they are unable to fly, and sailors not unfrequently catch them with lines and hooks baited with fat. From living whales they are said to pick the Cirri- so parasitically imbedded in the skin. The reed on rocky shores, but there is no nest wort mentioning. Although the individuals are so numerous, there is only a single egg, which has a white colour. The greedy fulmar is of no little use to the natives of the regions where it abounds. Both eggs and young are collected and eaten, and the birds are also valued for their down and oil. In St Kilda the quest for fulmars used to be an important and extremely perilous means of liveli- hood, while it is said that in a single little island, Westmaneyjar, south of Iceland, over 20,000 of the strong-smelling, uninviting, young fulmars are salted every summer for winter fare. The oil, which is obtained from the flesh and stomach, is amber-coloured, and has a peculiar, persistent, and unpleasant smell. From the Pacitie, F. pacificus is usually distinguished ; and the large F. giganteus from southern regions is also worthy of note. See PETREL. Fulminates. This term is applied to a class of salts having the same percentage composition as the cyanates (see CYANOGEN), but, unlike them, exploding violently when heated or struck. Like Gun-cotton (q.v.) and Dynamite (q.v.) these salts contain the group of atoms represented by the formula NOs, and which seems to confer explosive roperties in so many cases. There are many ulminates corresponding to the different metals, but it will suffice if attention is drawn to fulmin- ating mercury and silver. Fulminating mercury is prepared by heating mercury with alcohol and nitric acid, and after purification it is obtained in white silky crystals, which have a sweetish taste and are soluble in water. When moist these crystals may be handled without risk of explosion, but when dry they detonate violently on being struck or when a spark falls on them. This salt is largely used in the manufacture of percussion caps, for which purpose it is mixed with nitre, sulphur, &e. Fulminating silver is prepared by heating a solution of nitrate of silver with nitric acid and * alcohol.. It forms small white needles having a bitter taste and poisonous properties. It explodes more readily than the mercury salt, and the greatest care is requisite in its manufacture. It is used in making crackers and other detonating toys. The fulminates should never be prepared by amateurs, as accidents very readily oceur. Fulnek, a town of Moravia, 10 miles NNW. of Neutitschein, with a Capuchin convent, and. manufactures of silk, cloth, and fezes. Pop. 3692. Fulnek was formerly a principal seat of the Moravian Brethren, and gave its name to Fulneck in Yorkshire, 54 miles E. of Bradford, where a Moravian settlement was established in 1748. Fulton, Rosert, a celebrated American en- ineer, was born of Irish parents in 1765 in what is now Fulton township, Pennsylvania. The years 32 FUM FUNCTION 1782-85 were spent in Philadelphia, where he de- voted himself to the painting of miniature por- traits and landscapes. In 1786 he proceeded to London, where for several years he studied under West; but some paintings which he produced in Devonshire having gained him the patronage of the Duke of Bridgewater and Earl Stanhope, he abandoned art and applied his energies wholly to mechanics, for which he had early shown a strong bent. In 1794 he obtained from the British govern- ment a patent for a double-inclined plane, the object of which was to set aside the use of locks ; and in the same year he invented a mill for sawing and polishing marble. He afterwards prepare plans for the construction of cast-iron aqueducts and bridges, and patented in England a machine for spinning flax, a dredging-machine, and several boats. He was received as a civil engineer in 1795, and published a treatise advocating small canals. In 1797 he proceeded to Paris, where he remained for several years, devoting himself to new projects and inventions, amongst which was a submarine boat, intended to be used in torpedo warfare, but neither the French nor the British government, which he next tried, could be induced to take his invention up, although commissions were appointed in both cases to test its value. Having failed in this matter, he next turned his attention to a subject that had occupied his mind as early as 1793—the application of steam to navigation. In 1803 he launched on the Seine a small steamboat, which immediately sank; but a trial-trip was made by a second boat soon after, though without attaining any great speed. In 1806 he returned to New York and pursued his experiments there. He perfected his Torpedo (q.v.) system, though it was never actually adopted ; and in 1807 he launched a steam-vessel upon the Hudson, which made a successful start on the llth August, and accom- ‘plished the voyage up the river (of- nearly 150 miles) to Albany in thirty-two hours. From this period steamers (for the construction of which Fulton received a patent from the legislature) came into pretty general use upon the rivers of the United States. Although Fulton was by no means the first to apply steam to navigation, yet he was the first to apply it with any degree of practical success (see SHIPBUILDING). His re- putation was now firmly established, and he was employed by the United States government in the execution of various projects with reference to canals and other works. In 1814 he obtained the assent of the legislature to construct a steam war-ship, which was launched in the following year, but never tested in warfare. Though the labours of Fulton were attended with such great success, various lawsuits in which he was engaged in refer- ence to the use of some of his patents kept him in constant anxiety and tended to shorten his days. . He died at New York, 24th February 1815. See his Life by Colden (New York, 1817); Rodert Fulton and Steam Navigation, by Thos. W. Knox (1886), and the article SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. Fum, or, more properly, FuNG, the Chinese Pheenix, one of the four symbolical animals sup- posed to preside over the destinies of the Chinese empire. Its appearance indicates an age of uni- versal virtue, tie influence of which has extended throughout creation. It is supposed to have the forepart of a goose, hind-quarters of a stag, neck of a snake, fish’s tail, fowl’s forehead, down of a duck, dragon’s marks, the back of a tortoise, face of a swallow, and beak of a cock, with. claws and feathers of various colours, red crest, and golden beak. It is about six cubits high, and comes from the East. Fumage,. See HEARTH-MONEY. Fumariaceze, an order of dicotyledonous herbs, allied to Papaveracez, of which they may be regarded as speci- alised forms. here Y) are about a hundred { ANA species, mostly pale- arctic, and mostly weeds, but some of great beauty (see DICENTRA). Several species of Fumaria and Corydalis are natives of Britain. The Common Fumi- tory (Fumaria offici- nalis) is a very com- mon annual weed in gardens and_ corn- fields, rank, yet of rather delicate and beautiful appearance, and easily extirpated. \j It was formerly much ! employed in medi- % cine, as also in dye- HIN ing, and as a source < Common Fumitory of potash. (Fumaria officinalis). Fumaric Acid, : ; H.C,H,O,, occurs in many plants, especially in Corydalis and Fumitory. It is of interest from a chemical point of view as being isomeric with malice acid. Fumigation (Lat. fumigatio, from fumus, ‘smoke’), the cleansing or medicating of the air of an apartment by means of vapours, employed chiefly for the purpose of apres alae poisons from. clothing, furniture, &c. ost of the methods of fumigation formerly employed have little real value, and are to be looked on chiefly as grateful to the senses, as, for instance, the burning of frankin- cense, camphor, &c. The really active processes are noticed under the article DISINFECTANTS. See also DEODORISERS, CONTAGION, INFECTION, GERM THEORY (under Germ, page 168), and PASTILLE. Funaria, a genus of Mosses, of which one species common on old walls and dry barren soils, . hygrometrica, is of particular interest on account of the hygrometric twisting of its fruit-stalk. Funchal, the capital of the island of Madeira (q.v.), situated on the south side of the island, is, in spite of its exposed harbour and unsatisfactory roadstead, the chief port and commercial town of the island. Pop. 30,606. It attracts a few hundred visitors every year by the salubriousness of its climate, and has a consumptive hospital, a cathedral, Anglican and Presbyterian churches, and an English club. Function, the technical term in physiology for the vital activity of organ, tissue, or cell. Thus it is the dominant function of the pancreas to secrete digestive juice, of a muscle to contract, of a senso ot to receive and pass on ex- ternal stimulus. The classification of the various functions or vital processes presents considerable difficulty, though it is easy enough roughly to catalogue the most important: (1) contractility (by muscular cells, tissues, and organs) ; (2) irri- tability to sensory stimulus, transmission of nervous stimulus,. ‘automatic’ origin of nervous impulse (by sensory organs, nerves, brain, &c.); (3) secre- tion and excretion (by glandular cells, or complexes of these); (4) respiration (by skin, gills, ae &ec., or necessarily in every actively living cell) ; (5) nutrition, digestion, assimilation (in the mani- fold ways in which the income of energy in the form of food is received and worked up into living | matter). Somewhat apart from these, and of more periodic occurrence, are the _ growth and reproduction. Or’ the various vital _.ing, chemical disruption, or ‘katabolism.’ a? + br FUNCTION 33 t processes of In a single-celled organism, such as an Ameeba, all the vital processes take place within narrow limits, and just because of the simplieity of strue- ture there must be great complexity of function compared with what occurs in a single cell of one of the higher organisms. For here division of labour is possible, and in the different cells special functions predominate over the others. Thus, a ouais-eedl is contractile but not strictly nervous, and a glandular cell is aging | without being definitely contractile. With the division of labour and resultant complexity of structure in a higher organism, various functions appear which are onl foreshadowed in a protozoon. Such, for instance, is the circulatory function, establishing nutritive and iratory communication between the distant But such a multiple process can readily be seen to be the sum of several more fundamental functions. It must also. be noted that, while a cell, tissue, or organ may have one dominant fune- tion, it may at the same time retain several sub- functions. Another fact of general importance is the change of function which may be exhibited by the same organ in the course of its history—that is to say, through an ascending series of animals, or even in the development of an individual. Thus, what is a mere bladder, of little eupames account, near the hind end of a frog’s gut, mes the respiratory and sometimes nutritive Allantois (q.v.) of reptile and bird, and an important part of the Placenta ({q.v.) in placental mammals. The importance of this in relation to the general theory of evolution has been emphasised by Dohrn in what he terms the principle of functional ch Fundamentally, the functions of organs, the properties of tissues, -the activities of cells, are reducible to chemical changes in the living matter or protoplasm. To the constant change in the protoplasm the plied, while this is again subdivided into processes of upbuilding, construction, chemical synthesis, or ‘anabolism,’ and reverse processes of down-break- See AmcsBA, BroLoGy, CELL, PHYSIOLOGY, PROTO- PLASM, and the various functions, DIGESTION, &c.—In speaking of disease, ‘functional’ is opposed to ‘ organic.’ Function. When two quantities are so related _ that a change in the one produces a corresponding change in the other, the latter is termed a function of the former. For example, the area of a triangle _ is a function of the base, since the area decreases or with the decrease or increase of the base, the altitude remaining unchanged. Again, if wu = + c, where a, 6, and ¢ are constant quantities, and wv and & variables; then w is said to bea perenen of a, since, by assigning to x a series ll fourth degree in a and y. eral term ‘metabolism’ is ap- hénomena may be thus arranged in diagrammatic ashion : Sensory and Nervous, Muscular or Contractile. Glandular or Secretory. o i Hf S © 3 m4 g Y Excretory. Storage of i Sto. of reserve " was products. Vv —soprodue’ iration. Ineome. Expenditure. Growth. Reproduction. of different values, a corresponding series of values of u is obtained, showing its dependence on the value given to z Moreover, for this reason, z is termed the independent, u the dependent variable. There may be more than one independent variable —e.g. the area of a triangle depends on its altitude and its base, and is thus a function of two vari- ables. Functionality, in algebra, is denoted by the letters F, f, ¢, ®, &c. Thus, that w is a function of a may be denoted by the equation « = F(a); or, if the value of w depends on more than one variable, say upon 2, y, and z, then by u = F(2, y, 2). unetions are primarily classified as algebraical or transcendental. The tormer include only those functions which may be expr in a finite number of terms, involving only the elementary algebraical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and root extraction. Several terms are employed to denote the particular nature of such functions. A rational function is one in which there are no fractional powers of the variable or variables ; integral functions do not include the operation of division in any of their terms; a homo- geneous function is one in which the terms are all of the same degree—i.e. the sum of the indices of the variables in each term is the same for every term. For example, xt + oy + ay? + cy? + is a rational, integral, homogeneous function of the Transcendental functions are those which cannot be expressed in a finite number of terms; the principal types are (1) the exponential function e*, and its inverse, log 2; (2) the circular functions, such as sin @, cos 2, tan x, &c., and their respective inverses, sin “!z, cos a, tan “a, &e. Functions are also distinguished as continuous or discontinuous. Any function is said to be continu- ous when an infinitely small change in the value of the independent variable produces only an infinitely small change in the dependent variable ; and to be discontinuous when an infinitely small change in the independent variable makes a change in the ri geome variable either finite or infinitely great. All purely algebraic expressions are continuous functions; as are also such transcendental functions as ¢*, log a, sin x, cos . Harmonic or odie functions are those whose values fluctuate regularly between certain pengaet limits, passing through all their possible values, while the independent variable changes by a certain amount known as the period. Such functions are of t importance in the theory of sound, as well as in many other branches of mathematical physics. Their essential feature is that, if fi) be a periodic function whose period is a, then f(z + 4a) = J (x — 4a), for all values of zx. 34 FUND FUNFKIRCHEN The term derived function is used to denote the successive coefficients of the Barts. 7 of /# in the expansion of f(a + 4), where / is an increment of z. If « becomes x + hf, then f(x) changes to F(a +h), and it may be shown shat Jie@+hy= S («+f (ah + f(a )5 sa Alle tg Fee &e. 3 f” (2), f’ (x), f(x), &e. are the first, second, third, &e. derived functions of f(a). It is the primary object of the differential calculus to find the value of these for different kinds of functions. Fund, SINKING. See SINKING FUND. Fundi, or FuNpuNGI (Paspalum exile), a kind of grain allied to the millets, much cultivated in the west of Africa. See MILLET, Funds. See NATIONAL DEBT. Fundy, Bay oF, an arm of the Atlantic, separat- ing Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, and branch- ing at its head into two inlets, Chignecto Bay and Minas Basin, which are separated by narrow necks of land from the Gulf of St Lawrence. It has an extreme breadth of 45 miles and a length up to Chignecto Bay of 140 miles; it receives the St John, the principal river of New Brunswick, and the St Croix, which separates that province from Maine. The navigation is rendered perilous by the tides, which rush in with impetuous force, and have a range of 53 feet (not 100 feet), as at Chepstow. Fiimen, or FUHNEN (Dan. Fyen), the largest of the Danish islands after Zealand, is separated from Sleswick and Jutland on the W. by the Little Belt, and from Zealand on the E. by the Great Belt. With the islands of Langeland, Aré, Taasinge, &c., it forms the two administrative districts of Odense and Svendborg. Area of Fiinen, 1135 sq. m. ; pop. (1890) 221,084. The coast is for the most part flat and sandy ; on the north it is indented by the deep Odense Fjord. The interior is flat, except towards the south and west, where there is a range of hills rising to about 420 feet. The land, which is well watered by several small streams, is fruitful and well cultivated, producing abundant crops of cereals. Barley, oats, buckwheat, rye, flax, hemp, honey, horses, and a fine breed of horned cattle are ex- orted. The island is crossed by several railway ines. The principai towns are Odense (30,277 in 1890), Seandbore (7184), and Nyborg (5402). Funeral Rites, the customs attending the burial or other disposal of the bodies of the dead, the various practical methods of which are discussed under. the article BURIAL. These ceremonies of course vary with the method preferred, whether of burial in the earth, exposure upon the tops of trees and towers as practised by the Parsees, or of burning in the usage of the ancient Greeks and later also the Romans. The effect of Christianity was to add a new sanctity to the body from the belief in its resurrection in a glorified form, hence the burial in places specially set apart for that purpose with more or less elaborate religious ceremonies, the washing, anointing, stretching, and swathing of the body in white robes (once in England only in woollens), the strewing of the coffin with palms and rosemary rather than cypress, and its position in the grave with face upward and feet to the east, towards the second coming of the Lord. Nowadays in Britain and America there are few distinctive customs beyond the religious rites, the wearing of black as a mourning colour, and the accom- panying the body to the grave, expressive of respect; but formerly many customs were in use, as the ringing of the passing bell to drive off demons. who might be in waiting for the newly- released soul; the constant watching with the dead betwixt death and burial—the lykewake— once universal, and still surviving, with degrading circumstances and without meaning, in the Irish wake; setting a plate of salt upon the breast of the body and lighted candles at its head; and the serving of profuse repasts of meat and drink to all and sundry, as well as special doles of food and clothing to the poor. Aubrey in his Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme tells us of a singular custom as having been formerly practised in Here- fordshire, of a man eating a loaf of bread and drinking a bowl of beer over a dead body, and thereby symbolically taking upon himself the sins of the deceased. The analogy is obvious between the sin-eater and the scapegoat of the ancient Jewish Day of Atonement. Funeral rites symbolise affection and respect for the deceased and grief for his loss, or they may be attempts to deprecate the ill-will of a now power- ful ghost. The belief in the continuance of life beyond the grave is a universal human possession, and most savages attach ghost-souls also to animals and even inanimate objects, which may accompany the souls of men into the spirit-world as in life. Hence the meaning of the North American Indians burying bow and arrow with the dead, the old Norse warrior having his horse and armour laid beside him in his barrow, the Hindu widow’s in- veterate desire to be burnt herself to death together with her husband’s body, the head-hunting of the Dyaks in order that a man may not be unprovided with slaves after his death, the burying of money together with the corpse and even the obolus for Charon’s fee among the ancient Greeks, as well as such a survival as our own leading the trooper’s horse behind his master’s bier instead of burying him in his grave. The funeral rites of the ancient Egyptians were most elaborate, but it is scarcely safe to claim their preference for embalming as conclusive proof of their belief in a resurrection of the body, as they embalmed animals as well as men, and did not preserve some of the most important internal parts of the human bodies they embalmed. See the articles ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, BURIAL, EGYPT, and EMBALMING; for the religious significance of funeral rites in Herbert Spencer’s theory of religion, his Prin- ciples of Sociology, but for a safer guide to interpretation, Tylor’s Primitive Culture (vol. ii.); also for the facts, Feydeau, Hist. générale des Usages funébres et des sepul- tures des Peuples anciens (3 vols. Paris, 1858); De Guber- natis, Storia popolare degli usi funebri Indo-Europet (1873): Tegg, Zhe Last Act (1876); and Sonntag, Die Todtenbestattung (1878). FUNERAL EXPENSES, in Law. If limited to the degree and quality of the deceased and the estate he has left, funeral expenses are a privileged debt, allowed before all other debts amd: charges, both in England and Scotland. If the parties rimarily liable neglect the duty of giving decent favial to the dead, a stranger may do so, and claim reimbursement out of his effects. In Scotland it is held that moderate and suitable mourning for the widow and such of the children of the deceased as were present at the funeral is a valid charge; but the reverse is the case in England, it having been decided that the widow has no claim for mourn-+ ing either against the executor or the creditors of her husband. Fiinfhaus, a suburb of Vienna lying SW. of the city. Pop. about 50,000, prea engaged in weaving, wood-turning, and building. Fiinfkirehen (‘Five Churches,’ from five mosques built during the Turkish occupation, in the 16th century; Hungarian, Pecs), a free town of ‘Hungary, capital of the county of Baranya, on the vine-clad southern slope of the Mecsek Mountains, 139 miles S. by W. of Pesth by rail. Its bishopric was founded in 1009, and it is one of the oldest, as well as one of the most pleasantly situated and beautiful towns of Hungary. It formerly possessed er FUNGI 35 a university. The most ienportent of its buildings the Romanesque cathedral (1136), the bishop's se, the town-house and hospital, and the ty buildin Its manufactures include leather, yoollens and flannels, oil, brandy and liqueurs, and famed majolica ware; it produces wine, fruit, | tobacco, and has coal-mines and marble- ies, and a flourishing trade in hogs and gall- Pop. (1881) 28,801; (1891) 33,780. Ft The early botanists ‘considered the ungi to be /usus nature and no plants at all,’ an mornced their strange and fitful appearance Without flower or apparent seed as the strongest a@tgument for spontaneous generation. The bland ‘wholesomeness of some, yet frightful poisonousness destructiveness of many others, with their con- nt world-old association with that crude and iful pharmacy in which ancient medicine and heraft were so inseparably intermingled, not a little enhanced these mysteries. Hence, although ‘in Sterbeeck’s Theatrum Fungorum (1675), the first published book entirely devoted to cryptogamic plants, there is an excellent account and many figures of fungi, it was not, and indeed could not 1 e, until after that primary task of natural science initiated by Linnzeus—the compilation of the ‘ Sys- tem of Nature,’ the orderly descriptive catalogue of natural things—had made considerable progress in almost all aie directions, that its chapter dealing with the fungi was fully commenced. , ely about 1780 onwards we have illustrated eee floras essentially of the modern type, which mic not ‘only soon reached tolerable completeness for the - more obvious forms, but with the introduction and _ improvement of the microscope even made rapid progress with that description of the multifarious inor forms which is even now far from ended. It _ thus became known that some were produced from reproductive cells or 1 gehats just like a plant from _ itsseed ; hence for this Linnean school, whose central “monument is the works of Fries, each new form was, naturally enough, simply a new species to be esc K he identification, however, of the fern and its prothallus (see FERNS) as phases of a single life-history, and the thorough reinterpreta- tion of the higher cryptogams and their unification with the flowering plants thereupon effected by Hofmeister, naturally gave a fresh impetus to the ly of the remaining lower groups of algz and vi. For fungi, this new movement was headed by Tulasne, who from 1851 onwards showed that _ many of the different form-species hitherto described rere actually nothing more than the phases of a Single protean life-history. Tulasne essentially al upon the actual anatomical continuity of different adult forms, upon finding reproductive structures hitherto regarded as specifically distinct on one and the same re body or mycelium ; _ while De Bary confirmed and extended these results by the pee eneniary method of cultivation from the ulasne’s new doctrine of ‘the pleomor- 1 2 ism of the fungi’ aroused storms of controversy ; but the bigoted conservatism of the systematists in the defence of their results, and the exaggerated _ Speculation and practical blundering of the younger _ ‘Schoo in the reinterpretation of them, gradually sub- Sided as the just claims of each obtained mutual gnition; and thanks to many workers, but cially to the exact labours of De Bary and his pupils, the classification and morphology of ungi have thereafter been in harmonious rogress. ie Tt was long before any satisfactory defnition of lle possible, their association with alge the ves scarcely better known) at first resting oo fil ae the negative characters which ex- from the higher plants. Their physio- 4g ities, however, were more apparent ; definition as a ‘natural order’ (or, as it —, } » vr able for beginning the study of fungology. gradually appeared, a vast class) was accepted as ‘embracing all Thallophytes which do not vege- tate by means of intrinsic chlorophyll.’ The pro- gress of research demonstrated the remote dis- tinctness of some types of these from others, and the intimate relationship of certain fungi to parti- cular alge of which they seemed to be merely the colourless forms. Hence it was argued, especially by the physiologist Sachs, that such forms were no more entitled to separate classification apart from the algw than were the very various types of flowering plants—e.g. dodder and broom-rape— which saline agree in having lost their chlorophyll through parasitism, apart from the ordinary green 1 to which they are respectively akin. Aban- oning, then, the physiology of the vegetative system, he pro a classification of the alge and fungi according to their degree of reproductive development (see ALG). his was, however, going too far, and systematists have returned to the more conservative proposals of De Bary, who excludes entirely from the fungi the Bacteria (q.v.) and the Myxomycetes, and, while recognising that certain fungi are doubtless merely the colour- less representatives of particular algal groups, yet vastly simplifies the subject by insisting upon ‘an Ascomycetous series or main series of fungi,’ albeit with more or less doubtfully related outlying forms. At the outset of this great series are usually described two orders (sometimes united as Oomy- cetes), both closely related in he mg and repro- ductive type to such simple alge as Vaucheria (see ALG). These are the Peronosporee, in- cluding such well-known moulds of living plants as mi ged infestans (Potato Disease, see Po- TATO, Vol. VIII. page 356), Cystopus candidus (White Rust of cruciferous plants), also Pythium and Peronospora. The allied Saprolegnia (see SALMON) gives its name to the other family. Of the Zygomycetes the commonest type is Mucor mucedo, the common white mould of dead —_ = > “~~ =~ Fig. 1.—White Mould ( Mucor mucedo): a, ripe sporangium with few spores represented to show internal septum ingrown as columella; }, inning of conjugation between two adjacent hyphe ; ¢, d, e, later stages of the pro- cess; f, germination of the thick-walled resting spore, with short vegetative and immediate reproductive hypha. organic matter, particularly ma hrs a form easily cultivated and in every way pecu np end tart- ing with a spore, this germinates into a filament or hypha, which remains unicellular like that of the preceding forms, and grows and branches rapidly through the nutrient material or solution, the whole growth of hyphe being termed the mycelium. Soon erect hyphe begin to bud from the older hyphe of the mycelium ; the tips of these enlarge into spherical heads, which become separated off as distinct cells, the future sporangium, by a partition which grows, however, inwards, into the interior of the enlarging spherical head, as the columella. The protoplasm of the sporangium is meantime dividin into a multitude of tiny cells, which surroun themselves with cell-walls as spores, while the mineral waste products of this active change are deposited in the common sporan ial wall, rendering it exceedingly brittle. This Sa dihe breaks, seatter- ing the spores, which immediately recommence the same development. Sooner or later, however, a more evolved process 36 - FUNGI of reproduction is needed, and two adjacent hyphee conjugate much as in Spirogyra (see fig. 1, b—e, and ALG, fig. 4). The resultant z gospore after a period of rest germinates with only a rudimentary mycelium, and immediately reproduces the char- acteristic asexual sporangium. " Empusa, of which E. musce is largely fatal to house-flies in autumn, is the type of the analogous order Entomophthoree. The Chytridiacee are an order of minute fungi of which the life-history is fundamentally similar to that of the Protococcacece among alge. The Ustilagineze are a large family, parasitic on phanerogamous plants. Their mycelium rami- fies through the intercellular spaces of the host, and forms also densely-woven masses of spore-bearing hyphe, which show various degrees of differentia- tion as compound sporophores, so foreshadowing those of higher fungi. These spores produce a short mycelium, of which the branches conjugate in pairs, while the new mycelia thereafter arising re-enter the plant and in time produce new asexual spores. Some are formidable pests of agricul- ture ( Ustilago, Tilletia). ASCOMYCETES proper.—The mycelium is always composed of multicellular hyphv, which in the higher forms interweave into the stroma or thallus, which assumes various characteristic forms and bears the short reproductive hyphee, which in turn bear the spore-mother cells or asci. These are usually tubular, and on reaching full size their protoplasm collects at the top, and the nucleus Fig. 2a.—Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisic) : A, a, b,c, d, early stages of bud- ing; e, laterstages; B, starved yeast cell, dividing at a to form four ascospores at b; c, subsequent germination on return to nutritive fluid. Fig. 2.—Peziza. a, asci, with barren filaments cgay pedal b, section of ructification surface ( hymen- iwm); ¢, preparations for the sexual process which precedes the development of the fun- gus-body; d, fertilisation, with upgrowth of an enveloping tissue, the jncipient sporo- carp. divides repeatedly, usually producing eight nuclei, which collect protoplasm around them, and, develop- ing cell-walls, become perfect ascospores. In all save a few of the lowest forms (Eremascus, Exoascus, &e., which are accordingly grouped as Gymnoasci) the fructification is in distinctly developed sporo- carps. In these, besides the ascogenous hyphe with their asci, there is an envelope derived from distinct hyphze of the stroma, which also send in amongst the asci a multitude of barren filaments, the paraphyses. The aggregate of asci and para- phyeee is termed the sy) 2 (see fig. 2, a, db). ulasne and De Bary have shown with tolerable certainty (despite the doubts of Van Tieghem and Brefeld) that the whole fructification arises in consequence of a conjugation of similar hyphe in the lowest forms (Eremascus), or the sexual union of dissimilar ones in higher forms (e.g. Peziza, fig. 2, c, d). A brief systematic enumeration of the orders and leading illustrative forms of Ascomycetes will be found of service : (1) Gymnoasci.—Asci not forming definite sporo- carps with envelope (Eremascus, Exoascus ). (2) Discomycetes (800 species ).—Sporocarp with envelope, but hymenium completely uncovered, at least at maturity. The most important genus is Peziza, of which the shallow cup-like sporoca is open from the beginning, though in the alli Ascobolus the envelope encloses the hymenium during development and bursts, scattering the spores. Bulgaria resembles this, but is gelatinous. In Dermatia the cup is leathery or horny. In Stictis the hymenium is almost withdrawn into the stroma, while in Phacidium the sporocarp only breaks out and opens when ripe. In a second but Jess important family the sporocarps are leathery and black, elliptical, linear, or winding; of these Hysterize: the commonest is Rhytisma acerinum, which forms the large black spots that appear upon almost every leaf of the common maple towards autumn. The Helvellacei represent an opposite type of development; the large sporo- carps are stalked, with club or hat shaped hymenia, open and uncovered by the envelope from the be- ginning. Many are important as esculent, notably the morels (Morchella esculenta, deliciosa, &c.), also Helvella esculenta. The-mycelium of Resleria hypogea, found on dead and diseased vine-roots, is the ‘ pourridié de la vigne’ of wine-growers. Among the Discomycetes the life-history is often rendered more complex by the mycelium constrict- ing off acrospores bron the tips of erect filaments, these acrospores readily reproducing the mycelium. This stage of Peziza Fiickeliana was formerly known as Botrytis cinerea; and many other acro- spore-bearing moulds still await similar identifica- tion. Vegetative hyphe also frequently interweave into dense resting masses or sclerotia, as also in the species just named, and those may either re- develop acrospore-bearing lyphee or (after a winter) give rise to true hymenial cups. Acrospores, too, may he developed either upon isolated hyphee or in seudo-hymenial groups, which may be open or ask-shaped (pycnidia). Nor are the many possi- bilities of ‘ pleomorphic’ variation thus opened up by any means confined to the Discomycetes. (3) Pyrenomycetes.—This is a large order of small and inconspicuous fungi, in all respects represent- ing a farther differentiation of the Discomycete type, primarily in the deepening of the shallow cup-shaped hymenium into a deep flask with minute apical opening (pertthecium), but also in a more varied development—the most extreme among fungi —-of pleomorphism or alternation of generations. The number of species is hence very uncertain. Besides the important Ergot (Claviceps purpurea, see ERGOT), and its curious ally Cordyceps, which attacks caterpillars, moths, wasps, &c., with its fructification, thus forming the extraordina ‘animal-plants’ and ‘ vegetating insects’ whic so perplexed the early naturalists, any of the common forms into which the old (and once all- comprehensive) genus Spheria has been broken up will serve as type, conveniently Nectria, com- mon in red patches upon dead wood. Some form parasitic patches within lichens. (4) Perisporiacee.—In these the completely closed capsules which fa : ripening ; there are no paraphyses. The mycelium is thread-like, and acrospores are frequent. Of the 100 species some are notable pests, witness Erysiphe erithecia. are to pieces on and others, commonly grouped as Mildew (q.v.),. Oidium Tuckeri, a pestilent vine disease, &e. Easily distinguished by the dark or inconspicuous mycelium are the species of Fumago. 0 this group also belongs Eurotium, of which the com- mon Bréad Mould (E. Aspergillus-glaucus) is a type commonly put before the botanical student, from the comparative facility with which the sexual FUNGI 37 ss, which sets in after prolonged multiplication - aerospores, can be observed, with its resultant Fig. 38.—Enurotium Aspergillus-glaucus : |, a germination of spore in three phases; a’, head of reproduc- tive hyphe-bearing bos sabes. b, ¢, appearance of conjugating lameuts ; d, ¢, gr ; hed rede ach aes aati Ts9, first appearance of asci (two buds); h, a ripe ascus; i, spores Tying loose and ready to be set free.’ ; > ty .., velopment of the perithecium and its asci (see Tuberacei.—In this group, as in the preceding, ymenium is permanently without external ig, but the chambers become narrow, coiled, ‘branched, and the whole complex sporocarp attains an extreme complexity. ost are erranean, and are best represented by the ‘tant genus Tuber (see TRUFFLE). With this sometimes in the last group near Elapho- nyces) is to be reckoned the very common mould of jam, bread, &c. (Penicillium glaucum ); it rarely, ever, attains full development beyond the acro- ¥ gu , ore-bearing form. (6). nes.—As the majority of lichen-forming ri belong to the Ascomycetes, the lichens are ‘commonly now described under this head by writers. Yet not only the time-honoured etness of this group, but its remarkable y and interest make separate treatment still ent, hence see LICHENS. ides the large number of forms in which the nce of an acrosporous phase as yet rests upon gy alone, De Bary reckons as ‘doubtful scomycetes’ such forms as Laboulbenia, Exoas- s, and also the important species which excite ecoholic fermentations, Saccharomyces (fig. 2a). EAST, FERMENTATION. om forms in which the characteristic mode of oduction of the Ascomycetes is only doubt- represented we readily pass to those in which snot aed at all, but in which multiplication only by acrospores or basidiospores, which be of various forms. One group, however, we to consider in which the sporocarp, here d an ecidium, so closely resembles that of an ycete as to induce De Bary and most writers on it with these rather than with the follow- (7) The Uredinee or Aicidiomycetes.—These are Rust fungi, a remarkable series of parasitic ds, formerly associated with the Ustilaginez, th they somewhat resemble in habit, but from th they differ in structure and life-history. The mation of generations is remarkably complete wel differentiated, the different forms havin ntly been reckoned in distinct genera, whic yet by no means fully criticised. The most ir case is that of the Rust of wheat (Puccinia vinis), in which the generation found on the ry was described as eidium berberidis. important forms are known as Uredo sp. &c.; is also reckoned the coffee disease lon, Hemileia vastatrix. The life-history = group will be understood by reference to BASIDIOMYCETES.——We now come to the Basidio- mycetes proper, which derive their name from the basidia which segment off or ‘abjoint’ the spores (fig. 4, d). These are usually non-parasitic and ave generally large and well-developed sporocarps ; they are divided into two main groups. A, HYMENOMYCETES,—Hymenium exposed upon the surface of the sporocarp. (a) Tremellint.—Gelatinous with basidia each bearing only one spore, often arising laterally— eg aye (Jew’'s ), Tremella ( Be. ). (b) Hymenomycetes , not gelatinous, two to six spores arising on ech ‘tenkdiens (fig. 4, a—d). Fig. 4. a, vertical section of an agaric ( Hymenomycetes ); b, section of three ‘gills;’ ¢, section of tip of gill, showing course of hyphe-bearing basidia, of which five bear spores; d, portion more highly magnified: e, young Phallus ( Gasteromycetes); f, the same at moment of rupture of peridium; g, more fully opened (the same figure on a smaller scale ). In the simplest forms the sporocarp is erect or branched, and bears a hymenium over its whole surface. Of this small group of (1) Clavarinei many species of Clavaria are common. (2) In the allied Thelephorei the hymenium forms also a simple smooth pines. but is restricted either to the upper or under surface ; in the latter case the fungus may be sessile or stalked, and have a distinct ‘hat’ or pileus wg gs apr Stereum, «c.). (3) In the Hydnei the hymenium becomes differ- entiated in various irregular and discontinuous forms, which may be warty, bristly, or comb-like. (4) In the Polyporei the hymenium is continuous, but with many more or less tubular depressions. Here belong several important genera, notably Boletus (q.v.), Polyporus (see AMADOU), Fistulina (q.v.), as well as the pestilent Merulius lachry- mans (Dry Rot, q.v.). (5) In the immense group of Agaricini (1200 European species) the series culminates, the hy- menium being arranged in regular radiating lamelle or gills. Most important of course is the genus Agaricus and Mushroom (q.v.), which is broken up into many subgenera (Amanita, Armillaria, &c.). Cortinarius, yak” sare Russula, Lac- tarius, Coprinus, Cantharellus ( chantrelle), Maras- mius are also important. Many of these are edible, others again poisonous. B. GASTEROMYCETES.—Here the spores arise quite as in Basidiomycetes ; but the hymenia are completely enclosed within the fungus-body. Of this the outer layer (peridiwm) becomes differentiated from the deeper substance (g/eba). Both layers may undergo very remarkable histological and anatomical modifications, and these changes of ripening often result in the sudden acquirement of the most extraordinary forms. Hence, although the s gensys are by no means so numerous (about 550), there are 70 genera. These are mostly large fungi, 38 FUNGI often edible, at least in the young state; few are positively poisonous. (1) Of the mostly subterranean and _ truffle-like Hymenogastrei, one genus, Gautiera, affords an interesting transition from the Hymenomycetes, its hymenial depressions remaining open and un- covered by any differentiated peridium. In the remaining types (Hymenogaster, &c.) the gleba contains many closed internal hymenial chambers, but remains continuous with the simple peridial coat. (2) The Sclerodermei differ little from the pre- ceding, save in the more differentiated peridium, from which the gleba dries away in a brittle net- work, lining the chambers, which become filled with spores. Scleroderma vulgare is sometimes used as an adulterant of truffles, but is commonly regarded as inedible. ; (3) In the simplest Lycoperdinei or puff-balls the gleba may remain unchambered, but the tissue of the gleba usually breaks up into a woolly mass of dried hyphz ; hence the peridium when broken on ripening discloses a dusty mass of threads and spores (Lycoperdon, Bovista). See PUFF-BALL. (4) In another series, the Phalloidei in the widest sense, we have a very singular series of forms. This begins with the simple earth-star (Geaster), which is essentially a puff-ball with outer and inner eridium, of which the outer opens into radiating obes. In Batarrea, the gleba, covered with the inner peridium, becomes raised upon a long stalk ; in Phallus (see fig. 4, e, f, 7) the outer peridium, fibrous outside, becomes gelatinous within, while the stalk pushes the gleba through the inner peridium also, as a naked cap from which the spores drop away ; while in Clathrus it is the inner peridium which expands as a large network. (5) In the last series, that of Nidulariei, the external peridium opens, disclosing several separate ‘peridioles,’ each containing a hymenial tissue, which breaks down into a mass of spores. - These are the ‘bird’s-nest fungi’ (Cyathus, Nidularia, &ec.). The origin of the Gasteromycete sporocarp from its mycelium appears to be without any sexual process, but by a process of direct growth and differentiation of an upgrowth upon its mycelium. In Hymenomycetes a sexual process has been some- times described, but not with absolute certainty. We know, however, how constantly the abundant nutrition of an organisin leads to the relapse from sexual to asexual multiplication. As an appendix to this outline of classification, it is necessary to note that we not unfrequently find sterile mycelium forms, to which any definite systematic position frequently cannot be given. Such are, for instance, the well-known Racodium cellare of wine-cellars. There has been much dis- uté over the nature of the complex strands of hizomorpha, now regarded as belonging for the most part to Agaricus melleus, while the old genus Sclerotium has long been recognised as a resting state of many diverse forms—e.g. Ergot. Germination.—Most spores are capable of im- mediate germination: such are most acrospores (gonidia), almost all acrospores, and most spores of Hymenomycetes. Some, however, require a period of rest: such are most oospores, zygospores, winter spores, &c. Although some spores perish almost immediately, many others exhibit considerable powers of resistance to heat, cold, drought, &e.; those of some moulds have been germinated from herbarium specimens three to ten years old. For germination we require a reasonable temperature, varying with the species, with supply of oxygen and moisture ; nutritive matter may also be neces- sary. Many spores, however, have never as yet been observed to germinate at all, notably those of the truffle and some other Ascomycetes, of most Gasteromycetes, and of a few Hymenomyeetes, including even the common mushroom. Nutrition and Mode of of he —The characteristic absence of chlorophyll renders the fungus unable to decompose carbonic anhydride. Hence it must depend upon organic compounds already formed. Almost any soluble carbon compound, not too poisonous or too fully oxidised (such as formie or oxalic acid, urea, &¢c.), will, however, serve for this, and similarly with most nitrogen compounds, even urea. The constituents of the ash can also be obtained from a wide range of substances. Peni- cillium grows best in a solution of proteid (peptone) and sugar, yet can be grown, of course with diminishing vigour, upon a whole series of poorer solutions, down to ammonium acetate. All of course give off carbonic acid in respiration, and a few are remarkably phosphorescent. Such facts help us more clearly to understand the wide range of habitat presented not only by the different members of the group, but by the same species. Those fungi which normally obtain their organic matter from the dead organic matter of decaying bodies are termed saprophytes, while those which obtain them from living plants or animals are termed parasites. The former is doubt- less to be regarded as the primary state of things, and isiclades tis great majority of fungi, yet many normal saprophytes exhibit ‘facultative parasit- ism,’ and conversely normal parasites may exhibit ‘facultative saprophytism.’ Many saprophytes re- quire a specific substratum—e.g. dung, feathers, &e. —just as many parasites have only a single host ; others again have a very wide range of habitat. The chemical] effects of the growth of fungi, with which, for physiological purposes, we may also reckon the Bacteria (q.v.), upon organic substances are outlined under PeRMENTATION and PUTRE- FACTION. The relation of specific parasites to their hosts, besides mention in the various special articles, such as ERGOT, MILDEW, and RuwustT, is more generally treated under PLANTS (DISEASES OF) and PARASITIC PLANTS; the pathological bearings (the GERM THEORY) at GERM, and articles there cited. That remarkable adjustment of fungus and host which rises beyond the pathological level into the healthy and permanent mutual adaptation known as Symbiosis (q.v.) is described, for the association of fungus and alga, under LICHENS; that of fungus-mycelia with the roots of phanerog- amous trees is the so-called Mycorhiza. Uses of Fungi.—Of species used in medicine, the only one now of importance is Ergot (q.v.): the narcotic use of the Siberian fungus has also been described under AMANITA. Amadou (q.v.) and Moxa (q.v.) are old sources of tinder, and Poly- porus sguamosus, cut in slices, was much used for razor-strops. But the chief use of fungi is for food, and in the manufacture of Ketchup (q.v.). Although few fungi are used as food, and most opularly regarded as poisonous, the positively angerous Bos are really by no means very numerous. Yet the risks of incautious gathering must not be understated, since not only are some edible fungi liable to be confounded with poisonous forms, but some normally wholesome forms acquire poisonous properties under saaep ed circumstances, although whether this be due to definite variation or to the chemical changes of incipient decomposition remains doubtful. Hence our common mushroom is excluded from the Italian markets. There is no certain rule which can supersede the need of ex- erience and caution in discriminating wholesome rom unwholesome forms, the popular beliefs—e.g. that the latter only will discolour a silver spoon if stirred with it while being cooked, or that they are more readily deliquescent-—being without founda- tion. Nor does colour or odour afford any certain ss . - FUNGIBLES FURLOUGH 39 est, for, - git most forms of gaudy exterior or readily changeable internal colour may be sus- pected, and all fetid ones of course avoided, some as ous ones are quite inconspicuous and in- offensive. Again, some which are pan ent and - aerid while raw become bland and wholesome _ when cooked ; maceration in vinegar or brine pro- duces a similar effect. The importance of fungi as an article of diet is naturally minimised in Britain through the pre- val ignorance and the consequent excessive dis- trust; in France, and especially in Italy, they are _ of much greater importance. The culture of the “Mushroom has, however, of late years become imereasingly frequent, while on the Continent that of a number of other species has long been _ practised with more or less success, as notably of 1" Beariccs, Boletus, &c., and more recently of the truffle. The leading edible fungi have already been noted, and are also in most cases the subject .< of separate articles; it may suffice therefore here to bring together the most important. Besides _ the Mushroom, its immediate congeners, and its _ ¢loser allies, such as the Chantrelle (Cantharellus _ ¢ibarius), we have among the Hymenomycetes a number of species of Boletus and of a a also _ Fistulina hepatica, and several species of Lactarius, - Hydnum, and Clavaria, with Marasmius oreades. _ Among Gasteromycetes, the puff-balls (Lycoperdon, Bovista), in the young state. Of Ascomycetes, the Morel, Helvella, with Verpa, some of Peziza, &c., and, of course, above all others, the Truffle. Cyttaria — Darwinii, which grows on beeches in Tierra del Fuego, forins an important article of native diet. Poisonous Effects and Treatment.—N oxious species ‘may produce sometimes irritant, sometimes narcotic ffee The effects appear soon after the meal, _ and may be manifested by giddiness, dimness of sight, and debility. Thé person may seem intoxi- _ ¢ated, and there may be singular illusions of sense, _ while even spasms and convulsions may appear in the most serious cases. In most cases, however, recovery takes place, especially if vomiting be early induced. Hence emetics should be administered _ a8 promptly as possible, and castor-oil also given » freely. - __ For general accounts of fungi, see the leading text- books of botany, notably Goebel’s Outlines of Classification _ (Oxford, 1887), and those of Van Tieghem and Luerssen ; or, very conveniently, Bennett and Murray’s Cryptogamic _ Botany (Lond. 1889). ‘the central work is De Bary’s Comp. Morphol. and Biol. of Fungi, &c. (Eng. trans. Ox- ford, 1887). Systematic information must be sought in works such as Saccardo’s Sylloye Fungorum, and the ‘Various togamic floras, such as M. C. Cooke’s Hand- book of British Fungi (2d ed. 1887), his Illustrations of _—British Fungi(2d ed. 6 vols. 1884-88), or Stevenson’s Myco- _ logia Scotica and Hymenomycetes Britannic. i _ Synopsis der Phanzenkunde, vol. iii., is also of service. For _ esculent fungi, see Badham, Esculent Funguses of England (1863); W. G. Smith, Mushrooms and Toadstools (1879). _. Fungibles are movable effects which perish by eee weed, and which are estimated by weight, __ -Rumber, and measure, such as corn, wine, money. _ Things are fungible when their a lace can _ adequately supplied by other individuals of the same class, as where a sum of money is repaid by means of other coins than those in which it ___-Was received. Thus, jewels, paintings, and works of art are not fungibles, because their value differs __ in each individual of the species without possessing _ any common standard. Fungus (Lat., ‘a mushroom’) is a term applied in pathology and surgery to exuberant granula- tions or ulcerating tumour-growths when they ‘ Prodoct somewhat in the form of a mushroom above Fe surface of the skin or mucous membrane where _ they are situated. The conditions giving rise to this appearance occur especially in connection with the testicle and the brain. Tumours in which it oceurs are frequently cancerous. The name also occurs in pathology in its true botanical sense ; for raf Ba Favus, Ringworm (q.v.), &e. are produced by parasitic fungi. Fungus Melitensis. See Cynomorium. Funkia, so called after a Prussian botanist and herbalist (1771-1839), and sometimes known in English as Plantain-lilies, a genus of Liliacew allied to the day-lilies (Hemerocallis), Since their in- troduction from China in 1790, the five or six species have been largely and increasingly cul- tivated, not only in greenhouses, but in shrubberies and borders or rockwork, on account of the remark- able beauty of their masses of large broadly ovate or cordate, often variegated leaves. They are easily propagated by division of the tuberous crown, and thrive best in deep soil well manured. Funny Bone is really the ulnar nerve, which is in most persons so little protected where it passes behind the internal condyle (the projection of the lower end of the humerus at the inner side) to the forearm, that it is often affected by blows on that part. The tingling sensation which is then felt to shoot down the forearm to the fingers has given rise to the name. Fur. See Furs. Fur is the term applied to the incrustation which is formed in the interior of vessels (tea- kettles, boilers of steam-engines, &c.) when calca- reous water has been for a considerable time boiled in them. Many spring waters contain carbonate of lime held in solution by carbonic acid. When this water is boiled, the acid is expelled and the car- bonate is deposited, often in association with a little sulphate, forming a lining more or less coher- ent upon the sides of the vessel. In steam-boilers this may be prevented by the addition of a small uantity of sal-ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to the water; carbonate of ammonia is formed and volatilised, while chloride of caleium remains in solution. This chloride, however, attacks the iron more or less according to its quantity and the other saline constituents of the water; therefore many substitutes are offered, some patented, some sold as secret preparations. The carcass of a pig that has died of disease has been found effectual. It appears to act by greasing the particles of carbonate of lime as they precipitate, and thus forming a loose and easily removable powder instead of a coherent deposit. Any other refuse fatty matter may be used for this purpose. The writer strongly recommends this simple mode of treat- ment, combined with frequent cleansing. Furfuramide is closely related to FURFURINE and FURFUROL, and all three substances may be prepared from wood. When this is heated with water under pressure for some time, and the re- sulting liquor distilled, furfurol, C,H ,O., anaromatic oil, with an odour resembling cinnamon and bitter almonds, is obtained. By treatment with ammonia this is converted into furfuramide, C,;H,.N,O;, a neutral crystalline body. By boiling this again with a sofudien of potash, furfurine, an alkaline base having the same composition as, and isomeric with, furfuramide is produced. These substances are of little industrial importance. Furies. See EUMENIDEs. Furlong (i.e. a furrow long), a measure of length, the eighth part of a mile or 220 yards. Furlough, a military term signifying tem- porary leave of absence from service. Non-com- missioned officers and private soldiers on furlough must be provided with a pass, or they are liable to be seized and dealt with as deserters. 40 FURNACES FURNES Furnaces, Furnaces perform one of the most important of functions, and on them largely depend the power and economical efficiency of the steam-engine. Great care and skill, combined with an intimate knowledge of the laws which regulate combustion, must be exercised in the designing and construction of furnaces for steam- boilers, They may be considered as divided into three parts. (1) The fire-chamber, where combus- tion begins, the fuel is split up into its constituent ases, and the remainder consumed. (2) The com- yustion-chamber, where combustion of the gases is completed, and the heat applied. (3) The arrangements for the supply of air, and its mixture with the heated gases. In the combustion of fuel there are two leading conditions to be observed— viz. to obtain as complete combustion of the fue’ ’ with as little waste of heat as possible, and to apply as much of the heat as is practicable :to those parts of the boiler where evaporation will be greatest. These two conditions are somewhat difficult to realise in a furnace, and, while the best method of applying heat is well known, the portion available out of a given quantity bears but a very small proportion to what is lost or wasted under the most favourable circumstances. The supply of air is a most important factor; too much has the effect of chilling and diluting the gases, reducing the temperature of the furnace, and diminishing the force of the draught; while too little eauses the gases to escape unconstimed, and results in great waste. The proper supply of air is therefore a very difficult matter to accomplish, especially when there is an ever-varying demand for it, as is the case with solid fuel. Liquid or gaseous fuel does not present the same variation. It has Fig. 1. been found that the best effect is obtained from furnaces with forced draught—i.e. sending a steady flow of air under pressure through the incandescent fuel by means of a fan or other mechanical contriv- ance. With the ordinary chimney draught, the heated products of combustion must be allowed to escape at a high temperature, say 600°, and at a speed of about 30 feet per second, in order to main- tain an effective draught. With artificial draught, the heat can be retained in the furnace a much longer time, and a balance established between the pressure of the atmosphere and the heat inside. Also the waste heat, instead of rushing away .at great velocity, may be made to do work in heating the air for the furnace or the feed-water for the boiler; and is thus allowed to escape only when pe ke of its power of doing useful work. The difference in efficiency is said to exceed 25 per cent. in favour of artificial draught. A good furnace ought to be able to burn a large quantity of coal on a small area of fire-grate. The amount of fuel consumed in different kinds of furnaces varies greatly, and shows the power that forced draught gives. A land-boiler furnace burns about 14 lb. of coal, a marine furnace 16 to 24 Ib., and a locomotive, with the draught increased by the escaping steam, from 80 to 200 Ib. on the square foot of fire-grate in one hour. The great objects to be desired in furnace management are the exact apportionment of air to the varying wants of the fuel, so as to convert all the carbon to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to water, an equal and high temperature of the furnace, and that the grate- bars be always covered with fuel. Granted these conditions, and we obtain the best effect from the furnace, without smoke. Smoke may be caused by too much as well as too little air, especially with a low temperature in the furnace. Too much air reduces the heat of the furnace and gases below the temperature for combustion, and so smoke is formed. The same result comes from a deficient supply of air to take up all the carbon, a portion of which escapes as. smoke. At the same time, with a high tem- perature in the furnace, insufficient air does not cause smoke ; carbonic oxide instead of car- bonie acid is formed, and one-half of the heat is wasted. In practice, deficient boiler power is a fertile cause of smoke, from having to urge the fire beyond its capacity. Self- feeding furnaces are more economical and efficient than those which are fed by hand. Fig. 1 shows one of the most successful. A large hopper fixed in front of the boiler contains a supply of fuel for a stated period, and requires no further attendance until its contents are consumed. There is an opening at the level of the grate, through which the coals are thrown on to the bars. It is claimed for this self-feeding furnace that it more nearly ap- roaches in regularity ring by hand fhe any other in use, but there is no smoke when once in operation, and a sav- ing of 10 per cent. in fuel. Figs. 2 and 3 show the best arrangement of flues. The flame on leaving the grate passes through the central tube, descends and returns along the bottom to the front, where it splits and passes on both sides. tothechimney. For Blast-furnaces, &c., see GLASS, Iron, CoprpER, LEAD, STEEL, REVERBERATORY FURNACE, ELECTRIC FURNACE; also BOILER, HEAT, OVEN, POTTERY, STEAM-ENGINE. Furneaux Islands, a group of barren islands in Bass Strait, between Australia and Tasmania, Flinders Island being the largest. About 300 eople of mixed breed capture seals and sea-birds. obias Furneaux, one of Cook’s captains, discovered the group in 1773. Furnes, a town of Belgium, in West Flanders, 16 miles by rail E. by N. of Dunkirk, has tanneries and linen manufactures. Pop. (1890) 5604. Wy Md ies) \ Fig. 3. Section through AB, fig. 2. ~ FURNESS FURS 41 a district in the north-west of Lan- sh forming a peninsula between Morecambe ay and the Irish Sea. The chief town is Barrow- (q.v.). The ruin of Furness Abbey, - 2miles from w, is one of the finest examples of the transition Norman and Early English archi- tecture in the country. Founded in 1127 for the Benedictines, it afterwards became a Cistercian house. It was long one of the wealthiest abbeys in the kingdom. The civil jurisdiction of the princely abbots of Furness extended beyond the strict of Furness. See Richardson’s /'urness (1880), id Barber’s Furness and Cartmel Notes (1895). _ Furnivall, Freverick James, a laborious and enthusiastic student of early English, was born at Egham in Surrey, February 4, 1825, and educated at private schools, University College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated _ B.A. in 1846, M.A. in 1849. He was called to the Bar in 1849. In early life he associated himself ; . philanthropic work with Frederick Maurice, _ &e., taught in the Working Men’s College every _ term for ten years, and was for the same period a captain in its rifle corps. He has devoted himself to English philology, and with characteristic energy has su ed in founding, for the publication of texts, ‘The Early English Text Society,’ 1864 (with the ‘ Extra Series,’ 1867); ‘The Chaucer Society’ _ (1868); ‘The Ballad Society’ (1868); the ‘New _ Shakspere Society’ (1874); ‘ The Browning Society’ (1881, with Miss Hickey); ‘The Wyclit Society’ _ (1882); and ‘The Shelley Society’ (1886). He a been honorary secretary of the Philological _ Society since 1854, while he edited for some - ae the Society’s great English Dictionary, the ee ears part of which saw the light under the super- - vision of Dr Murray in 1884. Through these - societies he has raised and expended upwards of £30,000 in printing early MSS. and rare books, and has thus placed in the hands of thousands _ of students cheap and accurate texts, some score “a of these well edited by himself. His Robert of Brunne’s mir t ynne and Chronicle were edited for the Roxburghe Club and Rolls Series. His most valuable work, however, has been his splendid edition of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales: _ ‘A Six-text Print of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales’ ot] , 1868-75), being an exact print (with _ the Tales in their proper order and groups) of six _ of the seven most important MSS.; the seventh he has since printed by itself, besides all the MSS. _ of Chaucer's Minor Poems. This work has _ given a new impulse to early English scholarship, and will always remain a monument of the noble and patient enthusiasm of its editor. For the _ New Shakspere Society he has edited several books of worth in its ‘ Shakspere’s — Series,’ speci- _ ally Harrison’s Description of England (1577-87) and Stubbes’s Anatomy of Abuses in Engla (1583). Of his introduction to the Leopold Shak- fe Pere describing the plays and poems in chrono- logical order, over 100,000 copies have been sold. _ He and a friend built the first narrow wagerboat ___ in England in 1845, and he first introduced sculling fours and eights in 1884 and 1885, and was in the _ Winning crews of the first races ever sculled in _ these boats. Furnivall was granted in 1884 a Civil List pension of £150. On his sixtieth birthday ' the university of _— conferred on him its Ph. D. "a has aa q 4) 4 homas rca fac-similes of the quartos of Shak- of forty-three ‘spere’s Plays was edited by Dr Furnivall and a cnamber of other scholars under his superintend- Furnival’s Inn. See [yns or Court. Furruckabad, See FARUKHABAD. Furs. Under the name of furs may be included the skins of almost all those animals which, for the sake of protection against cold, have for a covering an under Jayer of a soft, woolly or downy texture, through which grows in most instances an upper one of a more bristly or hairy nature; some by nature possess more of the under coat, and others more of the upper, the proportion varying consider- ably in different animals and countries. In winter the fur becomes thicker in its growth, thereby im. proving the quality and value for commercial pur- poses; young animals too possess thicker coats than full-grown ones. In some instances the under- fur alone is used in manufacturing, whilst the upper hairs are removed—e.g. in the fur-seal. he more general use of furs in all civilised countries has made the fur-trade of the present day of even greater importance than in those flourishing days when the fur-traders were the chief pioneers of the North American continent: the quantities of many fur-bearing animals have vastly increased, especially of those rather small mammals which seem to thrive and breed quickly in the proximit of settlements ; the larger ones, on the other hand, such as bears, beavers, &c., will in course of time, if not protected, become generally reduced in numbers, a fate which seems to have overtaken the buffalo or North American bison. - The chief supply of furs is ohtained from Siberia and the northern parts of North America, and, as these tracts are for the greater part of the year frostbound, the aap get animals enjoy a com- paratively unmolested life; the fur, therefore, grows thickly during the winter season, and is in its best condition when the animal is trapped in the spring; large quantities also of the smaller sorts are found in the United States ; Europe pro- duces immense numbers of common furs, such as rabbits, hares, foxes, &c., besides the more valu- able stone and baum (tree) martens, though the larger animals have almost disappeared as the countries have become more and more cleared and inhabited ; South America yields nutrias and chin- chillas ; whilst Australia exports rabbits, o ums, and kangaroos, and Africa monkey and leopard skins. early all fur-skins are brought to the market in the raw or undressed state. 4 The two leading companies are the Hudson Ba Company (q.v. ), established in 1670, and the North American Horsealing Company since 1890; the Fur Company of New York, the North-west Com- pany, and the Russo-American Company of Mos- cow once held important positions, but they have long since been broken up or amalgamated. The Skinners’ Company of London, one of the city com- panies or guilds, formerly possessed many ancient privileges and rights in connection with the fur- trade, but these are now in abeyance. The collec- tions of furs of the two first-named companies, together with large quantities consigned from numerous private traders, are annually offered in London for public auction in January and March, with a smaller sale in June ; periodical sales during the year are held besides of Australian, African, and other fur-skins. Many important fairs take place on the Continent and in Asia, of which the chief are at Leipzig in Germany (at Easter and Michaelmas), Nijni Novgorod and Irbit in Russia, and smaller ones at Frankfort (Germany), Ishim and Kiakhta (both in Siberia). Following is a list of the principal fur-producin animals, with a few of the most interesting. anc important facts in connection with them with ‘to the fur-trade; the values are those for the raw skins in the years 1890-95 : 42 FURS Badger (Taxidea americana).—The fine-haired kind, used for fur purposes, comes from North America—value, 6d. to 22s. ; whilst the coarse bristly- haired skins (Meles taxus), utilised for brushes, are imported from Russia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria; value, 2s. to 2s. 6d. Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) yields the well- known fur which is seen on the headgear of the Guards; also much esteemed as a general fur, as it is long, black, glossy, and thick. About 14,000 skins are imported annually from Canada, Alaska, and part of the United States, values ranging from 2s. for very common to as much as £14 for best. The Brown or Isabella Bear is a variety of the above, the value considerably higher, and quantity imported much less. The Russian Bear (Ursus arctos), the Grizzly Bear (U. horribilis) from North America, and the white Polar Bear (U. ‘maritimus) from the Arctic regions likewise possess skins of considerable value. Beaver (Castor canadensis) has a rich brown fur, but is more generally known in its ‘ plucked’ or ‘unhaired’ state (with the long hairs removed) ; the most valuable are quite black in colour; the fur has besides a good appearance when dyed. In former times beaver fur was used in the manu- facture of hats, but is now almost superseded by silk. Exported from North America in quantities of about 150,000 skins annually. Value, from 6s. to 60s., according to quality. Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera).—‘ Real’ chin- chilla is the finest and most delicate of all furs, extremely soft to the touch, and the colour bluish- gray ; the best come from Peru, a good skin being worth 40s. ‘ Bastard’ chinchillas are less valuable, and only worth from 6d. to 2s. apiece. Ermine (Mustela ermineus).—Colour of fur white (in its winter coat), with the exception of the tip of the tail, which is black. The animal is widely distributed ; the chief supplies from Siberia. The fur is no longer restricted to royalty as in olden times. Value, about 1s. Miniver is ermine fur with black spots of lamb-skin sewn in. Fisher or Pekan (Martes pennanti).—A North American fur; value, 13s. to 70s. Used almost exclusively by the Russians. Fitch or Polecat (Mustela putorius), from Ger- many, Holland, and Denmark. Used in England for civic robes. Value, 2s. to 5s. Blue Fox (Vulpes lagopus).—Colour, a more or "less brownish-blue, or deep slate at its best. About 3000 skins are. imported annually from North America: Value, 45s. to 200s. Cross Fox (Canis fulvus).—Similar to the silver fox, but redder in hue, and there is generally a darker shade of colour across the shoulders, forming a sort of cross, whence the name is derived. This fur too is mostly worn in Russia. Yearly collee- tion about 7000; prices, from 9s. to 111s. Gray Fox (C. virginianus), Kitt Fox (C. velox). —Both of a grayish colour, and from North America, the former from. the United States; value, 1ld. to 4s. 9d., and importation 30,000. Value of the kitt fox about 2s. Red Fox (C. fulvus).—General hue, of a sandy red, although a few from Minnesota are quite light in co.our, almost white, others again from Kam- chatka are of a brilliant red. Chiefly worn as a fur in Turkey and eastern countries of Europe ; about 60,000 to 80,000 skins are collected annually in North America and Kamchatka; prices range from 3s. to 30s. Some 100,000 of a similar but less valuable variety are caught in Europe. Silver Fox (C. fulvus), the rarest of the three varieties of the American fox (in some districts red, cross, and silver foxes are found in the same litter), is principally obtained from Alaska, Columbia, and the Hudson Bay Territory. The colour is silvery black, occasionally brownish, the tip of the tail always white ; a perfectly black skin (sometimes termed Black Fox) will fetch up to £170, a silvery one from £11 to £20. The majority are bought by Russia, the annual importation into London being only about 2000 skins. White Fox Waapes lagopus) is in natural his- tory the same animal as the Blue Fox, and like- wise an expensive fur; a pure white is its finest colour; the discoloured are used for dyeing black, brown, silvery black, and slate blue, the last two in imitation of silver and blue-fox fur. Value, undyed, 4s. to 34s.. Quantity annually imported, 6000 to 17,000. Hare ( Lepus europeus ).—The ordinary gray are from all parts of Europe and largely used for felting purposes ; in high latitudes the fur becomes a pure white in winter-time, and a large quantity of this sort is exported from Russia, some of which are dyed to imitate other more valuable furs. Koala or Australian Bear (Phascolarctus . cine- reus), a common woolly fur, used for rugs, &c. Kolinsky (Mustela sibiricus), a species of marten from Siberia, the tails of which are very valuable for artists’ brushes (known as red sable). The colour of the fur is light yellow. Lambs (Ovis aries).—Persian lamb, naturally black, but dyed the same colour to hide the white leather underneath, is worn by ladies and on gentlemen’s coat collars, and often wrongly termed Astrakhan, which is a greatly inferior sort of lamb, chiefly worn in Canada, worth only from ls. to 2s. 6d., whereas a. Persian lamb fetches from 7s. to 22s. when dyed. ‘The collection of the latter is about 200,000, and is imported from Persia; the Astrakhan is from Astrakhan in Russia; a similar skin to the Persian lamb, though commoner, is ealled Shiraz, from Shiraz in South Persia; Bok- harens come from Bokhara, Ukrainer lambs from the Ukraine district, and gray Crimmers from the Crimea. Large numbers of white lambs from western Europe and. Buenos Ayres are used for glove and boot linings; the white Iceland lamb as a children’s fur. Leopards (Felis pardus) are imported from Africa and India for rugs, &c. (value, 10s. to 35s. ); tigers too from India (a good skin worth about £4); more valuable and thicker furred varieties of both animals are found in China, values about £7 to £12 and £10 to £60 respectively. Lynx (F. canadensis).—The fur is of a light- brown colour, with a light silvery top on the back, that on the under part, long, soft, and spotted ; about 30,000 to 80,000 are imported yearly from the Dominion of Canada, California, and Alaska. Both the annual importation and market price fluctuate considerably. Value, from 10s. to 34s. Marten (Martes americanus).—A good and old- fashioned fur, now slowly recovering its value. The general colour is a rich brown, some skins nearly black, others again quite pale; the fur is light and soft, and generally considered one of the best for wear, appearance, price, and durability ; the tails are bushy and much used for muffs, &c., a few utilised for fine artists’ brushes. About 100,000 are trapped in North America, the finest in Labrador, East Maine, &c. Prices vary from 6s. to 70s. for very choice; an ties price is about 20s. to 30s. Large quantities of Stone Martens (Mustela foina) and Baum or Pine Martens (J/. Martes) are collected in Europe. Mink (Mustela Vison), a water animal inhabiting Canada, the United States, and Alaska; its fur is brown and short, though quite dark in colour and fine in some districts, such as Labrador, Nova Scotia, &e., but light brown and coarse in others. Annual importation, about 300,000 to 400,000; value, from ls, to 26s. for very prime. FURS 43 Black Monkey (Colobus vellerosus) possesses a tong, black, silky fur, its present value being from Bs. to 10s., a fairly on pie compared with its usual worth. About 50,000 to 100,000 are imported every year from the west coast of Africa. The _ Gray Monkey (Cercopithecus diana) and a few others come as well from Africa. ~_. Mask-rat or Musquash ( Fiber zibethicus), a North American fur, about three millions of which are imported yearly, and used in nearly all countries, either ‘natural’ or ‘plucked’ and dyed, when it - makes a common imitation of seal. The fur was formerly used for felting purposes. A black ~~ Y, ariety found in Delaware is also used as a fur, rat ae pneiles quantities. Value of former, 6d. Is. Od. Nutria or Coypu Rat ( Myopotamus coypus), from South America v the fur when Tanhaired”focaus a _ cheap substitute for beaver. Value, 8d. to 1s. 9d. Australian Opossum (Phalangista vulpina), a far much in vogue on account of its cheapness and _bluish-gray natural tint; many are manufactured _ when dyed various shades. Some 2,000,000 are _ Imported every year. Price from 6d. to 2s. 3d. — rican Opossum ( Didelphys virginiana), an entirely different fur from the foregoing, with longer upper hairs of a silver-gray colour. Impor- tation, ,000 to 300,000; value, 1d. to 2s. 5d. — _—s- Sea Otter (Lnhydra Lutris), so abundant some years ago, has now sadly diminished in numbers == to indiscriminate slaughter in former years, _ only a thousand or two being now taken annually _ ator near the Aleutian Islands. Its skin brings _ the highest individual price of all furs, and even as much as £225 has been paid for a single skin ; _ ordinary values are from £20 to £70. The fur is se a colour, the most highly valued skins possessing _ silvery hairs. Chiefly worn in Russia. Otter ( Lutra canadensis) is characterised by the _ stoutness and density of its fur, which is somewhat short like seal; used in most countries either in _ the natural state or ‘unhaired,’ and sometimes _ dyed. The general colour is from light to dark ‘a brown or almost black ; the finest skins come from _ Nova Scotia and Labrador; about 16,000 are im- _ ported annually from North America, though otters _ are found nearly all over the world. Prices range from 9s. to 95s. for best. Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), from its vast quanti- ties (probably about ten to twenty million skins _ are used annually), is the most widely known fur in all countries, in all shapes and forms, both ‘natural’ and dyed; when clippe® and dyed it es an inferior imitation of fur-seal. The _ greater portion of the Australian importation a (about bales, containing each about 200 _ dozen) is used for felting in the manufacture of hats, &c. ; the fur when cut off for this purpose is termed ‘ coney-wool.’ ___ Raccoon ( Procyon lotor) yields a serviceable fur ; _ price from 1s. 6d. to 7s. per skin, the best dark coloured, from 10s. to 20s. The colour is gray or dark gray, often with a brownish-yellow tinge ; the fur is widely used in both ‘natural’ and dyed States. About 400,000 to 500,000 skins are yearly aported from the United States. — Russ Sable (Mustela zibellina), the most mc! omy of all furs, considering the small size of the _ Skin; the quality extremely fine. The darkest - are the most valuable; the usual colour an umber OF and less red than marten fur. Some of the _ finest Yakutsk skins have realised up to £45 apiece (wholesale price), but a more ordinary value _. m 40s. to 90s. About 5000 to 6000 are sold in London, of which many come from and Okhotsk. (Callorhinus ursinus).—The chief P dense, rich, rather long, and fine, of a dark-brown | supply of the Alaska seal is from the Pribylof Islands in the Behring Sea, and the take is now regulated by a treaty of 1894 between Britain and the United States, which, after years of acrid disputing, settled a close time and the number of seals to be taken by either party to the arrangement. Japan and the adjacent seas pro- duce fur-seals; many are also taken at Ca Horn and Lobos Island, but the former great fish- eries in the South Seas are nearly exhausted ; the Antarctic skins (of which 834 came to London in 1892, 45 in 1893, and none in 1894) are still reckoned the best (see SEAL). In the salted state they are very unsightly and dirty ; the first process in their preparation, which is almost entirely carried on in London, is ‘ blubbering’ eisai, superfluous fat, &c.), and the su uent ones, washing, ‘unhairing’ (i.e. removing the long, coarse, or ‘ water’ hairs), h, setagss 4 dyeing, shav- ing the pelt, and machining, which last takes away all trace of the ‘water’ hairs, leaving the soft eine! under-fur so well known and justly ag, rs ‘ arious other seals, such as the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina), Greenland Seal ( P. greenlandica), Fetid Seal (P. fetida), and Hooded Seal (Cysto- phora cristata), though chiefly caught for the sake of their oil and hides, are made use of in the fur- trade, under the names of Spotted Hair Seals, Bluebacks, and Whitecoats, the two last named when dyed. The Greenland, Fetid, and Hooded seals are taken in large numbers by the Dundee whalers on the ice-floes near Greenland and New- foundland, and it has been a common delusion ‘that these are fur-seals, which are, however, gener- ally killed on land. kunk (Mephitis mephiticus) has greatly in- creased as an article of commerce in the trade since 1880, whereas forty years before it was hardly known to fur-traders, being considered of little or no value from the great drawback in its powerful odour, but this has now to a great extent been overcome. The colour varies from almost white to a rich black, according as the two white stripes are more or less pronounced. About 500,000 to 600,000 skins are trapped in the central parts of the United States, a small quantity in the Dominion of Canada. Value, 6d. to lls. 6d. Squirrel (Sciwrus vulgaris).—About three mil- lions are collected yearly in Siberia and in part of Russia in Europe ; the chief trade for dressing the skins and making them into the well-known cloak linings is at Weissenfels in Germany. The tails fetch an enormous price for making into boas; a few too are used for artists’ brushes. Values vary from a few pence to about 1s., though the skins are sold in the trade by the hundred. Wolf.—The finest and largest (Canis lupus ocei- dentalis) come from Labrador and the Churchill district ; the colour of these is sometimes white or blue, besides the ordinary grizzled colour. Value, 7s. 6d. to 105s., and much esteemed for sleigh robes. A smaller species, the Prairie Wolf (C-. latrans), is found in larger quantities in the United States ; worth only 4s. 6d. to 8s. A large number of the large, coarse Russian Wolf (C. dupus) are used as well in the fur-trade. Wolverine ( Gulo luseus), a good fur, from Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, of a rather long, coarse description, with a large more or less deep brown ‘saddle * mark on its back in the centre of a paler band, with deep brown again beyond. Value, 8s. 6d. to 36s. ; quantity Gacatty iraported, about 3000. The usual mode of dressing furs is by steeping them in liquor for a short time, after which the pelts are ‘fleshed’ over a ciel? knife (to get rid of the excess of fat, &c.), and subsequently dried off ; they are next trodden by the feet in tubs of warm 44 FURST FUSE sawdust and common butter, by which means the pelt or leather is rendered supple; the skin is finished in dry sawdust, and beaten out. Certain furs, such as beaver (now to a limited extent), nutria, hare, and rabbit, are used in the manufacture of hats and other felted fabrics, for which purposes the under-fur alone is retained ; it is cut off from the pelt, separated from the upper hair, and felted together by means of various machinery (see HAT). , Fiirst. See PRINCE. Fiirst, Junius, German Orientalist, was born of Jewish parentage, 12th May 1805, at Zerkowo, in Posen. Educated on’ the strictly orthodox rabbin- ical and Hebrew literature, he felt constrained, on proceeding to Berlin to study oriental languages and theology in 1825, to discard the intellectual pabulum of his fathers for the more stimulating results of modern scientific investigation. In 1833 he settled as privat-docent at Leipzig, and in 1864 became professor of the Aramaic and Talmudic Languages, a post he held down to his death on 9th February 1873. Among his numerous and useful writings may be mentioned Lehrgebiude der Aramédischen Idiome (1835); a praiseworthy edition of Buxtorf’s Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance (1837-40); Die Jiidischen Religions-philosophen des Mittelalters (1845); Geschichte der Juden in Asien (1849); Bibliotheca Judaica (1849-63); Hebrdisches und Chaldiisches Handwérterbuch (1851-54; translated by Dr 8. Davidson, 5th ed. 1885); and Geschichte der Biblischen Literatur und des Jiidisch-Hellen- ischen Schriftthums (1867-70). Fiirstenwalde, a town of Prussia, on the Spree, 30 miles SE. of Berlin. There are important breweries, a large malting-house, &c. Pop. (1875) 9688 ; (1885) 11,364 ; (1890) 12,934. Fiirth, a manufacturing town of Bavaria, is situated at the confluence of the Rednitz and the Pegnitz, 5 miles NW. of Nuremberg by the earliest German railway (1835). It is famous for its mirrors, bronze colours, tinsel, lead pencils, combs, optical instruments, metal toys, wares of beaten gold, silver, and other leaf-metal, turnery wares, furni- ture, stationery, and chicory. The town has also some large breweries, and an extensive foreign trade. Pop. (1875) 27,360; (1885) 35,320, of whom 4664 were Catholics and 3330 Jews; (1890) 43,206. The town was burned to the ground in 1634 and 1686. It fell to Bavaria in 1806. Fury and Hecla Strait, in 70° N. lat., separates Melville Peninsula from Cockburn Island, and connects Fox Channel with the Gulf of Boothia. It was discovered by Parry in 1822, and named after his ships. Furze (Ulex), a European genus of very branched and thorny shrubs, with linear sharply- pointed leaves, solitary flowers, and_two-lipped calyx, belonging to the order Leguminose, sub- order Papilionacee. The Common Furze (U. europeus), also called Whin and Gorse, is common in many of the southern parts of Europe and in Britain, although not reaching any considerable elevation, and often suffering from the frost of severe winters ; whereas in mild seasons its flowers may be seen all winter, hence the old proverb, ‘Love is out of season when the furze is out of blossom.’ It is hence scarcely known in any of the northern parts of the Continent ; and Linnzeus is said to have burst into exclamations of grateful rapture when he first saw Wimbledon Common covered with furze bushes glowing in the pro- fusion of their rich golden flowers. © Furze is sometimes planted for hedges, but occupies great breadth of ground without readily acquiring suf- ficient strength; nor is it thickened by cutting. It affords a wholesome fodder, especially when young, or when its thorns are artificially bruised ; - F « Fig. 1.—Common Furze ( Ulex-ewropeus). it is also useful for sheep in winter, and on this account is burned down to the ground by sheep-farmers when its stems be- come too high and woody, so that a supply of green succulent shoots may be secured. Furze is also esteemed as a cover for rabbits, foxes, &c. A double- flowering variety is common in gardens. A very beautiful variety called Irish Furze ( U. strictus of some botanists) is remarkable for its dense, compact, and erect branches; the Dwarf Furze (U. nanus) is perhaps also a mere variety. The seedling whin is of interest as bearing two or more ternate leaves just after the cotyledons. These are followed by simple leaves, as in a shoot of broom, and thereafter the characteristic 4, spiny leaves and branches soon Fig. 2. Seedling Furze : cotyledons; 0, first pair of leaves, ° : t te; c= begin to appear (see fig. 2, and ceoaitin® Peis compare those of seedlings in . simple. ACACIA). Fusan or PUSAN, a port of Corea, on the SE. shore of the peninsula, came from the 16th century onwards more and more under Japanese influence. In 1876 it was formally opened to Japanese trade, and soon after to all nations. At the outbreak of the war between Japan and China (1894-95) the bulk of the population (6000) were Japanese, who still (though Russian influence begins to tell) have the trade in their hands. The imports (chiefly Manchester goods, salt, and Japanese wares) have an annual value of over 1,000,000 dollars ; the ex- ports (rice, beans, hides, &c. ), of 1,300,000 dollars. Fusaro, LAKE OF, a small lake of Italy, 11 miles W. from Naples, called by the Romans Acherusia Palus; it is near the site of the ancient Cum, and during the Roman empire its banks _ were studded with villas. Numerous remains of massive buildings, houses, and tombs are still to be seen in the neighbourhood. The water of the lake is brackish. Oysters have been cultivated here since the time of the Romans. Fuse, Fusee. See FuZE. RE . 7 - FUSIYAMA FROM OMIYA, JAPAN. Vol. V., page 45. gold in Britain for the pe or t FUSEL OIL FUSUS 45 _ Fusel or Fousel Oil, known also as Porato Sprrit, is a frequent impurity in spirits distilled from fermented potatoes, rley, rye, &e., to which it communicates a peculiar and offensive odour and and an unwholesome property. Being less é than either alcohol or water, it accumulates in the last portions of the distilled liquor. It is principally formed in the fermentation of alkaline or neutral liquids, but does not occur in acidulous _ fermenting fluids which contain tartaric, racemic, or citric acid. It mainly consists of a substance to which chemists have given the name of amylic alcohol, whose composition is represented by the formula C;H,,0. It is a colourless limpid fluid, which has a persistent and oppressive odour and a burning taste. It is only sparingly soluble in water, but may be mixed with alcohol, ether, and essential oils in all proportions. Any whisky which produces a milky appearance, when mixed with four or five times its volume of water, may be to contain it. Fusel oil is ria ter of yielding pear essence (amylic acetate ) eso-called jargonelle- See ALCOHOL, WHISKY. hebage HENRY, or more properly Johann Heinrich Fiissli, a portrait-painter and art-critic, was born at Zurich, 7th February 1742. In the course of a visit to England he became acquainted in 1767 with Sir Joshua Reynolds, who encouraged him to devote himself to painting. Accordingly he proceeded to Italy in 1770, where he remained for eight years, studying in particular the works of Miche angelo, and enjoying the society of Winckelmann and Mengs. After his return to England he was elected in 1790 a member of the Royal Academy, where, nine years later, ‘he be- came professor of Painting. He died at Putney, near ndon, 16th April 1825. His paintings, some 200 in number, include ‘The Nightmare’ (1781), and two series to illustrate Shakespeare’s and Milton’s works respectively. As a_ painter Fuseli was bold in conception, his imagination reaching up to the loftiest levels of ideal inven- tion; his figures were full of life and energy; and his pictures were often wrought under the poetic inspiration of the mystery of the super- natural. hey are, however, too frequently defi- cient in careful workmanship, the execution having hurried and rash. His Lectwres on Painters (1820) contain some of the best art-criticism in the English langu His literary works, with - @ narrative of his life, were published by Knowles (3 vols. Lond. 1831). Fusible Metal, an alloy which melts at a temperature below that of boiling water. It con- sists of a mixture of several metals, of which bismuth is the most important. The following are examples : Melts at Composition. 4 bismuth, 2 lead, 1 tin, and 1 cadmium ...60°5° C. (141° F.). 5 bismuth, 3 lead, and 1 tin............... 91°6° C. (197° F.). 8 bismuth, 5 lead, and 3 tin............... 94°5° ©, (202° F.). Both on account of its melting at a low tempera- ture and of its property of expanding as it cools, fusible metal is valuable for several purposes in the arts. casts of medals and of woodeuts, and in testing the finish of dies. It has also been employed for making anatomical casts, and a peculiar kind of it was used for making safety-plugs for steam- boilers. For the latter purpose it melts when the |S auaelg of the steam becomes dangerously high. t was found, however, that the alloy underwent some change, by being kept long heated to near its melting-point, which rendered it unsuitable. Fusiliers were formerly soldiers armed with a lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army ; It is used in stereotyping, in taking. but at present all ments of foot carry the same attern of rifle. Fusilier is therefore simply an his- orical title borne os a few regiments of the British army—viz. the Northumberland, Royal, Lancashire, Royal Scots, Royal Welsh, Royal Inniskilling, Royal Irish, Royal Munster, Royal Dublin, besides regiments in the native army of British India. Fusion, Fusibility. See MeLTInGc-porn’. Fusiyama (properly Fuji-san), a sacred vol- cano, the loftiest mountain of Japan, stands on the main island, about 60 miles SW. of Tokio, and rises some 12,400 feet above sea-level, with a crater 500 feet deep. Its last eruption was in 1707. The cone is free from snow only in July—Sep- tember, when thousands of white-robed Buddhist pilgrims make the ascent easily enough. Fust, JoHANN, with Gutenberg and Schiffer formed the so-called ‘Grand Typographical Trium- virate’ at Mainz between 1450 and 1466. Dr Faust (q.v.) has sometimes been confounded with him. See PRINTING. Fustel de Coulanges, Numa DENIs, was born at Paris 18th March 1830, and after filling chairs successively at Amiens, Paris, and Stras- burg, was transferred in 1875 to the le Normale at Paris, and became a member of the Institute in the same year. He died September 12, 1889. His earlier writings, Mémoire sur Vile de Chio (1857) and Polybe, ou la Gréce conquise par les Romains (1858), had hardly prepared the reading 3 gi for the altogether exceptional importance of his bril- liant book La Cité antique (1864; 10th ed. 1885), which threw a flood of fresh light on the social and religious institutions of antiquity. The work was crowned by the French Academy, as was also his profoundly learned and luminous Histoire des Institutions politiques de Vancienne France (val. i. 1875). Fustian is a name given to certain kinds of heavy cotton fabrics, inclading moleskin, velveret, velveteen, beaverteen, corduroy, and other varieties. They are chiefly used for men’s apparel, and are nearly all of the nature of velvet, but in the case of corduroy the loops forming the pile are uncut. Fustian cloth with a velvet pile is first woven on the loom, after which the surface weft threads are successively cut, brushed, or teazled, and singed on a hot iron cylinder. The cloth is then bleached and dyed. According to the particular kind of fustian, the face is copes or shorn either before or after it is dyed. See VELVET. Fustiec. The dyestuff sometimes termed Old Fustic is the wood of Maclura tinctoria, but the tree is also called Morus tinctoria. It is a native of Brazil, Mexico, and the West Indies. Formerly this dye-wood or its extract was largely used for dyeing wool yellow, or for the yellow portion of compound colours, but, like most other vegetable dyes, its importance has declined owing to the preference now given to coal-tar colours. The name Young Fustic is occasionally given to the wood of Rhus cotinus, the twigs and leaves of which yield a yellow dye, but are much more extensively used as a tanning material. See SuMACH, DYEING. Fusus, or SPINDLE-SHELL, a genus of Gastero- pods, usually referred to the Murex family. The elevated spire, the large last whorl, the canal for the respiratory siphon, are familiar in the ‘ roaring buckie’ (F. or Neptunea antiquus), to which, as Wordsworth tells us, the curious child applies his ear and listens for the sonorous ences of the native sea. This common species is often dredged with oysters, &c., and used for bait, or even eaten. The shell, generally about 6 inches long, is or was used for a lamp in the cottages of the Shetland 46 FUTA JALLON FYZABAD fishermen, The nests or egg-cases are curious, like those of the Whelk (q.v.). F. colosseus is about a foot long: F. turtoni, from Scarborough, is a treasure of conchologists. Futa Jallon, a large area under French pro- tection lying NE. of Sierra Leone, and forming the ‘hinterland’ to the French coast-colony of Riviéres du Sud. The area is given at 30,000 sq. m., and the pop. (who are Fulahs) at 600,000. It is a hilly, healthy country, lying round a lofty moun- tain mass, and contains some of the head-streams of the Gambia, the Senegal, and the Niger. Futehgunge, &c. See FATEHGANJ, &c. Future State. See EscHATOLoGy. Fuze, a means of igniting an explosive at the required instant, whether it is used in blasting operations, military demolitions and mines, or as the bursting-charge of a shell or Bomb (q.v.). In the former cases electricity would generally be used, but for hasty military demolitions Bickford’s fuze is employed in the British army. It is of two kinds—‘ instantaneous’ and ‘ordinary,’ the first burning at 30 feet a second, the other at 3 feet a minute. The ‘ordinary’ consists of a train of gun- powder in layers of tape covered with gutta-percha ; in the ‘instantaneous,’ which is distinguished by crossed threads of orange worsted outside, quick- match takes the place of the gunpowder. Powder hose is sometimes used when no other fuze is avail- able. It is made of strips of linen, forming, when filled with powder, what is called a ‘sausage,’ 4 to 1 inch in diameter. The fuzes used for shells are of a totally different character and of many patterns. They are of two classes, those which depend for their action upon the rate of burning of the composition in them, called ‘time’-fuzes, and those which burst the shelk on its striking the target, ground, or water, called ‘percussion’-fuzes. In the British army time-fuzes are hollow truncated cones of beech- wood, carrying a column of fuze- composition which burns at a fixed | rate—marks and figures on the outside show twentieths of a second or less, and indicate where the hole must be made by a fuze- borer in order that the flame may have access through it to the bursting-charge, and so open the shell at the desired instant cunué its flight. They are chiefly use with Shrapnels (see SHELL) and mortars. Their length varies from 3 to 6 inches, and they are fixed in to the head of the shell before firing. The thickness of iron would prevent the passage of the flame through the hole made by the borer in the shorter fuzes, and therefore two or more powder channels are made in them, parallel to the fuze-composition, to communicate its flame to the bursting-charge. In guns having windage the fuze is ignited by the flame of the cartridge en- veloping the shell, and quickmatch is placed on the top of the fuze to facilitate this. A metal cover Fig. 1. protects the quickmatch until the last moment, and is then torn off by means of a tape provided ~ for that purpose. In guns having ‘no windage a porennens arrangement is placed in the head of the uze, so that the shock of discharge may ignite ~ the fuze-composition. Fig. 1 shows a section of the common time-fuze, through one powder channel, A section of the percussion-fuze designed in the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich is shown in fig. 2. It is a hollow gun-metal cylinder, a, arranged so as to screw into the head of the shell. Inside is a movable pellet or ring, 0,- of white metal driven with fuze-composition like a tube, and carrying a pereussion-cap. It has four Jeathers or shoulders projecting from its sides, and above these a gun-metal guard, ¢c, fits round the ~ pellet loosely, so as to prevent the cap of the pellet coming into contact with a steel pin which projects downwards from the top of the fuze. A safety pin, d, goes through the fuze with the same object, but is removed before firing, and a lead pellet, e, then closes the aperture left by its removal. On discharge the shock causes the guard to shear off the feathers, and set back with the pellet against the bottom of the fuze. The shock of © impact on the target or ground causes the pellet to set forward, bringing the cap against the pin, igniting the fuze-com- position, and bursting the shell. Pereussioz- fuzes are chiefly used with ‘common’ Shell (q.v.). Very many others are in use, chiefly modifica- tions of these two types—e.g. the ‘delay’ action fuze has both a percussion and time arrangement, so as to burst the shell an instant after impact. All are delicate and apt to deteriorate hopelessly with age or exposure to damp. In the American pneumatic dynamite gun, the shell contains an electric battery, and the circuit is completed by the shell striking either water or the target. Fylfot. See Cross. Fyne, Locn, a sea-loch of Argyllshire, running 40 miles northward and north-eastward from the Sound of Bute to beyond Inveraray. It is 1 to 5 miles broad, and 40 to 70 fathoms deep. On the west side it sends off Loch Gilp (25 xX 1% miles) leading to the Crinan Canal. Loch Fyne is cele- brated for its herrings. Fyrd, the old English Militia. See MILITIA. Fyzabad (better Faizabad), a city of Oudh, on the Gogra, 78 miles E. of Lucknow by rail. Built on part of the site of Ajodhya a¥ ), it was the capital of Oudh from 1760 to 1780, but is now greatly fallen from its old-time splendour, most of its Mohammedan buildings being in decay. It maintains, however, a trade in opium, wheat, and rice. Pop. (1891) including cantonments, 78,921.—. The area of Fyzabad district is 1728 sq. m., with* 1,216,959 inhabitants; of Fyzabad division, 12,177 sq. m., with a Por of 6,794,272. For the capital of Badakhshan, see FAIZABAD. >| is the seventh letter in the Roman alphabet, and in the modern alphabets derived from it. For the history of the char- acter, and its differentiation out of C, see ALPHABET and letter 41 C. The earliest inscription in which G is found is the epitaph P= on Seipio Barbatus, which _ Ritschl considers was inseri not later than 234 Be. The substitution of G in the Roman alphabet _ for the disused letter Z, which oceupied the seventh place in the old Italic alphabet, is believed to have . an effected in the school of Foe Carvilius, a -grammarian who lived at the close of the 3d cen- ry B.c. In our minuscule g, which is derived from the Caroline script, the two loops do not belong to the majuscule form G, of which the little crook at the top of g is the sole survival. In Latin the sound of g, as in gaudeo, genus, age, was always hard, as in the English got ; our soft sound, which is heard before e and « in gist, | peti and gentle, did not come into use in Latin before the 6th century A.D. In English this soft sound is confined to words of foreign origin, such as gem and gender, and is due to French influence. An initial g in words of English origin _ is always hard, even before e, 7, and y, as in gave, get, give, and go. The Normans could not sound our w, and substi- ___ tuted for it gu. - Hence we have such doublets as ; nen and warden, guarantee and warranty. : versely a French g sometimes becomes w in English. Thus the old French gauffre has given us our word wafer. G is often softened to y, e, 7, or a. Thus Old English genoh is now enough, —— gelic is pitts, it is yet, geong is young, hand- i; rae _ geweorc iwork, selig is silly. A final or 4 ead often becomes w or ow; thus the Old -g ‘ f Y is . ol is now fowl, maga is maw, sorg is sorrow, lagu is law, elnboga is elbow. Sometimes g disappears altogether, as in the Old English gif, __-which is now #/; is-gicel, which is icicle ; or magister, ich is master and mister. Before n we occa- sionally have an intrusive ¢ as in the words * he , feign, sovereign, and impregnable. An _ Old English 4 sometimes becomes gh, and then pe to f, as in enough and draught. In the case of many words, such as gate, get, and again, we owe to Caxton, under Mercian influences, the restoration of the Old English g, which for three hundred years had in Wessex been gradually ____ lapsing into y. Gabbro (Ital.), a rock consisting essentially of the two minerals plagioclase Felspar (q.v. ) _ and Diallage (q.v.). It shows a Raonphiy __ ¢rystalline granitoid texture, with no trace of any base. The plagioclase is a basic variety—labrador- ite being commonest, but anorthite is also some- _____ times present in abundance. The diallage may __ usually be noted by the pearly or metalloidal lustre __— On its cleavage-planes. It is usually either brown- ish or dirty green in colour. Olivine is also often met with as a constituent of gabbro, and some apatite is almost invariably present. In certain kinds of gabbro other varieties of pyroxene appear; G and amongst other minerals which occasionally occur in gabbro may be mentioned hornblende, magnesia-mica, magnetite, ilmenite, quartz. The rock is of igneous origin, and occurs in association with the crystalline schists as large amorphous masses or . Sometimes also it appears in the form of thick sheets and bosses associated with volcanic eruptive rocks. Gabelentz, Hans CoNon VON DER, German philologist, was born at Altenburg, 13th October 1807. Even whilst still a student at Leipzig and Géttingen he spent a large part of his time in the study of Chinese and Arabic. He then began to study the Finno-Tartaric languages, and published in 1833 his Eléments de la Grammaire Mandschoue. He had, moreover, a share in the establishment (1837) of Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgen- landes, a journal devoted to oriental science, and contributed to it some interesting papers on the Mongolian and Mordvinian languages. Along with J. Libe he published a critical edition of the Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulfilas, with a Latin translation, and with a Gothic glossary and grammar appended (1843-46). Besides a gram- mar of Syrjan (a Finnish dialect, 1841), he fur- nished contributions to periodicals on the Swahili, Hazara, Formosan, and Samoyede languages. His most important work on the science of lan- guage is Die Melanesischen Sprachen (2 vols. 1860-73). Beitrige zur Sprachenkunde (1852) con- tains Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars, whilst Ueber Passivum (1860) is a treatise on uni- versal grammar. In 1864 he published a Manchu translation of the Chinese works, Sse-chu, Shu- king, and Shi-king, along with a glossary in German. Gabelentz knew upwards of eighty lan- ages. He died 3d September 1874.—His son, ans Georg Conon, born in 1840, held the chair of Eastern Asiatic Tongues in Leipzig University, and wrote many books on Chinese, Melanesian, Basque, Berber, &c. Died December 11, 1893. Gabelle (derived through Low Lat. gabulum from the Old Ger. gifan or Gothic giban, ‘ to give’), in France a weal sometimes used in a general way to designate every kind of indirect tax, but more especially the tax upon salt. This impost, first levied in 1286, in the reign of Philippe IV., was meant to be only temporary, but was declared perpetual by Charles V. It varied in the different provinces. It was unpopular from the very first, and the attempt to collect it occasioned frequent dis- turbanees. It was finally suppressed in 1789. The word also indicated the magazine in which salt was stored. The name gabelou is still given by the common people in France to custom-house officers and tax-gatherers, Gabelsberger, Franz XAVER, the inventor of the system of shorthand most extensively used in German-speaking countries, was born 9th February 1789 at Munich, and entered the Bavarian civil service, acting as ministerial secretary in the statistical office of the finance department from 1826 to the date of his death, 4th January 1849. The summoning of a parliament for Bavaria in 1819 led Gabelsberger to adapt the shorthand 48 GABERLUNZIE GACHARD system which he had invented for his own private use to the purpose of reporting the proceedings of the parliament. Discarding straight lines and sharp angles, he endeavoured to construct a series of signs which should conform as closely as possible to the written signs of German, and for his models went back to the majuscule forms of the so-called Tironian signs employed in Latin. His system is now used for reporting parliamentary proceedings in most of the countries in which German is the official language; and it has also been adapted to the languages of several countries outside of Germany. Gabelsberger published an account of his system in Anleitung zur Deutschen Redezeichen- kunst oder Stenographie (2d ed. 1850). See Gerber, Gabelsbergers Leben und Streben (1868). Gaberlunzie, an old Scotch term for a beggar, from his wallet. The word is no doubt originally of the same origin as the English gabardine, ‘a cloak,’ from the Spanish gaban ; the second part the same as Join, the part on which the wallet rests, There is extant-a fine old ballad of a young lover who gained access to his mistress through adopting the disguise of the gaberlunzie-man. Gabes. See CaBEs. Gabion (Ital. gabbia, related to Lat: cavea, ‘hollow’), a hollow cylinder of basket-work, 3 feet high and 2 in diameter, employed in fortification for revetting purposes—i.e. to retain earth at a steep slope. A sap-roller consists of two concentric abions, one 4 feet, the other 2 feet 8 inches in iameter, the space between being wedged full of pickets of hard wood, so as to form a mov- able protection for the men working at a saphead. See MINEs. Gabirol. See AVICEBRON. Gable, the triangular part of an exterior wall of a building between the top of the side-walls and the slopes of the roof. The gable is one of the most common and characteristic features of Gothic architecture. The end walls of classic buildings had Pediments (q.v.), which followed the slope of the roofs, but these were always low in pitch. In medieval architecture gables of every angle are used with the utmost freedom, and when covered with the moulded and erocketed copes of the richer cane of the style, they give great variety and eauty of outline. Gablets, or small gables, are used in great pro- fusion in connection with the more decorative parts of Gothic architecture, such as canopies, innacles, &c., where they are introduced in end- ess variety along with tracery, crockets, and other enrichments. The towns of the middle ages had almost all the gables of the houses turned towards the streets, producing great diversity and picturesqueness of effect, as may still be seen in many towns which have been little modernised. The towns of Belgium and Germany especially still retain this medieval arrangement. In the later Gothic and the Renaissance periods the simple outline of the gable . became stepped and broken in the most fantastic manner. This method of finishing gables has again become popular, all sorts of curves and twists being adépted. See CORBIE-STEPS. Gablonz,, a town of the north of Bohemia, 6 miles SE/ of Reichenberg, celebrated for its glass manufactures. The town has also textile industries and porcelain-painting. Pop. 14,653. Gaboon, a French colony on the west coast of Africa between the Atlantic and the middle Congo. Its north boundary touches the German colony of Cameroon (q.v.); its south boundary touches Portu- guese Cabinda and the Congo State; and to the east the territory stretches along the Mobangi (Ubanghi) to the British sphere, and northward, behind the (German) Cameroon country to Lake Tsad. Area, 300,000 sq.m. Inlets into the coast are Corisco Bay and the estuaries of the Gaboon and Ogowé (q.v.), which, with the Kwilu, are the principal rivers of the colony. The Gaboon, 10 miles wide at its entrance, penetrates 40 miles inland, with a width varying between 6 and 12 miles, On the north bank, which is tolerably high, is the European settlement of Libreville ; the south bank is low and marshy. Its chief affluents’ are the Como or Olombo from the east and the Remboe from the south. Besides these the Licona, Alima, and Lefini, about which but little is known, flow eastwards into the Congo. The climate on the coastal strip is extremely unhealthy ; mean annual temperature, 83° F. On the inland plateau (2600 feet above sea-level) it is better. The interior has not yet been fully explored ; certain parts, as the basin of the Ogowé, the region around the sources of the Licona, the Kwilu region, and the coast-lands, are fertile and rich in natural resources. Amongst the exports figure timber, gum, ivory, gutta-percha, palm oil and kernels, earth-nuts, sesamum, and malachite ; other products are brown hematite, quicksilver, sugar-eane, cotton, and bananas. The principal imports are salt, spirits, gunpowder, guns, tobacco, cotton goods, and iron and brass wares. All agricultural operations are performed by women. The coast tribes engage in trade, which is particularly active around Loango in the south-west and on the Gaboon. The Sg belong for the most part to tribes of the antu stock, the more important being the Mpongwe, the Fans, Bakele, Pateke: &c. Sheep and goats are numerous, but the former yield no wool. This part of Africa was discovered by the Spaniards in the 15th century. The French made their first settlement on the Gaboon estuary in 1842; twenty years later they extended their sway to the Ogowé. But they seem never to have attached any importance to the colony until after Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.) began to explore it in 1876-86. With the Ogowé (q.v.) territory, the Gaboon is now called French Cong. Franceville is the principal station in the interior. See books on the region by Dubreuil de Rhins (1885), Barret (1887), besides the works on the French Colonies. Gaboriau, Em11e, the great master of ‘ police novels,’ was born in 1835 at Saujon in Charente- Inférieure, and was only saved from mercantile life by a timely discovery that he could write. He had already contributed to some of the smaller Parisian papers, when he leaped into fame at a single bound with his stor. i bob 1 (1866) in the feuilleton to Le Pays. It was quickly followed by Le Dossier 113 (1867), Le Crime @ Orcival (1868), Monsieur Lecog (1869), Les Esclaves de Paris (1869), La Vie Infernale (1870), La Clique Dorée (1871), La Corde au Cou (1873), L’ Argent des Autres (1874), and La Dégringolade (1876). Gaboriau died suddenly, 28th September 1873. Gabriel (Heb., ‘man of God’) is, in the Jewish angelology, one of the seven archangels (see ANGEL). The Mohammedans hold Gabriel in even greater reverence than the Jews; he is called the spirit of truth, and is believed to have dictated the oran to Mohammed. Gachard, Lovis PROSPER, writer on the history of Belgium, was born at Paris, 12th March 1800. He spent the greater part of his life as keeper of the archives at Brussels. He died 24th December 1885. He edited from the national archives of Belgium and Spain the correspondence of William the Silent (1847-58), Philip IT. (1848-59), Margaret of Austria (1867-81), and Alba (1850) ; and wrote Les Troubles de Gand sous Charles V. ——— ee ee eee Ee eee — = — te a . a GAD GADWALL 49 1846), and Retraite et Mort de Charles V. 1854-55), besides other books dealing with the tory of Belgium. Gad, the seventh son of Jacob by Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah, and founder of an_Israelitish tribe numbering at the exodus from Egypt over 40,000 fighting-men. Nomadie by nature, and ing large herds of cattle, they preferred to yemain on the east side of Jordan, and were re- Inctantly allowed to do so by Joshua, on condition of assisting their countrymen in the et tae and subjugation of Canaan. Their territory lay to the =aty of that of Reuben, and comprised the moun- tainous district known as Gilead, through which flowed the brook Jabbok, touching the Sea of Galilee at its northern extremity, and reaching as far east as Rabbath-Ammon. The men of were a stalwart fighting race—eleven of its heroes ate David at his gente need. Jephthah the tileadite, Barzillai, Elijah the Tishbite, and Gad ‘the seer’ were in all probability members of this tribe. Gadames, or more accurately GHADAMEs (the Cydamus of the Romans), is the name of an oasis and town of Africa, situated on the northern border of the Sahara, in 30° 9’ N. lat. and 9° 17 E. long. The entire oasis is surrounded by a wall, which protects it from the sands of the desert. The streets are narrow and dark, being covered in to shield them from the sun’s rays. The gardens of Gadames, which grow dates, figs, and apricots, owe their fertility to a hot spring (89° .), from which the town had its origin. The climate is dry and healthy, though very hot in summer. The town is an entrep6t for manufactures and foreign goods from Tripoli to the interior, and for ivory, beeswax, hides, ostrich-feathers, gold, &c., from the interior to Tripoli. The slave-trade is now completely abolished. Pop. between 7000 and 10,000, mwosith of Berber descent, and in re- ligion devoted Mohammedans. Gad ‘ara, formerly a flourishing town of Syria, in the Decapolis, a few miles SE. of the Sea of Galilee, but now a group of ruins. It was the capital of Persea, and in all probability the chief town in the New Testament ‘country of the Gadarenes’ (ef. Mark, v.). Janneus and Vespasian, but fe the Mohammedan conquest. Gaddi, the name of three Florentine painters. {1) GAppo GAppI, born about 1259 at Florence, where he died about 1332. None of his paintings have survived, unless four of the frescoes in the upper church at Assisi are from his hand. Of his mosaics there remain specimens in S. Maria Maggiore at Rome.—(2) TADDEO GADDI, son and upil of the preceding, was born about 1300 in lorence, and died there after 1366. A disciple of Giotto, he painted frescoes representing the life of the Virgin in the Baroncelli Chapel of the church of the Holy Cross at Florence; a triptych of the Virgin and Child, now at Berlin; another similar one at Naples; and other frescoes at Pisa and Florence. As a painter he possessed little original inspiration.—(3) AGNOLO GADDI, son and pupil of Taddeo, born about 1330, died in October 1396. At Prato he executed a series of frescoes depicting the history of the Virgin’s Sacred Girdle, and in the church of the Holy Cross at Florence another series showing the history of the Cross. Besides these he painted some altarpieces. Later in life he settled at Venice, and devoted himself to com- mercial pursuits. Gade, NIELS WILHELM, musical composer, born at Copenhagen 22d February 1817. He became known by his Echoes of Ossian (1841), studied at Beipsig, a became Mendelssohn’s successor as into decay after It endured sieges by Alexander | leader of the Gewandhaus concerts there. In 1868 he was appointed master of the Chapel Royal at Copenhagen. Author of symphonies, the Zr! King’s Daughter, &e., he died 21st December 1890. Gades. See Capiz. Gad-fly. See Bor. Gad‘idz (Cod-fishes), an important family of bony fishes in the sub-order Anacanthini (see Bony FisHEs), including many of the most im- portant food-fishes, such as cod, haddock, whiting, and other species of Gadus, the hake (Mer- luecius), the fresh-water burbot (Lota), and the ling (Molva). The general characters will be readily gathered from the articles on these fishes. Most of the Gadide are littoral and surface fishes, but not a few, such as Chiasmodus (figured under FisHEs), Halargyreus, the deep black Melanonus discovered by the Challenger, and Haloporphyrus, inhabit the deep sea, while a few species (e.g. burbot) live in fresh water. They vary greatly in size, from giant cod, hake, and ling four feet or so long to the dwarf-fish (Bregmaceros) of tropical seas, which measures only about three inches. See Cop, and similar articles. Gadsden, CHRISTOPHER, an American patriot, born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724, was educated in England, and became a successful merchant in Philadelphia. He was a member of the first Continental congress (1774), rose to the rank of brigadier-general during the revolution, was lieutenant-governor of South- Carolina, and suffered nearly a year’s imprisonment by the British. He died 28th August 1805.—His grand- son, JAMES GADSDEN, born in Charleston, 15th May 1788, served as lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the war of 1812, and as Jackson’s aide against the Seminole Indians. In 1853 he was appointed minister to Mexico, and negotiated a treaty under which the United States purchased a large section of territory, ‘the Gadsden Purchase,’ now forming part of Arizona (q.v.) and New Mexico. He di 25th December 1858. Gadshill, 3 miles NW. of Rochester, commands a splendid prospect, and was the scene of Falstafi’s famous encounter with the growing number of ‘rogues in buckram suits.’ Gadshill Place, an old- fashioned red-brick house here, which Dickens coveted as a boy, was bought by him in 1856, and was his permanent residence from 1860 till his death in 1870. Gadwall (Anas strepera), a species of duck, not quite so large as the mallard, a rare visitant of Britain, but abundant in many parts of the con- tinent of Europe, and equally so in Asia and in Gadwall ( Anas strepera). North America. Being a bird of p , it occurs also in tropical regions—e.g. the north of Africa. 50 GAA GAELIC LANGUAGE It breeds in marshes, and lays from seven to nine eggs. Its voice is loud and harsh. It is much esteemed for the table, and is common in the London market, being imported chiefly from Holland. i Gwea, or GE, in Greek Mythology, the goddess of the earth, appears in Hesiod as the first-born of Chaos, and the mother of Uranus and Pontus. She also bore the Titans, Cyclopes, Erinyes, Giants, &c. As the vapours which were supposed to produce divine inspiration rose from the earth, Gea came to be regarded as an oracular divinity ; the oracles at Delphi and Olympia were believed to have once belonged to her. er worship extended over all Greece, black female lambs being offered on her altars. She was also the goddess of marriage, and again of death and the lower world. .At Rome . Gea was worshipped under the name of Tellus. Gaekwar. See Guicowar. Gaelic Language and Literature. Gaelic is the language of the Goidel or Gael. The term includes Irish and Manx as well as Scottish Gaelic, though popular usage frequently restricts its application to the last alone: The tribes who spoke this language were known to the Romans as coti; and native authors, especially when they wrote in Latin, sometimes made use of the word to designate the people. Their principal home was in Ireland, and accordingly with writers like Adamnan Scotia is ‘Ireland,’ and lingua Scotica, ‘ Gaelic.’ About the beginning of the 6th century a fresh colony of these Scots settled in Argyllshire, and founded the sub-kingdom of Dalriada. They were followed some sixty years later by Columba’s mission to Iona, The people prospered in their new home, and by the middle of the 9th century Kenneth MacAlpin, one of their race, became king of Pictland as well as of Dalriada. In after-years the names Scotia and lingua Scotica followed these successful colonists, and Scotland became the name of the kingdom founded by them.° At a later periee Scot and Scottis toung were applied to the eutonic tribes settled in Scotland and their speech, and then it became customary to speak of Gaelic as Irish, or corruptly Ersch and Erse. But to the eople themselves such designations are unknown. ith them Scotland has always been Alba, Albainn, as distinguished from Erinn, ‘ Ireland,’ and Sasunn (Saxon), ‘ England ;’ and a Scotsman, whether Celt or Teuton, is Albannach. They themselves are Gaidheil, ‘Gaels,’ in contradistinction to Gaill, ‘strangers,’ a word applied of old’as a general term to the Norwegian and Danish invaders, but now to the Lowland Scot; their territory is Gaidhealtachd, ‘Gaeldom,’ as distinct from Galldachd or ‘ Low- lands ;’ and their speech Gaidhilig, ‘ Gaelic,’ in con- trast to Beurla, formerly Belre, a word originally’ signifying ‘language’ simply, afterwards an ‘ un- known’ or ‘ foreign tongue,’ and now among High- landers restricted to the foreign tongue best known to them—‘ English.’ When it becomes necessary to differentiate, they speak of Gaidhlig Albannach, ‘Scottish Gaelic ;’ Gatdhlig EHirionnach, ‘Irish Gaelic ;’ and Gaidhlig Mhanannach, ‘Manx Gaelic.’ What the language of the tribes occupying the north of Scotland, and collectively spoken of by the Romans as Picts, was, is not definitely ascertained. As in their blood, so in the speech of these people, there was probably a dash of pre-Celtic. That the language was largely a Celtic dialect is proved by such names as Caledonia, the root of which we have still in codd/, in origin as in meaning the equivalent of holy ; Clota, now Cluaidh, ‘the Clyde,’ a word equated by Whitley Stokes with clwere, ‘to wash ;’ Orcades, ‘isles of ore ;’ or, restoring initial p, ‘isles of porc’—1.e. ‘pigs’ or ‘whales ’—a chile bein still in Gaelic a ‘sea-pig.’ The idioms of Pictlan eee in those uave seem to have been, in so far as Celtic, . more closely allied to the Brythonic than to the Goidelic dialects (see CELTS); but the Dalriads, powerfully backed by the Columban clergy, after- wards made Gaelic the ruling speech over the whole kingdom. It was the language of the court until Malcolm Canmore’s day. The political and ecclesi- astical ideas which Queen Margaret favoured were hostile to Gaelic, which from her time has been retir- ing steadily though slowly north and west. We get a glimpse now and again of its retreating footsteps. Gaelic was the vernacular of Buchan in the 12th century, probably much Jater. The ability to speak the language is one of the accomplishments credited to James IV. by the distinguished Spanish ambass- ador, Don Pedro Pueblo. It was spoken in Gallo- way in Queen Mary’s reign, and the echoes of the old tongue lingered in the uplands of Galloway and Carrick down to the 18th century. It was the mother-tongue of George Buchanan, Scotland’s greatest scholar, born at Killearn in Stirlingshire. Captain Burt mentions that until shortly before the Union, when the farmers of Fife sent their sons as apprentices to the Lothians, it was made a condition of indenture that the boys should be taught English. The sweeping measures taken to punish the Clans who too ee in the rebellion of 1745; the introduction of sheep-farming into the north ; the spread of education ; facilities of com- munication by steam and rail; the extension of the — suffrage—all have in their-way been the means of introducing the use of the English tongue into even the remoter parts of the Highlands, though without. largely contracting the Gaelic-speaking area. This venerable language is still spoken over the whole of Arran, Argyll, A vasnees oss, and Sutherland ; in considerable portions of Perth and Caithness ; and in the upland corners of Dumbarton, Stirling, Aberdeen, and Banff. According to the census of 1891 the number of persons who spoke Gaelic onl in Scotland was 43,738, while 210,677 spoke both Gaelic and English. Emigrants from the High- lands carried their mother-tongue to America and Australia. In the end of last century Gaelic took root in Carolina; but the use of it in the United States and in Australia is largely on the wane. .The language is, however, preached to large and flourishing congregations throughout wide tracts. of the Dominion of Canada. Through the exer- tions of Professor Blackie. a Celtic chair was. founded in 1882 in the university of Edinburgh; and by the deed of foundation the professor is bound to make ‘provision for a practical class in the uses. and graces of the Gaelic language, so long as that language shall be a recognised medium of religions. instruction in the Highlands of Scotland.’ From the Dalriadic immigration until the Nor- wegian and Danish invasions, a period of 300 years, Treland and Gaelic Scotland may be looked upon as one. The language and literature of both were the same. The Norwegian settlement caused a temporary dislocation. ‘The Hebrides were placed under one government with the Isle of Man, and to this day a Manxman finds Gaelic more intel- ligible than Irish. During this period Scottish Gaelic, separated from the parent tongue, and sub- jected on the one side to Norse, on the other to Pictish influence, developed certain characteristics which are still traceable. But, when things settled down, the old ecclesiastical and literary relations between the Highlands and Ireland were resumed,, and maintained until the Reformation. A com- mon literature checked the tendency of the two dialects to diverge. Accordingly, the differences between Scottish and Irish Gaelic may be regarded as mere variations of dialect, which in the spoken tongues shade into each other. In point of lan- guage Ulster is as far removed from Munster as from GAELIC LANGUAGE 51 . Pag ft Again, an Islayman feels as much at home | © in Antrim as in Assynt, and his patois differs less | from either than that of Liddesdale differs from | . The printed books show greater varia- i. but these are more in appearance than in _ reality. Manx is written phonetically, and to a _ Gaelic reader the page looks strange at first sight. Trish is written as a rule in the old characters, and eve is marked by a dot over the letter , Gaelic, on the other hand, has adopted the Roman alphabet, and aspiration is indicated, except in the case of infected /, n, r, by the addi- tion of the letter A. Irish writers make a liberal _ use of archaic and obsolete forms, while the aim of Highland authors is to bring the written language - and the spoken tongue more into line. In both there has Seen great loss of inflexion in noun and verb; but on this down grade Scottish Gaelic has pr d even more rapidly than Irish. But in “ Mn essential features the two are one language, with a copious vocabulary, the native stores being . largely supplemented from foreign sources, especi- ally Latin and English, and with probably an in- s from_a pre-Celtic non-Aryan speech. The distinctive Celtic law which places two words that are in close grammatical relation under one main -aecent, and treats them for the time being phoneti- ally as one word, holds true in all the Celtic dialects, Brythonic and Goidelic alike. Under this law, initial aspiration, due to vocalic auslaut, _ follows the same rules in Irish and Scottish Gaelic ; but while the nasal auslaut, technically termed eclipsis, proceeds in written Irish with all the _ regularity of the multiplication table, in spoken _ Gaelic this phonetic change appears only sporadic- _ ally, and native grammarians have ignored it alto- 4 ther. Among the more noticeable differences between Trish and Scottish Gaelié are the following. In | | both the accent or stress is on the root-syl- lable of the word, but Scottish Gaelic exhibits a _ tendency to follow the English fashion of throw- _ ing the accent as far back as possible. Besides, in the case of complex substantives, such as _ diminutives, &c., which have usually a principal and subsidiary accent, while Irishmen place the _ Main accent on the terminal syllable, Highlanders _ {and here Ulster joins them) keep the principal accent on the root-syllable. Irish endcdn, ‘a hillock,’ from enoc, ‘a hill,’ is in Scotland endedn ; Trish “opeiide ‘a leaflet,’ from duille, ‘a leaf,’ Gaelic diilleag, &e. Scottish Gaelic, under _ Norse influence it may well be, takes in many _ €ases the broad sound of a, where Irish adheres to the older o: cos, ‘foot,’ is in Scottish Gaelic Q oe: Jocal, ‘vocalis,’ facal. In the north High- lands the practice is carried further than in the 3 south : pdg, ‘kiss,’ is pag in Sutherland. Even so the open long ¢, sometimes also long 7, is in the north Highlands diphthongised into ia, where south _ Argyll, like Ireland, is satisfied with the old sound: fiar for feur, ‘ grass;’ nial for neul, ‘cloud ;’ 80 fian for fion, ‘vinum,’ &e. With the exception of masculine o-stems, the nominative plural of _ nouns in Scottish Gaelic assumes a final x, while __ Trish abides by the old vocalic ending: Scottish Gaelic casan, ‘feet,’ Irish Gaelic cosa; Scottish _ Gaelic éintean, ‘shirts,’ Irish Gaelic léinte, &e. In the verb, Highlanders use the analytic form in _ some cases where Irishmen have preserved the F (gana Because of the loss of inflexion, aux- Bw verbs in Gaelic as in English have con- _ tinually to be called in to form mood, tense, and voice. Except in the case of is, ta, bheil, all ha different roots forming the substantive verb, there _ isno separate form for the present tense in Gaelic. iz ‘a The 6-future still survives in both dialects, but the era, ristic consonant f has disappeared from S - tae + rae - ba D uae _ iad Scottish Gaelic, and has hardly left its ghost behind ; the Irish euirfidh is now simply cuiridh in the Highlands. Gaelic literature in Scotland dates from St Columba. The great’ missionary was an ardent student and an accomplished scribe; and succeed- ing abbots of Iona followed in the footsteps of the illustrious founder of the monastery. Ecclesiastics wrote in those days for the most part in Latin. It was a period of great literary activity as well as of missionary enterprise. But of the many works produced at this time few survive. With all his assion for his native saga, the Norseman, in his eathen days, made short work of the books and bells of priests. During the Danish invasions, monks fled in large numbers to the Continent, sometimes taking their MSS. ‘along with them. So we find that while little more than a dozen books written by Gaelic scholars before the 10th century are to be found in the British Isles, there are over 200 MSS. of this period preserved in Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and Belgium. Many of these may have been written in Scotland ; two certainly were. A copy of Adamnan’s Life of Columba, written in Iona before 713 A.D., is now in the public library of Schaffhausen. The Book of Deer, a MS. of the 9th century, is in Cambridge. With the excep- tion of some half-dozen MSS. in the university of Edinburgh, in the library of the Society of Antiquaries, and in private hands, all the MS. literature of the Gael preserved in this country has been, mainly through the influence and patriot-. ism of Dr Skene, deposited for preservation and reference in the itary of the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh. This collection consists of sixty-four separate parcels, many of them being several MSS. bound together for the convenience of the owner. A large number of them were written within the last 250 years; a few are 500 years old. Many are mere tattered scraps of paper, illegible through damp, decay, and neglect ; several are beautiful vellums of exquisite workmanship, as fresh as in the day they were written. About half of the total number are the property of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Thirty-two MSS., including nearly all the oldest parchments, are known to have once belonged to the M‘Lachlans of Kilbride, in Nether Lorn, Argyllshire. This portion was long supposed to have formed a part of the lost library of Iona. The greater number of the oldest of these MSS. are indistingnishable from the Irish MSS. of the same date. Since Norse days Scottish Gaelic has had a separate individuality, but of this the MSS. take little or no account. The centre of Gaelic learning and culture was in Ireland and Dalriada. Accordingly, we hear comparatively little of the Pict, his language, beliefs, and traditions. The men of the Isles fought and fell at Bannockburn and Flodden; but though lish and Norse heroes are household words with Hebridean bards, Bruce and Wallace are unknown to them. In the middle and north Highlands the political sympathy with the central government was not perhaps much stronger than in the west, but the linguistic and literary connection with Ireland was much less close. Accordingly, we find in the MS. of the Dean of Lismore, written by a native of Glenlyon in Perthshire, between 1512 and 1530, and at a later eriod in the Fernaig MS., written by Duncan Mt Rae in Kintail in the latter half of the 17th century, a wide departure from the traditions of Gaelic scholars. ighlandmen and their affairs obtain prominence; the language is not merely Scottish Gaelic, but frequently the provincial idiom of the scribe ; the writing is in the current Scottish hand and character of the day ; and the orthography ‘ 52 GAELIC LANGUAGE GAETA is more or less phonetic, a method adopted partly perhaps in ignorance, partly from impatience, of the strict and highly artificial rules of the schools. The MSS. in the Scottish collection frequently supply valuable variants, sometimes welcome additions, to the large Irish collections. The subject-matter of several is religious—lives of saints, such as Columba and St Margaret; passions and homilies, such as are found in the Leabhar Breac, or ‘Speckled Book.’ In MS. I. (Skene’s catalogue) is the Passion of our Lord as revealed to Anselm, written down in 1467 by Dugald, son of the son of Paul the Scot, a treatise not to be found in the ‘Speckled Book.’ A few deal with philology and kindred matters. In MS. L., for example, is preserved a copy of the Books of Primers ( Uraicecht nan Eigeis), as in the Book of Ballymote. Several MSS. contain translations of portions of the heroic history of Greece and Rome: the destruction of Troy, the labours of Hercules, the expedition of Jason ; also the wars of Pompey and Cesar. The genealogies, tales, mythi- cal and legendary, of the peoples and races that inhabited latand, and of Lochlannaich or Seandi- navians, are endless. The most imaginative pieces, such as the voyage of Maelduin and the adventures of Conall, are in prose, with verse interspersed. Several historical documents and even calendars, such as that of Oengus the Culdee, are, on the other hand, thrown into the form of verse. Gaelic poetry is all lyric, the epic and the drama, as literary forms, being unknown to the people. The line as a rule is smooth and flowing, with an exceeding richness and variety of verse. In poetry as in prose the style is frequently in- flated ; and the language, whether of raise or blame, unmeasured, exaggerated. The literature shows that the Scottish Gael is witty rather than humorous, and that his perception of the beauti- ful in external nature is ever lively and true. The most characteristic features of the Scottish collection are the almost total absence of annals, and the great richness of the medical section. Two folios relating to Irish events ( 1360-1402) bound up in MS. II., and the history of the Macdonalds of the Isles (MS. L.) are, apart from genealogies, pretty nearly all that deal with affairs within historic times. That records were written in Gaelic we know from various sources, though the memoranda in the Book of Deer and the Islay Charter of 1408 are almost all that survive. On the other hand, fully a third of the whole Scottish collection is medical or quasi-medical. These MSS. consist of treatises on anatomy, physiology, botany, and pharmacy. Several are translations with com- mentaries of portions of Aristotle’s works, of Galen, Hippocrates, Bernardus Gordonus, Averroes, Isidore, &c. ; but the strictly medical discussion frequently branches off now to metaphysics and theology, now to astrology and alchemy. The greater part of these scientific documents were at one time the pro- erty of the M‘Bheaths or Beatons or Bethunes, or many generations family physicians in Islay, Mull, and Skye. These medical books may not perhaps claim to be of great scientific value; but they are of high interest and importance as a most reliable piece of evidence regarding the state of learning and culture in the West Highlands during what we complacently call the dark ages. The first book printed in a Gaelic dialect was John Knox’s Liturgy, translated into Gaelic by Bishop Carsewell of Argyll, and published in Edinburgh in 1567. Up to the middle of the 18th century not more than twenty Gaelic books were printed, and these consisted mainly of successive editions of the Psalms, Shorter Catechism, and Confession of Faith. The number of separate pub- lications now amounts to several hundreds. A very complete and accurate account of Gaelic books printed before 1832 is given in Reid’s Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica. Professor Blackie, in his Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands (igre ) has given admirable translations of the best efforts of modern Gaelic authors. These consist for the most part of a succession of lyric poets who have flourished during the last 300 years. Foremost among them are Mary MacLeod (nigh’n Alastair Ruaidh), who was born in Harris in 1569 or there- abouts, and attained, so tradition relates, to the erent age of 105 years; John Macdonald (Jain om) of the Keppoch family, who witnessed the battle of Inverlochy in 1645, and survived Killie- crankie; Alexander Macdonald (Mac Mhaighstir Alastair), the celebrated Jacobite poet, born about 1700, received a university education, became schoolmaster in Ardnamurchan, and afterwards an officer in Prince Charles Stuart’s army, published a Gaelic vocabulary in 1741, and a volume of poems in 1751; John MacCodrum, a native of North Uist; Robert Mackay (Rod Donn, 1714-78), the Reay Country bard ; Dugald Buchannan of Rannoch (1716-68), religious poet and evangelist ; Duncan Ban M‘Intyre (1724-1812), the famous poet-game- keeper of Beinn-dorain, fought at Falkirk in 1746, and in his old age was a member of the city guard of Edinburgh; William Ross (1762-90), schoolmaster in Gairloch; Allan MacDougall (Ailean Dall, 1750-1829); Ewan M‘Lachlan of Aberdeen (1775-1822), scholar and poet; and William Livingstone (1808-1870), the Islay bard. Of quite recent Gaelic poets may be mentioned, among others, the veteran Evan M‘Coll of Kingston, Canada; John Campbell of Ledaig; Mrs Mary Mackellar; and Neil Macleod. Of late years the most notable Gaelic works published have been The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry, edited by John Mac- kenzie; Caraid nan Gaidheal, being a selection of dialogues and articles contributed by Dr Norman Macleod the elder, the best of Gaelic prose writers, to several periodicals and books; J. F. Campbell’s Tales of the West Highlands (4 vols. 1860-62), and the same author’s Leabhar na Féinne or ‘ Ossianie Ballads’ (1872); the Book of the Dean of Lismore, edited by Drs M‘Lauchlan and Skene (1862); and Sheriff Nicolson’s Gaelic Proverbs (1881). Scholarly clergymen of a past generation—the Stewarts of Killin, Luss, and Dingwall, and Dr Smith of Campbeltown—made an excellent trans- lation of the Scriptures into Gaelic. The grammars of Stewart and Munro, and the dictionaries of Armstrong (1825) and the Highland Society (1828), though requiring to be rewritten in the light of modern science, are works of great merit. Amon the most prominent of recent scholars in the field of Scottish Gaelic were Dr Thomas M‘Lauchlan of Edinburgh, Dr Archibald Clerk of Kilmallie, and Dr Alexander Cameron of Brodick. See CELTS, Picts, OSSIAN, IRELAND, DEER. Gaeta (Lat. Caieta), a strongly fortified mari- time town of southern Italy, in the province of Caserta, is picturesquely situated on a lofty pro- montory projecting into the Mediterranean, 50 miles NW. of Naples. On the summit of the pro- montory stands the circular Roland’s tower, said to be the mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus, the friend of Augustus. The beauty of the bay of Gaeta, which almost rivals that of Naples, has been celebrated by Virgil and Horace. On the dismemberment of the Roman empire, Gaeta be- came an independent centre of civilisation and commercial ibs sab The town has been_be- sieged on several occasions, as by Alphonso V. of Aragon in 1435, by the Austrians in 1707, by Charles of Naples in 1734, by the French in 1806, by the Austrians in 1815, and by the Italian national party in 1861. In 1848-49 it was the GAETA p + GAINSBOROUGH 53 . refnige of Pope Pius IX.; in 1860-61 of Francis IL of Naples. The vicinity of Gaeta abounds in remains of Roman villas, &c. The citadel, which _ is of great strength, contains in its tower the tomb of the Constable Bourbon, killed at the taking of Rome in 1527. The inhabitants, 16,848 in 1881, are chiefly engaged in fishing and in the coasting trade in corn, oil, wine, and fruits. Gaeta, Mota vi. See Forma. _ eetalia, an ancient country of Africa, situated ‘ Pee of Mauritania and Numidia, and embracing -* western part of the Sahara. Its inhabitants belonged in all probability to the aboriginal Berber family of north and north-western Africa; they were not in general black, though a portion of _ them dwelling in the extreme south, towards the Niger, had approximated to this colour through intermixture with the natives and from climatic _ @auses, and were called Melanogetuli, or ‘ Black _ Getulians,’ The Gretulians were savage and war- _ like, and pee great attention to the rearing of horses. They first came into collision with the Romans euang the Jugurthine war, when they _ served as light-horse in the army of the Numidian cin Cossus Lentulus broke them to Roman rule, obtaining for his success a triumph and the surname of Geetulicus (6 A.D.). The ancient Geetulians are _ believed to be represented by the modern Tuareg. Gaff, in a ship or boat, the spar to which the head of a fore-and-aft sail is bent, such sail having its foremost side made fast by rings to the mast, and its lower edge, in most instances, held straight by a boom. The thick end of the gaff is con- structed with ‘jaws’ to pass half round the mast, _ the other half being enclosed by a rope. A gaff- _ topsail is a small sail carried on the topmast above the gaff.—For the gaff or hook of the fisherman, see ANGLING. . Gage. See GAUGE; and for GREENGAGE, see UM. ,. Gage, THOMAS, an English general, was born 3 1721, the second son of the first Viscount Gage. _ In 1755 he accompanied Braddock’s ill-fated ex- _ pedition as lieutenant-colonel, and as brigadier- general became in 1760 military governor of Mon- treal, and in 1763 commander-in-chief of the British - ! in America. His inflexible character led the soma to regard him as well fitted to end the _ disturbances in the American colonies. In 1774 he ag i _ Was nominated governor of Massachusetts, a post of peculiar difficulty, and his enforcement of the 3 — decrees of parliament brought matters to a mf On the night of 18th April 1775 he _ despatched an expedition to seize a quantity of arms which had been stored at Concord ; and next _ day took place the memorable encounter of Lexing- _ ton, which announced that the Revolution had begun. ‘The battle of Bunker Hill (q.v.) made him unpopular. For a short time he was com- _ mander-in-chief in America, a.post he soon resigned _ toreturn to England, where he died, 2d April 1787, _ One of his sons became third viscount. _ Gagern, Heinrich WinHELM Avaust, FREI- _ HERR VON, German statesman, was born at Baireuth, 20th August 1799. He was one of the ____ founders of the student movement ( Burschenschaft) of 1815-19. After nil office under the govern- _ ment of Hesse-Darmstadt down to 1848, he became, in that year, one of the leadin Frankfort parliament, of whic president. In that capacity he endeavoured to ¢ carry views that the new central government _ for all Germany should be established on the basis _ of monarchi ul constitutionalism, and that the king of Prussia was the most fitting monarch to be elected to the dignity of emperor, But, dis- politicians of the he was elected couraged by the lukewarmness of Prussia, and repelled by the violence of the extreme democratic party, Gagern resigned his position, 20th May 1849, und shortly afterwards retired into private life. But from 1859 he again took part in the grand-dueal polities, as a strong partisan of Austria against Prussia. Pensioned off in 1872, he died at Darmstadt, 22d May 1880. Gaillac, a town in the French department of Tarn, on the river Gaillac, 32 miles by rail NE. of Toulouse. The abbey church of St Michel dates from the 12th century. Its 6368 inhabitants are engaged in wine-growing, coopering, and spinning, an trade in clover, coriander seeds, plums, and wine. Gaillard, CHATEAU. See ANDELYs. Gainsborough, 2 market-town of Lincoln- shire, on the right bank of the Trent, 21 miles above its embouchure in the Humber, and 16 miles by rail NW. of Lincoln. The parish church, with the exception of a fine old tower, dating from the 12th century, was rebuilt in 1736. he Manor House, built by John of Gaunt, now forms part of the corn exchange. The grammar-school was founded in 1589. Vessels drawing 12 feet of water can ascend the Trent to Gainsborough, which ranks as a sub-port of Grimsby. The town manufactures linseed cake and oil, malt, and cordage. Pop. (1851) 7506; (1891) 14,372. See Stark’s History of Gainsborough (2d ed. 1843). Gainsborough, THOMAs, portrait and land- scape painter, one of the greatest of English artists, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in 1727, the day of his baptism being the 14th of May. His father, a well-to-do clothier and crapemaker, had him edu- eated at the grammar-school of the place, where Mr Burroughs, the boy’s uncle, was master; and, as he was never happy but when sketching the rustic scenery around him, he was sent to London, at the age of fourteen, to study art under Gravelot, the excellent French engraver and de- signer of book-illustrations, under Frank Hay- man, and in the St Martin’s Lane Academy. He returned to his native county about 1744, estab- lished himself as a portrait-painter at Ipswich, and in 1745 married Margaret Burr, a lady with £200 a year. He was patronised by Sir Philip Thick- nesse, the governor of Landguard Fort, a view of which, afterwards engraved by Major, he was commissioned to paint. Through the advice of his friend, he removed in 1760 to Bath, where Thicknesse had influence, and where there was a Promising opening for a skilful portrait-painter. ere he won the public by his portrait of Earl Nugent; numerous commissions followed, and in 1761 he began to exhibit with the Society of Artists of Great Britain, in Spring Gardens, London, a body which he continued to support till 1768, when he became a foundation member of the Royal Academy, from which he afterwards practically retired, owing to what he considered the unworthy ae that had been assigned to his group of ‘The ing’s Daughters’ in the exhibition of 1784. In 1774, after a deadly quarrel with Thicknesse, he removed to London, establishing his studio in a portion of Schomberg House, Pall Mall, and there prosecuted his art with splendid success, being in portraiture the only worthy rival of Reynolds, and in landscape of Wilson. In 1788, while attending the trial of Warren Hastings, in West- minster Hall, he caught a chill from an open window, a cancerous tumour developed itself, and he died on the 2d of August, and was buried in Kew churchyard. Personally, Gainsborough pos- sessed all the enthusiasm, the airy vivacity, the hot impulsiveness, that we commonly associate with the artistic temperament. He was devoted 54 GAIRDNER GAIUS to art in every form. Fond of company, he loved: to associate with players and musicians; he was himself a performer on various instruments, and for him Garrick was ‘the greatest creature living, in every respect, worth studying in every action.’ Quick of temper, he was also right generous both of hand and heart; and when the long-estranged Reynolds visited him on his death-bed, Gains- borough parted from him with the often-quoted words of perfect brotherhood : ‘ We are all going to heaven, and Van Dyck is of the company.’ The art.of Gainsborough, compared with that of his great contemporary Reynolds, is less scholarly and more instinctive ; his portraits show less deep insight into character than those of his rival, but they have perhaps even more of grace, give perhaps even more vivid glimpses of the shifting gesture and expression of the moment. Gainsborough never studied abroad, never left his native country ; and though, at various times, he copied from Rubens, Teniers, Vandyke, and Rembrandt, he did so with no merely imitative aim. Nature her- self was always before his eye, and nature he interpreted in a manner most individual. His earlier works are firmly and directly handled, with definite combinations of positive colouring ; but as his art gained in power he sought more and more for harmony of total effect, for gradation and play of subtly interwoven hues; painting his flesh thinly, but with great certainty of touch, with exquisite refinement of modelling, and with the most delicate transparency in the shadows; and relieving it by the shifting sheen of his draperies, and by backgrounds of swiftly struck, loosely touched foliage, and of softly blending tints of sky. While his landscapes were unduly preferred to his portraits by the—perhaps not un- prejudiced — judgment of Reynolds, they too ossess admirable artistic qualities, in their free- thee of handling and harmony of colour and effect. Though, as Mr Ruskin has truly noted, they are ‘rather motives of feeling and colour than earnest studies,’ they have still value as faithful records of a distinctly personal impression of nature; and while Richard. Wilson developed with delicate skill the traditions of Claude, Gainsborough may, in some sense, be regarded as the forerunner of Constable, as the founder of the freer and more individual landscape art of our own time. Gainsborough is excellently represented in the National Gallery, London, by fourteen works, in- cluding portraits of ‘Mrs Siddons,’ of ‘Orpin the Parish Clerk,’ and of ‘Ralph Schomberg, M.P.,’ and ‘The Market Cart,’ and ‘The Watering- lace ;’ in the National Portrait Gallery, London, by five works; in the Dulwich Gallery by six works, including the portraits of ‘Mrs Sheridan’ and ‘Mrs Tickell;’ and in the National Gallery of Scotland by the portrait of the ‘Hon. Mrs Graham.’ An exhibition of over 200 of his works was held in London in 1885. ‘The Market Cart’ fetched 4500 guineas in 1894. ‘The Countess of Mulgrave,’ sold in 1880 for £1000, brought £10,000 in 1895. See Life by Fulcher (1856), Wedmore’s Studies (1876), Brock-Arnold’s Gainsborough and Constable (1881), the Catalogue by Horne (1891), Armstrong’s Portfolio mono- graph (1896), and the book by Mrs Bell (1897 ). Gairdner, Str WILLIAM TENNANT, K.C.B., was born in 1824, son of Dr John Gairdner (1790- 1876), and nephew of William Gairdner (1793- 1867), both of whom were born near Ayr and studied in Edinburgh—the latter (who wrote on gout) settling in London. He graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1845, becoming F.R.C.P. in 1850, and afterwards LL.D. of Edinburgh, and in 1898 K.C.B. From 1862 till his retirement in 1900 he occupied the chair of Practice of Medicine in Glasgow University, was President of the Medical Association there in 1888, and is physician in ordinary to the Queen for Scotland. e has con- tributed many valuable papers to the special medical journals, and was an esteemed contributor © to the first edition of this Encyclopedia. Among his books are Pathological Anatomy of Bronchitis and Diseases of the Lungs (1850), Notes on Pericar- ditis (1861), Clinical Medicine (1862), Public Health in relation to Air and Water (1862), On some Modern Aspects of Insanity, Lectures to Prac- titioners (in conjunction with Dr J. Coats, 1888), The Physician as Naturalist (1889).—JAMES GAIRDNER, historian, a brother of the foregoing, was born at Edinburgh, March 22, 1828, attended lectures in the university there, and at eighteen as a clerk entered the Public Record office in London, where he became assistant-keeper in 1859. He has ° distinguished himself by the rare combination of profound erudition, patient accuracy, and judicial temper which he has shown in the editing of a long series of historical documents : Memorials of Henry the Seventh (1858); Letters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III, and Henry VII. (2 vols. 1861-63), in the Rolls series ; the continuation from vol. v. onwards of the late Professor Brewer's Calendar of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the -Reign of Howe VIII. (9 vols. 1862-86); and Historical Collec- tions of a London Citizen (1876), and Three Fif- teenth-Century Chronicles (1880), for the Camden Society series. Equally valuable are the books addressed to a wider audience: an edition of the Paston Letters in Professor Arber’s series (3 vols. 1872-75); The Houses of Lancaster and York, in ‘Epochs of Modern History’ (1874); the Life and Reign of Richard III, (1878); England in ‘ Earl Chroniclers of Europe’ (1879); Studies in Englis. History (1881), a series of essays written in con- junction with Spedding ; and Henry VII, (‘States- men’ series, 1889). He was made C.B. in 1900. Gairloch, an inlet of the sea on the west coast of Ross-shire, 6 miles in length, which gives name to a parish and village. See J. H. Dixon, Zhe Gairloch (1888). Gaisford, Tuomas, D.D., a distinguished classical scholar, was born in 1780 at Ilford, Wilts. He graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1804. He published an elaborate edition of the Enchiridion of Hepheestion, was public examiner 1809-10, and in 1811 was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford. From 1819 to 1847 he was rector of Westwell, Oxfordshire. In 1831 he became dean of Christ Church. He died in 1855, and in his memory a Greek prize was founded at Oxford. Among his classical publications are an edition of the Lexicon of Suidas (1834), and the Etymologicon Magnum (1848). Gaius, a Roman jurist, who flourished between 130 and 180 A.D. Of his personal history next to nothing is known.* Before the revision of the Roman laws, and the reform of legal studies by Justinian, the Institutes of Gaius, as well as four other of his treatises, were the received text-books of the schools of law. His Institutes, moreover, formed the groundwork of the Jnstitutes of Jus- tinian. The other works of Gaius, of which we have little more than the titles, were largely used in the compilation of the Digest, which contains ne fewer than 535 extracts from his writings. The Institutes was, like the others, almost completely — lost, until in 1816 Niebuhr discovered it at Verona, under a palimpsest of the Epistles of Jerome. This discovery threw a flood of light upon the history of the early development of Roman law, especially upon the forms of procedure in civil actions. The first book treated of status and family relations ; GALABAT GALASHIELS 55 said to,ferm a favourite article of food in Senegal. The largest species (G. or O. crassicaudatus) meas- ures a foot in length, not including the bushy tail, which is 15 or 16 inches more. ‘In Zanzibar the the second, of things and of how possession of them may be uired, including the law selating to wills ; the third, of intestate succession and obliga- tions; and the fourth and last, of actions. Alaric “IL, king of the West Goths, promulgated in 506, for the use of his Roman subjects, the code known as Breviarium Alarici, which contains copious excerpts from Gaius. Of numerous editions of the Institutes published since 1817, may be mentioned those in -simile by Bicking (Leip. 1866) and $Studemund (Leip. 1874), and with an_ English translation by E. Porte (2d ed. Oxford Clarendon _ Press, 1875) and James Muirhead (Edin. 1880). Galabat, a small republic of Negroes from Dar-Far and Wadai, situated near the western frontiers of Abyssinia. The ple, some 20,000 in number, and fanatical Mohammedans, trade _ with Abyssinia in coffee, cotton, hides, and bees- wax. Galactodendron. See Cow-TREE. Galactometer. See LACTOMETER. Galacz. See GALATz. Galago, a genus of large-eared, long-tailed, African Lemurs (q.v.), arboreal and nocturnal in habit, living on fruit and insects. They vary from the size of a rabbit to that of a rat, are covered with thick soft woolly fur, have somewhat bushy tails longer than the body, and hind-legs longer and stronger than the arms, with two of the ankle bones (caleaneum and navicular) greatly elongated. The head is round like a cat's; the eyes are large with oval pupils contracting in daylight to vertical slits ; the ears are naked and very big, expanded during activity, but rolled together when the animal rests. The digits are strong and well adapted for grasping the branches; all bear nails except the second on the hind-foot, which is clawed. The dentition Galago Monteiri. suggests insectivorous rather than vegetarian diet. The female is said to bear one young one at a birth. and often carries it about. Soft nests are also made in the branches. The Galago proper (G@. senegal- ensis or Otolicnus Galago) is a pretty: animal with woolly fur, grayish fawn above, whitish beneath. It _ seems to be distributed throughout tropical Africa, and is known in Senegal as ‘the gum animal’ from its frequent habitat in mimosa or gum-acacia forests, and from its alleged habit of gum-chewing. They sleep with bowed head and tail curled round them during the day, but at night they are as active as ds, watching for moths and small animals, on which they spring with great adroitness. They are Komba (G. or 0. agisymbanus) is said frequently to make itself intoxicated with palm-wine, so that it falls from the tree and gets caught.’ It is readily tamed and utilised to catch insects and mice in the houses. There are numerous species, sometimes distributed in sub-genera. Galahad, See GRAIL. Galangale (Alpinia qalanga ; not to be con- fused with ‘ the slender galingale,’ see GALINGALE), a genus of Zingiberaceze cultivated in the Eastern Archipelago, and much used in the East for the same purposes as ginger. Galanthus. See Syowprop. Galapa’gos (Span. Galapagos, from galapago, ‘a tortoise’), a group of islands of volcanic forma- tion, lying on the equator, about 600 miles W. of Ecuador, to which they belong. The archipelago derives its name from the enormous land tortoises formerly found there in great numbers; but the individual islands all possess names of English origin—probably bestowed by the buccaneers who made them a sort of headquarters during the 17th century. The group consists of seven principal islands, with about half-a-dozen of lesser size, and innumerable islets and rocks; the area is estimated at 2440 sq. m., of which Albemarle Island embraces over half. Rising to a height of nearly 5000 feet, and with a climate dry and somewhat tempered by the cool Peruvian current, the islands are covered with a dense vegetation on the southern side, which absorbs the moisture carried by the trade-wind ; on the northern side they are barren and forbiddin in aspect, the lower parts covered entirely with ashes and lava or with prickly scrub. Darwin puts the number of craters in the group at 2000; some appear to be not yet extinct. The Galapagos possess both a flora and fauna peculiar to themselves; over a hundred species of plants have been noted that are met with nowhere else, and the species of animals differ greatly even in the various islands. The archipelago was annexed by Ecuador in 1832, and attempts were made to colonise it, of which the only remaining result is the so-called ‘wild cattle.’ Charles Island was used as a penal settle- ment for some years, but it and Chatham Island are now occupied by agricultural colonists, the chief crop being sugar. Cotton, vegetables, and most cereals are also raised, and tiga Aga rum, hides, and Archil ye) are exported. Pop. (1895) 400. See Darwin’s Voyage of the Beagle, and a paper by Captain Markham in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1880). Galashiels, the chief seat in Scotland of the Scotch tweed manufacture, occupies 24 miles of the narrow valley of the Gala, immediately above the junction of that river with the Tweed. Al- though situated partly in Roxburghshire and partly in Selkirkshire, for Judicial purposes it has been fixed by an act passed in 1867 as within the county of Selkirk. It is 334 miles SSE. of Edinburgh, and 4 WNW. of Melrose. In the 15th century it is spoken of as ‘the forest-steading of Galashiels ;’ and its tower, demolished about 1814,-was then oceupied by the Douglases. In 1599 it was made a burgh of barony, having then 400 inhabitants. As early as 1581 wool was here manufactured into cloth, and in 1790 the value of the cloth so manufactured was £1000. So great, however, has been the pro- gress of the woollen trade of the town during the present century, that in 1890 the estimated value of tweeds manufactured was no less than one million and a quarter sterling. By the Reform Act of 1868 it was made a parliamentary burgh, and along with Hawick and golkirk sends a member to 56 GALATA GALATZ parliament. A local act of parliament was obtained in 1876, under which the bounds of the burgh were extended for municipal purposes, and a water-supply introduced. Galashiels’ chief claim to notice is its manufacturing enterprise. It has 23 woollen factories containing 120 ‘setts’ of carding engines, with 100,562 spindles. The goods manufactured are almost exclusively the well-known woollen cloth called Scotch tweed. The mills are almost entirely dependent on steam for motive power. The town has also the largest and pity Lagi skinnery in Seotland. Its valuation rose from £29,838 in 1872 to £62,667 in 1889. Pop. (1831) 2209 ; (1861) 6433; (1871) 10,312; (1881) 15,330, of whom 12,434 were within the extended burgh; (1891) 17,249. See T. Craig-Brown’s History of Selkirkshire (1886). Galata, a suburb of Constantinople (q.v.). Galatea. See ACIs. Galatia, also GALLO-GRA&CIA, in ancient geo- graphy, a country of Asia Minor, separated from Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the N. by the Olympus range (Ala-Dagh) and the river Halys, and bounded on the E. by Pontus, on the 8. by Cappadocia and Lycaonia, and on the W. by Phrygia. The country is an elevated plateau, 2000 to 3000 feet above sea-level, consisting for the most part of a rolling grassy region, that affords excellent pasturage for sheep and goats. The western half of Galatia is watered by the Sangarius, whilst the Halys traverses it in the middle and north-east. The climate is one pre- senting extremes of heat and cold. The boundaries of Galatia have, however, varied at different epochs of history. Originally it formed part of Phrygia. The name Galatia it received from a body of Gauls who, breaking off from the army of Brennus, when that chieftain invaded Greece, entered Asia Minor about 278 B.c., and were finally defeated in a great battle by Attalus, king of Pergamus, in 235, who thereupon compelled them to settle in -Galatia. Remaining independent, however, they proved for- midable foes to the Romans in the wars of the latter against the kings of Syria; and although subdued by the Roman general Cnzeus Manlius in 189, they still continued to govern themselves, latterly under a single king. These Gauls, who became Hellenised shortly after settling in their new country, although they clung to their native language down to the 4th century, extended their power during the lst century B.C. over Pontus, part of Armenia, Lycaonia, Isauria, and other districts. Bat on the death of King Amyntas in 25 B.c. the country was made a Roman province, which was further divided by Theodosius the Great into Galatia Prima, with Ancyra (Angora) for its capital, and Galatia Secunda, with Pessinus as chief town. Galatians, THE EPISTLE TO THE, an epistle directed by the apostle Paul ‘to the churches of Galatia.’ According to Lightfoot it was written from Macedonia or Achaia in the winter or spring of the years 57-58 A.D. Others place it at the end of 55 or the beginning of 56, on the apostle’s journey to Ephesus or in the early part of his sojourn there. It is one of the most important of the four epistles which are undoubtedly from the hand of Paul, and was written to counteract the influence of the Judaisers who had appeared among the Gentile Christians of the churches of, Galatia. Those churches had been founded by Paul during the second, and revisited by him during the third, of his missionary journeys (ef. Acts, xvi. 6, and xviii. 23). At his first visit the people received him as ‘an angel. of God,’ and he was detained among them by sickness for a considerable time. It is rremet whether the passages i. 9, iv. 16-20, and v. 7, 12 show traces of the Judaising leaven even at the time of his second visit, or whether i. 6, iii. 1, and v. 7, 8 are sufficient to prove that they did not appear till after his departure. As the Roman rovince of Galatia formed in 25 B.C. included also sauria, Lycaonia, and parts of Pisidia and Phrygia, some think that the ‘churches of Galatia’ may have extended to those regions, but it is more prob- able that the Galatia of Paul was confined to the upper basins of the Halys and Sangarius. Bar- barian hordes of Galati or Gallogreci had settled there in the 3d century B.c., and in the larger towns, like Tavium, Pessinus, and Ancyra, adopted Greek speech and manners, while the country people, down to the time of Jerome, spoke a language ‘ almost identical with that of the Treveri.’ Lightfoot concludes from his elaborate investigations that the Galatian settlers belonged to the Cymrie branch of the Celtic race. Though the population in- cluded also aboriginal Phrygians, as well as Greek, Roman, and Jewish immigrants, the characteristic vitality of the Celts maintained the predominance of that race, whose proverbial impressibility and fickleness are so clearly illustrated in the epistle to the Galatians. The ‘troublers’ maintained that every one who entered into God’s Covenant must be circumcised, and keep the whole law, whose dis- cipline was a moral necessity for all men, and on whose observance the” promises of the Old Testament were dependent. Galatians is the only epistle of Paul which has no word of praise for its recipients. It at once plunges passionately into the immediate practical question—why they are ‘so soon removed... unto another gospel,’ and from beginning to end has no tidings, messages, or greet- ings. The body of the epistle is commonly divided into two parts—(1) theoretical (i. 6—v. 12) and (2) practical (v. 13—vi. 10). Holsten and others prefer the following division of the argument: (1) the divine origin of Paul’s gospel proved by a historical demonstration of the impossibility of its sppoette (i. 6—ii. 21); (2) the full right of the believing Gentile to the blessing of the Messianic promise proved by a confutation of the assertion that the Messianic salvation is in any way de- pendent on circumcision and legal observances (iii. l—iv. 11); (3) the believer’s righteousness of life roved to be the fruit or outward expression of the pirit bestowed upon him—in contradiction of the supposed necessity of a righteousness of life which should be brought about by subjection to cireum- cision and law (iv. 12—vi. 10). The chief commentaries on Galatians are those of Luther (1519; Eng. trans, Lond. 1810); Winer (1821; 4th ed. 1859), Riickert (1833), Schott (1834), De Wette (1841; 3d ed. by W. Moller, 1864); Windischman (Catholic, 1843), Hilgenfeld (1852), Ellicott (1854; 4th ed. 1867), Jowett (1856), Wieseler (1859), Hofmann (1863; 2d ed. 1872), Lightfoot (1865; 5th ed. 1880), — Eadie (1869), Brandes (1869), O. Schmoller (1875), Meyer (6th ed. by F. Sieffert, 1880), Holsten in the Pro- testantenbibel (3d ed. 1879; Eng. trans. by F. H. Jones, 1883) and in Das Evangelium des Paulus (vol. i. 1880), Schaff (1881), Worner (1882), Philippi (1884), Kohler (1884), Beet (1885), and Findlay (1888). Galatina, a town of Italy, 13 miles SW. of Lecce. It has a church, erected in 1384, with antique sculptures and fine tombs of the Balzo- Orsini family. Pop. 8720. Galatz, or GALACZ, a river-port of Moldavia, the centre of the commerce of the Roumanian kingdom, is situated on the left bank of the Danube, 3 miles below the influx of the Sereth, and 85 from the Sulina mouth of the Danube, ~ whilst by rail it is 166 NE. of Bucharest, and 259 SW. of Odessa. It occupies the slope of a hill overlooking the river, and is divided into an Old and New Town, the former consisting of irregularly built streets, the latter built more after the fashion of western Europe. Its dockyard, its large bazaar, GALA WATER GALEN 57 its grain-stores, its magazines of oriental wares, and its banking establishments deserve notice. The chief objects of industry are iron, copper, wax candles, and soap. The exports consist of maize, wheat, wheat-flour, barley, rye, and timber. The imports include timber, grain, fish, fruits, oil, ieemicels, iron, steel, and cotton goods. The town e- he been, since 1856, the seat of the International Danube Commission. The population, a medley of yarious nationalities, has risen from 36,000 in 1869 to 57,460 in 1895. Galatz has frequently been taken in the wars between the Russians anc Turks since 1789. It ceased to be a free port in 1883. Gala Water, a stream of Edinburgh, Selkirk, ~ and Roxburgh shires, rising among the Moorfoot Hills, and wep) 21 miles south-south-eastward, _ past Stow and Ga ashiels, till, after a total descent ‘of 800 feet, it falls into the Tweed, a little below _ Abbotsford, and 24 miles W. of Melrose. In its valley, the ancient Wedale, Skene localises one of - Arthur’s battles ; its ‘ braw, braw lads’ are famous im song. _ Galaxy i gala, ‘ milk’), or the Milky-way, __ is the great luminous band which nightly stretches across the heavens from horizon to horizon, and which is found to form’a zone very irregular in out- line, but completely encircling the whole sphere almost in a great circle, inclined at an angle of 63° to the equinoctial. At one part of its course it opens up into two branches, one faint and inter- rupted, the other bright and continuous, which do not reunite till after remaining distinct for about 150°. Its luminosity is due to innumerable multi- tudes of stars, so distant as to be blended in sd om ance, and only distinguishable by powerful tele- scopes. How a collection of stars can assume such _ appearances as are presented in the Galaxy is explained in the article STaRs (q.v.). The in- vestigation of this subject was largely the work of _ Sir William Herschel. The origin of the current figurative use of galaxy, as in ‘galaxy of beauty,’ | * galaxy of wit,’ is sufficiently obvious. Galba, Servius Sutpicius, Roman emperor from June 68 A.D. to January 69, was born 24th - December 3 8.c. He was raised to the consulship in 33 A.p., and conducted the administration in _ Aguitania, Germany, Africa, and Hispania Tarra- _ eonensis with courage, skill, and strict justice. In 68 the Gallic legions rose against Nero, and pro- claimed Galba emperor. But Galba, now an old man, soon made himself unpopular by placing him- self in the hands of greedy favourites, by ill-timed severity, and, above all, by his avarice. Shortly _ afterwards he was assassinated by the preetorians in Rome. Galbanum, a gum-resin, used in medicine in the same cases as asafeetida. It is met with -in hardened drops or tears, usually compacted into a mass, of a brown to light-green translucent colour, _ and possessing an aromatic odour and bitter allia- _ ceous taste. Galbanum contains about 7 per cent. _ Of volatile oil, besides resin and gum. _ It is applied ___— as. a plaster to indolent swellings, and occasionally administered as a stimulating expectorant, and in _ amenorrhcea and chronic rheumatism. Although __ known from earliest times, and used as an incense by the Israelites (Ex. xxx. 34), under the name of _— benah, its source has always been uncertain. a There seems to be little doubt, however, that it is __ obtained from the Ferula Galbaniflua and F. rubri- ss eaulis, umbelliferous plants found in Persia. _ Galechas, a collective name given by Ujfalvy ____ to a group of tribes inhabiting the highlands and ’ F, ¢ upland valleys of Ferghana, the Zarafshan, and the . They are closely akin to the les of the _____Tranie stock, and in speech are near the Tajiks and _ Persians. They are Sunni Mohammedans. Galdés, BENITO PEREZ, Spanish novelist, was born in 1849 on the Canary Islands, but settled in Madrid. His earlier works (7rafalgar, Bailen, &c.) were historical romances; the later ones (Marianela, Leon Roch, Lady Perfecta, &c.) give realistic pictures of social conditions. Many have been translated into English. Gale, Sweet. See BoG MyRTLe. Gale, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), divine, was fellow and tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, and reacher in Westminster Cathedral; was ejected or nonconformity after 1660, and subsequently was tutor and preacher in London. He wrote The Court of the Gentiles (1669), and other works. Gale, THOMAS (16357-1702), fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, head-master of St Paul’s and dean of York, edited classics, published Opuscula on mythology, and works on early English history. Galekas, a Bantu tribe, aig 3 the part of the Transkei Territory (q.v.) just beyond the great Kei River. They are also called Amaxosa Kaffirs. Galen, or CLAUDIUS GALENUS, a celebrated Greek physician, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, 131 A.D. In his nineteenth year he began the study of medicine, first at Pergamus, afterwards at Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria. On _ his return to his native city in 158 he was at once appointed physician to the school of gladiators. But six years later he went to Rome, where he stayed for about four years, and gained such a reputation that he was offered, though he declined, the post of physician to the emperor. Searcely, however, had he returned to his native city when he received a summons from the Emperors M. Aurelius and L. Verus to attend them in the Ven- etian territory, and shortly afterwards he accom- panied or followed them to Rome (170). There he remained several years, though how long is not known precisely: at all events he attended M. Aurelius and his two sons, Commodus and Sextus, and about the end of the 2d century was employed by the Emperor Severus. If the statements of one of his Arabic biographers, Abu-’] Faraj, be correct, he must have died in Sicily about the year 201, though the exact place and date of his death are not known with certainty. Galen was a voluminous writer not only on medical, but also on philosophical subjects, such as logic, ethics, and grammar. The works that are still extant under his name consist of 83 treatises that are acknowledged to be genuine; 19 whose genuineness has been questioned ; 45 undoubtedly spurious; 19 fragments; and 15 commentaries on different works of Hippocrates. His most important anatomical and physiological works are De Anatomicis Administrationibus, and De Usu Partium Corporis Humani. As an _anato- mist, he combined with patient skill and sober observation as a practical dissector—of lower animals, not of the human body—accuracy of description and clearness of exposition as a writer. He gathered up all the medical knowledge of his time and fixed it on such a firm foundation of truth that it continued to be, as he left it, the authori- tative account of the science for centuries. His physiology does not, according to modern ideas, attain to the same level of scientific excellence as his anatomy. He is still dominated by theoretical notions, especially by the Hippocratic four elements (hot, cold, wet, and dry) and the Hippocratic humours. His therapeutics are also influenced by the same notions, drapes having the same four elemental qualities as the human ; and he was a believer in the principle of curing diseases trace- able, according to him, to the maladmixture of the elements, by the use of drugs possessing the oppo- 58 GALENA GALIANI site elementary qualities. His pathology also was very speculative and imperfect. In his diagnosis and prognosis he laid great stress on the pulse, on which subject he may be considered as the first and greatest authority, for all subsequent writers adopted his system without alteration. He like- wise placed great confidence in the doctrine of criti- cal days, which he believed to be influenced by the moon. In materia medica his authority was not so high as that of Dioscorides. Numerous ingre- dients, many of which were probably inert, enter into most of his prescriptions. He seems to place a more implicit faith in amulets than in medicine, and he is supposed by Cullen to be the originator of the anodyne necklace which was so long famous in England. The subsequent Greek and Roman medical writers were mere compilers from his writ- ings; and as soon as his works were translated (in the 9th century) into Arabic they were at once adopted throughout the East to the exclusion of all others. GALENICAL, GALENIST, are words. having refer- ence to the controversies of the period of the re- vival of letters, when the authority of Galen was strongly asserted against all innovations, and par- ticularly against the introduction of chemical, or rather alchemical ideas and methods of treatment into medicine. The Galenists adhered to the ancient formulas, in which drugs were prescribed, either in substance or in the form of tinctures and extracts, &c.; while the chemists professed to extract from them the essences or quintessences (quinta essentia, the fifth essence, supposed to be particularly pure, as requiring five processes to extract it)—i.e. substances in small bulk, pre- sumed to contain the whole virtues of the original drugs in a state of extreme concentration, or puri- fied from all gross and pernicious or superfluous matter. There have been numerous editions of Galen’s writings, or parts of them; the most accessible, as well as prob- ably the best, is that of C. G. Kithn (20.vols. 1821-33). For a general account of his anatomical and physio- logical knowledge, see Kidd in vol. vi. of Trans. Pro- vincial Med. and Surg. Assoc. (1837); Daremberg, Des Connaissances de Galien (Paris, 1841); and the epitome in English by J. R. Coxe (Phila. 1846). Galena, or LEAD-GLANCE, a mineral which is essentially a sulphide of lead, the proportions being 13°4 sulphur and 86°6 lead; but usually containing a little silver, and sometimes copper, iron, zinc, antimony, or selenium. It has a hardness equal to 23-3, and a specific gravity of 7°2-7°6. It 1s of a lead-gray colour, with a metallic lustre, is found massive, or sometimes granular, or crystallised in cubes or octahedrons. It is very easily broken, and its fragments are cubical. It occurs in veins, beds, and imbedded masses, often accompanying other metallic ores, such as zine-blende, in the older stratified rocks, but most of all in what is known as the carboniferous or mountain-limestone. It is found very abundantly in some parts of Britain, and in many other countries, <3 in Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Hungary, . rance, the United States, &c. Almost all the lead of commerce is obtained from it. It sometimes con- tains so much silver that the separation of that metal is profitably carried on. The Lead (q.v.) is extracted from it by a very simple process. Galena, a city of Illinois, on the Fevre River, 6 miles above its junction with the Mississippi, and 169 miles WNW. of Chicago by rail. The river runs here between high limestone bluffs, and the town is built on a series of terraces. It con- tains a custom-house, and a number of mills, foundries, and furniture factories, and exports a large quantity of lead (mined and smelted in the vicinity) and zine. Pop. (1870) 7019 ; (1900) 5005. Galeri'tes (galerus, ‘a cap’), a genus of fossil sea-urchins, peculiar to and abundant in the Creta- ceous System. The generic name, as well as that popu- larly given to them in the dis- tricts where they abound—viz. ‘Sugar-loaves,’ is descriptive of the elongated and more or less conical shape of their shell. The body in breadth is nearly circular or polygonal. The under surface is entirely ‘ sil flat, and has the mouth placed Galerites albogalerus. in its centre, with the vent near the margin. There are five avenues of pores reaching from the mouth to the summit. These fossils are often found silicified. * The species figured is one of the most abundant; it has received its specific name from its resemblance to the white caps worn by the priests of Jupiter. Galerius. Galerius Valerius Maximianus, a Roman emperor, was born of humble parentage, near Sardica, in Dacia. Entering the imperial army, he rose rapidly to the highest ranks. In 292 Diocletian conferred on him the title of Ceesar, and gave him his daughter in marriage. In 296-7 he conducted a campaign against the Persians, in which, though not at first successful, he decisively defeated their king, Narses. On the abdication of Diocletian (305) he and Constantius Chlorus be- came joint-rulers of the Roman empire, Galerius taking the eastern half. When Constantius died at York (306) the troops in Britain and Gaul im- mediately transferred their allegiance to his son, Constantine (afterwards Constantine the Great). Galerius, however, retained possession of the east till his death in 311. Galerius was a brave soldier and a skilful commander ; but he is believed to have forced Diocletian to issue his famous edict of perse- - cution against the Christians. Galesburg, a city of Illinois, 53 miles WNW. of Peoria by rail, the centre of a rich agricultural district. It has several foundries, machine-shops, and agricultural manufactories, and is the seat of the Lombard University ( Universalist, 1857) and of Knox College (Congregational, 1841). Pop. (1880) 11,437 ; (1890) 15,264 ; (1900) 18,607. Galesville, a post-village of Wisconsin, 15 miles ENE. of Winona, with a Methodist uni- versity (1855). Pop. (1900) 862. Galgacus, the name Tacitus gives to the Caledonian chief who offered a desperate resistance to the northward march of Agricola (86 A.D.), and was at length disastrously defeated in the great battle of the Grampians. Galiani, FERDINANDO, an Italian writer on olitical economy, was born in Chieti, in the eapolitan province of Abruzzo Citeriore, on 2d December 1728. Although educated for the church, his favourite studies were phiokoes: history, archeology, and more especially political ee He early gained a reputation as a wit by the pub- lication of a volume parodying, in a series of dis- courses on the death of the public executioner, the principal Neapolitan writers of the day. About the same time be wrote his first work on political economy, entitled Delia Moneta, the leading prin- ciple of which is that coin is a merchandise, and that its value and interest ought to be left free, as. in other goods. His appointment as secretary of legation at Paris in 1759 brought him into contact with the Encyclopeedists and the economic writers of that capital. Five years later he pub- lished Dialoghi sul Commercio del Grano (‘Dialogues upon the Trade in Corn’), in which he argues against both the extreme protectionists and the pure free-traders, After his recall to Naples in Ei SS NEN REAL EARN GALICIA GALILEE 59 1769 he became successively councillor of the tribunal of commerce and (1777) minister of the aldomains. He died at Naples, 30th October 1787. See his Correspondance with Mdme..D’Epinay, Holbach, Grimm, Diderot, &c. (1818 ; new ed. 1881). Galicia, formerly a kingdom and afterwards a , ce in the north-west of Spain, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic, S. by Portugal, and E. by Leon and Asturias, with an area of 11,340 sq. m., has been divided since 1833 into the minor pro- vinees of Coruiia, Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra, whose joint population in 1896 was 1,919,846. The country is mountainous, being traversed by offsets of the Asturian chain, rising in their highest peaks to about 6500 feet. The westernmost spurs, Capes _ Ortegal and Finisterre, project into the Atlantic. The numerous short but rapid rivers form small estuaries which afford secure havens and roads. _ The principal river is the Minho, which, with its feeder the Sil, is navigable for small vessels on its lower course. Galicia is one of the most fruitful portions of Europe, and has a mild, nourishing climate; but agriculture is in a backward con- dition, capital is scarce, roads are bad, and railways are few. Rich meadows’ and dense forests occur everywhere, but the soil is more suited to_ the cultivation of garden-produce than of corn. Mines of lead, tin, copper, and iron pyrites are worked. The inhabitants, called Gallegos, are a robust, vigorous, industrious race. reat numbers of them annually visit central and southern Spain and Portugal, where they find employment as har- vesters, water-carriers, porters, &c. Chief exports, live cattle, preserved meat, eggs, minerals, fish, frnits, and grain ; imports, coal, oil, hides, spirits, sugar, and tobacco. The principal towns are Santiago di Compostella and the two strongly fortified seaports Corufia.and Ferrol. Galicia was a kingdom, under the Suevi from 411 to 585, and again from 1060 to 1071, at which date it was finally incorporated with Leon and Castile. Galicia (Polish Halicz), a crown-land belong- ing to the Austrian monarchy, including the former kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator, and the grand- duchy of Cracow, lies between the Carpathians on the S. and Russian Poland on the N., and between Silesia on the W. and Russia on the E. Area, 30,300 sq. m.; pop. (1890) 6,607,816. With the ex- ception of 230,000 Germans and 770,600 Jews, the inhabitants are of Slavonic race, the western part of Galicia being occupied mainly by Poles, the eastern by, Ruthenians. In religion about 24 millions, mostly Ruthenians, belong to the Gréek Church, and nearly 2# millions, chiefly Poles, to the Roman Catholic Church. The southern portion of the country is a high terrace, flanking the northern face of the Carpathians. away northwards, bie a low hilly region, to the deep plains of the Dniester and the Vistula. There are many large rivers—those in the west being feeders of the Vistula, those in the east of the Danube and Dniester. The climate of Galicia is colder than that of any other portion of the Austrian empire, as it is freely exposed to the north and north-east winds. Yearly mean of ibe ig at Lemberg, 46°4° F.; mean of July, 66°9° ; of Januar , 25°2°; annual rainfall, about 28 inches. The soil is for the most part fertile, and ence oats, rye, and barley in sufficient quan- ity for export. Wheat, flax, hemp, tobacco, and oil plants are likewise eiltivated. Fruit-grgw- ing and market-gardenin -keeping. Horses, cattle, and sheep are raised considerable numbers. Wolves and bears are 1 found in the mountainous districts. One- fourth of the surface is covered with forests, Thence the land slopes are prosecuted, also” which yield large quantities of timber for export. Salt is the most important mineral. But coal, iron ore, sulphur, lead, zinc, and petroleum are also extracted. The annual product of the petroleum springs is about 90,000 tons. There are about thirty-five mineral springs, most of them containing sulphur. The industries are few, and, except the manufacture of cloth and the distilling of brandy and of petroleum, not important. Trade, however, chiefly in the hands of the Jews, is pretty active. Lemberg and Cracow, the prin- cipal towns, have each a university; the former is the capital of the crown-land. Galicia is ruled by an Austrian governor and an independent diet; to the imperial diet it sends sixty-three members. Galicia takes its name from the old fortress and town of Halicz, on the Dniester. The original Slavonic inhabitants, the Ruthenes, were in the 9th century conquered by the Russians of Kieff. The western portion of the country was dependent on Poland, and afterwards on Hungary. In 1382 it was definitely restored to Poland, and continued to belong to that country till the parti- tion of 1772, when Galicia became one of the crown- lands of Austria. In 1846 Cracow, with the terri- tory belonging to it, was given up to the emperor of Austria, and by him (1849) annexed to the crown-land of Galicia. Galiez. See HaAticz. Galignani, JoHN ANTHONY and WILLIAM, Parisian publishers, were born in London, the former 13th October 1796, the latter 10th March 1798. Their father, an Italian, founded an English library at Paris in 1800, and there published an English Monthly Repertory, and in 1814 the famous newspaper, Galignani’s Messenger. The Messenger was much improved by his sons, who made it an important medium for advocating cordiality between England and France. The brothers founded at Corbeil near Paris a hospital for distressed Englishmen ; and in 1889 the Galignani Home for decayed members of the printing and bookselling trades was opened at Neuilly. The elder brother died 30th December 1873, and the younger 12th December 1882. Galilee (Heb. Galil, a ‘circle’ or ‘ circuit’), a name latterly applied to one of the four Roman divisions of Palestine, originally referred only to a district of the tribe of Naphtali. In the time of our Lord, Galilee embraced the whole northern portion of Palestine from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. The district was divided into Upper and Lower Galilee, the former being hilly and well wooded, the latter level and very fertile. At that time it was mainly inhabited by Syrians, Pheenicians, Arabs, and Greeks, with a few Jews. The prin- cipal towns were Tiberias and Sepphoris; those that figure in the gospels are Cana, Capernaum, Nazareth, and Nain. The Jewish inhabitants were held in low estimation by their brethren in Juda, on account of their less rigid sentiments in regard to religion. After the destruction of Jerusalem the despised Galilee became the refuge of the proud doctors of Jewish law, and the city of Tiberias the seat of Rabbinical learning. The ruins of many fine synagogues are still extant in this region. Galilee now forms part of the pashalic of Damascus, in the Turkish province of Syria, and, as of yore, is remarkable for its beauty and fertility. It still has a considerable number of Jewish inhabitants. See Dr S. Merrill, Galilee in the Time of Christ (new ed. 1885). The SEA OF GALILEE, called also in the New Testament the Lake of Gennesaret and the Sea of Tiberias, and in the Old Testament the Sea of Chin- nereth or Cinneroth, a large lake in the northern half of Palestine. Lying 682 feet below sea-level, 60 GALILEE GALILEI it is 13 miles long by 6 broad, and 820 feet deep. It occupies the bottom of a great basin, and is undoubtedly of voleanic origin. Although the Jordan runs into it red and turbid from the north, and many warm and brackish springs also find their way thither, its waters are cool, clear, and sweet. Its shores on the east and north sides are bare and rocky; on the west sloping gradually, and luxuriantly covered with vegetation. The surrounding scenery is hardly beautiful, but sits associations are the most sacred in the world. It is enough to mention the names of some of the towns on its shores, Bethsaida, Capernaum, Magdala, and Tiberias. In the time of Jesus the region round about was the most densely populated in Galilee; now even its fisheries are almost entirely neglected. Galilee, the name applied to a porch or chapel attached to a church, in which penitents stood, processions were formed, and corpses deposited for a time previous to interment. In some religious houses the galilee was the only part of the church accessible to women; the monks came to the alilee to see their female relatives—the women eing told in the words of Scripture, ‘He goeth before you into Galilee; there shall you see him’ (Matt. xxviii. 7). A portion of the nave was some- times marked off by a step, or, as at Durham, by a line of blue marble, to mark the boundary to which women were limited. There are galilees in the cathedrals of Lincoln (on west side of south tran- sept), Ely (at west end of nave), and Durham (west end of nave). Galilei, GALILE’0, one of the fathers of experi- mental science, was born at Pisa on the 18th of February 1564. By the desire of his father, the descendant of an ancient Florentine family, Galileo directed his early studies to medicine, and of course the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy; but the dogmas of this last he soon ventorll to disbelieve and despise. Entering the university of Pisa in 1581, he made there two years later one of his most important discoveries. appening to observe the oscillations of a bronze lamp in the cathedral of Pisa, he was struck with the fact that the oscilla- tions, no matter what their range, seemed to be accomplished in equal times. The correctness of this observation he at once proceeded to test, and then, comparing the beat of his own pulse with the action of the pendulum, he concluded that by means of this equality of oscillation the simple pendulum might be made an invaluable agent in the exact measure- ment of time, a discovery which he utilised some fifty years later in the construction of an astro- nomical clock. About this time his irrepressible bias towards mechanical constructions and experi- mental science received a new impulse from his introduction to the principles of mathematics. The first fruit of his ardent pursuits of the new studies was the invention of a hydrostatic balance and the composition of a treatise on the specific gravity of solid bodies. These achievements secured him the appointment of professor of Mathematics in the university of Pisa, where he propounded the novel theorem, that all falling bodies, great or small, descend with equal velocity, and proved its correct- ness by several experiments made from the summit of the leaning tower of Pisa. This provoked the enmity of the Aristotelians, whose bitterness was exacerbated by the cutting sarcasms of the successful demonstrator. Nevertheless Galileo in 1591 deemed it prudent to resign his chair at Pisa, and retire to Florence, though another cause has been assigned for his resignation-—viz. that he ridiculed the mechanical pretensions of Giovanni de’ Medici, son of Cosmo I. In the following year he was nominated to the chair of Mathematics in the university of Padua, where his lectures attracted crowds of pupils from all parts of Europe. Here he taught and worked for eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610. It may be remarked parenthetically that he was the first to adapt the Italian idiom to philosophical instrue- tion. Among the various discoveries with which he enriched science may be noticed a species of thermometer, a proportional compass or sector, and, more important than all, the refracting tele- scope for astronomical investigation. This last, however, he seems not to have invented entirely independently : an account of an instrument for enlarging distant objects, invented by a Dutchman, seems to have reached him whilst on a visit to Venice in May 1609; thereupon setting his invent- ive wits to work, he constructed an apparatus involving the principles of the telescope. Rapidly improving the construction of his original instru- ment, Galileo now began a series of astronomical - investigations, all of which tended to convince him still more of the correctness of the Copernican heliocentric theory of the heavens, of the truth of which he seems indeed to have been early per- suaded. He concluded that the moon, instead of being a self-luminous and peers smooth sphere, owed her illumination to reflection, and that she presented an unequal surface, diversified by valleys and mountains. The Milky-way he pronounced a track of countless separate stars. Still more important, however, was the series of observa- tions which led to the discovery of the four satel- lites of Jupiter on the night of the 7th of January 1610 (though it was not till the 13th of the same month that he came to the conclusion that they were satellites, and not fixed stars), which he named the Medicean stars, in honour of his pro- tectors, the Medici family. He also first noticed movable spots on the dise of the sun, from which he inferred the rotation of that orb. In this year he was recalled to Florence by the Grand-duke of Tuscany, who nominated him his philosopher and mathematician extraordinary, gave him a good salary, and exacted from him no duties save those of prosecuting his scientific investigations untram- melled. At Florence, continuing his astronomical observations, he discovered the triple form of Saturn and the phases of Venus and of Mars. In 1611 Galileo visited Rome and was received with great distinction, being enrolled a member of the Lincei Academy. Yet the poe two years later, of his Dissertation on the Solar Spots, in which he openly and boldly professed his adhesion to the Copernican view, provoked against him the censure and warning of the ecclesiastical authori- ties. But this he partly brought upon himself by his aggressive attitude Fectigs 9 the champions of orthodoxy and even towards the Scriptures, whose astronomical system he hesitated not to challenge. Galileo, however, promised (26th February 1616) to obey Pope Paul V.’s injunction, thenceforward not . to ‘hold, teach, or defend’ the condemned doc- trines. After that he seems to have been again taken into favour by the pope and other high dignitaries of the church; indeed personally he seems never to have lost their esteem. But in 1632, ignoring his pledge, he published the Dialogo sopra ¢ due massimi Sistemi del Mondo, a work written in the form of a dialogue between three fictitious interlocutors, the one in favour of the Copernican system, the second an advocate of the Ptolemaic, and the third a well-meaning but stupid supporter of the Aristotelian school. Hardly had the work been issued when it was given over to the jurisdic- tion of the Inquisition. Pope Urban VIII., previ- ously Cardinal Barberini, a friend and admirer of Galileo, was led to believe that Galileo had satirised him in this work in the person of the third inter- i : GALINGALE GALL 61 locutor, as one who was careless about scientific truth, and who timidly adhered to the rigid tradi- tions of antiquity, In spite of his seventy years and heavy infirmities Galileo was summoned before the Inquisition, and, after a wearisome trial and _ jnearceration, was condemned to abjure by oath on his knees the truths of his scientific creed. Since _ the year 1761 a legend has been current to the effect _ that on concluding his recantation he exclaimed, _ sotto voce, ‘E pur si muove’ (Nevertheless it does _ move). The question whether he was put to the torture or no has given rise to a keen controversy, in which neither side can justly claim to have offered evidence that is finally conclusive. He was -eertainly subjected to the examen rigorosum, the last stage of which is actual torture. But the official accounts of the trial make no mention of this last stage having been reached. On the other hand, it has been asserted that the records of his ~ trial have been tampered with. Galileo was further sentenced to an indefinite term of imprisonment in _ the dungeons of the Inquisition; but this was _ commuted by Pope Urban, at the request of Ferdi- nand, Duke of Tuscany, into permission to reside at _ Siena, and finally at Florence. In his retreat at Arcetri, near Florence, he continued with unflagging ardour his learned researches, even when hearing w enfeebled and sight was extinguished. Just ore he became totally blind, in 1637, he made yet another astronomical discovery, that of the moon’s monthly and annual librations. He died on the 8th of January 1642, and was interred in the church of Santa Croce, the pantheon of Florence. His disposition was genial; he enjoyed the social - wit and banter of his chosen friends; and the readiness with which he offered or accepted atone- _ ment modified a somewhat irascible disposition. The great deficiencies in his character were a want of tact to keep out of difficulties, and a want of moral courage to defend himself when involved in them. His biting satirical tongue, more than _ his physical discoveries, was the cause of his mis- ortunes. He loved art, and cultivated especially music and poetry. Ariosto he knew almost by heart, and appreciated keenly the beauties of this classic. ‘Tasso, on the other hand, he unduly depreciated, and severely- criticised him in Conside- _ razioni al Tasso. His own style is nervous, flowing, and elegant. In addition to the discoveries and inventions already recorded we owe to the genius of Galileo the formulation of the law of uniformly accelerated motion in the case of bodies falling freely towards the earth, the determination of the para- bolic path of projectiles, the theory of virtual _ Velocities, and the law that all bodies, even invisible ones like air, have weight. The best edition of _ Galileo's collected works is that by Alberi (16 vols. 4 Flor. 1842-56 ). See Viviani’s Life of Galileo (1654); Henri Martin’s _ Galilée (1868) ; H. de YEpinois in Revue des Questions _ _ Historiques (1867), and Les Pieces du Proces de Galilée 3 ha ); Gebler, Galileo und die Rimische Curie (1876); ) ~ Berti, Copernico e Sistema Co icano, and Il Processo _ Originale di Galileo (1876); Wohlwill, Ist Galilei gefoltert _ worden? (1877); Favaro, Galileo Galilei (2 vols. Flor. ); Wegg-Prosser, Galileo and his Judges (1889). ot Galingale, a name often applied to the tubers _ of Cyperus longus, and sometimes to the whole 4 plant. The tubers are of ancient medicinal repute, _ and are sometimes still eaten as a vegetable in reece. See CYPERUS. Galion, a city of Crawford county, Ohio, at _ the junction of several railways, 58 miles N. by _ E. of Columbus, with several cigar-factories and _ machine-shops, two railroad-shops, and a foundry. Pop. (1880) 5635 ; (1900) 7282. Galipea. See ANGosTURA BARK. _of the Liver (q.v.). Galitzin, also GALLITZIN, GALYZIN, or GoLy- ZIN, one of the most powerful and distinguished Russian families, whose members, too numerous to catalogue, have been equally prominent in war and diplomacy from the 16th century downwards,— VASILI, surnamed the Great, born in 1643, was the councillor and favourite of Sophia, the sister of Peter the Great, and regent during his minority. His great aim was to bring Russia into contact with the west of Europe, and to encourage the arts and sciences in Russia. His design to marry Sophia, and plant himself on the Russian throne, miscarried. phia was placed by her brother in a convent, and Vasili banished (1689) to a spot on the Frozen Ocean, where in 1714 he died.— DIMITRI (1735—1803), Russian ambassador to France and Holland and intimate friend of Voltaire and Diderot, and the Encyclopwdists, owes the preservation of his name mainly to his wife, the celebrated AMALIE, PRINCESS GALITZIN (1746-1806), daughter of the Prussian general, Count von Schmettau. She was remarkable for her literary culture, her grace and amiability of disposition, her sympathetic relations with scholars and poets, but, above all, for her ardent piety, which fouiil in Catholicism its most Ai, Some sphere. Having separated from her husband, she took up her residence in Miinster, where she gathered round her a circle of learned companions, including for a longer or shorter time Jacobi, Hemsterhuis, Hamann, and Count Stolberg.—DiImiTRI AvuGuUs- TINE, son of the foregoing, was born at the Hague, December 22, 1770. He , Asheate a Roman Catholic in his seventeenth year; and, through the influence exercised over him by a clerical tutor during a voyage to America, he resolved to devote himself to the priesthood. In 1795 he was ordained a riest in the United States by Bishop Carroll of Baltimore, and betook himself to a bleak region among the Alleghany Mountains, in Pennsy]- vania, where he was known as ‘Father Smith’ (Smith being originally a corruption of Schmettau ). Here he laid the foundation of a town, called Loretto, where he died 6th May 1841. He declined to return to Russia on his father’s death, and as a Catholic priest was adjudged to have lost his right of inheritance. He was for some years vicar-general of the diocese of Philadelphia. He was austere in his mode of life, but liberal in the highest degree to others, and an affectionate and indefatigable astor.’ He wrote various controversial works, including a Defence of Catholic Principles (1816), Letter to a Protestant Friend (1820), and Appeal to the Protestant Public (1834). See the Lives by Heyden and by Brownson. Galium. See BepsTrRAw. Gall. A synonym for Bile (q.v.), the secretion See also GALLS. Gall, FRANz Joseru, the founder of phreno- logy, was born at Tiefenbronn, near Pforzheim, on the borders of Baden and Wiirtemberg, 9th March 1758. He studied medicine at Strasburg and Vienna, and settled in the latter city in 1785 as a physician. From his boyhood he had been attracted by the problems arising out of the rela- tions between the powers of mind, the functions of the brain, and the external characters of the cranium. In 1796 he began to give courses of lectures on Phrenology (q.v.) in Vienna; but the lectures were prohibited in 1802 by the Austrian government as being subversive of the accepted religion. Along with Spurzheim (q.v.), who be- came his associate in 1804, Gall quitted Vienna in 1805, and began a lecturing tour through Germany, Holland, Sweden, and Switzerland. He reached the height of his fame when in 1807 he settled as a physician in Paris. On 14th March 1808 he and 62 GALL GALLATIN Spurzheim presented to the Institute of France a memoir of their discoveries, on which a committee of the members of that body (including Pinel, Portal, and Cuvier) drew tp an unfavourable Report. Thereupon Gall and Spurzheim published their memoir, Jntroduction au Cours de Physiologie du Cerveau; this was subsequently followed by Recherches sur le Systéme Nerveux (1809), and by Anatomie et Physiologie du Systeme Nerveux (4 vols. 1810-19), with an atlas of 100 plates. But, the two phrenologists having parted in 1813, the name of Gall alone is prefixed to vols. 3 and 4; and it alone is borne by a reprint of the physio- logical portion of the work, entitled Sur les Fone- tions du Cerveau, et sur celles de chacune de ses Parties (6 vols. 1825). In 1811, in answer to accusations of materialism and fatalism brought against his system, Gall published Des Dispositions Innées de ? Ame et de ’ Esprit. He continued to Piaeets medicine and pursue his researches at ontrouge, near Paris, till his death, 22d Augus 1828. Gall, St. See St GALL. Gallait, Louis, a Belgian historical painter, was born at Tournay in 1812, and made himself famous by pictures on subjects from the history of the Low Countries, such as ‘The Abdication of Charles V.’ (1841), ‘ Alva viewing the dead bodies of Egmont and Horn’ (1851), and ‘The Plague of Tournay ’ (1882), which last the Brussels Museum fas for £4800. He died 18th November 1887. Galland, ANTOINE, a French orientalist and archeologist, was born 4th April 1646, at Rollot, near Montdidier, in Picardy. Attached in 1670 to the French embassy at Constantinople, he three years later accompanied the ambassador De Nointel to Syria and the Levant. In 1676, and again in 1679, he made other visits to the East, where he gathered valuable collections. of antiquities, and acquired a good knowledge of oriental languages. In 1701 he was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, and in 1709 professor of Arabic in the Collége de France. He died at Paris, 19th February 1715. The greatest pare of Galland’s writings relate to archeological subjects, especially to the numis- matics of the East; but the work which has secured him the greatest reputation is his transla- tion of the Arabian Nights in 12 vols. (Les Mille et Une Nuits, Paris, 1704-8), the first translation of these stories made into any language of Christen- dom (see ARABIAN NIGHTS). Among his other writings we may mention Paroles Remarquables, Bons Mots, et Maximes des Orientaux (1694), and Les Contes et Fables Indiennes de Bidpai et de Lokman (2 vols. 1724). See also Journal d’ Antoine Galland pendant son séjour a Constantinople, 1672- 78, edited by Ch. Schefer (2 vols. 1881). Galla Ox, or SANGA, a remarkable species or variety of ox inhabiting Abyssinia. he chief peculiarity is the extraordinary size of the horns, which rise from the forehead with an outward and then an inward curve, producing a very perfect figure of a lyre, and finally curve a little outwards at the tip, to which they taper gradually. Gallas, a race of people inhabiting that part of Africa which lies to the south and west of Harar and south of Shoa, between 9° and 3°S. lat. and 34° and 44° E. long. Their racial affinities are not yet conclusively settled; the best authorities regard them as belonging to the Ethiopic branch of the Hamites, and their language as a descendant of the ancient Geez of Abyssinia. Individually they are of average stature, with strong, well-made limbs, skin of a light chocolate brown, hair frizzled but not woolly. Though cruel in war, they are of frank disposition, and faithfully keep their pro- mises and obligations. They are distinguished for their energy, both physical and mental, especiall those tribes, to the south and south-west, whic posse pastoral avocations, notably the breeding of orses, asses, sheep, cattle, and camels, and those which live by hunting, especially the elephant. These same tribes are mostly still heathens, though Mohammedanism is rapidly making way amongst them. ‘The more northerly tribes who dwell about Harar profess a crass form of Christianity, derived from Abyssinia, and for the most part practise agriculture, raising cotton, durra, sugar, and coffee. The total Galla population, who call them- selves Argatta or Oromo, is approximatively estimated by Reclus at 34 millions; the northern tribes are put by Paulitschke at 14 million, Politically they are divided into a great number of separate rt (Itu, Arussi, Nole, Jarsso, Ala, Ennia, Walamo, Borana, &e.), which are fre- quently at war with one another. But their inveter- ate century-long foes are the Somali on the north- east and east, who have gradually driven back the Gallas from the shores of the Red Sea and the extremities of the Somali peninsula, regions which were occupied by them in the 16th century, just as on the other side the Abyssinians and Shoans have beaten them back southwards. The country they now inhabit is, generally.speaking, a plateau that slopes south-eastward to the Indian Ocean, and has a hilly, well-timbered surface. On the north, from Harar to the Hawash, stretches the watershed dividing the rivers that flow to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden from those that drain south-eastwards to the Indian Ocean, and culminating in two lime- stone massifs (7250 feet), called Coneuda and Gara Mulata. The watershed separating the rivers Webi (with its tributary the Hrer) and Wabi (also called Juba), which flow south-east to the Indian Ocean, from the feeders of the Upper Nile region, skirts the western side of the Galla territory.. This region, with plenty of rains and running streams, a rolling surface diversified with hill-chains, and abundant vegetation, is well cultivated, and yields wheat, barley, beans, sorghum, sweet potatoes, flax, lentils, cotton, and coffee. Its average eleva- — tion is 7200 feet. Amongst all the western tribes inhabiting this region slavery is a recognised institution. See Paulitschke, Hthnographie und Anthropologie der Somal, Galla, und Harari (Leip. 1886), and in Globus, 1889, and Cecchi, Fra Zeila alle Frontiere del Caffa (2 vols. Rome, 1885). Gallatin, ALBERT, financier and statesman, was born at Geneva in 1761, and graduated at the university there in 1779. In 1780 he went to the United States, and was for a time teacher of French in Harvard College. In 1786 he removed to Penn- sylvania, became a member of the state legislature, and in 1793 he was elected to the United States senate, but was declared ineligible. From 1795 to 1801 he served in the house of representatives, and from 1801 to 1813 he was Secretary of the Treasury, in which post he was of signal service to his adopted country, and showed himself one of the first financiers of his day. He took an im- ortant part in the negotiations for peace with England in 1814, and signed the treaty of Ghent. From 1815 to 1823 he was minister at Paris, and in 1826 he was sent to London as ambassador- extraordinary. On his return in 1827 he settled in New York, and devoted much of his time to literature, being chiefly occupied in historical and ethnological _ researches. e was one of the founders and the first president of the Ethno- logical Society of America ; and from 1843 to is death he was president of the New York Historical Society. He died August 12, 1849. His works include publications on finance, politics, and_eth- nology ; among these last are 7he Indian Tribes GALLAUDET GALLEY 63 q pear he Rocky Mountains, &c. (1836), and Notes on Semi-civilised Nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America (1845). See the Lives by Henry Adams (1879) and *American . A. Stevens (in the Statesman’ series, 1883), Gallaudet, See Dear anp Duns. Gall-bladder, See Liver. Galle, or Point DE GALLE, a fortified town and pert of the south-west extremity of the island of Ceylon, stands on a low rocky promontory of the same name, and has a good harbour, formed byasmall bay. It has lost its former importance asa coaling and transhipping station for the great lines of steamers from Europe to Australia and _ China since the completion of the breakwater at ~ Colombo (q.¥. ). It is the capital of the southern _ province of Ceylon. Pop. (1881) 31,743; (1891) 33,505. See CEYLON. Galile’go, a river of Spain, one of the principal _ affiuents of the EBRo (q.v.). Galleon (Spanish), a large ship formerly used by the Spaniards to carry home the gold, silver, and other wealth contributed by the Mexican and _ South American colonies. “They were armed, and ‘had usually three or four decks, with bulwarks _ three or four feet thick, and stem and stern built ep high like castles. They had a particular fascin- : on for Drake and other Elizabethan rovers, who so contrived that many of them never reached the ports of Spain. Gallery, a word with several applications in architecture. A long passage or corridor is called a gallery. A long room, such as is frequently used for exhibiting pictures; a raised floor in any eee ements supported on gpa a long passage in _ the thickness of the wall, or supported on canti- _ levers (as the Whispering Gallery of St Paul’s)— all these are called galleries. They were of fre- quent use in buildings of the middle ages. The roodloft (see Roop) is a gallery running across a _ church at the entrance to the choir, and supporting _ a large cross. Organ galleries are also Benoni: either in the position of the roodloft, or at one end _ of the nave or transept, or corbelled out from the _ side-wall. In old baronial halls the end next the door was usually screened off as an entrance _ passage, and above the screen was almost invari- ably a gallery for musicians. In Scottish castles _ such a gallery was frequently constructed in the _ thickness of the wall. In the older German: and _ French churches the side-aisles were divided into two stories—the upper forming a gallery said to be _ for the exclusive use of the women. The arrange- _ ment of galleries in tiers one over the other, now so much used in churches, theatres, &c., is entirely modern, dating from the 17th century. For gal- leries in the military and mining connection, see © Galley, a long, narrow row-boat, carrying a sail or two, but dependent for safety and movement mainly upon oars. These boats were called galleys, — and brigantines (or frigates ) oan to elr size: a galleot is a small galley, while a brigantine is still smaller. The number of men to each oar varied according to the vessel’s size: a _ galley had four to six men working side by side to each oar, a galleot but two or three, and a brigan- tine one. galley was 180 or 190 spans (of 9 to 10 inches) long, and its greatest beam was 25 spans broad. Such a vessel carried two masts—the mm maestro or mainmast, and the trinchetto or foremast, each with a great lateen sail. The _ Genoese and Venetians set the models of these _ vessels, and the Italian terms were generally used ; ang European nae tesa till the northern nations TD = ee ee TK —- by Te & + Be vp oe the lead in sailing ships.. These sails were often clewed up, however, for the mariner of the 16th century was ill-practised in the art of tacking, and very fearful of losing sight of land for long, so that unless he had a wind fair astern he preferred to trust to his oars. A short deck at the prow and poop served, the one to carry the fighting men and trumpeters and yardsmen, and to provide cover for the four guns; the other to accommodate the knights and gentlemen, and especially the admiral or captain. Between the two decks, in the ship’s waist, was the propelling power—say fifty-four benches or banks, twenty-seven a side, supporting each four or five slaves, whose whole business in life was to tug at the fifty-four oars. Ifa Christian vessel, the rowers were either Turkish or Moorish captives, or Christian convicts ; if a Barbary cor- sair, the rowers would all be Christian prisoners. Sometimes a galley-slave worked as long astwenty ears, sometimes for all his miserable life, at this earful calling. The poor creatures were chained so close together on their narrow bench that they could not sleep at full length. Sometimes seven men (on French galleys, too, in the 18th century) had to live and sleep in a space 10 feet by 4. Between the two lines of rowers ran the bridge, and on it stood two boatswains armed with long whips, which they laid on to the bare backs of the rowers with merciless severity. Biscuit was made to last six or eight months, each slave getting 28 ounces thrice a week, and a spoonful of some mess of rice or bones or green stuff. The water-cans under the benches were too often foul. The full complement of a large galley included, besides 270 rowers and the captain, chaplain, doctor, scrivener, boatswains, and master or pilot, ten or fifteen gentlemen adven- turers, friends of the captain, sharing his mess, and berthed in the poop, twelve helmsmen, six foretop able-bodied seamen, ten warders for the captives, twelve ordinary seamen, four gunners, a carpen- ter, smith, cooper, and a couple of cooks, together with fifty or sixty soldiers, so that the whole equi- page of a fighting galley must have reached a total of about four hundred men. What is true of a European galley is also gener- ally applicable to a Barbary galleot of eighteen to twenty-four oars, except that the latter was gener- ally smaller and lighter, and had commonly but one mast and no castle onthe prow. The crew of about two hundred men was very densely packed, and about one hundred soldiers armed with muskets, bows, and scimitars occupied the poop. The rowers on Barbary galleys were generally Christian slaves belonging to the owners, but when these were not numerous enough other slaves, or Arabs and Moors, were hired. The complement of soldiers, whether volunteers or Ottoman janissaries, varied with the vessel's size, but generally was calculated at two to each oar, because there was just room for two men to sit beside each bank of rowers. They were not paid unless they took a prize, nor were they supplied with anything more than biscuit, vinegar, and oil—everything else they found themselves. Vinegar and water with a few drops of oil on the surface formed the chief drink of the galley-slaves, and their food was moistened biscuit or rusk and an occasional mess of gruel. A galleass was originally a large, heavy galley, three-masted, and fitted with a rudder, since its bulk compelled it to trust to sails as well as oars. It was a sort of transition-ship between the galley and the galleon, and as time went on it became more and more of a sailing ship. It had high bulwarks with loopholes for muskets, and there was at least a partial cover for the crew. The Portuguese galleys in the Spanish Armada mounted each 110 soldiers and 222 galley-slaves; but the Neapolitan galleasses carried 700 men, of who. 130 were sailors, 270 soldiers, and 300 slaves of the 64 GALL-FLY GALLICAN CHURCH oar. In France the convict galleys were super- seded in 1748 by the Bagnes (q.v.). John Knox had for eighteen months to labour at the oar, and St Vincent de Paul (q.v.) did much for the galley- slaves. See also TRIREME, SHIPBUILDING. Furttenbach, Architectura Navalis; 8. Lane-Poole, The Barbary Corsairs (‘Story of the Nations’); and M. Oppenheim, in Gentleman’s Magazine (1885). Gall-fly, or GALL-WAspP, names generally applied to any member of a large family (Cynipidee) of Hymenopterous insects, most of the females of which lay their eggs in plants and by the associated irrita- tion produce galls. The insects are not unlike little wasps, with straight, thread-like antenne, laterally compressed abdomen, and long wings. The eggs are laid in the leaves, twigs, roots, &e. of plants, which the mothers pierce with their ovipositors. The irritation of the wound and of the intruded and rapidly developing eggs results in pathological excrescences or galls. Within these the larvee . feed and grow, and YR\ either eat their way out } while still grubs or re- main till the pupa stage - is past and emerge as adolescent insects. only been brought down to 1642, when the whole ~ of the preceding were grouped together and re- ublished (1883-84) in ten volumes, as a continuous uistory of England from 1603 to 1642. The History of the Civil War (3 vols. 1886-91) was continuec by The History of the Commonwealth and Pro- tectorate (vols. i. and ii. 1894-97). Shorter books deal with the character of Cromwell (1897) and with the Gunpowder Plot (1897, in reply to Father Gerard’s attempt to prove that there was no real plot). Zhe Student’s History of England (3 vols.) appeared 1890-92. Other works are The Thirty Years’ War (1874) and The Puritan Revolution (‘Epochs’ series, 1875), and an Introduction to the Study of English History (1881; new ed. 1894), written with Mr J. Bass Mullinger. For the Camden Society he edited the Fortesque Papers, the Hamilton Papers, the Parliamentary Debates in 1610, and Debates in the House of Commons in 16286. Gardiner, STEPHEN, Bishop of Winchester, was born between 1483 and 1490 at Bury St Edmunds —a clothworker’s son, say some; others, a natural son of Bishop Woodville of Salisbury. He studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1520-21 proceeding doctor of civil and of canon law; and soon after, through the patronage of the Duke of Norfolk, he was introduced to Woleey who made him his secretary. In this capacity he won the confidence of Henry VIII., and by him was employed during 1527-33 in promoting at Rome and elsewhere his divorce from Catharine of Aragon. At this time he was known as Dr Stephens. He had become master of his old college in 1525, Archdeacon of Norfolk in 1529, and two years later of Leicester, when in November 1531 he was consecrated Bishop of Winchester. Good Catholic though he was, he supported the royal supremacy, and wrote a treatise in defence of it, De verd Obedientid (1535). Still, he opposed all measures tending to a doctrinal reformation, he had a principal hand in the down- fall of Thomas Cromwell, and the ‘Six Articles’ were largely of his framing, though the story that he lost Henry’s favour by an attempt to impeach Catharine Parr of heresy is not based upon con- temporary authority. On Edward VI.’s acces- sion (1547), for refusing to comply with the new teaching he was committed to the Fleet prison, but released three weeks afterwards, to be next year again seized and lodged in the Tower, and in 1552 deprived of his bishopric. When in 1553 Mary ascended the throne, he was set at liberty, restored. to his see, and appointed Lord High Chancellor of England. He now took the lead in the persecution of the Protestants, and has been charged with the grossest cruelty. Dr Maitland shows, however, that in very many instances the parties brought before his court were arraigned for treason rather than heresy ; and certain it is that GARDNER GARGOYLE 85 & ped Peter Martyr to leave England, and interposed to protect r Ascham. He died _ very wealthy at Whitehall, of the gout, on 12th _ November 1555, and was buried in his cathedral. - On his deathbed he cried out in Latin, ‘I have denied with Peter, I have gone out with Peter ; but Thave not wept with Peter ’—referring doubtless to his temporary renunciation of the papal supremacy. _ We have a dozen Latin and English treatises from his pen; but the Necessary Doctrine and Eru- dition of a Christian Man (1543) was probably _ Henry’s own, not a joint production of Gardiner ee Cransier. Gardiner’s character has been the subject of much debate; but it can scarcely be doubted that he was a zealous, though not a spiritually-minded, churchman. His devotion was t of an out-and-out partisan; but it was none the less real, for he would have laid down his life for the cause which commanded his sympathies. * See Bass Mullinger in the Dict. Nat. Biog. ; and Dixon’s Hist. of the Ch. of England (vol. iv. 1891). Gardner, a post-village of Massachusetts, 70 miles WNW. of Boston by rail, with manufactures of wooden wares—chairs, pec, tubs, and toys. Pop. (1880) 4988 ; (1900) 10,813. Garfield, JAmes ABRAM, twentieth president of the United States, was born in Orange, Ohio, 19th November 1831. His father, who was _ descended from one of the Puritan founders of _ Watertown, Massachusetts (1630), died soon after the boy’s birth, sp a wife, the daughter of a Huguenot family that had settled in New England in 1685, to bring up unaided her four small chil- dren, battling bravely with poverty and privation in her lonely cabin in the ‘ Wilderness’ (now the ‘Western Reserve’) of Ohio. At the age of ten young Garfield already added something to his mother’s income by work on the neighbouring re farms ; in winter he made steady progress in the _ district school. In 1849 he entered Geauga months , at Chester, Ohio; and in the summer months he turned to any and all kinds of work, to provide funds for the ensuing winter. At this __ period Garfield joined the Campbellite body. He next passed on to the college at Hiram, Ohio, ayers himself meanwhile by tuition, and 2 y graduated at Williams Coll e, Massa- _ chusetts, in 1856. Returning to Hiram, he _ became its president in 1857, at the same time reaching and studying law. He was elected to e state senate in 1859, and on the outbreak of the war received the command of the 42d _ regiment of Ohio volunteers. In December 1861 _ he was given a brigade, with orders to drive the _ Confederates out of eastern Kentucky, and with ” reinforcements gained the battle of Middle Creek, 10th January 1862, from which his commission as brigadier-general was dated. He had been _ promoted major-general for gallantry at Chicka- _ mMmauga, September 19, 1863, when he resigned his _ command to enter congress, at the age of thirty- _ two. He sat in congress, rendering valuable assistance in military and financial questions, | until 1880, and ac latterly as leader of the _ Republican party in the house. In January 1880 he was elected a United States senator, and in _‘ June of the same year he was adopted as presi- dential candidate by the Republican convention at _ Chieago. Garfield’s nomination came as a surprise _ to his party, and was simply the result of a com- promise between the supporters of Grant and Blaine, after thirty-three ineffectual ballots had proved that neither could secure the prize. He proved, never- theless, a strong candidate, regardless of prece- dent delivered speeches in his own behalf, and ully defeated General Hancock by a narrow majority on the popular vote, but by 215 to 155 —— electoral votes. He was inaugurated on 4th March 1881, and identified himself with the cause of civil service reform, whereby he irritated a powerful section of his own party (see CONKLING). On the morning of 2d July, as he was setting off to witness the closing exercises of his old college, he was shot down from behind by a disappointed office-seeker, Charles Guiteau. For weeks be lingered between life and death ; early in September he was removed to Long Branch, New Jersey, and there he died, at Elberon, 19th September 1881. He was buried at Cleveland (q.v.). The vice-president, General Arthur (q.v.), sueceeded him. Garfield held power long enough to show himself worthy of it. His tragic death has given him prominence in the roll of American presidents, but it was his brave and patient endurance of suffering that endeared him most to his countrymen a | claimed the sym- pathy and admiration of the rest of the world. His speeches were collected in 2 vols. (Boston, 1882). See the Life by J. R. Gilmore (1880). Garefowl, See AUK. Gare Loch, See DUMBARTONSHIRE. Gar-fish. See GAR-PIKE. Gar’ganey. See TEAL. Gargano (ancient Gargdnus), a mountainous ninsula, the ‘spur’ of Italy, in the province of oggia, jutting out some 30 miles into the Adriatic Sea, and attaining in Monte Calvo a height of 5110 feet. Bee-keeping is yet as generally engaged in as in the time of Horace. The district is visited mainly by pilgrims to a shrine of St Michael on Monte St Angelo. Gargantua. See RABELAIS. Gargarus, See IDA. Gerate, or GARGARISM, a class of medicines intended to be churned about in the throat, with a view of cleansing the parts, and of acting as anti- septics, Astringents (q.v.), sedatives, or Stimulants (q.v.), in various conditions of the throat. In using them a full breath is taken, the mouth filled with the liquid, and the head thrown back ; as the breath is gradually allowed to escape, the liquid is freely brought into contact with the upper part of the throat. They are not generally suitable in cases of acute inflammation of the throat, but often valuable in chronic affections. Among the most useful gargles are—Antiseptic : Condy’s fluid, 10 to 20 drops ; carbolie acid, 4 to 8 grains. Astringent : tannic acid, 10 grains; alum, 20 grains. Sedative : bromide of potash, 20 grains. Stimulant: vinegar, 30 drops; dilute hydrochloric acid, 20 drops, dis- solved or diluted with a wineglassful of water. peargess a projecting spout, leading the water from he roof-gutters of buildings. —_ Gar- yles of various forms have been used in almost all styles of architecture, but were peculiarly as vy develo in connec- tion with Gothic archi- tecture. Some _ gar- goyles are small and plain, others large and ornamental, accordin to their various posi- tions. They are carved into all conceivable forms—angelic, human, and of the lower animals; and, as in fountains, the water is generally spouted through the mouth, In late castel- lated buildings, they frequently assume the form of small cannons projecting from the parapet. Gargoyles are generally carved in stone, but are St Stephen’s, Vienna. 86 GARHMUKHTESAR GARIBALDI sometimes executed in wood, and are made of great length so as to throw the water into the gutter formed in the middle of the streets of some §t Alkmund’s Church, Derby ; Horsley Church, Derbyshire ; circa 1450. i circa 1450, old towns. In modern times the use of leaden pipes to convey away the water from roofs has almost entirely superseded the use of gargoyles. Garhmukhtesar, an ancient town in the North-west Provinces of India, on the Ganges, 26 miles SE. of Meerut, with four shrines dedi- cated to Gangf, and a great fair, which attracts 200,000 pilgrims. Pop. 7305. Garhwal, a native state in the North-west Provinces of India, on the borders of Tibet : area, about 4180 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 241,242. Also the name of a British district in the North-west Pro- vinces, next to independent Garhwal: area, 5500 sq. m.; pop. 407,818. Being on the southern slope of the Himalayas, Garhwal is for the most part a mass of rugged mountain-ranges, whose elevation above the sea reaches in Nanda Devi 25,661 feet. The native state is the cradle of both the Jumna and the Ganges, and in the district are the Alak- nanda and its point of junction with the Bhagi- rathi (see GANGES); consequently, in spite of the length and ruggedness of the way, crowds of pil- ims are attracted to the peculiarly sacred Focalities of Deoprayag and Gangotri. Garibaldi, GrusEpre, the Italian patriot, was born at Nice on the 4th July 1807. His father was a simple, God-fearing fisherman, seldom in pros- erous circumstances, but he contrived neverthe- ess to give the boy a tolerable education, possibly with the object of making him a priest. Giuseppe, however, was determined upon becoming a sailor, and rising rapidly in the merchant-service, he was appointed in 1828 second in command of the brig nies: His early voyages, which included a visit to Rome, filled him with democratic ardour, whence it is only natural that in 1834 he should have been involved in the ‘ Young Italy ’’ movement of Mazzini, whom he met at Marseilles, and should have been condemned to death for taking part in an attempt to seize Genoa. He had volunteered for the royal navy with the object of gaining recruits for the cause. Garibaldi escaped to Marseilles and afterwards to South America, where he offered his services to the province of Rio Grande, which was in rebellion against the Emperor of Brazil. He distinguished himself as a guerilla warrior and privateer, was taken prisoner and suspended for two hours by the wrists for attempting to escape, and eloped with and soon married the beautiful creole Anita Riveira de Silva, the companion of his earlier campaigns and the mother of his children Menotti, Ricciotti, and Teresa. After some mingled experi- ences as drover, shipbroker, and teacher of mathe- matics, he offered in 1842 his assistance to the Montevideans, who were at war with Rosas, the tyrant of Buenos Ayres. In this struggle Garibaldi won fresh renown, by water as naval commander in a two days’ engagement, and on land as organiser and commander of the Italian legion, especially on 8th February and 20th May 1846, when he beat off considerably superior forces of the enemy at Salto San Antonio and the Dayman River. e gives a full account of his various exploits in his a’1tobiography. he ‘red shirt’ of Garibaldi had thus already be- come famous, when in 1847 the reforming , Pius IX., ascended the throne of St Peter. Ravibaldi, the Montevidean struggle being practically at an end, promptly offered to enlist under his banner, but received an ambiguous reply ; and Charles Albert of Sardinia, whom on his arrival in Italy in June 1848 he found besieging the Austrians in Mantua, coldly referred him to his ministers. Garibaldi, however, after the collapse of the Sardinian army, at the head of a body of volunteers performed some notable feats against the Austrians on the Swiss frontier, and then wandered about Italy until he reached Ravenna. In 1849 he threw in his lot with the revolutionary government of Rome against Pius [X., whe had retracted his liberal concessions and fled the city. Garibaldi, indeed, voted for the Selharniplsay: of the republic in February, drove the rench expeditionary force under Oudinot from the Porta San Pancrazio in-April, and routed the Neapolitans at Palestrina and Velletri in May, sending them pell-mell over the frontier. Mean- time, however, Mazzini had been inveigled by Oudinot into an armistice ; and, being abundantly reinforced, the French proceeded to lay siege to Rome. Garibaldi was recalled, much to his disgust. He had refused the dictatorship on June 2, and on July 3, after a brilliant defence, he was forced to abandon his post. He retreated, pursued by the Austrians, to the Adriatic, where poor Anita, worn out by suffering and anxiety, died, and was buried in the sand. Garibaldi was at length arrested by the orders of the Sardinian government at Chiavari, and requested to leave Italy, much to the indigna- tion of the people. He betook himself to Staten Island, New York, where he worked for eighteen months as a candlemaker, then became captain of various merchantmen, paying a visit to New- castle, where he declined a popular demonstration. He returned to Italy in 1854, and had settled down as a farmer on the island of Caprera, when in 1859 the outbreak of the war of Italian liberation called him to arms once more. He was summoned to Turin by Cavour in February, and at once placed his sword at the disposal of Victor Em- manuel. Though frequently thwarted by the Sardinian generals, Garibaldi and his ‘ chasseurs of the ae rendered valuable service to the allies, fl pea ly at Varese in the Valtelline (May 25). After the peace of Villafranca, Garibaldi, with the ermission of Victor Emmanuel, went into central taly as second in command, and helped to con- summate the annexation of the territories to Sardinia, but was not allowed as he desired to march on Rome. his native Nice was handed over to France, and declaimed against Cavour in the chamber at Turin. Meanwhile the Mazzinists had been busily con- spiring against the effete Bourbon tyranny in the wo Sick ies, and Garibaldi, in spite of Cavour’s efforts to prevent him, prepared to come to the rescue. The enterprise appeared dangerous in the extreme; but, as the English cabinet insisted on the neutrality of France, the Bourbons could look for He was cut to the quick when no foreign assistance, and ‘the thousand heroes’ — | on landing at Marsala on May 11 met but a feeble enemy. With the exception of the garrison of Milazzo, which capitulated after a battle on July 24, the disaffected troops of Francis II. fought half-heartedly enough, and within three months Sicily was free. Promptly crossing the straits (August 29) Garibaldi began his military Ee ae GARIBALDI GARLIC 87 —_ -_. e through Naples, and entered the capital _ (September 7) amid the cheers of King Francis’ pee. After a last stand on the Volturno on October 1, the Bourbons took refuge in the citadel of Gaeta. Then Victor Emmanuel, having been elected soveréign of the Two Sicilies by a plebiscite, arrived at Naples, and Garibaldi, refusing all reward, resigned his dictatorship and retired to Q ra. His age fang 7 weg Sanne me ‘ ublican , and he was besides disgus a refusal PT the Italian ministry to enrol his veterans in the regular army, and at not pene allowed to march on Rome and destroy the ha Feral government. In this he saw the hand of vour, but later ublications show that he was - mistaken as far as the volunteers were concerned. During the ensuing years Rome was the centre of his thoughts, though shared with schemes for stirring up rebellion in Hungary, and so causing the Austrians to withdraw from Venice, and in 1862 he embarked on a rash expedition against the eapital. If the king and the weak Rattazzi cabinet _ did not actually egg him on, as Garibaldi said they ‘did, they at all events sat still and allowed him to compromise himself, and then sent troops against him, by whom Garibaldi was taken prisoner at Aspromonte after he had given orders to his troo not to fire (August 28). Badly wounded in the foot, Garibaldi was detained for two months as prisoner at Spezzia, and was then allowed to return to Caprera. He next paid a visit to Eng- land to induce the government to espouse the eause of Denmark, and was received with the : _ wildest enthusiasm ; but failing to effect the object of his journey, he returned abruptly home at _ the request of the cabinet. In the war of 1866 _ he oncé more commanded the ‘Red Shirts’ in % Tyrol, but, though both ‘his sons Menotti and _ Ricciotti proved worthy of their father, the cam- _ paign as a whole was not marked by very brilliant _ affairs. Garibaldi accused the government of neg- t lecting to forward men and arms, and their conduct seems to have been marked by unworthy suspicions. Venice was now ceded to Italy, but Rome still _ remained unredeemed, and, untaught by his previ- _ ous adventures, Garibaldi in the following year _ made his last attempt on the Holy City. Arrested on September 22 by the Italian government—whose _ hands were tied by the convention with France of 1864—he esca from Caprera in a boat, and L prien himself at the head of the volunteers, _ defeated the papal troops on October 25 at _ Monterotondo. n November 3, however, the _ Zouaves, reinforced by a body of French armed with the deadly chassepot, utterly routed him at Mentana. Once more he was allowed to retire to Caprera, whence in 1870 he sent for publication two novels, entitled Cantoni il voluntario and _ Clelia, ovvero il Governo del Monaco. The latter has been translated into English under the title of the ‘Rule of the Monk,’ but it must be confessed that _ Garibaldi did not shine as an author, and that the _ average schoolboy could write as well. In 1872, however, he published a third romance, Ji Mille, on the events of the Sicilian expedition. In 1870, though at first a syimpathiser with Germany, _ owing to his hatred of Napoleon ITI, he resolved to ‘ come to the assistance of the French Republic. Gambetta did not receive him with much en- | thusiasm, but eventually placed him in command _ of the volunteers of the Voaeea, Badly crippled by rheumatism, however, and hopelessly out- humbered, he confined his movements to the neighbourhood of Dijon and Autun. Even so his troops distinguished themselves, especially on 20th January 1871, when Ricciotti beat off a body of Prussian Pomeranians near Dijon. The Prussian general, Manteuffel, has left a favourable estimate of his tactics during the campaign. Garibaldi was elected to the Assembly at Bordeaux by Dijon, Nice, and Paris, but, as a foreigner, was not allowed to address the deputies. During the remainder of his life he remained a helpless invalid at Caprera, except on oecasions like that in 1874, when he took his seat in the Chamber of Deputies at Rome; and through the generosity of his English friends he became entire proprietor of the island. In 1880 the marriage into which he had been entrapped by an adventuress as far back as 1859 was annulled, and he was promptly united to Francesca, his peasant-companion, who had origin- ally come to the island as nurse to the children of his sf Teresa, the wife of Stefano Canzio, one of his officers. During the last years of his life manifestoes poured from his pen, in which pro- fessions of devotion to the Sardinian dynasty alternated with the wildest republicanism ; and his simplicity, like that of Victor Hugo, was easily persuaded to endorse any document containing the commonplaces of cosmopolitanism. But he was ever constant to the ideal of his youth, the unity of the Italian-speaking race. Thence came his participation in the ‘ Irridentist’ agitation; thence too his undying hatred of the papacy. More practical was his advocacy of the creation of a mercantile navy and the reorganisation of the army, and his interest in the drainage of the i ag aa and the diversion of the Tiber; but the last project had no adequate result. His religious views latterly embraced a somewhat elementary pantheism: ‘God did not make man,’ he wrote, Anat man made God,’ and death he looked upon as a transmutation of matter. On 2d June 1882 he died, and was sincerely mourned, not a4 by his fellow-countrymen, but by the lovers of liberty throughout Europe. For though as a soldier he was perhaps nothing more than a good commander of irregulars, and though his ignorance of political considerations sometimes did actual harm to the cause he advocated, yet it would be impossible to overrate the importance to Italian unity of his whole-souled devotion to his country, a devotion which he communicated to all with whom he came in contact. He will always remain the central figure in the story of Italian independence. Garibaldi’s autobiography was published in 1887, and an English translation with a supplementary biography by Mme. Mario in 1889. The best general sketches of Garibaldi are to be found in J. T. Bent’s Life of Garibaldi, and in Mme. Mario’s Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi (Mi 1884). Elpis Melena’s Garibaldi (2 vols. Hanover, 1884) is also incidentally instructive. Garibaldi’s speeches were apg in 1882, and his letters, edited by E. E. Ximenes, in ; Gariep. See ORANGE RIVER. : Garigtane (ancient Liris ; in its upper course now called Liri), a river of southern Italy, rises in the Abruzzi, west of the former Lake of Fucino, and flows, after a generally southerly course of 90 miles, into the Gulf of Gaeta. It is navigable below Pontecorvo, and abounds with fish. On its banks in 1503 was fought a famous battle between the French and the Spaniards, commanded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, in which the former were totally routed, though Bayard is said single-handed to have held the bridge against 200 Spaniards. Garlic (Allium sativum, see ALLIUM), an herb cultivated from the earliest ages on account of its wholesome and characteristically flavoured bulbs. These break readily up into a dozen or more ‘ cloves’ or subordinate bulbs, which are the developed axillary buds of the exhausted scale-leaves of the parent bulb; and this circumstance is of much service, alike in cultivation and in regulating 88 GARLIC GARNETS the quantity used in cooking. This varies greatly with national taste, from a maximum in Spain to a minimum in Britain. The plant seems to have been intro- duced along the Mediter- ranean from the East in very early times, its original home being per- haps the Kirghiz steppes : it is recorded as part of the rations of the Egyp- tian pyramid-builders, and there perhaps the Jews acquired their fond- ness for it. It was, how- ever, forbidden to the riests of Isis. The oman soldiers were given garlic as an excit- ant (whence the peace- loving maxim, adlaum ne comedas); and the same regimen was applied in the still recent days of cock-fighting. It had also many medicinal ap- plications.—Many of the species of Allium are popularly called garlic, with some distinctive addition. A. oleraceum is sometimes called Wild Garlic in England, and its young and tender leaves are used as a pot-herb. Garlic, Om or. When the leaves, seeds, or bulbs of garlic and other allied plants are distilled with steam, about 0°2 per cent. of a brown oil, with acrid taste and strong disagreeable odour, passes over. By purification it is obtained as a pale yellow oil having the odour of garlic, and it is then found to consist of the aulphine of allyl; (C,;H,).8. This oil is nearly related to the pungent oil of mustard, C;H;NCS, an isomer of the sulphocyanide of allyl, and is of much interest chemically, but it is of no importance from an industrial or popular point of view. Garnet, HENRY, is chiefly remembered for his connection with the Gunpowder Plot. He was born in 1555, and educated as a Protestant at Winchester College. A few years after leaving school he became a Roman Catholic, went abroad, and entered the Society of Jesus. He acquired among the Jesuits a considerable reputation for learning and piety. In 1586 he was sent upon the English mission, where for eighteen years he acted as provincial of the Jesuits. The indiscreet zeal with which he promoted certain Jesuit schemes for the advancement of their order brought him into odium with an influential section of the secular clergy; while his friendship and correspondence with the extreme partisans of the Spanish faction brought him under suspicion of treason. In the spring of 1605 he wrote to a Jesuit in Flanders in commenda- tion of Guy Fawkes, when that conspirator went over to the Netherlands in order to solicit the co-operation of Sir William Stanley and others in the plot of that year. Garnet admitted that before Common Garlic (Allium sativum). this he had come to know, in a general way, of | the projected treason, and that in July he heard the particulars, under the seal of confession (so he said), from another Jesuit, Greenway. At the time ot the discovery of the plot he was present at the place of meeting appointed by the conspirators, and shortly afterwards was appre- hended on suspicion at Hindlip. The chief grounds for inferring his complicity in the plot were derived from a secret conversation held by him in prison with a brother Jesuit, Oldcorn, overheard by spies set for the purpose by the government. That Garnet knew the particulars of the mur- derous design months before its attempted execu- tion was proved and admitted. That this know- ledge was derived exclusively from the confessional rests upon his statement only. It would probably have gone less hard with the prisoner had not his judges been prejudiced against him, not indeed so much on account of his creed as for his extraor- dinary practice of equivocation when on his trial. He was condemned for misprision of treason, and executed May 3, 1606. In proof of his innocence the story of a miraculous straw, touched by his blood, and bearing a miniature portrait of the Jesuit, was circulated among Roman Catholies; and it is said that the mere sight of the straw made five hundred converts to his creed. Garnet was considered by his co-religionists generally as a martyr for the seal of confession, and as such was roposed, with the rest of the victims of the penal sy for the honour of beatification; but it is remarkable that, while more than three hundred candidates obtained the title of Blessed or Vener- able, the objections of the ‘devil’s advocate’ in the case of Father Garnet were so cogent that the pope was induced to defer the introduction of his cause. See GUNPOWDER PLOT, and works cited there. Garnets, a group of minerals that crystallise in the cubical system. Their commonest form is the rhombic dodecahedron, or a combination of this with the icositetrahedron. Their composition may be represented by the general formula, M,R,Si,0}., where M=Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn; R,=Al,, Fe,, ér, hus we have lime-alumina, iron-alumina, magnesia- alumina, manganese-alumina, lime-iron, and lime- chrome garnets. Garnets have a hardness ranging Garnet : a, a detached crystal; b, portion of rock with embedded crystals. from about 7 to 8. Their lustre is vitreous and resinous, and they are rarely transparent and very seldom colourless. The most common colour is some shade of red, but brown, yellow, green, and even black varieties are known. Some of the better known kinds are as follows : Lime-alumina Garnets.—Grossular (grossula, ‘a gooseberry’), so called from its green colour—the tint is usually rather pale—found in Siberia and in Norway ; Essonite or Cinnamon-stone (q.v.); Sue- cinite, amber-coloured, from Ala, Piedmont; Roman- zovite, brown or brownish-black, from Kimito, in Finland, Iron-alumina Garnets.—Almandine, the precious or oriental garnet of jewellers; red, transparent; ‘occurs as a rock-constituent in many crystalline schists and granites, and occasionally also in trachyte, and is met with in the sands and alluvial soils which have resulted from the disintegration of such rocks, as in Ceylon, Pegu, Hindustan, Brazil, Greenland, Seotland, &c. Iron-alumina garnets are often crowded with enclosures, have a somewhat dull Justre, and are full of flaws; such are usually known as common garnet. Common garnet often occurs massive, and not infrequently GARNETT GARONNE 89 forms a very considerable part of certain kinds of rock, as garnet-rock, eklogite, and granulite. M ia-alumina Garnets,—T hese are somewhat uncommon—the best known being the black garnets from Arendal in Norway. Another is Pyrope, which is transparent and of a blood-red colour. Carbuncle (q.¥.) is the name given by lapidaries to a pyrope eut en cabochon or ‘tallow-drop.’ It occurs in serpentine and in the loose soils derived from the ing-up of that rock, as in Bohemia, where it is used as a gem. It does not occur in erystals, but in rounded or angular grains. Manganese-alumina Garnets ave met with, chiefly in sm ins and crystals in schists and granites, near Aschaffenburg, in Spessart (Franconia); in the Ardennes, Piatacinb: Connecticut, &c. The Franconian locality has given its name to this et—Spessartine, which is of a deep hyacinth or rownish-red. Many of the garnets which occur in the granites of Scotland are rich in magnesia, but from the abundance of ferric oxide which they contain they are included under the iron-alumina up. Seiaas iron Garnets.—Of these the most important is Melanite, velvet-black and 8 it occurs as a rock-constituent in various voleanic rocks (phono- lite, leucite-lava, and tuff), as at Frascati (Albano Mountains, near Rome), Laacher See, near the Rhine, Oberbergen (Kaiserstuhl), &c. Other varieties are Topazolite, yellow, green, and greenish- xt Aplome, green, brownish, and sometimes ellow. : Lime-chrome Garnets.—Uwarowite, an emerald- green garnet, translucent at the edges, found in the Urals. The garnets of commerce are brought from Bohemia, Ceylon, Pegu, and Brazil; the most esteemed kinds (comin originally from Syriam, in Pegu) are eeny ealled Syrian garnets. They are violet-purple; and now and in very fine specimens almost vie in colour with the oriental amethyst. The stones vary in size from the smallest ; that can be worked to the size of a hazel-nut. Larger ones are common enough, but these are rarely free from flaws or impurities. Garnett, Ricwarp, philologist, was born at Otley, in Yorkshire, in 1789. He had already tried commerce and the church, when in 1838 he found his work in the appointment of assistant-keeper of rinted books at the British Museum. He died in 850. One of the founders of the Philological Society, he contributed many striking papers (on Celtic subjects, largely) to its Proceedings and to the Quarterly Review. These were collected by his son in Philological Essays (1859).—RICHARD, is son, was born at Lichfield, February 27, 1835, and appointed in 1851 assistant in the printed book where also he became superintendent of the reading-room in 1875. This office he resigned in 1884 to devote himself to the printin of the Museum cetalegon) in 1896 he became Keeper of the Printed Books, LL.D. of Edinburgh since 1883, he has published several volumes of verse ; Relics 0 Shelley (1862), Selections o Shelley's Poems (1880) and Letters (1882); De Quincey’s English Opium Later (1885); a sensible little book on Carlyle (1883) ; a volume of humorous and satirical prose tales, The Twilight of the Gods (1888); and a k on the literature of The Age of Dryden (1895). The article on Milton in the present work is from his pen. He retired in 1899, and is C.B. Garnier, Francis, sailor and traveller, was born at St Etienne, 25th July 1839, and entering the navy fought in the Chinese war (1860-62). Appointed to a post in French Cochin-China, he promoted a great exploring expedition, of which epartment of the British Museum, - he ultimately assumed the command. Starting from the coast of Cambodia (q.v.), the expedi- tion travelled to Shanghai by way of Yunnan. He took part in the defence of Paris in 1870-71, and subsequently travelled again in China. In the Tonkin war he took Hanoi, but was killed, 2d December 1873. His chief work is Voyage d’ Ex- ploration en Indo-Chine (2 vols. 1873). ‘See Petit’s Francis Garnier (Paris, 1885). Garnier, Roverr (1534-90), a French trage- dian, the most distinguished of the predecessors of Corneille (see DRAMA). Editions of his plays have appeared at Paris (1607), Rouen (1618), and Heil- bronn (1883). Garnier-Pages, Er1eNNE JosepH Louis, was born at Marseilles, 27th December 1801, and practised there as an advocate, but at Paris in 1830 took a conspicuous part in the July revolution, and in 1831 became a prominent member of the Chamber. He died oka June 1841.—His half- brother, Louis ANTOINE, born 16th July 1803, also shared in the July revolution, and succeeded his brother in the Chamber, leading the extreme Left. He became in 1848 mayor of Paris and finance- minister of the provisional government; was a republican member of the Corps Legislatif in 1864 ; and was a member of the provisional government of 1871. He died in Paris, 31st October 1878. He wrote the Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 (1861- 62), and L’ Opposition et l’ Empire (1872). Garnishee. In English law, to garnish (Fr. garnir) is to warn, and the garnishee is a person warned not to pay money which he owes to another, because the latter is indebted to the garnisher who gives the warning. See ATTACHMENT. Garofalo, the name by which the painter Benvenuto Tisi or Tisio is known. He spent most of his life (1481-1559) in Ferrara, where he was born ; but spent three years in Kome in association with Raphael, on whom he modelled his style. Garo Hills, a mountainous district forming the south-west corner of Assam, with an area of 3270 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 121,570. In the Tura range (4950 ft.) the rainfall is 126 inches. Garonne (anc. Garwmna), the principal river in the south-west of France, rises within the Spanish frontier in the Val d’Aran, at the base of Mount Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, 6142 feet above sea- level. About 26 miles from its source it enters the French territory in the department of Haute Garonne, flows in a general north-east course to Toulouse, then bends to the north-west, and con- tinues to flow in that direction until, joined by the Dordogne, about 20 miles below Bordeaux, and widening afterwards into the estuary which bears the name of the Gironde, it enters the Atlantie at the Pointe de Grave. The estuary, the largest in France, is nearly 50 miles long. The total length of the river is about 346 miles ; it drains an area of some 22,020 sq.m. Its navigation, which, however, is much impeded above Toulouse, commences for small craft at Cazéres; ocean steamers go up to Bordeaux. Its principal afiluents are the Tarn, Lot, and Dordogne, on the right; and on the left, the Save, Gers, and Baise. At Toulouse it is joined by the Canal du Midi, which, running eastward to the Mediterranean, forms with the Garonne a means of communication between that sea and the Atlantic; and the river's own canal latéral, starting also from Toulouse, runs along the right bank, receives the Montauban Canal, and spans several streams in its course, crossing the Garonne itself at Agen by a magnificent viaduct, and returning to the river at Castets, after a total length of 120 miles. The valley of the Garonne is noted for the beauty of its scenery, but is liable to destructive inundations, the most memorable being that of 90 GARONNE GARRISON = 1875, when damage to the amount of 85 million francs was caused. Garonne, HAvTE, a department in the south of France, embracing portions of ancient Gascony and Languedoc, has an area of 2428 =. m., and a pop. (1872) of 479,362 ; (1891) 472,383. It is watered throughout by the Garonne, from which it derives its name, and within the basin of which it wholly lies. Occupied in the south by a branch of the Pyrenean range, the slope of the department and the course of its streams are toward the north and north-east. Apart from this southern mountainous region, the department is hilly and fertile. The soil in the euliovs is remarkably productive, and bears heavy crops of wheat, maize, flax, hemp, potatoes, and rape-seed. Orchard fruits and chest- nuts are produced in abundance, and the annual yield of wine is about 20,000,000 gallons, two-thirds of which is exported. Mineral springs and baths are very plentiful. The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton fabrics, paper, and hardware. The department is divided into the four arrondisse- ments of Toulouse, Muret, St Gaudens, and Ville- franche, with Toulouse as capital. i Garotte. See GARROTTE. Gar-pike (Belone), a genus of bony fishes in the family Scombresocide, not far from the true ikes (Esocidee). They have long bodies, and both jaws are prolonged into a slender beak, beset with roughnesses and widely set teeth. They swim actively, with an undulating motion, near the surface, and catch small fishes in their jaws. The common Gar-pike (B. vulgaris or B. belone) is frequent off British coasts, and is sometimes called Greenbone, from the colour of the bones (especially after cooking), Gorebill, from its char- acteristic beak, or Mackerel-guide, because it visits Gar-pike ( Belone vulgaris). the coasts just before the mackerel. It is usually about two feet in length, is often brought to the London market, and forms a wholesome dish, in flavour somewhat like mackerel. About fifty species are known from tropical and temperate seas, some twice ‘as long as the British species. The young forms have at first jaws of a normal size, and in growth the lower outstrips the upper. The name Gar-pike is sometimes applied to the far-removed Ganoid, Lepidosteus, or Bony Pike (q. Vv. ). Garrett, ELIZABETH. See ANDERSON. Garrick, DAvID, actor, manager, and drama- tist, was born on 20th February 1717, at Hereford, where his father, Captain Peter Garrick, was then stationed. Lichfield, however, was the home of the Garricks, and it was in the grammar-school there that David received the chief part of his education, for he must have been in his nineteenth or twentieth year before he was sent to study Latin and Greek under Sanmiuel Johnson, at Edial near Lichfield. His tuition by Johnson lasted for only a few months, and its well-known result was the setting out of master and pupil together, on the morning of 2d March 1737, to journey to London; Garrick. to study ‘mathematics, and philosophy, and humane learning,’ with a view to the bar; Johnson ‘to try his fate with a tragedy, and to see to get himself employed in some translation, either from the Latin or the French.’ But circumstances brought Garrick’s legal studies to nothing, and in 1738 he became a wine-merchant, in partnership with his eldest brother, Peter. Samuel Foote in after years used to say that ‘he remembered Garrick living in ° Durham Yard, with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar, calling himself a wine-merchant.’ Garrick, there is no doubt, already had the stage fever, and his attention was proba ly more taken up with plays and players than with business, so it is not surprising that in 1740 the partnership was dissolved. Garrick then devoted his mind to preparing himself for his intended profession, and in the summer of 1741 made his first appear- ance as an actor. He did not venture at once to play in London, but went through a short probationary season at Ipswich, playing under the name of Lyddal. His first part was Aboan in Southerne’s Oroonoko, which he chose because Aboan’s black face disguised him and gave him greater confidence. He subsequently played with great success several other parts, including Harle- uin. On 19th October 1741 he- appeared in ondon at the theatre in Goodman’s Fields, of which his friend Giffard was manager. Richard III. was his first character, and his success was so great that within a few weeks the two patent theatres were deserted, and crowds flocked to the unfashionable East-end playhouse. But Goodman’s Fields had no license, so the managers of Drury Lane and Covent Garden set the law in motion and had the theatre closed. Garrick played at both the patent theatres, but ultimately settled at Drury Lane, of which he became joint- atentee with James Lacy in 1747. Until 1776 e continued to direct the leading theatre, and in that year he retired from the stage and from SeAD Ag ERICH, his successor in the direction of the theatre being Richard Brinsley Sheridan. During this period Garrick was himself the great attraction and played continually, his only long rest being a trip to the Continent from 1763 to 1765, at which time he fancied that his popularit; was in danger of diminishing. His farewell appearance was made on 10th June 1776, when he played Don Felix in the comedy of The Wonder. He died on 20th January 1779, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a hideously theatrical monument was erected to his memory. As an actor, Garrick occupies the first rank. At his coming the stage was given over to formality and tradition, but these disappeared before the new actor whose leading characteristic was naturalness. He possessed also the most-astonishing versatility, being equally at home in tragedy, comedy, or farce—in Lear, Don Felix, or Abel Drugger. As a man, he has been charged with meanness, vanity, and petty jealousy; but his faults of character were grossly exaggerated by those who envied his fame, and they were more than balanced by his many excellent qualities. Garrick’s dramatic pro- ductions, some forty in number, are of minor importance, but some of his numerous prologues and epilogues are excellent. Garrick married in June 1749 a good and excellent woman, Eva Maria Violette, the celebrated dancer. She long survived him, dying in 1822, at the pies age of ninety- seven. See Fitzgerald’s Life of David Garrick (1868), and that by Joseph Knight (1894). Garrison, WiLL1AmM LLoyp, journalist and abolitionist, was born at CAA Sade Massa- chusetts, December 10, 1805. His father was a man of literary taste and ability, but, falling into dissolute habits, deserted his wife, who, to support her family, had to turn professional nurse. William, who had previously tried shoemaking and cabinet sixteen or seventeen be His contributions, which were anonymous, were GARROT GARTER 91 making, was apprenticed to the printer of the Ni Herald, an occupation which suited his taste; he soon made himself master of the mechanical part of the business, and when onl to write for the Herald. favourably received, and he soon commenced to send articles to the Salem Gazette and other papers, drawing the attention of political circles by a series of articles under the signature Aristides, with the view of removing the almost universal apathy on the subject of soapind In 1824 he became editor of the Herald, and some of J. G. Whittier’s earliest poems were accepted by him, while their author was yet unknown to fame. After two or three other attempts, in 1829 he joined Mr Lundy at Baltimore in editing the Genius of Universal Emancipation. The vigor- ous expression of his anti-slavery views in this last er led to his imprisonment for libel, from whi e was released by Mr Tappan, a New York merchant, who paid his fine. e now pre- pared a series of emancipation lectures, subse- pently delivered in New. York and other places. e returned to Boston, and in 1831 started the Liberator, without capital or subscribers, a paper with which his name is inseparably associated, and which he carried on for thirty-five years, until slavery was abolished in the United States. For the first few years the mail brought hundreds of letters to Garrison, threatening his assassination if he did not discontinue this Journal ; the ee lature of Georgia offered a reward of 5000 dollars to any one who should prosecute and bring him to conviction in accordance with the laws of that state ; in 1835 he was severely handled by a Boston mob, and the mayor of that city was constantly appealed to from the South to suppress his paper. In spite of all, he successfully persevered. In 1833 he visited Great Britain, and on his return organ- ised the American Anti-slavery Society, of which he was afterwards president. He visited England again, in the furtherance of his anti-slavery opinions, in 1846 and 1848. The diverging views of the anti-slavery party, as to whether a political plat- form should be adopted, and as to the voting and speaking of women, rent the body for a time, but on Ist January 1863 Lincoln’s proclamation of freedom to the slaves as a military measure placed the civil struggle on an anti-slavery basis. In 1865, when Garrison’s labours had been completely suc- cessful, and after the total abolition of slavery in the United States, his friends presented him with 30,000 dollars (£6000) as a memorial of his services. In 1867 he was once more in England, and enter- tained at a pablls breakfast in St James’s Hall. He died at New York, 24th May 1879. A bronze statue has been erected to his memory in Boston. Some Sonnets and other Poems by him were pub-— lished in 1847, and Selections from his Writings and S in 1852. See Johnson’s William Lloyd arrison (1882); William Lloyd Garrison: the Story of his Life, by his children (4 vols. 1885-89) ; and ene to his memory by both Whittier and Lowell. Garrot, a name mo to various ducks—e.g. to Fulix clangula and Harelda histrionica. See Duck, WILD-FOWL. Garrotte (Span. garrote, ‘a stick or cudgel’), a mode of execution practised in Spain and the Spanish colonies. Originally it consisted in simply placing a cord round the neck of a criminal, who was seated on a chair fixed to a t, and then twisting the cord by means of a stick (whence the name) inserted between the post and the back of the neck, till strangulation was produced. Afterwards a brass collar was used, containing a screw, which the executioner turned till its point entered the spinal marrow where it unites with the brain, causing instantaneous death. In its primitive form it exactly resembles the punishment of the bow- string in use among Mohammedan nations.— Garrotting is also the name given in Britain to a species of robbery which became rather common in the winter of 1862-63, and in which the robbers suddenly come behind their victim, and _half- strangle him till their ig is effected. An act passed in 1863 imposing Flogging (q.v.) as part of the penalty was effective in speedily suppressing the offence. Garter, THE Most NoBLE ORDER OF THE. This renowned order of knighthood was instituted by King Edward IIL., at what exact date has been matter of dispute, but most probably on 18th January 1344. Edward, having laid claim to the French throne, assumed the style of king of France. He had been partially successful in his first French real fae Fo and, meditating a second rie nee tion, he resolved to institute an onder of knighthood in honour of his successes past and to come, and as a means of rewarding some of his most distin- guished comrades in arms. Hence the colour of the emblem chosen was blue, the French livery colour, and the motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense (i.e. ‘ Dishonoured be he who thinks ill of it’), was appropriate whether it applied to the French ex- podition or to the order itself. The tradition is that the choice of both emblem and motto was determined by a trivial incident. The Countess of Salisbury dropped her garter when dancing with the king, and the king, picking it up, tied it round his leg ; but, observing the queen’s jealous glances, he returned it to its fair owner with the remark, Honi soit qui mal y pense. The order was origin- ally founded in honour of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St George of Cappadocia, and St Edward the Confessor ; Tat St George was always accounted its especial patron, so much that it has sometimes been called the ‘Order of St George.’ By the original constitution the Knights Com- panions were to be twenty-five in number exclusive of the sovereign, and were to assemble yearly on the eve of St George in St George’s Chapel, vue each was assigned a stall. Subsequent statutes authorised the admission into the order, in addi- tion to the twenty-five companions, of foreigners of distinction, and such descendants of George IL. (extended to descendants of George I. in_1831) as should be elected, always excepting the Prince of Wales, who was of necessity a companion ; also of extra knights, which last, however, have always, on vacancies occurring, been incorporated into the number of the twenty-five companions. The habits and ensigns of the order originally consisted of the garter, surcoat, mantle, and hood, to which were afterwards added the collar and George, the star, and the under habit. This order has, unlike all others, for its princi- pal emblem neither chain nor badge, but the garter, which, at first of light-blue silk with the motto sometimes set in pearls, rubies, and diamonds, is now of dark-blue velvet about an inch wide, with the motto in gold letters. It is worn on the left leg a little below the knee ; and when the sovereign is a queen, she wears it, as sovereign of the order, on the left arm above the elbow.: The statutes forbade the companions to appear in public without. it, yet in the effigies on their monuments it is often wanting. The practice of surrounding the armorial insignia of the companions with the garter be in the reign of Henry V. ; and the first sovereign on whose tomb this usage was complied with was Henry VII. An embroidered garter with the motto of the order seems to have been formerly worn on the left arm of the wives of companions. 92 GARTER GARTH The manifold variations in the colour, form, and material of the mantle, surcoat, and under habit at different times need not be described here. As at present worn, the mantle is of purple velvet lined with white taffeta, having on the left shoulder the badge of the order, namely, a silver escutcheon charged with a red cross for the arms of St George, and encircled with the’ garter and motto, as in the annexed cut. In chapters it is worn over. the uniform or court dress. The surcoat, a short gown without sleeves, is made of crimson velvet lined like the mantle with white taffeta. The hood, worn on the right shoulder of the mantle, and now a meaningless appendage, is made of the same velvet as the surcoat, and simi- larly lined. When it ceased to serve its original purpose of a covering for the head, a cap was introduced in its place, which is now ornamented with ostrich-feathers, and in the centre of them a lofty tuft of black heron’s feathers, the whole attached to the hat by a clasp of diamonds. Order of the Garter : Star, Collar and George, and Garter. The under habit, introduced by Charles II., need not be described in detail, and the costume.is com- pare by white silk hose and white shoes and red eels. The garter worn on the right leg is of white silver riband with a large silver rosette. The sword is straight, of an ancient pattern with a cross-guard hilt, all gilt, the scabbard of crimson velvet. The collar was introduced by Henry VII., prob- ably in consideration of a similar ornament being the prizicipal ensign of the Golden Fleece and other orders instituted in the 15th century; but it was first ordered to be worn in 1544. It consists of twenty-six pieces in which interlaced knots of cords alternate with double roses, each surrounded with the garter and its motto, these roses being alternately white within red and red within white ; and pendent from one of the roses is the George, or figure of St George piercing the dragon. The collar and George were appointed to be worn on all solemn feasts; and provision was also made for a ‘esser George to be worn on other occasions attached to a chain or lace of silk, for which was afterwards substituted a dark-blue riband. The lesser George is surrounded with the garter and motto. In respect that the mantle on which are the arms of St George within the garter is only worn on special occasions, Charles I. in 1626 introduced another badge to be worn on the cloak or coat, in which the cross of St George (not in a shield) is surrounded by the garter, and, to make it more splendid, ordered the whole to be surrounded with rays of silver. While the badge worn on the ordinary dress, popularly known as the star, is thus irradiated, that on the mantle has remained unaltered. On the occurrence of a vacancy, a chapter (con- sisting of the sovereign and six knights) is appointed to meet, in which the new companion is elected, the election being practically a form, and the choice lying with the sovereign. The knight elect, if at hand, appears and is invested. If absent, the garter and George are sent him by Garter King of Arms. In case of a foreign prince being elected, some person of distinction is sent along with Garter to invest him. In later times, the ceremony of election has often been dispensed with, the investiture taking place privately, and the ceremonies connected with installation are now done away with. Each knight has his stall in St George’s Chapel, Windsor; the knight elect used to get his predecessor’s stall, but a system of promotion has latterly been introduced. The garter-plates of the knights, containing their arms and style, remain permanently, and those placed there in the reign of Henry VII. rank among the most valuable heraldic relics in Europe. The officers of the order are the Prelate, who has always been the Bishop of Winchester; the Chancellor, formerly the Bishop of Salisbury, now (in consequence of a change in the division of the respective sees) the Bishop of Oxford; the Registrar, who is the Dean of Windsor; Garter King of Arms; and the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. Knights of the Garter write K.G. after their names. Though the military character of this fraternity no longer exists, it has retained till the ee day its pre-eminence among the orders of nighthood of Europe. For two centuries past the twenty-five companions have been almost exclusively peers or the eldest sons of peers. See Ashmole’s /nstitution, Laws, and Ceremonies o the Order of the Garter (1672); and Sir Harris Nicolas’ History of British Orders of Knighthood (1842). Garth, Sir SAMUEL, an eminent physician and fair poet, was born at Bowland Forest in Yorkshire in the year 1661. He studied at Peterhouse, Cam- bridge, graduated M.D. in 1691, and next year settled in London, where he soon became famous as a physician and conversationalist. In the year 1700 he did himself everlasting honour by prove burial in Westminster Abbey for the neglecte Dryden, and pronouncing a eulogium over his grave. On the accession of George I. he was knighted and appointed physician in ordinary to the king, and ysician-general to the army. He died in London, vacua 18, 1718. Garth is best known in our liter- ary history as the author of Zhe Dispensary (1699), a mock-heroie poetical satire on those apothecaries and physicians who opposed the project of giving medicine gratuitously to the sick poor. The poem was exceedingly popular, but has long since ceased to interest a reader. In 1715 he published his topo- aphical poem entitled Claremont, in imitation of Dethams Cooper's Hill, and in 1717 he superin- tended and contributed to a translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses by Addison, Pope, Gay, Congreve, Rowe, and other eminent contributors. Garth is now interesting chiefly for his versification as @ connecting link between Dryden and Pope. GARTSHERRIE GAS AND GASES 93 Gartsherrie. See Coarsrince. Gas and Gases. Gas, a term applied by Von Helmont (1577-1644) to vapoar not yet shown to be condensable, and possibly suggested by the ¢, ‘spirit,’ ‘vhost.’ It now signifies either (1) a vaporous substance not condensed into a liquid at ordinary terrestrial temperatures and ee or (2) one which at ordinary temperatures not condensable into a liquid by pressure alone. In both these senses, air under ordinary atmospheric conditions isa gas; when cold enough it is not a gas but a vapour, and pressure alone can then con- ense it. Sulphurous acid gas is ordinarily gaseous, but it is a‘ ste * because pressure alone will con- dense it at ordinary temperatures. Above 30°92° C, (87°67 F.) carbonic acid is a true gas; no pressure will then liquefy it; but at 30°92° C. a pressure of _ 77 atmospheres, and below 30°92° C. progressively er pressures will condense it; at and below that temperature ( Andrews’s Critical Temperature) gaseous carbonic acid is a ‘ vapour,’ condensable by pressure alone. Saturated steam is, in the same Sense, a permanent gas at all temperatures above 720°6° C. ; it cannot be liquefied by pressure unless its temperature be below that limit. The critical temperature for hydrogen is — 240°4° C. ; but the lowest temperature that has been actually pro- duced (by the evaporation of liquid oxygen into a vacuum ) is — 223° C. (Wroblewski); hydrogen alone among gases has not yet been condensed. It was believed that Messrs Cailletet of Paris and Raoul Pictet of Geneva had, in 1877, succeeded in con- densing hydrogen as well as all the other gases then believed to be non-condensable; but as to hydrogen this is now considered doubtful. Hydro- gen conducts itself under varying pressures and = ong in such a way as to show that, if it could be exposed to — 240°4° C., 13°3 atmospheres’ pressure would condense it (Wroblewski). Gases have small densities : hydrogen has, com- with water, a density, at 0° C. and 760 mm. rometric pressure (32° F. and 29°922 in.), of ‘0000895682, and air a density of 0°0012932. Taking hydrogen as a standard, oxygen is very nearly 16 times, nitrogen 14, air 14°47, carbonic acid 22 times as heavy. Gases have no free surface-boundary, but occu Vy any space within which they may be confined. The smaller the space within which a given quantity of gas is confined, the greater is the expansive pressure which it exerts on the walls of the containing vessel ; approximately, for a given quantity at a iven temperature, the pressure varies inversely as e volume (Boyle’s Law, Mariotte’s Law), or the pressure multiplied by the volume gives a constant roduct : pu=c. This law is fairly well obeyed Berecoh gases as air; but in all gases, other than hydrogen, it is observed that there is with pro- gressively increasing pressures a fall in the value of the product p v, which attains a minimum and then rises ; and even with hydrogen the apparent excep- tion has been removed by the labours of W roblewski, who found that at very low temperatures the same phenomena were observed in that gas; and that, in general, if we draw curves representing, for a series of gases, the respective pressures at which the minimal values of p v occur at various temperatures, then if our diagrams are so plotted out as to re- hea the respective temperatures and pressures terms not of degrees or millimetres, but as multiples of the critical temperature (measured from — 273° C. as absolute zero) and of the corre- sponding critical pressure of each gas, the curves are, for all gases, the same. Under circumstances which are similar with respect to the critical temperature and pressure, therefore, all ¢ behave wiih t in this respect ; and hydrogen acts at — 183° C. (the temperature of boiling oxygen), but not at — 103°5° C. (the temperature of boiling ethylene), like air and other gases at ordinary terrestrial temperatures. Carbonic acid gas, in order to act like hydrogen at — 103°5° C., must be at a temperature of about 1287° C.; both are then at a temperature about five times their respective critical temperatures, measured from absolute zero. When the temperature of a given quantity of gas is altered, the product p v is altered so as, to a first approximation, to be proportional to the absolute temperature (— 273° C. = 0° Abs.). There are, however, some abnormalities: keep the pressure constant and let the volume increase, and we have a certain coefticient of expansion under constant ressure, which is approximately 4, of the bulk at °C. for each C. degree of increase in temperature ; keep the volume constant and let the pressure in. crease, and we have a coefficient of increase in ex- pansive pressure, which ought to be the same and is very nearly the same as the previous coefficient ; but not exactly so. The former coefficieut is, except in hydrogen, a very little larger than the latter; in the readily condensable gases the product p v rises more rapidly than the absolute temperature ; and with progressively ascending pressures, the rate of increase of p v itself rises more markedly in the easily jouhenanlae gases than in air. ese henomena indicate the existence of inter-molecu- ar forces between the particles of a gas, which manifest themselves the more clearly the nearer is the approach towards liquefaction; when the liquid state has been reached there is cohesion within the liquid. That gases are compressible by increase of pressure above the atmospheric, as well as dilatable by diminution of pressure, follows from what has been said ; if the pressure be doubled the volume will be halved, and vice versd. When gases are compressed, work is done upon them, and the compressed gas tends toexpand ; when the pressure is wholly or partly relieved, the gas expands and does work, as in the air-gun or in compressed-air machines, The pressure at all points in the same herizontal level is, or soon becomes, the same; whence, if pressure be applied to one part of a mass of gas, the pressure is soon transmitted throughout the whole, and thus energy may be conveyed, even to considerable distances. The restitution-pressure tending to cause expansion is equal to the external pressure applied, and the coefticient of elasticity is at all temperatures, provided there is no change of temperature during the compression, numerically equal to the pressure; while if the compression could be so conducted as to allow absolutely no heat to escape, the elasticity, in air, would be numerically 1-406 times as great as the pressure. Through this elasticity of gases, local displace- ments set up wave-motions, which, mostly in air, are the usual cause of sound. The s of pro- megatinn of such waves (unhampered by boundary walls) is equal to the square root of the quotient of the coefficient of elasticity divided by the density ; and thus the velocity of sound is, within the same gas, independent of the pressure (for the pressure and the density are directly proportional to one another). It is, however, directly proportional te the square root of the absolute temperature. According to Dalton’s Law, when a aumber of gases are mixed, each exerts its own pressure according to the quantity in which it is present ; this law is the less ectly obeyed the nearer the gases are to their condensing temperatures, and the greater their mutual solvent action. When a gas is tly rarefied, a small mass holds possession of a relatively great space ; such a space is called a vacuum, which in fact it is not, for two reasons—that the ether of space is not eliminated, and that traces of the gas (one hundred-millionth of an atmosphere in the 94 GAS AND GASES best vacua) are always retained. If two gases be laced at different levels in a vessel, even with the ighter gas uppermost, they will rapidly diffuse into - one another, and even if connected only by a long glass tube they will soon mix, and will not there- after separate. This is due to molecular move- ment, and dust-particles are not appreciably trans- ferred ; thus the dust of a closet is not removed, though the air is renewed, by opening the door. If, however, the two gases to be exchanged be of notably different densities, there may be a pressure resulting from the tendency of the lighter gas to pass more rapidly into the heavier than the heavier one travels into it. The rate of mixing by diffusion between two gases is measured by their coefficient of diffusivity, which is to be experimentally found. The significance of this coefficient is that where we, adopting a consistent system of units, say centimetre, gramme, and second, state in the shape of a formula the known laws of gaseous diffusion— viz. that (1) the quantity of matter transferred across any layer is inversely proportional to the thickness of that layer, (2) that it is directly pro- portional to the area exposed, (3) directly pro- portional to the time taken, and also (4) to the difference of densities on either side of the layer— we may convert this formal statement of proportions into a numerical identity by inserting the proper numerical factor or coefficient; thus if M be the number of grammes transferred, ab the area ex- posed in sq. em., ¢ the thickness of the layer, ¢ the time, and d the difference of densities, M is pro- ab.t.d portional to ane or equal to k. , where k is the coefficient of diffusivity. But £ becomes a different number when we change our units of length or time; it varies numerically according to the square of the unit of length, and inversely according to the unit of time adopted, and hence the coefficient of diffusivity is usually stated as being so many square centimetres per second. Some numerical values for this coefficient will be found in Clerk-Maxwell’s Theory of Heat (appendix). Diffusion in gases has also been measured in another way. Hydrogen separated from the outer air by a plaster-of-Paris plug, escapes into the air about four times as fast as air traverses the plug in order to get into the hydrogen. The law is that the rate of traversing the plug is inversely pro- portional to the square root of the density of the gas; or, in terms of the kinetic theory of gases, it is irectly proportional to the average velocity of the molecules of each gas. The rates at which gases will traverse a single small aperture (‘effusion’) are within the limits of experimental error, in accordance with the same law. The rates at which gases slowly pass under pressure through extremely fine long tubes, or are ‘transpired,’ have no rela- tion to the diffusion or effusion rates; the mass of gas ne per second varies as the motive pressure, as the density, and inversely as the length of the tube, and also as a coefficient of transpiration special to each gas, and presenting from gas to as certain coincidences as yet unexplained (see raham’s Collected Works, or Miller’s Chemical Physics). The rate is slower the higher the temperature, but is independent of the material of the tube. When gases are separated by membranes, in which they are unequally soluble, or for which they have unequal affinities, the diffusion-rates are interfered with and become abnormal—e.g. benzol- vapour and air separated by a thin india-rubber membrane; the benzol traverses, the air does not. Thus also carbonic oxide, an extremely poisonous gas, may traverse red-hot cast-iron, a fact to be kept in mind in reference to overheated stoves. This is due to solution of the gas in the solid, which behaves like a liquid film in reference toit. Gases are also condensed on the surface of solids ; every solid object bears a condensed film of air on its surface ; some substances have enormous power of condensation, notably cocoa-nut charcoal (Hunter), which absorbs 170 times its own volume of am- monia, 69 of carbonic acid, 44 of water-vapour. This power is beneficially utilised in charcoal respirators, in which oxygen and oxidisable gases are condensed together and combine; and in Débereiner’s hydrogen lamp, in which hydrogen plays upon platinum black, and is condensed so rapidly (perhaps being oxidised at the same time) that the platinum becomes incandescent and ignites the hydrogen jet. The superficial film of air on solids plays a part in friction in air; a pendulum has the amplitude of its swing slightly diminished by this friction: a waterfall drags air down and is retarded by this frictional action; and the examples of railway trains and cannon-balls will readily oceur. The slide-valve of a steam-engine is pressed upon by the steam, and this gives rise to friction. Gases are in many cases soluble in liquids ; some are greatly so (ammonia in water at 0° C., 1049°6 volumes; at 20° C., 654 volumes), some slightly (hydrogen in water at 0° C.;-0°0193 volume). The general rule is (Henry’s Law) that, at any given temperature, the volume of gas dissolved is con- stant at all pressures, so that the quantity of gas dissolved is proportional to the pressure; and on liberation from pressure some of the gas escapes. This law is interfered with in most cases by the formation of chemical compounds (hydrates) be- tween the water and the gas dissolved. Again, when a mixture of gases is presented to a liquid, the general rule is that each is dissolved in pro- lee to the partial pressure exerted by it, com- ined with its own specific solubility in the liquid : thus the small quantity of air dissolved in water, which subserves the respiration of aquatic life, contains 34°82 per cent. of oxygen instead of 20°9 per cent., as air does, because oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen is. here, how- ever, the gases have a mutual chemical action, this rule is completely departed from. One effect of the formation of hydrates may be that the gas is not expellable by boiling : hydrochloric acid gas is an example : a certain excess of gas may be driven off by heat, but beyond that the aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid distils over as:a whole: am- monia gas or carbonic acid, on the other hand, may be completely driven off from water, any feeble hydrates formed being decomposed. Gases may, it appears, dissolve gases; oxygen evolved from chlorate of potash may (Schiitzenberger) contain chlorine unrecognisable by any chemical test until a red heat has been applied; and it seems that there is no case of evaporation without the vapour carrying off some of the solids dissolved in the evaporating liquid, a phenomenon specially ob- served in the case of boracie acid solutions, and also in the case of coal-gas, which may, especially when rich in the vapour of liquid hydrocarbons, carry much solid naphthaline in a state of invisible suspension approximating to true solution. Gases are to a certain extent viscous; air or steam in motion will drag the surrounding air along with it, and will thereby have its own motion checked. Wave-motion set up in air may travel far, but has at length its enetey worn down into heat through the viscosity of the air. Air is at 0°6° C. about a hundred times less viscous than water is, and at 90° C. it is only about twelve times less viscous than water at that temperature. The viscosity of any given gas, dynamically measured, does not vary with its density. j Gases also possess a feeble power of conducting GAS AND GASES 95 specific heat; and sq radiators : there is comparatively little - tion from a Bun At heat by a kind of diffusion and redistribution of of heat-motion. In hydrogen a heated wire is very rapidly cooled ; in a heavier gas, less rapidly 80. conductivity of air, when the heat conducted is reckoned in units such that each will raise a eubie em. of the substance (air) itself through one degree Centigrade, is 0°256 ; under similar con- ditions that of iron is 0°183, and that of copper is 1-077; so that the rate of propagation of thermal effects in air is intermediate between that in iron and that in copper. This a virsweats f high rate is due to the small density of air and to its low when we turn to the actual ereon of heat-energy as distinguished from of temperature, we find the conductivity of air, in this sense, to be only about one 20,000th that of copper. ave as a rule small specific heat: air has at constant pressure a specific heat = 0°2375, at constant volume, 0°1684; that is, to raise a und of air 1°, allowing it to expand, takes 2375 as much heat as it would take to raise a pound of water, whereas if it be not allowed to expand and thereby absorb energy, it will take only 0°1684 times as muclr. The specific heat of is stated in tables with reference to ‘air = ‘2375’ as a starting-point; an equal volume of hydrogen has a specific heat at constant pressure = 0°2359, and, roughly, equal volumes of all the ordinary gases have equal thermal capacities ; but ordinary vapours have, volume for volume, much sei thermal capacities than ordinary gases. drogén has a specific heat, weight for weight, 3°0490 times (at constant pressure) as great as water ; and it is the solitary exception to the state- ment that water has of all substances the highest ifie heat. In general the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is about 1°4 times its specific heat at constant volume ; in the latter case no heat is absorbed in doing the work of expansion against resistance. The specific heat of gases rises slightly with increasing temperature (Mallard pe Le es) and this becomes at furnace heats very well marked : at 2000° C. the specific heats of car- bonic acid and water-vapour are double, and those of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic oxide about one and a times as great as what they are at 200° C. Different have different actions upon radiant heat and light; they characteristically absorb special portions of the heat and light spectrum, and thus produce absorption bands : the dark lines A and B seen in the solar spectrum are traced by Egoroff and Khamantoff to the absorptive action of ay In some gases the absorption is carried so far that the gas appears coloured—e.g. chlorine, which is yellowish-green: iodine vapour in com- tively thin layers allows only red and blue ht to com and thus appears purple; in thicker layers'only blue light passes. On the whole, how- ever, gases are poor absorbents and correspondingly la- sen flame. At the same time the radiation from an incandescent gas tends to be very precise in its frequencies ; it tends to produce e-spectra as distinguished from the continuous Spectrum produced by the mutually jolting particles an incandescent solid. Each gas has its own index of refraction also ; oxygen has, for example, as compared with vacuum, a mean index at atmo- _ Spheric pressure of 1:000272. In vapours the dis- a — 1s great; and iodine vapour strangely re- red most and violet least. In Electricity (q.v.) the different gases have different properties which sometimes present curi- ous anomalies; air at ordinary pressures is an ator; warm air at rest is an insulator, but above a Bunsen burner it is a conductor; at pressures it conducts and glows while con- ducting ; at extremely low pressures it is again an insulator. Different set up different potential-differences between themselves and metals with which ges may be in contact, as in gas- batteries, and they have different specific indtie- tive capacities. —Oxygen is magnetic in the same sense as iron; hydrogen and nitrogen are diamag- netic, and tend to lay themselves across the poles of a magnet. See also MATTER. ANALYSIS OF GASES.—The gas is collected in small glass vessels, the contents of which, consist- ing of mercury, water, or air, are displaced by the as to be analysed. For the best methods of col- ecting from mineral springs and waters, from volcanic lakes, geysers, or Collins springs, from openings in rocks, clefts of glaciers, furnaces, fissures in voleanic craters, &c., reference may be made to Bunsen’s Gasometry, translated by Roscoe. Air is only used when a considerable current of the gas to be analysed can be procured, which may sweep out the last traces of air from the collectin vessel. Water often affects the composition of mixed gases which it is attempted to collect over it; for to various extents it absorbs, amon others, hydrochloric, hydriodic, hydrobromic, an sulphurous acid gases, chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, fluoride and chloride of boron, methyl- and ethyl-amine, methyl chloride and methyl ether, cyanogen, and chlorine cyanide ; and it decomposes silicon fluoride with precipita- tion of gelatinous silicic acid. Mercury is generally employed because it is inert to most gases ; but it is attacked by chlorine, which it absorbs. There are two leading principles made use of in the analysis of gases. Fisst, a given volume is sub- jected to a chemical reaction, which results in the condensation of one of the constituents of the gase- ous mixture or compound ; then by simple observa tion, or from the known laws of gaseous volume, it is determined how great a volume of the original gas has disappeared through being amenable to the reaction employed, and, accordingly, how great a proportion of the constituent in question was originally present. In the case of air, for example, a measured volume may be exposed to the absorp- tive action of a strong alkaline solution of pyro- gallol; the solution becomes dark; the oxygen is absorbed ; the original volume of air is diminished ; the loss of volume is ascertained, and represents the quantity of oxygen originaliy present in the measured volume of air. Or again, if the mixture of gases be a somewhat more complicated one, as, for example, a mixture of carbonic acid and oxide, olefiant gas, and oxygen, the various absorbent reagents appropriate to each constituent may be successively introduced, and the successive shrink- ages noted by remeasurement at the original tem- perature and pressure. A few drops of a solution of caustic potash will in this way take up the carbonic acid ; pyrogallol will take up the oxygen ; anhydrous sulphuric acid dissolved in oil of vitriol, and introduced on a coke-pellet, will slowly take up the olefiant gas, and the sulphurous acid and anhydrous sulphuric acid vapour, which contamin- ate the gas after this reaction, may be removed by caustic potash; and carbonic oxide may be absorbed by means of a solution of cuprous chloride (pre- pared by leaving copper turnings with a saturated solution of cupric chloride in a stoppered bottle for some days), which will take it up in about ten minutes. The principal absorption reagents are (1) caustic potash solution, which absorbs sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrochloric, carbonic, sulphurous, and other acid gases, chloride and fluoride of boron, and chloride of cyanogen, and decomposes siliciu- retted hydrogen with evolution of 4 volumes of agi et (2) dry cau8tic potash, which acts like the solution, but more slowly, and also absorbe 96 GAS AND GASES water-vapour; (3) alcoholic solution of caustic potash, which also absorbs bisulphide of carbon ; (4) alkalinised solution of pyrogallol—oxygen ; (5) hosphorus—oxygen ; (6) cuprous chloride dissolved in hydrochloric acid—oxygen, carbonic oxide, acetylene, and allylene; (7) the same dissolved in ammonia, which absorbs also the hydrocarbons of the olefine series; (8) dilute sulphuric acid— ammonia, methyl-amine, and other amines; (9) strong sulphuric acid—water, alcohol, methyl ether, pre ylene and its homologues; ethylene slowly, iydrogen and marsh gas not at all; (10) Nord- hiusen sulphuric acid, which absorbs the olefines, not hydrogen or the marsh-gas series; (11) con- centrated aqueous solution of sulphate of iron, which absorbs nitric oxide ; (12) bromine, which in presence of water acts like Nordhiiusen_ sulphuric acid ; (13) sulphur, which absorbs ‘sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid, and bisulphide of carbon; (14) chromous sulphate, to which am- monium chloride and ammonia have been added, absorbs oxygen, nitric oxide, acetylene, and allylene ; (15) alcohol absorbs chloride of cyanogen, methyl chloride, methyl ether, and cyanogen ; (16) mereuric oxide—cyanogen; (17) lead acetate— sulphuretted hydrogen; (18) lead peroxide—sul- phurous acid. Analyses conducted by the aid of such reagents are direct ; and on the same principle of observation of shrinkage we may also employ explosion-reactions. In the case of air we take a measured volume and add to it about half its bulk of hydrogen, observing precisely what volume we add. In this case the graduated tubular vessel, in which the gas is contained, has two platinum wires fused into it so as to approach one another within the vessel ; our vessel is then called a Eudiometer. An electric spark is made to leap across the interval between the two wires; an explosion occurs ; part of the hydrogen of the mixture com- bines with the whole of the oxygen ; pres the aqueous vapour formed condenses, an the volume of the mixture becomes, at the former tempera- ture and pressure, considerably less than it was before the explosion. The shrinkage is measured ; the gas which has disappeared consisted, for every three volumes, of two of hydrogen and one of oxygen. One-third of the shrinkage, therefore, represents the amount of oxygen present in the air acted upon; and in the case of air the balance of the original volume is taken (if the air had been freed from moisture and carbonic acid) as consist- ing wholly of nitrogen (including argon). In more complicated mixtures the explosion-reactions lead to more complicated processes and calculations. For example, if we have a mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen (which cor- responds to coal-gas that has been passed through potash solution and has stood over strong oil of vitriol), we first explode a known volume of the mixture with an excess of oxygen. The shrinkage is observed, and then potash solution is introduced in order to remove the carbonic acid formed by the combustion of the methane and the carbonic oxide. The nitrogen alone now remains, together with the ‘excess of oxygen; and the amount of the latter is determined by another explosion with hydrogen, whence the amount of nitrogen may be determined ; and from this we find the volume of combustible gas originally present in the mixture. We now know (1) the volume originally used (A); (2) the volume of combustible gas therein con- tained (B); (3) the contraction of volume on explosion (C); and (4) the volume of carbonic acid generated on explosion (D). We also know that when hydrogen is exploded with an excess of oxygen the combustion of one volume of hydrogen causes the condensation of 14 volume of the mixture; that the combustion of 1 volume of carbonic oxide similarly camses a shrinkage of 4 volume, and the production of 1 volume of carbonic acid; and that the combustion of 1 volume of methane (light carburetted hydrogen, marsh-gas, CH,) produces a shrinkage of 2 volumes and the formation of 1 volume of CO,. Hence we find that the shrinkage C is made up of the original H-volume x 14, plus the CO-volume x 4, plus the CH,-volume x 2; and that the carbonie acid (=D) is equal to the CO-volume plus the CH, volume; and if we set down these statements algebraically, writing w for the original volume of nitrogen, x for that of hydrogen, y and z for those of carbonic oxide and marsh-gas, we have the equations A=wt+a+y+z; B=a+yt+z2; D = + g +2, from which w, a, y, 2 may be readily found and thereafter reduced to percentages. If any of these quantities, w, a, y, 2, be found equal to 0 (or to asmall negative guentity), the corresponding gas is not present in the mixture. The apparatus made use of varies from a simple graduated tubular vessel to the more elaborate compensating apparatus now in use. The object of compensation is to enable the volume of the gas to be ascertained without “ calculation for correction. We may refer by way of illustration to the ap- aratus of Frankland and Ward, which is fully ex- lainedin Williams’ Hand- ook of Chemical Manipu- lation, as well as in Messrs Frankland and Ward’s memoir in the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. e take as an example an _ explosion- analysis of atmospheric air. A few (three or four) cubic inches of air, freed from carbonic acid, having been introduced into the tube, I, it is transferred 7 4 into F for measurement by opening the cocks, 1, l’, and placing the tube, F, in connection with the exit-pipe, 4; the trans- ference can be assisted, if necessary, by elevating the mercurial: trough, C. We (The part marked 6 in =y+z; and C= fee 7 very the th x tubular well of the mer- A ~ eurial trough, C.) When een us im the air, followed by a few o) Se drops of mercury, has passed completely into F, the cock, /, is shut, and turned, so as to connect and H with 4. Mercury is allowed to flow out until a vacuum of two or three inches in length is formed in H, and the metal in F is just below one of the graduated divisions ; the cock, f, is then reversed, and mer- cury very gradually ad- mitted from G, until the highest point in F exactly corresponds with one of the divisions upon that tube; we will assume it to be the sixth division, there being ten divisions in all. This adjustment of mercury, and the subsequent readings, can be very A, a tripod, with levelling screws; BB, a vertical pil- lar, to which is attached C, a mercurial trough, mov- able by a rack and pinion, aa; DD, a glass eylinder, 86 inches long, with an in- ternal diameter of 4 inches, containing three tubes, F, G, H, which communicate with one another, and with the exit-pipe, h, by the ap- ore fe fE. The rest of he figure will be sufficiently intelligible from the descrip- tion given in the text. . 0 TE 5 CAE a ae 2 a Tp det iaeere ot fy H must now be accurately volume of the gas, no corrections for variations o ure, tension of _ the top of F). which we observe a considerable contraction in the _ volume of the mixed gases, and one-third of this - such as sulphuretted hyc _ obtained from high GAS AND GASES GAS-LIGHTING 97 — . made by means of a small horizontal telescope, placed at a distance of about six feet, and on a vertical rod. The height of the mer- determined ; from the number thus read off the height of the sixth division above the zero of the scale in FH is deducted (the scale on H is not marked in the figure), the remainder will express the true ing required temperature, atmospheric press- ueous vapour, &e, ydrogen, in the proportion of half the volume of the air used, must now be passed into I, and from _ thence into F, when the volume of the mixed gases - must be spar again determined as before. An electric k must now be passed through the mixed gases in F by means of the platinum wires at m (near A slight explosion occurs, after shrinkage represents the volume of oxygen. The objection to this kind of gas-analysis is its comparative slowness. When we wish to control the process of coal-gas-making, it is necessary to collect a series of specimens during the progress of the decomposition, but the results of gas-analysis are rarely available with useful expedition. Where it is sufficient to trace - one special constituent, rogen in coal-gas or car- bonie acid in ventilation-experiments, results of considerable value may be attained by passing known volumes of the gas through a known quantity of a test-liquid, or shaking it up with it, and measur- ing by titration the amount of the reagent un- ected by the particular constituent of the gas; or, more rapidly, by the gradual addition of one to the other until the mutual reaction ceases. For instance, 100 cubic em. of crude coal-gas may have successive instalments of a dilute solution of iodine of known strength brought into contact with it; when the reaction ceases the iodine solu- tion ceases to be decolorised by the sulphuretted hydrogen, and if starch be present a blue tint will be struck. Gas, LIGHTING AND HEATING By, depend mainly on the presence of gaseous heavy hydro- carbons in the gas. Pure hydrogen and even pure methane give no light, and, volume for volume, they give little heat, though their flames are flames of high temperature. hen illuminating gas is et it burns with a flame which is luminous or two reasons: (1) the hydrocarbons form acety- lene, which upon becoming highly heated decom- pa explosively with a bright flash; and (2) the 1ydrocarbons are partly decomposed, and leave highly carbonaceous molecular residues which, becoming highly heated in the flame, incandesce and become luminous. I. Coal-gas is produced by the simple distillation of dry coal. Anthracite is unsuitable; brown coal and lignite are unsatisfactory : the ay reich yield of the best gas is y bituminous coals, although are expensive and leave as residue inferior coke, mainly ash ; practically the most useful gas- coal is that which will, either alone or mixed with bituminous coal, yield a fair quantity of good gas and leave good coke in the retorts. “The very highly bituminous coals are only nsed for mix- ing with ordinary coal : the ordinary bituminous or cannel coals are sometimes used, especially in Scot- land, for making richer gas of 25 to 30 candle- cere (in standard burners burning 5 eubic feet per our), but are usnally mixed with ordinary coal with the view of improving the coke produced. Thg ordinary caking coals of the north of England are mainly used in England, mixed with a proportion of cannel or of highly bituminous coal or shale in order “ Pr ict the gas, which is generally sup- _ plied with an illuminating power of from 16 to 20 candles. The gas-coal used on the Continent is inter- mediate between caking coal and cherry coal, and gives gas of from 12 to 17 candles. By bituminous coal is not meant coal which actually contains bitnumen, but coal which contains carbon and mt bribe en in a proportion suited to the formation of heavy hydrocarbons when the coal is exposed to heat: no bitumen can be dissolved by alcohol out of a so-called bituminous coal. The pro- rtions of hydrogen and oxygen to the car- J in various materials is shown in the following table - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Hydro.per Oxy per percent. percent. percent. l00carb, 100 carb French anthracite 94 1°49 pear anthr.. 91°65 3°5 26 8°8 2°8 Ne le gas-coal 821 53 57 6°4 69 Wigan cannel..... 79°2 61 72 be f 91 Boghead mineral.. 63°93 8°86 4°70 138 7*4 The hydrocarbons which enable the gas to give a luminous flame depend for their formation upon the hg eal of anaes: oxygen, on the other hand, is detrimental ; it takes up hydrogen to form water, and with carbon it forms carbonic acid and bonic oxide. Anthracite distilled gives no use- ful result; Newcastle gas-coal gives, per ton, a little over 10,000 cubic feet of gus, of an illuminatin power ranging between 14 and 20 candles; Scotch cannel, 10,600 feet, of 30 candles ; Scotch Boghead, distilled alone, 13,000 feet, of 40 candle, or 15,000 feet, of 35 candle; and Australian Boghead, 14,000 feet, of 50 candle-gas. These are given merely as typical examples; the results vary greatly accord- ing to the temperatures employed and the duration of the exposure to heat. Newcastle cannel coal, for example, if distilled between 750° and 800° F., ields, per ton, 68 gallons of crude oil (whereof may recovered—paraftin spirit about 2 gallons ; lamp- oil, vi gallons ; heavy oil and paraffin, 24 gallons), 1280 lb. of coke, and only 1400 cubic feet of gas; whereas, when it is distilled for gas in the usual way, it yields, besides the coal-gas, 184 gallons of coal-tar (wherefrom 3 pints benzol, 3 pints coal-tar naphtha, and 9 gallons of heavy oils, naphthaline, &ec.), and 1200 lb. of coke. Protracted distillation at high heats causes the evolution of hydrogen rather than of hydrocarbons ; high heats in general cause the production of volatile rather than of con- densable hydrocarbons, and this results, if notearried to excess, in a decided advantage—viz. that the gas oeasie>. though of lower quality than the smaller quantity produced at low heats, is greatly less liable to lose its illuminating power by conden- sation and deposition of hydrocarbons on the way to the consumer. Very roughly, the candle-power is, within a limited range, inversely proportional to the number of feet of gas made (at a gree temperature) from a given quantity of coal. Thus, if a ton of coal give 10,000 cubic feet of 152 candle- gas, then, if the distillation be protracted so that 10,500 feet are produced, the candle-power will sink to 15. Tieftrank calculates the percentage composition (in volumes) of the gas which comes off in successive hours thus : H hyd Isthour. 2dhour. Sdhour. 4thhour. 5th hour. eavy ydro- ” carbons..... ; } 18 12 2 ~ Marsh-gas....... 82 72 58 Hydrogen....... sf 88 16 21°3 60 Carbonic oxide. . 8°2 19 12°38 ll 10 Nit rer 1°8 53 17 47 10 Relative volumes 1 0°685 0-387 07105 és Distillation is thus after the fourth hour practically disadvantageous to illuminating power. The products of distillation of coal, as usually performed in gas-works, are very numerous. The principal of them are marsh-gas, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, nitrogen, oxygen. sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, hydrocyanic acid, bisulphide of carbon, and other organic sulphur compounds ; 98 3: aqueous vapour; ethylene, propylene, butylene, acetylene, ditetryl, and allylene; caproyl, capryl and rutyl hydrides; caproylene, meneietons ; Fens zol, toluol, xylol, cymol; paraffin, naphthaline, anthracene, chrysene, pyrene; acetic rey carbolic acid, cresol, phlorol, rosolic acid ; aniline, pyridine, picolin, and several other nitrogenous alkaloid sub- stances ; with some hydrochloric and sulphurous acids. ‘These substances have very different vola- tilities and solubilities; a large number of them may be separated from the gas by mere cooling, and together these form coal-tar, which is a black viscous liquid, sp. gr. 0°98 (from cannel) to 1°15 (from ordinary coal), the yield of which is, from coal, up to 12 gallons, and from cannel up to 17 gallons per ton distilled, the average yield being scarcely 11 gallons. By careful distillation coal- tar yields successively the following products, the percentages of which vary widely in different gas- works: 2-4 per cent. of water, ammonia (which may be extracted from the tar by cold water), and volatile hydrocarbon vapours; 1°5 to 16 per cent. of light oils, including carbolie acid; 20-35 per cent. of heavy oils (creasote oils); 10-20 per cent. of anthracene oils, and a residue of 28-64 per cent. of pitch. The reason of this wide range of variation in the tar lies partly in the nature of the coal used, the temperature of distillation (the higher the heats the thicker the tars), and partly in the mode and temperature of condensation. — After the tar has been mostly deposited the gas is washed with water, which is converted into ammoniacal liquor, containing ammonia, carbonate of ammonium, sulphide of ammonium and some sul- phite, chloride, and sulphocyanide of ammonium, and salts of nitrogenous alkaloids. After being cooled and washed the gas still contains carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, some hydrocyanic acid, and some bisulphide of carbon, and other sulphur compounds. Slaked lime, moistened so as to form a porous mass, will absorb the carbonic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, but not the hydro- Spare acid and bisulphide of carbon so long as there is free carbonic acid present. Oxide of iron absorbs H2S, becoming sulphide; and this, when re-exposed to the air, is re-oxidised, the oxide being regenerated, while free sulphur is formed mixe with the oxide; the oxide may be used over and over until the percentage of free sulphur rises to 50 or 56, after which the oxide is ‘spent,’ and is transferred for the sake of its sulphur to the manu- facturing chemist. Spent oxide also contains Prussian blue, or ferrocyanide of iron, FerCyis; this, together with sulphocyanide of iron, is formed from the hydrocyanic acid. Further, the free sulphur in the oxide arrests bisulphide of carbon and other sulphur compounds. The re- generation of the oxide can be brought about by admitting a percentage, say 2, of air into the gas-stream. The oxygen of the admitted air is taken up in continuous regeneration of the purify- ing oxide. The disadvantage of this is that the residual nitrogen of the air tells against the illum- inating power of the gas; but recently, since pure oxygen has become cheap, oxygen gas alone has been employed with very favourable results. One result of continuous revivification is, that the evil smells associated with the opening of purifiers have become unfamiliar in most works. When continuous re- generation is resorted to, the oxide does not become spent until it contains a considerably higher per- centage (as much as 75) of sulphur. Iron oxide, however, does not remove carbonic acid, and Mr R. H. Patterson showed that complete purification might be secured by removing (1) CO2 by means of lime ( the carbonic acid having a stronger affinity for lime than sulphuretted hydrogen has, is retained in the first lime purifier, while H.S either passes GAS-LIGHTING on directly or is driven off by the. succeeding COz from any temporary lodgment it may have gained in the first purifier); (2) HeS by a second lime — purifier, the resulting sulphide of calcium uniting with the bisulphide of carbon to form thiocarbonate of calcium (CaS+CS2.=CaC8s3, analogous to ear- bonate of calcium, CaCQOs), or rather a basic com- pound CaCS3,CaH202,7H2,O, and also with other sulphocarbon compounds; and (3) if necessary any. remaining H2S may be taken up by iron oxide. In 1888-89 Mr Valon found that if 06 ee cent. of oxygen be added to crude gas, and if ime be used alone as the purifying agent, there is complete and simultaneous removal of the earbonie acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphide of car- bon, the sulphur being separated in the free state and the gas-lime produced being entirely devoid of smell; while, owing to com be separation of the carbonic acid and throu h not introducing nitrogen, the lighting-power of the gas is at least 14 candle better than when iron oxide is employed | alone. Purified gas contains, in percentages by volume = - London London Boghead common Gas, Cannel Gas. Gas. Heavy hydrocarbons..... Ne: 18 24°5 Marsh -Qasi fos. sieaitisiee cae 39°5 50 58°4 Hydrogen. i4..%) cenen seen 46 27-7 10°5 Carbonic oxide............. 75 68 6°6 Carbonic acid .... 87 01 a Nitrogen......... 0°5 0°4 Aqueous vapour... 2 2 London cannel gas is. no longer made; and true Boghead mineral is no longer obtained in Great, Britain, though large quantities of an equivalent substance are now shipped from Australia. When coke is made in a beehive oven, the gas evolved is largely contaminated with nitrogen ; but when coke is made from moderately bituminous coal in a by-products oven, the gas produced is practically equivalent to a somewhat poor coal-gas or to arich fuel-gas. It is understood that the manufacture of this by-products coke-gas is likely to be undertaken on a large scale in Massachusetts and at Pittsburg, where the supply of natural gas shows symptoms of exhaustion. The illuminating power depends on the ‘heavy — hydrocarbons ;’ of these benzol is the most effective (3 parts of it being equal to 25 of ethylene), and in on eat English gas is present to the amount of from 5 to 10 grains per cubie foot, while ethylene and propylene are together from four to twelve times that quantity. If carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and nitrogen he absent, the heavier gas is generally the richer, though a high percentage of carbonic oxide may also make a gas heavy. The ' specific gravity of coal-gas is from 0°4 to 0°55 (air= 1:00). There are two rough tests for the value of gas: (1) its durability—i.e. the time taken to burn 1 cubic foot of gas in a jet of 5 inches high; this ranges from 50’ 40” for English caking-coal gas, to 84’ 22” for Boghead gas; (2) the percentage of volume which is condensed by chlorine or bromine, which attack the heavy hydrocarbons. If any carbonic acid remain in the gas, it will diminish the illuminating power about one candle for eve 1 per cent. of carbonic acid. If gas be mixed with air the illuminating power rapidly falls off: with 1 per cent. of air, the loss of lighting-power is 6 per cent. ; with 2, 11; 3, 18; 4, 26; 5, 33; 10, 67; 20, 93 per cent.; 45, total loss of lighting-power. Ordinary as mixed with more than 4 and less than 12 times its bulk of air is explosive; most so when mixed — with 8 volumes of air or somewhat more (up _ to 11 volumes) if the gas be richer. Alone, it is not Pexplosive. For ascertaining the illuminating power, the Bunsen photometer (the open 60-inch Bunsen- Letheby photometer, or the enclosed 100-inch Evans photometer) is generally employed. In this, at one 3 | GAS-LIGHTING 99 - dof a rod, there is a candle; at the other end there e is @ gas-burner, and a meter to measure the supply + gas } the gas-burner and the candle are thus ata | . istance from one another. Between them ‘there moves, sliding on a graduated bar, a dise of prepare paper 3 this is slipped up and down until ‘its two sides (or rather the images of its respective ‘sides in two little mirrors which travel with it) ‘appear equally illuminated. This is ascertained by the disappearance of a grease-spot or rather, in the newer models, by the vanishing of all difference in ance between an ungreased .centre and the rim of the dise. In the Leeson dise there » three thicknesses of paper, of which the middle ne is much the thickest, but is perforated at its nmtre; and this form of dise works better in the comparison of light of somewhat different colours. ‘The Lummel-Brodhun photometer is an idealised Bunsen photometer, in which the place of the paper with its central grease-spot is taken by a Y Fy AM PY So -a oe ‘purely optical arrangement of totally reflecting or tially reflecting prisms. The bar may be uated in one of two ways: (1) Equal intervals, <0 that the respective distances between the disc md the gas-burner and candle may be measured ; then the ratio between the intensities is the inverse ratio of the squares of the respective distances ; say, for example, that the respective distances of the candle and gas-burner are 20 inches and 80 nches; then the gas-burner’s intensity : the candle’s +: (dy)? : (gy)?—i-e.::16:1. (2) The bar may be so graduated as to anticipate and save this calcula- tion, on which »pesnohase the mid-point of the bar would be marked 1, and a point one-fifth of the bar’s length from either end would be marked 16; the figures so marked show directly the ratios sought for. The pressure of gas must be measured by a gauge and regulated by a governor; the consumpt of the candle must be weighed ; the gas used must be exactly 5 cubic feet per hour; the burner is a standard Sugg’s London Argand No. 1 for common eoal-gas, a standard Steatite Batswing burner for - @annel gas; the candles are sperm candles, of six to the pound, each burning 120 grains per hour; and the quantity of gas used is to be corrected for ature and barometric pressure. The candle is a very unsatisfactory unit of light; it varies as nuch as 6 per cent., and its colour is not the same as that of the gas-flame. Other standards have been proposed ; of these the principal are the Ger- man standard candle—1 ‘065 English sperm candle ; the French Carcel lamp (648 grains colza-oil per )=10°441 English sperm candles; Mr Vernon urt’s pentane lamp, air + pentane-vapour, eubic foot per hour, nearly equal to the English dard candle; Mr Methven’s and Mr Fiddes’s standard, in princi a given area of the bright part of gas-flame, this being, singularly, an almost uniform standard of illumination, not with an t 3 __ kind of illuminating gas, as was at first believed, quite accurately so with pentane-vapour ; _ Hefner-Alteneck’s amyl-acetate lamp, with the fe turned up to a height of 1°6 inch, equal to ae 877 English standard candle; and the Dutch _ ether-benzol standard (1893) = 1:48 English stand- _ ard candle. Other photometers (Elster’s, with ' he standard light, &c.) have been proposed. _ Lowe and Sugg’s jet-photometer depends on this, _ that assuming the height of the flame to be kept _ constant, the lighting-power of a jet is inversely qj eerertional to the consumpt—or otherwise, that _ the consumpt being kept constant, the height of the jet-flame is directly proportional to the lighting- vower. In Giroud’s jet-photometer the height of _ the flame at constant pressure is taken as the _ Ineasure of illuminating power; when the flame is about 6 inches high, a variation of about 4 inch corresponds to a variation of one-candle power, 4 when the whole lighting-power is from 10 to 14 _ candles per 5 eubie feet. Committee appointed by the Board of Trade in 1891, reported in 1895 that a tlame of some kind must be used as the standard ; that the sperm candle is unsatisfactory; that Mr Vernon Harcourt’s pentane-vapour and air-flame is constant in brightness and easily reproducible when used as directed, and that it is accurate] equal to an average standard candle ; and that this should be made the basis of comparison, and called acandle; that for actual work with gas-flames it is better to compare these with more powerful sources of fey than a candle, and that for this purpose a Dibdin 10-candle standard (an air and pentane- vapour Argand flame with a Methven sereen) should be used, with the Methven screen fixed so as to expose 2°15 inches of the flame. They also recommend that instead of burning gas at 5 cubic feet per hour, the gas should be burned at just such a rate as will give the required number of candles, and that the illuminating power be calculated back, and be stated as so many candles per 5 cubic feet. Photometrically the lime-purified gas of the south of England is greatly inferior to the iron-oxide purified gas of the north of England, and yet an impression of greater brightness is often ex- perienced, for the flame is white instead of yellow. Gas-work apparatus falls under thirteen heads. — The Retort-house contains the henches or sets of retorts in which the coal is distilled. The retorts were formerly small, and of cast-iron only; they are now generally larger and of fireclay ; though the use of iron is again becoming familiar incases where the last retort or two of a set are more easily heated if made of iron than when made of fireclay. Retorts are made round, oval, and D-shaped; the first of these is the strongest and most durable; the oval and the D-shaped are better carbonisers. Cla retorts are usually 24 to 3inches thick, oval, with diameters 15 and 21 inchesinside, and 9 feet 4inches long; but ‘through’ retorts are often used, corre- sponding to two ordinary retorts joined together so as to form one tube, some 20 feet long, with a mouthpiece at each end—a form which is more readily manipulated and more readily kept clear of coke-deposit. Even these diameters are somewhat too great, and the result is better with narrower retorts; and in small works smaller and shorter retorts are generally used. Of late years through- retorts, inclined at an angle of some 30°, have come greatly into use, especially in conjunction with mechanical appliances for charging and discharg- ing the retorts: the coal slides down the retort from a hopper and is promptly spread out into a layer of uniform thickness, and the spent coke is easily drawn from the retort in a stream. To an increasing extent the coal is first raised to a height and then lowered in the successive operations to successively lower levels, so that manual labour is economised. The Dinsmore retorts are Z-shaped, and thé tarry products are subjected to continued distillation in the upper bends. Mr Isaac Carr’s modification of this process has been very successful in his own hands at Widnes ; but it seems that the process has not been successful elsewhere. Five or seven retorts, and sometimes ten or more are built into each oven; and all the retorts of one oven are heated from the same source. This may be a coke furnace, in which case some 3} cwt. of coke are used in distilling each ton of coal—i.e. about 25 per cent. of the coke made—a proportion which sinks in large works to 20 or 18 per cent.—or tar may be used as fuel, either dropped on hot plates or blown in by air or by steam as spray; or generator furnaces may be employed in which the fuel is first half-burned (CO being formed), and the hot furnace gases thus produ are burned under the retorts; or regenerative furnaces, in which the 100 GAS-LIGHTING same thing is done, but the air which meets the furnace gases under the retorts is heated by the waste heat, which would otherwise have been allowed to escape through the flue after the retorts had been heated ; the result being a great economy in fuel and in the wear of the retorts. The retorts, once heated up, are kept continuously at an orange- red heat (2000° F.); they are charged with coal (24 to 3 ewt. each); the charge is raked out after four or six hours, and a fresh charge is put in; the charging and drawing being now often iene b machinery. The duration of clay retorts depends on the treatment they receive; fifteen to eighteen months where directly exposed to the fire, or, where protected, three or four years, or even longer. In the Yeadon and Adgie revolving retort, small coal is fed in at one end and coke dust withdrawn at the other as the retort revolves ; each granule of coal takes about 15 minutes to traverse the retort. Every retort is provided with a mouthpiece, through which the charge is put in and extracted, and the door of which is pressed home by a serew or lever and may or may not be secured by cement. The gas produced passes from the retort by means of a wide vertical ascending pipe, a very short horizontal bridge-pipe, and a short descending dip-pipe, which dips to a very slight extent below the overflow level of liquid in the hydraulic main. This hydraulic main is a wide tubular closed reservoir of wrought-iron, placed above the retorts; it has a large descending overflow-pipe ; it is first filled with tar-water as far as ib can be filled; the products of distillation from the retort pass through the hydraulic main; some tar is deposited, some watery liquid con- densed; tar accumulates up to the overflow level, so that the gas passing through is washed in hot tar, and the hakeeieine constituents tend to become dissolved out to a large extent by the tar, unless the tar be kept sufficiently hot or be often enough removed from the hydraulic main. Down the overflow-pipe run the products of distillation, which sink into a tar-well, from which they are pumped out from time to time. This tar-well is also used as a general receptacle for condensation products deposited by the gas in its further course. The gas does not escape by this tar-well, for the overflow-pipe dips to an adequate depth into the liquid in the well; it asses on by a lateral horizontal tube. This device is repeated as often as is necessary. The gas goes on to undergo a gradual process of cooling (to a temperature not below 55° F.) and farther condensation, partly in pipes led round the retort-house (in which the tar is largely deposited by friction while the gas is still hot), partly in the condenser. There are several types of con- denser: (a) a series of vertical iron tubes in which the gas alternately ascends and descends, the cool- ing being due to the exterior air or to the trickling of water down the surface of the tubes; (0) verti- cal iron tubes of large size, concentrically arranged in pairs, so that the gas may slowly descend in the annular space between each two tubes, while the cooling air ascends the inner tube—the gas is then led up to the top of another annular space, and so on (Kirkham’s); (¢) a horizontal spiral; (d) a vertical zig-zag of pipes horizontally laid; (e) arrangements for retarding the speed and thus enabling the gas, in comparative repose, more readily to deposit any particles; battery con- denser; Mohr’s condenser, in which the gas is uided through hollow cones, so as to run slowly. The cooled gas is then led to the washer, in which it is passed in fine streams through water, which dissolves ammonia, &c. ; but here or farther on, after the scrubber, there is a suction arrange- ment, either a fan, a pump, or a _ steam-jet injector, called the exhauster. The coal being thus distilled in a partial vacuum, gas is more readily given off by it; and the gas once formed is rapidly removed from the retort and from the decomposing influence of the hot retort-walls, and its percentage in hydrocarbons is thus kept as high as may be; but there is at the same time a con- trary tendency towards deterioration of quality, along with increase of yield, when the exhaust is at work. After the washer comes the scrubber, in which the gas is made to ascend a loft column filled with coke or deal boards, down which water trickles, or is made to ascend a space filled with descending spray. Sometimes the gas is made, as in Pelouze and Audouin’s so-called con- denser, to deposit the last traces of tar by impact against solid surfaces; or may be made to run with or against a stream of hot tar, and thus to pick up hydrocarbons from the tar. Sometimes the functions of washer and scrubber are com- bined in one apparatus; sometimes a scrubber is used alone. e gas next passes through the _ dee cle in which it has to pass slowly up, or etter down, through an aanipie extent of thick layers of porous lime, or of iron oxide somewhat moist and rendered porous by sawdust, chaff, or other vehicle, or aided -by porous magnesia, or through both, or, else through washed Weldon slime. The gas ought, before this stage, to be free from all impurities, except carbonic acid, sul- phuretted hydrogen, and bisulphide of carbon, and these are removed in the purifiers. There are various devices for absorbing these by means of ammonia and hydrocarbons lig ees in the earlier stages (Young, aus, Hills). The British parliamentary standard of puty. is that 10 cubic feet of gas shall not stain ead paper (absence of sulphuretted hydrogen) ; that the ammonia in the gas shall not exceed four grains per 100 eubie feet; and that the whole sulphur in the gas shall not exceed twenty-two grains per 100 cubic feet. The purifiers are so arranged that while a sufficient large area of puri- fying material shall always be encountered by the gas, one part of the purifiers after another is thrown out of action, and renewal of the material is thus possible, when required, without inter- ruption to the purification. The valves and con- necting pipes are so arranged as to permit this alternation to be readily effected: and throughout a gas-work, the pipes are so arranged as to permit any single piece of apparatus to be cut out of the gas-stream when required. The gas goes on from the purifiers to the station- meter-house, in which there are (a) the station- meter, a large ‘wet’ meter for measuring the whole make of purified gas; (b) the exhaust, previously referred to; (c) pressure gauges, and (d) pressure-recording instruments ; (e) the station- governor, by adjustment of which the pressure of gas as supplied from the gasholder to the mains is to be regulated. From the station-meter the gas goes on to the gasholder, or holders, to be stored and issued as required. The gasholder is an inverted cylindrical vessel of sheet-iron, placed in a tank of stone, brick, concrete, cast or wrought iron, steel, or a combination of these, but generally of brick or stone, lined with Portland cement, or Yacked with clay puddle, and, where possible, sunk into the ground. The tank contains water, in which the cylindrical vessel floats and rises or sinks. As the floating holder rises and sinks, it is kept vertical by tall columns which surround it, and guide its” motion. On the tops of these columns are pulleys, over which run chains which at one end are con- nected to the crown of the gasholder, while at the other they bear suspended balance-weights. These balance-weights are not quite heavy enough to balance the weight of the floating vessel, which GAS-LIGHTING 101 thus tends to descend and press the gas (contained A sen the water and the crown of the holder) ‘out into the mains, and also back through the _station-meter ; but they so nearly poise the floating older that the small pressure at which the gas is vered through the station-meter is sufficient to ift the holder, and thus to enable gas to accumu- in it when there is no outflow through the main; and when there is such an outflow, the gas- iider oscillates up and down according to the as taken off from the ns and that supplied from the retorts. When the diameter of a gasholder is proportionately great, does not counterbalancing. _ It 1s com- ratively not a heavy structure, and it contains a whieh is lighter than air, so that the pressure non the base, so far as due to the sheet-iron holder and its contents, readily comes to be but jittle more than that which would have been due to an equivalent quantity of air. Mechanical ingenuity has been spent upon framing the holder by means of ribs, and internal bars, so as to give ne maximum strength (freedom from buckling) with the least weight; and upon the construction of telescopic holders, in which the holder is con- structed in two, three, or four lifts or cylinders, of which only the inner one has acrown. In each pair of cylinders the inner one has its lower free edge turned up, so that when it rises it hooks into the down-turned upper free edge of the outer eylin- der, and, as the gasholder goes on filling, lifts the outer cylinder from the tank, and so, if there be more than two lifts, for each succeeding cylinder ; the gas being prevented from escaping between any two of these mobile cylinders by the water which the inner one lifts from the tank in its upturned edge. Recently the construction of the 5 meter has been managed in such a way as to _ dispense with the columnar ‘guides. Necessarily - thespace within the gasholder above the tank water is, by means of pipes, placed in communication both with the station-meter and the mains. The function of the gasholders is a most important one; the act as a reservoir, and usually are of a capacity sut- ficient to contain a twenty-four hours’ maximum peepply (the quantity used on a midwinter day); and they also equalise the pressure. The gas- holder of the South Metropolitan Co. at East ~ Greenwich has six lifts, a diameter of 300 feet, a height when inflated of 180 feet, and a capacity of ~ 12,000,000 cubic feet. The gasholder ensures a Abed supply at all hours both of day and. ee and by its means a comparatively small plant, kept Pee raouely working, is enabled to meet demands for which, if the gas were supplied direct from the retorts, it would uite in uate. _ Before reaching the mains the pressure of the gas is papulated. by the station-governor; an excessive pressure in the mains would result in excessive leakage. There are various devices for securing the automatic adjustment of resistance, | _ whose amount is made to increase or diminish with the eonure 3 either by the gas lifting to a greater or less degree the floating bell of a small gas- holder, and thereby altering the position of a ; conical or parabolic plug suspended within the _ entrance to the main, or (Hunt’s) by working a _ throttle-valve. "The gas is conveyed from the works by main- ia or mains, generally of cast-iron, carefully jointed; the jointing is effected either by turn- 4 and monies, so as to make the pipes fit easily with a little white and red lead, or by md espe which do not exactly fit, and makin ‘them o so by means of caulking, melted lead, | india-rubber, or rust cement; in some cases the pi are connected by ball-and-socket joints; in or diaph . others 4 : Neasinece They consist of two or three separate » Special provision is made for expansion. ——7E~EO At each lowest point provision is made for taking off water, as by a trapped drip-well, the liquid in which can be roe out into a cart and taken to the gas-works. hen mains supply a district the altitudes in which vary considerably, the tendency is for the local pressures to vary correspondingly ; a difference of 100 feet in level makes a difference of 15 inch of water in a pressure-gauge; and therefore it is necessary to use district-governors which control the pressure in particular districts. To the mains are connected branch or service pipes, usually of wrought-iron or lead, in which the deposition of moisture is provided for, either by making the whole service-pipe drain into the main, or by fitting up a drip-well at each lowest int. Pethe gas supplied is measured by meters, of which there are two main varieties, the wet and the dry. The wet meter is a device for measuring out successive units of volume of gas ; the reading will be the same whether the gas be delivered at low or at high pressures ; and there- fore the lower the pressure the less the absolute quantity of material in gas measured through a wet meter, and wice versa. In a wet meter there is a cylinder mounted on an axis; this cylinder is hollow, the hollow being divided into four parts or chambers by partitions, the longitudinal boundaries of which present the form of an Archimedean screw or the rifling of a gun; the gas enters one of these spiral ghaihore at one end; as the gas is pressed in, it displaces water and makes the hollow space lighter than water ; it thus makes the hollow tend to rise, and in that way works the cylinder partly round, No gas can pass through the chamber until it is completely full. When one chamber has been completely filled, two things happen : the entering stream of gas now finds an inlet into the sueceed- ing chamber; and, secondly, the gas in the first chamber finds a possible calle at its opposite end, through a slit which now begins to emerge above water-level. As the cylinder goes on rotating, the first chamber comes to sink under water; water enters the chamber and gas leaves it; and so for each of the four chambers in succession. The axle, thus made to rotate in proportion to the amount of delivered, works a train of wheelwork which y means of pointers shows the number of 10,000’s, the number of 1000’s, and the number of 100’s of cubic feet of gas which have passed through the cylinder. The water must be kept at a constant level ; it may freeze, for which reason the meter should be kept in a sufficiently warm place (not too warm, else the gas will expand and the meter ive too high a reading), or else a non-freezing i? uid should be used ; and the water damps the gas. There are contrivances for maintaining the water- level constant; the meter sometimes shuts off thegas when the water is too low. Thus there may be an automatic addition of water from a subsidiary reser- voir, or an automatic maintenance of level by a hinged float which sinks into the water when liquid fails to support it in its uppermost position (as in the constant-level Sabatanaa! ; or, there may be (Warner and Cowan) a contrivance for transferring the excess of gas delivered at each revolution, when the water is too low, back again for measurement. When the meter is driven too fast the record is too low ; but backwash in the meter then causes flicker- ing at the jet; and the general use of meters too small for the work which they have to do is con- ducive to leakage in the district within which they abound, on account of the high pressure necessary _ to force gas through them. Dry meters are, in principle, a variety of piston- meter ; the fluid is measured by displacing a piston and thereby filling a measured 102 GAS-LIGHTING chambers; each chamber is divided into two by a diaphragm, which may be displaced to one side or the other. The gas is admitted to the one side of this diaphragm until it is displaced to the full extent of its range; when this occurs the gas is admitted to its other side, and the gas pre- viously admitted is allowed to go on to the burner, and so on alternately. The chambers act alter- nately, thus passing the dead-points. The dia- phragms are connected with wheelwork which record their successive oscillations, and represent-on the dials the corresponding number of cubic feet passed through the apparatus. By an act of parliament (1859) all gas-meters must register not more than 2 per cent. in favour of the seller and not more than 3 per cent. in favour of the purchaser of gas; and meters must bear the seal of an inspector appointed under the act. Meters have recently been intro- duced which enable the poorer consumer to purchase gas by ar ll ea on the familiar ‘penny ina slot’ principle (‘coin’ meters), or to pay into the meter a definite sum which will allow the mechanism to transmit the prearranged quantity of gas (‘stop’ meters). In Brussels the gas.burned by day and that used at night were for some years registered on different dials of the same meter. The lighting-power of a gas is measured in terms of the number of candles to which a 5-feet standard flat-flame is equivalent. The lighting value of a gas is measured by the number of candle-hours it will yield per 1000 cubic feet when burned in standard burners; thus 1000 cubic feet of 20-candle gas will keep up a light of 20 candles for 200 hours (using 5 cubic feet per hour), and its lighting value is 4000 candle-hours, or, as it is generally abbreviated, 4000 ‘candles.’ Since a standard candle shines for one hour at the expense of 120 grains of sperm consumed, the lighting value of a gas is tg Wea stated as so many qyeiue of sperm; thus the ‘sperm value’ of 20-candle gas is 20 x 200 x 120 = 48,000 grains per 1000 cubie feet. During recent years cannel coal has become too expensive to make gas from, and the use of cannel gas has been given up in the limited region of the west end of London to which it was formerly supplied. Gas-makers have, therefore, had to reduce their standard, as in Edinburgh, where the 28-candle gas has been replaced by 24-candle gas, or else to turn their attention to the enrich- ment of a poorer gas made from ordinary coal. This enrichment is effected by the addition of hydrocarbon vapours in various forms to the poorer coal-gas. If gas of higher quality be made by a more costly process, so that it costs say d! pence per 1000 cubic feet to make gas of a lighting-power C}, instead of d pence to make gas of a lighting-power C, the cost per additional candle of lighting-power is {(d'!-d) +(C!—C)} pence per 1000 cubic feet of gas made. If the enriching gas be added in the non of f cubic feet to 1000 of coal-gas, of a ighting value of C candle-hours per 5 cubic feet, then if the resulting (1000+/) cubic feet of en- riched gas have a lighting value of C! candle-hours per 5 cubic feet, and if the original gas and the added enriching gas respectively costd and d! pence r 1000 cubic feet, the additional cost per 1000 cubic eetof gas made is { f(d!-—d) =+[( 1000 +f) (C1-C)]} pence per additional candle of lighting-power. If we add a richer gas to a poorer, the lighting-power of the mixture is generally not equal to the arith- metical mean as deduced by calculation; there is generally deterioration due to dilution; but it often happens that if we add a little poor gas to an exceedingly rich one the lighting-power is higher than we would have expected. But if we apply to the actual results of enrichment the same methods which we would use if there had been no deteriora- tion, we obtain a useful nominal value for the light- ing-power of the richer gas, which is called its ‘enrichment value.’ Thus if we mix 134 cubic feet of oil-gas, of an unknown enrichment value C", with 1000 cubic feet of 14-candle coal-gas, and obtain 10134 cubic feet of 15-candle gas, we find, from the equation 10134 x 15 = (1000 x 14) + 134.0%, that C!!=90 candles, the nominal lighting-power of the enriching gas, or its enrichment value. As means of enrichment by mere admixture, we have -pohenp scale car which is much used on the Continent, and which for small enrichment adds about 4700 candle-hours per gallon of benzol evaporated into the gas; carburine or light petro- leum oil (practically hexane, CeHis), used tosome extent in London under the Maxim patents, and adding about 1600 candle-hours per gallon evap- orated ; and oil-gas. Oil has also been employed as spray injected into the coal-retorts themselves ; and coal-gas is largely carburetted by being exposed, along with the vapours cutesned: by the distillation of oil, to a high temperature, so that. these vapours may be rendered more ‘ permanent,’ or less able to condense in transit daroash the pipes. Tt is of great importance that in the first place gasfittings should be adequate to supply the maximum demand for gas; and in the pei that the gas should emerge from each burner under a low pressure. If the gasfittings—pipes, &c.—be inadequate, as et mostly are, full flames cannot be produced, and the light is unsatisfactory ; if, on the other hand, the full pressure of the mains is communicated too directly to the gas-burners them- selves, there is a tendency to flare. This can be mitigated by partially turning off at the meter; but even then the variable demand may result in variable pressures at the burners. Thereshould be a governor for each gas-burner, or for each small eroup of gas-burners; these are now readily pro- curable, and when they are used a full flame is obtained which is constantly and steadily kept up by a comparatively slow supply of gas; the incan- descent particles or heavy heated hydrocarbon vapours upon which luminosity depends are allowed to remain as long as possible in the flame, and the gas is thoroughly burned ; and air is not swirled into the interior of the flame by the swift current of gas, thus spoiling the luminosity. An ordinary burner gives greatly superior results when governed ; since the electric light has caused more attention to be paid to the efficient burning of gas, the burners themselves have been greatly improved ; but burners should always be selected with reference to the quality of gas to be used in them. The ordinary ratstail burner has long given place to the batswing and fishtail burners, the former of which are made with a clean slit across the head of the burner; the latter have two par converging towards one another, the result being that the two streams of gas meet one another and spread out into a flat sheet of flame. The former use much gas at ordinary pressures, and a very small pressure (4-inch of water just below the burner) is sufficient to bring out the full lighting- power. In _ hollow-top burners the pressure is relieved by the gas swirling in a cavity below the outlet-slit. Burners of these classes should always be selected with steatite tops; metal burners soon rust and spoil the flame. In Argand burners the gas issues through a ring of holes; the flame is— tubular, and is surrounded by a chimney; air ascends both inside and outside the tubular flame. In Dumas burners the circle of holes is ee by a circular slit, and a regulator controls the admis- sion of air. These various burners have also been collected in groups to form the so-called sunlights, GAS-LIGHTING 103 and so forth; but the recent remarkable progress in gas-lighting has been due to the study of the mutual actions of flames, and to the use of hot air and sometimes hot gas. For example, we have concentric Argand flames (Sugg) ; porcelain eylin- ders in the axis of an Argand flame to keep the flame from flickering, to keep up the heat of the flame, and also themselves to radiate light whenin- candescent; burners in which gas from a circular slit plays on the under surface of a porcelain globe; and especially regenerative burners of various models, generally with inverted flames, in which the heated products of combustion are made to heat the incoming air. Globes and shades cut off a good deal of light ; a clear glass globe cuts off from 9 to 12 per cent. ; und glass about 40; opal globes about 60. Globes should never have a lower aperture narrower than 4 or 5 inches ; the ordinary marrow aperture makes a strong draught of air, which materially weakens the brightness of the flame, and unsteadiesit. For use with incandescent mantles globes are now made with surfaces mathe- matically facetted (‘holophanes’) or channelled (‘diffusers’) which distribute the incident light and spread out the light so as to make it appar- ently fill the globe. Sometimes gas is burned with air in a small Bunsen burner, and over the flame is fitted a basket of platinum wire (Lewis), or a small mantle con- oe thoria along with a little ceria (Auer von Welsbach), which emits a brilliant white light on incandescence ; or the ordinary flame of gas may be rendered more luminous by ing the gas over melted naphthaline, which it takesup ( Albo-carbon). In Denayrouze’s modification of the Bunsen burner, the gas and air are effectively mixed hy means of a little fan-wheel driven by a minute electromotor ; the flame is altered in character and becomes in- tensely hot; if a Welsbach mantle be used with such a burner, the lighting effect up as high as 270 candles with a consumpt of 9 cable feet of London gas per hour. In Bandsept’s Bunsen burner, the and air are na mixed by means of a baffler immediately under the flame; the result is about — light given by a Denayrouze. For heating purposes, coal-gas mixed with air produces a smokeless flame and a higher tempera- ture than it does when burned in luminous flames ; and so for direct heating the Bunsen Burner (q.v. ) eearle is suitable. In one modification of the ndsept Bunsen burner the air is driven through an inverted injector under high pressure, dragging eg it, and being mixed therewith; and the me is produced under the surface of any liquid which it may be desired to heat up. Thus about 90 per cent. of the heat evolved is utilised directly. Gas produces the same quantity of heat, provided that it is completely burned, in whatever way it is burned. onvenience, cleanliness, may often determine the use of Bunsen flames; but where radiation is expected to come into play the lumin- ous flame is more effective—as for cooking (see WARMING). Coal-gas for cooking is economical, as it can be turned off when not wanted, and turned on at once ; and it is smokeless if properly burned. Of course it ought not to be left unprovided with a chimney. For ventilation, a well-arranged system of lamps, especially of the regenerative , will provide motive pe for carrying away their own products of combustion and for renewing the air of e room. Gas is largely used for gas-engines (q.v.), which in 1896 were being made up to 1000 horse-power. The price of light obtained from coal-gas may be ascertained by finding the cost of a candle-hour— the light of one standard sperm candle for one hour —in each case. The table combines the data of Stevenson Macadam, Letheby, Thompson, Poris, and others, and gives the price per ecandle-hour, in thousandths of a penny : Edinburgh gas, 24 candle-power, in a 5-feet burner (ie 5); lighting effect=-24 candles ; price of gas %. per thousand cubic feet..........-.seeeerees 15 Do. in a 4-feet burner (No. 4); lighting effect we NTO CRRA Se Bhi ows pV eb oven rhs orcceectives 80 Do. 8-feet burner (No. 3); 11° candles.......... 90 Do, 2 " No. 2); 69 M herenncaaas ad 104 Do. 1 "“ No, 1 ; 26 Oo -Sar bend eh “40 Do. } " Mo. B)5 1 OOG~ 9) ea cc ereves 210 Do. with a Welsbach incandescent mantle, in a y pemeg burner (1-inch pressure); average effect, candles ; mantle 15d,, lasting 1000 hours...... 8°125 Gas at say 2s. 9d. for 16-candle gas; burned in DT TLIET TS OL TCL TL TL Poe Te PEE shat Do. in Siemens’ precision Argand burner... ...... 53. Do. « Inverted Siemens, Buschke and Wenham... 2°6-5%3 Do. burned in Welsbach mantle as above.......... 2-09 Do. " " with Bandsept burner 2°04 Do. " «With Denayrouze burner, 9 cubic feet, 270 candle-power..........++00-ee0+ 2 Sperm oil, at 2s. per gallon, in Argands ............. 8°7-27°5 " " in common lamps....... 0 Paraffin, at 8d. per gallon, in modern lamps......... 5°8-8°9 Tallow candles, at 6d. per Ib.........---0eeeeseeeees 110 Composite candles, at 84. 1) ......-+-ss0cerecececese 160 Paraffin candles, at 5d Wisskiate at eb eins sccenbed 62°5 Wax candles, at 2s. Wie Josh vinous yGe ones o> parece da arc lamps, 875 candle-power, consuming 500 wati per hour, at 5d. per 1000 watts.......... 2°96 Blectricit; glow pe 16 candle-power each, consuming 56 watts per hour, at 5d. per 1000 watts ; lamp 1s., lasting 1000 hours............+++-seeeeee 17°85 The price of gas, like the ad will vary from place to place, owing to differences in the price of eoal, the cost of the works, and so forth. In the London Gas-light and Coke Company’s accounts we find the gross cost of manufacture of each 1000 cubic feet of gas sold is 23°418 pence ; the residuals —coke, breeze, tar, and ammoniacal liquor—return 9°036d.: so the net current cost at the works is 14°382d. for each 1000 cubic feet sold; the cost of distribution is 3°571d. ; public lighting involves an outlay of 0°437d.; rates and taxes come to 2°696d. ; management to 0°894d.; various charges (bad debts, annuities, legal expenses, &c.) come to 0°546d.—altogether 22°526d. : which meter and stove rents, &e., bring down to 22°144d. The average price of the gas sold is 33°705d.; the difference, 11°561d. per thousand on a sale of 9,453,889,000 cubic feet in six months, corresponds to a gross profit of just over 84 per cent. per annum on the paid-up capital of £11,198,000. The capital value of the works of this company in January 1896 was £11,792,851, 9s. lld.; that of the South Metro- politan Company was £3,405,715, 4s. ; and that of the Commercial Company, £877,951, 10s. 9d. The risks of gas-lighting are twofold—explosion and poisoning. Explosion cannot occur until there is about 66 per cent. of gas in the air, but it is dangerous to ‘look for a leak with a light.’ As to comets the gas must escape into a room without ing noticed until there is about one-half per cent. of carbonic oxide—i.e. from 4 to 12 per cent. of coal-gas—in the air of the room, before danger to life becomes imminent; and this per- centage is rarely attained by ordinary escapes into rooms of fair size. Fatal accidents have generally happened from escapes into small rooms, and also from the travelling of gas from broken mains through earth into an earth-floored house, which may draw the earth-gases through it in a deo- dorised condition. A gas-escape is most likely to be serious in its consequences when it takes place into the upper part of a room; the per- cen near the ceiling may then come to be much greater than it is at first lower down (see POoIsONs ). 93 From 1639 onwards the attention of scientific men had repeatedly been turned to ‘burning springs. or streams of ‘inflammable air’ issuing from wells and mines in the coal districts of England, and com- munications on the subject were addressed to the Royal Society of London. Some time before 1691 104 ‘GAS-LIGHTING the Rev. Dr John Clayton, Dean of Kildare, ad- dressed a letter to the Fie Robert Boyle, in which he described experiments on the production and srorege of inflammable gas distilled from coal; and this letter was published in the te Society’s Transactions for 1789. In 1787 Lord Dundonald made some domestic experiments on lighting b coal-gas. In 1792 William Murdoch lit up his house and office at Redruth in Cornwall ; in 1798 he lit up a part of Boulton & Watt’s manufactory at Soho, Birmingham; and in 1805, with 1000 burners, the mills of icaars Philips and Lee at Salford. In 1801 Le Bon lit his house with coal-gas, and in 1802 he proposed eb a part of the city of Paris. In 1803 Wintzer or Winsor lectured in London upon the new light; he wasa sanguine projector, holding forth fantastic hopes, but was instrumental in found- ing the Chartered Gas Company which obtained its Act of Parliament in 1810. In 1813 he was replaced by Mr Samuel Clegg, who had been managing Boulton and Watt’s gas-lighting since 1805 in suc- cession to Mr Murdoch, and who was the inventor of the hydraulic main, the wet meter, and the wet- lime purifier. In 1813 Westminster Bridge was lighted by gas, and immediately thereafter the new method of lighting made very rapid pro- gress in Great Britain and other countries; and in the contest for supremacy between coal-gas and oil, wood, and peat-gas, which were at one time some- what extensively tried, coal-gas took the lead. II. Oil-gas is prepared from heavy mineral oils (sp. gr.=0°9) or paraffins, from their residues, and sometimes from spent grease, suint, waste mutton fat (in Australia), &e. One hundred Ib. of oil yields from 722 to 1092 cubic feet of gas, of which one cubic foot per hour yields a light of 10 to 12 candles. The oil is mad to flow in a thin steady stream into cast-iron retorts, heated to between 900° and 1000° C. : these retorts are hori- zontal or vertical, or are in some cases so arranged that gas formed in one retort or section of a retort is further heated in another retort or in another section of the same retort. The condensation requires special attention; oil-gas has a_tend- ency to carry non-permanent vapours with it, and these must be removed. The purification necessitates the use of scrubbers, purifiers, and so on as in coal-gas. Even in refined paraffin and petroleum oils there is sulphur present often far in excess of that contained in an equivalent quantity of coal-gas. Oil-gas must be burned at a low pressure and in small burners; the standard burner is No. 1 (1 cubic foot per hour). Oil-gas is used for lighting railway carriages ; the gas, carefully purified, is compressed at 10 atmo- spheres’ pressure ; it is then transferred to the reser- voirs borne by the railway carriage, each of which carries, at 6 atmospheres’ pressure, enough gas for 33 to 40 hours’ lighting; a regulator governs the pressure at the burners, and each burner, con- suming 0°777 cubie feet per hour, gives 7 candle- light. Compressed oil-gas has also been applied to the we of buoys, and to some extent to steam- ship lighting. In the Young & Bell process, oil is made to trickle from cooler to hotter regions, but at no point is the temperature relatively very high ; as the oil descends, any given constituent of it meets a temperature competent partly to decompose it into lighter and heavier hydrocarbon gases and vapours: the gaseous and vaporous mixture pro- duced travels upwards and meets the down-flowing stream; this stream dissolves everything except the lightest gases and vapours, which pass off as oil-gas, without being subjected to any excessive temperature, while the materials dissolved find their way back towards the retort, and are again subjected to heat and further decomposition. The only by-product is a very pure form of coke. This gas has an enrichment value of about 90, and may e applied to the enrichment either of ordina coal-gas or to that of poor gas or water-gas. Tatham mixes oil-gas with about 15 per cent. of oxygen, and thereby enables the gas to be burned directly in greater volume with ordinary small burners, so that a lighting-power is attained equi- valent to 100 candles per 5 cubic feet. The light is brilliantly white, and the flames are not so small that they are chilled by the burner itself. III. Peat-gas and tv. Wood-gas are oecasion- ally used. Wocd-ges is a by-product in the pre- cha of i lp eg (crude acetic) acid; its ighting-power is about 20 candles; the yield is 546 to 642 eubic feet per 1000 lb. of wood ; of the crude gas 20 to 25 per cent. consists of carbonicacid. Peat yields 320 to 500 cubic feet of gas per 100 Ib. ; light- ing-power about 18 candles; the carbonic acid in the crude gas is about 30 per cent. V. Procite Gas.—When a limited stream of air is driven through glowing coke, the coke is first burned to carbonie acid; the carbonie acid, as it travels through the remainder of the brightly glow- ing coke, takes up carbon and, for the most part, becomes carbonic oxide; the resultant gaseous mixture consists of carbonic oxide (about 26 per cent.), the nitrogen of the air employed (about 70 per cent.), and some undecomposed carbonie acid (about 4 percent.). This mixture is combustible with a clean flame, and this kind of fuel is now largely employed (generally with utilisation of the waste heat to warm the incoming current of air, as in the so-called regenerative furnaces) for oe the retorts in coal-gas-making, in metallurgic operations, in fay and eth making, and in boiler firing. The furnace hearth becomes a clear, clean, deoxidising region of intense heat without visible flame. The gas from the producer is very hot; if it be passed at once into the furnace, a large roportion of the heat of the coke may be utilised ; if it be allowed to cool, a considerable percentage is lost. The usual yield of producer gas is from coal (Siemens) about 160,000, from coke about 175,000 cubic feet per ton ; the heating values are, for cooled gas, respectively 29,700 and 26,900 calories per Pecmsawl cubic feet, or altogether 60 and 68 per cent. of those of the respective materials employed. VI. Producer Water-gas.—When mixed air and steam are driven through glowing coke (or anthra- cite, Dowson), the air keeps the coke glowing, and, as in the previous case, produces carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and nitrogen; the steam acts on the glowing coke and produces hydrogen and carbonic oxide; the. result is a mixture whose composition varies agperding to the relative quantities of air and steam, and according to the temperature in the producer; as an average it may be said to con- sist of 9 per cent. of carbonic acid, 24 of carbonic oxide, 13 of hydrogen, and 54 of nitrogen. If an excess of steam be used, there is more hydrogen, more carbonic acid, and less carbonic oxide. he usual yield is about 168,000 cubic feet per ton of material ; the heating value is about 33,500 calories per 1000 cubic feet; altogether about 80 per cent. of that of the coke and anthracite employed. VII. Water-gas.—In 1793 Lavoisier discovered that when steam, unmixed with air, is passed through glowing coke, the coke is oxidised; car- bonic oxide and hydrogen pr are produced, theo- retically, pure and in equal volumes; practically, the product contains 3 to 8 per cent. of carbonic acid, and 4 to 9 of nitrogen. The yield is from coke (7,000,000 calories per ton) about 35,000 cubic feet, with a heating Gabi of about 75,000 calories per 1000 cubic feet, or on the whole about 40 per cent. of the heat-value of the coke; from coal (7,800,000 calories per ton) about 42,000 cubic feet, at 95,000 calories, or about 49 per cent. In the i Ee cee ta teed GAS-LIGHTING GASCONY 105 process the steam cools down the glowing coke; consequently air must be sent through the coke at intervals fa ut 4 minutes steam and 10 minutes air) in order to restore its glow; and a series of ucers must be so conjoined as to act alternately with one another, before the process can result in The b -product, @ continuous supply of water-gas. roducer rf Be produ in large , Which may quantities (110,000 cubic feet, at 26,900 calories 1000) by regulating the supply of air while the coke-glow is being worked up, may be used for boilers or for gas-engines. hen it is so util- ised, the net cost of making simple water-gas is between 5d. and 6d. per 1000 cubie feet, about 8d. per 1000 less than coal-gas. Water-gas gives on combustion an extremely high ape ese ty which Saves time in furnace work; gold, silver, and copper, and even an alloy of 70 parts of gold and - $80 of platinum, are readi — in quantity by 0 it; hence for bringing objects such as Fahneh- jelm’s combs (a series of rods of cron Eye into brillian t luminous incandescence, for welding, or for metallurgical operations involving high tempera- tures, itis very suitable ; and in gas-engines it works cleanly. When water-gas is used with Fahnehjelm combs, the quantity of gas used is (Dr F. Fischer) 180 litres, or 64 cubic feet. per hour, the light being, when the burner is new, 22 to 24 candles, and after 60 hours, reduced to 16. The combs (15s. per hun- dred) uire renewal after 100 hours’ use. As a carrier of heat, coal-gas is twice as effective in respect of quantity of heat; its heating-power is about 150,000 calories per 1000 cubie feet, which represents about 20 per cent. of the whole heat of the coal distilled, or about 50 per cent. after allow- ing for the heating-power retained in the coke, breeze, and tar ; and this concentration of heating- sega in smaller bulk may in some cases transfer he advantage of cheapness, through smaller cost of distribution, to coal-gas. Water-gas is much used in the United States. It is supplied to houses, either pure or mixed with the coal-gas produced in the manufacture of the coke from which the water- gas is made, and it is then known as ‘ fuel-gas ;’ ut more generally it is carburetted by being ex- posed to a high temperature along with naphtha or petroleum vapours, and the resultant mixture is “rae as illuminating gas. Unfortunately the hig leche of carbonic oxide, which is odour- less, has caused a high death-roll. VIL. Acetylene.—This gas, C2H2, long a chemical curiosity merely, is now prepared on a large scale by the action of water upon calcium carbide, which is made by exposing a mixture of lime and carbon to the temperature of the electric are in the electric furnace. The carbon unites with the hydrogen of the water, forming acetylene; the ealcium with the oxygen, forming lime, which, as slaked lime, remains in the water. This gas gives, with a half cubic-foot burner, an intensely white solid-looking flame of 24 candle-power. For en- richment its enrichment value is about 100 candles for about the first five candles of additional illumin- ating power; after which the effect of dilution wears off, and the enrichment value may go up to about 150. Sufficiently dilute pure acetylene is not pep rectanly poisonous ; but it has a character- istic le odour, Jota f due, when it is made from carbide, to traces of phosphuretted hyd . A ton of carbide produces about 11,000 cubic art of acetylene; and though estimates have been published which show a cost of £4 per ton, the manufacturers have not been able, in Europe, to putit on the market at less than 405s. a ton ( 1396). IX. Natural Gas issues from the earth in many nthe eternal fires at Baku (q.v.), for example; m other -wells in the Caucasus, nature or opened in boring for oil ; in China ; but principally in North America. At Fredonia, New York state, gas escaping from the earth was used in 1821. In 859 boring for oil in Pennsylvania and elsewhere became general ; the gas associated with this was con- veyed to a distance and burned asa nuisance. The general utilisation of the gas began in 1872 at Fair- view, Butler County, Pennsylvania. Many of the gas-wells lasted only four or five years. In 1874 the gas was used in iron-smelting, and by 1884 one Pitts- urg company used gas equivalent tothe produce of tons of coal a day. Pittsburg, formerly lying under a continuous black pall of smoke, became bright and clear. But now the supply has fallen off, and Pittsburg has been supplied with gas from West Virginia, at a distance of 102 miles (and see above at p. 98). a is supplied with natural gas from Greentown, Ind., at a distance of 116 miles. Nearly all the gas obtained is now dis- tributed by pipes and pumping engines, and in the United States of America about 400 million cubic feet per a. thus distributed. Natural gas is also found by boring elsewhere in Pennsylvania, in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois, Kansas, the Dakotas, and at Los Angeles in California. The North American gas consists mainly of marsh-gas ; sometimes it contains nothing else than marsh-gas and a little carbonic acid; sometimes there are various hie iy of hydrogen, ethylene, traces of carbonic oxide, nitrogen, oxygen, or heavy hydrocarbons. The Baku gas contains 3 per cent. of heavy hydrocarbons, and is more regularly deficient in hydrogen. The American gas is used for all metallurgical processes except the blast-furnace, and is very convenient for glass-making. In some laces the gas is carburetted or used with Fahneh- jelm’s combs. Natural gas may possibly underlie the English salt-beds. See King’s work on coal-gas edited by Newbigging, whose Gas Managers’ Handbook is also Tis, Bai ; Wank- lyn’s Gas Engineers’ Chemical Mi l, and Butterfield, ‘as Manufacture (1896) for chemistry ; Field’s Analysis, and the Gas World’s yearly analyses. Gascoigne, Str WILLIAM (1350-1419), judge, was appointed on the accession of Henry IV. a justice_in the Court of Common Pleas, and in ovember 1400 was raised to be Chief-justice of the King’s Bench. He was evidently a fearless judge, as he refused to obey the king’s command to sentence to death Archbishop Scrope and Mow- bray after the northern insurrection in 1405. Nine days after the death of Henry IV. a successor was ae se a his office, which disposes of the fiction that Henry V. continued him in it (Shakespeare’s Henry IV., V. ii. 102-121). The famous story of his encounter with the dissolute young prince Hal lacks historical support. Mr Croft and Mr Solly Flood believe it originated in the Rolls entry under Edward I., that the prince, afterwards Edward IL., was expelled from the court for half a year, for insulting one of his father’s ministers. The story as ascri to Prince Hal first appears in Elyot (1531). Hall has the story also, and after him Holinshed, although none of the three, like Shake- speare, mentions the judge by name. See Croft’s edition of Elyot’s Boke named the Governour (1880), and Church’s Henry V. (1889). Gascony (Lat. Vasconia), an ancient district in south-western France, situated between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western renees. The total area is over 10,000 sq. m.; its inhabitants, numbering about a million, have reserved their dialect, customs, and individuality. The Gascon is little in statare and thin, but strong and lithe in frame: ambitious and enterprising, but ionate and given to boasting and exaggeration. ence the name Gasconade has gone into litera- ture as a synonym for harmless vapouring. The Gascons, moreover, are quick-witted, cheerful, and 106 GASCONY GAS-ENGINE persevering, and make capital soldiers. This is especially true of the Gascons in the Gers depart- ment ; the peasants of the Landes, living in mud- huts, are extremely ignorant and rude in their manners, but yet are honest and moral. Gascony derived its name from the Basques or Vasques, who, driven by the Visigoths from their own territories on the southern slope of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side of that mountain-range in the middle of the 6th century, and settled in the former Roman district of Novem- populana. In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Basques were forced to submit to the Franks, They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of Aquitania (q.v.), who for a time were in- dependent of the crown, but were afterwards con- Sei by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne. ubsequently Gascony became incorporated with Aquitaine, and shared its fortunes. See Monlezun, Histoire de la Gascogne (6 vols. Auch, 1846-50) ; Cénac-Moncaut, Littérature populaire de la Gascogne (Paris, 1868); and J. F. Bladé, Contes populaires de la Gascogne (3 vols. Paris, 1886). Gas-engine. Gas-engines are heat-engines of a type in which the fuel is combustible gas, which is burned within the engine itself. In all heat- engines there is a working substance, which is alternately heated and cooled, and does work by alternate expansion and contraction of its volume, thereby converting into mechanical form a portion of the energy which is communicated to it as heat. In most heat-engines the combustion of the fuel which supplies heat to the working substance goes on outside of the vessels within which the working substance is contained : the steam-engine is a char- acteristic example of this class. Gas-engines, on the other hand, belong to the internal combustion class: the working substance is made up of the fuel itself—before and after com bitaHancseiene with a certain quantity of diluting air. Internal com- bustion engines have the enormous advantage that there is no heating surface of metal through which the heat must pass on its way to the working sub- stance. The existence of a heating surface in the external combustion engine imposes practically a somewhat low limit upon the highest temperature to which the working substance may be raised. In gas-engines a far higher temperature is practicable, and the result is that it becomes possible to convert a larger fraction of the heat into work. The theory of Thermodynamics (q.v.) shows that even the most efficient conceivable Tet fies can convert into work no more than a certain fraction of the heat supplied to it—a fraction which is increased by increasing the range through which the tempera- ture of the working substance is caused to vary. This range is much greater in the gas-engine than in the steam-engine, and the ideal efticiency—that is to.say, the fraction of the heat convertible into work—is consequently greater. In practice, although the gas-engine as yet falls short of its ideal effici- ency to a much greater extent than does the steam- engine, it is actually the more efficient of the two. A pound of fuel converted into gas and used in a modern gas-engine gives a better return in mechanical work than if it were burned in the furnace of a steam-engine of the most economical type. For small powers the gas-engine has the great practical merit, as compared with the steam- engine, of dispensing with the attendance which a boiler and furnace would require. This considera- tion has made it in many thousands of cases an economical motor even when the gas it uses is of the comparatively costly kind supplied for illum- inating purposes. From the year 1823 onwards a number of pro- posals were made by Brown, Wright, Barnett, and others for the construction of engines to work by the explosive combustion of gas. Algheaets in some instances these inventions anticipated later suecess- ful engines, and although the details were often care- fully elaborated, no practical success was attained till 1860, when an effective gas-engine was brought into public use by M. Lenoir. Lenoir’s engine resembled in appearance a single- cylinder horizontal steam-engine. As the piston advanced it drew in an explosive mixture of gas and air. About mi? stroke this was ignited by an electric spark, and for the remainder of the stroke work was done through the pressure of the hot products of the explosion. During the back-stroke these products were expelled to the atmosphere, while on the other side of the piston a fresh ex- plosive mixture was being taken in and exploded at mid-stroke as before. o keep the cylinder cool enough to admit of lubrication it was surrounded by an external casing within which cold water was caused to circulate. This water-jacket has con- tinued to be a feature of nearly all modern gas- engines. An indicator-diagram from Lenoir’s engine is shown in fig. 1. From A to B the gas and air are Cc D Aes Fig. 1.—Indicator-diagram of Lenoir’s Engine. being sucked in. The rapid rise of pressure from B to C is due to the ignition of the mixture. After C the hot products of combustion go on expanding to the end of the stroke, D, and the pressure diminishes although (as recent investigations have shown) the rocess of combustion is to some extent continued into this stage. The back-stroke, DA, expels the burned gases at atmospheric pressure. Lenoir’s engine used about 95 cubic feet of gas per horse-power per hour, which is about five times the quantity required by the best gas-engines of the present day. Its poor economy was mainly due to the small amount of expansion which the hot gases underwent after the explosion. Another drawback was that the average pressure upon the piston was so low as to make the engine bulky in proportion to the work performed by it. These defects are remedied in modern gas-engines by compressing the mixture before it is ex- ploded, so that a greater range of expansion is peared to reduce the burned gases to the atmo- spheric pressure at which they are expelled. This secures greater efficiency, while at the same time the higher mean effective pressure of the work- ing substance permits an engine of a given size to have more power. Compression of the ex- plosive mixture had been proposed by Barnett as early as 1838, and was a feature in several later patents; but its advantages were first practically realised in the well-known and highly successful engine of Otto, which dates from 1876. Nine years earlier (in 1867) a gas-engine had been commercially introduced by Otto in conjunc- tion with Langen which, although now obsolete, deserves mention both on account of the success which it achieved and the peculiarity of its action. The Otto and Langen engine was of the free-piston type (originally proposed by Barranti and Matteucci in 1857). There was no compression of the ex- plosive mixture; it was taken in dering. the early part of the up-stroke of a piston which rose in a vertical cylinder. Then the mixture was ignited by being brought into momentary contact with a oo, GAS-ENGINE 107 flime through the action of a special slide-valve. Under the impulse of the explosion the piston rose with great velocity to the top of its stroke, being free to rise without doing work on the engine shaft. The burned gases then cooled, and their pressure fell below that of the atmosphere. The piston was therefore urged down by the pressure of the air, and in coming down it was automatically put into with the shaft, and so did work, the products of combustion being expelled during the last part of the down-stroke. The engine was excessively noisy, but it took less than half the amount of gas that had been taken by Lenoir. Otto’s invention of 1876 again halved the consumption of gas, and quickly raised the gas- engine to the position of a commercially important motor. Its success may be judged from the fact that in 1889 there were some thirty thousand engines of this type in use, of sizes which give from 100 horse-power down to a fraction of 1 horse-power. In the Otto engine the cylinder is generally horizontal and single-acting, with a trunk piston, and it takes two revolutions of the crank- shaft to complete a cycle of operations. During the first forward stroke gas and air are drawn in, in the ees proper to form an explosive mixture. ring the first backward stroke the mixture is compressed into a large clearance space behind the iston. When the next forward stroke is about to bein, the compressed mixture is ignited, and work is done by the heated gases during the second for- ward stroke. The second backward stroke com- pletes the cycle by causing the burned gases to be expelled into an exhaust-pipe leading to the outer air. The clearance space is, however, left full of burned gases, and this portion of the previous charge is allowed to mix with the fresh air and gas which is drawn in during the first forward stroke of the next cycle. Since only one of the four strokes which are sae bie to complete a cycle is effective in doing work, a massive fly-wheel, running fast, is used to furnish a large magazine of energy, and in cases where exceptional uniformity of ‘speed is im- portant—as, for instance, in electrie lighting—it is usual to have two heavy fly-wheels. centrifugal governor controls the engine by cutting off the supply of gas when the speed exceeds a prescribed limit. The deg is kept moderately cool by the circulation of cold water in a water-jacket; and the usual means of igniting the charge is a slide- valve, the construction of which is described below. The general appearance of an Otto engine, as made by Messrs Crossley Brothers, is too well known to n an extended description, It resembles a single-cylinder horizontal steam-engine, heavily built and mounted on a somewhat high bed-plate. Fig. 2.—Section through Cylinder of Otto’s Engine. In the smallest forms a vertical arrangement of the cylinder is adopted, and for the largest Saat a pair of horizontal cylinders are set side y side. Fig. 2 shows some of the principal details by a horizontal section through the cylinder. The piston, P, appears in the figure at the back end of its stroke, and the space A is the clear- ance, Its volume is usually from two to three fifths of the volume swept through by the piston. BBB is the water-jacket. C is the exhaust-valve, which is opened by the action of a revolving cam during the second back-stroke of the cycle. The slide-valve, D, is made to slide backwards and for- wards across the back end of the cylinder by means of a connecting-rod driven by a short crank on the lay-shaft, E, which is driven by bevel or screw gear from the main shaft, so that it turns once for two revolutions of the main shaft. This valve serves to admit gas and air, and also to carry an igniting flame to the mixture after compression in the cylinder. An igniting jet is kept burning at F, behind the valve. In the valve there is a small chamber, G, supplied with gas, and as this passes the jet it ignites and continues burning until b the further movement of the valve the chamber, G, communicates with the cylinder through the open- ing H, by which time the back of the chamber is closed. In a number of recent Otto engines the ignition of the mixture is brought about in a differ- ent way. There is a short tube closed at one end and asap Sno migs e the other with the cylinder, through a valve. The tube is kept red-hot by a Bunsen-flame playing round it, and at the a, moment a portion of the charge within the cylinder is esa access to the red-hot tube through the valve. Fig. 3 isa copy, of an indicator-diagram from an Otto engine. is the first stroke of the cycle, D C E A Fig. 3.—Indicator-diagram of Otto’s Engine. and corresponds to the taking in of gas and air at a arene sensibly the same as that of the atmo- sphere. BC is the compression stroke. At C igni- tion takes place and raises the pressure quickly to D. CDEB is the effective forward stroke, and the exhaust-valve is opened for the escape of the waste gases near the end of this stroke at E. The expulsion of the gases goes on from B as the a moves back to A, and this completes the cycle. There are now a number of other successful gas- engines which more or less resemble Otto’s. In Clerk’s engine a similar cycle is performed, except that there is an explosion at each forward stroke. The waste escape through exhaust-ports near the front end of the cylinder, which are uncovered by the advance of the piston, and a displacer cylin- der or pump immediately forces in a fresh mixture, which is compressed during the return stroke. In Andrew’s (the Stockport) engine, and in Robson's (made by Messrs Tangye), an impulse in every revolution is secured by compressing the explosive mixture in a pump, which in some cases is supplied by using the front end of the working cylinder itself for this purpose. In the ‘ Griffin’ engine ( Messrs Dick, Kerr, & Co.) explosion occurs at both ends of the cylinder, but only at every third stroke: the cycle includes the drawing in and rejecting of a ‘scavenger’ charge of air, as well as the treat in and compression of the explosive mixture an the rejection of the burned gases. A recent engine 108 GAS-ENGINE possessing much originality is Atkinson’s, the dis- tinctive features of which are shown in fig. 4. Here the piston acts on the crank-shaft not directly but through a toggle-joint, which has the effect of com- pelling the piston to make four single strokes for TC pees of which make their strokes simultaneously. he mixture is compressed, exploded, and expanded first behind one piston; then the products of com- bustion are allowed to pass to the front end of both cylinders, driving back both pistons, and under- going further expansion. Mean- while the other cylinder has taken in a fresh charge, which is now compressed behind its piston, and is exploded when the next forward stroke begins. During the explosion in a gas- engine cylinder the highest value of the a is usually from 180 to 200 lb. per square inch, and the highest temperature is about 3000° F. The process of explosion is by no means instantaneous. After ignition the pressure and tempera- ture rise with great rapidity, as the indicator-diagrams (figs. 3 and 5) show, but combustion is not ecom- pie when the highest point in the iagram has been reached. Only about 60 per cent, of the whole heat which the combustion of the gas should yield is developed up to that point. During the subsequent ex- Fig. 4.—Atkinson’s Gas-engine. one revolution of the shaft. The four strokes are of different lengths. In the first forward stroke the piston starts from the back end of the cylinder and draws in gas and air. Returning it makes ashorter stroke, compressing the mixture into a space not swept through. Then the mixture is fired, and work is done during another and considerably longer forward stroke, and finally the cycle is com- pleted by a return stroke, which is long enough to completely expel the burned gases. The mixture is ignited by means of a red-hot tube, but.in this case there is no valve to control the time of firing; it is determined simply by the compression of the explo- sive mixture against a cushion of waste gas in the topof the tube. Fig. 5 is an indicator-diagram from Atkinson’s engine. AB is the admission stroke. From B to C the explosive mixture is compressed ; at C it is fired, and the effective working stroke, CDE, begins. Its length is more than twice that of D E x B Fig. 5.—Indicator-diagram of Atkinson’s Engine. the compression stroke. ‘n the long return stroke, EA, the products of combustion are wholly expelled, except for a small quantity contained in the clear- ance space, which is no greater than the clearance necessarily left behind any piston. This complete (or, to be more exact, nearly complete) expulsion of the burned gases is a good feature in Atkinson’s cycle, but the most distinctive merit is the relatively long working stroke, which secures much expansion, so that the gases do not escape until their pressure falls to a value not greatly exceeding that of the atmosphere, and at the same time makes the expansion occur quickly, giving the hot gases com- perotivey little time to part with.their heat to the ining of the cylinder. Messrs Crossley have lately introduced a modified form of Otto engine, with two equal cylinders, the pansion a slow process of continued combustion goes on, in which a considerable part of the remaining 40 per cent. is set free; but even when the con- tents of the cylinder escape to the exhaust the sce is generally still incomplete. The after- vurning, as it is called, which occurs during expansion, after the point of highest pressure has been passed, has the effect of keeping the ressure of the expanding gas from falling so ast as it otherwise would fall. But for this the expansion curve on the indicator-diagram would fall very rapidly, owing to the cooling of the gases through their contact with the cylinder walls. During expansion the gases are parting with much heat to the walls, but the after-burning supplies nearly enough additional heat to make good this loss—sometimes, indeed, more than enough—and the result is that the form of the expansion curve does not differ very materially from that of an adiabatic line. The experiments of Mr Dugald Clerk, who has taken much pains to investigate this action, show that the time-rate of the explo- sion depends greatly on the richness of the explosive mixture. When the mixture is much diluted the process is so slow that the point of highest pressure is not reached until far on in the stroke. Though the maximum temperature within the cylinder is materially reduced by this want of per- fect suddenness in the combustion of the gas, it is still so high that in engines of even very moderate size a water-jacket is essential. The actual maxi- mum temperature of the gases is in fact higher than the melting-point of cast-iron, while the temperature of the metal has to be kept low enough not to burn oil. The water-jacket involves an immense waste of heat. In the most favourable cases it absorbs 27 per cent. of the whole heat which would be produced by complete combustion of the gaseous mixture, and more generally the amount it absorbs ranges from 40 to 50 per cent. The best existing gas-engines succeed in converting into work about 22 per cent. of the whole potential energy of the fuel; of the remaining 78 per cent. a half or more generally goes to heat the water which circulates in the jacket, and the remainder is rejected in the exhaust, partly through incomplete combustion, but mainly in the form of actual heat, on account of the high tem- perature at which the waste gases escape. At-’ tempts have been made to save a part of this loss — 6 AO Ot OSE (pea hag GAS-ENGINE GASKELL 109 by the application to gas-engines of the regenera- ve principle which has done so much to promote economy of heat in metallurgical operations. It was pro by Siemens to use a separate com- bustion chamber, which, being distinct from the working cylinder, might be kept always hot, and to the outgoing gases through a regenerator, which would take up their heat and give it back to the incoming air. uch the same end was aimed at by Fleeming Jenkin, who tried to adapt the regenerative engine of Stirling (see AIR-ENGINE) to serve for the internal combustion of gas. These attempts have hitherto failed, and the gas-engine still falls far short of the limit of thermodynamic efficiency which its high range of temperature shows it to be theoretically capable of. The greatest ideal efficiency of any heat-engine is measured by the fraction 1, where 7, is the 1 highest (absolute) temperature at which it can receive heat, and 72 is the lowest (absolute) tem- perature at which it can reject heat. The highest temperature in the combustion is, as we have seen, about 3000° F., and the lower limit of the range is the atmospheric temperature, or say 60° F. eager 4 these values in the formula, we have 0°85 as the highest ideal efficiency ; in other words, it should be, from the thermodynamic point of view, theoretically possible to convert 85 per cent. of the heat-energy of the gas into work. The greatest efficiency hitherto realised is about 0°22, or little more than one-fourth of the ideal efficiency. It must not be supposed that under any imaginable practical conditions it could be possible to reach the ideal limit, but it may be confidently expected that the gas-engine of the future will approach it much more closely than does the gas-engine of to- day. The comparison serves to show how much room there is for invention in the direction of obviating what is essentially preventable loss. It is instructive in this connection to compare the efficiency of. gas-engines with that of steam- engines. In a large steam-engine the efficiency is about 0°15; in other words, the engine converts into work only some 15 per cent. of the heat-ene supplied to the steam, and the figure wenid bo greatly less if one stated it as a fraction of the whole heat of combustion of the fuel. In steam- engines small enough to be fairly comparable with actual gas-engines, the efficiency is rarely more, and generally a good deal less, than 0°1. Con- sidered as a thermodynamic machine, the gas- engine, imperfect as it admittedly is, is already not far from twice as efficient as the steam-engine. It is in fact the most efficient heat-engine we Experiments show that the consumption of gas in practice in a small gh ce zac (indicating 10 Boe pores or more) may, in favourable cases, less than 20 cubic feet per hour per indicated horse-power, including the gas which is consumed in maintaining the igniting flame. Of the indi- cated horse-power about 85 per cent. is available for ae mechanical work outside of the me pK itself. The cost of the fuel is necessarily high so long as the gas py ite to the engine is the puri- fied coal-gas used for lighting. Thus, with gas cost- ing 3s. per 1000 cubic feet, the supply required for each indicated horse-power per hour will cost about _ three-farthings, whereas the coal bill of a steam- engine for each horse-power hour need not exceed a fifth of a penny, and may be even less. In such eases the advantage of the gas-engine lies in its compactness and convenience, in the saving of charges for attendance, and in the ease and economy with which it can be applied to do ‘intermittent work. Economy in the cost of fuel may, however, be secured by supplying the engine with a cheaper kind of gas, a gas suitable for heat- ing though not suitable for illumination. The late Sir William Siemens pointed out that a compara- tively cheap gas of the kind required might be got by separating successive stages in the distillation of coal, and advised supplying of towns with such a gas for heat and power through distinct mains. Another gas for gas-engines is that produced by Mr Emerson Dowson’s process of blowing a mix- ture of air and steam through a bed of red-hot anthracite or coke. The product contains 224 per cent. of hydrogen and the same quantity of car- bonic oxide, mixed with much nitrogen and a small quantity of carbonic acid, and is said to cost about 24d. per 1000 cubic feet The engine requires about four times as much of it as it would require of illuminating coal-gas. When Dowson gas is used, the fuel needed for a gas-engine is not more than 14 lb. of coke or anthracite per horse-power per hour—as compared with the 4 or 5 lb. burned in a steam-engine of corresponding size. Gas-engines have recently been applied with great success on the Continent to the propulsion of tramears, which carry compression-cylinders. The gas from the mains is driven by pumping-engines into a compression-reservoir: the car runs up out- side the station, and the reservoir is connected with the car cylinders, which promptly become refilled under a high pressure: the sto k is closed, the connecting-tube removed, and the car is again ready. A notice of gas-engines would be incomplete without a reference to oil-engines using petroleum as fuel, which is vaporised and then exploded along with air. In Priestman’s engine the petroleum, which is a safe oil with a cane pe higher than 75° F., is injected in the form of spray, by a jet of compressed air, into a chamber which is heated by means of a jacket through which the hot gases of the exhaust pass. There the spray is raised to a temperature of about 300°, and is completely vaporised. From the hot chamber the vapour is drawn, along with more air, into the working cylinder, where the cycle of operations is essentially the same as in Otto’s engine. In some types, only hog of oil is burned per brake horse-power per hour. The compactness and smoothness of sonee of these oil-spray motors has made it possible to adapt them to vehicles, from tramears to tricycles; and innumerable types of ‘ auto-cars’ or ‘motor-cars’ have been perfected, and since 1896 (see TRACTION ENGINES) have become familiar even on the roads of remote country districts. See works by D. Clerk (1886), W. MacGregor (1885), and Bryan Donkin (1894); Professor Perry, The Steam- Engine, and Gas and Oil Engines (1899) ; and numerous papers in Engineering magazines. Gaskell, Mrs, novelist, was born at Cheyne Row, Chelsea, 29th September 1810. Her maiden name was Elizabeth Cleghorn Stevenson, and her father was in succession teacher, preacher, farmer, boarding-house keeper, writer, and Keeper of the Records to the Treasury. She was brought up by an aunt at Knutsford—the Cranford which she was yet to describe with such truthful patience ; was carefully educated, and married in 1832 William Gaskell (1805-84), a Unitarian minister in Manchester. In 1848 she published anonymously her Mary Barton, which at once arres ublic attention. It was followed by The Moorland Cottage (1850), Cranford (1853), Ruth (1853), North and South (1855), Round the Sofa (1859), Right at Last (1860), Sylvia’s Lovers (1863), Cousin Phillis (1865), and Wives and Daughters (1865), a series of novels that have permanently enriched English literature, and almost lifted their authoress into a rank repre- sented alone by Jane Austen, Charlotte Bronté, and 110° GASOLENE George Eliot. Mrs Gaskell had some measure of almost all the gifts of the great novelist—deep and genuine pathos, a singularly genial and truthful humour, a graceful and unforced style, power of description, dramatic faculty on occasion, and sympathetic insight into character; while she wrote of nothing that she did not know and understand—indeed many passages are close transcripts from her own life-history and experi- ence. Though written with a purpose, her novels have not failed to be completely artistic, perhaps because they flowed so freely from her heart, and because their purpose was so truly and so much her- self. Mrs Gaskell died suddenly of heart-disease at Holybourne, Alton, in Hampshire, 12th November 1865, and was fittingly buried at Knutsford. Be- sides her novels she wrote The Life of Charlotte Bronté (1857), which will remain one of the master- pieces of English biography. Mary Barton was received as a revelation of the habits, thoughts, privations, and struggles of the industrial poor, as these are to be found in such a social beehive as Manchester, and has had many imitators, but not an equal. Gasolene, or GAZOLINE, rectified petroleum (q.v.) used for gas-engines and horseless-carriages. Gasometer. See GAS-LIGHTING. Gasparin, VALERIE BoIsstER, COMTESSE DE, was born at Geneva in 1813, and married Count Agénor de Gasparin (1810-71), a zealous advocate of religious liberty. Till her, death, 18th June 1894, she warmly supported the reformed faith, but denounced the extravagances of fanatics. Two of her works obtained the Montyon prize at the Académie Francaise: Le Mariage au point de wue Chrétien, and Il y a des Pauvres a Paris, et ailleurs. Among her other publications are Voyage dans le Midi par une ignorante, Allons faire Fortune a Paris, Un Lwre pour les Femmes Mariées, Lisez et Jugez (Strictures on the ‘ Salvation Army’), and Les Horizons Prochaines. Several of her books have been translated into English. Gaspé, a peninsula in the east of Quebec pro- vince, comprising the counties of Gaspé and Bona- venture, projects into the Gulf of St Lawrence, between the estuary of that name on the north and the Bay of Chaleurs on the south. It has an area of nearly 8000 sq. m., and about 35,000 inhabitants, the greater number engaged in the important fisheries, which, with the export of lumber, form the staple business of the country.—GASPE BASIN, where * Cartier landed in 1534 (see CANADA), is a port of entry in Gaspé Bay, now the seat of extensive fisheries. Pop. 726. Gassendi, or GASSEND, PIERRE, French philosopher and mathematician, was born 22d January 1592, at Champtercier, a village of Pro- vence. His unusual powers of mind showed them- selves at an early age. Having resolved upon an ecclesiastical career, he studied, and afterwards taught, philosophy at Aix. But, catching the in- fection of empirical methods of study, he revolted from the predominant scholastic philosophy, and began to subject it to a critical scrutiny. At the same time he bent lus energies upon physics and astronomy. The results of his examination of the Aristotelian system and methods appeared at Grenoble in 1624, Exercitationes paradoxice adver- sus Aristoteleos, in which he utters an emphatic prota against accepting the Aristotelian dicta as nal in all matters of philosephy, and especially of physics. In the same year he\was appointed prévét of the cathedral at Digne, an office which enabled him to pursue without distraction his researches in astronomy and other natural sciences. From 1628 he spent several years travelling through Holland, Flanders, and France, until in 1645 he was GASTEROPODA appointed Eee of Mathematics in the Collége. Royal de France, at Paris, where he died, 14th October 1655. During his stay in the Low. Countries he controverted (1631) the mystical opinions of Robert. Fludd, and wrote a treatise on parhelia, besides other astronomical papers. Eleven years later he proceeded also to criticise adversely the new system of philosophy promul- gated by Descartes, in a work entitled Objectiones ad Meditationes Cartesit. Whilst at Paris Gassendi wrote his principal philosophical works, De Vite Epicurt (1647); a commentary on Diogenes Laer- tius’ tenth book, De Vita, Moribus, et Placitis Epicuri (1649); and in the same year the Syn- tugma Philosophie Kpicuree, which contains a complete view of the system of Epicurus. But, whilst thus going back to the ancients in his philo- sophy, Gassendi marched in the van of the moderns in natural and physical science. Kepler and Galileo were numbered amongst his friends. His Justitutio Astronomica (1647) is a clear and connected repre- sentation of the state of the science in his own day; in_his Tychonis Brahei, Nicolai Copernici, Georgii Puerbachii, et Joannis Regiomontani Vite (Paris, 1654) he gives not only a masterly account of the lives of these men, but likewise a complete history of astronomy down to“his own time. His collected works were published by Montmort and Sorbiére (6 vols. Lyons, 1658), and by Averrani (6 vols. Flor. 1728). Gassner, JOHANN JOSEPH, exorcist, was born 28th August 1727, near Bludenz, in the Vorarlberg, and became Catholic priest at Klésterle, in the diocese of Coire. He ac to cure the sick by driving out the demons that possessed them by means of exorcism and prayer. is 1774 he received the sanction of the Bishop of Ratisbon ; and by the mere word of command, Cesset (‘Give over’), he cured the lame or blind, but especially those afflicted with convulsions and epilepsy, who were all supposed to be possessed by the devil. Ulti- mately he was found to be an impostor; the arch- bishops of Prague and Salzburg issued pastorals. against his imposture, and the imperial authorities compelled the Bishop of Ratisbon to dismiss him. The bishop, however, gave him the cure of Bendorf, and there he died in 1779. Gas-tar. See CoaL-TaR, GAS AND GASES, ANILINE, DYEING, &c. Gastein, a romantic valley in the south of the Austrian duchy of Salzburg, 28 miles long, with a number of small villages. The chief of these, Wildbad-Gastein, is a very famous watering-place, and was a favourite resort of the Emperor William I. of Germany. Some 5000 guests Visit the place in summer to drink the waters of its seven warm springs. Here, on 14th August 1865, a convention was signed between Austria and Prussia, which, by a partition of Sleswick and Holstein, for a short period prevented the rupture between the rival owers. Pop. of the valley, about 4000. See W. raser Rae’s Austrian Health Resorts (1888). Gasteropoda (Gr., ‘belly-footed’), a large class of molluses, including snails, slugs, buckies, whelks, cowries, limpets, and the like. Along with the cuttle-fishes or Cephalopods, and the yet more closely allied ‘ butterfly-snails’ or Pteropods, the Gasteropods are contrasted with the bivalves or Lamellibranchs by the more or less prominent development of the head-region, and by the pres- ence of a rasping ribbon or tongue on the floor of the mouth. General Characters.—In addition to the develop- ment of head and rasping tongue, the Gasteropods are characterised by the nature of the ‘foot’ or muscular ventral surface. Except in some forms adapted for free-swimming, the ‘foot’ is simple, dl ateainttiiaaalinad ieeiien, and scle-like. GASTEROPODA 111 It is the surface on which the animal crawls, and is often divided into anterior, median, and posterior regions. The wealth of modification included in the class is so great that no other general characters can be ven. General Survey.—( A) The simplest eer pp such as the common Chiton, are symmetrical, not weye ge wy Vivenys ¥ ¥ We vi vj v vi ¥ v wu : y mt vay vibe Fig. 1.—Part of the Rasper of the Snail (from Howes), lop-sided like the higher forms. They have the mouth at one end of the long axis of the body, the anus at the other; the gills, kidneys, genital ducts, and circulatory organs are paired; there are two pairs (pedal and visceral) of nerve cords running parallel to one another along the body, and the ganglia are slightly developed. Of all molluses fixe simplest Gasteropods are probably nearest the hypothetical worm-like ancestor. In one order (Chiton, q.v.) there are eight shells, one behind the other like segments; in the two other orders (Neomeniz and Chztoderma) the shell is represented only by calcareous plates and spines in the skin. These three orders form the sub-class Isopleura, in contrast to all the others which are unsymmetrical—the Anisopleura. (B) The latter are grouped first of all accordin to the state of the loop formed by the viscera nerves, (1) In one series the visceral nerve-loop is implicated and twisted in the torsion of the asym- metrical body, and furthermore the sexes are separate. These are known as Streptoneura (‘loop - nerved ’), and inelude / limpets( Patella), ear-shells (Hali- otis), pond-snail (Paludina), cow- ries (Cyprea), cone-shells (Conus), buckies Fig. 2.—A Whelk : respiratory siphon, a; head with tenacles, c, and eyes, d; foot, b, with ( Buecinum ), and shell-lid or operculum, e. the _ free-swim- ming Heteropods. Showi This division includes what are often called Proso- branchs, and the numerous genera are further arranged according to the characters of the gills, kidneys, and foot. (2) In another series the vis- ceral loop is not twisted, and is often very short ; the shell is light and often lost in the adult; and the animals are hermaphrodite. They are known as Euthyneura (‘straight-nerved’), and include two sets—Opisthobranchs and Pulmonates. Among Opisthobranchs some retain the usual madtle-fold and have a delicate shell—e.g. Bulla and Aplysia, while others (known as Nudibranchs) have their mantle atrophied and no shell—e.g. Doris and Eolis. tly there are the Pulmonates, where gills are replaced by an air-breathing mantle-cavity, as in snails (e.g. Helix), slugs (e.g. Arion), water-snails (eg. Lymneeus ). ; ode of Life.—Though the number of terrestrial the air directly by means peaterppode, breathin of a pulmonary chamber, is very. large—over 6000 ‘comes firm, while in the com- living species—those living in water are greatly in the majority, including over 10,000 forms, mostly marine. Of these, some 9000 or so belong to the Prosobranchs or Streptoneura, a relatively smal! minority being Opisthobranchs and Nudibranchs. The Heteropods and some Opisthobranchs mg wd a free-swimming pelagic life, but most marine forms frequent the coasts either on the shores or along the bottom. Deep-sea Gasteropods are compara- tively few. The locomotion effected by the con- tractions of the muscular ‘foot’ is in almost all eases very leisurely, and the average tend- ency is towards slug- gishness. As to diet, the greatest variety obtains ; most Proso- branchs with a re- spiratory on and a corresponding noteh in the shell are car- nivorous, and so are - the active Hetero- Fig. 3. pods; most of the Young Pond Snail (Zymneus) rest are vegetarian (from Howes). in diet. | Numerous genera, both marine and terrestrial, are very indis- criminate in their feeding ; others are as markedly specialists, keeping almost exclusively to some one vegetable or animal diet. Some marine snails partial to Echinoderms have got over the digestive difficulty presented by the calcareous character of the skins of their victims by a secre- tion of free sulphuric acid from the mouth. This acid changes the carbonate of lime into sulphate, which is brittle and readily pulverised by the rasp- ing tongue. lal : > ° | GAUNT GAUSS 115 amall whitish flowers and red ‘berries,’ which are eatable, but not safe in any considerable a tity, because of the pungent volatile oil which aay contain. Brandy in which they have been _ steeped is used as a tonic. The whole plant has an ble aromatic odour and taste, and the , ca ai oil is used in meecieian se esturalant, tine a vouring syrups, and in perfumery, under the name of Oil of. Wentesprete. we infusion of the berries (hence called ‘ tea-berries’) was used as tea during the war of independence. The berries are employed for flavouring beer and other drinks, as ~ also for tooth-powders and hair-washes. The leaf is astringent, and is used in medicine.—The Shallon Shallon ( Gaultheria shallon). _ (@. shallon) is a large species (2-3 feet), with purple berries (‘salal-berries’), which are largely _ @aten by the Indians of north-west America. «dt poe" well in woods, and is sometimes apa in Britain to afford food for game.—G. hispida a” ee cnstcr) is a native of Van Diemen’s Land, gy ing snow-white berries.—Other species, some fragrant, some producing edible berries, and all beautiful little shrubs, are found in mountain _ regions throughout the world. The Australian |G, antipoda is said to be a finer fruit than G. . Gaunt. See GHENT; and for John of Gaunt, _ see JOHN OF GAUNT. Gauntlet, less correctly GANTLET (formed _ with double diminutives from Old Fr. gant, ‘a (ae . . . we _ glove,’ itself a word of Scandinavian origin), an iron glove, which formed part of the armour of knights and men-at-arms. The back of the hand __was covered with plates jointed rr, Seek so as to pa it the hand to close. Gauntlets were intro- ‘A ced about the 13th century. They were often _ thrown down by way of challenge, like gloves. They are of frequent occurrence in heraldry. ___ in the phrase ‘to run the gantlet,’ the word is due to a confusion with the foregoing of the 2 nal word gantlope or we as the Swedish _ gatlopp, made up of gata, ‘a street,’ and dopp, ‘a course,’ from dépa, ‘to run’—a cognate of Eng. leap. Professor Skeat hig ete that the word may be due to the wars of Gustavus Adolphus, who died at Littzen in 1632. The German form is if gassenlaufen, ‘lane-run,’ both alike meaning a __ military punishment, which consists in making __ the eulprit, naked to the waist, pass repeated] through a lane formed of two rows of soldiers, eac ‘ i of whom gives him a stroke as he passes with a ____ short stick or other similar weapon. _. Gaur, the medieval capital of Bengal, also _ called Lakhnauti, is said +a tine been doarided by the Vaidya king Lakshmanasena, at the close of the llth er: and, on the Mohammedan con- quest, a hund: years later, became the chief seat of the viceroys who governed Bengal under the Pathan kings of Delhi, and afterwards (but not always) of the independent kings of Bengal. On the Mogul conquest in 1575 a terrible pestilence broke out at Gaur, and thousands of the inhabit- <4 ” ants perished; and from that time the city dis- appears from history, and its place is taken successively by Tandan, Dacca, and Murshidabad. The ruins of Gaur still cover a space of seven miles by two, on a branch of the Ganges, and include Hindu buildings as well as several interesting 15th- century Mohammedan mosques, besides extensive reservoirs, channels, and embanked roads, The vast accumulations of brick testify to the former density of the population, while the neighbouring ruins of Panduah and Tandan point to the exist- ence of important suburbs, many of which have wholly disappeared. See Ravenshaw, Gaur, its Ruins and Inscriptions (1878); Fergusson, History y Indian Architecture ; Lane-Poole, Catalogue of ndian Coins in the British Museum. Gaur, or GouR (Bos Gaurus), a species of ox, inhabiting some of the mountain jungles of India. It is of very large size, although apparently inferior to the Arnee (q.v.). It bears a considerable resem- blance to the Gayal (q.v.), but differs from it in the form of its head, and in the total want of a dewlap, in which it more nearly agrees with the Banteng of the Eastern Archipelago, although dis- tinguished from it by important anatomical peculi- arities (see BANTENG). It is supposed to be in- capable of domestication; frequent attempts for this purpose are said to have been made in Nepal. From its ferocity its pursuit is reekoned in India as exciting as that of tiger or elephant. Gauss, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH, German mathematician, born at Brunswick, 30th April 1777, in 1801 published an important work on the theory of numbers and other analytical sub- jects, Disquisitiones Arithmetice. Shortly after- wards his attention was attracted to astronomy ; and he invented, and used in brilliant fashion, new methods for the calculation of the orbits of planets, comets, &e. The fruits of his researches in this department appeared, two Foaeb after his gs eewreseigy as professor of athematics and director of the observatory at Géttingen, in his Theoria Motus Corporum Ceelestium (1809). He also laboured with equally brilliant: success in the science of geodesy, being appointed by the Hanoverian government to con- duct the trigonometrical survey of the kingdom and to measure an are of the meridian. Whilst engaged in this work he invented the instrument then called heliotrope (see HELIOGRAPHY). Later in life (in 1843-46) he published a _ collection of valuable memoirs on surface geometry, in Ueber Gegenstiinde der héhern Geoddsie. In the mean- time he had also begun to study the problems arising out of the earth’s magnetic properties. In 1833 he wrote his first work on the theory of pon apres Intensitas Vis Magnetice Terrestris ; and in conjunction with W. E. Weber he invented the declination needle and a magnetometer. He was also mainly instrumental in founding a Magnetic Association, which published valuable py entitled Resultate (1836-39), including two y Gauss on the law of magnetic attraction. In applied mathematics he investigated the problems connected with the passage of light through a system of lenses, in Dioptrische Gastoraiohamagen (1840). Besides the researches already mentioned he wrote papers or works on probability, the method of least squares, the theory of biquadratic residues, constructed tables for the conversion of fractions into decimals and of the number of classes of binary quadratic forms, and discussed hypergeometric series, interpolation, curved sur- faces, and the projection of surfaces on maps, all of which, with others, are printed in the seven vols, of his collected works (Gétt. 1863-71). Gauss died at Gottingen, 23d February, 1855. See Lives 116 GAUSSEN GAVAZZI by Sartorius von Waltershausen (2d ed. 1877) and ‘Winnecke (1877). Gaussen, FrANcois 8. R. Louis, a Swiss Reformed theologian, born at Geneva, 25th August 1790, was pastor at Satigny near Geneva, and took an active part in the church controversies of the time, until dismissed in 1831 by the State Council of Geneva, because he, with Merle d’Aubigné, had taken part in establishing the Société Evangélique, one object of which was the founding of a new theological school for the maintenance of the old Calvinism. From 1836 till his retirement in 1857 he lectured with success in the new college, and died at Les Grottes, Geneva, 18th June 1863. , Of his writings may be named La Theopneustie, ou Pleine Inspiration des Saintes Ecritures (1840), a defence of plenary inspiration, which became popular in England and America ; and Le Canon des Saintes Ecritures au double point de vue de la Science et de la Fot (1860). Gautama. See BUDDHISM. Gautier, THEOPHILE, one of the most accom- plished of recent French poets and prose-writers, was born at Tarbes, August 31, 1811, and educated at the grammar-school of his native town, and after- wards at the Collége Charlemagne in Paris. He applied himself at first, but without much success, to painting, turned to literature, and attracted the notice of Sainte-Beuve at eighteen by the style of several essays, the results of his studies in the earlier French literature. He soon attached him- self to the school of Victor Hugo, and outdid all the other romanticists in the extravagance of his admir- ation and partisanship. His belief in the ‘ poet of the wind, the sea, and the sky’ was the one serious belief of his life. In 1830 he published his first long poem, A/bertus, an extravagantly picturesque legend, full of the promise of his later flexibility of diction, followed in 1832 by the striking Comédve de la Mort. But his poetry did not reach its highest point till the Emaux et Camées (1856). In 1835 ap- peared his celebrated novel, Mademoiselle de Mau- pin, with its defiant preface, which was taken seriously by the critics, instead of being regarded as merely the escapade of an unscrupulously clever youth, and the advertisement of a publisher who wanted a ‘sensational’ novel. He wrote many other novels and shorter stories, the chief being Les Jeune-France (1833), Fortunio (1838), Une Larme du Diable (1839), Militona (1847), La Peau de Tigre (1852), Jettatura (1857), Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863), La Belle Jenny (1865), and Spirite (1866). Mérimée alone contests with him the palm as the prince of writers of short stories. He was drawn early to the lucrative task of fewilleton writing, and for more than thirty years contributed to the Paris newspapers criticisms on the theatre and on the salon. The first half of his theatrical criticisms were collected in 1859 in 6 volumes, under the ambitious title of L’ Histoire de Art Dramatique en France ; his accounts of the Salon, which have yet to be republished, form perhaps the best history, if the least didactic, of the French art of hisday. Hisleisure he devoted to travels inSpain, Holland, Turkey, England, Algeria, and Russia, of which he published characteristic accounts in his Caprices et Zigzags, Constantinople, Voyage en Russie, and Voyage en Espagne, admirable feats of description, relating solely to the look of the coun- tries visited, not at all to their institutions, yet forming perhaps the most delightful books of travel in existence. Gautier died in Paris, October 23, 1872. Other works were an enlarged edition of his inimitable Zmaux et Camées (1872); Les Grotesques (1844), on the writers of the 16th and 17th cen- turies ; Honoré de Balzac (1858); Ménagerie Intime (1869), a kind of informal autobiography ; Histoire du Romantisme (1872); and the posthumous works, Portraits et Souvenirs Littéraires (1875), and LT’ Orient (1877). Gautier’s name has become a kind of watchword and battle-cry. Writers with more enthusiasm than good sense have made him an idol, and elevated the paradoxes of his scepticism into a theory of life, while the sturdy moralists of the press use his name as a synonym for everything in art that_is effeminate, and for all the affectations of the boudoir poetaster. The truth is that Gautier was nothing greater or less than a consummate artist in prose and verse. He is neither moral nor im- moral; has absolutely no fixed faith of any sort, except in the pleasantness of pleasant impressions, holding even his esthetic principles with good- humoured laxity. His whole philosophy is a philo- sophy of paradox, his ideal of life hardly more than a picturesque viciousness. His besetting sin was a childish desire to say something clever and wicked to shock the Philistines. He himself never ex- “aii: his lewd romance to be taken seriously, to e adopted as the gospel of a school, and charac- terised with grave absurdity as ‘ the golden book of spirit and sense.’ See the collections of reminis- cences by Ernest Feydeau- (1874) and Bergerat (1878); also Henry James’s French Poets and Novelists (1878). “ Gauze, a light transparent silk fabric, supposed to have derived its name from having first been manufactured in Gaza, a city of Palestine. France and Switzerland produce large quantities. The openness of texture is obtained by crossing the warp threads between each thread of the weft, so that the weft passes through a succession of loops in the warp, and the threads are thus kept apart, without the liability to sliding from their places, which would take place if simple weaving were left so loose and open. It is used for dress purposes, and largely also for sifting flour. What is made for the latter purpose is sometimes called bolting-cloth. The light open cotton fabric known as leno, and used for window-curtains, has the same structure as gauze. Cheap textiles of the nature of gauze are used for the dresses of bailet-girls. Gavarni, PAUL, a French caricaturist whose proper name was Sulpice Guillaume Chevalier, was born at Paris in 1801, and started life as a mechanical engineer. But, being a skilful draughts- man, he abandoned engine-making to become a caricaturist for Les Gens du Monde, and after- wards for Le Charivari. During the early part of his career he ridiculed the follies, vices, and habits of the citizens of Paris with a sort of good- humoured irony ; but later in life a deeper earnest- ness, and sometimes even bitterness, showed itself in the productions of his pencil. This tendency was greatly strengthened by a visit to London in 1849, and from that date he reproduced in the newspaper L’Jilustration the scenes of sie and Jouteliiian he had witnessed in the Englis capital. Gavarni also illustrated several books, the most notable being Sue’s Juif Errant, Balzac’s works, the French translation of Hoffmann’s tales, &e. He died at Auteuil, near Paris, 23d November 1866. A collection of his drawings, engraved on wood, appeared at Paris, under the title of Guwvres Choisies, with text by Janin, Gautier, Balzac, and others (4 vols. 1845-48). This was followed by a second collection, Perles et Parures (2 vols. 1850). Gavazzi, ALESSANDRO, a popular Italian preacher and reformer, was born at Bologna in 1809. He became a monk of the Barnabite order, and was appointed professor of Rhetoric at Naples, where he speedily acquired great reputation as an orator. On the accession of Pius IX. to the papal chair, Gavazzi was one of the foremost supporters of the liberal policy that inaugurated that pontifi’s a E i Ne a z think that we must i? he as +i _ of primogeniture took its place. ~ almoner-in-chie were 9 eseaped to England, where he more than one occasion, nearl _ Gavazzi was present with Garibaldi at Palermo “ . GAVELKIND GAY 117 reign; and having repaired to Rome, he devoted himself to the di skin of political enlightenment and patriotic aspirations among the masses of the Roman population. The pope sanctioned his litical Soars, and appointed him almoner of a of 16,000 Roman troops. On the establish- ment of the republic at Rome, he was appointed to the national army. Under his superintendence, efficient military hospitals Rome having fallen, Gavazzi elivered addresses and lectures. He separated from the Catholic Church, and was for the rest of his life a strenu- anti-papal advocate. From Scotland the orator proceeded to the United States, where he was rather coldly received ; and when he went to Canada his public appearances, on caused a riot. during the Site of 1860. He again visited London in 1870; and after that repeatedly visited England and Scotland, preaching and lecturing in aid of the ( Protestant) Italian Free Church ( Libera Chiesa), of which he was a prominent leader. He died 9th January 1889. Gavelkind. The origin of this legal term is involved in some obscurity, and more than one derivation has been given. Lord Coke’s opinion was that it was derived from gave all kinde (Teut. . eal cyn), meaning the custom which gives right succession in land to all children equally. The better opinion, however, seems to be that it is derived from the Saxon word gavel (or gafol), _ which signifies rent or customary services in lien thereof, and kind—i.e. nature or quality. Thus i erg was used to express land which paid this d of rent-service, as distinguished from the ordinary feudal tenure of knight-service. It is the opinion of Blackstone, endorsed by Skeat, that the true origin of this custom is Celtic (Irish, , ilcine), while some recent investigators—as ton in his Origins of English History (1881)— look for its source even farther back in pre-Aryan times. Before 1066 gavelkind prevailed all over England and Wales (see Stephen’s Com. i. 213), but with the Norman Conquest came feudal laws, and the right At the present _ day it survives only in the county of Kent and a few isolated places in England. It was specially abolished as regards Wales by 34 and 35 Henry VIII. chap. 26. In Kent, however, the custom is so universal that it is presumed by the courts of law to exist in any question affecting Kentish lands, and it is necessary in such case to plead that parliament. the lands have been disgavelled by special act of The reason why the county of Kent should have been permitted to retain this ancient _ tenure as one of its ‘liberties,’ in view of the almost _ of England, is not clear. of a legenda universal introduction of feudal rules into the rest There is an explanation : eee. owed is life to some Kentish men, who mediately after the battle of Hastings surrounded him with boughs so as to form a sort of moving wood, and that he out of gratitude thereupon con- firmed their ancient rights to them and their | 4 fellows, The main characteristic of the tenure of gavel- Kind is that succession to the land passes in the a line to all the sons equally and not to the eldest son. Failing sons, it goes to all the daughters as heirs-portioners. Further, the right of representation takes place, so that, if one of — rpc gage haga his wee i! ar ae eb equally with sons) take in his place. Succession in the collateral line is similar ; Por, if one die, the succession passes to all his character that William the Con- ‘ brothers equally and their issue jure representationis, In addition to these peculiarities in the matter of succession, the following features of gavelkind tenure may be noticed ; (1) A wife takes c way of dower one-half instead of one-third of the land, and a husband becomes tenant by courtesy of one-half of the land (whether issue have been born or not) so long as he remains unmarried ; (2) the tenant is of age sufficient to make a contract or alienate his estate by feoffment at the age of fifteen; (3) the gavelkind lands did not formerly escheat in case of an attainder for felony, the maxim being ‘ the father to the bough, the son to the plough ;’ but all lands now stand in the same position in this respect (Williams, On Real Property, 130). Gaveston, Piers pe. See Epwarp II. Gavial (Gavialis), a genus of reptiles of the Crocodile (q.v.) order, conspicuously differing from true eronodiles and from alligators in the great length and slenderness of the snout. The teeth are very numerous, about 120; they are more equal in size than those of the other animals of this order. oe : Gavial (Gavialis gangeticus). The best-known species, G. gangeticus, inhabits the Ganges. It attains a length of 24 feet; but, owing to the slenderness of its snout, it is esteemed less dangerous than a true crocodile of smaller size. The gavial feeds chiefly on fishes and carcasses, and preys more casually upon mammals. A cartilaginous swelling at the extremity of the muzzle seems to have given rise to Alian’s state- ment that the crocodile of the Ganges had a horn at the tip of its snout. In some parts—e.g. Malabar, the gavial is held sacred, dada tiers and petted. A smaller species from Borneo and Java is distinguished as G. schlegelit. See Croco- DILE. Gavotte, a French dance of a lively yet dignified character. The name is said to be derived from the Gavots, the people of the pays de Gap. The music is in common time, he rots & quick, and always begins on the third beat of the bar; each of the two sections of which it consists is usually repeated. It is frequently introduced in the Suites (see SuITE) of the elder classical com- ers (Bach, &c.); and recent imitations of this and other old dances are so numerous as to become wearisome, Gay, JoHN, the youngest son of William Gay of Barnstaple, was born in 1685. Although of an old family, his father was in reduced circumstances ; and Gay, after being educated at the local grammar- school, was apprenticed to a London silk-mercer. Disliking this occupation, he soon abandoned it, and, having spent some months at home, returned to London to live by letters. In 1708 he published his first poem, Wine, in blank verse, and in 1711 118 GAYA GAY-LUSSAC an anonymous pamphilet, called the Present State of Wit. By this time he had made the acquaint- ance of Pope, to whom in 1713 he dedicated a georgic, Rural Sports. Late in the previous year he had been appointed secretary to the Duchess of Monmouth. In 1714 he brought out The Fan, and following this, The Shepherd’s Week, a contribution to Pope’s crusade against Ambrose Philips. Sub- sequently, resigning his post with the Duchess of Monmouth, he accompanied Lord Clarendon, then envoy to Hanover, as secretary. At Anne's death he was again in London, endeavouring to conciliate fortune by an epistle to the newly- arrived Princess of Wales. His next effort was the What dye Call It? ‘a tragi-comi-pastoral farce’ (1715). Trivia, a clever picture of town life from a pedestrian’s point of view, for which Swift supplied hints, came next; and later he bore the blame of Three Hours after Marriage (1717), a play in which Papp and Arbuthnot had the larger part. In 1720 he published his poems by sub- scription, clearing £1000. With this his friends hoped he would have made some provision for the future, but it apparently vanished, as did also some South Sea stock which had been presented to him, in the crash of 1720. In 1724 ie produced Zhe Captives, a tragedy, and three years afterwards the first series of his | need Fables. But his greatest success was The Beggar’s Opera, the outcome of a suggestion for a ‘Newgate pastoral’ made by Swift as far back as 1716. Its popularity was extraordinary; it ran sixty-two nights, gave celebrity to its actors, and, in the popular phrase, made Rich (the manager) gay, and Gay (the author) rich. By the thirty-sixth night he had netted between £700 and £800; and he forthwith set about a sequel, Polly, which was prohibited. This step only served to give the play a greater sale in book Rees and the subscriptions brought Gay £1200. After this he lived chiefly with the Duke and Duchess of Queensberry, who since 1720 had been the kindest of his many patrons. In 1732 he came from their-house to London, probably in connection with his opera of Achilles (produced in 1733), was seized with an inflammatory fever, and died in three days (4th December 1732). He was buried in Westminster Abbey ‘as if he had been a peer of the realin.’ As a man Gay was amiable, indolent, and luxurious. His health was bad, and he wasted his life in vain hopes of preferment. But no man made kinder friends ; and that he retained them is proof of his personal charm. His Fad/es have still a faint vitality; folklorists and antiquaries still study Trivia and The Shepherd’s eek, and 18th-century specialists delight in the chronicle of his two ballad operas. On the whole, however, his oetical reputation has not been maintained. But e was a charming song-writer, and will perhaps last longest by his ballad of ‘ Black-eyed Susan.’ The best portrait of him is by Kneller’s pupil, William Aikman. See the edition of the Poetical Works by Underhill (2 vols. 1893) and his edition of the Letters and Prose Writings (Muses Library ). Gaya, chief town of a district in Bengal, 57 miles S. of Patna by rail. It is a place of the reatest sanctity, from its associations with the ounder of Buddhism, and is annually visited b about 100,000 Hindu pilgrims, who pray for the souls of their ancestors at the forty-five sacred shrines within and without the walls. In Gaya proper the Brahmans reside ; adjoining is Sahibganj, the trading and official quarter. Six miles south is the village of Buddha-Gaya, the home of Buddha, with a famous temple and pipal tree (see BUDDHISM, p. 517). Joint pop. (1891) 80,383.—Gaya is also the name of the wine suburb of Oporto (q.v.). Gayal (Bibos frontalis), a species of ox, which is found wild in the mountains of Aracan, Chit- tagong, Tipura, and Sylhet, and which has long been domesticated in these countries and in the eastern parts of Bengal. It is about the size of the Indian buffalo, is dark brown, and has short curved horns. Gay-Lussac, Louis JosrerH, chemist and glee was born 6th December 1778, at St éonard (Haute Vienne). Entering the Poly- technic School in 1797, he was in 1801 promoted to the department of Ponts et Chaussées ; and shortly afterwards Berthollet selected him as his assistant in the government chemical works at Areueil. He now began a series of original researches on the dilatation of gases, the tension of vapours, the improvement of thermometers and barometers, the density of vapours, hygrometry, evaporation, and capillary action, Next, first with Biot, and a month later alone, he made two balloon ascents for the purpose of investigating the temperature and moisture of the air and the laws of terrestrial mag- netism. Along with Alexander von Humboldt he analysed the properties of air brought down from a height of nearly 23,000 feet, and their joint memoir to the Academy of Sciences (read Ist October 1804) contained the first announcement of the fact that oxygen and hydrogen unite to form water in the proportion of one volume of the former to two volumes of the latter (see ATOMIC THEORY ). This result induced him to study the combining volumes of other gases, and thus led him to the important discovery of the law of volumes, which was announced in 1808. A year later he was separated professor of Chemistry at the Polytechnic School, and from 1832 also filled the corresponding chair in the Jardin des Plantes. Davy’s discoveries of potassium and sodium, by the decomposing action of the voltaic pile, stimulated Gay-Lussac — | and Thénard to pursue this class of researches. The results appeared in their Recherches Phystco- chimiques (2 vols. 1811). Amongst the most im- portant of the. discoveries announced in these volumes were a purely chemical process for obtain- ing potassium directly, the separation of boron from boracic acid, and new and improved methods of analysing organic compounds. (Boron was, however, simultaneously tinapyerea in England by Davy.) Although the discovery of iodine (in 1811) is due to Courtois, Gay-Lussac shares with Davy the merit of having (in 1813) first described its distinctive properties, and proved that it is an elementary body; he was also the first to form synthetically the compounds of iodine with hydrogen and oxygen, known as hydriodie and iodie acids. In 1815 he succeeded in isolating the compound radicle Cyanogen (q.v.), the first known example of a compound body which will unite with elementary bodies in the same way as these unite with one another. Later in life he experimented upon fermentation, and in conjune- ‘tion with Liebig made an examination of fulminie acid, and further improved the methods of organi¢ analysis. From this time a good deal of his atten- tion was given to the practical applications of chemistry. In this department his investigations regarding the manufacture of sulphuric acid (which led to the introduction of the Gayton tower, first erected by him for the recovery of waste oxides of nitrogen ), his essays on the bleaching chlorides, his method of using the centesimal alecoholometer, and his RS occa in assaying silver by the wet method by means of a standard solution of common salt, are the most important. In 1805 he was appointed a member of the Committee of Arts and Manntactonss established by the minister of Commerce, in 1818 superintendent of the govern- ment manufactory of gunpowder and saltpetre, and a a ee Oe es —— a GAZA GAZETTEER 119 ; in 1829 chief assayer to the mint. In 1839 he was made a peer of France. From the year 1816 he was the editor, in association with Arago, of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique. He died at Paris, 9th May 1850. As a chemist Gay-Lussac is distinguished by great accuracy, sper, boy clear- ness, and undoubted genius. A complete list of his papers is given in the Royal Society's catalogue. His larger works, besides that already mentioned, include Mémoires sur age 9, de l'Air Atmo- i (1804), Cours de Physique (1827), and de Chimie (1828). Gaza (now called Guzzeh), one of the five chief cities of the ancient Philistines, situated in the south-west of Palestine, about three miles from the sea, on the borders of the desert which separates Palestine from Egypt. It is often mentioned in the history of Samson, and was the scene of constant struggles between the Israelites and the Philistines. In 333 B.c. it was taken after a five months’ siege by Alexander the Great, and from that time down to 1799, when the French under Kleber captured it, it witnessed the victories of the Maccabees, the Calif Abu-bekr, the Templars, and the heroic Saladin. Constantine the Great, who rebuilt the town, made it the seat of a bishop. The modern Guzzeh is a scattered group of vil- lages. Pop. 16,000. G or GAZA-LAND, a large Portuguese terri- _ tory in South-East Africa, between Sofala and the Transvaal. Much of the land is fertile; the in- habitants are Bantus. Gaza, THEoporRus, Greek scholar, was born at Thessalonica in 1398, fled about 1444 before the Turks to Italy, where he became teacher of Greek at Ferrara, next of philosophy at Rome. After the death of Pope Nicholas V., King Alfonso invited him to Naples; but the death of this new patron two _ years later drove liim back to Rome, where he was hefrien ded by Cardinal Bessarion, who obtained for him a small benefice in Calabria. There he died in 1478. Gaza has been warmly praised by subsequent scholars, such as Politian, Erasmus, Scaliger, and Melanchthon. His principal work was a Greek mmar in four books, first published by Aldus anutius at Venice in 1495. He translated into Latin portions of Aristotle, Theophrastus, St Chrys- ostom, Hippocrates, and other Greek writers. Gazelle is a name given to some twenty dif- ferent species of res which differ from each other principally in the form of curvature of the horns, in the presence or absence of horns in the female, and in the colour. The true gazelle (Gazella Dorcas) is a species about the size of a roebuck, but of lighter and more graceful form, with longer and more slender limbs, in these res exhibiting the typical characters of the antelopes in their highest perfection. It is of a light tawny colour, the under parts white ; a broad brown band along each flank ; the hair short and smooth. The face is reddish fawn-colour, with white and dark stripes. The horns of the old males are 9 or 10 inches long, bending outward and inward, like the sides of a lyre, also back- ward at the base and forward at the tips, tapering to a point, surrounded by thirteen or fourteen anent rings, the rings near the base being closest together and most perfect. The horns of the female are smaller and obscurely ringed. The ears are long, narrow, and pointed; the eyes very large, soft, and black; there is a tuft of hair on each knee; the tail is short, with black hairs on its upper surface only, and at its tip. The = is a native of the north of Africa, and of yria, Arabia, and Persia. Great herds of gazelles frequent the northern borders of the Sahara; and ‘hotwithstanding their great speed, and the resist- ance which they are capable of making when compelled to stand at bay-—-the herd closing to- gether with the females and young in the centre, and the males presenting their horns all around— lions and panthers destroy them in great numbers, The speed of the gazelle is such that it cannot be successfully hunted by any kind of dog, but in some parts of the East it is taken with the assistance of falcons of a small species, which fasten on its head, and by the flapping of their wings blind and confuse it, so that it soon falls a prey to the hunter. ears Gazella Granti. It is also captured in enclosures made near its drinking-places. Although naturally very wild and timid, it is easily domesticated, and, when taken young, becomes extremely familiar. Tame gazelles are very common in the Asiatic countries of which the species is a native; and the poetry of these countries abounds in allusions both to the beauty and the gentleness of the gazelle.—Some confusion has arisen among naturalists as to the application of the name gazelle, originally Arabic ; and it has not only been given to the deucoryx of the ancients, a very different species, but even to the gemsboc of South Africa. 1e true gazelle was known to the ancients, and is accurately described by AXlian under the name dorcas, which was also given to the roe. Gazette, an abstract of news, a newspaper. The word is derived, through the medium of French, from Italian gazzetta, ‘a gazette,’ which may have been originally a mere diminutive of gazza, ‘mag- pie,’ with the sense of ‘ gossip, tittle-tattle ;’ or, with greater likelihood, gazzetta, ‘a small coin’ (Gr. gaza, ‘a treasury,’ a word ultimately of Persian origin), the sum charged for a reading of the first Venetian newspaper, which appeared about 1536. The London Gazette is an official organ, the propery of the government. It was founded in 665, and appears twice a week, It is recognised by law as the medium of official and legal announce- ments, as also of many intimations with regard to oe transactions which are required by law to thus published, such as trust-deeds for creditors. Similar official gazettes are published at Edin- burgh and Dublin. To be ‘ put in the gazette’ is in Britain a popular synonym for becoming bankrupt. Gazetteer is in modern English a geographical or topographical dictionary, or alphabetical arrange- ment of place-names, with a more or less abund- ant complement of information, descriptive, statis- tical, and historical. The word (like the corre- sponding French gazétier) was familiar in the 18th century in the sense of a writer in the gazettes or newspapers. That industrious compiler, Laurence Echard or Eachard, published in 1703 The Gazet- 120 GAZETTEER GECKO teer’s or Newsman’s Interpreter, being a geographical index of all the considerable Cities, Patriarchships . .. Ports, Forts, Castles, &c. in Europe. ‘The Title,’ he says, ‘was given me by a very eminent person whom [ forbear to name.’ In the preface to the second part (1704), relating to Asia, Africa, and America, he refers to his book briefly as The Gazetteer. Other compilers soon adopted the con- venient abbreviation. The word was new, but the thing was of ancient date—e.g. we still have, con- siderable fragments of the 6th-century geographical dictionary of Stephanus Byzantius. General Gazetteers. —The ideally perfect gazetteer would be one in which every place-name in the world was regis- tered and its history recorded. To any one who knows what this would mean, the most extensive ‘ Universal’ gazetteer must appear amusingly meagre. The following are among the noteworthy works of general scope: Ferrarius, edited by Baudrand (fol. Paris, 1670); Bryce of Exeter, Univ. Geog. Dict. or Grand Gazetteer (2 vols in 1, fol. Lond. 1759: a remarkable bit of work); Brooke (8vo, Lond. 1778; 16th ed. 1815); Walker, edited by Capper (8vo, Lond. 1815); Cruttwell (1793), afterwards | incorporated in the Edinburuh Gazetteer (1 vol. 1822; 2d. ed. 6 vols. 1829); Landmann (8vo, Lond. 1835); Maccul- loch (1841-42); Thomson (8vo, Edin. 1842); Fullarton (25,000 names; 7 vols. Edin. 1850); Blackie’s Imperial (2 vols, Glasgow, 1850); Johnston (1850; new ed. 1877) ; Lippincott, Pron. Guz. of the World (Phila. 1865; new ed., 125,000 places, 1880 ; with suppl., 1900): Bouillet. Dict. @ Hist. et de Géog. (1857); Knight’s Encyclopedia ( geog. division); Ritter’s Geoy.-stat. Lexikon (2 vols. Leip. 1874, edited by Henne am Rhyn; new ed. by Lagai, 1883) ; Saint-Martin (4to, Paris, 1875 et seg.) ; Oliver and Boyd (8vo, Edin. 1880); Chambers’s Concise Gazetteer of the World (8vo, 1895); Longmans’ Gazetteer of the World, edited by G. T. Chisholm (4to, London, 1895), Special Glazetteers— AMERICA (NorRTH).—American Gazetteer (3 vols. Lond. 1762); Thomson (4to, Lond. 1812); Davenport (8vo, New York, 1842); Kidder (Burley’s, 8vo, Phila. 1876); Colange, U.S. Gazetteer (8vo, Cincinn. 1884), ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.—Echard (12mo, Lond. 1715); Macbean (8vo, Lond. 1773); Adam (8vo, Edin. 1795); Smith (2 vols. 8vo, 1852-57). f AUSTRALIA.—Gordon & Gotch’s Australian Handbook, incorporating New Zealand, ce. AusTRIA-HUNGARY. — Umlauft, Geog. MNamenbuch (1885), and local lexicons issued by Statistical Commission. British EMPirE.—Macculloch (1837); Knight (2 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1853). CoMMERCIAL.—Peuchet (6 vols. 4to, Paris, 1800); Mac- culloch (8vo, Lond, 1832; new ed. 1882). Eeyrt ( ANCIENT).—Brugsch (Leip. 1877-80). ENGLAND.—William Lambard (born 1536), the writer of the first county history, is also the author of the first gazetteer of England, though the work did not appear in print till 1730. A Book of the Names of all Parishes, de. (4to, Lond. 1657); John Adams, Index Villaris (fol. Lond. 1680); Whatley, England’s Gazetteer (3 vols. 12mo, Lond. 1751); Luckombe (3 vols. 12mo, Lond. 1790) Carlisle (2 vols. 4to, Lond. 1808); Capper (8vo, Lond. 1808) ; Gorton (3 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1831-33); Ball (8vo, Glasgow, 1832); Cobbett (8vo, Lond. 1832); Parliamentary Gazetteer (4 vols. 4to, Lond. 1842); Lewis (7th ed. 4 vols. 4to, Lond. 1849); Dugdale & Blanchard (8vo, Lond. 1860) ; Wilson (2 vols. 8vo, Edin. 1866-69 ). FRANCE.—Few countries, if any, are more thoroughly gazetteered than France. It is enough to mention Gindre de Nancy (1874), Joanne (3d ed. 1886), and the great series of departmental yazetteers brouzht out by the ministry of Public Instruction (1861, &c.). ‘ GERMANY.—Neumann, Geographisches Lexikon des Deutschen Reiches (Leip. 1883 ). GREAT BRITAIN.—Sharp (2 vols. Lond. 1863); Hamil- ton (3 vols. 4to, Lond. 1868); Beeton (8vo, Lond. 1870) ; Bartholomew (60,000 names, 8vo, Edin. 1887); Cassell (Lond. 1893 et seg.) ; Mackenzie (Glasgow, 1893 et seq.). Inp1A.—Hamilton (8vo, Lond. 1815); Thornton, Gaz. of the Countries adjacent to India on the N.W. (2 vols. 1844) ; Thornton, Gaz. of the Territories under the E. I. Company (4 vols. 1854; 1 vol. 1857, new ed. by Sir Roper Lethbridge and A. N. Wollaston, 8vo. 1886); Hunter, Gaz. of Indis (20 vols. 8vo, 1875-77; 2d ed. 1885-87). Numerous gazetteers for the several states have been compiled at the cost of the government; some of them, as that on Afghanistan, are hardly obtainable. Iraty.—Zuceagni Orlandini, Corografia (15 vols. 1844, &c.); Repetti, Diz. della Toscana (6 vols. Flor. 1833-46) ; Amati (8 vols. Flor. 1868, &c.); Altavilla (8vo, Turin, 1875). IRELAND.—Seward (12mo, Dublin, 1789); Carlisle (4to, Lond. 1810); Lewis (4to, Lond. 1837); Lawson (12mo, Edin. 1842); Parliamentary Gazetteer (3 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1844-46); Leggatt (8vo, Lond. 1879). Russia.—Semenoff, in Russian (1862-86). . ScorLAND.—Macepherson, Geographical Illustrations of Scottish History, containing the names mentioned in Chronicles, &c. (4to, Lond. 1796); Gazetteer (8vo, Dundee, 1803; 2d ed. Edin. 1806); Carlisle (2 vols. 4to0, Lond. 1813); Webster (S8vo, Edin. 1817); Chambers (8vo, Edin. 1832); Topographical . . . Gazetteer (2 vols. 4to, Glasgow, 1842); Comprehensive Gazetteer (12mo, Glas- gow, 1846); Wilson (2 vols. 8vo, Edin. 1854-57); Ordnance Gaz. (edited by F. H. Groome, 3 vols. 8vo, Edin. 1882-85 ). Spatn.—Madoz (1846-50), Mariana y Sanz (1886). SWEDEN.—Hist.-geog. Lex. (8vo, 7 vols. Stockholm, 1859-66); Rosenberg (1881-83). SWITZERLAND.— Weber ( 2d ed. 1886). Compare articles on the several countries. Gazogene. See AERATED WATERS. Gearing, a term applied to the machinery which communicates motion from one part of a machine to another, and may consist of toothed- wheels, endless bands, &c. hen the communica- tion is interrupted, it is owt of gear; and when restored, in gear. Straight gearing is used when the planes of motion are parallel ; bevelled gearing, when the direction is changed. Gearing may also be ‘multiplying’ or retarding—i.e. increasing or diminishing the original velocity. Gebhardt, OskKAR VON, was born at Wesen- berg in Esthonia, 22d June 1844, studied theology at Dorpat, Tiibingen, Erlangen, Gottingen, and Leipzig, and since 1875 has been engaged as a librarian at Strasburg, Leipzig, Halle, Gottingen (1880), and Berlin (1884). e has edited Patrum Apostolicorum Opera (with Harnack and Zahn ; 3 vols. Leip. 1875-78), Hvangeliorum Codex Ros- sanensis (with Harnack; 1880), and Zexte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur (with Harnack; vols. iv. 1883-88). Since 1881 he has re-edited Tischendorf’s text of the New Testament. Gebir, or GEBER. Under this name are current several works on alchemy and chemistry. The history of the real author is so shrouded in mystery that his existence has been denied, and Gebir looked upon as a mythical personage. He is usually identified with Jabir ibn Haijan, a cele- brated Arabic alchemist in the 8th century. His birthplace is given differently as Harran in Meso- potamia, Tarsus, and Kufa; he is said to have resided at Damascus and Kufa, and to have died in 776. The principal writings which go under the name of Gebir, are Summa Perfectionis (see ALCHEMY) ; Summa Collectionis Complementi See- retorum Nature ; Testamentum ; Liber Investiga- tionis; and two tractates on spherical triangles and astronomy. Gebirol, or GABIROL. See AVICEBRON. Gebweiler (Fr. Guebwiller), a town of Alsace- Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, 15 miles SSW. of Colmar, has a 12th-century church, cotton-spin- ning and weaving, dye-works, machine-factories, and vineyards. Pop. (1890) 12,300. Gecko, a group of lizards constituting a family, Geckotide, which have been divided into a large number of genera, including more than 200 species. The geckos are of small size, the colours of most of them are dull, and the small granular scales with which they are covered are in general a ek + ty aman niet S a — — and often re very suddenly when Stassh to branch. - were actuall GED mingled with tubercles, The legs are short, the gait usually slow, measured, and stealthy, although geckos can also run very nimbly when danger seem almost to struck or caught. The are remarkable, being adapted for aaheting ) to smooth surfaces, so that geckos readily clim the smoothest trees or walls, or creep inverted ‘on or hang on the lower side of the large leaves in which tropical vegetation abounds. The _ body and tail are never crested, but are sometimes furnished with lateral membranes, variously fes- tooned or fringed. The lateral membrane is some- times even so large as to be of use to arboreal species in enabling them to take long leaps from The geckos f chiefly on They are more or less nocturnal in their habits. They are natives of warm climates, and Oe Fringed Gecko ( Ptychozoon homalocephalum). are very widely distributed over the world, being especially numerous in the Indian and Australian regions. Two species are found in the south of Europe, both of which treeeey enter houses, as do the geckos of Egypt, India, and other warm countries. The name gecko és derived from a peculiar cry often uttered by some of the species, and which in some of them resembles syllables distinetly pronounced, whilst others are described as enlivening the night in tropical forests by a harsh cackle. The geckos have, in almost all parts of the world tie they are found, a bad reputation as venomous, and as imparting in- jurious qualities to food which they touch; but there is no good evidence in support of any such inion, in accordance with which, however, an ian gecko is even known as ‘the father of leprosy.’ Ged, WiL.1AM, inventor of the art of stereo- ing, was an Edinburgh goldsmith, who from 1725 onwards bent his energies to the Stereotypin (q.v.) of books. He entered into partnership wit a London ie ppete and was commissioned by the university of Cambridge to stereotype some prayer- books and bibles, though only two prayer-books finished ; for, owing to the unfair treatment of his partner and the injustice of his own workmen, Ged was compelled to abandon the enterprise. He returned to Edinburgh a disap- ot man, and died there on 19th October 1749. is most noteworthy production after his return home was a stereotype edition of Sallust (1739). ‘See Memoir by Nichols (1781). Geddes, ALEXANDER, a biblical critic, trans- lator, and miscellaneous writer, was born at Arra- eee, in the parish of Ruthven, Banffshire, in 1737. is parents were Roman Catholics, and he was educated for a priest, first at Scalan, a monastic GEDDES 121 seminary in the Highlands, next at the Scots College, Paris, where he acquired a knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, Italian, French, Spanish, German, and Dutch. In 1764 he returned to Scotland, and five years later took a cure of souls at Auchin- halrig in Banffshire, where he remained for ten years. Here he made himself conspicuous by a breadth of sympathy with the Protestants around him, so extraordinary as to lead to his being deposed from all his ecclesiastical functions. The university of Aberdeen made him LL.D. Geddes now resolved to betake himself to literature, and proceeded to London in 1780. He had long lanned a translation of the Bible into English or the use of Roman Catholics, and he was now, through the munificence of Lord Petre, enabled to devote himself to the work. The first volume Ses in 1792; the second in 1793, carrying the translation as far as the end of the historical books ; and the third was issued in 1800, containing his Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures. These volumes, especially the last, are startlingly heretical, and offended Catholics and Protestants alike. They exhibit as thorough-going Rationalism as is to be found in Eichhorn or Paulus, eliminating the supernatural element from the Seriptures; such stories as that of the Crea- tion in Genesis being merely poetical or philo- sophical fictions, and such figures as Moses merely men who by a pious fraud contrived to add a divine sanction to mere human wisdom. These opinions naturally enough exposed Geddes to the charge of infidelity. He died in London, 26th February 1802, is poems, even Bardomachia, are pow of no importance. See the Life by Dr Mason Good (1803). Geddes, ANDREW. a painter, was born at Edinburgh in 1789. He began to study at the Royal Academy in London in 1807, and first ex- hibited in Edinburgh, producing successful pictures in 1808 and in 1810, in the latter year the ‘ Draught- pieyers. This, along with ‘The Discovery of the cottish Regalia,’ exhibited at the Royal Academy, London, in 1821, and ‘Christ and the Woman of Samaria,’ are esteemed his best pictures, though he also excelled in portrait-painting. He ranks higher as an etcher. fn '1831 he was elected A.R.A., and died in 1844. Geddes, JENNY, an obscure woman whose name is memorable in tradition from her having begun the riotous resistance to the introduction of a Service-book prepared by Laud into the Church of Scotland in 1637. The day fixed for this hated innovation was Sunday the 23d July, and an im- mense crowd filled the High Kirk of St Giles, Edinburgh, on the occasion. On Dean Hanna’s beginning to read the collect for the day, Jenny Geddes, who kept a vegetable-stall in the High Street, threw her stool at his head, shouting: ‘ Deil colic the wame o’ thee; out, thou false thief! dost thou say mass at my lug?’ A great uproar at once arose, and both dean and bishop (David Lindsay ) had to flee for their lives from the fury of the mob. This tumult proved the deathblow of the liturgy in Scotland. This famous exploit is unfortunately lacking in historical evidence beyond a fairly early and persistent tradition. Still Sydserf in 1661 mentions ‘the immortal Jenet Geddes, princess of the Trone adventurers,’ as having burned ‘her leather chair of state ’—evidently an object already famous—at the Restoration bonfires, and the story appears with name and full detail in Phillips’ ontinuation of Baker's Chronickle, published in 1660, the heroine being stated as ‘yet living at the time of this relation.’ An idle attempt has been made to set up a rival claimant in one Barbara Hamilton or Mein, but Jenny Geddes still 122 GEDROSIA -GEIBEL keeps her Poe among the worthies of Scottish history. The credulous may even see her stool in the Antiquaries’ Museum at Edinburgh. See Dr Lees’s St Giles’, Edinburgh (1889). Gedrosia. See BELUCHISTAN. Geelong, a city of Victoria, is picturesquely situated on the south side of Corio Bay, 45 miles SW. of Melbourne by rail. It is well laid ont, abounds in attractive shops, and has some hand- some buildings. The river Barwon forms*‘the southern boundary of the city, and 3 miles farther spreads into the Connewarre Lakes, falling into the sea at Point Flinders. The gold discoveries in 1851 added to the prosperity of Geelong, which had been incorporated as a town in 1849, and became a principal seat of the wool trade—the first woollen mill in Victoria being erected in Geelong. Alongside of the railway jetty the largest ships can load and discharge, and there are three other jetties for smaller vessels. Through the bar at the entrance to Corio Bay a channel has been dredged for the convenience of steamer traffic. The dis- trict is exceedingly fertile; the Barrabool Hills on the west bank of the Barwon are covered with farms and orchards, but the vineyards _ have been destroyed under the Phylloxera Act. Lime- stone and a kind of marble are found in the neighbourhood. There are various industries carried on, especially the manufacture of woollen cloths and paper, meat-preserving, tanning, rope-making, fishing, &e. The Exhibition. Hall and general pro- duce exchange, theatre, and assembly rooms com- bined, stands in the market-square. The city is lighted with gas; is supplied with water from Stony Creek reservoirs and the river Moorabool ; and has two parks, botanical gardens, government buildings, a town-hall, a new post-office (1889), an excellent hospital, a chamber of commerce, mechanies’ institute, grammar-school, and_ five newspapers. Corio Bay is a favourite bathing- resort; and on the eastern boundary of the town are extensive limestone quarries. Pop., including the suburbs (1871) 22,618; (1891) 24,210, of whom about 12,000 were within the municipal boundary. Geelvink Bay penetrates 125 miles south- ward into the western arm of New Guinea. Its entrance, some 155 miles wide, is protected by several islands; its shores are well wooded, flat, and fertile, but unhealthy. The bay is separated by a narrow isthmus from the Alfura Sea on the south, and by a still narrower isthmus from M‘Clure Gulf on the west. Geestemiinde, a seaport of Prussia, situated at the confluence of the Geeste with the Weser, immediately SE. of Bremerhaven, owes its import- ance to the docks and wharves constructed in 1857-63. It has also a school of navigation ; im- ports petroleum, tobacco, rice, coffee, timber, and corn; and carries on various industries connected with shipping. Pop. (1890) 15,452. Geez, or GE‘EZ. See ETHIopra. Gefle, chief town of the Swedish lan of Gefle- borg, is situated on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, 71 miles by rail N. by W. of Upsala. The port for Dalecarlia, Gefle ranks third among the com- mercial towns of Sweden, coming next to Stock- holm and Gothenburg. Among the noteworthy buildings are the castle (16th and 18th century) and the town-hall. Gefle, which has. been rebuilt since its destruction by fire in 1869, has a school of navigation, and carries on shipbuilding, the manu- facture of sail-cloth, cotton, and tobacco, and fisheries. It carries on an active trade, the princi- pal exports being iron, timber, and tar; whilst its imports consist chiefly of corn and salt. Pop. (1874) 16,787 ; (1891) 24,337; (1894) 25,255. Gegenbaur, Kar, German comparative ana- tomist, was born on 21st August 1826, at Wiirzburg, where he was educated, and where he taught until 1855. In this year he was called to a medical pro- fessorship at Jena, but from 1858 to 1873 he taught principally anatomy. Removing to Heidelberg in 1873, he has since that date continued to lecture on the same subject. His fame rests upon his Grund- riss der vergleichenden Anatomie (2d ed. Leip. 1878), which was translated into English that same year by F. J. Bell and E. Ray Lankester. Besides this he has published Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen (1883; 5th ed. 1892), and since 1875 has edited the Morphologisches Jahrbuch. Gehenna, the Greek form of the Hebrew Ge- hinnom, or Valley of Hinnom. This valley, or rather narrow gorge, lies south and west of the city of Jerusalem. Here Solomon built a high place for Moloch (1 Kings, xi. 7), and indeed Gehenna seems to have become a favourite spot with the later Jewish kings for the celebration of idolatrous rites. It was here that Ahaz and Manasseh made their children pass through the fire ‘ according to the abomination of the heathen ;’ and at its south-east extremity, specifically desig- nated Tophet (‘place of burning’), the hidedua practice of infant sacrifice to the fire-gods was not unknown (Jeremiah, vii. 31). When King Josiah came forward as the restorer of the old and pure national faith he ‘defiled’ the Valley of Hinnom by covering it with human bones, and after this it epost to have become ‘the common cesspool of the city, into which its sewage was conducted to be carried off by the waters of the Kidron, as well as a laystall, where all its solid filth was collected. Hence, it became a huge nest of insects, whose larvee or ‘‘ worms” fattened on the cone It is also said that fires were kept constantly burning here to consume the bodies of criminals, the car- casses of animals, and whatever other offal might be combustible. Among the later Jews Gehenna and Yophet came to be symbols for hell and torment, and in this sense the former word is frequently employed by Jesus in the New Testa- ment—e.g. Mark, ix. 47, 48. Geibel, EMANUEL VON, one of the most popular of modern German poets, was born at Liibeck on 18th October 1815. After his studies at Bonn he lived at Berlin, in the poetical circle of Chamisso, Gaudy, and Kugler; next went to Athens in 1838 as tutor in the family of the Russian ambassador, but returned to Liibeck two years later to work up the material he had eollected in Greece, and to pursue his studies in Italian and Spanish literature. At the beginning of 1843 a pension of 300 thalers was bestowed upon him by the king of Prussia. Geibel now resided alternately at St Goar with Freili- grath, at Stuttgart, Hanover, Berlin, and Liibeck, till in 1852 he was appointed professor of A‘stheties in the university of Munich by the king of Bavaria —a post he retained till 1868, when he retired to Liibeck. He contributed translations from the Greek poets to the Classische Studien of Ernst Curtius (1840), and in the same year published his own Gedichte (120th ed. 1893), the beauty and religious tone of which made them at once great favourites with the Germans. The results of his Spanish studies were the Spanische Volkslieder und Rom- anzen (1843), which were followed by the Spanisches Liederbuch (1852), published in conjunction with Paul Heyse. In 1857 appeared his tragedy of Brunehild, and in 1864 his Gedichte und. Gedenk- blatter. In 1868 he published another tragedy called Sophonisbe. He died at Liibeck, 6th April 1884. His poems are distinguished by fervour and truth of feeling, richness of fancy, and a certain pensive melancholy, and have procured Pr ie a - him a popularity—especiall GEIGER GEILER 123 among cultivated women—such as no poet of Germany has a Nea since the days of Uhland, An edition of his Gesammelte Werke was published at Stuttgart in 8 vols (1883 et seq). See Lives by Gaedertz (1885) and Litzmann (1887). Geiger, ApranaM, a Jewish scholar, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, May 24, 1810. Accord- ing to old rabbinical practice, his teachers were his father and elder brother, till he reached the age of eleven. After that he went to the gymnasium, next to the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn devoting himself to philosophy and the oriental languages. His prize essay, Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen? was published in 1833. In November 1832 he was called as rabbi to Wiesbaden, and there he devoted himself with great zeal and in a scientific spirit to Jewish theology, especially in its relation to practical life. In 1835 he joined with several able scholars in starting the Zeitschrift fiir Jiidische Theologie. In 1838 he was called as second rabbi to Breslau, and here he came into serious conflict with the more conservative Jews, but carried with him all men of learning and thought. From 1863 he officiated as rabbi at Frankfort, whence he was called in 1870 to Berlin. Here he died, 23d October 1874, editing from 1862 till the last the Jiidische Zeitschrift. Of his many books may be named his striking Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel (1857), and the elaborate history, Das Judenthum und seine Geschichte ( 1864— 65). An Allgemeine Einleitung, and 5 vols. of Nachgelassene Schriften, were edited by his son in 1875. © See his Life by Screiber ( Lébau, 1880). Geiger, Lazarus, philologist, was born at Frankfort, 2lst May 1829, studied at Bonn, Heidelberg, and Wiirzburg, and in 1861 became a teacher in the Jewish school at Frankfort. He died 29th August 1870. He wrote much on the relation of language and thought, affirming that without language man must Cage been without reason. His principal works are Sprache und Vernunft (1868-72), and Ursprung der Sprache (1869 ; 2d ed. 1878). See Lives by Peschier (1871) and Rosenthal (1883). Geijer, Eric Gustar, Swedish historian, was born at Ransiiter, in Vermland, January 12, 1783. He was sent at sixteen to the university of Up- sala, and in 1803 gained the prize awarded by the Academy of Stockholm for the best essay on the Swedish administrator, Sten Sture. From this iod he devoted himself to the study of the history of his native country. Beginning to lecture at Upsala in 1810, he was_ shortly afterwards nominated to a t in the office of the National Archives; in 1815 he was elected assistant-professor, and in 1817 professor of History at Upsala. Geijer exercised a marked influence on. the poetic no less than on the historical literature of Sweden. As early as 1810 he, along with several friends, founded the Gothic Society, in whose magazine, the Jduna, first appeared several of Geijer’s best poems, and the early cantos of Tegnér’s Frithiof. Great as is the value of Geijer’s historical works, he unfortunately did not complete any one of the vast undertakings which he planned. Thus, of the Svea Rikes Hafder, or Records of Sweden (1825), which were to have embraced the history of his native country from mythical ages to the present time, he finished only the intro- ductory volume. This, however, is a ss ries ed — critical inquiry into the sources of legendary wedish history. His next great work, Svenska olkets Historia (3 vols. 1832-36), was not carried beyond the death of Queen Christina. To Geijer was entrusted the task of examining and editing the papers which Gustavus III. had bequeathed to the university of Upsala with the stipulation that they were not to be opened for fifty years after his death. They appeared in 1843-46. Geijer died at Stockholm, 23d April 1847, Of his other historical and political works we need only mention specially Zhe Condition o Sweden from the Death of Charles XII. to the Accession of Gustavus IIT, (1838), and Feudalism and Republicanism (1844). ides these he edited the continuation of Fant’s Scriptores Rerum Sueci- carum Medii Alvi (1818-25), and Thorild’s Samlade Skrifter (1819-25), and, along with Afzelius, a col- lection of Svenska Folkvisor (1814-16). During the last ten years of his life Geijer took an active part in polities; but, although his political writings possess greet merit, the very versatility of his powers diverted him from applying them methodi- cally to the complete elaboration of any one special subject. He was also known to his countrymen as a musician and composer of no mean order. His collected works were published by his son, with a biographical sketch (13 vols. 1849-56; new ed. 1873-75). Geikie, Sir ARCHIBALD, geologist, born at Edin- burgh in 1835, and educated at the High School and university. In 1855 he was appointed to the Geological Survey; in 1867 became director to the Survey in Scotland; from 1870 to 1881 was Murchison Professor of Geology in re oti Uni- versity; and in 1881 was appointed director- yoo to the Survey of the United Kingdom, ing at the same time placed at the head of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. He is the author of Story of a Boulder (1858); Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland (1863); The Scenery of Scotland viewed in connection with its Physical cology (1865 ; 2d ed. 1887); Memoir of Sir R. Murchison (1874); a Teaxt-book of Geology (1882) ; The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (1897); The Founders of Geology (1897); besides numérous class-books, primers, Ke. on geol He was knighted in 1891.—His brother JAMES was born at Edinburgh in 1839, and educated there. Having served on the Geological Survey of Scotland from 1861 to 1882, he succeeded Archibald as Murchison Professor of Geology in Edinburgh University. He is the author of The Great Ice Age in ts Relation to the Antiquity of Man (1874; 3d ed. 1894) ; Prehistoric Europe (1881); Outlines of Geology (1886; 2d ed. 1488); a translation of Songs and Lyrics by H. Heine and other German Poets (1887); besides a large number of geological maps, sections, and memoirs published by the Geological seo ; and he has written the geological articles for the present edition of this work. He became F.R.S.E., 1871; F.R.S., 1875; LL.D. (St Andrews), 1877; D.C.L. (Durham), 1889; and is a Fellow of many learned societies at home and abroad. Geiler von Kaisersberg, JOHANNES, a famous pulpit-orator of Germany, was born at Schaffhausen, 16th March 1455, studied at Frei- burg and Basel, and in 1478 became preacher in the cathedral of Strasburg, where he died, 10th March 1510. Geiler von Kaisersberg was one of the most learned and original men of his age; his sermons, usually composed in Latin and delivered in Ger- man, are marked by great eloquence and earnest- ness, nor do they disdain the aids of wit, sarcasm, and ridicule. f his writings, which have now become very rare, may be mentioned Das Narren- schiff (Lat. 1511; Ger. by Pauli, 1520), comprising 142 sermons on Sebastian Brandt's Fengh~con 3 ; Das Irrig Schaf (1510); Der Seelen Paradies (1510); Schiff der Pénitenz und Busswirkung (1514); Das Buch Granata ofel (1511); Christliche Pilgerschaft zum Ewigen Vaterland (1512); and Das Evangelienbuch (1515). See the studies by 124 GEISSLER’S TUBES GELATINE Ammon (Erl. 1826), Dacheux (Paris and Strasb. 1876), and Lindemann (Freiburg, 1877). Geissler’s Tubes. See Vacuum TUBES. Gela, an ancient city on the southern coast of Sicily, near the site of the modern Terranuova. It was founded by a colony of Rhodians and Cretans, 690 B.C., and grew so rapidly that as early as 582 it was able to found a colony at Agrigentuin, which was soon to outstrip Gela itself (see GELON ). Here A‘schylus died and was buried, 456 BC., ‘and here Apollodorus was born. In 280 its inhabitants were transplanted to Phintias. Gelasius, the name of two popes. —GELASIUS I., an African by birth, succeeded Felix III. in 492, and was one of the earliest bishops of Rome to assert the supremacy of the papal chair, not only over temporal patpae but also over general councils of the church. e vigorously repressed Pelagianism, which was spreading in Dalmatia, renewed the ban of his predecessor against the oriental patriarch, drove out the Manicheans from Rome, and died in 496. There are extant a treatise of his against the Eutychians and Nes- torians, De duabus in Christo naturis, several letters, and a Codex Sacramentarius.—GELASIUS IL., formerly John of Gaeta, was educated at the Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino, was cardinal and chancellor under Urban II. and Paschal II., and on the death of the latter in the June of 1118 was chosen pope by the party hostile to the Em- peror Henry V. The imperial party at Rome under the Frangipani seized his person, but were forced to set him free by the menacing attitude of the mob. The new pope fled before the advanc- ing imperial troops to Gaeta, where he first received his consecration, and whence he fulmin- ated the thunders of excommunication against Henry V. and Gregory VIII., the antipope he had get up. Soon after he was able to return to Rome, but ere long had to betake himself for pro- tection to France, where he died in the monastery of Clugny, early in 1119. Gelatine, in Chemistry. Little is yet defi- nitely known of the chemical nature of gelatine. It consists approximately of carbon 49°6, oxygen 25-4, nitrogen 18°3, and sulphur about 0°1 per cent. It is soluble in hot water, in acetic acid, and in cold sulphuric acid, and is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and other organic liquids; the aqueous solution is precipitated by tannic acid, chrome alum, and corrosive sublimate, but not by most acids, salts, or alkalies in dilute solution. Gelatine may be purified by dissolving it in water and pouring the solution into a large bulk of alcohol ; the clot which forms consists of nearly pure genre, containing only a trace of ash. By dry istillation gelatine yields a quantity of carbonate of ammonia, and a foul smelling brown oil contain- ing carbonate, sulphide and cyanide of ammonia, aniline, methylamine, picaline, and a number of pyridine bases. Gelatine solution dissolves lime and calcium phosphate much more freely than cold water, forming with the latter a definite compound, which probably forms part of the tissue of bones. In Technology, the term gelatine, although usually applied to only one variety of the sub- stance obtained by dissolving the soluble portion of the gelatinous tissues of animals, nevertheless properly belongs also to Isinglass (q.v.) and Glue (q.v.), which are modifications of the same material. Vegetable jelly is also analogous. Gelatine and glue signify the more or less pure and carefully prepared jelly of mammalian animals ; but the term cainglens is only applied to certain gelatinous parts of fishes, which from their exceed- ing richness in gelatine, are usually merely dried and used without any other preparation than that of minute division for the purpose of facilitating their action. Gelatine proper is a die for commercial pur- poses from a variety of animal substances, but chiefly from the softer parts of the hides of oxen and calves and the skins of sheep, such as the thin portion which covers the belly, the ears, &e. ; also from bones and other parts of animals. One of the best, if not the best of the varieties of gelatine manufactured in Great Britain, is the ‘s arkling gelatine’ of Messrs Cox of Gorgie, near Edinburgh, which is remarkable for its great purity and strength, or gelatinising power, and is purified by processes patented by them. The materials they use are carefully selected portions of ox only imported from South America. Another prepara- tion, made by Mackay of Edinburgh from calves’- feet, is deserving of special mention. The general method adopted with skin-parings or hide-clippings is first to wash the pieces very carefully ; they are then cut into small pieces and placed in a weak solution of caustic soda for a week or ten days. When this process of digestion has been sufficiently carried on, the pieces of skin are then transterred to revolving cylinders supplied with an abundance of clean cold water, and after- wards are placed still wet in another chamber lined with wood, in which they are bleached and purified by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur ; they next receive their final washing with cold water, which removes the sulphurous acid. The next operation is to transfer them to the gelatinising pots. Water is poured in with the pieces, and kept at a high temperature by means of the steam in the cases surrounding the pots. By this means the gelatine is quite dissolved out of the skin, and is strained off whilst still hot; it is poured out in thin layers, which as soon as they are sufficiently cooled and consolidated are cut into small léiea, usually oblong, and laid on nets, stretched horizontally, to dry. It is then cut into shreds and is ready for market. . Another process, introduced by Mr Swineburne, consists in treating eae of calfskin by water alone, without the soda and sulphur processes ; the pieces, after simple washing, being transferred at once to the pots to be acted upon by the steam. Inferior gelatine is made from bones and other parts of animals; and it is understood that the enormous number of rats killed in the sewers and abattoirs of Paris are used by the gelatine-makers. The French manufacturers succeed better than any others in clarifying these inferior gelatines, and they rarely aks any others; they run their plates out very thin, which gives them greater transparency; and they colour them with most brilliant colours, and form very fine-rolled sheets, tempting the eye with an appearance of great delicacy and purity. Gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone. Its purity may be very easily tested thus : soak it in cold water, and then pour upon it a small uantity of boiling water; if pure it will form a thickish, clear, straw-coloured solution, free from smell, but if made of impure materials it will give off a very offensive odour, and have a yellow gluey consistency. No article manufactured requires such careful selection of material and such nice and cleanly manipulation to ensure a good marketable character; and those anxious for purity should avoid all artificially coloured varieties, however temptingly got up, unless they are required for merely decorative purposes and not for food. Of late years the commercial uses have greatly increased. Gelatine is the foundation of the dry- plate system of photography, and by its means the science has been revolutionised and its capabili- ties extended to an extraordinary degree. o the. GELDERLAND GELLIUS 125 ting process as employed by Messrs Goupil of and others the world is indebted for cheap and at the same time highly artistic copies of many admirable pictures. It is further very extensively used by d ists for coating pills and nauseous ¥ drags; end Ey ‘confectioners: for sdme: kinds of sweetmeats. Chondrin, closely akin in composition and properties to gelatine, is obtained by the action of boiling water on cartilage. For gelatine as food and in picture work, see Diet, ILLUSTRATION, PHOTOGRAPHY. See also GLUTEN, ISINGLASS. One of the qualities of gelatine is its power to form chemical combinations with certain organic matters ; hence, when it is mixed and dissolved in a fluid containing such matters, it combines, and the compound is precipitated. It would appear that this combination, however, is threadlike in its arrangement, and that the crossing threads form a fine network through the fluid, which, in falling, carries down all omnes substances that by their presence render the liquid cloudy ; hence its t value in clarifying beer and other liquids. or this reason isinglass, which has been found the best payee for the purpose, is very largely con- sumed by brewers. . Various kinds of animal food are valued for the abundance of gelatine they contain, as the Trepang and Bache-de Mer (species of Holothuria), sharks fins, fish-maws, ray-skins, elephant hide, rhinoceros hide, and the softer parts, all of which are luxuries amongst the Chinese, Japanese, Siamese, Malays, &e. Turtle-shells, or the upper and lower parts of the shield (carapace and plastron), constitute the eallipash and sillises of the epicure, and form, in the hands of the experienced cook, a rich gelatinous snp. The fleshy parts of the turtle, calves’ head and feet, and many other things might be enumer- ated as valuable chiefly in consequence of their richness in this material. - Gelderland. See GUELDERLAND. Gelidium, a genus of Algw Floridee (see SEA- WEEDS). G. cartilagineum and the allied Graci- laria lichenoides are said to be utilised in the building of the edible birds’-nests, so much prized by the Chinese (see, however, EpIBLE Brirps’- Nest). These and allied species are largely used for food in the East, as yielding wholesome jellies. Gell, Str Wiiu1aMm, English antiqnary and classical scholar, was born at Hopton in Derby- shire in 1777. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1798, after which he held for some time a fellowship at Emmanuel College. He devoted his time principally to antiquarian research and geographical studies, and published works on the topography of Troy (1804), Pompeii (4 vols. 1817-32), and Rome (1834); itineraries of Greece (1810), the Morea (1817), and Attica (1817), as well as a book on the Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca (1808), and a Journey in the Morea (1823). Of these works the best was that on the antiquities and topography of Pompeii. For some years after 1814 he was one of the chamber- lains of Caroline, consort of George IV. He died at Naples, February 4, 1836. Gellert, or KILLHART, the famous dog of Prince Llewellyn, which, left in charge of his infant child, after a desperate battle killed a wolf that had entered the house. The prince on his return, seeing the cradle overturned and the floor sprinkled with blood, thought the hound had led his child, and at once rig ew his sword into its side, A moment after he found the child safe under the cradle and the wolf lying dead, and saw too late the faithfulness of his dog. Gellert was buried under a tomb which stands to this da in the lovely village of Beddgelert, near the Somili base of Snowdon. The story is the subject of a beautiful ballad by the Hon. William-Robert Spencer (1769-1834), second son of the fifth Earl of Sunderland, who became also third Duke of Marl- borough. He was the father of two colonial bishops, and the author of much fashionable poetry long forgotten, with this one ballad that will not die. Welshmen not only show the grave of the faith- ful Gellert, but fix 1205 as the date at which he was given to the hen by his father-in-law. Un- fortunately for them the story was long before current in Europe, with a snake instead of a wolf as the enemy. It is the first tale in the oldest Latin prose version of the Seven Wise Masters, entitl Dolopathos, written about 1184, and nearly a century before (about 1090), it had existed in Syntipas, a Greek version of the Buol: of Sindibdd, the eastern prototype of the Seven ise Masters. From the Latin Dolopathos, or from oral tradition, the story was taken into sub- sequent versions of the Wise Masters, and also into the Gesta Romanorum. It occurs also in the Liber de Donis of Etienne de Bourbon, who tells us that the grave was visited by the sick, and it reappears in the istoria Septem Sapientum Rome, the parent of Wynkyn de Worde’s History of the Seven Wise Masters of Rome (1505). The story of the Dog and the Snake thus occurs in all the western group of the Book of Sindibad ; and of eastern texts or of ver- sions derived from these, it is found in the Syriac, Persian, Greek, Hebrew, Latin (John of Capua’s Directorium Humane Vite), and the old Spanish (translated from an old Arabic version now lost). It does not occur in the modern Arabic version (the Seven Vazirs), which is incorporated with the Book of the Thousand and One Nights. In the Sindibad Nama (written in 1374), a Persian metri- cal version, a cat is substituted fora dog. Again, in the Panchatantra version it is a mongoose or ichneumon that kills the snake ; in the Hitopadesa it is a weasel. Dr Beal has translated a version from the Vinaya Pitaka of the Chinese Buddhist books (412 A.D.), itself said to be due to a much older Indian original, supposed to date from over 200 B.c. This Beal considers the oldest form of the Panchatantra story. ‘See vol. ii. of Popular Tales and Fictions (1887), by W. A. Clouston, who corrects some errors in the account in Baring- Gould’s Popular Myths of the Middle Ages. Gellert, Curistian Fircurecort, a German poet and moralist, was born July 4, 1715, at Haini- chen, in the Erzgebirge, Saxony, and was educated at the university of Leipzig. After spending some years in teaching, in 1751 he received a professorship at Leipzig, where he lectured on poetry, eloquence, and morals, to large and enthusiastic audiences, until his death, 13th December 1769. His import- ance in German literature is due to the fact that around him gathered those who revolted against the pipe sey and frigid formalities of Gottsched and his school, and thus pioneered the way for the more brilliant reaction of Goethe and Schiller. Gellert came to occupy this position partly on account of his writings, but more on account of his personal character. A man of sincere piety, a moral enthusiast, and with a genuinely good kind heart, he was beloved by his students, and they carried his authority beyond the walls of his lecture- room. His writings consist principally of Fabeln und Erzihlungen and Geistliche Lieder, both sets great favourites from the simplicity and natural- ness of their style, and, in the case of the latter, their wan iiseten piety. His Stimmtliche Werke appeared in 10 vols. in 1769-74; new ed. 1867. See his Life by Déring (1833). Gellius, Autvs, a Latin author, who flourished in the 2d century of our era, and is sup to have been born at Rome, and to have studied 126 GELNHAUSEN GEM hilosophy at Athens, after which he practised jase at Rome without abandoning his literary pur- suits. His well-known work, the Noctes Attica, begun during the long nights of winter in a country- house near Athens, and completed during the later | ears of his life, is a collection of miscellaneous and ill-arranged matter on language, antiquities, history, and literature, in 20 books, of which the 8th is wanting. It contains many extracts from Greek and Latin authors no longer extant. The best edition is that of Hertz (2 vols. Berlin, 1883-85) ; see also the same editor’s Opuscula Gelliana (1886). Gelnhausen, a town of Prussia, stands on the Kinzig and on the slopes of a vine-clad hill, 26 miles NE. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here, on an island in the Kinzig, Frederick Barbarossa built an imperial residence (the ‘ Pfalz’); and in 1169 he conferred upon the village the freedom of the empire. After being transferred to the counts of Hanan in 1435, Gelnhausen began to decay. It has several old buildings, as the town-house, some towers, the Catholic church, ‘princes’ house,’ &e. Pop. (1895) 4496. Gelon, tyrant of Gela and afterwards of Syra- cuse, was a scion of a noble family of the former city, and contrived to become successor to Hippo- crates, its tyrant, in 491 B.c. Six years later he made himself master of Syracuse also, which then became the seat of his government, and to which he transferred the majority of the inhabitants of Gela. His influence soon extended itself over the half of Sicily. Gelon refused to aid the Greeks against Xerxes, as they declined to comply with his demand that he should be appointed com- mander-in-chief. He became embroiled with the Carthaginians because of their attack upon his ally, Theron of Agrigentum, and defeated them in a great victory at Himera, on the same day, accord- ing to tradition, on which the Greeks won the battle of Salamis. The clemency and wisdom of Gelon rendered him so generally beloved that when he appeared unarmed in an assembly of the people, and declared himself ready to resign his power, he was unanimously hailed as the deliverer and sovereign of Syracuse. Gelon died in 478 B.C., and his memory was held in such respect a century and a half after, that, when Timoleon razed to the ground all the statues of former tyrants, those of Gelon alone were spared. t Gelsemium nitidum (G. sempervirens), the ellow or Carolina jasmine (nat. ord. Loganiaceze), is a climbing plant of the Atlantic southern United States, having large, axillary, fragrant, clustered blossoms and perennial dark-green leaves. The dried rhizome and rootlets are used in medicine, and contain an alkaloid, gelsemine, C,,H,,NO,, to which the plant owes its physiological action. When the powdered rhizome, or any of the pharma- ceutical preparations made from it, is taken inter- nally in medicinal doses there ensues a feeling of languor, with slight depression of the circulation and lowering in the frequency and force of the pulse. . In larger doses it acts as an active poison, causing cardiac depression, muscular weakness, and marked disturbance of vision—wide dilatation of the pa and frequently squinting and ptosis. The central nervous system in man is also affected, the gait becomes staggering, general sensibility is much impaired, the respiration is slow and laboured, and the bodily temperature is lowered. If death results it is from failure of respiration. A solution of the alkaloid applied directly to the eye causes dilata- tion of the pupil and paralysis of accommodation. In medicine gelsemium is used to reduce the tem- perature in malarial and other sthenic fevers ; it is also used in neuralgia, rheumatism, pneumonia, and pleurisy, and by dentists. Gelsenkirchen, a modern manufacturin town of Westphalia, 4 miles NW. of Bochum. I owes to coal and iron its rise from a mere village since 1860, Pop. (1880) 14,615 ; (1890) 28,057. Gem, a term often used to signify a precious stone of small size, such as may be used for setting in a ring, or for any similar purpose of ornament ; but sometimes by mineralogists in a sense which they have themselves arbitrarily affixed to it, for the purpose of scientific classification, as the desig- nation of an order or family of minerals, generally hard enough to scratch quartz, insoluble in acids, infusible before the blowpipe, without. metallic lustre, but mostly brilliant and beautiful. Among them are included some of the minerals which, in popular language, are most generally known as gems —ruby, sapphire, spinel, topaz, i 1, emerald, tourmaline, hyacinth, zircon, &e.—and some other rarer minerals of similar character ; but along with these are ranked minerals, often coarser varieties of the same species, which are not gems in the ordinary sense of the word, as emery and common corundum, whilst diamond and some other precious stones, much used as gems, are excluded. « See Streeter’s Precious Stones and Gems (1879). While the term gem is thus used currently to denote jewels and precious stones; it is strictly appli- cable only to such hard and precious stones as have been worked by engraving. When the en- graved design is sunk in the stone the gem forms an intaglio, signet, or seal, and when the subject is in relief the gem is a Cameo (q.v.). The rarer and more costly precious stones, such as the diamond, ruby, emerald, and sapphire, are seldom treated by engraving, because, in addition to the excessive difficulty of working them by engravers’ methods, their value principally depends on their brilliance of sparkle and colour. The stones of the gem-en- graver are almost exclusively the variously coloured, mottled, and banded varieties of chaleedony quartz, which are differently named according to the appear- ance they present. From the gem-engraver’s point of view, the most important stones are carnelian, sard, chrysoprase, plasma, bloodstone, jasper, agate, and onyx. As these names indicate only Hifforenes of colour and shades, degrees of translucency, and alternations of bands, all of which characteristics merge into each other, they are incapable of precise definition. The banded stone, generally called Onyx (q.v.), is used as the principal material for cameo-engraving, the relief subject being worked in one coloured band or stratum on a ground of a different colour. The art of gem-engraving developed from the customary use of seals among the ancient Egyptians and other early civilised communities of the East. In addition to abundant remains of seals of high antiquity, we have ample testimony to their im- portant functions from numerous references in early literature. Thus, in Genesis, xxxviii. 18, we read that Tamardemanded of Judah his signet as a pledge; and Pharaoh, in investing Joseph with the office of principal minister, gave him his signet-ring as a token of authority. The early seals of the Egyptians were cut in the form of the scarabzeus wey ramet q or sacred beetle, with the Fig. 1.—Carnelian Etruscan Scarabeeus : Centaur and intaglio desi engraved | we A Deer. in a flat base; and in this form they were followed. by the early Greeks and the Etruscans. Among the Chaldeans, Babylonians, and Assyrians the primitive seals took the form of cylinders, around GEM 127 m4 a : which the intaglio device was engraved. An im- pression in soft clay or other medium was obtained 9m such seals by gently rolling the cylinder over surface to be impressed. The earliest of such ylios were cut in steatite, serpentine, and other vely soft stones; but these materials / gave way to the harder and more dur materials in which it was possible to pture fine details with great minuteness. eylindrical signet of Darins I. of Persia, wed in chalcedony, and preserved to the present , is an example of the art at its highest develop- ent among the Asiatic monarchies. From the nature of the subjects engraved on ems, and from the method in which they were yunted, it is evident that they soon came to be en ployed otherwise than as signets. Gems came » be worn as personal ornaments mounted in wa ‘8 “oats and in other settings, they were treasured as wor of art, and they were treated as charms to avert fil and to win success and the favour of gods and nen. For the breastplate of the Jewish high- priest, Moses was instructed to ‘take two onyx stones, and grave on them the names of the children __| fia Fig. 2.—Chalcedony Cylimder : Signet ot Darius I. of Israel. _ stone, like the engravings ye the two stones Wi . . . With the work of an engraver on i of a signet, shalt thou (Exodus, xxviii. 9-11). th the extension of the uses of gems, the forms _ of the stones also changed ; in the case of cylinders _ first into cones engraved on the base, then into t oye aneleing stones, ultimately taking a flat thin _ form through which the light would pass sufficient _ to show the engraving by transmitted light; and _ with this view the stones were sometimes convex and cut en cabochon. Ancient gems, like ancient , were generally irregular in outline, but at all times their prevailing form was oval. The earlier engraved gems of the Greeks, as _ already mentioned, were in the form of scarabs. In these the engraved intaglio was enclosed in a _ guilloche or engrailed border, and the engraving _ Was stiff and formal, in every respect like Etruscan t work. Gem-engraving in Greece i reached its highest perfection dur- ing the three centuries which pre- : ed the Christian era, and the names of some of the most famous artists of that period have been handed down to the present day. In Rome the art was encouraged, and flourished till the rhe of the Antonines, after which it \ rapidly declined; and such By- Fig 3 zantine work my exists ,is rude ~ a3 _. execution, and interesting on Greek Sard, with from the fact that with it Chris Indian us. tian subjects begin to appear in ain, ms, A meo-engraving was not ll the days of imperial Rome. The subjects of ancient gems embrace the vhole circle of ancient art, and follow the laws of its development, animal forms being succeeded as ‘rotten-stone, which mould is careful by those of deities and subjects derived from the battles of Greeks and Amazons and Centaurs, the exploits of Hercules and other heroes; then by scenes from tr ians and later myths; and finally by portraits, historical representations, and allegories. The inscriptions consist of the names of deities, heroes, and subjects; dedi- cations to deities; the names of artists, some- times in the genitive case, but often accompanied by the verb epoei, ‘ fecit ;’ addresses to individuals ; gnomic or other sayings, indicating that the gems are amulets against demons, thieves, and various evils, or charms for procuring love; the names of the possessors, and sometimes addresses, occasion- ally even distichs of poetry, and various mottoes. These inscriptions were often added by subsequent ssessors, and are not of the age of the gem itself. With the decline of the arts generally, the art of gem-engraving sank during the middle ages, to be awakened in only through the patronage of the Medici family in Italy in the 15th century, and with varying fortunes it continued to be practised till the early part of the 19th century. Strictly classical models, and to a large extent classical subjects, have been chosen by modern engravers, and towards the end of the 18th century the practice of foisting modern imitations on buyers of gems as genuine Greek works of the best period me ve revalent. Prince Poniatowsky, who in- herited a small collection of ancient gems from Stanislaus, last king of Poland, employed the most skilful engravers of his day to fill up his cabinet with imitation antiques on which thie names of the most eminent engravers of antiquity were forged. The Poniatowsky forgeries did much to bring gem-engraving into disrepute, and to lower the value of even fine and undoubted works. The diagnosis of gems has been rendered a work of extreme difficulty; and, as the modern imitator possesses ecnveniences for his task which were not at the disposal of the ancient artist, works of high artistic merit and great finish are more likely to ¥e modern than ancient. In modern times a considerable trade has been earried on in the preparation of artificial gems, both cameos and intaglios, for jewelry purposes and for the cabinets of collectors. The most famous and successful maker of pastes was James Tassie, a native of Pollokshaws, near Glasgow, who in the latter half of the 18th century settled in Lon- don, and then, with marvellous industry, sueceeded in copying upwards of 15,000 of the most famous and artistic gems of ancient and modern times. But Tassie’s activity was not confined to the copy- ing of gems alone. He produced in cameo a large series of portraits of his most famous contem- raries, and, while his whole productions are now ighly prized, these large cameos are in great request, and command high and steadily-increasing rices. F Paste copies of existing gems are made with comparative ease, by obtaining an impression from the original in very fine moist Tripoli earth or dried. A iece of glass of the required colour and size is then aid over the mould, and placed in a furnace, which is raised to a heat sufficient to melt the glass, causing it to flow over and accurately fill the mould, When a cameo is being made, the raised portion alone is so moulded in opaque white glass, and, its back being ground flat and smooth, it is cemented to a mount of any desired colour. In some cases the mount itself is melted to the already formed relief portion, which for this purpose, after ; aoe away of the superfluous glass, is reintro- uced into the furnace embedded in a Tripoli mould to allow of the mount being melted over it. Portrait cameos are made from wax models, casts 128 GEMARA GENDER of which are taken in the same way as moulds are obtained from gems. For the making of imitation gems or precious stones (engraved or not) from glass specially pre- pared and coloured, as well as for the production of actual but artificial precious stones by chemical methods, see STONES (PRECIOUS), as also DIA- MOND, RuBy, PEARL, &c. For seals, see SEAL, The chief implement used by the ancient en- gravers appears to have been made by splittin corundum into splints by a heavy hammer, an then fixing these points like glaziers’ diamonds into iron instruments, with which the work was executed by the hand (ferra retusa). The drill, terebra, was also extensively used for hollowin out the deeper and larger parts of the work, an emery powder, the smaris or Naxian stone, for polishing. The so-called wheel, a minute dise of copper, secured to the end of a spindle, and moistened with emery powder or diamond dust, and driven by a lathe, does not appear to have come into use till the Byzantine epoch. It has been conjectured that the artist used lenses of some kind, or globes filled with water, to execute his minute work; but the ancient, like the modern engraver, rather felt than saw his way. All these processes were not employed by the same artist, for, besides the engraver (scalptor cavarius, dacty- lioglyphus), there was a polisher (politor), not to mention arrangers (compositores gemmarum), and merchants (gemmarii, mangones gemmarum) who drove a flourishing trade in emeralds and pearls and engraved stones in the days of Horace. The principal writers of antiquity who treated of gems are QOnomacritus or the Pseudo-Orpheus, Dionysius Periegetes, Theophrastus, and Dliny, whose chapter is compiled from antecedent Greek and Roman authors. Isidorus, 630 A.D., gives an account of the principal stones; so do Psellus and Marbodus in the 11th century. See Mariette, Pierres Gravées (Paris, 1750); Raspe, Descriptive Catalogue of Engraved Gems (Lond. 1791); Millin, Introduction a@ VEtude des Pierres Gravées (Paris, 1797); Krause, Pyryoteles (Halle, 1856); King, Antique Gems and Rings (3d ed. 2 vols. 1872), and Handbook of Engraved Gems (2d ed. 1885); Bucher, Gesch. der technischen Kiinste (1875); Billings, Science of Gems, &c. (Lond. 1875); Pannier, Les Lapidaires Francais du Moyen Age (Paris, 1872); Jones, History and Mystery of Precious Stones (1880); Gatty, Cata- logue of the Engraved Gems in the Collection of J. Mayer (1879) ; Catalogue of the Engraved Gems in the British Museum (Lond. 1889). Gemara. See TALMUD. Gemini (‘the Twins’), the third constellation in the zodiac. See CASTOR AND POLLUX. Gemistus. See PLETHON. Gemmation. See REPRODUCTION. Gemmi Pass, a narrow path, nearly 2 miles long, which crosses the Alps at a height of 7553 feet, and connects the Swiss cantons of Bern and Valois. Gemot. TIES, WITENAGEMOT, Gems-bok (Oryx Gazella), a species of ante- lope, described by some naturalists as the Oryx, but which, being a native of South Africa only, cannot be the Oryx of the ancients, although it is certainly a nearly allied species. It is a heavy, stout animal, about the size of a stag, with rough reversed hair on the neck and along the ridge of the back ; large pointed ears ; and almost perfectly straight horns, fully two feet long, in the plane of the forehead, little diverging, and obscurely ringed at the base. The colours are harshly contrasted, dark rusty gray above, and white on the under parts, separated by a broad dark-brown or black band ; See FOLKMOOT, VILLAGE COMMUNI-. the head white, with black transverse bands; the thighs black, and the legs white. The hoofs are Gems-bok. remarkably long, adapted to the rocky mountain- ous districts which the animal frequents. The Gems-bok makes such use of its horns as some- times even to beat off the lion. It inhabits dis- tricts free from wood, and is generally found in pairs or in very small herds. Genazzano, a small town of 4008 inhabitants, 27 miles E. of Rome, containing an old castle of the Colonna family, and the far-famed pilgrimage- chapel of the Madonna del Buon Consiglio. See The Virgin Mother of Good Counsel, by Dr G. F. Dillon (1885). Gendarmes (Fr., ‘men-at-arms’) were orig- inally mounted lancers, armed at all points, and attended by five inferior soldiers, who were fur- nished by the holders of fiefs; these were replaced by Charles VII.’s compagnies d’ordonnance, which were dissolved in 1787, one company of gendar- merie being retained as the bodyguard of Louis XVI. Since the Revolution, except for a short interval at the Restoration, the gendarmes have constituted a military police, which superseded the old maréchaussée, and comprises both cavalry and infantry ; divided into legions and companies, and these latter into brigades, the organisation of the force corresponds to the territorial divisions of the army. The men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, its members being drafted from the line for this service. Germany also since 1808 has had its gendarmen. See POLICE. Gender, a grammatical distinction between words corresponding directly or metaphorically to the natural distinction of sex. Names applied to the male sex are said to be of the masculine gender ; those applied to the female sex, feminine ; while words that are neither masculine nor feminine are said to be neuter or of necther gender. In modern English we have no such thing as merely gram- matical gender, save when sex is implied meta- phorically to inanimate things (a ship, a steam- engine, &c.) by such a figure of speech as _per- sonification; but in Old English, as well as in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, the greater part of inanimate things are either masculine or feminine, the others — neuter; and this distinction of gender is marked by the terminations of the nom- inative and other case-endings. Grammatical gender went gradually out of use after the Norman GENEALOGY GENERATIONS 129 ' Coniguest, the northern dialects being the earliest , it. In Hebrew there is no neuter, all s names being either masculine or feminine, as also the modern Romance tongues, Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. German, again, in this lar resembles Old English and the classical es. See GRAMMAR. Genealogy. See PEDIGREE. General Officers. A General Officer is an officer of the general army staff. A field-marshal or general commanding-in-chief would in the field command several Army Corps (q.Vv.), @ one corps, a lieutenant-general one Divi- er Gv), a major-general one Brigade (q.v.). 5 er-generals in the British army are usually colonels in peeay command of brigades, There are many in India. In 1889 there were 5 field- ~ marshals in the British army, 13 generals, 43 lientenant-generals, and 117 major-generals. Com- _ paratively few of these hold commands, and if -utiemployed for five years in either rank they _ are compulsorily retired. Also, a aon i pe _ must retire if he reaches sixty-two without being promoted, and a lieutenant-general or general at - sixty-seven. Promotion amongst the generals is ___ by seniority, unless there are good grounds for a _ ¢ontrary course, but promotion to field-marshal is made by the sovereign without respect to seniority. _ olonels, if under fifty-five Saves Pgs if holding _ temporary rank as major-general), and stated to _ be competent by the commander-in-chief, are 2 oa. ag for promotion to general’s rank, and the seniors are usually taken to fill vacancies as they _ ecur; but at any time a colonel may be promoted _ for distinguished conduct. _ As regards pay, when actively employed a — commanding-in-chief receives £10, 15s. a y; a general not in chief command, £8; a lieu- _ tenant-general, £5, 10s.; a major-general, £3; and ab ier-general, £2, 10s., all exclusive of allow- ances for forage, &c. When on half-pay a field- _ marshal receives £1300 a year, the others £800, £650, and £500 respectively. When retired a general receives £1000 a year, a lieutenant-general £850, _ and a major-general £700; but there are various _ modifications affecting these amounts. The rank of captain-general, superior even to field-marshal, is held by the sovereign ex officio, and is borne by the colonel of the Honourable Artillery eeereny of London, but otherwise it has not been conferred upon any officer of the British army during the 19th perwy. In the United States the rank of ‘general of the armies’ was created by act of congress in 1799, that of lieutenant-general being abolished ; but the act did not take etfect, and Washington was still lieu- tenant-general at his death, a few months later. This rank was conferred by brevet on Scott in 1855, and was renewed in 1864 in favor of Grant, who be- mee prone in 1866. Lieut.-Gen. Sherman suc- ceede him in 1869, and was in turn succeeded 1n 1888 by Lieut. -Gen. Sheridan, on whose death both grades e extinct. Gen. Schofield was appointed lieu- tenant-general in 1895, retiring shortly after ; and in 1900 sonpress enacted that the senior major-gen- eral shall have the rank of Jieutenant-general. The militia organisation of some of the states includes _ Mmajor-generals and brigadier-generals. . General, in the Roman Catholic Church, the supreme head, under the pope, of the gated communities throughout Christendom Slengita to a religious order (though the abbas abbatum of the Benedictines is not actually styled *general’). The governing authorities of ' the monastic orders in the Roman Catholic Church may be arran in three classes: (1) the eis. of individual convents or communities, called in different orders by the various names of abbot, prior, rector, guardian, &c.; (2) the pro- vincials, who have authority over all the convents of a ‘ province’—the provinces being usually coin- cident in limit with kingdoms ; (3) the general, to whom not only each member of the order, but all the various officials of every rank are absolutely subject. The pan is usually elected, commonly by the general chapter of the order, which, in the majority of orders, consists properly of the provin- cials ; with these, however, are generally asso- ciated the heads of the more important monasteries, as also the superiors of certain subdivisions of pro- vinces. The office of general in most orders is held for three years. In that of the Jesuits itis for life ; but in all the election of the general chapter must be confirmed by the pope. In most orders, too, there is assigned to the general a consultor (admoni- tor) or associate (socius), who, however, is only entitled to advise, and has no authority to control the superior. The general also is sup to con- sult with and to receive reports from the various local superiors. He sends, if necessary, a visitor to inquire into particular abuses, or to report upon sueh controversies as may arise, and he holds a eneral chapter of the order at stated times, which iffer according to the e of the several orders. The general is exempt from episcopal jurisdic- tion, being subject to the immediate jurisdiction of the pope himself. He resides in Rome, where he enjoys certain privileges, the most import- ant of which is the right to sit and vote with the bishops in a general council of the church. See MONACHISM, and the articles on the several orders. General Assembly in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States. See ASSEMBLY (GENERAL). Generalisation is the act of comprehendin under a general name a number of objects whic agree in one or more points. These points are specially attended to by the process of Abstraction (q.v.), and are indicated by the common name. The result of generalisation is a common name or eneral term, which stands for the many objects in so far only as they all agree. This process is closely akin to classification and to definition ; and the higher kind of generalisation is Induction (q.v.). In logic the genus is a higher class which in- cludes a lower, the lower one being the Species ; but the distinction is only relative. That which is a genus in relation to its species is itself a species in regard to a higher genus. The genus has the larger Extension (q.v.), the species the larger intension. For the great question as to whether the genera and awe have a real existence, see NOMINALISM. For genus in natural history, see GENUS. - Generation, a single succession in natural descent, the children of the same parents ; in years three generations are accounted to make a century. Generation, SPONTANEOUS. OUS GENERATION. Generations, ALTERNATION OF, an interest- ing complication in the life-history of many plants and animals, the organism producing offspring which are unlike itself, but which in turn give rise to forms like the original parents. Thus, a zoo- phyte buds off a swimming-bell, and the fertilised ova of the latter develop into the former. Early in the century the poet Chamisso, accompanying Kotzebue on his cireumnavigation of the globe, called attention for the first time to the fact of alternation as observed in one of the locomotor tunicates (Salpa); the progress of marine zoolo and the study of parasitic worms gave many natural- See SPONTANE- 130 GENERATIONS ists glimpses of other alternations ; but Sree was the first to generalise the results in his wor published in 1842, entitled ‘On the Alternation of Generations ; or the propagation and development of animals through alternate generations, a peculiar form of fostering the young in the lower classes of animals.’ From hydroids and flukes he gave illus- trations of the ‘natural phenomena of an animal producing an ee ee which at no time resembles its parent, but which itself brings forth a progeny that returns in its form and nature to the parent,’ and distinguished the interpolated generation as the Amme, or ‘wet-nurse.’ His essay was sternly criticised by Owen in 1849, while Leuckart at- tempted to treat all the alternations as cases of metamorphosis. Criticism, however, has only ren- dered Steenstrup’s generalisation more precise, and the observations of some of the foremost natural- ists have shown that the phenomena are of wider occurrence than was at first supposed, though the form of the alternation varies widely in the different cases. (a) The Rhythm between Sexual and Asexual Re- production.—The simplest case to start with is that of many hydroids where a sessile, plant-like zoo- phyte—a colony of numerous nutritive ‘ persons ’"— produces in the summer months modified reprodue- tive individuals which are set adrift as medusoids. These become sexual, and their fertilised ova develop into embryos which settle down and give rise to the sessile zoophyte from which we started. The life-history may be written in the formula : M M M Pact pace (where M and F stand for male and female, and A for asexual generation). The life-history of the common jelly-fish (Aurelia) (fig. 1) illustrates a similar contrast. From the Fig. 1.—Life-history of the common Jelly-fish : 1, free-swimming embryo (planula); 2-6, the embryo fixed developing into a ‘hydra-tuba,’ which (7-8) divides trans- versely into a pile of individuals; these in turn (9) are liberated and grow (10-11) into jelly-fish. (From Haeckel.) large free-swimming sexual jelly-fish embryos are ciphers which develop not into jelly-fish again, ut into sessile tubular organisms or ‘ hydra-tube. A, asexual, produces S, sexual, from fertilised ovum of which A again arises. From these, by growth and division in an entirely asexual fashion, the jelly-fish are in turn repro- duced. Here the sexual generation is the more stable and conspicuous—the reverse of the former case, but the same formula applies, or the preceding graphic notation. In the free-swimming Taaaae (Salpa and Doliolum) the alternation is some- what more complex, but in no essential respect different. (6) Alternation between Sexual and Degenerate Sexual Reproduction.—The life-history of the com- mon liver-fluke, sketched in the article FLUKE, is in most cases as follows : From the fertilised ovum of the fluke an embryo develops, which produces several asexual generations, the last of which grow up to become sexual flukes. . Now the asexual generations are not products of division or budding, but arise from what, though not ova, may be called precocious reproductive calls ; in fact, they arise by a degenerate process of parthenogenetic reproduc- tion in early life. The facts may be thus ex- pressed : where A? and A’ represent two of the interpolated asexual generations, This alternation between sexual reproduction by fertilised ova and reproduction by means of special cells which require no fertilisation prevails in many plants—e.g. ferns and mosses. From a fertilised egg-cell: arises the ordinary fern-plant with which all are familiar. This, however, pro- duces no male or female elements, but simply ‘spores,’ which are able of themselves (when they fall to the ground) to develop a new organism— the inconspicuous but sexual ‘prothallus.’ This bears male or female organs or both, and from the fertilised egg-cell thus produced the conspicu- ous vegetative, sexless fern-plant once more arises. The facts may be again expressed in notation : A, the vegetative sexless fern-plant produces a spore (sp.) from which the sexual ‘prothallus,’ 8, arises, giving origin to fertilised egg-cells, and thereby recommencing the cycle. The same formula will apply to the moss. The familiar moss-plant bears male and female repro- ductive organs. From a fertilised egg-cell so pro- duced a sexless spore-producing generation at once develops, and grows like a parasite on the apex of — the moss-plant. The spores fall to the ground, and grow out into threads (‘protonema’), from which there is finally budded the moss-plant with which we started.’ Besides the above alternations there are other rhythms, some more complex, others much less frequent, into which we cannot here enter. In some cases the life-history of the liver-fluke, by the division of the embryo (sporocyst), combines the alternations (a) and (6); in some midge larvae juvenile parthenogenesis alternates with the adult sexudl process; in not a few cases, as in aphides, the rhythm is between parthenogenesis and normal sexual reproduction ; while finally there is an alter- nation of two different sexual generations in three thread-worms or nematodes. Occurrence.——Alternation of generations is hinted ee oe 4 tee the fundamental organic antithesis be- £ o , e?, ( terates, prev ~ in the flukes, is doubtful in tapeworms, oceurs in be V " L expresses ordinary al- : subordinated to the sex- _ ordinated to the asexual GENESEE GENETTE 131 Vat in the colonial Radiolarians, is definitely seen in the fresh-water sponge, is very characteristic of the 8 with curious complications in a few Nematodes and in certain (Syllids), is represented by the rhythm parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction crustaceans and insects, and is very emphatic where it was first observed—in the locomotor tuni- cates, In the lower plants, Chet alge and fungi, an alterna- tion between spore-producing and truly sexual generations is frequent. In mosses and ferns it is almost constant, and yet more marked. Occa- sionally spore-formation or sex-cell formation may be suppressed, and the _ life- history thus simplified. In the dowacine plants what corresponds to the sexual generation of a fern is much uced; it has come to remain continuous with the vegetative asexual genera- tion, on which it has had a subtle physiological reaction. Hints as to Rationale.— The origin and import of the above rhythms, and their relation to the theory of pocigag are difficult prob- lems. To some extent, how- ever, it is easy to recognise that some of the alterna- tions only express’ with 4 V vv LiL ternation between sex- wal (S) and asexual (As) generations ; in II. the asexual is increasingly ual (as in mosses); in Ill. the sexual is sub- ; (as in flowering plants). ‘tween nutrition and reproduction. A fixed hydroid —passive and well nourished, is preponderatingly _ Vegetative and asexual; the reverse habit, the Bereclogical rebound, finds expression in the actively locomotor sexual swimming-bell or medu- n the same way, though the alternation is less strictly between asexual and sexual, the con- _ trast between the deeply-rooted, leafy, spore-bear- ing fern-plant and the inconspicuous, weakly-rooted, -exposed, sexual prothallus is again funda- ly parallel. Alternation of generations is in E fact an emphasised rhythm between the anabolic ; and katabolic tendencies so fundamental in the individual and racial life. To this, however, it will be necessary to return in the article REPRO- DUCTION. . + ___See Steenstrup, ‘On the Alternation of Generations’ et trans. Ray Society, 1845); Owen’s Parthenogenesis - (1849); Haeckel’s Generelle Morphologie (Berlin, 1866) ; J and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex (Lond. 2 - _ Genesee, a remarkable river rising in Pennsyl- Vania, and flowing nearly 200 miles north through | _ Western New York into Lake Ontario, 7 miles N. of Rochester. The Genesee is famous for its extraordinary falls. Three of these occur within a ¢ ce of 14 mile; two are respectively 68 and 90 feet high, and the Portage Falls are 110 feet high. The river has also a sheer fall of 95 _ feet at Rochester, utilised for water-power; and another cascade, a few miles below, is almost as high, Genesis (Gr., ‘ origin,’ ‘ generation’), the name —_ by the Septuagint to the opening book of the Pentateuch. In the Hebrew Bible it is named, from its first word, Bereshith (‘in the beginning’). Crities are agreed that the book, like the rest of the Pentateuch, is a mosaic, drawn from various Sources. A general description of these is already iven in the section on the Law and Historical ooks in the article BIBLE. In Genesis the historical thread of the Priestly Code runs parallel to that of the Jehovistic element, which, in the view now prevailing, is the earlier of the two, The Priestly Code opens the book with its account of the creation of the world (i. 1—ii. 4a), which is immediately followed by the Jehovistic account (ii. 44—iii. 24). After these are given, both in the Priestly narrative and the Jehovistic, the transition from Adam to Noah (iv. v.), the flood (vi.-ix.), and the transition from Noah to Abraham (x. xi.). In Genesis the Priestly narra- tive is a summary of facts mainly subordinated to the development of the theocracy. The history is broken into sections, each beginning with the words, ‘these are the generations of,’ &c. (of v. 1; vi. 9; x. 1; xi. 10, &c.), whence the name Genesis is derived. The whole is divided into three periods, each intro- duced by a covenant—(1) with Adam (i. 28—ii. 4) ; (2) with Noah (ix. 1-17); and (3) with Abraham (xvii.). Each covenant has its sign: the first has the Sabbath (ii. 3), the second the rainbow (ix. 12), the third circumcision (xvii. 10). These three periods and covenants lead up to the fourth period and covenant—viz. the Mosaic. The writer pro- ceeds in an orderly and circumstantial manner, giving much attention to chronology, and, for the sake of clearness, sometimes repeating details more in the style of a lawyer than a historian (cf. vii. 13-16; vili. 15-19: xxiii. 17, 18, 20). The name for God used by him in Genesis is Elohim or El Shaddai (see Ex. vi. 3). The promises are by him confined to Israel, and have no reference to salva- tion through Israel for Gentiles (cf. xvii. 6-8; xxviii. 3, 4; xxxv. 11, 12). The ‘skeleton of ethnographic genealogy ’ which, in both narratives, is the foundation of the patri- archal history, is in the Jehovistic ‘covered with flesh and blood.’ Here the characters are livin men, and their passions and actions are traced with the deep moral and religious inspiration and the marvellous epic vividness and force which give their imperishable charm to the stories of Genesis. And it is the prophetical narrative that shows how the Divine purpose included from the beginning a remedy for the world’s sin (iii. 15), reveals the long-suffering mercy of the Divine mind (cf. viii. 21, 22; xviii. 23 e¢ seg.), and prophesies that ‘in Abraham’s seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed’ (xii, 3; xviii. 18; xxviii. 14). For the distinction made between different parts of the pro- hetical narrative (less obvious than that between the prophetical narrative itself and the Priestly Code), see PENTATEUCH. How the conclusions of science have affected the literal faith in the descrip- tions of creation given in Genesis is shown in the article CREATION, and in Riehm, Der biblische Schépfungsbericht (Halle, 1881). See the Commentaries by Luther, Calvin, Rosenmiiller 1821), Kimchi (edited y Ginsburg, 1842), Kalisch Lond. 1858), Wright (ib. 1859), Cook and others (ib. 1871), Tuch (2d ed. by Arnold & Merx, 1871), Reuss, F. Delitzsch (4th ed. Leip. 1872), Lange (2d ed. 1877), Keil (3d ed. 1878), Dillmann (4th ed. 1882), and Dods (Edin. 1882). See also Knobel, Die Vilkertafel der Genesis (Giessen, 1850); Wellhausen, Prolegomena (Eng. trans. 1885); and Driver’s Notes on Lessons from the Pentateuch (New York, 1887). Genette, or GENET (Genetta), usually regarded as a separate genus of carnivorous mammals, but by some included in the genus Civet (q.v.). The genettes differ from the civets in their smaller size, the vertically slit pupil, the completely re- tractible claws, the smallness of the anal pouch, and the faintness of the characteristic odour. Of six species of genette, five are found only in Africa; the common genette is found also in the sozth of 132 GENETTE GENEVA Europe and Syria. Its fur is gray with black or brown spots, and it is the only viverrine animal Common Genette (Genetta vulgaris). found in Europe. mice liks eats. Geneva, a canton in the south-west of Switzer- land, is bounded N. by the canton of Vaud and the Lake of Geneva, and §8., E., and W. by the terri- tories of France. It has an area of 108 sq. m., and in 1888 had a pop. of 105,509. Of these 52,000 are Catholics, whilst 85 per cent. speak French as their mother-tongue. It is watered by the Rhone and the Arve, which unite about 2 miles from the south- west extremity of the Lake of Geneva. The surface is hilly, chief eminences being the steep Saléve (4528 feet) and the Reculet (5631); but the soil, which is not naturally fertile, has been rendered so by the industry of the inhabitants. According to the constitution of 1847, since amended, all male citizens of twenty years of age exercise the right of electing representatives to the cantonal council, the supreme legislative body, the age of members of which must be at least twenty-five years. There is a representative for every 1000 inhabit- ants. The executive is confided to a council of state composed of seven members, nominated for two years by universal suffrage. The constitu- tion guarantees civil and religious liberty, all forms of worship being allowed by law; but the national church is the Reformed Calvinistic. | Primary education is compulsory, but free. The chief branches of industry are gardening, vine and fruit owing, and the manufacture of articles of bijouterie and watches. In the two last-named branches the annual production is valued at nearly one million pounds sterling. Musical-boxes, chrono- meters, mathematical instruments, with pottery, &e., are also made. The chief town is Geneva. Geneva (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra), capital of the Swiss canton of the same name, is situated at the exit of the Rhone from the Lake of Geneva, 388 miles by rail SE. of Paris. A Gallic town originally, Geneva acknowledged Roman supremacy in 120 B.c. It was a place of some im- portance under the Burgundian kings, from whom it passed in 534 to the Franks, and from them towards the end of the 9th century to the new kingdom of Burgundy. It had been made a bishop’s seat in the 4th century. From the 12th century a continual feud existed between the bishops and the Counts and Wukes of Savoy with regard to the supremacy—a state of things which the citizens took advantage of to obtain a considerable share of municipal liberty for themselves. Having secured Freiburg (1519) and Bern (1526) for allies, the republic of Geneva finally won its complete in- dependence from Savoy. The acceptance of Pro- testantism by the republic a few years later Genettes may be trained to catch brought to an end its allianee with the Roman Catholic republic of Freiburg, and exposed it to fresh attacks from the House of Savoy ; and it was only saved by the timely intervention of its staunch ally Bern (1536). In the summer of that same year Calvin (q.v.) arrived at Geneva, and began his reconstitution of the political and social life of the city, which created it one of the chief strongholds of Protestantism in Europe. In 1602 the last attempt of the Dukes of Savoy to recover the town was frustrated by the citizens. During the 18th century Geneva was distracted by unceasing feuds between the aristocratic and popular parties, until in 1782 Bern, Sardinia, and, in particular, France interfered in favour of the aristocracy. The French Revolution led to a new crisis: the government was overthrown in July 1794, equality in the eye of the law was established, a national convention appointed, and a reign of terror com- menced. In 1798 Geneva and its territory were annexed to France; but, after the overthrow of Napoleon, they recovered their independence and joined as twenty-second canton the Swiss Confedera- tion under the sanction of the treaties of Vienna and of Paris(1815). The aristocratic party managed to repossess themselves of the government of the city, and their rule was only superseded by a more democratic constitution after munch agitation and several risings of the people between 1842 and 1846, in which the leading spirit was Fazy (q.v.). After 1870 the town was for some years kept in a state of unrest owing to the attempt of the Ultramon- tanes to revive the Roman Catholic bishopric of Geneva. Formerly Geneva was surrounded by walls, and consisted of clusters of narrow and _ill-drained streets; but since the accession of the radical party to power in 1847 the town has been almost entirely rebuilt in modern style. The ancient ramparts have been removed, streets widened and well paved, new and commodious quays constructed along the shores of the lake and river, and various improvements introduced, chief amongst whieh is the erection of a breakwater, within which steamboats are received and lie in safety. In its course through the town the Rhone forms two islands, on one of which still exists an antique and picturesque cluster of buildings ; on the other, laid out as a public pleasure-ground, is a statue of Rousseau. In the Place des Alpes is a sumptuous monument to Duke Charles XI. of Brunswick, who, dying here in 1873, left 16,500,000 franes to the city. Famous as a theological, literary, and scientific centre, Geneva has given birth to Rousseau ; to the physicist De Saussure; to the naturalists Charles Bonnet and the Pictets; to Necker, father of Madame de Staél ; to the humor- ist Toepffer; to Cherbuliez; to Amiel; and to the sculptor Pradier. The the Transition cathedral of St Peter, which dates from 1124; the town-hall, within which the mem- bers of the Alabama (q.v.) arbitration met in 1872; the academy, founded by Calvin in 1559, with a library of 110,000 volumes, and in 1873 converted into a university (with about 600 students); the magnificent theatre, opened in 1879, which ranks next in size to the Paris Opéra and the Court- theatre of Vienna; the Rath Museum (1824-26) ; the Fol Museum, with collections of Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquities ; the Athenzeum, devoted to the fine arts; and the museum of natural history, containing De Saussure’s geological collec- — tion, admirable collections of fossil plants, &e. The staple manufactures of the town are watches, musical-boxes, and jewelry. Pop. (1885) 51,537 (with the suburbs Plainpalais and Eaux Vives, 74,453 ; in 1893, 78,777. (1868), Blavignac (1872), and Roget (1870-83). rincipal edifices are — ee works by Cherbuliez Se of from two to _ eight or ten minutes (seiche). _ probably due to differences of barometric pressure eruel methods of warfare (e.g. the use of explosive bullets). The resulting international e was y adopted by ‘the States ; anda (1867) and ‘see BIBLE. recogn Other international conferences for the same objects were held at Paris Berlin (1869). For the Geneva Bible, a city of New York, at the north end ; ke, 26 miles W. of Auburn by rail, with flouring-mills and manufactures of engines, ; &e. It is the seat of Hobart College _ (Episcopal), founded in 1824. Pop. (1900) 10,433. _ Geneva, LAKE or, or LAKE LEMAN (Lacus - - of Seneca a for 45 miles from east to west, in the form of @ crescent. Its greatest breadth is 9 miles, its area 223 sq. m., and its maximum depth is 1022 feet. This lake at some periods of the year henomenon: the whole mass rom side to side of the lake, near Geneva, a rise and fall ve feet in the course of about The phenomenon is | ts a curious of water oscillates causing, especiall on different parts of the surface. The lake abounds in fish. The shore on the side of the Pays de _ Vand is a classic spot, celebrated by J. J. Rousseau in his Nouvelle Héloise and by Byron in his Childe _ Harold and in the Prisoner of Chillon, while the -mames of Voltaire and of Madame de Staél are P connected with Ferney and Coppet at the Geneva extremity, Gibbon’s with Lausanne. The southern _ French shore rises solemn and stern, with the _ mountains of Savoy in the background. From _ the Lake of Geneva, Mont Blane is visible, and although 60 miles distant, is often reflected in its _ Waters. pag a are sometimes observed on the lake. The Rhone enters the lake at the upper _ end, turbid and yellow, and leaves it at the town of Geneva as clear as glass, and of a deep blue tint. The lake receives about twenty unimportant streams along its northern shore. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris, was born _ about 424, in the village of Nanterre, near Paris, and took the veil in her fifteenth year. On the death of her parents she removed:to Paris. She ¥ ae an extraordinary reputation for sanctity, w was increased by her confident assurance that Attila and his Huns would not touch Paris, and by an expedition undertaken for the relief of the starving city during the Frankish invasion _ under Childeric, in which she journeyed from town _ to town, and returned with twelve ship-loads of provisions. In 460 she built a church over the tomb of St Denis (q.v.), where she was buried at her death in 512. See her Life by Saint-Yves (1845) and Lefeuve (new ed. 1861), Genghis Khan, originally called Temujin, ' a celebrated Mongol Heri ssl was born in 1163 at Deligun Bulduk on the river Onon (SE. of ome oon Ped son of a —e. — whose exten Meal oma expen the region between the Amur and the Great Wall of China. called upon to rule his father’s people when only thirteen years of age, Temujin cadiee struggle for several years, first against a confederacy of Tevolted tribes, then inst different confederacies of hostile tribes and neighbouring rivals, whom his GENEVA GENGHIS KHAN 133 ‘The Geneva Convention (1864), signed by twelve | uninterrupted successes and rapidly-growing power _ delegates from various countries, mainly sthe | had made jealous. The most critical period of _ guecour of the wounded in time of war, and forbids | his career at this juncture occurred during a war with Wang Khan, the powerful chief of the Keraits. Temujin, at first worsted, was compelled to retire to a desert region with only a few warriors; but in the following year (1203) he collected another army, and with it inflicted upon his enemy a crushing and decisive defeat. The Keraits thereupon became subject to Temujin. His ambition awakening with his continued success, the Mongol prince spent the next six years in subjugating the Naimans, a powerful Turkish neon ried who occupied the region between Lake Balkhash and the river Irtish ; in conquering Hia or Tangut, a Chinese empire lying between the Desert of Gobi and Chaidam ; and in assimilating the results of the voluntary submission of the Turkish Uigurs, from whom the Mongols derived the beginnings of their civilisa- tion, as their alphabet and laws. It was during this period—viz. in 1206, that he adopted the title of Jenghiz or Genghis Khan, equivalent to ‘ Very Mighty Ruler.’ ent upon yet more ambitious schemes, he in 1211 refused tribute to the Kin emperor of North China, and invaded and overran his country in several campaigns. About this same time, too, his atten- tion was directed to the west: with comparatively little trouble he defeated the ruler of the Kara- Chitai empire, and annexed (1217) his country, which extended from Lake Balkhash to Tibet. His next undertaking was the most formidable of all, an attack upon the powerful empire of Kharezm, whose confines ran conterminous with the Jaxartes (Sihfin or Sir-Daria), Ferghana, the Indus, Persian Gulf, Kurdistan, Georgia, and the Caspian Sea. Entering this extensive country with three armies in 1218, the Mongol prince and his captains successively took, often by storm, the Sy rhe cities of Otrar, Sighnak, Aksi Khojend, hara, and Samareand, hunted down from one end of his territories to the other Mohammed, the ruler of Kharezm, and the princes of his family, captured Urgenj or Kharezm (now Khiva), devas- tated with most horrible cruelties and barbarities the beautiful and prosperous province of Khorasan and its cities (Nessa, Merv, Nishapur, and Herat), chased Jelal-ud-Din, son and heir of Mohammed, across the Indus into India, and finally returned home in 1225 by the way they had come. Two of Genghis’ lieutenants, Chépé and Subutai, who had so relentlessly and pertinaciously hunted down Mohammed, passed on from the southern shore of the Caspian northwards through Azerbijan and Georgia, then, turning to the west, they traversed southern Russia and penetrated to the Crimea, everywhere routing and slaying, and finally re- turned by way of Great Bulgaria and the Volga, beyond the northern end of the Caspian—a marvel- lous military raid. Meanwhile in the far east Mukuli, one of the most capable amongst the group of the great conqueror’s clever generals, had completed the conquest of all northern China (1217- 23) except Honan. Genghis did not long stay quietly at home. After but a few months’ rest he in took to the saddle, to go and chastise the king of Hia or Tangut, who had refused him obedience. But this was his last expedition, for, after thoroughly subdu- ing the country, Genghis died of sickness, on 18th August 1227, amongst the northern offshoots of the Kuen-Lun called the Mountains of Liupan. The rapidity and magnitude of his conquests seem to have been as much due to the admirable discip- line and organisation of his armies as to the methods in which he conducted his campaigns. His troops were all horsemen, hardy, abstemious, inured to fatigue, indifferent to weather, accus- 134 GENII GENOA tumed to go days and nights in the saddle with- out resting. Thus the Mongol armies could move with extreme celerity, and needed little provision- ing. They never left either enemy or strong town behind their backs to threaten their communica- tions: all the former were ruthlessly slain or massacred, all the latter completely razed to the ground. The hard labour necessary in besieging the fortified cities was done by the peasantry of the country in which they were situated, and in the battles the same wretched people were frequently placed by the Mongols in the fore- front of the fight to bear the brunt of their enemies’ onset. Genghis was, however, something more than a warrior and conqueror; he was also a skilful administrator and ruler: he not only conquered empires stretching from the Black Sea to the Pacific, but he organised them into states which endured beyond the short span that usually measures the life of Asiatic sovereignties. See Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 1 (1876); R. K. Douglas, Life of Jenghiz Khan (1877); and com- pare Erdmann, Temudschin, der Unerschiitterliche (1862), and D’Ohsson, Histoire des Mongoles (1852). Genii, among the ancient Romans, were pro- tecting spirits, who were supposed to accompany every created thing from its origin to its final decay, like a second spiritual self. They belonged not only to men, but to all things animate and in- animate, and more especially to places, and were regarded as effluences of the epee and wor- shipped with divine honours. Not only had every individual his genius, but likewise the whole people. The statue of the national genius was laced in the vicinity of the Roman forum, and is often seen on the coins of Hadrian and Trajan. The genius of an individual was represented by the Romans as a figure in a toga, having the head veiled, and the cornucopia or patera in the hands ; while local genii appear under the figure of serpents eating fruit set before them. Quite different are the genii whose Arabie name, Djinn or Jinn, was translated by the Latin term genius, for want of a better word, or from the casual similarity of the sounds. See DEMONOLOGY, and FAMILIAR, Genipap, Genipa americana (Cinchonacee), a large tree of the West Indies and warm parts of South America, with excellent fruit. The pearl- gray timber is occasionally used by joiners, Genista (Celtic gen, “a shrub‘), a leguminous enus already mentioned under Broom (see also REENWEED). G. anglica,asmall, much branched, very spiny shrub of poor soils, is called Petty Whin and Needle Furze in England. The Genista of Virgil and other Roman classics is supposed to be G. hispanica, of southern Europe, with branched stiff spines. The name Plantagenet is from Planta Genista ; but what plant was intended, and whether the common broom, furze, or a species of Genista is not so certain. See PLANTAGENET. Genitive. See GRAMMAR. Genlis, STEPHANIE FE£.LicIrik DucrEsT DE St AUBIN, COMTESSE DE, was born at Champeéri, near Autun, in Burgundy, 25th January 1746. At the age of sixteen she was married to the Comte de Genlis, and in 1770 was made lady-in-waiting to the Duchesse de Chartres. In 1782 the Due de Chartres, afterwards known as Egalité, appointed her ‘governor’ of his children, including Louis- Philippe. Madame de Genlis wrote a. variety of works for her pupils, among others Thédtre d’ Edu- cation (1779-80), a collection of short comedies ; Annales de la Vertu (1781); Adéle et Théodore, ou Lettres sur Education (1782); and Les Veillées du Chateau (1784). On the breaking out of the Re- volution Madame de Genlis took the liberal side, but was ultimately compelled to seek refuge (1793) in Switzerland and Germany. When Bonaparte became consul she returned (1799) to Paris, and received from him a pension. She died at Paris, 31st December 1830. adame de Genlis’s writings amount to about ninety volumes. Amongst them may be mentioned the romance Mdlle. de Clermont (1802), Mémoires Inédits sur le XVIII. Siécle et la Révolution Frangaise (10 vols. 1825), and Diners du Baron d’Holbach. The last contains a great deal of curious but malicious information concern- ing the freethinkers of the 18th ‘century. See Bonhomme’s Mme. de Genlis ( Paris, 1885). Gennesaret, SEA oF. See GALILEE. Genoa (Ital. Genova, Fr. Génes, anciently Genua), a city of Italy, situated on the Mediter- ranean gulf of the same name, at the foot of the Apennines, is the capital of a province and the most important seaport. By rail it is 801 miles SE. of Paris, 171 NE. of Marseilles, and 93 SSW. of Milan. Pop. of the town (1881) 138,081 ; of the commune, in 1893, 215,300; pop. of the province of Genoa (area, 1572 sq. m.) 760,122. The slopes of the hills behind the city down to the shore are covered with buildings, terraced gardens, and groves of orange and pomegranate trees ; while the bleak summits of the ioftier ranges rising still farther back are capped with a line of strong forts, batteries, and outworks. The fine harbour, semicircular in shape, with a diameter of rather less than a mile, is protected seawards from the south and south-east winds by two piers. In front of this inner harbour another one has been made by the construction of two outer moles. Besides this, the quays of the inner harbour have been greatly improved, and in 1889 graving-docks and other works were completed. On the north side of the port is a naval harbour and a marine arsenal; and on the east side the warehouses of the former (until 1867) free port. Genoa is the commercial outlet for a wide extent of country, of which the chief exports are rice, wine, olive-oil, silk goods, coral, paper, macaroni, and marble. The imports are principally raw cotton, wheat, sugar, coal, hides, coffee, raw wool, fish, petroleum, iron, machinery, and cotton and woollen textiles. The annual exports of Genoa are valued at nearly £4,000,000, while the imports are returned at more than £15,000,000. About 5800 vessels, of 2,970,000 tons burden, enter annually, and about 5750 of 2,979,000 tons clear, three-fourths of the vessels, with nearly one-half of the tonnage in each class, being Italian. The principal industrial establish- ments of the city embrace iron-works, cotton and cloth mills, macaroni-works, tanneries, sugar- refineries, and ‘vesta match, filigree, and paper factories. From 70,000 to 100,000 emigrants sail every year from Genoa for South America; in some years the number has been near 200,000. While strikingly grand as viewed from the sea, and so far worthy of being entitled Genova la Superba, Genoa is in reality built awkwardly on irregular rising ground, and consists of a labyrinth of narrow and intricate lanes, accessible only to foot-passengers, or to the pack-mules by the use of which a large portion of the internal goods traffic is pehanaiek: These thoroughfares, into which the light of day imperfectly pene are lined with tall buildings, some of them of marble and of handsome architecture, but now in many cases transformed into hotels or busi- ness establishments. famous are the ducal palace formerly inhabited by the doges, now appropriated to the meetings of the senate; and the Doria, presented in 1529 to the great Genoese citizen Andrea Doria, whose residence it was during his presidency of the republic. The palaces Brignole-Sale, Reale, Of the palaces the most — GENOA GENRE-PAINTING 135 y _ Durazzo-Pallavicini, Spinola, Balbi-Senarega, and 1 = possess great interest on account of their historical fame and architectural beauty. Many of them contain galleries of se ; the Brignole- Sale has works by Van Dyck, Rubens, Albrecht Diirer, Paolo Veronese, Guercino, &c. Foremost amongst the churches stands the cathedral of St _ Lorenzo, a grand old pile in the Italian Gothic style, built in the 12th century and frequently restored. In the church of St Ambrogio (1589) are by Guido Reni and Rubens, and in that _ of St Stefano an altar-piece by Giulio Romano ; the interior of L’Annunziata is splendid with fine marbles and rich gilding. The marble municipal palace, built in the Late Renaissance style, with a een’ vestibule, courtyard, and galleries, - and the palace of the Dogana must also be men- tioned. The university (790 students in 1886), ; ey built in 1623, reorganised in 1812, has a library of 116,000 volumes. Genoa is well sup- 4 with technical schools and institutions for _ higher education. The great hospital, the asylum _ for the poor (provision for 2200 persons), the deaf and dumb institution, and the hospital for the 7 e are amongst the finest institutions of their _ kind in Italy. There are numerous excellent ir, eeroric foundations, as the Fieschi, am asylum __ for female orphans. Furthermore, we must men- _ tion the public library, containing 50,000 volumes ; the Raadeny of Fine Arts, founded (1751) by the Doria family ; the Carlo Felice Theatre, one of the finest in Italy ; and the Verdi Institute of Music. i The Genoese are a shrewd, active, laborious race, and all the qualities of a commercial and i. maritime community. They make skilful and hardy seamen, and are still remarkable for the « it of enterprise and freedom which so poniey terised the period of the republic. 0 Columbus, Genoa’s. most famous son, there is a fine monument (1862) by Lanzio. _ _ History.—Genoa, anciently the capital of Liguria, is first mentioned as a place of considerable import- ance in the second Punic war. Having been de- stroyed by Mago, brother of Hannibal, in 205, it was rebuilt three years later by the Roman pretor Sp. Lueretius. On the dismemberment of the Latin empire Genoa fell successively under the sway of the Lombards, the Franks, and the Germans; but amid all these vicissitudes it preserved, in a singular degree, both giana and prosperity. At length it succeeded in establishing its independ- ence as a republic. Even thus early commerce was the source of its power. The frequent incursions of the Saracens, by whom Genoa was sacked and pillaged in 936, led the Genoese to form an alliance with Pisa with the object of driving the " sepromors from Corsica and Sardinia, their strong- holds in the Mediterranean. This being effected (1017-21), the Genoese obtained, by papal arbitra- | tion, the grant of Corsica, while Sardinia was assigned to the Pisans, a distribution which sowed the seeds of future discord between the two states. At the close of the 11th century Genoa commanded large land and naval forces, and ranked as a power- ful maritime state, governed by annual magis- _ trates named consuls. The Genoese vigorously seconded the Crusades, and in return for their effective co-operation obtained several important maritime Secor eag and commercial privileges in the Holy Land (1109). The chief events of the three following centuries were the capture of Minorca (1146), Almeria (1147), and Tortosa 1148) from the Moors; the wars with Pisa and Yenice ; and the civil dissensions by which Genoa, in common with all Italy, became distracted by the pen ge and Ghibelline factions. In 1284, at the naval battle at Meloria the Pisan Republic sus- tained such destructive losses that her maritime influence and public spirit never revived. The wars with Venice originated about 1244 in mutual jealousies respecting the commercial supremacy in the Levant, and continued, with various vicissi- tudes, till the end of the following century, when the Genoese, after the blockade of Chie rgria (1379), were “aged ene to submit to dieadvantageous terms by the peace of Turin (1381). Co-existent with this troublous external his- tory, civil dissensions exhausted and demoralised the state, and occasioned an infinity of changes in the primitive form of government. In 1217 the consuls were superseded by a magistrate termed podesta, generally chosen from a foreign state, natives of Genoa being deelared ineli- gible. During the next hundred years civil feuds raged inveterately, not alone between the Guelph and Ghibelline factions, but also between the patricians and the plebeians. Various other modi- fications of the government preceded the election of the first Genoese doge in 1339. This supreme ay. 3 ps office, from which all nobles were ex- cluded, continued in force for two centuries, its tenure being for life. But even then matters did not improve much. Finally, in 1396, the citizens, in despair, invoked the protection of the French king, Charles VI., and, after alternating between France and Milan, at last submitted to the rule of the lords of Milan (1464). In 1407 was founded the bank of St George, which eventually became a very powerful association, not only financially but, also politically. From the invasion of Milan by Louis XII. in 1499 Genoa remained subject to the French until, in 1528, the genius and resolution of Andrea Doria (q.v.) freed his country from foreign invaders, and restored to her her republican institu- tions. The Fieschi conspiracy, which had for its object the overthrow of Doria and the destruction of the French party amongst the nobles, was sup- pressed in 1547. The 17th century is marked by two wars against the Duke of Savoy (1631 and 1672) and the bombardment of the town by Louis XIV. (1684). The last important exploit of the Genoese was the expulsion in 1746 of the Austrians after an occupation of threemonths. In 1768 Genoa ceded to France the island of Corsica; and when Bonaparte invaded Italy he conferred (1797) on Genoa the name of the Ligurian Republic, which in 1802 was abolished, Genoa becoming the chief town of a department of Franee. In 1814 Lord Bentinck stormed the forts and captured the city, whereupon he restored the constitution which had existed previous to 1797. In 1815, by a decree of the Con- gress of Vienna, the state of Genoa was made a province of Piedmont. Following the fortunes of that state, it was finally incorporated in the king- dom of Italy. The opening of the St Gothard rail- way greatly increased tos trade with Germany. See J. T. Bent, Genoa (1880); Bella Duffy, The T'uscan Republics (1892); V. W. Johnson, Genoa the Superb (1892). Genoa, GULF OF, a large indentation in the northern shore of the igsdibereaneins, north of Corsica, has between the towns of Oneglia on the west and Spezia on the east a width of nearly 90 miles, with a depth of about 30 miles. Genre-painting. Genre (French, from the Latin genus, ‘a kind’) is a term in art which was originally used to indicate simply any class or kind of painting, and was always accompanied by a distinctive eaiaclrs or epithet, as genre histo- rique, ‘historical painting, genre du paysage, ‘landseape-painting.’ The phrase genre or genre- painting, however, has now come to be applied to scenes from familiar or rustic life, to all figure- ictures which, from the homeliness of their sub- jects, do not attain to the dignity of ‘ historical’ art. Genre-painting, in its most typical development, 136 GENS GENTIAN may be studied in the interiors and rustic subjects of such Dutch figure-painters as Teniers, Ostade, De Hooch, Jan Steen, and Terburg. In France the most eminent genre-painters were Watteau, Lan- cret, Greuze, and Chardin; while in England the works of Hogarth, Wilkie, Mulready, and the elder Leslie may be mentioned as belonging to this class. Gens. See FAMILY and TRIBE. Genseric (more correctly Gaiseric), king of the Vandals, was an illegitimate son of Godigiselus, who led the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and erished with 20,000 of his followers in a defeat y the Franks (407 A.D.), who were only prevented from completely destroying the Vandals by the timely intervention of the Alans. In the year 409 the Vandals, with their friendly allies the Suevi and the Alans, poured over the Pyrenees into Spain, and shared its territory between them. The Vandals were divided into two branches, the Asdingi, who settled in Galicia, and the Silingi, who occupied Betica in the south. The latter, after suffering crushing defeats from the Romans, joined the former under their king Gunderic, son of Godigiselus, whose nation soon became the most powerful in the Peninsula. Gunderie died in 427, and was succeeded by Genseric. Invited to the invasion of Africa by Bonifacius, Count of Africa, who had been goaded on to rebellion through the machinations of his rival Aetius, the conqueror of Attila, Genseric first crushed the Suevi, and, after numbering his united Vandals and Alans on the Andalusian shore, crossed over to Numidia in 428. Only when it was too late did Bonifacius repent his treacherous designs and attempt in vain to drive back the Vandals. After a thirteen months’ siege, in the course of which the great St Augustine died, the city of Hippo Regius fell (430), and was given over to all the fury of wanton and brutal outrage. With such ferocity did the Vandals lay waste and destroy churches, fields, and cities as to leave their name after fourteen centuries a synonym for de- structive barbarism. All Africa west of Carthage quickly fell into the hands of Genseric, who seized that city itself in 439, and made it the capital of his new dominions. He dated his reign, which lasted thirty-seven years, from this conquest. With a capacity for adapting himself to new con- ditions which shows his genius, he quickly built up a formidable maritime power, and his fleets scoured the Mediterranean and carried the terror of his name to Sicily, the southern coasts of Italy, Illyricum, and the Peloponnesus. He next por- tioned out the soil of the province of Carthage among his soldiers, and settled the succession. A bigoted Arian in his theology, he persecuted the orthodox Catholics in his dominions with ferocious rapacity and cruelty. The murder of the great Aetius (454), and of his murderer and master Valentinian III., opened up a new field for his ambition. Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, eager for revenge upon her husband’s murderer Maximus, Dited Genseric to Rome. The Vandal fleet reached the mouth of the Tiber in June 455. The wretched Maximus had already fallen, and the city could offer no resistance ; all Pope Leo’s en- treaties did not save it fourteen days of devastat- ing plunder. On leaving the city Genserie carried with him the empress and her two daughters, one of whom became the wife of his son Huneric. The empire twice endeavoured to avenge the indig- nities it had suffered, but without success. First the Western emperor, Majorian, fitted out a fleet against the Vandals in 457, which was destroyed by Genseric in the bay of Carthagena; next, the Eastern emperor, Leo, sent an expedition under the command of Heraclius and others in 468, which. was also destroyed off the city of Bona. Genseric died in 477, in the possession of all his conquests, leaving behind him the reputation of being the greatest of the Vandal kings. His appearance was not se Jordanes describes him as of low stature, and lame on account of a — fall from his horse, deep in his designs, taciturn, averse to pleasure, subject to transports of fury, greedy of conquest, and cunning in sowing the seeds of discord among nations, and exciting them against each other. He was ruthless in his cruelty, and seems to have found impulse in the fierce and fanatical bigotry of his religion. Once, when leaving the harbour of Caftthage on an expedition, the pilot asked him whither he was going. ‘ Against all who have incurred the wrath of God,’ said the conqueror, Gentian ( Gentiana—so called after the Illyrian king Gentius, who is said by Pliny to have introduced G. luiea into medicine), a genus of Gentianacee. There are more than 100 species, natives of north temperate regions, very often growing in high mountain pastures and meadows, which they cover with their beautiful blue. or yellow flowers. The roots of the Common Gentian or Yellow Gentian (G. /utea) are collected by the peasants of the Alps (along with the less valuable roots of G. pannonica, purpurea, and punctata) to furnish the gentian root (radix gentiane) of pharmacy, which is largely employed as an excellent bitter and stomachic. The medicinal poewruce are essentially due to the presence of a itter glycoside (gentiopicrin) ; pectin (see FRUIT) and also sugar are present in quantity ; hence the peasants of the Alps prepare alcoholic bitters— their Enziangeist—by the fermentation of the fresh roots. G. Catesbwi is used as gentian root in North America, and G. Kurroo in the Himalayas. The florist recognises two main groups of these beautiful hardy plants, the first strong and easily grown in borders, of which the Willow Gentian (G. asclepiadea) and G. lutea are specially common. The former can also be grown with good effect under trees and among grass. The dwarf kinds require more careful treatment, with the exception of the Common Gentianella (G acaulis), which readily forms edgings and carpets. The name Gentianella is sometimes also applied to the allied Cicendia filifor- mis, a small, slender, and raceful plant with yellow pent G. verna (Vernal Gentian) can be grown well in deep sandy loam, with abundant moisture and sun- shine. Bavarian Gentian (G. bavarica) and Crested Gentian (G. septemfida) of the Caucasus require more moisture. Other species can be cultivated with care. Of North American species G. crinita is specially cele- brated for the beauty of its flowers ; the genus in fact may fairly be allowed the very first place among the floral glories alike of Alpine regions, in which they range up to the snow-level, and of. the alpine garden. Seve- ral species of Gentian are popularly called Bald- money. See ALPINE PLANTS. ~ hie Gentianacee form an order of corollifloral dicoty- ledons. The 500 species are almost exclusively herbaceous, and are usually natives of temperate and cold latitudes and altitudes. Many have Crested Gentian (Gentiana septemfida). GENTILE GENUFLEXION 137 — flowers of great beauty, and a general astringency pervades the order, whence many are of past or : t medicinal repute. See Currata, Buck- i y , and CENTAURY. ‘ tile (Lat. gentilis, from gens, ‘a nation’), ture, a member of a non-Jewish nation, an alien, an unbeliever, a non-Christian. The Heb. pee pl. of goi, ‘nation,’ is used both of foreigners in and foreigners as enemies, as heathens ; ’ 2 moe ‘ so in the New Testament the Greek ethné, ‘nations,’ and Hellénes, ‘Greeks,’ though sometimes meaning simply pecgner, non-Jews, usually had the invidi- ous sense of unbeliever, heathen. Compare the Greek use of Barbarian (q.v.). Gentile da Fabriano. See Fasriano. Gentilly, a southern suburb of Paris, on the railway, at the foot of the Bicétre hill. It has anumber of villas, tanneries, and manufactures of bisenits, vinegar, mustard, and soap. Pop. (1886) 14,278, many of them employed in the “neighbouring quarries and in washing. Gentlem in its original and strict sense, a of noble descent. e first part of the word comes from the Latin gewtilis, which signifies belonging to a gens or family. The terms gentle- ‘man and nobleman were formerly identical in meaning ; but the popular signification of each has become ually modified, that of the former having widened, of the latter having become more _ restricted. The continental noble ( Fr.) or adel ( Ger.) _ still retains the original sense of our gentleman. The broadly-marked distinction between the nobleman or gentleman and the rest of the community is one of the most prominent features of medieval _ life, and the source from which the less abrupt ee pase of rank in modern society have been veloped. The gentry of England had formerly many privileges recognised by law. If a churl or Zz t defamed the honour of a gentleman, the * latter had his remedy in law, but if one gentle- _ man defamed another, the combat was allowed. In equal crimes a gentleman was punishable with less severity than a churl, unless the crime were heresy, treason, or excessive contumacy. A gentleman _ condemned to death was beheaded and not hanged, and his examination was taken without torture. In giving evidence the testimony of a gentleman outweighed that of a churl. A churl might not _ challenge a gentleman to combat, quia conditiones 4 5 After the introduction of heraldry the Tight to armorial ensigns or = gentilitia be- - ¢ame (as the jus imaginum had been among the - Romans) the test of gentility or nobility. Gentility was of course inherited ; but it was also within the prerogative of a sovereign prince to ennoble or make _ @ gentleman of a person of a lower grade whom he thought worthy of the distinction, and whose descendants accordingly became gentlemen. We _ have examples in England of the direct exercise of this prerogative by the sovereign as late as the of Henry VL, the patent of gentility or nobility being accompanied with no title of honour, t merely with a coat of arms, the grant contain- ing the words ‘nobilitamus nobilemque facimus et ereamus . . . et in signum hujusmodi nobilitatis arma et armorum insignia damus et concedimus.’ Letters of nobility of a similar description are ' granted by the emperor in Germany and Austria to the present day, conferring no title, but only the Status of adel (nobleman or gentleman) indicated ae the prefix von to the surname. A gentleman ancestry was (or is) something beyond a gentle- man of blood and coat-armour: he must be able to show purity of blood for five generations—i.e. that his ancestors on every side for four genera- tions back—viz. his eight t-great-grandfathers and eight great-great-grandmothers—were en- ‘lavish private ex titled to coat-armour. This purity of blood is still insisted on for certain offices in Germany and Austria. In England the concession of in- signia gentilitia (or o creating a gentleman) has long been deputed to the kings of arms, the prerogative of the sovereign in the matter of rank being directly exercised only in creating rs, baronets, or knights. In our own day, while the stricter meaning of the word is retained in the expression ‘gentleman by birth,’ the less abrupt gradation of ranks and the courtesy of society have caused the term gentleman to be applied in a some- what loose sense to any one whose education, profession, or perhaps whose income, raises him above ordinary trade or menial service, or to a man of polite and refined manners and ideas. See Esquire, NOBILITY. Gentleman-commoner. ( University ). Gentlemen-at-arms (formerly called the GENTLEMEN-PENSIONERS), the bodyguard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIIL., and now consists of 1 captain, who re- ceives £1200 a year; 1 lieutenant, £500; 1 standard- bearer, £310; 1 clerk of the cheque, £120; and 40 gentlemen, each with £70 a year. The pay is issued from the privy purse. Until 1861 the com- missions were purchasable, as in other regiments ; but by a royal command of that year this system was abolished, and commissions as gentlemen-at- arms have since only been given to military officers of service and distinction. The attendance of the gentlemen-at-arms is only required at drawing- rooms, levées, coronations, and similar important state ceremonies. The appointment, which is in the sole gift of the crown, on the recommendation of the commander-in-chief, can be held in conjune- tion with half-pay or retired full-pay, but not simultaneously with any appointment which might involve absence at the time of the officer’s services being required by the sovereign. Gentoo’ (Portuguese Gentio, ‘Gentile’), the term applied by old English writers to the Hindus, or natives of India; and in especial to the Gentoo laws, a code compiled by Sir William Jones. Gentz, FRIEDRICH VON, politician and writer, was born at Breslau, 2d’ May 1764, and, shortly after entering the Prussian civil service, pub- lished his first work, a translation of Burke’s Essay on the French Revolution (1793). In 1786 he entered the public service of Prussia, but in 1802 exchanged into that of Austria, having a short time previously paid a visit to England, where he me acquainted with Mackintosh, Grenville, Pitt, and other public men. Throughout the struggle against Napoleon he distinguished himself by writings full of burning hatred to the French emperor. At the Congress of Vienna in 1814 Gentz was appointed first secretary, and he held the same post in nearly all the subsequent con- ferences down to that of Verona (1822). From 1810 onwards he laboured as an adherent of Metternich. His writings, which are of a mis- cellaneous character, are distinguished fer the elegance and correctness of their style. But his n was always on sale to the highest bidder ; and he drew the supplies by which he met his nditure from more than one government outside Austria. He died 9th June 1832. See his Life by K. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (1867 ). Genuflexion, the act of bending the knees in worship or adoration. It is of frequent occurrence in the ritual of the Catholic Chureli: Catholics genuflect passing before the tabernacle where the See OXFORD 138 GENUS GEOFFRIN sacrament is reserved; the priests genuflect repeatedly during mass, &c. See KNEELING. Genus (Lat., ‘a kind’), in Natural History, a group of Species (q.v.) closely connected by com- mon characters or natural affinity. In all branches of zoology and botany the name of the genus forms the first part of the scientific name of each organ- ism, and is followed by a second word—either an adjective or a substantive—which distinguishes the particular species. This binomial nomenclature was introduced by Linnzeus, and has been of great advantage, making names serve, in some measure, for the indication of affinities. Some genera are more satisfactory than others, the question turning on the nature of the com- ponent Species (q.v.). A genus may contain a single species—e.g. the genus Ornithorhynchus ; or it may include several hundreds,'and in such cases especially it is often split up into sub-genera. Groups of related genera form a family, groups of allied families form an order, and above orders are class and phylum. But, again, we may have an order with only a couple of living representatives, as in Proboscidea (elephants), or with only one, asin the Hyracoidea (conies). The real difficulties concern species, and will be discussed under that title. See also GENERALISATION. Genzano, a town of Italy, on the Via Appia, 16 miles SE. of Rome, lies near the lake of Nemi, and contains the Cesarini palace. It is noted for its annual flower festival (Jnfiorata di Genzano), held on the eighth day after Corpus Christi, which attracts many visitors. Pop. 5291. Geocentric means having the earth for centre. Thus, the moon’s motions are geocentric; also, though no other of the heavenly bodies revolves round the earth, their motions are spoken of as geocentric when referred to, or considered as they appear from, the earth. The geocentric latitude of a planet is the inclination to the plane of the eclip- tic of a line connecting it and the earth; the geo- centric longitude being the distance measured on the ecliptic from the first point of Aries to the point in the ecliptic to which the planet as seen from the earth is referred. Ge’odes (Gr., ‘earthy’) are rounded hollow concretions, or indurated nodules, either empty or containing a more or less solid and free nucleus, and having the cavity frequently lined with erys- tals. They are sometimes called ‘ potato stones,’ on account of their size and shape. They were the aétites (‘ eagle-stones’) of the Greeks, who asserted they were found only in eagles’ nests. The eagles could not breed without their aid, and the aétites were supposed to be beneficial to women in labour. Geo'desy, the science of measuring or survey- ing extensive portions of the earth’s surface by means of triangulation. See ORDNANCE SURVEY. The objects of the survey are generally to deter- mine the contour and dimensions of the earth, and in a secondary degree to acquire materials and measurements for accurate maps. Geoffrey of Monmouth, a famous Latin chronicler, who was Archdeacon of Monmouth, was consecrated Bishop of St Asaph in 1152, and died about 1154. His chief work, the Chronicon sive Historia Britonum, was dedicated to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, and must therefore have been’ com- posed previous to 1147, the date of the latter's death. It need hardly be said that it possesses little value as history, bat there is perhaps but one other book that has exercised, directly or indirectly, so profound an influence upon English literature. Its author professes to have merely translated his work from a chronicle entitled Brut y Brenhined, a History of the Kings of Britain, found in Brittany, and communicated to him by Walter Calenius, Archdeacon of Oxford; but the work is really nothing more than a masterpiece of the creative imagination working freely on materials found in Gildas, Nennius, and such chroniclers, as well as early legends now difficult to trace. In the dedicatory epistle Geoffrey describes his original as ‘a very ancient book in the British tongue, which in a continued regular story and elegant style related the actions of them all, from Brutus, the first king of the Britains, down to Cadwallader the son of Cadwallo.’ An abridgment of the Historia was made by Alfred of Beverley as early as 1150, and it was translated into Norman- French by Geoffrey Gaimar in 1154, and by Wace (Li Romans de Brut) with new matter in 1180. Layamon’s Brut (early in 13th century) was a semi-Saxon paraphrase of Wace, and Robert of Gloucester’s Chronicle was a fresh rhymed para- phrase of the same, which being in the native tongue helped to make the legends invented by Geoffrey widely known. The convincing cireum- stantiality of the story, and the ingenuity of its etymological connection of existin names with eponymous heroes, as well as its irresistible identifications and dovetailings into British history of details of scriptural and of Roman story were sufficient for an uncritical age; and henceforward the Trojan origin of the Britis people became a point of patriotism and an established historical fact. The stories of King Lear and of Cymbeline, the prophecies of Merlin, and the legend of. the famous Arthur.in the form in which we know it, owe their origin to the rich imagination of Geoffrey of Monmouth, who still influences us enormously in our Malory, Drayton, Shakespeare, Spenser, Milton, and Tennyson. Chaucer gives Ehuytyal Gaunfride’ a niche in his House o ‘ame as being ‘besye for to bere up Troye.’ Yet the book, even in its own day, did not altogether escape the censure of more severe historians. A Yorkshire monk, William of Newburgh, denounces Geoffrey with honest indignation as having ‘lied saucily and shamelessly.’ ‘A certain writer has come up in our times to wipe out the blots on the Britons, weaving together ridiculous figments about them, and raising them with impudent vanity high above the virtue of the Macedonians and Romans. This man is named Geoffrey, and has the by-name of Arturus, because he cloaked with the honest name of history, coloured in Latin phrase, the fables about Arthur, taken from the old tales of the Bretons, with increase of his own.’ Giraldus Cam- brensis, writing within fifty years after, distinctly speaks of the book as fabulous, and gives us a somewhat singular but perfectly conclusive proof of this by relating the story of a Welshman at Caerleon named Melerius, who, ‘having always an extraordinary familiarity with unclean spirits, by seeing them, knowing them, talking with them, place- - and calling each by his proper name, was enabled — through their assistance to foretell future events. He knew when any one spoke falsely in his presence, for he saw the devil as it were leaping and exulting on the tongue of the liar. . . . If the evil spirits oppressed him too much, the Gospel of St John was placed on his bosom, when, like birds, they immediately vanished ; but when that book was removed, and the History of the Britons by Geoffrey Arthur was substituted in its place, they immediately reappeared in greater numbers, an remained a longer time than usual on his body and on the book.’ Geoffrey’s Chronicle was printed as early as 1508. An English translation by Aaron Thompson Pega in 1718, and was issued in Bohn’s ‘ Antiquarian Library’ in 1848. Geoffrin, Marie THERESE, born at Paris, 2d June 1699, was the daughter of a valet de chambre named Rodet, a native of Dauphiné; and in her a eid ‘a! ie oS ee ry tee Baie ite ‘Ys j _ seientific opponent, Georges liberality. . Bur la Co - et-Oise), 15th Ap GEOFFROY GEOGRAPHICAL 139 after, lea Geoflrin, aang herself but im ¢ »ve of learning an had a genuine art, and her house - goon me a rendezvous of the men of letters and artists of Paris. Every illustrious foreigner was . : welcomed to her circle, but her dearest friends were the philosophes, and upon them in their necessities she showered her money with equal delicacy and Among her friends she numbered Montesquieu, Marmontel, Morellet, Thomas, and ‘Stanislaus Poniatowski, afterwards king of Poland. _ The last is said to have announced to her his eleva- tion to the throne in the words; ‘Maman, votre fils est roi.’ In 1766 he prevailed on her to visit War- saw, where she was received with the greatest + etion, and ay et rg in Vienna she met the same reception from the Empress Maria Theresa and her son, poeeph Il. Madame Geoffrin died ~ in October 1777, leaving | egacies to most of her friends. Towards the publication of the Encyclo- _ pédie she contributed, according to the calculations of her daughter, who was no friend to her mother’s » philosophers, more than 100,000 frances. The panegyrics of D’Alembert; Thomas, and Morellet are to be found in the Floges de Madame Geoffrin Morellet likewise published her treatise nversation, and her Lettres. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, ie til French zoologist and biologist, was born at Etampes (Seine- 1772. He was at first destined for the clerical profession, but shortly after begin- ning his studies at Paris he came into contact with Brisson, who awakened in him a taste for the _ hatural sciences. He 7, amt pear) became a pupil of Haiiy, Foureroy, and Daubenton. In June 1793 he was nominated professor of Vertebrate Zoology in the newly-instituted Museum of Natural Histo at Paris. That same year he commenced the found- ation of the celebrated zoological collection at the Jardin des Plantes. The year 1795 is marked by his introduction to his subsequent friend and uvier. In 1798 Geotfroy formed one of the scientific commission that accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and he re- in that country until the surrender of Alex- andria in 1801. He succeéded in bringing to France : _ ‘Valuable collections of natural history specimens ; a ‘ ‘ hy ‘ at On 7 his labours in connection with this expedition led to his election, in 1807, into the Academy of Sciences. In 1808 he was sent by Napoleon to Portugal, to obtain from the collections in that kingdom all the specimens which were wanting in of France. On his return he was appointed (1809) to the SRA | of Zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris. All his important works were — between this date and his death, which k place on 19th June 1844. Throughout almost all his writings we find him endeavouring to establish one great proposition—viz. the unity of 4 in organic structure (see EVOLUTION, Vol. IV. p. 481). This was the point on which he and Cuvier mainly differed, Cuvier being a firm believer in the bility of species, and grouping the Linnean ‘genera under the four divisions of vertebrates, molluses, articulates, and radiates. Geoffroy also ; teratology or the study of monstrosities and anatomical malformations to the rank of a science, tn y in his Philosophie Anatomique (2 vols. 1818-20). In addition to this he wrote Sur /’ Unité de Composition Organique (1828); L’Histoire Natu- relle Mammiferes (1820-42) with F. Cuvier; eat hie Zoologique (1830); Etudes Progressives @un Naturaliste (1835); besides nnmerous papers, mostly on comparative vere seattered through es. See Life (1847) by his son_ Isidore, contains a bibliography of his works; also Ww the Appendix to vol. i. of De Quatrefages’s Rambles of a Naturalist (1863). His son IsipoRE, biologist and naturalist, was born in Paris, 16th Deceinber 1805. Educated in natural history by his father, he became assist- ant-naturalist at the zoological museum in 1824. He too made a special study of teratology, ee in 1832-37 Histoire des Anomalies de ‘Organisation chez VHomme et les Animauz, As zoological superintendent he was led to study the domestication of foreign animals in France ; and the results of his investigations appeared in Domestication et Naturalisation des Animaux Utiles (1854); in the same year he founded the Acclima- tisation Society of Paris. In 1838 he proceeded to Bordeaux to organise a faculty of sciences. On the retirement of his father three years later, Isidore was appointed to the vacant chair, which in 1850 he resigned for that of Zoology at the Faculty of Sciences. In 1852 he ublished. the first volume of a great work entitled Histoire Générale des Regnes Organiques, in which he intended to develop the doctrines of his father, but he died at Paris, 10th November 1861, before completing the third volume. He was a strong advocate of the use of horse-flesh as human food, and championed his views in Lettres sur les Substances Alimentaires, et particuliérement sur la Viande de Cheval (1856). Geognosy (Gr. gé, ‘the earth ;’ gndsis, ‘ know- ledge’), the study of the materials of the earth’s substance, is a term now superseded by Petrography. See GEOLOGY. Geographical Distribution. There is no branch of scientific inquiry the interest and im- portance of which have grown more rapidly in recent years than that which forms the sub- ject of the present article. In chief measure this is due to the totally different complexion iven to the inquiry by the publication of the arwinian views of the Origin of Species. As long as it was held that each species must have been created, as a general rule, within the geo- graphical area which it now occupies, the most curious facts of distribution could be regarded only with ‘sterile wonder.’ But when the idea came to be entertained that allied species have had a common origin, it was obviously implied that they or their ancestors must have had a common birth- place ; and consequently, when we find members of a group severed from their nearest kindred, we feel bound to inquire how this came about. Thus, when it is observed that all the West Indian mammals, with one exception, are allied to those of America, we at once infer that the ancestors of these animals must have been derived from that con tinent, and we have to determine how the passage was made from the mainland to the islands; and the problem becomes much more difficult when we find that the single exception referred to ‘ belongs to an order, Insectivora, entirely absent from South America, and to a family, Centetide, all the other species of which inhabit Mad r only’ (Wallace, raha, Fa sa Distribution of Animals). Similarly, we have to explain how the tapirs are confined to the Malayan region and South America; the Camelidee to the deserts of Asia and the Andes; sea So to the Australian region and America ; how the mammals and birds of North America resemble those of Europe more than those of South America ; how the flora of Ja presents greater affinities to that of the Atlantic than to that of the Pacific States of North America; and so on. The considerations that must be taken into account in dealing with the problems of distribu- tion are far too numerous and complex to be gone into fuHy within the limits of an encyclopedia article, and all that can be done under this head is 140 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION i to indicate the nature of the more important facts affecting the solution of these problems. One of the principal means of throwing light on this sub- ject must obviously be to consider by what means animals and plants are able to disperse themselves across the barriers at present existing. It is scarcely necessary to draw attention to the facilities for diffusion possessed by animals endowed with great locomotive powers, and especially, among land-animals, by those having the power of flight ; and in connection with this means of dispersal the most important thing to note is that some animals, which in the adult state have only feeble powers of locomotion, are better endowed in this respect in an earlier stage of existence. Such, for example, are univalve and bivalve marine molluses, which are all developed from free-swimming larvee. But, besides the normal means of locomotion, there are many other modes of dispersal which it is highly important, with reference to the present inquiry, to take into account. First, there is the power of winds as a distributing agent. The carrying power of winds is known to be sufficient to bear along in the air fine dust across seas nany hundreds of miles in width; and, that being the case, we have in that agency alone an adequate means of accounting for the dispersion of all plants propagated by minute spores. For that reason the distribution of most cryptogamic plants hardly forms part of the problem under consideration, and is generally left out of account by those who have devoted themselves to this investigation. What part winds may have played in carrying the seeds of phanerogamous plants across arms of the sea is a more doubtful point ; but there are observations which show that even for such seeds, especially when provided with some kind of feathery appendage, winds may occa- sionally serve as a means of transport for very long distances. Thus, Berthelot records that after a violent hurricane he saw an annual belonging to the Composite (Hrigeron ambiguus), widely distributed throughout the~ Mediterranean region, suddenly appear at various spots on the ‘Canary Islands, where it was previously unknown, so that there could be hardly any doubt that the seeds had been blown across from Portugal or North Africa. Nevertheless, De Candolle has shown that seeds provided with a pappus are not on an average more widely distributed than those members of the Composite which are not so provided, so that such a case as that just mentioned must be looked upon as ite exceptional. But it is exceptional means of transport that is most im- portant to consider with reference to the problems of distribution. But, in the case of animals also, winds are a more important means of transport than one might at first suppose. Birds and insects are often blown immense distances out of their course; and to this cause, for instance, is due the arrival every year of American birds on the Bermudas. Insects have been caught on board of ships upwards of 300 miles from land. Further, there are well-authenti- cated cases of even crabs, frogs, and fishes being carried long distances by storms; and in this. way it is possible to account for the transference of fish, &ec. from one river-system to another. Still more frequently, in all probability, are the eggs of such creatures transported hy this means. Next, marine currents also form, beyond doubt, a highly important means of dispersal both for plants and animals, and that in various ways. First, seeds may float on the surface ‘of the ocean, and be carried by currents for hundreds of miles, and become stranded on a distant Shore still in a con- dition fit for germination. The well-known experi- ments of Darwin to determine th: vitality of seeds in sea-water first enabled us toappreciate the importance of this factor in the distribution of plants. In one experiment he found that, out of 87 kinds of seeds, 64 germinated after an immersion of 28 days, and a few survived an immersion of 137 days; and in another, that, out of 94 dried plants, 18 floated for above 28 days; and, combining the results of the two experiments, he concluded that 14 plants out of every 100 in the flora of a country might be floated by currents moving at the average rate of the several Atlantic currents a distance of 924 miles, and might, on being stranded, furnish seeds capable of germinating. But further, marine currents often carry on their surface various kinds of natural rafts, which may be the means of transport both for plants and animals. In the polar regions icebergs and ice- floes may serve this purpose; and elsewhere trunks of trees, and even fragments torn from the land. Such fragments, forming small islands with erect trees upon them, have been seen at a distance of 100 miles from the mouth of the Ganges and other rivers. Wallace points out that ocean waifs of one kind or another are almost the only - means we can imagine by which land-shells can have acquired the wide distribution for which they . are remarkable. These molluses perish very readily in sea-water, but, on the other hand, are ver tenacious of life in other’circumstances; and this tenacity of life obviously favours their chance of being carried in chinks of floating timber, or other- wise, across the ocean. Again, locomotive animals are very frequently the means of dispersing both plants and other animals. Seeds may be attached to the fleece or fur of mammals or the plumage of birds, or may be enclosed in clumps of earth clinging to the feet or some other part of bird or beast, even of insects. To Darwin we are again indebted for an instance showing how likely a means of transport this is. He informs us that he received from Professor Newton the leg of a red-legged partridge ( Caccabis rufa) with a ball of hard earth weighing 64 ounces adhering to it. The earth had been kept for three years; but when broken, watered, and covered by a bell-glass, as many as eighty-two plants sprang from it. Hooked fruits, such as those of agrimony, geum, &c., and fruits covered with a viscous ete stance, like those of some thistles, mistletoe, and others, are the most likely to be transported in . this way. It seems probable that aquatic birds and water-beetles have been the means of distrib- uting aquatic plants and fresh-water molluses, which are remarkable for their wide diffusion ; and the spawn of amphibians and fresh-water fishes may be conveyed from one body of fresh water to another by the same means, Again, seeds with hard shells are known in many cases to be capable of passing through the digestive organs of birds uninjured ; and consequently fruits enclosing such seeds, or, like the strawberry, covered with them, may be devoured by birds in one place, and deposited by them in a state fit for germina- tion at another, hundreds of miles distant. And what is of still more importance, seeds which would be destroyed if they passed through the digestive organs of a bird are quite uninjured as long as they remain in the crop, where they may be re- — tained for twelve or eighteen hours ; and thus birds killed with food in their erop may be the means of scattering seed which has travelled 500 miles. It is obvious that the migratory habits of certain birds are of great importance with reference to both the means of transport just mentioned. seeds retain the power of germination even after assing through the digestive organs of ruminants. here is a well-established case of a tree belongin to the order Leguminose having been introduced. into the West Indies through cattle brought from Some | RD ts 7 , _ aecompanied them; and the shrew, the death’s- head moth, the Sphinx convolvuli, &c., are also known to have _ eountries in ships. anemones so frequently attached to the shells of introduced with im transit from the mainland is unknown. _ GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 141 | * South America, the cattle having been fed on the F kta the pods belonging to the tree. er, the parasitic habits of certain animals enable them to be carried about from place to when they have themselves no power, or very feeble power of locomotion. And, with to the subject now under consideration, it no difference whether the animals are truly e ar tic, feeding at the expense of the host to they are attached, or merely commensalists, their own food independently, like the sea- _hermit-crabs. y, man is often unintentionally the means veying both plants and animals from one to another. The foreign plants found grow- on ballast-heaps are instances of this, and so ‘also are the plants which have sprung from seed rted grain or other articles of import. Since the discovery of America the whole #f the northern part of the continent is said to > ; =" been more or less overrun by European weeds ; Nev nga to Agassiz, the roadside weeds of the * =a England states, to the number of 130, are all Wherever —— sailors have gone, uropean rats, both black and brown, have n introduced into various In the preceding summary of the more important , means of diffusion for plants and animals, some of the obstacles to diffusion have been incidentally _ referred to; but it will be convenient to make a general survey of these also. For all land-plants and land-animals the most _ obvious and effective barrier is a wide expanse of ocean; and where the expanse is very wide it is seldom passable except with the aid of man. For -mammals the ocean is an absolutely im- passable barrier, and hence native mammals are always absent from oceanic islands (i.e. islands that have never been connected with the main- land); and this barrier is almost equally effective for serpents and amphibians, which also are nearly always wanting where there are no native mam- mals. Lizards are more frequently found indigen- ous on oceanic islands, though their means of Arms of the sea and broad rivers are likewise generall impassable for the creatures mentioned, thong some of them have greater pee of swimming than is generally supposed. The jaguar, the bear, and the bison are capable of swimming the widest Tivers; pigs have n known to swim ashore when carried out to sea to a distance of several miles; and even a boa constrictor, it is said, has swum to the island of St Vincent from the South _ American coast—a distance of 200 miles. _ Mountains, and especially high mountains, are uently effective barriers to the migration of land plants and animals; but it must be noticed t in some cases they serve for both as a means _ of communication between one region and another, = ‘enabling plants and animals belonging to a cold = in the i Again, te, for example, to spread into latitudes where, — the climate is too hot for them. eserts act as a barrier to the majority of plants and aninials; forests are a barrier to the camel, hare, zebra, giraffe, &e. ; treeless regions to apes, lemurs, and many monkeys; plains to wild goats and sheep. Broad rivers also act occasionally ers to distribution, and that, strange to Say, even in the case of some species of birds. _ Another important barrier is that of climate ; but, with reference to this, it must be observed that the question of climate affects the problems of Geographical distribution, in the proper sense of that term, only in so far as climatie conditions may shut off plants and animals from means of communication between one region and another, and not where climate merely limits the range of a species or group within a continuous area. In the case of many animals climate acts only in- directly as a barrier through limiting the food- supply required by them. Another set of barriers may be classed under the general head of organic, inasmuch as they are all connected with the vegetable or animal life of the region where such barriers exist. Under this head may be mentioned first the fact that certain animals require for their subsistence a special kind of vegetable food. The range of insects is uliarly liable to be limited in this way, certain insects being attached to particular species of plants, and others to genera or families; and for this reason insects, in spite of the exceptional facilities for dispersal which, as we have already seen, they enjoy, are remarkable, as a rule, rather for the restriction of their areas of distribution than for their wide diffusion. Again, the presence of enemies is sufficient in some cases absolutely to exclude certain forms from certain areas, as the well-known tse-tse fly does horses, dogs, and cattle from a well-defined area in South Africa; and another kind of fly prevents horses and cattle from running wild in Paraguay, as they do in abundance both to the north and south of that region. But a more important, because more generally operative, organic barrier consists in the fact of a region being already fully occupied by a native flora and fauna, so that rs Sa is no room for new- comers. Hence- it happens that seeds may be wafted in plenty from one country to another without a single plant growing from these seeds being able to establish itself; and there may even be, as in South America, a free communication with another region while the fauna remains strikingly distinct, simply because that portion of the American continent is already completely stocked with a fauna perfectly adapted to the Je og: conditions there prevailing. he barriers to the spread of marine creatures are not so numerous as in the case of terrestrial forms. The freedom of communication between one part of the ocean and another makes it im- possible to mark out any marine zoogeographical regions, though many seas and coasts are dis- tinguished by characteristic fishes and other marine creatures. he principal barriers for fish are temperature and the intervention of land. Thus, the Isthmus of Panama is at present a complete barrier for fishes requiring warm seas. If all the barriers to migration had existed in all past time as they are now, it would be quite impossible to 2 the present distribution of plants and animals on the supposition that kindred groups have had a common birthplace. But the solution of the problems of distribution is to be found in the fact that all the barriers are liable to change. Of changes of sea and land geology supplies us with abundant evidence. Portions of the mainland now continuous were at one time severed by arms of the sea; and islands have been formed by the severance of portions of land that once belonged to the mainland. Such islands are known as continental islands, and the study of their faunas and floras is one of peculiar interest in connection with geographical distribution. These faunas and floras show, as might be ex- pected, a greater or less degree of correspondence with those of the mainland from which the islands have been eut off; and the resemblance is the closer the more recently the land connection has been destroyed. The relative date of the disunion is usually approximately indicated by the depth 142 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION of the sea which now separates island and main- land, shallow seas dividing portions of land that have only recently been disconnected, and deeper seas separating those which have been longer apart. The most remarkable case of isolation is pre- sented by the Australian region, the fauna and flora of which are the most peculiar in the world. In the widest sense, this region includes not only the vast island of Australia itself, but also New Guinea and all the Malayan and Pacific ‘islands to the east of a deep channel between the islands of Bali and Lombok—a channel the significance of which, as a boundary line for plants and animals, was first pointed out by Wallace, the great authority on animal distribution, and hence known as Wallace’s Line. The great feature of this region (so far as animal distribution is con- cerned) is ‘the almost total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in the rest of the world, their place being taken by a great variety of marsupials.’ The family just mentioned, though now restricted in the manner stated at the beginning of this article, was at one time spread over the whole world, but has in most parts become extinguished by the competition of later types; thus presenting one of the best examples of what are known as discontinuous areas of distribution, and offering an illustration of the mode in which such discon ianaie is usually brought about. The early severance of the Australian region from the Asiatic continent (a severance which must be referred to some period in the Secondary Age of geologists) saved the Australian marsupials from the competition which almost extinguished the group elsewhere, Turning now to marine distribution, we find evidence of the former absence of a land-barrier at the Isthmus of Panama in the identity of many species of fish on both sides of the isthmus. 120 160 The Zoogeographical Regions according to A. R. Wallace : Sub-regions of Palearctic Region— Sub-regions of Oriental Region— Sub-regions of Neotropical Region— 1. European. 1. Indian. ; 1. Chilian. 2. Mediterranean. 2. Ceylonese. 2. Brazilian. 8. Siberian. 3. Indo-Chinese. 3. Mexican. 4. Manchurian. 4. Indo-Malayan. 4, Antillean. Sub-regions of Ethiopian Region— 1. Hast African. 2. West " 3. South " 4. Malagasy. Sub-regions of Australian Region— 1. Austro-Malayan. 2. Australian. 3. Polynesian. 4. New Zealand. Sub-regions of Nearctic Region— 1. Californian. 2. Rocky Mountain. 8. Alleghanian. 4, Canadian. Changes in the climatic barrier have also had an important influence on geographical distribution ; ana it is by such changes, combined with changes in the continuity of land in the north polar regions, that the affinities between the floras of Japan and eastern North America must be explained. When these affinities were first pointed out by Asa Gray, that distinguished botanist divined the true ex- planation—viz. that in former geological epochs a genial climate must have prevailed even within the polar circle, so as to allow of the existence of a remarkably uniform flora, suitable to such a climate, all round the pole, in very high latitudes ; and that as the climate became colder in the north this flora was driven southwards, and became differentiated according to the differences of climate in the more southerly latitudes to which it advanced. Hence the eastern parts of America and Asia, as they correspond pretty much in climate, came to correspond also more closely than other tracts in the same latitude in the character of their floras. The soundness of this surmise was — afterwards confirmed by the discovery of abundant plant remains of the Miocene age, indicating a warm climate in Greenland, Spitzbergen, and else- where. The effects on distribution of the changes of climate belonging to the period known as the Glacial Period (q.v.) or Ice Age must be alluded to here, but there is no space todo'more. ~ As the result of all the processes of dispersal across the various barriers to migration, and of the changes in these barriers, we have the present dis-_ tribution of plants and animals, which is such as to enable us to divide the terrestrial surface of the globe into more or less well-marked regions. For animals the regions adopted by Wallace are nearly the same as those first suggested by Sclater as applicable to the distribution of birds; GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 143 in spite of the exceptional facility which birds for crossing barri ble by mammals, iers im Wallace finds that the distribution of mammals > the best means of marking off zoo- regions) corresponds with that of ds to an extent that one would not perhaps have previously anticipated, But with regard to ese regions it must be remembered (1) that it _impe ible in most cases to draw any very clearly marked boundary line between one region und another; (2) that the de of divergence n different regions is different in different ses; and (3) that, when any two regions are ompared, we have not the same degree of diverg- nee between different groups of the animal king- om, or between animals and planta belonging to ne ti Obviously, the degree of corre- pondence depends largely on the facilities for dis- ersal, and largely also on the geologteas age of lifferent groups; and both of these are varying Taphica ~ « fk yal \ ie ~~ a eR an factors. These considerations being premised, we may now state briefly the limits of the six zoologi- cal regions adopted by Wallace, as given in his Island Life. In the space to which the present article is necessarily restricted it is impossible to give even the most entary sketch of the characteristic life of the different regions, for which the reader must be referred to the works cited at the end of the article. (1) Palwarctic ion, including Europe and north ba mea Asia and Africa to the northern borders of the ahara, (2) Ethiopian ion, consisting of all tropical and South Africa, together with Madagascar and the Mas- carene Islands, (3) Oriental Region, comprising all Asia south of thie Palzarctic limits, and along with this the Malay Islands as far as the Philippines, Borneo, and Java, (4) Australian Region, as already defined and charac- terised. Celebes might be referred almost with — right to this or the previous region. New Zealand is 40 are. : Meee 2 oe ee 40 80 1. Northern. 2. Inner Asiatic. 6. Tropical Atrican. 4 editerranean. 7. East African Islands. ‘ 4. Eastern Asiatic. a a 8. Indian. treated by Wallace as a highly peculiar sub-region of this region. _ (5) Nearctic Region, comprising all temperate and arctic North Ruaaieas todntite Greenland, ead extend- _ imgon the south to an irregular line running from the _____-—Rio Grande del Norte on the east to a point nearly Opposite Cape St Lucas on the west. i of 6) Neotropical Region, the American continent south ____ 0f this line, together with the West Indian Islands. ____ Heilprin (see below) and others advocate the : n of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions under the name of Holaretic, and introduce three transi- ___ tional tracts (the Mediterranean, embracing south- odipr » northern Africa, and western Asia | ‘sive of the southern half of Arabia ; the Sonoran * and ia). Otherwise his major visions of the globe are similar to those of On plant distribution the most important recent KS are those of Engler and Drude (cited at The Terrestrial Floral Domains according to Oscar Drude : 5. Central North American. 13. Andine. 9. Tropical American. 14. Antarctic. 10. South African. 11. Australian. 12. New Zealand. the end of the article). Engler attempts to trace the history of the vegetable kingdom since the Tertiary period, and comes to the conclusion that already in the Tertiary period four ‘ floral’elements’ ( Florenelemente) could be distinguished—namely : (1) The Arcto-tertiary element, characterised by an abundance of conifers and numerous genera of trees and shrubs now prevalent in North America, or in extra- tropical eastern Asia and in Europe. (2) The Palzotropical element, characterised by the presence of the families and sub-families dominant in the tropics of the Old World ; and still more by the absence of certain families, groups, and genera found in the territory of the Arcto-tertiary element. (3) The Neotropical or South American element, which, according to Engler, must have had in Tertiary times much the same % sentivs as that now possessed by tropi- cal Brazil and the West Indies. 3 (4) The old Oceanic element, consisting of forms which possessed the power of traversing considerable stretches of ocean and developing further on islands. The modern provinces of the vegetable kingdom are subordinated by Engler to these t divisions. Drude, in the first place, distinguishes the oceanie 144 GEOGRAPHY * (marine) flora from the terrestrial forms, and the latter he divides into three great groups, and these again into fourteen floral domains (Elorenroiehe}; the limits of which are shown on the accompanying map. See P. L. Sclater’s paper on the Geographical Distribu- tion of Birds, in the Jour. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. ii., and his Address to the Biological Section of the Brit. Assoc. at Bristol, 1875; A. R. Wallace’s Geographical Distribution of Animals (2 vols. Lond. 1876), and his Island Life (Lond. 1880); A. Murray’s Geographical Distribution of Mammats ( Lond.1866); Angelo Heilprin, The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals (New York and Lond. 1887); Bentham’s Presidential Address to the Linnean Society, Jour. Linn. Soc., x. (Botany, introd.); A. de Candolle’s Géographie Botanique (2 vols. Paris, 1855); Sir J. Hooker’s Introduction to the Flora of Tasmania, and Handbook of the Flora of New Zealand; also papers by him On Insular Floras, Brit. Assoc. 1866, and On the Distribution of Arctic Plants, Trans. Linn. Soc., xxiii.; Asa Gray's Forest Geography and Archeology, in Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts (ser. iii. vol. xvi. 1875); Grisebach’s Vegetation der Erde (Leip. 1872; 2d ed. 1884; French translation with valu- able additional notes by Tchihatchef, 1875-78); F. Beddard, Yext-book of Zoogeography (1895); Engler’s Entwicklung sgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt (1879-82); Oscar Drude, Die Florenreiche der Erde (Ergainzungsheft, No. 74, to Petermann’s Mitteilungen, Gotha, 1884); and the chapters on Geographical Distribution in Darwin’s Origin of Species, as well as chap. xxxviii.—-xlii. of Lyell’s Principles of Geology. Geography (Gr. gé, ‘the earth ;’ graphein, ‘to describe’) etymologically means a description of the earth. The term as now accepted by its most competent students is applied to that department of science whose function it is to investigate the features of the earth’s surface, and the distribution and mutual topographical relations of all which that surface sustains. It thus involves a study of the atmosphere or air-covering ; the geosphere or land-surface ; and the hydrosphere or water-covering. The basis of geography is topography, ‘including topographical relations and distribution. But to understand this thoroughly a certain elementary . knowledge of various departments of science is necessary ; and this knowledge is often included in what is somewhat vaguely known as Physiography (q.v.). To understand what may be regarded as the subject proper of geography—viz. the features of the earth’s surface, their distribution and relations, and the distribution and relations of the denizens of the surface—some knowledge is required of the relations of the earth to the sun and the other members of the solar system, and of the celestial sphere generally. For exact topographical observation (see SURVEYING) a precise knowledge of certain astronomical data is required. This department is treated in the ordinary text-books under the heading of Astronomical or Mathe- matical Geography. An elementary acquaintance is also advisable with certain physical and chemical facts and laws, in order to understand the action of the atmosphere, of wind, rain, ice, and water (rivers, lakes, the ocean), and those other factors which help to constitute climate, and which do so much to shape those features with which geography has chiefly to deal. Equally useful is a general knowledge of the character of the great classes of rocks which compose the surface, and of the lead- ing families of plants and animals which cover it, especially those of economical importance. This, though strictly preliminary, is often included along with a study of the features themselves, in Physical Geography. The investigation of the ocean and its denizens has recently been made a new department under the title of Oceanography or Thalasso- graphy. Again, to an account of the different states or communities into which man is divided the term Political Geography is commonly applied. Commercial Geography discusses the various countries and regions of the earth with special reference to their products and their requirements as affecting trade and commerce ; and Medical Geo- graphy deals with localities as liable to become the seats of special diseases or groups of diseases. Of course any section of geography may be treated and studied by itself, just as in the case of geology, or chemistry, or physics. But for purposes of re- search, for practical results, and even for educa- tional uses, it is now considered more satisfactory to treat geography as one whole, dealing with the characteristics, distribution, and mutual relations of the great features of the earth’s surface, the great classes of plants and animals which cover that surface, and of man himself. Such a study, it is maintained, is not only an excellent discipline, but the knowledge of facts and laws so obtained can be applied in many useful practical directions. Most of all it may be applied to the distribution of man in communities or states, and so, combined with other considerations, lead to a rational study of political geography and the course of history. In the same way the knowledge may be applied in the interests of industry, of commerce, of colonisation, and in many other economical directions. Geo- graphy, when thus treated, is, it is maintained, both more interesting and more profitable than when dealt with as a mere collection of unconnected facts and factors. It has long been so treated in Germany b: such geographers as Ritter and Peschel, and their followers, and similar views are rapidly prevailin in England and America, In Germany the subjeat is often divided into general physical and political, and special physical and political eography, the latter, of course, dealing with particulars countries or — regions. Of course, like all other departments of — learning, the subject may be broken up into sections, — and dealt with for teaching purposes, and in a more or less elementary manner. For the most element- ary stage, it is now generally considered advisable to begin with the immediate topographical surround- ings of the pupil and proceed outwards. It should be stated that the eminent German geographer, Professor G. Gerland, maintains that geography — has to do with the earth as a whole, me that the human side of it, or anthropogeography, belongs exclusively to history. Special aspects of geography will be found treated in the articles ANTHROPOLOGY, ASTRONOMY, CLIMATE, CLoups, EARTH, ETHNOLOGY, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU- TION, GEOLOGY, HEAT, LAKES, LATITUDE AND LONGI- | TUDE, MOUNTAINS, RAIN, RIVER, SEA, WIND, &c. As authorities to consult on the various aspects of geography referred to, may be mentioned Ritter’s Hrdkunde ; Mrs Somerville’s Physical Geography (latest edition); — Peschel’s Physische Erdkunde, Abhandlungen zur Erd- und-Véolkerkunde, and Neue Probleme der Vergleichenden — Erdkunde; Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde; Ratzel, An- — thropogeographie ; Unser Wissen von der Erde: 1. All- gemeine Erdkunde; Hinman’s Eclectic Physical Geo- graphy; the volume of ‘Education Reports’ issued by — the Royal Geographical Society, and the Lectures contained therein; General R. Strachey, Lectwres in — Geography ; ‘The Scope and Methods of Geography. H. J. Mackinder in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (vol. ix.) ; “Scien- tific Earth-knowledge as an Aid to Commerce,’ by H, R. — Mill in Scot. Geog. Mag. (vol. v. p. 302); * Applied Geo- graphy, by J. 8. Keltie.in Contemp. Rev. (Sept. 1888); _ Chisholm’s Handbook of Commercial Geography (1889). The facts of Political Geography will be found under the headings of the different continents, countries, and towns in this Encyclopadia. As authoritative works on the subject (both general and political) may be- mentioned Reclus, Géographie wuniverselle (with its English translation); and Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel. For the purposes of geographical discovery, or the geo- graphical knowledge of various parts of the earth, reference — must be made to the articles on continents and oceans, — GEOGRAPHY 145 + also to the articles CHarr and Mar. Here only general reference can be made to the progress of correct notions of the earth and, in connection therewith, of a _ general knowledge of the extent and form of the earth’s As the earliest efforts, within the historical D to extend a knowledge of the earth’s surface be with the Mediterranean nations of antiquity, it is ' and right to start there, although in one sense _ exploration is coeval with humanity. ‘The earliest definite idea formed of the earth by nations emerging from a primeval condition seems to have been that of a flat circular disc, sur- younded on all sides by water, and covered by the heavens as with a canopy, in the centre of which their own land was supposed to be situated. The Pheenicians were the first people who communicated to other nations a knowledge of distant lands ; and, although little is known as to the exact period and extent of their various discoveries, they had, before - the age of Homer, navigated all parts of the Euxine, and penetrated beyond the limits of the Mediter- ranean into the Western Ocean; and they thus form the first link of the great chain of discovery which, 2500 years after their foundation of the cities of _ Tartessus and Utica, was carried by Columbus to i the remote shores of America. ides various _ settlements nearer home, these bold adventurers had founded colonies in Asia Minor about 1200 + B.C.; a century later they laid the foundation of ) es, Utica, and several other cities, which was followed in the course of the 9th century by that _ of Carthage, from whence new streams of colonisa- tion continued for several centuries to flow to oe of the world hitherto unknown. The cenicians, although less highly gifted than the is ians, rank next to them in regard to the influence which they exerted on the progress of human thought and civilisation. Their know- ledge of edeloanice, their pet use of weights and measures, and, what was of still greater importance, their employment of an alphabetical form of writing facilitated and confirmed commercial intercourse amon a bond of union which speedily embraced all the civilised nations of Semitic and Hellenic origin. So rapid was the advance of geographical knowledge between the age of the Homeric poems (which may be ed as representing the ideas entertained at the commencement of the 9th century B.c.) and the time of Hesiod (800 B.c.) that, while in the ormer the earth is sc emg to resemble a flat eireular shield, surrounded by a rim of water ~ egaae of as the parent of all other streams, and names of Asia and Europe are applied only, the _ former to the upper valley of the Cayster, and the latter to Greece north of Peloponnesus, Hesiod mentions parts of Italy, Sicily, Gaul, and Spain, _ and is acquainted with the Scythians and with the Ethiopians of southern Africa. iy the 7th +: npr f Saha certain Phoenicians, under the patron- _ age of Neku or Necho IL., king of Egypt, undertook _ & voyage of discovery, and are reported to have ee igeted Africa. This expedition is re- corded by Herodotus, who relates that it entered the Southern Ocean by way of the Red Sea, and after three ae absence returned to Egypt by the Pillars of Hercules. The fact of an actual cir- eumnavigation of the African continent has been _ doubted, but the most convincing proof of its prob- 2 is afforded by the observation which seemed ible to Herodotus—viz. ‘that the mariners who sailed round Libya (from east to west) had the sun on their right hand.’ The 7th and 6th centuries ‘B.C, were memorable for the t advance made in aeard to the knowledge of the form and extent the earth. Thales, and his pupil Anaximander, Riedel to have been the first to draw maps, ex- ok errors, and paved the way by their — ot A ¥ their own numerous colonies, and formed observations for the attainment of a sounder know- ledge. The logographers contributed at this period to the same end by the descriptions which they gave of various parts of the earth; of these perhaps the most interesting to us is the narrative of the Cartha- inian Himileo, who discovered the British Islands, including the CEstrymnides, which he deseribed as —— a four months’ voyage from Tartessus. ith Herodotus of Halicarnassus (born 484 B.C.), who may be regarded as the father of geography as well as of history, a new era began in regard to geographical knowledge. Although his chief object was to record the struggles of the Greeks and Persians, he has so minutely described the countries which he visited in his extensive travels (which covered an area of more than 31° or 1700 miles from east to west, and 24° or 1660 miles from north to south) that his History gives us a complete representation of all that was known of the earth’s surface in his age. This knowledge was extremely scanty. It was believed that the world was bounded to the south by the Red Sea or Indian Ocean, and to the west by the Atlantic, while its eastern boundaries, although admitted to be undefined, were conjectured to be nearly identi- cal with the limits of the Persian empire, and its northern termination somewhere in the region of the amber-lands of the Baltic, which had been visited by Phoenician mariners, and with which the people of Massilia (the modern Marseilles) kept up constant intercourse by way of Gaul and Germany. In the next century the achievements of Alexander the Great tended materially to enlarge the bounds of human knowledge, for while he carried his arms to the banks of the Indus and Oxus, and extended his conquests to northern and eastern Asia, he at the same time promoted science, by sending expeditions to explore and survey the various pro- vinces which he subdued, and to make collections of all that was curious in regard to the organic and inorganic products of the newly-visited districts ; and hence the victories of the Macedonian con- queror formed a new era in physical inquiry gener- ally. as well as in geographical pene Sea gr hile Alexander was opening the t to the knowledge of western nations, Pytheas, an adven- turous navigator of Massilia, conducted an expedi- tion past Spain and Gaul, through the Channel, and round the east of England into the Northern Ocean. There, after six days’ sailing, he, accord- ing to some, reached Thule (conjectured to be Iceland, although the actual locality is very un- certain), but according to the most competent in- terpreters of the story only heard of it. Returning, he passed into the tic, where he heard of the Teutones and Goths. Discovery was thus being extended both in the north and east into regions whose very existence had never been suspected, or which had hitherto been regarded as mere chaotic wastes. An important advance in geography was made by Eratosthenes (born 276 B.c.), who first used parallels of longitude and latitude, and constructed maps on mathematical principles. His work on phy is lost, yet we learn from Strabo that he considered the world to be a sphere revolving with its surrounding atmo- sphere on one and the same axis, and having one centre ; although the belief in the spherical form of the earth was at the time confined to the learned few. He believed that only about one-eighth of the earth’s surface was inhabited, while the extreme points of his habitable world were Thule in the north, China in the east, the Cinnamon Coast of Africa in the south, and the Prom. Sacrum (Cape St Vincent) in the west. During the interval be- tween the ages of Eratosthenes and Strabo (born 66 B.C.) many voluminous works on phy were compiled, which have been either wholly lost to us, . 146 GEOGRAPHY or only very partially preserved in the records of later writers. Strabo’s great work on geography, which is said to have been composed when he was . eighty years of age, has been considered as a model of what such works should be in regard to the methods of treating the subject; but, while his descriptions of all the places he has himself visited are interesting and instructive, he seems unduly to have discarded the authority of preceding writers. The wars and conquests of the Romans had a most important bearing upon geography, since the practical genius of the Roman people led them to the study of the material resources of every pro- vince and state brought under their sway ; and the eatest service was done to geographical know- edge by the survey of the empire, which was begun by Julius Czesar, and completed by Augustus. This work comprised a description and measurement of every province by the most celebrated geometricians of the day. Pliny (born 23 A.D.), who had travelled in Spain, Gaul, Germany, and Africa, has left us a compendium of the geographical and physical science of his age in the four books of his Historia Naturalis which he devotes to the sub- ject. He collected with indefatigable industry the information contained in the works of Sallust, Cesar, and others, to which he added the results of his own observations, without, however, dis- criminating between fact and fiction. The progress that had been made since Ceesar’s time in geo- graphical knowledge is evinced by Pliny’s notice of arctic regions and of the Scandinavian lands, and the accounts which he gives of Mount Atlas, the course of the Niger, and of various settlements in different parts of Africa; while his knowledge of Asia is more correct than that of any of his pre- decessors, for he correctly affirms that Ceylon is an island, and not the commencement of a new continent, as had been generally supposed. The study of geography in ancient times may be said to have terminated with C. Ptolemy, who flourished in the middle of the 2d century of our era. His work on Geography, in eight books, which continued to be regarded as the most perfect system of the science through the dark and middle ages down to the 16th gue gives a tolerably correct account of the well-known countries of the world, and of the Mediter- ranean, Euxine, and Caspian, together with the rivers which fall into those seas; but it added little to the knowledge of the north of Europe, or the extreme boundaries of Asia or Africa. Yet, from his time till the 14th century, when the records of the travels of the Venetian Marco Polo opened new fields of inquiry, the statements of Ptolemy were never questioned, and even during the 15th century it was only among a few German scholars at Nuremberg that the strange accounts given of distant eastern lands by the Venetian traveller were received as trustworthy where he differed from Ptolemy. -Marco Polo had, however, unfortunately made no astronomical observations, nor had he even recorded the length of the day at any place, and hence the Nuremberg geographers, who had no certain data for estimating the extent of the countries which he had traversed, were the means of propagating errors which led to results that were destifind to influence the history of man- kind. | For, taking Ptolemy’s tables as their basis, they incorporated on their globes and maps the results of their own rough estimates of the length of Marco Polo’s days’ journeys, and the thus represented the continent of Asia as extend- ing across the Pacific, and having its eastern shores somewhere in the region of the Antilles. These erroneous calculations misled Christopher Columbus to the false assumption that, by sailing 120° W., he would reach the wealthy trading marts of China, and the result of this conviction was his entering upon that memorable expedition which terminated in the discovery (in 1492) of the con- tinent of America. Although there can be ne doubt that the American continent was visited in the 9th and 10th centuries by Northmen, the event remained without influence on the history of dis- covery, and cannot therefore detract from the claims of Columbus. This momentous discovery, which had been preceded in 1486 by the exploration of the African coast as far as the Cape of Good Hope (which was doubled by Vasco da Gama in 1497), was followed by a rapid succession of dis- coveries. Within thirty years of the date of the first voyage of Columbus the whole coast of America from Greenland to Cape Horn had been explored, the Pacific Ocean had been navigated, and the world cireumnavigated by Magellan (q.v.) ; the coasts of eastern Africa, Arabia, Persia, and India had been visited by the Portuguese, and numerous islands in the Indian Ocean discovered. The 16th century was marked by continued attempts, successful and unsuccessful, to extend the sphere of oceanic discovery; and the desire — ) to reach India by a shorter route than those of the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn led to many attempts to discover’a north-west passage, which, though they signally failed in their object, had the effect of very materially enlarging our knowledge of the arctic regions. The expedi- tions of Willoughby and Frobisher in 1553 and 1576, of Davis (1585), Hudson (1607), and Baffin (1616), were the most important in their results towards this end. The 17th and 18th centuries gave a new turn to the study of geography, by ringing other sciences to bear upon it, which, in their turn, derived elucidation from the exten- sion of geographical knowledge; and it is to the aid derived from history, astronomy, and the physical and natural sciences that we owe the completeness which has characterised modern works. on geography. In the 17th century the Dutch, -under Tasman and Van Diemen, made the Austral- asian islands known to the civilised world ; and in the latter half of the 18th century Captain Cook (q.v.) extended the great oceanic explorations by the discovery of New Zealand and many of the Polynesian groups, and by proving the non-exist- ence of a ‘ great Antarctic continent,’ stretching far north in the Pacific. The antarctic lands were first visited in 1840 by American, English, and French expeditions, under their respective commanders, Wilkes, Ross, and Dumont d’Urville. iba after having been for a time in abeyance, as within late years been vigorously prosecuted by the United States and various European countries ; and in 1879-80 Baron Nordenskjéld succeeded for the first time in history in navigating the north- east passage round Europe and Asia. In America the travels of Humboldt, Lewis and Clark, Fré- mont, and others, and the work of the United States and Canadian Surveys, of the Argentine government explorers, and of railway pioneers, have done much to make us acquainted with broad general features, but much remains to be done in — regard to special districts of central and southern America. In Asia numerous travellers, geographers, and naturalists, combined with the expeditions of Russian armies, and explorers like the late General Prejevalsky, have contributed to render our know- ledge precise and certain in respect to a great art of the continent, whose natural characteristics ave been more especially represented by the great physicist Ritter; while we owe a large debt of permit: to the Jesuit missionaries, whose in- efatigable zeal has furnished us with a rich mass of information in regard to minor details of Asiatic life and nature, nor must the work of the Indian Polar ex- GEOGRAPHY GEOLOGY 147 and its European and native explorers be gotten. In Africa much light has been thrown n the character and condition of the African mtinent by many of its greatest explorers—as rnc Park, Clapperton, the Landers, Burton, ce, Barth, Vouel, Livin rstone, Cameron, Stan- ; homson, Schweinfurth, Nachtigal, Junker, and Emin Pasha; General Gordon and his sub- linate officers ; the French in Senegambia and on the Upper Niger; Wissmann and Pogge, and other vflicers of the Congo Free State ; German explorers im east and central Africa, and the missionaries of various denominations. In Australia, although much still remains to be done, the obscurity which ng over the interior has been to a great extent diminished by the explorations of Sturt, Eyre, sichhardt, and the brothers Gregory; and still : ae, the highly important labours of Burke ‘and Wills, who in 1860 crossed the Australian continent from Melbourne to Carpentaria. The e@stublishment in 1872 of a telegraph line from A de to Port Darwin right across the continent, nd the maintenance of stations along the line, formed an admirable base for further exploration. Gil es, Warburton, and Forrest forced their way in nearly parallel lines to the west coast. The labours »f these and other explorers indicate that much of the continent of Australia, though often covered with dense growth of spinifex, acacia, and eucalyp- tus, is not available for colonisation by Europeans. _ The government surveys of the various European - countries, of the British possessions, and of other ¢ivilised states have not only added to a detailed _ knowledge of the face of the earth, but given us more precise ideas of its shape. Again, various * y ae ee ! - ign ~ an A ae Le ye a bg at: 4b} 77 deep-sea exploring expeditions of recent years, the _ chief among which was that sent out by the English government in the Challenger (q.v.), have added greatly to our knowledge of the geography of the The progress of recent discovery has been aided by the encouragement given to exploration by the ; ents of different countries, and by the efforts of the numerous geographical societies, of _ which there are now over one hundred ; while the ay mont increasing mass of information collected > y scientific explorers is rapidly diffusing correct information in regard to distant regions. On the subject of geographical discovery, the following _ works may consulted with advantage: Bunbury’s ‘ ant of Ancient Geography (1880); Vivien de Sainte- #) ’s Histoire de Géographie; Kiepert’s Manual of _ Ancient Geography (1881); Précis de Géographie Univer- _ #elle, by Malte Brun ; Humboldt’s Hist. crit. de ? Hist. de la Géographie, and the Cosmos ; Ritter’s Asien ; Kloeden’s : ; Reclus, Nouvelle Géographie Universelle ; «Bt ’s ogg eee of Geography and Travel, based on Hellwald; H. F. Tozer, A History of Ancient Geography (1897); C. R. Beazley, The Dawn of Modern Geography ). And see Petermann’s Mitteilunyen, the Proce. . Geog. Soe., and the Geoyraphisches Jahrbuch. Geol (Gr. gé, ‘the earth ;’ logos, ‘a dis- | course ) is the science of the earth—that science, Namely, which has for its object the study of the : y _ Yarious constituents of the earth’s crust, with a _ view to discover how those materials have been ss ted and caused to assume the appearances BP. they now present. Geology, in short, is an . inquiry into the history and development of the _ @arth’s crust, and of the several floras and faunas which have successively clothed and peopled its Surface. As a science geology is comparatively ] Fome, although it can hardly be doubted that from a very early period the phenomena with : it deals must have claimed some attention. Tt is easy, indeed, to trace in old mythologies and id the influence of the geological features # the land upon the human imagination. Volcanic eal “ 77 eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, and landslips, the havoc of torrential waters, and the destructive action of waves and breakers have unquestionab] left their impress upon the superstitions and beliefs of all primitive peoples. One may believe that many of the remarkable scientific premonitions which are met with in oriental cosmogonies and the early writings of the Greeks may have been suggested by geological phenomena. The occur- rence of sea-shells in the rocks of mountains and regions far removed from the sea may well have given rise to the oriental belief in the alternate estruction and renovation of the world. Pytha- goras and Strabo both recognised that changes had taken place on the surface of the earth, but neither appears to have got beyond the observation of a few obvious phenomena—their explanations of which are haxily entitled to be considered more than vague guesses. It is not until we reach the close of the 15th century that we find geological phenomena attracting the attention of competent observers. With the investigations of the cele- brated painter, Leonardo da Vinci, together with those of Fracastoro, a new departure was taken. The numerous fossil shells discovered in engineer- ing operations were appealed to by them as evidence of former geographical chahges—their method of reasoning being consistent and logical. Unfortu- nately it did not convince either their contem- ae or immediate successors—some of whom eld the extraordinary view that shells and other fossil organic remains were not really what they appeared to be, but the result of a plastic force which had somehow fashioned them in the bowels of the earth. Fossils were further supposed to be the results of the fermentation of fatty matter, or of terrestrial exhalations, or of the influence of the heavenly bodies, or, finally, to be efaply earthy concretions or sports of nature. . Others, however, while maintaining that fossils were in truth the relics of formerly living creatures, held the opinion that all these had been buried at the time of the Noachian deluge. This controversy lasted for more than a hundred years, but long after the true character of fossils had become generally admitted their entombment in the strata continued to be attributed to the action of the deluge. This belief prevailed through the 17th and 18th centuries, and sadly interfered with the growth of geology; the prolonged infancy of which must be largely attrib- uted to its influence. Steno, a Dane, who lived in Italy in the middle of the 17th century, would appear to have been the first to observe a succession in the strata. Hitherto stratified rocks had not been differentiated ; they were all lumped together as representing the tumultuous deposits of the Noachian deluge. Steno, however, distinguished between marine and fresh-water formations, and showed that there were rocks older than the fossili- ferous strata in which no organic remains occurred. Nevertheless, this clear-sighted observer could not free himself from the fashionable hypotheses of his day. While a belief in the universality of the Noachian deluge was prevalent, many strange ‘theories of the earth,’ such as that by Bishop Burnet, saw the light. These showed not only how the world had been evolved out of chaos, how it fared before, during, and after the deluge, but in what precise manner it was eventually to be wound up and consumed. The ‘theories’ referred to differed in detail, but their imaginative authors agreed in the notion of an interior abyss, whence at the time of the Noachian catastrophe the waters rushed, breaking up and bursting through the crust of the earth to cover its surface, and whither, after the deluge, they returned again. Leibnitz (1680) proposed the bold theory that the earth was originally in a molten state, and that 148 GEOLOGY the primary rocks were formed by the cooling of the surface, which also produced the primeval ocean by condensing the surrounding vapours. The sedimentary strata resulted from the subsiding of the waters which had been put in motion by the collapse of the crust on the contracting nucleus. The process was several times repeated until at last equilibrium was established. Hooke (1688) and Ray (1690) considered the essential condition of the globe to be one of change, and that the forces now in action would, if allowed sufficient time, produce changes as great as those of geological date. In Italy, Vallisneri (1720), Lazzaro Moro (1740), and his illustrator, Cirillo Generelli, tanght that there had been depressions of the land, during which marine fossiliferous strata were deposited, and that subsequently the sea- bottom had been elevated by the ‘subterranean forces, and converted into dry land. Moro main- tained the impossibility of the whole earth having been covered by the waters of the sea up to the tops of the highest mountains. The continents, he said, had been upheaved, and the fractures and dislocations of the strata were pointed to in con- firmation of this view. Generelli insisted upon the gradual degradation of the land by running water, and held that the waste was so great that event- ually the mountains must be washed down to the sea. This inevitable degradation of the surface, however, would be counterbalanced, he inferred, by elevation of the land elsewhere. But as Italian eologists, in common with those of other countries, faiierad that the world was only some 6000 years old, Moro and Generelli found some difficulty in explaining how so many thousands of feet of strata could have been accumulated within the limited period allowed by the orthodox chronology. They suggested, therefore, that the materials entering into the formation of the strata had been largely derived from voleanic eruptions. Eventually the more advanced views held in Italy spread into France, Germany, and England. Buffon (1749), by the publication of his Theory of the Eurth, evoked a spirit of inquiry in France ; Lehmann (1756), Fuchsel (1762), and others in Germany did much to establish more correct methods of observation and interpretation of geological henomena than had hitherto prevailed ; while in ngland a distinct advance was made by Michell (1760) in his essay on the Cause and Phenomena of Earthquakes. The next name that comes into pro- minence is that of Werner, professor of Mineralogy at Freiburg in Saxony (1775). This celebrated writer framed a classification or system of the rocks of the Harz Mountains, in the order of their succession, and consequently in that of their for- mation, and maintained that this order would be found to prevail generally throughout the world. Werner’s classification has proved inadequate, and even in many respects erroneous. Nevertheless, to him belongs the great merit of having brought into prominence a definite principle in the construction of the earth’s crust, and a precise method of geo- logical investigation. This discovery of the fact that strata occur in a certain order of superposition had been anticipated by several Italian geologists, and by Lehmann in Germany, but Werner’s fame as a brilliant investigator and attractive teacher overshadowed and eclipsed the most of his pre- decessors. In some respects the views of this eminent man were retrograde. He maintained, for example, that his ‘formations’ were universal, and had been precipitated over the whole earth in succession, from a common menstruum or chaotic fluid. The igneous rocks, according to him, were chemical precipitates from water; he believed that no volcanoes existed in the earlier ages of the world, but that volcanic action was exclusively of modern date. Yet the true nature of i already been recognised in Italy, France, England, and Germany. ith the publication of Werner’s views on this subject a great controversy began, which was carried on with an acrimony that is now hard to realise. Those who upheld the igneous origin of such rocks as basalt were styled ulcanists, while those who followed Werner became known as Neptunists. The great apostle of Vulcanism in Britain was James Hutton (1788). He not only insisted upon the igneous nature of basalt rocks but demonstrated in the field that granite likewise was of igneous origin. This philosophical thinker deprecated the calling- in of hypothetical causes to explain geological phenomena. The only agents of change, according to him, were those which are now at work in modifying the earth’s crust. The past, therefore, was to be interpreted through the present. It was only through our knowledge of the methods em- ployed by nature in carrying on her operations in our own day that we could hope to interpret the record of the rocks. fortunate in having for its expounder John Play- fair, whose famous Jilustrations (1802) has lon been held in the highest esteem, and is sti studied by geologists. Another friend and dis- ciple of Hutton, Sir J. Hall, became the founder of experimental geology, and did much towards the establishment of the cardinal doctrines of his teacher. Hutton’s observations were confined to Scotland, in which fossiliferous strata are not prominently developed. It was the igneous masses —the crumpled and shattered rocks of mountain and glen and sea-coast, and the never-absent evidence of denudation and decay that fascinated him. He saw ‘the ruins of an older world in the present structure of the globe,’ but he knew nothing of that long succession of ruined worlds, each characterised by its own life-forms, with which William Smith (1790) was shortly to astonish geo- logists. This able investigator alone and unaided had explored all England on foot, and succeeded in completing a geological map of the country on which the strata were for the first time delineated and thrown into natural divisions. His views as to the law of superposition among strata were arrived at independently of Werner, and he was the first to point out how each rock-group was distinguished by its own peculiar fossils. Hence Smith is justly entitled to be called the founder of historical or stratigraphical geology. Since then the progress of geology has besk rapid. . Fossils which at first were valued chiefly as marks by which one forma- tion could be distinguished from another by-and- by claimed fuller attention—the classic researches of Cuvier in the Paris basin forming a great epoch in Palzontology (q.v.), or the study of fossil organi¢e remains. In closing these remarks on the history of the geological sciences, it would be unjust to omit the name of Lyell, whose great P Geology (1830-33) did invaluable service. labours were based on, those of Hutton and Play- fair, but he carried out their doctrines further in some directions than either of these geologists were eous rocks had rinciples of — His The Huttonian theory was ~ prepared to go, while in other directions he did not advance so far. Before the appearance of Lyell’s well-known work, the Huttonian philosophy hal conspicuously triumphed, but geologists were still rone to account for what appeared to be ‘ breaks in the succession’ by the hypothesis of vast catas- trophes. They conceived the possibility of world- wide destruction of floras and faunas, and the sudden introduction or creation of new forms of life, after the forces of nature had sunk into re- — pose. The full meaning of denudation had not as yet been generally appreciated, and subterranean ‘ GEOLOGY 149 ‘action was still frequently appealed to in explana- tion of orographic features which are now recog- nised to be the work of epigene action. Such views Re for their upholders the name of Cataclys- _ mists or Catastrophists. Lyell’s main idea that the t is the type of all preceding ages, so far as Sisaes are Somacled by the fossiliferous strata, has for his school the title of Uniformitarian. Bat within recent years many of his disciples have _ departed somewhat from the teaching of their master, and maintain that the operations of ‘nature have been the same in kind, but not neces- sarily in degree. The impulse given to the advance logical science by the ea re of the Origin sies (1859) has also affected geology, and not ‘on its paleontological side alone. In the depart- ments of physical and stratigraphical geology one ‘may note a larger and broader method of treatment mee the appearance of Darwin’s famous work—the ominant tone in geological literature at present _ being rather evolutional than uniformitarian in the oma sense. Another distinguishing feature of plogical science in our day is the great attention i to Petrography (q.v.), the study of which had - failen into comparative neglect in this country for ma ears. Interest in it, liowever, was revived by Dr Bos , who showed how much might be learned _ by examining thin slices of rocks and minerals under the microscope. The introduction of the microscope into Lh. egal investigation has copra up a wide and novel field of inquiry, ted. of bic Or a ot e assiduous cultivation of which much may be expected. ____ It may be interesting to point out as shortly as _ possible the order of development of the geological sciences. Unquestionably the earliest to take shape was Mineraloagy—a work on descriptive _ mineralogy by Agricola having appeared in 1546. In fact, several complete treatises had been pub- lished before the middle of the 18th century. x Grognosy, or the study of the various rocks of _ Which the earth’s crust is composed without special ms nee to the mode of their arrangement, was the kind of logy which chiefly ae: the attention of the earliest investigators. e term _ is now practically disused, and in its place we ong elega When employed by modern vs it usually a wider signification (see _ GEoGNosy). Structural Geology, or the mode _ in which rocks are built up in the earth’s crust, 7 to come into prominence, and Dynam- eat , or the study of causes now in action ‘i See Piariis bene system advocated by Hutton ai a ~ Pu é er 5 we r tte T- Hi i a air being that which has gained general ¢ Thereafter followed Laperimental Ge , of which Hall was the father. Although - Bome pcetece had been made by Lehmann, Fuchsel, _ and Werner in the method ‘of determining the _ Succession of strata and of grouping these in 4 eng es order, yet Historical or Stratigraph- teal gy can hardly be said to have existed & a science before the date of William Smith’s _ Classical researches. Paleontology is of still more _-reeent origin, the names of Cuvier, Lamarck, and Brongniart being conspicuous among its earliest e >. nts. om =n brief outline may now be departments of geology, pro _ _WPYNAMICAL GEOLOGY.—The modern system of _ is based on the ge that the past is ___ to be interpreted through the present. In other _ Words, the geologist believes in the constancy of ature, and that by studying the effects produced _ by the action of her various agents in the present he will be able to interpret the records of such action in the past. The study of such natural operations constitutes dynamical geolo _ The various forms of energy treks which geo- iven of the various rly so called. logical changes arise may be divided into two series —viz. hypogene action and epigene action. Hypogene Action.—Under this head come the changes which are induced by the internal heat of the earth, those changes, namely, that are in pro- gress beneath the earth’s surface. In this category are included volcanoes and volcanic action, voleanic products, and the chemical and mechanical changes which are superinduced in such products and upon the rock-masses with which these come into contact during volcanic eruptions (see VOLCANOES). Lava (q.v.) and Tuff (q.v.) are studied as regards their composition, texture, and structure, while the man- ner in which these and other voleanic products are built up is likewise investigated. All this is done with a view to comparing such voleanic products with similar crystalline ana fragmental rocks which occur in regions where voleanic action may have become quite extinct. Another most important set of hypogene phenomena are movements of the earth’s crust. See EARTHQUAKE, UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE, BEACHES, SUBMARINE FORESTS. Epigene action has reference to those operations that affect mainly the superficial portion of the earth’s surface. The epigene agents are the atmo- sphere, rain, brooks and rivers, ice, the sea, and life. The effects of atmospheric action are seen in the general disintegration of rocks, the formation of Soil (q.v.), and the accumulation of dust and sand (see DRIFT). In the diffusion of life over the globe, wind has also no doubt played in all ages an important part. Rain, again, charged with the carbonic acid, &c., which it absorbs from the atmo- sphere and vegetable soil, acts chemically upon rocks—all of which are more or less permeable. Much rock-disintegration is thus induced, the ‘ weathered’ materials being dispersed or accumu- lated locally by the mechanical action of the rain. The chemical action of rain is not confined to the surface of the poents for much water filters down through natural cracks, fissures, &c., and is thus enabled to soak into the rocks at all depths. The underground water which is not absor in the interstitial pores of rocks rises eventually, and is discharged at the surface as Springs (q.v.), which are more or less impregnated with dissolved mineral matter abstracted from below. These springs are either cold or thermal, and constant or inter- mittent. In some voleanic regions the water comes to the surface in eruptive fountains (see GEYSER). The destructive action of such under- ground waters is seen in the excavation of caves, tunnels, and other subterranean passages (see CAVE), and in the production of Landslips (q.v.) and rock-falls; while their reproductive action is familiarly illustrated by the formation of Stal- actites and Stalagmites (q.v.), and the accumula- tion of great masses and sheets of siliceous Sinter and Caleareous Tufa (q.v.). Brooks and rivers act as potent agents of change. By means of the detritus which they sweep along or carry in suspension, they rub, grind, and erode the rocks over which they flow, and thus in time ravines and valleys have been excavated. The eroded materials are constantly travelling from higher to lower levels until they come to rest in lakes or the sea. Hence lakes and the sea in many plaees are being gradually silted up—the growth of Deltas (q.v.) being one of the most notable evidences of epigene action. The action of rain and running water is greatly aided by frost, which is a powerful disin- tegrator of rocks. Water freezes as well in the minute pores of rocks as in the fissures by which rocks are traversed, and thus when thaw ensues the loosened grains and particles are ready to be carried away by wind, rain, and melting snow; while dis- arog blocks, &e. may fall asunder and topple m cliffs or roll down steep slopes. In regions of 150 GEOLOGY erennial snow-fields the avalanche and the glacier ikewise act as important denuders of the surface, and transporters of rock-debris from higher to lower levels (see AVALANCHES, GLACIERS, BOULDER- CLAY, &c.). Again, in certain latitudes lake and river ice are conspicuous agents of change—acting especially as rafts for the transport of stones anid debris (see ANCHOR-ICE). Thus the whole surface of the land from the highest mountains down to the sea is being gradually degraded or lowered by the combined action of. many epigene agents. There is a continual and universal Sisintéoretinn of rocks going on, and a no less continual transport of material and building up of this into new forma- ‘tions. Alluvial flats and terraces, deltas, &e. may be cited as prominent examples of the sedimentary series of modern accumulations, while the chemical series is well represented by the calcareous forma- tions of springs and brooks, and the precipitations of common salt, sulphate of lime, &c., which are taking place in saline lakes (see LAKE). The sea as a geological agent acts in three ways : it erodes rocks, and transports and accumulates sediment. ‘The work of erosion is confined for the most part to that marginal belt within which waves and breakers work. These by means of the shore-detritus batter and undermine cliffs, and cause them gradually to recede, and hence the sea may be said to act like a great horizontal saw. The materials brought down ‘by rivers or detached from the shore by the action of the sea itself are distributed by currents. over the sea-floor, the coarser detritus gathering in shallow water, while the finer sediment is swept out to greater depths and spread over wider areas. Such terrigenous materials extend outwards from the shore to a distance of 60 to 300 miles, and to depths of 2000 feet or more. They are confined, therefore, to a comparatively narrow belt of the sea-bottom. Over the abysmal depths of the sea, the only accumulations in pe ress are organic ooze and a peculiar red clay which is believed to be the result of the chemical action of sea-water on products of voleanie origin (see ABYSMAL ACCUMULATIONS). Now and again, stones and debris may be carried out to sea by icebergs and dropped beyond the zone of terrigenous sedimentation. Similarly, rock-frag- ments entangled in the roots of trees or buoyed up by seaweeds may now and again come to rest in abysmal regions. Reference has been made to the geological action of the ice of lakes and rivers, but the icebergs and ice-rafts of high latitudes must not be omitted. Much rock-debris is distributed by such agencies over the sea-bottom, detached fragments of the ‘Ice-foot’ (see under Ick, Vol. VI. page 59) being the most notable carriers of stones. The action of plants and animals is not ignored by geologists. Plants aid in the disintegration and rupture of rocks by means of their roots and the organic acids derived from them during decay. Rocks are drilled and bored by some kinds of marine molluses, annelids, echini, and sponges, and are thus weakened and more readily yield to the action of waves and breakers. Burrowing animals also bring about changes, the common earthworm being an efficacious agent in the formation of soil (see EARTHWORM). Plants occasionally act as conservative agents, as in the fixing of blown sands (see DUNES), and in protecting the banks of lakes and rivers. Again, forests, by equalising and regulating the flow of the water of precipitation, prevent the destruction of soils ani subsoils by torrential action. In some regions also the rocks along a seashore are partially protected from the waves by seaweed, sponges, zoophytes, and gre- garious molluscs. Amongst formations of organic origin may be mentioned soil (in part), Satcher morasses, .mMangrove-swamps, bog-iron ore, &e. Some calcareous algee also form considerable beds, as among the reefs of the Florida seas ; while certain marsh-loving and fresh-water plants have the power of abstracting carbonate of lime from water and encrusting themselves therewith. Thick masses of cale-tufa have originated in this way. The organic oozes of the deep seas are good examples of de- posits formed of the exuvize of minute pelagic organisms ; and the great coral-reefs (see CORAL) of the warmer oceans are still further evidence of the importance of life in the production of new formations. Such are some of the accumulations which are almost wholly composed of organic debris ; but animals and plants contribute to the growth of many other deposits. The marine terrigenous ~ formations are charged more or less abundantly with the relics of animal and plant life; nor are similar remains wanting in the alluvial deposits of rivers and lakes. PETROLOGY.—From the study of causes now in action the geologist learns that many of the rocks, with which every one, whether observant or not, necessarily makes some acquaintance, are of the same character as epigene and hypogene pro- ducts. For a particular account of the rocks them- selves, PETROGRAPHY and the articles therein cited may be consulted ; here all that can be attempted is to point out very briefly how far a knowledge of © | formations now in progress enables us to explain the nature and origin of rocks. (1) Igneous Rocks.—In Great Britain and other countries where at present-there is no voleanic action we meet with various glassy rocks, such as pitch- stone and obsidian, with semi-crystalline rocks, as trachyte, phonolite, liparite, andesite, basalt, &e., with crystalline rocks, such as certain dolerites, and with fragmental rocks, like tuff and agglo- merate, which in every essential particular resemble the products of modern voleanoes. But, as might have been expected, the older igneous rocks are often more or less altered, such alteration having been superinduced by the chemical action of percolat- ing waters, by pressure, by crushing, or by these and other causes combined. There is a class of crystalline rocks, however, which, although they consist of the same mineral ingredients as occur in many igneous rocks, yet differ so materially in character from lavas that geologists are warranted in believing that they could not have been con- solidated at or near the surface of the earth. This class is represented by such rocks as granite, syenite, gabbro, and certain diorites, dolerites, uartz-porphyries, &c. A study of these rocks under the microscope and in the field as rock-masses leads _ to the belief that they are indeed of igneous origin, but have cooled and consolidated at some depth in the earth’s crust, their appearance at the surface being due to subsequent denudation. Thus two classes of igneous rocks are recognised—viz. vol- canic or superficial, and plutonic or deep-seated. (2) Derivative Rocks.—Under this head are included all the products of epigene action. They are termed derivative inasmuc are composed of materials which have been derived from pre-existing rocks by the chemical or mechan- ical action of epigene agents, while others are — made up of organic debris. They may be roughly — classified as follows : Mechanically-formed ‘Rocks.—These consist of fragmental materials. They are granular non- crystalline aggregates, the constituent ingredients — of which ray be angular or rounded in form, and may or may not be arranged in layers. consist of (a) Holian or Aerial rocks, such as blown sand (dunes) and dust-deposits. The products of the ‘ weathering’ action of the atmosphere, such as rock-debris (breccia), certain clays, &c., are also in part of eolian origin. (6) Sedimentary rocks, as most of them — They } ] i] Ne = , LL action. GEOLOGY 151 -as conglomerate, breccia (in part), sandstone, wacke, various clays, mudstones, shales, &c. {e) Glacial rocks, as rock-debris, erratics, moraines, . er-clay, &c. SiaMsally-formed Rocks.—The rocks included under this subdivision are sometimes earthy in ter, but more frequently show a crystalline or compact sub-crystalline texture. Among the more typical kinds are kaolin and various other g clays, stalactites and stalagmites, cale-tufa and its varieties, geyserite (siliceous sinter), rock-salt, te, gypsum, flint, chert, various ironstones, Organically-derived rocks are made up of the relics of Ratoal and plant life. They include a variety of limestones, diatom-earth (tripoli), flint (in part), various phosphatic deposits, peat, te, coal, anthracite, oil-shale, various iron ores, No hard and fast line can be drawn between the older and younger products of epigene action. It is obvious that conglomerate and sandstone are merely pempacted ravel and sand; breccia is only consolidated rock-debris ; while lignite and coal are simply vegetable matter more or less mineralised. The thick fossiliferous limestones of the earth’s erust are paralleled by the coral-reefs and organic oozes of existing oceans, and have evidently had a similar origin. Every derivative rock, indeed, can be compared with a like product of modern epigene The older products, it is true, are most frequently solidified, while the younger are oftener more or less incoherent and unconsolidated. But this difference is not essential, and is only what might have been expected. The older products have for a long time been exposed to the action of percolating water. In many cases they have been subjected to the influence of subterranean heat and enormous pressure, and we need not wonder, there- fore, that they should have acquired a more or less indurated character. But solidification does not invariably characterise the older products, nor are modern accumulations always incoherent. There are indurated conglomerates and sandstones of very recent formation, and some modern coral-rock is as hard and compact as the older limestones. Hence the term rock is applied to all the products of epigene and hypogene action alike, whether the material so designated be yielding, as clay and peat and blowing sand, or hard and resisting, as con- glomerate, limestone, or granite. (3) Metamorphic Rocks.—All rocks sooner or later undergo some process of alteration whereby their original character becomes modified. Thus, by the chemical action of percolating water some Hae: stones have been more or less changed into dolo- mite ; olivine rocks have been altered into serpen- ; some sandstones have. been converted into ites. Derivative rocks at the point of contact with igneous rocks are very frequently altered to a ter or less extent. us, ordinary limestone mes crystalline marble, coal is changed into graphite, sandstone into quartzite, clay and shale to porcellanite. When alteration of a rock, how- ever caused, has proceeded so far as to produce a rearrangement of the constituent elements of a rock, and to develop a crystalline or semicrystalline Structure, such extreme alteration is termed meta- morphism, and the rocks so affected are described as metamorphic. Rocks of this kind are sometimes confusedly crystalline or massive in structure, and in hand specimens might be mistaken for piutonic eous rocks; but by far the larger number are tinguished by a peculiar flaky or pseudo-lamin- ated structure which is Sas Foliation (q.v.). In foliated or schistose rocks the constituent minerals are arranged in alternate lenticular layers which merge into each other. Such arrangement, it must be understood, has no relation to the layers of deposition so frequently present in derivative rocks like shale, sandstone, &c. The foliated structure has been superinduced in rocks, some of which may have been igneous and others aqueous in origin. It is obvious, however, that the study of causes now in action can throw little light on the origin of foliation. We may study the changes induced in rocks by contact with the products of modern voleanic action, and these will doubtless enable us to understand how certain alterations in rocks have been brought about ; but sehistosity is not superinduced in rocks in the neighbourhood of modern voleanic orifices. In Britain and other countries, however, denudation has exposed the interior and basal portions of ancient volcanoes, and we can now study in detail the fractured and baked rocks through which heated gases, molten matter, &c. have at erupted, ay, in some cases, We can even examine enormous masses of plutonic crystalline rock which are believed to be the reservoirs from which the molten matter of our ancient voleanoes was pumped to the surface. Such great plutonic masses are frequently surrounded by a zone or belt of crystalline schistose rocks, such as eiss, mica-schist, &e. The rocks are most crystal- ine and schistose in the immediate proximity of the igneous mass, but gradually lose these char- acters as they recede from its neighbourhood, until by-and-by they pass into ordinary derivative rocks such as graywacke, shale, &c. Some schistose rocks, therefore, undoubtedly owe their origin to contact with deep-seated igneous masses. gain, it has been observed that where rocks, whether igneous or derivative, have been subjected to enormous crushing and pressure, they not infre- quently become crystalline and schistose. There are some schistose rocks, however, the origin of which is still very obscure. Geologists cannot yet assert, therefore, that all schistose rocks are meta- morphic (see ARCHAAN SYSTEM). Among the most characteristic metamorphic rocks are quartzite, marble, phillite, mica-schist, tale-schist, chlorite- schist, hornblende-schist, actinolite-schist, gneiss, granulite, eclogite, &c. STRUCTURAL or GEOTECTONIC GEOLOGY is that branch of the science that deals with the arrange- ment or structure of rock-masses. Structure of Igneous Rocks.—Igneous rocks are grouped under two series—viz. (a) Contemporane- ous and (6) Intrusive eruptive rocks. (a) Contemporaneous eruptive rocks are either crystalline or fragmental. The crystalline rocks are simp! old lava-flows, while the fragmental rocks consist of tuff and its varieties. They are in short the products of voleanic action, and have been erupted at the earth’s surface, accumulating either upon the land or under water. Many o these rocks have apparently been erupted from vents of the ordinary modern type, but others apes to have come up along lines of fissure in the earth’s crust—the lavas overflowing the surface in broad floods. Successive outflows of this kind, accompanied sroanendly by the ejection of frag. mental materials, have built up some great plateaus. Contemporaneous lavas are generally more or less scoriaceous or porous above and below. (b) Intrusive eruptive rocks are also crystalline and fragmental. Necks are approximately cylin- drical funnels filled with either eens igneous rock or fragmental materials, or with both. They are obviously the plugged throats of old volcanoes, the upper parts of which have been removed by denuda- tion. Intrusive Sheets are more or less lenticu- lar masses of crystalline igneous rock which have been erupted amongst strata in a direction more or less closel conformable with the planes of bedding. They seldom show any scoriaceous structure, and 152 GEOLOGY generally bake and alter overlying as well as underlying rocks—thus clearly indicating their subsequent origin, Dykes (q.v.) consist generally of crystalline rock which has been erupted in approximately vertical and even-sided fissures, thus giving rise to wall-like intrusions. Occasionally fragmental igneous rocks, such as agglomerate, are met with in similar positions. Veins is the term applied to smaller irregular and more or less tortu- ous intrusions of crystalline rock. Bosses (see NECK) are amorphous masses of crystalline rock, rising more or less vertically through surrounding rock-imasses. There is reason to believe that many of these ‘bosses’ are the deep-seated reservoirs from which voleanoes were supplied with lava. ‘ Dykes,’ ‘veins,’ and sometimes ‘sheets’ proceed from them into the adjacent rocks, which are often much altered and metamorphosed. Structure of Derivative Rocks.—The' most char- acteristic feature of these rocks is their bedding or stratification—a structure which is due to the mode of their accumulation. Hence they are often spoken of as the ‘stratified rocks.’ But, as we have seen, stratification likewise characterises contemporane- ous eruptive rocks. As far the larger number of derivative rocks are simply aqueous mechanical and chemical sediments, they are also often termed ‘aqueous’ and ‘sedimentary rocks.’ Individual beds in a group of strata are lenticular or wedge- shaped; so that when any particular stratum is followed in one direction it eventually thins away and dies out. And the same is the case with groups of strata. Fine-grained deposits such as shale and limestone tend to be more persistent and to cover wider areas than sandstones and conglomerates. Almost any diversity of strata may occur in a group or series, but it is more usual to find certain kinds of rock associated together; thus, fine sandstone alternates with shale, conglomerate with grit, limestone with fine shales, &c. Again, individual beds are often found to change their character as they are followed in certain directions. Conglomerate, for example, passes laterally into sandstone, sandstone becomes argillaceous and passes into shale, while shale, by the gradual inerease of caleareous matter, becomes marly and often passes into limestone. Sometimes the stratification is extremely regular, at other times the beds thicken and thin out very irregu- larly, and not infrequently they show what is called false-bedding or current-bedding—a structure which is seen both in aqueous and eolian accumula- tions (see DUNES). Amongst the surface-markings seen in sedimentary rocks the most common are ripple-marks, sun-cracks, rain-prints, and tracks, trails, burrows, &c. of worms, crustaceans, mol- luses, reptiles, birds, &e. Strata are not often quite horizontal; they usually dip at a less or greater angle, and. such inclined strata are as a rule the remaining portions of large curves or undulations, the upper portions of which have been removed by denuda- tion, so that the truncated strata crop out at the surface (see OUTCROP, STRIKE). he simplest form of curve assumed by a stratum is a mono- cline, but anticlinal and synclinal folds occur much more frequently (see ANTICLINE). In strata with a moderate dip the strata on opposite sides of an anticlinal axis incline at approximately the same angle. But in more steeply inclined beds the dip is often greater on one side than the other, the beds on the steeper side of the fold becoming doubled in below their equivalents on the other side. This is what is termed ‘ Inversion ’—a, struc- ture which when repeated gives us what are called ‘Isoclinal Folds’ (see MOUNTAINS). In regions of highly folded strata the fossils and even the stones in conglomerates are often flattened and squeezed out of shape. Such deformation likewise characterises whole rock-masses, as is well seen in the structure termed Slaty Cleavage (see CLEAVAGE). As an extreme result of enormous ee we occasionally find that clastie rocks ave been converted into crystalline schists, Most rocks, as well igneous as derivative, become gradually more and more consolidated. Soft inco- herent sands and clays are compressed ; lavas cool and harden. All rocks therefore tend to contract, and in doing so they become cracked, regularly or irregularly as the case may be. During the pro- cess of folding they have likewise yielded to stress and strain by cracking across. Such cracks are termed Joints (q.v.). But rocks are not only jointed ; frequently they are traversed by great fissures of displacement called Faults or Dislocations (q.v.), which may sometimes be traced across the whole breadth of a country. That the phenomena of folding, fracturing, and displacement are the result of earth-movements cannot be doubted, and there is abundant evidence to show that such dis- turbances have taken place again and again, some- times over limited regions, at other times over very much wider areas. his is proved by the pheno- mena of Unconformity (q.v.), in which one set of beds rests on the upturned and denuded ends of an older series. The fissures and cavities of rocks are in some places filled up again by the introduction of various inds of mineral matter through the chemical action of percolating water. In.many cases such mineral deposition may have taken place from heated solu- tions, under great pressure, and at great depths from the surface. This is probably the origin of many of the Ore-deposits (q.v.) met with as lodes or veins. ‘ PALZONTOLOGICAL GEOLOGY.—A study of the physical characters of rocks enables the geologist to arrive at many interesting conclusions as to the mode in which rocks have originated. By such evidence alone it is sometimes possible to discover the successive changes which some particular region has undergone. Thus, the phenomena of igneous and glacial accumulations tell their own story, and even in the case of many sedimentary deposits eologists are able, without the aid of fossils, to istinguish between deep-sea and shallow-water strata; while certain rock-structures, such as un- conformity, yield him evidence of changing physical conditions. Without fossils, however, investiga- tions into the successive phases through which the earth’s surface has passed could not proceed far: historical geology would be impossible. It is chiefly by means of Fossils (q.v.) that the deep-sea or shallow-water origin and the marine or fresh- water character of strata are determined, and the climatic conditions under which they were deposited are ascertained. When we learn that many fossils belong to extinct species and even genera, and that different groups of fossils occur in different series of strata, it might seem, at first, as if this would tend rather to confuse than aid the geolo- ist. But the cause of such apparent discrepancies ies, of course, in the simple fact that the fossili- ferous strata belong to different ages—some are much older than others. In the uppermost or youngest series the organic remains approach most nearly to the life-forms of the present day, while ~ in the lower and therefore older strata the fossils recede farther and farther from existing types as we follow them to lower and lower geological hori- zons. From this it would appear that there has been a gradual coming-in and dying-out of species, and observation has shown that when a particular flora or fauna has died out it never reappears in younger strata. When William Smith discovered that each well-marked group of strata was charae- a i ta a GEOLOGY 153 by its own suite of fossils he had got the history of a long succession of yeologi- ; for the fossils enabled him to recog- group in whatever part of the country , and however much its petrographical eter might have chan lf three conform- able series Rootes A meg oy the weer A, B Cc— 3 superim on A, an upon B, that order is ver reversed elsewhere, Each term of the series may not always be present —either one or more may s absent—but those that do occur always occupy ‘the same relative position. In such a conformable naar each group may contain fossils peculiar - to itself, but a larger or smaller number will usually be found to range from one up to another, even from top to bottom of the whole. The fossils will, in short, indicate a gradual change of muna and flora, as we pass from below upwards— 1 forms disappearing, new forms appearing. But should the middle term of the series-(group B) be wanting, then the passage from A to C, owing _ to the absence of the connecting forms belonging to B, will be more or less abrupt. A conformable - sequence, like A, B, C, points to the persistence _ of similar physical conditions during a longer or riod. If the fossils in each group indicate moderate depth while the stratum attains & sea 0 a thickness of several thousand feet, the inference will be that sedimentation has taken place during _ slow movement of subsidence. In other words, _ the silting-up of the sea has been retarded by the _ gradual sinking-down of its bottom. On the sup- position that the accumulation of the strata has . a very protracted process, the marine fauna will have et ap more or less modification. Such in the life-forms, however, will prob- _ ably have n ve re longer ogee pe ager bg a — _ may persist unchanged through the whole peri . Setinieiitation. In the ase an sl Bt aa tere C rests directly on A, the 2 apt _ tal conditions have evidently not remained con- stant. After the deposition of A, a movement _ of upheaval has ensued; the sea has disappeared : land has taken its place. Should land- _ conditions have continued for a very prolonged period before subsidence supervened and the area § once more became submerged, the marine fauna will, in the meantime, have undergone more or less _ modification in those regions to which it migrated _ while elevation was in progress. Thus the sedi- accumulated gradual ; sore species remain- z from those ene in the immediately Subjacent group A. And the longer the interval between A and C, the more strongly marked would e break in the succession of life-forms. Such breaks in the succession’ are of common occur- rence—local and more widely-spread movements of depression and elevation having characterised the tion of the fossiliferous strata everywhere. WwW it is remembered that every bed of aqueous _ rock has been formed out of the ruins of pre-exist- _ ing rocks, _—— or derivative, or both, it is obvi- ous that the fossiliferous strata cannot possibl _ eontain a perfect record of all the forms of life OA, ty amy have been entombed in sedi- any fossils must have disappeared along which contained them. i “ =¥ = ro — oF. ment. \& the rocks Thus, in the case of such a ‘break in succession’ as that just described, it is obvious that the strata of grou _ Awould be more or less denuded before group began to be accumulated—C would rest uncon- formably upon A. Nor can we believe that the life-forms of earlier ages were ever more fully represented by fossils than existing faunas and floras wiil be by the remains of living things which ~~ a are now being buried in sediment. Of the myriads of existing terrestrial plants and animals how few will leave any relic behind them! Aquatic, and more especially marine forms, will doubtless be pantie in far greater variety and abundance ; ut amongst these are many delicately-fashioned and soft-bodied creatures which can only become fossils by accident, as it were. Such considerations as these should lead us to expect that the fossilifer- ous strata, even when these have apparently been accumulated in a continuous manner, will contain a most imperfect record of the past life-history of the globe. But notwithstanding this imperfection of the geological record there is yet ample evidence to show that gradual extinction of old and evolu- tion of new faunas and floras has been the rule. Life has been persistent from its introduction, but subject to endless modifications. With this con- tinuity in geological history it is obvious that any subdivisions of past time that we choose to make must be arbitrary, for the germ, as it were, of one so-called period must have begun in the period that preceded. But, just as in human history it is convenient to use such terms as the ‘Middle Ages,’ the ‘Elizabethan Period,’ &c., so in geology it is useful and indeed necessary, for purposes of descrip- tion and correlation, to group the records into so many subordinate divisions. ‘ Unconformities,’ ‘breaks in succession,’ &e. often enable this to be done with more or less ease ; but in the case of the better-preserved portions of the stony record it is often very hard to say where a division-line should be drawn. HisToRICAL GEOLOGY.—The forms of life that existed during some prolonged period of the past have a certain facies which serves to distinguish them as a group from the living things that flour- ished in preceding and succeeding ages. And the strata which contain such a well-marked assem- blage of fossils are included under the term System. By this term, then, is understood all the deposits, whether terrestrial, fresh-water, or marine, which accumulated over the earth’s surface upon land, in lakes, or in the sea, at a time when the world was characterised by the presence of some particular and peculiar fauna and flora. By com- paring and correlating the fossiliferous strata throughout the world geologists have been able to arrange the various systems in chronological order. The following table shows the larger divi- sions and subdivisions in the order in which they would appear if they all occurred in one and the same section. (Each system will be found described under its own title. ) 4. QUATERNARY OR Post-TER- { Recent System. TIARY. Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene " Oligocene w Eocene " 8. TerTIARY OR CAINOZOIC. 2. SECONDARY OR MEsozorc. {3 urassic Permian Carboniferous System. Old Red Sandstone and Devonian System. Silurian System. Cambrian Archean wu PHYSIOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.— Under this head is discussed the origin of the surface-features of the land—mountains, valleys, &e. The study of causes now in action shows that everywhere rocks are undergoing disintegration, the resulting detritus gradually travelling from higher to lower levels until eventually it reaches the sea. This continuous and universal denudation is easily read in the present appearance of the rocks forming the surface of the land. The phenomena of truncated strata, faults, &c. (see DENUDATION) demonstrate 1. Primary or PaL#ozoIc. 154 GEOLOGY that thousands of feet of rock have been gradually removed in the form of detritus. To appreciate this fact some knowledge of structural geology is necessary. In regions which have long been ex- posed to denudation we recognise a very remarkable connection between the configuration of the ground and the nature and mode of arrangement of the rocks. The valleys and low grounds, for example, coincide in a general way with the distribution of the less durable rocks, while escarpments, hills, and ridges mark out the sites of the more resistin rock-masses. Again, in the case of undulating an folded strata, it most frequently happens that anti- clines instead of forming hills give rise to valleys, while synclines correspond as a rule not to valleys but to hills. The reasons are obvious, for relatively hard rocks resist denudation better than softer rocks; and, while an anticlinal arrangement and the jointing of strata favour the action of the denuding agents, in the case of synclinal strata the rock-structure has just the opposite effect (see LANDSLIPS, MOUNTAINS). Thus the features im- pressed upon the land by denudation depend partly upon the composition and texture of the rocks, and partly upon their structure as rock-masses. In the case of a true mountain-range of recent elevation the larger features of the surface correspond in a general way with the folds of the strata. Thus the mountain- ridges often run in the direction of great anticlinal axes, while the long parallel valleys coincide with synclina: axes (see ALPS). But even in the case of mountains of elevation denudation has often profoundly modified such features. Anticlinal mountains are very unstable; rock-falls and land- slips from time to time take place ; and the tendency is for all mountains of that character to become effaced. Sooner or later the orographical features change, and are eventually determined by the epi- gene agents, directed and controlled by the com- position and structure of the various rock-masses. Geologists recognise three kinds of mountains : (1) Mountains of Accumulation, suchas voleanoes ; (2) Mountains of Upheaval, such as: true mountain- ranges like the Alps ; and (3) Mountains of Circum- denudation, which owe their origin to the removal of material that formerly surrounded them, such as the mountains of the British Islands. A plateau or tableland is simply an elevated lain, and may consist either of approximately orizontal sheets of rock, like the plateau of the Colorado, or of more or less highly folded and even contorted strata, which have been planed down to one general level, like the plateaus of Scandinavia and the Scottish Highlands. Both kinds of table- land are usually traversed by valleys, which have been excavated by running water, and sometimes, as in the case of the Scottish Highlands, they are so highly denuded that their plateau-character becomes obscure. Plateaus owe their elevation to upheaval, those which are built up of horizontal strata being termed plateaus of accumulation, while those which consist of folded and contorted strata are known as plateaus of denudation. Plains are only less elevated plateaus. Some of these, as, for example, the wide alluvial plains and deltas of great rivers, owe their origin to accumulation. Others, again, consist of low-lying land, the level of which has been reduced during a protracted period of denudation. Should such an area eventually be ele vated it would become a plateau of denudation. SPECULATIVE GEOLOGY. —There are certain great physical ORS, ee the data for solving which are more or less incomplete, or in the very nature of things beyond our Nenoviedis. Amongst such is the question of the age of the sun’s heat. This, of course, is rather a physical than a geological ques- tion, and yet geology furnishes evidence on the subject which the physicist cannot ignore. Some physicists are of opinion that the sun’s heat is due to gravitation—that, as Sir W. Thomson remarks, the sun’s matter, before it came together and became hot, may have existed in the condition of two cool ‘solid bodies which collided with the velocity due to their mutual gravitation. If gravitation, therefore, be the only source of the sun’s heat, that luminary cannot have been giving out heat at the present rate of radiation for a longer period than 20,000,000 years, or, as Professor Tait maintains, 10,000,000 years. But no geologist will admit that all the changes that have taken place on the earth’s sur- face since the first appearance of life can possibl be included within such narrow limits. coon ing to Dr Croll, however, the sun probably origin- ated from the collision of two bodies moving directly towards each other with velocities greater than the velocities due to their mutual gravitation. As the heat generated by the impact of two such bodies would depend upon the velocity possessed by each before collision took place, it is obvious that the energy stored up in our sun may be os - dacaeg than that which could have been deriv: rom gravitation alone. ossible source of the sun’s energy is concern r Croll is of opinion that life might quite we have begun 100,000,000 years ago. Condition of the Earth's Interior.—This is another physical problem in the solution of which geology is necessarily interested. Several views have been advanced by physicists, the more generally received aeniee being that the earth is a more: or less solid globe. Others favour the hypothesis of a thin crust enclosing a liquid or viscous interior; while yet others think that a liquid substratum separates the crust from a solid nucleus. The appearance of voleanoes and thermal springs shows us that a high temperature exists beneath the crust, and similar evidence of internal heat is furnished by borings and mines. The mean of many observations shows So far, therefore, as a that temperature increases 1° F, for every 54 feet — of descent, so that if the temperature at the surface be 50°, the boiling-point of water (212°) will be — reached at the depth of about a mile and a half. It is evident, therefore, that at a comparatively short distance from the surface the heat would be sufficient (at atmospheric pressure ) to melt all kinds of mineral matter with which we are acquainted. It is supposed, however, by those who maintain that the earth is solid throughout, that the substance of the earth’s interior is kept from liquefying by pres- sure. to the view of a solid globe or of an enormously thick crust. The folding and contortion of strata seem to imply the presence of an underlying yield- ing mass upon which the solid crust may have a certain freedom to move during the shrinking and — contraction that must result from the secular cool- wi the earth (see EARTH, MOUNTAINS). he origin of volcanic action has also been & much-canvassed question, and is variously ex- plained according as the hypothesis of a solid or of a viscous interior is held to be the more probable (see VOLCANOES). problems is that of the origin of oceanic basins and continental areas. Of late years the belief has gained ground that these dominant features of the earth’s surface are of primeval antiga est of © that in their origin they antedate the ol the sedimentary formations. It is a remarkable fact that hitkerto, amongst the various formations that enter into the composition of the land of the globe, no trace of any abysmal accumulations has been met with. On the contrary, the aqueous — rocks appens to have been deposited as a rule in relative have taken place at successive periods within each continental area, by which the extent and outline So far as geological facts go they are opposed Closely connected with such y shallow seas. Many oscillations of level — _ OE EE —_— a a \e 3 earth's crust. 2 * es of Climate.—The geolo ; we have evidence of in the fossiliferous strata were of land and sea. this will explain the facts. great Pen continents and seas could not have changed _ places, as Lyell suppose GEOLOGY 155 land have been again and again modified, great continental ridges, according to the evidence, would eed to have persisted earliest times as dominant elevations of ‘The continents,’ as Professor Jana remarks, ‘have never changed places with ye oceans.” See ABYSMAL ACCUMULATIONS. ical record every- : testimony to the fact that the climate of globe has from time to time undergone changes. our day climate is differentiated into zones; there i ‘a marked change in the temperature as we pass uator to the poles. Latitude, and the tions of the great land and water areas, doubtless the chief factors in the determination the present climates of the globe, and must have 1 a similar influence on the climate of much riods. Sir Charles Lyell and others have Eheretore, that such climatic vicissitudes as a the y induced by changes in the distribution thers have doubted whether If it be true that the continental ridges are of primeval antiquity, d.. The climatic conditions of the Glacial Period (q.v.) cannot ibly be due _ tosuch revolutions, for the distribution of land and sea during Pleistocene times was practically the _ same as at present. Stated briefly, the facts of pgicel climate are these: In Paleozoic ages ce ate would appear to have been singular] genial and uniform over the globe. All throug > zoic times similar genial conditions seem to have extended from what are now tempe rate up to lar regions. But the evidence indicates appar- 7. ny that the climate of the latter was somewhat Tess genial than that of more southern latitudes. In ic ages, likewise, the climate continued to be mild even in high Arctic lands, but towards _ the close of the Tertiary era a ee temperature took place. . climatic changes (see GLACIAL PERIOD, PLEISTO- neral lowering of hereafter followed with its extraordinary tern perl CENE SYSTEM). It is possible, as some suppose, that the uniform climates of the earlier geological Se om jaa Oe) meet aa, 5 — ‘. = = — a od . tribution from the glacial epochs) were the in creased . anterior to later Cainozoic times could ¥ periods may have been due in part to the former heat of the earth. But probably the chief greater &. om was the peculiar disposition of land and water. The continental areas Aa for lon Y ages to have been represented ups 0 and smaller islands—a caaaittlia a things Ww would allow of the more or less free cir- culation of oceanic currents round the world. Under such conditions atmospheric temperature ressure would have a very different dis- present. It can hardly be bted, also, that cosmical causes must have had some influence upon former climates. Dr Croll believes that the strongly contrasted climates of the Pleistocene period ( eset and inter- irect result of in- eccentricity of the earth’s orbit combined with the precession of the equinox. It has been objected to this theory that we have no evidence in the older geological periods of such remarkable climatic changes, which, if the theory be true, ought to have happened again and again during preceding periods of high eccentricity of the orbit. We are not, however, without evi- dence of ice-action in Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic times. The evidence is not abundant, but, considering the conditions of sedimentation, it is perhaps as much as could have been expected. It is doubtful, however, whether the arrangement of land and water in our hemisphere at any period have favoured such enormous accumulations of snow and ice as those of the Pleistocene. When the continents were represented by groups of islands, the conditions for the massing of such great ice- fields could not have existed. And, if it be true that the climate of the globe in the earliest geo- ical ages was influenced by the greater inter- nal heat of the earth, the effects flowing from great ear mc of the orbit might often be modified or neutralised. Among the many subjects connected with geology which have separate articles assigned to them in this work, not to speak of the sections on the geo- logy of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia, and the several countries, are the following : Abysmal Accumulations. aia Archean System. Miocene System. Artesian Wells. Mountains. r. Old Red Sandstone. Boulder-clay. Oligocene System. Cambrian System. Ore a et Carboniferous System. Palwontology. Caves. Peat. Coal. Permian System. Coral Islands. Petrography. Cretaceous System. Pleistocene System. Denudation. Pliocene System. Dislocations. Postglacial System. Drift. Sand. Earthquakes. Sea. Eocene System. Silurian System. Fossils. Springs. Glacial Period. Strata. Joints. Triassic System. Jurassic System. espe gets f Lakes. Upheaval and Depression. Landslips. Volcanoes, See, for General Geology, Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1876); De la Beche’s Geolo,ical Observer (1853); Lyell’s Elements of Geoloyy (1865); A. Geikie’s J'ext-book of Geology (1887); Prestwich’s Geology (2 vols. 1886-88) ; Phillips’ Geology, edited by Etheridge and Seeley (2 vols. 1885); Green’s Physical Geology (1882). The following are less. elaborate treatises: Lyell’s Student's Elements of Geology (1885); A. Geikie’s Class-book of Geology (1886); J. Geikie’s Outlines of G (1888); Jukes-Brown’s Handbook of Geology (2 vols. 1884-86); Page and -Lapworth, Introductory Text-book of Geoloyy (1858). Of American and continental text-books may be men- tioned: Dana’s Manual of Geology (1875); Conte’s Compend of Geology (1884); Credner’s Elemente der Geologie (1887); Naumann’s Lehrbuch der Geognosie (3 vols. 1858-72); Allyemeine Erdkunde, by Hann, Von Hochstetter, and Pokorny (1881) ; De Lapparent’s Z'raité de Géologie (1884) ; meg eth Corso di Geologia (1871). Hutton’s Theory of the Earth (1795) is interesting as con- taining the groundwork of the modern system of geology. See also Playfair’s Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory (1822). Of works dealing with special branches of geology the following may be cited: For Cosmical Aspects of Geology, see Sir W. Thomson, ‘On the Age of the Sun’s Heat,’ in Popular Lectures and Addresses (vol. i. 1889) ; Croll’s Climate and Time (1875), Climate and Cosmology (1885), and Stellar Evolution (1889). For Petrographical Geology, see references under PETROGRAPHY. For Dynamical Geology, see Darwin’s Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands (1884), and Observations on South America (1846; both works in 1 vol. 1876); Scrope’s Volcanoes of Central France (1858), and Volcanoes ( 1872); Judd’s Volcanoes (1881); R. and J. W. Mallet’s Larthquake Catalogue (1858); Milne’s La uakes (1886); Fuchs’s Vulcane und Erdbeben (1875); Fouché’s Les Tremble- ments de Terre (1888) ; Twelfth Annual Report of U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (1883; for Geysers); Fisher’s Physics of the Earth's Crust 1882}; T. G. Bonney, The Story of our Planet (1894) ; ischoff’s Chemical and Physical Geology (1854-59), an the Supplement (in German, 1871); Roth’s Aligemeine und chemische Geologie (1879); Agassiz’ Etudes sur les Glaciers (1840); Forbes’s Travels through the Alps (1843), and Papers on the Theory of Glaciers (1849); dall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1857); Darwin’s egetable Mould and Earthworms (1881), and Coral Reefs (1874); Dana’s Corals and Coral Islands (1875). Further references to special works dealing with dynam- ical geology will be found in the larger text-books of geology. For Structural or Geotectonic Geology, consult 156 GEOMANCY GEOMETRY the standard text-books of geology; see also article Stratum. For Experimental Geology, see Daubrée’s Etudes Synthetiques de Géologie Expérimentale (1879). For works dealing with Paleontology, see under that article. Kor Physiographical Geology, see Memoirs of Geological Surveys of british Islands, passim ; Ramsay’s Physical Geography and Geology of Great Britain (1878) ; A. Geikie’s Scenery and Geoloyy of Scotland (1889); Hull’s Physical Geography and Geology of Ireland (1878) ; Dutton’s ‘Tertiary History of the Grand Cafion District, Monographs of U.S. Geol. Survey (vol. ii. 1882); also Annual Reports of U.S. Geol. and Geograph. Survey of Territories (1867-78), passim; De la Noé and De Marzerie, Les Formes du Terrain (1888). For Geo- logy of British Islands, see Maps and Memoirs of the Geological Survey ; works by Ramsay, A. Geikie, and Hull already cited; Woodward’s Geoloyy of England and Wales (1887); Kinahan’s Geology of Ireland (1878); Murchison’s Siluria (1867); Macculloch’s Western Islands of Scotland (1819); Nicol’s Guide to the Geology of Scotland (1844) —these last two works rather out of date; Miller’s Old Red Sandstone (1858); Green. Miall, and others, Coal : its History and Uses (1878); Hull’s Coalfields of Great Britain (1881); Meade’s Coal and Iron Industries of the United Kingdom (1882); Phillips’ Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames (1871), and Geology of the Yorkshire Coast (1875); Tate and Blake, The York- shire Lias (1876). For further references to treatises dealing with the geolugy of England and Wales, see especi- ally Woodward’s work cited above. ‘The following works deal with Pleistocene Geology and the Antiquity of Man : Lyell’s Antiquity of Man (1873); Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times (1878); Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain (1872); Dawkins’ Cave-hunting (1874), and Early Man in Britain (1880); J. Geikie’s Great Ice Age (1877), and Prehistoric Europe (1881); Dawson, The Karth and Man (1887); De Quatrefages, The Human Species (1879); Joly’s Man before Metals (1883) ; Penck’s Die Vergletscherung der deutschen Alpen (1882); Falsan, La Pérwde Glaciaire (1889); Wright’s Ice Age in North America, dc. (1889). For treatises bearing on Geological Climate, see Croll’s works already cited; also J. D. Whitney, Zhe Climatic Changes of Later Geological Times (1882). Amongst works on Economic Geology the following may be mentioned: Page’s Economic Geology (1874); Williams’ Applied Geology (1886); Penning’s Engineering Geology (1880); Nivoit’s Géologie appliquée avArt del Ingénieur (1887). For methods of geological observation and the making of geological maps, see the larger text-books, Sir A. Geikie’s Outlines of Field Geology (1879), and Penning’s Field Geology (1876). Sir A. Geikie, The Founders of Geology (1897), deals with Desmarest, Guettard, and other early geologists. Geomancy. See DIVINATION. Geometrical Mean of two numbers is that number the square of which is equal to the product of the two numbers; thus, the geometrical mean of 9 and 16 is 12, for 9 x 16 = 144 = 122. Hence the geometrical mean of two numbers is found by multiplying the two numbers together, and extract- ing the square root of the product. Geometrical Progression. A series of quantities is said to be in geometrical progression when the ratio of each term to the preceding is the same for all the terms—i.e. when any term is equal to the product of the preceding term and a factor which is the same throughout the series. This constant ratio or factor is termed the common ratio. For example, the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, &c., and also the terms a, ar, ar’, ar’, &c., are both ex- amples of geometrical progression or series. The sum of such a series is obtained as follows: Let a be the first term, n the number of the terms whose sum, s, is required, and let r be the common ratio. Thens=a+ar+ar+... + ar”-'; also from multiplication of both sides of this equation by r,sr=ar+ar+ar+...+ar". Subtraction of the former from the latter expression gives sr — s=ar"-—a; or s(r-—1)=a(r"—-1), and hence air” — 1) s=— . r—-l Geometry is that branch of the science of mathematics which treats of the properties of space. When the properties Leveaticntad relate to figures described or supposed to be described on space of two dimensions, there arise such subdivisions as plane and spherical geometry, according to the surface on which the figures are drawn. If the properties relate to figures in space of three dimen- sions they fall under what is called solid geometry, or now more frequently, geometry of three dimen- sions. Again, from the mode in which the pro- perties of figured space are investigated, arise two other subdivisions, pure and analytical geometry. The somewhat arbitrary subdivision into element- ary and higher geometry arises from the fact that the geonietrical Teoh of Euclid’s celebrated work, the Elements, treated only of plane figures com- posed of straight lines and circles, of solid figures with plane faces, and of the three round bodies, the sphere, the cylinder, and the cone. Other subdivisions of geometry arise from the threefold classification that may be made of the roperties of space. These properties may be topo- ogical, graphical, metrical. e first class of pro- erties are independent of the magnitude or the orm of the elements of a figure, and depend only on the relative situation of these elements. Per- haps the simplest example that could be given of this class of properties is that if two closed contours of any size or shape traverse one another, they must do so an even number of times. No systematic treatise on this part of geometry has ever been drawn up, and it is only in papers scattered here and there in scientific journals that contributions towards such a treatise are to be found. The prin- cipal names under which such contributions are to be looked for are Euler, Gauss, Listing, Kirkman, and Tait. The graphical or projective properties of space, which constitute the subject of projective geometry, are those which have no reference to measurement, and which imply only the notions of a straight line and a plane. A simple example of this class of cee is the well-known theorem of Desargues : f two triangles be situated so that the straight lines joining corresponding vertices are concurrent, the points of intersection of corresponding sides are collinear, and conversely. The metrical properties of space are those which are concerned with measurement. An example of a metrical property is the theorem of the three squares : The square on the hypotenuse of a right- angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the two sides. The geometry of Euclid’s E/e- ments is metrical. Descriptive geometry is not so much a part of science as an art. It has for its object to represent on a plane which possesses only two dimensions, length and breadth, the form ny position in space of bodies which have three dimensions, length, breadth, and height. This object is attained by the method of projections. Analytical geometry is a method of representing curves and curved surfaces by means Y of equations. Be- fore showing, how- Pp ever, how a curve can be represented by an equation, it will be necessa: to explain what is x 5 M x? meant by the co- ordinates of a point. If, two axes, XX’, y/ YY’, cutting each a other Bal prinesaisi | be taken, the position of a point P in the same plane as the axes is determined, ae —— eee GEOMETRY 157 _ if we know the distances of P from XX’ and YY’ _ —Le. if we know MP and OM. OM is called the abscissa, MP the ordinate of the point P, and the two va” are called the co-ordinates of P. It is usual to denote OM and MP by wand y. If the _ point P be supposed to move in the plane according o some law, a certain relation will exist between s co-ordinates; this relation expressed in an equation will be the equation to the curve traced ut by P. To take a a example. Let the law according to which moves be that its istance from XX’ shall always be double its tance from YY’; then the equation to the Seco by E will be y = a. f it be aquired to draw the curve traced out by P, we may assume any values for x, and from the equation mine the ie UW ed values for y. If we assume the values 1, 2, 3, &c. for x, the correspond- ‘ing values of y will be 2, 4, 6, &e. Determine then the points whose co-ordinates are 1 and 2, 2 and 4, 8 and 6, &c.; these will be points on the curve. It is not difficult to discover that the curve is in this instance a straight line. __If the law according to which P moves in the _ be that it shall always be at the same dis- a from a fixed point, we have only to specify _ the distance (say ¢), and the co-ordinates of the _ fixed point (say a and 6), and we shall find the bs iiguation which expresses this law to be (zw - a)? + (y — 6)? =c*. _ If the distance be c, and the fixed point be the _ origin O whose co-ordinates are 0 and 0, the _ equation will be z+ y* =c?, These last two equations are those of a circle. _ As two co-ordinates are sufficient to determine a . in a plane, so a plane curve described accord- HS to a certain law will be represented by an Septpation between two variables, x and y; viz. F(z, y)=0. It may be mentioned that equations __ of the first degree represent straight lines, those of _ the second d represent some form of a conic section, those of higher degrees represent curves _ which in general take their name from the degree of their equations. The position of a point in Space is fixed when its distances from three planes, - usually taken perpendicular to each other, are __ known; in other words, three co-ordinates 2, y, z é ine a point in space. Hence, if a curved _ surface is given in form and position, and we ean ress algebraically one of its characteristic _ properties, and obtain a relation F (2, y, z)=0 __ between the co-ordinates of each of its points, this _ equation is the equation of the surface ; and every equation F (x, y, z) = 0, whose variables z, pe z are the co-ordinates of a point referred to three _ planes, perpendicular or oblique to each other, _ Tepresents some surface, the form of which depends on the way in which the variables are combined _ With each other and with certain constant quan- nat , % . tem of co-ordinates explained above is t - called the Cartesian, from emmrten: There are _ other systems, but a concise account of them would mor ek Bistcry sed 2 e history of metry only the briefest _ outline can be ath ere, and this ea eg Fo @ restricted mainly to pure metry. Tradition "ascribes (and modern research tends to confirm 1 te ie eee the ali ae the o : . ; m e Egyptians, who were com to invent it in order to restore the landmarks effaced by the inundation of the Nile, but our knowledge of their attainments is m From ® papyrus in the~ British Museum written by Ahmes, peveiiity about 1700 B.c., we infer that the Egyptians discussed only particular numerical problems, such as the measurements of certain areas and solids, and were little acquainted with neral theorems. The history of geometry, there- ore, a8 a branch of science begins with Thales of Miletus (640-542 B.c.). The principal diseovery attributed to him is the theorem that the sides of mutually equiangular triangles are proportional. After Thales came a of Samos (born about 580 B.c.). It is difficult to separate the contributions which Pythagoras made to geometry from those of his disciples, for everything was ascribed to the master. The Pythagoreans appear to have been acquainted with most of the theorems which form Euclid’s first two books, with the doctrine of proportion at least as applied to com- mensurable ae with the construction of the regular solids, and to have combined arithmetic with geometry. The theorem of the three squares, one of the most useful in the whole range of geometry, is known as the theorem of Pythagoras. ippocrates of Chios, who reduced the problem of the duplication of the cube to that of finding two mean proportionals between two given straight lines; Archytas of Tarentum, who was the first to duplicate the cube; Eudoxus of Cnidus, the in- ventor of the method of exhaustions and the founder of the doctrine of proportion given in Euclid’s fifth book; Menzchmus, the discoverer of the three conic sections; Deinostratus and Nicomedes, the inventors of the quadratrix and the conchoid; and Aristeus, are the principal redecessors of Euclid. To Euclid (about 300 B.c.) is due the form in which elementary geometry has been learnt for many centuries, and his treatise, the Elements, seems to have completely superseded all preceding writings on this subject. Those books of this treatise which are concerned with geometry are so well known that it is superfluous to refer to their contents. Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 B.c.) is the greatest name in Greek science. Besides his important contributions to statics and hydrostatics, he wrote on the measure- ment of the circle, on the quadrature of the parabola, on the sphere and cylinder, on conoids and spheroids, and on semi-regular polyhedrons. Apollonius of Perga (260-200 B.c.) wrote on several geometrical subjects, but the work which procured him in his lifetime the title of ‘the great recited was his treatise on the conic sections. tolemy, author of the Admagest, Hero, and Pappus are the last important geometers belonging to the Alexandrian school. After the destruction of Alexandria (about 640 A.D.) the study of geometry underwent a long eclipse. The Romans contributed nothing either to geometrical or indeed to any kind of mathe- matical discovery. The Hindus from the 6th to the 12th century A.D. cultivated arithmetic, algebra, and trigonometry, but in geometry they produced nothing of any importance. some- what similar statement may be made regarding the Arabs, but it ought to be remembered that they translated the works of the great Greek geometers, and it was through them that matlie- matical science was in the 12th century intro- duced into western Europe. From that time till the close of the 16th century, though editions of the Greek — were published and com- mented on, little or no advance was made in geeeeey comparable to what took place in other ranches of pure or applied mathematics. In the beginning of the 17th century Kepler and Desargues laid the foundations of modern pure geometry, the former by his enunciation of the principle of continuity, and by his extension of stereometry to solids of which the spheroids and conoids of Archimedes were particular cases, the latter by his introduction of the method of 158 GEORGE GEORGE I. aegis In 1637 Descartes gave to the world is invention of analytical geometry, thus placing in the hands of mathematicians one of the most powerful instruments of research, and_ withdrawing their attention from pure geometry. Pascal (1623- 62), whose extraordinary precocity has often been cited, wrote an essay on conic sections at the age of sixteen. He afterwards wrote a complete work, one of the properties of which is the theorem of the mystic hexagram. His last work was on the cycloid. With the mere mention of the names of Wallis, Fermat, Barrow, Huygens, we pass to Newton, whose great work, the Principia, is the glory of science. Chasles thinks Newton’s best title to fame is that he has raised such a monument of his genius by the methods and with the resources of the eometry of the ancients. The names of Halley, Maclaurin, Robert Simson, and Enler bring us down to near the end of the 18th century. During the 19th century a revival of interest in pure geometry has been brought about by Monge, the inventor of descriptive geometry, by Carnot, the author of the theory of transversals, by Poncelet and Gergonne. These have been succeeded by Mobius, Steiner, Chasles, and Von Staudt. The best works on the history of Greek Geometry are Allman’s Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid (1889) ; Paul Tannery’s La Géométrie Grecque (1887); Bret- schneider’s Die Geometrie und die Geometer vor Euklides (1870). Chasles’s Apergu historique sur VOrigine et le Développement des méthodes en Géométrie (1837 or 1875) and his Rapport sur le Progrés de la Géométrie (1870) embrace the whole field of Geometry. The following more general histories may also be consulted: Cantor’s Vorlesungen wber Geschichte der Mathematik (1880) ; Hoefer’s Histoire des Mathématiques (1874); Marie’s His- toire des Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques (12 vols. 1883-88); Montucla’s Histoire des Mathématiques (1802); Gow’s Short History of Greek Mathematics (1884); and Ball’s Short Account of the History of Mathematics (1888). George, a division of the western province of Cape Colony, on the south coast, east’ of Cape- town. It contains 2600 sq. m., and about 11,000 inhabitants. It is valuable chiefly for its pastur- age and its timber. The town of George stands 6 miles N. of the coast, and has a population of over 2000. On the coast is the port of Mossel Bay. George, Sr, the especial patron of chivalry, and tutelary saint of England. Although venerated both in the Eastern and Western churches, his history is extremely obscure, the extant accounts containing very much less history than legend. The story in the Acta Sanctorum is that he was born of noble Christian parents in Cappadocia, became a distinguished soldier, and, after testifying to his faith before Diocletian, was tortured and put to death at Nicomedia, April 23, 303. By many writers, as by Gibbon, he has been con- founded with the turbulent and unscrupulous Arian partisan, George of Cappadocia, who after a troubled life as army contractor and tax-gatherer became Archbishop of Alexandria, and after five years of misgovernment was torn in pieces hy a furious mob. Most authorities, Catholic and Pro- testant, agree in admitting the great improbability of this identification. Dr Peter Heylin is of one mind in this matter with the Jesuit Papebroch, and Dean Milman with the Roman Catholic Bisho Milner. Whatever may be said of the unhistorica character of St George’s martyrdom, the fact of his being honoured as a martyr by the Catholic Church, of churches being dedicated to him, and of the Hellespont being called ‘St George’s Arm,’ is traced by Papebroch, by Milner, and by other writers to so early a date, and brought so imme. diately into contact with the times of the angry conflicts in which George of Cappadocia figured as an Arian leader, that it is impossible to believe the Eastern Church was no doubt a real that the Catholics of the East—while the tomb of Athanasius was hardly closed upon his honoured relies—would accept as a sainted martyr his cruel and unscrupulous persecutor. The St George of ersonage of an earlier date than George of Cappadocia, but beyond this we can say nothing of him. His name was early obscured in fable—one oriental story making him suffer as many as seven martyrdoms, reviving after each save the last. The same story exists even in Mussulman legends, whose Chwolson identifies the hero with the Semitic Tammuz. The famous story of St George’s struggle with the dragon is first found in Voragine’s Legenda Aurea, but soon found its way into the office hiales of the church, until left out by Pope Clement VII. To slay a dragon was a common exploit for the saints and heroes of Christendom as well as of Teutonic and Indian antiquity; and St Geor, here touches so closely the common myths of the Aryan family as to have himself been explained, by Baring-Gould.and others, as in this aspect merely a mythical form of the sun-god dispelling the darkness by his beams of light. Churches were dedicated to St George from very early times; the Crusades gave a great impetus to his cultus, and he was adopted as the adhdieiad saint who led his votaries to battle. Many new chivalrous orders assumed him as their patron, and he was adopted as their tutelary saint by England, Aragon, and Portugal. In 1348 Edward III. founded St George’s Chapel, Windsor, and in 1344 the celebrated Order of the Garter was instituted. See Baring-Gould’s Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, and the article DRAGON.—The cross of St George, red on a white ground, was worn as a badge over the armour by every English soldier in the 14th and subsequent centuries. For the banner of St George, now represented in the Union flag, see FLAG. George I., son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, granddaughter of James I. of England, was born in Hanover on 28th May 1660. Immediately after Queen Anne’s death on Ist August 1714, he was proclaimed king of Great Britain and of Ireland in London, the pro- clamation at Edinburgh taking place four days, and at Dublin five days later. He had been Elector of Hanover since 1698, and he was the first monareh of the House of Brunswick who, in accordance with the Act of Settlement, succeeded to the throne of this country. He arrived at Greenwich on 29th September, and was crowned at Westminster on 3lst October 1714. He had commanded the imperial forces in the war against France in which Marlborough acquired distinction, and, though less successful than as chagrined as he when the Tory party, under the inspiration of eg ae ys made peace, and — sanctioned the treaty of Utrecht. In 1682 he married his cousin, the Princess Dorothea of Zell. Twelve years later he obtained a divorce on the ground of her intrigue with Count Kénigsmark, and caused her to be imprisoned in the castle of — Ahlden, where she died on 2d November 1726. — While punishing his consort for her frailty, he lived open with mistresses, and was neither ashamed — 0 his conduct nor made to suffer for it. The Tories and Jacobites who clung to the — banished House of Stuart were the objects of his — aversion, and the Whigs were favoured by him, Bolingbroke and the Duke of Ormond fled to France; both of them, remained behind, were impeached. In Scotland a Jacobite’ rising, headed by the Earl of Mar, took sw in 1715; a battle at Sheriffmuir on the 13th ovember, though indecisive, dispirited the ee . who afterwards dispersed. Another body mareh arlborough as a general, he was — and Oxford, who — ’ eS eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 1 their arms on the day of the battle at ‘Sheriffmuir. The Earl of Derwentwater and Viscount Kenmure were executed on Tower Hill ; nan) were shot, and many were transported. A year after this abortive rebellion, parliament passed the Septennial Act, in order that by pro- wnging its own existence for four years the acces- sion of the Tories to power might be hindered. lore serious than any rebellion was the rise and all of the South Sea Scheme (q.v.), the English sounterpart of the Mississippi Scheme (q.v.), which eggared France, The king’s personal part in the listory of the reign was but slight, the actual ruler eing Sir Robert Walpole. George I. could not English ; Lord Granville was the only one of is ministers who could converse with ies in ferman; the king and Walpole interchanged jews in bad Latin. On this account the king did not preside at meetings of the cabinet. Queen ane is the last sovereign of Great Britain who yas present at a cabinet council. It was the lelight of George I. to live as much as possible in Hanover, and to obtain as much money as possible m Great Britain. He died suddenly at Osna- _ briick, ok ox 8 ke i capers re ba ri 427. ortley Montagu styles rge I. ‘an hones lockhead.’ If he had been an abler man ) oe Sy have proved a worse soveréign. He was a useful figure-head in a constitutional government, and rendered greater service than he may have intended to the country which adopted him. __ See the Histories of England by Stanhope, Hallam, and sky; the Stuart Papers; the Life of Walpole, by Coxe; Pletorioal Register. _ George II. succeeded his father as Elector of Hanover and king of Great Britain and of Ireland. Born in Hanover on 30th October 1683, he was ereated Duke of Cambridge in 1706, and declared Prince of Wales in council in 1714. In 1705 he narried Caroline of Anspach, a woman of many attainments and great force of character. She exer- cised great influence over her husband, and winked at his infidelities:. When on her deathbed in November 1737 she implored him to marry again, he ed, with tears in his eyes, that he would rather pamistress. Though George interfered more in government than his father had done, the policy sued during his reign was first that of Walpole second that of Pitt. During the greater part of Walpole’s administration of the government ‘peace was preserved ; during the il at Pitt was almost supreme wars were fought and much glory gain In 1743 George II. was present and Showed courage at the battle of Dettingen, the last oceasion this on which an English sovereign has played a part in actual warfare. The rebellion in 1745 was ended at Culloden, where the adherents of the Young Pretender made their last stand. The tender had defeated General Cope at Preston- ns, and marched as far as Derby before succumb- ig to the royal forces under the command of the _ ‘King’s second son, the Duke of Cumberland, whose truelty in dealing with the rebels caused him to atised as ‘the Butcher.’ The country pspered so well that in 1749 the funds rose above Pelham, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, ected a saving by reducing the interest on the ational debt from 4 to 34, and then to 3 per cent. _ Among the victories which made this rei lorious } that of Clive at Plassey and that a Wolfe at Quel The earlier years of the reign are pro- nounced by Hallam to be ‘the most prosperous ‘Season that England had ever experienced.’ a died suddenly on 25th October 1760. no conspicuous virtues. He may be ted, however, with a few pointed sayings. ro 72 GEORGE It, GEORGE III. 159 inl 0 England, proclaimed James king at Penrith, | One was, ‘ What a strange country is this! I bave and, being surrounded after reaching ton, laid | never known but two or three men in it who under- stood foreign affairs.’ Another was, ‘Confidence is a plant of slow growth in an aged bosom.’ See the Histories of England Stanhope and Lecky; Memoirs of the Reign , Geen ITs ed Harvey; Dodington’s Diary; and Horace Walpole’s Memoirs of the last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. George III, was the eldest son of Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, and was born in London, at Norfolk House, St James’s Square, on 4th June 1738. Being a seven-months’ child, and very weakly, the boy was not expected to survive, and at eleven at night he was privately baptised by Dr Secker, who was Bishop of Oxford and rector of the rish of St James, On 2d July the bishop per- ormed the ceremony publicly, the boy being named George William Frederick, and his sponsors bein the King of Sweden, the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, an the Queen of Prussia. On 25th October 1760 George II. died suddenly, and his grandson ascended the throne. The new king was the first member of the House of Brunswick who commanded general re- ‘spect on becoming the sovereign over Great Britain and Ireland. At the same time he became Elector of Hanover, a title which was exchanged for that of king in 1815, when he was incapacitated for performing his duties, and unconscious of what passed in the world. He was the only one of the four Georges who never visited his German dominions. In his first speech to parliament he said : ‘Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Briton, and the peculiar hasptsees of my life will ever consist in promoting the welfare of a people whose loyalty and warm affection to me I consider the greatest and most permanent security of my throne.’ These words were inserted by him- self in the speech composed by the Earl of Hard- wieke'and approved by the ministry. At the outset George III. conciliated all classes of his subjects. Horace Walpole thus describes from persona] obser- vation the nature of the change : ‘ For the king him- self, he seems all good nature and wishing to satisfy everybody. All his speeches are obliging. I saw him yesterday, and was surprised to find the levée- room had lost so entirely the air of the lion’s den. The sovereign does not stand in one spot with his hy fixed royally on the ground, and dropping bits of German news. He walks about and speaks freely to everybody. I saw him afterwards on the throne, where he is graceful and genteel, sits with dignity, and reads his addresses well.’ On 8th September 1761 he married Charlotte Sophia, Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, his bride bein in her eighteenth and he in his twenty-thi year. A fortnight after their marriage they were crowned. As a younger man he was supposed to have had children by Hannah Lightfoot, a beauti- ful Quakeress, and to have married her, but no “ne of this marri has ever been advanced. t is less open to doubt that, after ascending the throne, he wished to marry Lady Sarah Lennox, and that his mother used her ttnanics to bring about a marriage with one who, like herself, was a German princess. George III. owed it to his mother that he was strongly imbued with a desire to govern as well as reign. ‘ George, be king,’ was the phrase which she repeated, and the training which he had re- ceived made him give heed to it. Bolingbroke, in writing the Jdea of a Patriot King, had the expecta- tion of persuading Frederick, Prince of Wales, and father of George III., to act the part. The substance of Bolingbroke’s teaching was that a king should be the father of his people, that he was the man best qualified to know what would be for their good, and the one best entitled to make them do as he deemed right. Thus George III. felt certain that 160 GEORGE ITI. his own way was the true one, and that were it followed all would go well. The friction which soon became manifest between him and his people was chiefly due to his determination to have his own way. Pitt was the popular idol ; but the king disliked Pitt and his policy, and the Earl of Bute became prime-minister in the place of the Duke of Newcastle.. *It was commonly believed that Bute was both the favourite of the king and the lover of his mother; he was a Scottish nobleman who dispensed patronage to his countrymen, and he was execrated on account of his birth, his position, and his conduct. If he had been a strong man, he might have justified his promotion, but, being both timid and incompetent, he succumbed to popu- lar clamour. His premiership lasted from May 1762 till April 1763. George Grenville, his successor, was premier for two years. The Marquis of Rock- ingham, who followed him, held the office for eleven months, the Earl of Chatham for fourteen months, and the Duke of Grafton held it for three years. These short-lived administrations were due to the king pitting one section of the Whig party against the other, in order to escape falling under the domination of the great Whig families, the result being that a party was formed which was known as ‘ the king’s friends.’ George III. found in Lord North a minister after his own heart, and Lord North remained at the head of the government from January 1770 till March 1782. During the adminis- tration of Lord North the thirteen united colonies proclaimed and achieved their independence, and were acknowledged by France and Spain as the United States of America. The determination of the king not to grant any concessions to those whom he deemed rebels caused the struggle to be protracted, and shut the door against compromise while compromise was possible. The subserviency of parliament and the acquiescence of the country enabled the king to have hisown way. Lord North was succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham, who died after he had been three months in office. Among his colleagues were Charles James Fox, Burke, and Sheridan, three of the most brilliant members of the Opposition, and three men whom George III. detested. Lord Shelburne, who was a member of the same administration, took Rocking- ham’s place, but the colleagues just named and others refused to serve with him; on the other hand, he secured the services of William Pitt as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The friends of Charles James Fox and the followers of Lord North coalesced, and overthrew the Shelburne adminis- tration after it had been ten months in office; and the Duke of Portland became the head of a coali-- tion ministry which entered office in April 1783, and was senpelled to leave it, owing to the underhand action of the king, in December of that year. In the interval the definitive treaty of peace with the United States of America was signed, and the India Bill was brought before parliament, a measure of which Burke was the chief author, Fox the warm advocate, and George III. the irreconcilable foe. In December 1783 William Pitt, then in his twenty-fourth year, formed an administration in which he was Chancellor of the Exchequer as well as First Lord of the Treasury, and he remained in office for eighteen years. The crushing victory of his arty at the general election in 1784 was a triumph or the king as much as for Pitt. From that date there was an end to the supremacy of the old Whig families. The Tory party had been consolidated and was prepared togive effect to the policy of George III. The struggle hae been long and severe. John Wilkes had taken part in it, and by his audacious resist- ance he had led to the abolition of general warrants. The writer whose letters were signed Junius had denounced the ministers whom the king trusted, and had warned the king himself that, as his title to the crown ‘ was acquired by one revolution, it ma be lost by another.’ ‘That popular feeling ran high © against the sovereign for a time is unquestionable, yet he gradually regained the affections of his sub- jects ; hence, when it was announced in 1788 that he had lost his reason, there was a widespread sympathy with him. His eldest son had displayed vices from which he was free, and the people did not think the substitution of the Prince of Wales for the king would be a gain to the country. Two years before amad woman, named Margaret Nicho]- son, had tried to stab the king, and the addresses of congratulation upon his escape then showed how general was the popular feeling. In 1765 he had an illness lasting two months, in which his reason was affected. On his recovery at that time there was no rejoicing such as took place when, on 23d April 1789, he went to St Paul's to render thanks for his recovery. The Prince of Wales, who had counted upon becoming regent, openly displayed ill-humour at his father’s reception. A roof of public feeling was that a play in which Mrs Biddons took a leading part had to be withdrawn from the stage after one representation, because it bore the obnoxious name of ‘The Regent.’ The marriage of this son to Princess Caroline of Bruns- wick gave the king much gratification. It took lace on 8th April 1794. "Three years later the rincess Royal became the wife of the hereditary Prince of Wiirtemberg. The king’s second son, the Duke of York, had married the eldest daughter of Frederick II. of Prussia in 1791. George III. had a large family; it numbered nine sons and six daugh- ters, the first child, the Prince of Wales, being born in 1762, and the last, the Princess Amelia, in 1783. The king had no fear of his children acting like his brother, the Duke of Cumberland, when he mar- ried Mrs Horton, or like the Duke of Gloucester, when he married the Countess of Waldegrave. The Royal Marriage Act, which was passed at his instance in 1772, forbade the members of the royal family marrying without the consent of the sovereign, if under twenty-five, or doing so after that age unless a twelvemonth’s notice had been given to the Privy-council, and parliament had not Sapreeeed disapprobation within that period. hough George III. was averse to war, he was strongly in favour of restoring the Bourbons to the throne of France. When the union be- tween Ireland and Great Britain was proposed he wrote to Pitt characterising it as one of the most useful measures of his reign; but when the union was effected, and Pitt proposed carry- ing out his pledges with regard to the emancipation of the Roman Catholics and the endowment of the Roman Catholic priests, the king refused his assent, saying, as Lord Eldon records, ‘I can give up my crown and retire from power; I can quit my palace and live in a cottage ; q can lay my head on a block and lose my life; but I can not break my corona- tion oath.’ Pitt resigned ; George III. refused his advice to form a strong administration, including Fox. The king’s hatred of Fox amounted to mania ; he wrongfully attributed the bad conduct of the Prince of Wales to association with the great Whig leader. Hence the king entrusted Addington with the task of forming an administration, which held office till war with France was renewed, and the necessity for a firmer hand at the helm was ap- parent. Pitt resumed the office of premier, and died in 1806. A ministry was formed on 5th March 1806, in which Fox and Sidmouth held office, and of which Lord Grenville was the head ; it was reconstituted after Fox’s death on 13th September in that year, and it was succeeded in 1807 by one of which the Duke of Portland was the head, and in which Perceval was Chancellor of the — GEORGE III. GEORGE IV. 161 meeneguet, and Oxening a secretary of state. In 1809 Perceval succeeded to the premiership, and this was the last administration in forming which eerge III. had any share. His jubilee was cele- brated amid popular rejoicings on the 25th October In isto. Princess Amelia, his youngest and favourite child, became dangerously ill; the un- likelihood of her recovery preyed upon him and hastened an attack of mental derangement, which incapacitated him for reigning. He had suffered from this malady more than once since 1789. In 1810 the Prince of Wales was gee regent. Till his death, on 29th January 1820, at Windsor Castle (he was the first English king who died there), George III. was hopelessly insane. He lost his sight as well as his senses. Though not a drop of English blood ran in his veins, yet George III. was a typical Englishman. He was well-meaning and intensely patriotic; he was truly pions and a pattern of the domestic virtues. His reign was marked by many vicissitudes, and it extended over sixty years. Decisive battles in America, India, and Europe were fought during its course, and many grand conquests were achieved. Great statesmen, such as Chatham, Pitt, and Fox, adorned it ; t captains, such as Nelson and Wel- lington, e their names immortal ; the greatest names in modern English literature then rose above the horizon; parliamentary oratory was at its zenith, and nothing was wanting to render the reign the most glorious in the country’s annals but greater discretion on the part of the king. If George IIL. had been a little less of the typical Englishman, he might have been a more admirable sovereign. It was chiefly owing to his prejudices being respected by those who ought to have opposed them that war took the place of conciliation in America, and that war was prosecuted against France, when the in- terests of the country demanded neutrality among the contending powers on the Continent. When George III. ascended the throne the national debt, in round numbers, was £138,000,000 sterling ; before his death it was upwards of £800,000,000. On the other hand, the trade and commerce of the country made gigantic strides during his reign. At his accession the exports did not exceed £12,000,000 sterling; at his death they were up- wards of £50,000,000. The imports between that period rose from £8,000,000 to £36,000,000 sterling. At the beginning of the last ctf years of his reign the number of newspapers in the three kingdoms was 61; at his death the number was 222. Several years before he died the Times seers was printed by steam, and the foundations of the daily press as it now exists were laid in the reign of a sovereign who was no favourer of newspapers. The greatest of his misfortunes was to be the father of the eldest son who succeeded him, and it is when George IV. is considered that the merits of George III. become the more conspicuous, and that ‘ Farmer George,’ as he was familiarly called during his lifetime, a rs a nobler figure in history than the ‘ First Gentleman in Europe,’ as his eldest son was styled. See the histories of England by Stanhope, Massey, Martineau, and Lecky; the Memoirs and Letters of H. Walpole ; the Grenville Papers ; the Chatham, ee: ham, ord, Auckland, and Malmesbury Correspond- ence; the Letters of George ITT. to Lord North; Burke’s Works; the Letters of Junius; the Annual Register ; and The Opposition under George IIT., by Fraser Rae. George IV., the eldest son of George III., was born in St James’s Palace on 12th August 1762. He became Prince Regent in December 1810, after both honses of parliament had passed resolu- tions to the effect that the king was mentally in- tapacitated for discharging the duties of his office. He ——— the throne of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after his father’s death on 29th January 1820, ‘Till the age of nineteen the prince was kept under strict discipline, against which he sometimes rebelled. When he was four- teen one of his tutors resigned on the ground of ‘ the ungovernable temper of his charge.’ The Bishop of Lichfield, who then became his preceptor, gave the following forecast of the Prince of Wales : ‘ He will be either the most polished gentléman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe; possibly an admixture of both.’ At the age of eighteen the prince had an intrigue with Mrs Robinson, an actress, who obtained from him a bond for £20,000, and letters which she threatened to make public ; she surrendered the letters for £5000, and the bond in return for an annuity of £400. When twenty he went through the ceremony of mar- riage with Mrs Fitzherbert Gs. ), a Roman Catholic, and by so doing forfeited his title to the crown. When the matter was mooted in the House of Commons, he desired Fox to deny there had been a marriage, and then he found fault with Fox for making the statement. Late in life he said to Lady Spencer, when consulting her about a gover- ness for his daughter, ‘Above all, I must teach her to tell the truth. You know that I don’t speak the truth, and my brothers don’t, and I find it a great defect from which I would have my daughter free. We have been brought up badly, the queen having taught us to equivocate.’ The asi led a wild life. Out of antagonism to his ather he affected to be a Whig, and associated with the leading members of the Opposition. When a Jad he annoyed his father by shouting in his presence, ‘ Wilkes and Number 45 for ever ! When writing about his eldest son to Lord North, the king styled him an ‘ill-advised young man,’ and much of the king’s aversion to Fox, Burke, and Sheridan was due to their associating with and advising the Prince of Wales. In 1795 he married Princess Caroline (q.v.) of Brunswick, posi induced to do so by parliament agreeing to pay his debts, which amounted to £650,000. The prince had shown himself an undutiful son; he now showed himself to be a bad husband; and his conduct to his daughter and only child, the Princess Charlotte (q.v.), was that of a callous father. After becoming king he endeavoured to get a divorce from his wife, who was not more guilty than himself of conjugal crimes; but her deat on 7th August 1821 terminated a struggle which had become a_ public scandal, and in which the people sympathised with the queen. Nothing in the reign of George IV. was more remarkable than his coronation, which was celebrated with as great omp as that of any previous monarch, and with for greater splendour than that of William IV. or Queen Victoria. It took place on 19th July 1821, and it was described in the Edinburgh Weekly Journal by one who signed himself ‘An Eye- witness,’ and who was Sir Walter Scott. Eleven days after his coronation the king left London for Ireland, while his queen lay on her deathbed. In the Jrish Avater, Byron writes of ‘George the triumphant’ s ing ‘to the long-cherished isle which he loved like his—bride.’ In October of the same year he went to Hanover, and was crowned king. He stopped at Brussels on the way and visited Waterloo, the Duke of Wellington act. ing as his guide. In August 1822 he went to Edin. burgh by water, where he had a magnificent recep. tion, of which Sir Walter Scott was the o iser. The last king who had visited Scotland before him was Charles II. Though a professed Whig when Prince of Wales, George IV. governed as his father had done by the aid of the Tories. Spencer Per- ceval, Lord Live 1, Canning, Viscount Goderich, and the Duke of Wellington successively held office pe 162 GEORGE V. GEORGETOWN as premiers while he was regent and king. The movement for reform which began in the reign of George III. was opposed, with the king’s concur- rence, by the advisers of George IV., the massacre at Peterloo, where the inhabitants of Manchester held a reform meeting on 20th August 1820, being the most regrettable of many sad _ inci- dents. On this occasion the open-air meeting was charged by cavalry and yeomanry, with the result that eleven persons were killed and about six hundred wounded. On the ground of his reli- gious convictions, George IV. followed his father in opposing the emancipation of the Roman Catho- lics; but in 1829, when the Duke of Wellington declared that the measure was imperative, the king withdrew his opposition and the measure became law. His failings and vices were conspicuous; it cannot be said that they were wholly redeemed by his taste for music, by Lavina a good voice for sing- ing, and by playing fairly on the flute. It was creditable to him that he read and admired the inimitable romances of Jane Austen and Sir Walter Scott. Yet he did not adorn the throne, and when he died on 26th January 1830, he was least regretted by those who knew him best. George V., of Hanover. See HANOVER. George (‘the Bearded’), Duke of Saxony from 1500 to 1539, was known as a zealous anti-Pro- testant. See SAXONY. George, HENRY, political economist, was born in Philadelphia, Sept. 2, 1839, went to sea at an early age, and migrated to California in 1858, where he became a jour- neyman printer. After a num- ber of years spent at the case, he rose to the edi- torial desk, conducted several papers, and took an active part in the discussion of public questions. In 1870 he published Our Land and Land Policy, a amphlet outlining the views which have since made finn widely known, but which had only a local cir- culation. In October 1879 appeared Progress and Poverty in California. In January 1880 it was published in New York, and in 1881 in London and Berlin. It has since gone through many editions, been translated into the principal lan- guages, and had a circulation without precedent in economic literature. Progress and Poverty is a inquiry into the cause of industrial depressions, and of the increase of want with increase of wealth, in the course of which some of the most important of the hitherto accepted doctrines of political economy are recast. Denying the dictum that wages are limited by capital, he argues that wages are produced by the labour for which they are paid; and, denying the Malthusian theory, he contends that increase of population instead of caus- ing want should tend to greater plenty. Then, by an examination of the laws of distribution, in which the laws of wages and interest are shown to cor- relate with the hitherto accepted law of rent, he comes tc the conclusion that, as produce equals rent plus wages plus interest, therefore produce, minus rent, equals wages plus interest. The increase of economic rent or land values explains why the increase of productive power so marked in modern civilisation does not commensurately increase wages and interest. To the tendency of the steady increase in land values to beget speculation in land, which prevents the application of labour and capital, he traces the recurring seasons of industrial depres- sion. The remedy he proposes is the appropriation of economic rent to public uses by a tax levied on the value of land exclusive of improvements, and the abolition of all taxes which fall upon industry and thrift. Meeting objections which may be urged against this proposition on the ground of justice and public policy, he finally brings it to a Copyright 1890, 1897, and 1900 in the U.S. by J. B, Lippincott Company, larger test in an examination of the law of human rogress, which he defines to be that of association In equality. Other works are The Irish Land Question (1881), Social Problems (1882), Protection and Free Trade (1886), A Perplexed Philosopher (against Herbert Spencer’s views on land, 1893), He visited Great Britain and Ireland in 1881, 1883, 1884, 1888, and 1889, and Australia in 1890. In 1886 he-was the United Labor candidate for the may- oralty of New York. The now defunct Standard, a weekly paper, was established in 1887. He died snd- denly of apoplexy in the middle of a second candi- dature for the mayoralty of New York, October 2. 1897. His book The Science of Political Economy, nearly finished at his death, was published posthu- money in1898. Though sometimes styled socialistic, George’s views were for the most part diametrically opposed to state socialism. His aim was to swee away all interferences with the production an distribution of wealth, and only to resort to state control where competition is impossible—to leave to individuals all that individual energy or thrift accumulates, and to take for the use of the community all that is due to the general growth and improvement. George, LAKE, called also Horicon, a beautiful lake, 32 miles long, near the eastern border of New York state. It forms the head-waters of Lake Champlain, is studded with hundreds of pictur- esque islands, and its shores contain several favour- ite summer-resorts, especially the village of Cald- well or Lake George. Here was fought the battle of Lake George, in which the French and Algon- quins under Baron Dieskau were utterly defeated by the English and Iroquois under Sir William Johnson, on 8th September 1755. George, THE, the badge of the Order of the Garter (q.v.). Georgetown, a port of entry in the District of Columbia, formerly a separate city, and now the usual designation of that part of the city of Wash- ington lying west of Rock Creek. It is on the Potomac River, at the head of navigation, and con- sists in part of beautiful heights occupied by elegant villas. Here the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal is carried across the Potomac by means of a great viaduct 1446 feet long; and here are a number of educational institutions, including a Roman Cath- olic college (1789). For its administration, see DIsTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Pop. (1880) 12,578; (1900) 14,549, Georgetown (formerly the Dutch Stabroek), capital of British Guiana, is situated on the right bank of the Demerara River, not far from its mouth. It is handsomely built, and consists of wide, clean streets, intersecting at right angles; the brightly painted wooden houses, with their Swiss eaves developed into handsome verandahs, are enerally raised on piles a few feet above the un- ealthy soil, and embosomed in trees, of which the cabbage-palm and cocoa-nut are the chief. Some of the streets, with their long colonnades of palms, are traversed by wide trenches or canals, with bridges at the cross streets. The principal public edifices are the government building, the cathedral, the Queen’s College, and a museum and library. There are botanical gardens, several hospitals, an icehouse, and two markets. Water for ordinary urposes is supplied from a canal, the mains bein fe through most of the principal streets; an artesian wells, besides tanks for the storage of rain, have to some extent supplied the lack of drinking-water. 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PS - e is; Yi Ui fa OO OE eat “eis, ee Lege ce ae eos "ob Lous 3 Pyaar y) fe ‘ a J [e} Rwpey eo AUNGZH - OaHoNo aes : 29RIV AS n to me NO; & F hugs a) er heoqqy u pred, | Soules 40 5 tn : souop Pett, UL 0, x +9, ; wy an —-—-—-- : “ 10 At: apa 1 3 =) tp Pa Tat, qoveyy i * sus : ley cheayoon, NEHLINO ENO} 541099 —_—— =" a - See = : irs $ & “e 7 my UV £ Pad 2 LM Lf ay we Se Piatt UMA =f Bd oes019 : 3 eo o\aits ' my, “ve ie eh) s o182g AaIHOSY —~ LOK = 3 OHVLL Wun Phu up 2 aE NOLUYW A “eons c 3apoosnw nquenyo. ays 49,3 ry 10... ° 4 = aa = - Poe 0 1" wisp Ka ca i GEORGIA 163 . years; the foreign trade is virtually that of the colony. See GUIANA (BriTIsH). Population (1881) 47,175; (1891) 53,176, including many coolies, and searcely 5000 whites. _ Georgia, one of the most enterprising of the southern states of the American Union, is bounded on the N. by the states of Ten- | .. iene 1990, 1897, and -nessee, North Carolina, and | 1900 iu the U.S. by J. B. South Carolina; E. by the Sa- | Mppinectt Company. vannah River, which separates it from South Caro- lina, and by the Atlantic Ocean; 8. by the St eat River and Florida; and W. by the Chatta- hoochee River and Alabama. It lies between 30° 31’ 39” and 35° N. lat., and in 81°—85° 53’ 38” W. long., and has a maximum length and breadth of 320 and 256 miles, and an area of 59,475 sq. m.-— a little more than the area of England and Wales. Upon the Atlantic Ocean it fronts for a distance of 128 miles; but the coast, low-lying and sandy, is bordered with islands, between which and the mainland are a number of sounds and creeks; so that the total coast-line is said to be about 480 miles. The territory of Georgia presents five physical divisions: (1) The Sea Islands, famous for their cotton (see COTTON), and covered with a growth of oak, palmetto, magnolia, cedar, pine, and myrtle ; (2) the Swamp Region, consisting of rich alluvial lands and deltas, formed by the fresh-water rivers, verdant with a dense and semi-tropical vegetation, and admirably adapted to the production of rice ; (3) the Pine Barrens, with a thin soil, lying between these marsh grounds and the undulating red-clay lands of the interior, sheltered by vast forests of gpl ay which are highly prized as lumber and or naval pur , but lonely and monotonous ; (4) Middle Georgia, fertile, salubrious, _ hilly, crowned with forests of oak and hickory, the home of the ws Bp cotton-plant, a fine fruit ion, and yielding Indian corn, oats, wheat, and other cereals; and lastly (5) Cherokee Georgia, abounding in mountains, with fertile valleys, streams, and waterfalls. Cereals, grasses, and cotton are profitably grown among the valleys and upon the hillsides of te Georgia ; and increasing attention is being bestowed upon the breeding of stock. In the central area of the last- mentioned division occurs the watershed, giving direction to the streams which flow respectively into the Gulf of Mexico on the one hand, and into the Atlantic Ocean on the other. The entire state is well watered. Of the rivers emptying into the Atlantic Ocean the most holewotthe are the Savannah, navigable as far as Augusta; the Great Ogeechee ; the Altamaha, through its tributaries the Oconee and the Ocmulgee navigable as high as Milledgeville and Macon; the Satilla; and the St Mary. The streams belonging to the Gulf vine are the upper waters of the Coosa; the hattahoochee, navigable as far as Columbus; the Flint, navigable up to Albany ; and the Alapaha. With the exception of the swamp-region in the south and south-east of the state, the climate is salubrious and agreeable. The mean temperature is 78° in summer and 47° in winter; the annual rainfall nearly 50 inches. In the lowlands oranges and other semi-tropical fruits readily mature, whilst in the uplands peaches, apples, pears, &c. flourish ; and fruits and market vegetables gen- erally, being earlier than in the North, are exported in considerable quantities. The forests contain numerous species of oak, including the evergreen live-oak, which has been atyiad the king, as the Magnolia grandiflora has been styled the queen of the southern woods. Of great value is the long-leaf pine, furnishing both choice timber and naval stores. The list of useful native woods includes also the red, the white, and the post oak, the water-oak, the black walnut, the red cedar, the cypress, the poplar, and the locust. Amon the indigenous flora are found valuable medicina herbs and dye-plants; and the flowers often are of great beanty. Game is still abundant, in spite of the injury resulting from the failure to enact and enforce stringent aac for its preservation. Sea- fowl throng the coast and estuaries, alligatsrs are numerous in the rivers, and food-fishes, oysters, clams, turtle, &e. are abundant. By reason of the denudation of their banks, rendering their waters turbid and causing unruly currents, the fresh-water streams have suffered material diminu- tion in their animal life. From them food-fishes, once so abundant, have largely disappeared, and the pearl-bearing unio is now seldom seen ; but the United States Fish Commission has been success- ful in the introduction of some varieties of fishes better suited to the changed condition. The mineral wealth of Georgia is apparent in the gold-bearing strata of the Cherokee region, which for the past fifty years have been success- fully worked, in extensive deposits of coal, in iron, copper, silver, and lead ores, in marbles of attrae- tive varieties, in vast fields of granite and slate, and in the presence of gypsum, limestone, syenite, marl, buhrstone, soapstone, asbestos, shales, tripoli, fluor-spar, kaolin, clays, porcelain, aragon- ite, tourmaline, emerald, carnelian, ruby, opal, chaleedony, agate, amethyst, jasper, garnets, rose- uartz, beryl, and occasional diamonds. In 1837- the United States branch mint at Dahlonega coined gold bullion to the value of over six million dollars, mostly from metals extracted from the auriferous rocks of the adjacent territory. To the development of these mineral resources of the state much attention is being paid, and with profitable results. Prior to the civil war the inhabitants of Georgia were almost exclusively engaged in agri- culture and commerce ; but more recent industries are the lumber trade, and extensive cotton, woollen, and other manufactures. The most important mills are at Augusta, Columbus, Atlanta, Athens, and Roswell. Recent statistics show that there are now within the state 54 cotton and woollen mills, with 350,000 spindles and 8000 looms; while the lumber, flour, grist, and pul mills, &c, are being multiplied, aad the iron an steel trade in the north-western part of the state is overtaking the cotton manufacture in import- ance, Although, since the civil war, the production of black- cotton on the sea islands and along the coast has materially diminished, the yield of short- staple cotton has greatly increased. The average crop of this variety will now approximate 1,000,000 bales, worth at the point of consumption or of export over $40,000,000. Of the other yearly ricultural products of Georgia the rice crop (25,000,000 pounds), the Indian corn (25,000,000 bushels), wheat, oats, sweet potatoes, and tobacco are important; and there is a yearly yield of 600,000 gallons of syrup, 650 hogsheads of cane- sugar, 5,000,000 pounds of butter, and 700,000 unds of honey. From the ports of Savannah, arien, Brunswick, and St Mary shipments of lumber and naval stores are annually ages Navigable rivers and an admirable system of ways (over 3000 miles), besides three short canals, furnish convenient transportation from the inte- rior. Notably at Savannah, coastwise and foreign bound steamers and sailing-vessels convey the products of the region to the desirable markets of the world. The state is divided into 137 counties, 11 con- gressional districts, 2 districts of the U. S. cir- cuit courts, and numerous militia districts. At- lanta is the capital, and Savannah the commercial 164 GEORGIA metropolis. _ Augusta, Macon, Columbus, and Athens may be mentioned among the thriving cities and towns of this commonwealth. The population has steadily increased from 82,548 in 1790 to (1860) 1,057,286 ; (1870) 1,184,109; (1880) 1,542,180; (1890) 1,837,353 (over one-half being whites) ; (1900) 2,216, - 331, being an average of 37.5 persons per sq. mile. Georgia has a thorough system of free common schools, numbering (1896) 7419 with 8125 teachers and an enrollment of 389,057 pupils. Opportuni- ties for higher education are afforded by the Uni: versity of Georgia, at Athens, by its dependent colleges at Dahlonega, Milledgeville, Thomasville, Cuthbert, and Atlanta, and by sundry denomina- tional colleges. At the University of Georgia and its dependent colleges tuition for Georgians is free. Georgia has also a school for the blind at Macon, for the education of the deaf and dumb at Cave Spring, and an asylum for lunatics near Milledge- ville. History.—The colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe (q.v.) in 1733, as a refuge for oor debtors and for the persecuted Protestants of ermany, and received its name in honour of George II. In 1752 Oglethorpe surrendered his charter to the British government. Georgia was thereafter classed as an English province, until, with her sister colonies, she succeeded in casting off her allegiance to the crown. Save during the few years of the civil war, she has since continued a component member of the confederation of the United States of America, and has long been regarded as the Empire State of the South. Despite the liberation of her slave population, which in 1860 numbered 450,033, and was valued at $302,694,855, and in the face of grievous losses occasioned by the war, the state has during the last quarter of a century manifested recuperative powers of a marvellous sort. Georgia, the name formerly applied to the central portion of what is now Russian Trans- caucasia (q.v.), bounded by the Caucasian moun- tains on the north and by the Armenian mountains on the south. The Russian name is Gruzia; the Persian Gurjestan, from which form the name Georgia probably arose, it being perhaps a corrup- tion of Guria, the name of one of the western provinces. The early history of the Georgians, who pretend to trace their origin to Thargamos, a great-grandson of Japhet, is wrapped in fable. Minkieitice, who is said to have built Mtsketha, the ancient capital of the country, situated near Tiflis, but now reduced to a mere village, plays a rominent part in it. We have also to deal with egend in the story of the Argonauts and Medea, who is said to have been born at Kutais. The Georgians first appear in authentic history in the time of Alexander the Great, to whom they sub- mitted. After the death of Alexander in 323 B.c. they gained their independence under Pharnavas (302-237 B.c.). With Pharnavas begins the series of the kings (a title rendered in Georgian by the word mephe), who, under various dynasties, ruled the country almost uninterruptedly for more than 2000 years. In 265 A.D. the Sassanian dynasty ascended the throne in the person of King Marian, and ended with Bakour III. in 570. Towards the close of the 4th century Christianity was intro- duced by the preaching of St Nina, and in 469 Vakhtang built the city of Tiflis (Tbilisi), so called from the hot-springs found there. Soon after the death of Mohammed his followers entered the country and forced many of the inhabitants to embrace Islam. The Sassanides were succeeded by the powerful dynasty of the Bagratides, one of whom, Bagrat III. (980-1008), extended his dominions from the Black Sea to the Caspian ; but during the eleventh century the Georgians twice suffered from an invasion of the Seljuks, who committed great devastations. The country reached the height of its glory in the reign of Queen Thamar or Tamara (1184-1212), the daughter of George III. With her marriage to the son of the Russian prince, Andrew Bogo- liubski, may be said to begin the connection tween Russia and Georgia. The dominions of Tamara were more extensive than those of any other native sovereign, and her court was graced by the presence of many men of letters. But evil days were in store for Georgia. In 1220 and 1222 we hear of Mongolian invasions, and Tiflis was harried with fire and sword. Towards the end of the 14th century the country fell into the hands of Timour, who, however, -was driven from it in 1403 by George VII. One of George’s successors, Alexander (1413-42), committed the fatal error of dividin the kingdom between his three sons. The genera history of Georgia now separates into two parts : that of the eastern states, Karthli and Kakheth, and that of the western states, including Imereth, Mingrelia, and Guria. From the 16th to the 18th century the Georgians suffered grievously from the Persians. In 1618 Shah Abbas invaded the country, and Teimuraz I. applied for help to the Czar Michael; in 1638 Levan, king of Mingrelia, took the oath of allegiance to Alexis; it was only from their co-religionists that the Georgians could hope for succour in their hour of need. They also suffered from the encroachments of the Turks. In 1795 the savage Aga Mohammed Shah invaded Georgia, and levelled Tiflis to the ground, carrying away a great number of captives. The aged kin Heraclius II., an able sovereign, seeing that al resistance was in vain, fled to the mountains, where he soon afterwards died. His son, George XIII., resigned the crown in favour of Paul, emperor of Russia, in 1799; but his brother Alexander did not acquiesce in this arrangement, and held out for some time, but was defeated in a battle on the banks of the Ior. George died in 1800, and in the following year Alexander of Russia formally annexed the country. In 1810 the prince of Imereth attempted a revolt, which was quickly suppressed. Guria was finally united with Russia in 1829, The former kingdom of Georgia is mainly in- cluded in the governments of Kutais, Tiflis, and Elizabethpol. The district is very fertile, being abundantly productive of cereals, wine—especially the Kakhetian—honey, and silk, of cattle and horses, while the mountains teem with mineral wealth, as yet little utilised. The Georgians belong to the Kartveli stock, forming the southern group of Caucasian peoples. Their numbers have been variously estimated. Some fix them at about 911,000, but Von Erckert (Der Kaukasus und seine Volker, Leip. 1887) gives the following calcula- tion, as based in the main on the last census of 1881 : Georgians (in the restricted sense of the term) pings Imeretians and Gurians.................ce00 Adcharians and Lazes..............c0esseceee Pshaves, living in the mountains.............. 9,000 Thushes ' Sy NUN sOrteaaimaan ze 6,000 Khevsurs " th NSWG seed sewers 7,000 EARP OURS a cii6 cs s)oi's valde se aarna ae aeanle babii 215,000 PROMI Fa airy ko cabin vada eh natoiteeecueae 13,000 1,100,000 To this work is appended an excellent ethnological map. The Georgians and their congeners are of the Caucasian or Fair race (as opposed to the Mongolian or Yellow race). They are celebrated for their beauty, and under the Mohammedan rule the white slaves of western Asia and of Egypt were mostly drawn from among them and the Cireassians. To the great credit of Russia this we a i i i ee GEORGIA 165 Lede traffic was put an end to by the treat of Kuchuk-Kainardji fn 1774. Though endow by nature with mental no less than physical ad- vantages, the long course of oppression to which cod have been subjected has had its effect upon r characters. But, despite the supremacy and _ brutal tyranny of their Mohammedan conquerors, they have as a nation remained faithful to the Christian religion, according to the doctrines of the Greek Church. In Guria, however, and the country of the Lazes, large numbers of the inhabit- ants were forced by persecution to embrace Islam, and in these districts the ruins of many churches may still be seen. The southern Caucasians, with magnificent physique, fertile soil, and enervating climate, are somewhat indolent ; they are passion- ately fond of singing and music. The four chief tongues—Georgian, Mingrelian, Suanetian, and Lazian, which some have called the Iberian group—stand to each other more in the relation of languages than dialects, although they certainly all had a common origin; Mingrelian especially has greatly diverged. Georgian alone of the four has a literature, if we except the few folk-tales of the Mingrelians. These lan uagee are of the agylutinasive: type; the chief difficulty lies in the verbs, which incorporate the pronominal prefixes and suffixes. In their structure they resemble Basque, but no affinity can be established between these two families of languages, as their vocabularies have no word in common. The Georgians use two alphabets—the khutsuri or ecclesiastical, and the mkhedruli or civil: the first is only employed in the religious books. They are very old, and legendary accounts are given of their origin. The ecclesiastical resembles the Armenian alphabet; the civil is a very pretty character, with many rounded letters, which make it somewhat resemble Burmese. Georgian litera- ture is by no means poor. Professor Tsagarelli gives a list of 946 Georgian MSS. known to exist; they are preserved in monasteries at Jerusalem, on Mount Athos and Mount Sinai, and at Tiflis, in the library of the Society for the Diffusion of Eduea- tion among the Georgians. Besides these, there are 36 MSS in the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris, and 34 in private hands at Tiflis. Further search will, no doubt, bring to light others. As far as it ean be traced back, the literature begins about the 5th ay. A.D., with translations of the Scrip- tures and the Fathers, and later on we get versions of the Greek classical authors, including Plato, Aristotle, and Josephus. To the 7th century belongs a fine psalter on papyrus, and there is a complete manuscript of the Bible of the 10th, reserved at Mount Athos. The great literary evelopment, however, of the country was during the llth and 12th centuries, and especially in the reign of Queen Tamara. To this period belongs the Popular epic, ‘The Man in the Panther’s Skin’ ( Vephkhvis- sani), & poem narrating the love of Avtandil for Tinatina, daughter of the Arabian king Rostevan, and that of Tariel for Nestan Dar- edjan, daughter of the Indian king Parsadan. It is a richly-coloured work, as if written by an oriental Tasso, and enjoys great popularity among the Georgians at the present day, many of the couplets—it is written in quatrains—having passed into proverbs. The author, Shota Rustaveli, was the glory of the reign of Queen Tamara, and is said to have died at Jerusalem as a monk in 1215. A handsome illustrated edition of this work ap- peared at Tiflis in 1888. Of Shavtel, another poet of the time who also enjoyed considerable reputa- tion, only a few odes have come down. Chakh- rukhadze composed a long and rather tedious poem in honour of the famous queen; prose tales were written by Sarkis of Thmogvi, the most celebrated being the Visramiani, and a poem by Mose of Khoni, called Daredjaniani. Now that the Georgians have been secured by Russian protection from their Moslem foes, they are busy in studying their old literature and editing their MSS. Some- where about the same time as these authors flourished was begun the Georgian chronicle, called Karthlis Tskhovreba, or life of Georgia, the first par of which is anonymous, and carries the history rom the earliest times to the year 1224; a con- tinuation, also anonymous, brings it down to the year 1445. But this brilliant period was destined to a temporary eclipse ; during the 14th and the next two centuries the country was a prey to Mongols, Tartars, Persians, and Turks; the cities were devastated, many of the inhabitants were carried into es pi he and valuable MSS. were lost or destroyed. In the 17th century, however, matters began to mend. Towards the close flourished Saba Sulkhan Orbeliani, one of the most learned men of his time, who visited Paris, where he was well received by Louis XIV., and Rome. To him his countrymen are indebted for the first dictionary of their language, called, in oriental style, ‘The Bouquet of Words ;’ it was edited at Tiflis in 1884. His also was the po ular work, ‘ The Book of Wisdom and Falsehood ’ ( 7'signi Sibrmne-sitsruisa), a collection of amusing fables and apologues, some of his own invention, and others drawn from the stores of Georgian and other oriental folk-tales. A Russian translation of this interesting book has been published by Professor Tsagarelli of St Peters- urg. é in 1709 King Vakhtang VI. established a print- ing-press at Tiflis. One of the works which ap- peared was ‘The Man in the Panther’s Skin,’ to which he added a curious mystical commentary, giving the book a religious meaning, perhaps to rehabilitate it among the clergy, who regarded it as a profane work. Wakticns also laboured at a translation of the Kalilah and Damnah, in which he was assisted by Sulkhan Orbeliani (edited at Tiflis in 1886). This king, thinking his country lost on account of a fresh invasion of the Turks, emigrated to Russia with many Georgian families, and in consequence of their presence in the country the great Georgian Bible was published at Moscow in 1743. To this century also belong the Davithi- ani, a poem by Guramishvili, and the first Georgian mmar, by the Catholicos (Primate) ey ore hy sides other works. Vakhusht, the son of Vakh- tang, continued the chronicle of his country till 1745, and wrote a geographical description of it, a work of great value. Since the peaceful settle- ment of Georgia under the Russians, literature has been greatly developed. The fine lyric poets, Alexander Chavchavadze (whose daughter married Griboiedov, the Russian dramatist), hael Eris- tavi, Nicholas Baratashvili, and Akaki Tsereteli, have appeared. The most conspicuous literary man of Tiflis at the present time is Prince Ilya Chavchavadze, author of some of the most grace- ful lyries in the language, and some spirited tales in which he has satirised the luxury and other weaknesses of his countrymen. He is editor of the Georgian literary and political daily journal, Iberia, me of the plays of Shakespeare, amon others Hamlet and Othello, have been transla by Prince Machabeli. Altogether, Georgian litera- ture may be said to be in a flourishing condition. The pioneer in the study of Georgian history and philology was Brosset, who published Eléments de la Langue Georgienne (Paris, 1847 ), an elaborate edition of the Georgian Chronicle (St Petersburg, 1849-58), and many other works. Chubinov’s Gruzinsko-russko-frant- suskit Slovar, Dictionnaire Georgien-francais-russe (St i Petersburg, 1840), and Russian-Georgian Dictionary 166 GEORGIA GERARD (1846; new ed. 1886); Prof. A. Tsagarelli’s notices of Georgian literature and Georgian studies (in Russian) and documents illustrating Georgian literature (St Peters- burg, 1886-95); and A. Leist’s Georgien (1885) and Georgische Dichter verdeutscht (Leip. 1887) may be mentioned. See also French books on Georgia by Lang- lois and Villeneuve ; Wardrop, The Kingdom of Georgia (1888), and Georgian Folk Tales (1894 ).—For the Church in Georgia, see GREEK CHURCH, Vol. V. p. 400. Georgia, GULF oF, an arm of the Pacific, between Vancouver’s Island and the mainland, of British Columbia, communicating with the ocean by Queen Charlotte’s Sound in the north, and by the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the south. It is 250 miles long by a little over 30 broad. Georgian Bay. ‘See Huron (LAKE). Georgium Sidus. See HERSCHEL, PLANETS. Georgswalde, a town on the northern border _of Bohemia, 112 miles N. of Prague by rail, with a mineral spring and linen manufactures. Pop. 5808. Gephyrea, 2 class of unsegmented marine worms, divided into two distinct sub-groups : (a) the Gephyreans proper, without bristles (G4. acheta )—e.g. Sipunculus (q.v.), Priapulus, Phasco- losoma ; and (6) the Echiuroids or armed Gephy- reans (Gephyrea chetifera)—e.g. Echiurus, Thalas- sema, Bonellia. They live at the bottom of the sea, in sand, mud, or among rocks. While the adults of both sub-groups are not segmented, the larvee of the Echiuroids are, and on this and other grounds many authorities place them apart from the other Gephyreans and nearer the Annelids. See Selenka, ‘ Gephyrea,’ Challenger Rep. xiii. (1885) ; De Mace, Biilow, and Selenka, ‘Die Sipunculiden,’ in Semper’s Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, part ii. (1884); Rietsch, ‘Monograph of LEchiuridz,’ Recueil Zool. Suisse, iii. (1886). Gepidz, a people of Germanic origin, whom we first read of as settled about the mouth of the Vistula in the 3d century. Before the 5th century they had migrated to the Lower Danube, -where they were subjugated by the Huns; but, revolting against Attila’s son, they recovered their freedom and established themselves in Dacia. There their power grew so great that they levied tribute from the Byzantine emperors down to Justinian’s days. In the end of the 5th century a powerful enemy arose to them in the Ostrogoths; and after them came the Longobards, who, in alliance with the Avars, inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Gepidee in 566. A part of the last-named then submitted to the Avars, whilst a part accompanied the Longo- bards to Italy. Henceforward we hear of them no more. Gera, a town of Germany, cape of the small principality of Reuss-Schleiz, is pleasantly situated on the White Elster, 42 miles E. by 8. of Weimar by rail. Nearly destroyed by fire in 1780, it is for the most part a modern town, with broad and regular streets, but its older buildings include a castle and a fine town-hall. There are over a score of extensive woollen factories, besides cotton- works, dyeing and printing works, manufactures of machinery, leather, tobacco, and beer for export, and four publishing houses; and eight establish- ments, employing 1500 hands, turn out thousands of melodeons, accordions, and jews’-harps yearly. Pop. (1843) 11,300; (1880) 27,118; (1885) 34,152; (1890) 39,599 ; (1895) 42,300, nearly all Protestants. Gerace, a town of southern Italy, 4 miles from the sea, and 37 (58 by rail) NE. of Reggio. It has a cathedral, rebuilt after the earthquake of 1783, and a trade in wine, especially the esteemed Lacrima di Gerace. There are iron-mines and a hot sulphur-spring close by, and on a neighbouring plain are the ruins of theancient Locri. Pop. 5265. Gerando. See Dre GERANDO. Geraniacez, an order of thalamifloral dicoty- ledons, herbs or undershrubs of temperate coun- tries, particularly abundant at the Cape, and of which the leading genera Geranium, Pelargonium, and Erodium yield a great number of garden and greenhouse plants (see GERANIUM). In a wider sense the order is extended to include the closely related Lints (Linacez) and Sorrels (Oxalidacez), together with the curiously specialised Balsam- inaceewe, and sometimes also the Tropzeolacez (see TROPZOLUM), of which, however, the affinity is more doubtful. Geranium, the typical genus of Geraniacex, which includes about 100 perennial and annual herbs. The popular name (Crane’s-bill) is derived from the resemblance to the crane’s beak pre- sented by the beak-like process attached to the fruit, this curiously assists in the distribution of the seed by its characteristic mode of splitting spirally into awn-like processes and carrying the seed along with them. Twelve species are natives of the woods, hedgerows, and fields of Britain. Of these several are cultivated in gardens, especially G. sanguineum, with its variety Jancastriense, and the double-flowered form of G. sylvaticwm, one of the handsomest of border flowers, while among pretty exotic species may be named G. armenum, platypetalum, &e. Several are of. old medicinal Herb Robert (Geranium Robertianum). repute, notably G. Robertianum (Herb Robert or Stinking Crane’s-bill), which emits a strong dis- agreeable odour that is said to banish bugs: it is indigenous in the United States. G. maculatum is the Alum Root of North America—a_ root so powerfully astringent as to be employed, both i the Indians and the European settlers in the nited States, in domestic medicine for many disorders requiring the exhibition of astringents. G. carolinianwm is another American species. A few species produce edible tubers—e.g. G. tuberosum of South Europe, and G. parviflorum, the Native Carrot of Tasmania. The name Geranium is, how- ever, often popularly misapplied to the members of the allied genus Pelargonium; witness the so- called ‘searlet geranium,’ ‘ivy-leaved geranium,’ &e. See PELARGONIUM. Gérard, ErreNNE Maurice, ComTE, Marshal of France, was born at Damvilliers, in Lorraine, 4th April 1773. Volunteering into the army in 1791, he associated his fortunes for some years with those of Bernadotte, serving on the Rhine, in Italy, in the Vendée campaign, in Germany, and in Spain, where he especially distinguished himself at Fuentes de Ofioro. For his brilliant services at Austerlitz (1805) he was a ewe general of brigade; he also took a notable part at Jena (1806), Erfurt (1806), and Wagram (1809). During the Russian campaign of 1812 he rendered conspicuous service at the capture of Smolensk, in the battle of Valon- GERARD GERM 167 tina-Gora, and at the of the Beresina, After Napoleon’s return from Elba he commanded a division at Ligny, and was wounded at Wavre. The second restoration compelled him to leave France, and he did not return till 1817. In 1831 he commanded the French army sent to the assist- ance of the Belgians against the Dutch, whom he drove out of Flanders, and on 27th December 1832 compelled the citadel of Antwerp to capitulate. After the July revolution of 1830 he was appointed marshal and war-minister by Louis-Philippe; he was again war-minister from July to October in 1834. He died at Paris, 17th April 1852. Gérard, Baron FRANcoIS PASCAL, painter, born of French parentage at Rome, llth March 1770, at ten was brought to France, and at sixteen became the pupil of David. In 1795 he exhibited ‘Belisarius,’ which first brought him into notice; shortly afterwards he painted ‘Psyche receiving the First Kiss from Cupid.’ Previous to this he had already begun to work at portrait-painting, his portrait of Madame Bona- parte in 1799 being the beginning of his career as the ‘painter of kings.’ most all the royal and other celebrities who visited Paris between 1799 and 1837 were painted’ by Gérard, who owed his success not alone to his skill as a portraitist, but also to the charm of his manners and conversation. The grandest of his works are, however, historical pictures, the ‘ Battle of Austerlitz’ (1810) and the ‘Entry of Henry IV. into Paris’ (1814). Gérard was appointed first court-painter and raised to the rank of baron by Louis III. He died at Paris, 11th January 1837. Gérard’s most celebrated por- traits are those of Napoleon in his coronation robes, the Queen of Naples and her Children, Talleyrand, Talma, Louis-Philippe, and Madame Récamier. See books by Adam (3 vols, 1852-57) and H. Gérard (1867). . Gerard, JOHN, herbalist, was born at Nantwich, in Cheshire, in 1545. Settling in London, he kept Lord Burghley’s gardens for over twenty years, practised as a barber-surgeon, becoming master of the company in 1608, and died in 1612. His famous Herball was published in 1597, mainly based upon the Stirpium Historie Pemptades (1583) by Rembert Dodoens. An enlarged edition of agg Herball was issued by Thomas Johnson in : Gérard, caricaturist. See GRANDVILLE. Gérardmer (‘the Queen of the Vosges’), a holiday resort much frequented by Parisians, and famous for its cheese, is in the dep. of Vosges, 32 miles SE. of Epinal by rail. Pop. 7300. _ Ger’asa, in the time of the Romans a flourish- ing city of Palestine, was situated among the mountains of Gilead, ahout 20 miles east of the Jordan. Parts of the city wall are still in good js Seppe ; two theatres and several temples can identified ; and 230 columns are still standing. Gerbert. See SYLVEsTER II. Gerhardt, KARL Friepricu, chemist, born at Strasburg, 2lst August 1816, at fifteen was sent to the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe, and after- wards studied chemistry at Leipzig, and under Liebig at Giessen. In 1838 he arrived in Paris, where he lectured on chemistry, and where with his friend Cahours he commenced his researches on the essential oils. In 1844 he was appointed professor of Chemistry at Montpellier. About this time he ublished his Précis de Chimie Organique, in which e sketches the idea of ‘Homologous and Hetero- logous Series.’ In 1845-48, in association with Laurent, he published the Comptes rendus des Travaux de Chimie. Yn 1848 he resigned his chair and returned to Paris in order to follow out unin- terruptedly his ee investigations ; and in that city he established, between the years 1849 and 1855, in successive memoirs, his views of series and the theory of types with which his name is associated in the history of chemistry. It was there, also, that he gave to the scientific world his remark- able researches upon the anhydrous acids and the oxides, In 1855 he became professor of Chemistry at Strasburg. All his ideas and his discoveries are embodied in his 7raité de Chimie Organique (4 vols. 1853-56). He had hardly completed ‘the corree- tion of the last proof of this great work, when, after an illness of only two days, he died on 19th August 1856. See the Life by his friend Calours. Gerhardt, PAvuL, perhaps the best writer of hymns that the German Lutheran church has pro- duced, was born at Grifenhainichen, in Saxony, 12th March 1607, became dean at the church of St Nicholas in Berlin in 1657, but, in consequence of his opposition to the elector Frederick-William’s attempt to bring about a union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches, was banished from Branden- burg in 1666. The last seven years of his life he was pastor of Liibben, where he died, 6th June 1676. He wrote 123 hymns, all excellent, and many of them worthy to be placed amongst the choicest productions of Protestant sacred poetry. The one beginning ‘Commit thou all thy ways’ is well known in England from Wesley’s translation. Other exquisitely tender lyrics are ‘ Nun ruhen alle Wiilder’ (Now all the woods are sleeping), ‘O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden’ (O wounded head and bleeding), ‘Du bist zwar mein, und bleibest mein’ (Thou ’rt mine, yes, still thou art mine own). Géricault, THfopore (1791-1824), military painter and lithographer, was, with Delacroix, one of the first Romanticists (see PAINTING, Vol. VII. p. 700). He was born at Rouen, studied under Vernet and Guérin, early began to exhibit in the Salon (with the ‘Mounted Chasseur of the Imperial Guard’), worked for a year or two in Italy after 1816, and died at Paris. His favourite subjects were soldiers (especially cavalry) and horses, but his ‘ Raft of the Medusa’ became the manifesto of the naturalist-romantic movement. Gerizim and Ebal, the two highest moun- tains in the central Palestine chain (3000 feet), separated from each other by a deep narrow valley, in which stands the town of Nablus (q.v.). The Kad between them is very fertile. Jacob’s well stands where the vale joins the plain of Moreh. On the slope of Ebal to the north of the well is Sychar (now ri skar). Mount Gerizim, along with Mount Ebal, was the scene of a grand and impressive cere- mony, in which the whole people of Israel took part after crossing the Jordan, in obedience to a command which Moses had given them (Deut. xxvii.). The half of the tribes standing on Gerizim responded to and affirmed the blessings, thoseon Ebal the curses as pronounced by the Levites. The Samaritans built a temple on Mount Gerizim as a rival to that of Jerusalem, and organised a rival priesthood ; and the Samaritan Pentateuch closed the Decalogue with the injunction, ‘Thou shalt build a temple on Mount Gerizim, and there only shalt thou worship.’ And, though the Samaritan temple was destroyed by Hyreanus about 200 years after, the mountain on which it stood continued to be held sacred by the Samaritans. It was to Mount Gerizim that the ‘woman of Samaria’ referred when she said to our Saviour: ‘Our fathers worshipped in this mountain, and ye say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship.’ Subsequently, a Christian church in honour of the Virgin was built on it. Germ, a name applied to the egg-cell of plant or animal, either from the first or in its early 168 GERM stages; but also used in reference to micro- organisms associated with disease (see BACTERIA, &e.). By ‘germ-cells’ the reproductive elements, especially the ova, are meant; while ‘germ- plasma’ is a very common modern word for the most essential parts of the nuclei in the repro- ductive cells. See EMBRYOLOGY, HEREDITY. GERM THEORY OF DISEASE, as the name implies, seeks to find the explanation of certain well-recognised conditions of disease in the presence and action of specific living organisms within thé affected body. Though comparatively recently introduced as an efficient working hypothesis in the investigation of some hitherto ill-understood pathological phenomena, the correctness of the theory is now generally admitted. The facts which it has aided in establishing and the numberless investigations which it has inspired have created an important department of medical science. The study of bacteriology (see BACTERIA) has awakened fresh interest in almost every branch of medicine ; and the subject possesses a large and extensive literature of its own. The evolution of the theory was due mainly to two factors : (1) The discussions and investigations which circled round the process of fermentation ; (2) the application of more perfect microscopical methods to the study of the lowest forms of plant and animal life. (1) The familiar process of Fermentation (q.v.) gave birth to much debate. The earlier chemists (Gay-Lussac, and more recently Liebig) held that fermentation was merely the result of the process of decay of organic matter. Various modifications of this doctrine, which cannot be considered here, were enunciated, but the general conclusion remained the same. On the other hand, so early as 1812, Appert had demonstrated from the practical side that organic substances capable of fermentation or putrefaction could be preserved intact if kept in closely stoppered bottles which were afterwards ex- osed to the temperature of boiling water. In 1836 agniard-Latour described an organism, the yeast lant, which he affirmed to be constantly present in the fermenting fluid. Its growth and reproduc- tion he believed to proceed synchronously with the fermentation. Schwann (1837) described this organism independently, and Helmholtz (1843) con- firmed the observation. They maintained that the process, in place of being a mere decomposition, was vital and depended on the presence of the organism they had discovered. his revolution- ary doctrine was further elaborated pre-eminently by Pasteur and by Schultz, Schroeder, Dusch, Lister, Tyndall, and others. Their researches showed that fermentation was caused by the pres- ence of these organisms; that the exclusion of these from fluids capable of fermentation, by vari- ous methods of sterilisation and filtration of the air in which they were abundantly present, was sufficient to prevent its occurrence; that the doctrine which attributed the production of fer- mentation to the influence of certain gases—e.g. oxygen (Gay-Lussac )—was erroneous ; that the idea of the spontaneous generation (see SPONTANEOUS GENERATION) of such organisms within properly sterilised and protected fluids ( Needham, tian, Pouchet, Huizinga) was fallacious; and that the 30-called putrefaction was but one variety of fer- mentation. (2) One result of these discussions was to develop a refinement of the methods, of microscopical re- search, more especially with reference to the in- vestigation of the lowest forms of life (see Bac- TERIA). Though bacteria had been recognised and described in the 17th century (Leeuwenhoek), it is mainly to the researches of the latter half of the 19th century that we are indebted for an approach to an accurate knowledge of the life-history of these organisms. By the masterly labours of Cohn, De Bary, Zopf, Van Tieghem, Nigeli, Klebs, Koch, and many others, the methods of demonstration have been improved to an extraordinary degree. The elaboration of staining methods alone, in conjunc- — tion with the use of perfected lenses, has made possible the detection and examination of minute organisms hitherto unrecognisable. It is impossible to say. when the idea of an analogy between the familiar phenomena of fer- mentation and those of acute disease first arose. It is certain that before the 19th century there had been prevalent an ill-defined feeling after some- thing of the kind. More than two hundred years ago Robert Boyle (1627-91), in his ‘ Essay on the Pathological Part of Physik,’ clothes the idea in words which, as Tyndall has said, ‘have in them the forecast of prophecy.’ The idea received more definite formulation in consequence of the re- searches into the nature of fermentation just referred to. In 1848 Fuchs stated that he had discovered bacteria in animals which had died of septicemia. In 1850 it was announced (Davaine, Branell, Pollender) that bacilli had been detected in the carcasses of animals affected with anthrax. The discovery was corroborated by various ob- servers. But it was not till the disease had been induced by the inoculation of healthy animals with a minimal quantity of the organism (Davaine) that the Bacillus anthracis was recognised as the cause of the disease. Thus was afforded the first substantial proof of the germ theory. This success inspired further research on kindred lines. In comparatively quick succession other discoveries were announced, till, in 1882, Koch described the Bacillus tuberculosis as the organism responsible for the scourge of consumption, and in 1883 the bacillus of cholera. Emphasis must be laid on the statement that the discovery of an organism in the circulation or tissues of a diseased animal cannot be accepted as proving the causal efficacy of the former. Apart from further experiment, it were perfectly fair to argue that such organism was a mere accompani- ment of the morbid state, flourishing on the dying or diseased tissues. And, in fact, such secondary factors are recognised. It has, moreover, fre- quently happened that competing claims have been advanced in explanation of the same disease. It was necessary, therefore, that there should be formulated (Klebs, Koch) certain conditions, since known as Koch’s postulates, which must be ful- filled by an organism whose causal relationship with a given disease is maintained. These are as follows : (1) The organism must be demonstrated in the circulation or tissues of the diseased animal ; (2) the organism, so demonstrated, must be capable of artificial cultivation in suitable media outside the body, and successive generations of pure culti- vation obtained ; (3) such pure cultivation must, when introduced into a healthy and susceptible animal, produce the given disease; (4) the organ- ism must again be found in the circulation or tissues of the inoculated animal. The claims of organisms which fail to meet these demands must. be set aside to await further proof. The number of diseases whee specific origin is now generally admitted is cae SOs reat arge, but of few of these can we speak with the same certainty as may be done regarding consumption (tubereulosis) and splenic fever (anthrax). In other words, the fulfilment of all four postulates by many of them has not been demonstrated or has been disputed. Besides anthrax and tuber: culosis, the list includes leprosy, cholera ( Asiatic), relapsing fever, typhoid fever, yellow fever, malaria, diphtheria, dysentery, syphilis, acute pneumonia, Pe ee — ee GERM GERMAN CATHOLICS 169 gonorrhea, septicemia, erysipelas, actinomycosis, Ke. With considerable probability we may add whooping-cough, measles, scarlatina, typhus, small- xX, iy rophobia, tetanus, British cholera, Wc. ; but the evidence regarding these and others is defective, and, in some cases, less substantive than analogical. The specific organisms associated more or less exactly with those diseases are members of the ups (a) Coccacee and (6) Bacteriacew (see ACTERIA ). The admission that certain diseases are due to the presence and action of specific living organisms raises the further questions: (1) How do they enter the body? (2) How do they act? (1) How do they enter the body? It has been conclusively shown that the Bacillus tuberculosis may obtain access by the inhalation of germ-laden air, Browne ingestion of affeeted milk and possibly of tubercular meat, perhaps, too, through a cut or sore. It seems also likely that the bacilli may be transmitted from mother to feetus by way of the circulation. Similar lines of attack may be predicated of all the pathogenic organisms. Not- ably, in connection with wounds, it is important to r in mind the possibility of infection with the ee which induce septicemia—a fact on which was based the t advance in surgery associated with the name of Lister. See ANTI- SEPTIC SURGERY. The possibility of infection varies much accord- ing to the conditions of growth of the particular organism and the receptivity of the host. This explains, on the one hand, the popularly accepted view that certain diseases are much more infective than others. Thus, typhoid fever differs widely from scarlatina in respect of degree of contagious- ness. On the other hand, some persons undoubtedly are more susceptible to the attacks of certain organ- isms. Thus, among the subjects of tuberculosis, it is probable that preparedness of soil plays an important Fert in the production of the disease. And so with other pathogenic organisms. These processes have their anal in the more common phenomena of vegetable life. Sow some seeds and they will germinate and grow on any soil, however unlikely. Other seeds may be scattered profusely, but will not develop, unless the soil has oe care- eet and the other conditions of growth be fulfilled. It is impossible to enter here on the discussion of those conditions. Necessarily they vary much with different organisms. But it is important to realise the extreme value, from the therapeutic point of view, of their careful study. The first step to a rational treatment of such diseases is to know the responsible organism. This knowledge must include not only its shape and other physical char- acters, but the life-history of the microbe, and the conditions which assist or retard its development and reproduction. Such knowledge affords the only sound basis for a system of preventive medicine, which constitutes one of the most important depart- ments of practical hygiene. Although still in its infancy, the preventive treatment of endemic, epi- demic, and other contagious diseases has now become scientific. (2) How do the organisms act? This is a much- debated question. It has been the subject of some of the most valuable of recent researches in this department. Do they act mechanically as irritants? Or is their action nip by stealing from the tissues elements which are necessary to their de- velopment? Or have they a power of elaborating (or secreting) new products, which exert a toxic influence on the affected body? This last view is supported by weighty evidence and by the analogy of the fermentation processes already referred to. It would therefore seem that the microbe has the power of disturbing—or rather that, in order to the preservation of its own life, the microbe is compelled to disturb—the molecular arrangement of the elements in the medium in which it is de- veloping. The products thus elaborated have been termed Ptomaines (Ptdma), They were so named by Selmi, who discovered their presence in the dead body during various stages of putrefaction. The ptomaine doctrine has been accepted in explana- tion of the process of septicemia, and there is good reason for extending its application to the other infective Heeger It is essential, however, to re- member that, after the microbe has succeeded in invading the tissues, its further progress is not un- op . There is a constant warfare between the living cells of the host and the living and multiply- ing cells of the invader, the contest being decided in favour of the stronger. The researches of Metsch- nikoff and others seem to show that the bacilli can be destroyed by the white corpuscles of the blood, Granted that the organisms have entered the tissues or circulation, there still remain for the physician two modes of attack : (a) by attemptin to exterminate the microbe itself hvoaah suc agents as may discovered to be possessed of germicidal properties ; (4) by endeavouring to anta- gonise the poison which the microbe is distributin through the system. Many difficulties attend bot methods, inasmuch as agents sufficiently potent to effect either object are themselves likely to prove injurious to the infected tissues. The aim of cura- tive medicine is the discovery of remedies capable of preventing the growth of the microbe, yet innocuous to the host. Reference must be made, in conclusion, to the question of immunity. It is well ascertained that certain animals are not susceptible to the attacks of certain pathogenic organisms, and that others suffer comparatively slightly. In man there may be traced the occurrence of individual immunity. Such facts have not yet received a satisfactory explanation. The almost universal immunity after a first attack of certain fevers and the comparative immunity from smallpox conferred by Vaccination (q.v.) are of interest in this connection. The experi- ments of Pasteur and others on Bacillus anthracis indicate that by repeated cultivation under special conditions it is possible to lessen the virulence of the most virulent of organisms and that inocula- tion with this altered illus confers immunity against further attack. More striking still are the experiments of Pasteur in connection with rabies (Hydrophobia, q.v.). By a special method that ob- server has accomplished an attenuation of the virus —the microbe not having been determined—where- by the worst features of the disease are disturbed. By this means it has been found possible in cases of infection to anticipate a serious attack by the intro- duction of this modified virus. In explanation of this it has been supposed that a poisonous ptomaine is germinated during the process, which, when in- jected in quantity during the stage of incubation of the disease, prevents the development of the supposititious germ. Those and other kindred observations disclose a most hopeful development of the germ theory in the direction of preventive inoculation. The literature is wig & one. For general pur- poses the following may consulted: Tyndall, Essays on the Floating Matter of the Air; Watson Cheyne, Antiseptic Surgery ; Pasteur, Studies on Fermentation ; Duclaux, Ferments et Maladies ; Fliigge, Fermente und Mikroparasiten ; Schiitzenberger, Les Fermentations ; Gussenbauer, Pyo-hdmie und "Pyo-Sephthidmie ; and the works of Lister, Klein, &c. German Barm, See YEAST. German Catholies (Ger. Deutschkatholiken) is the name given to a y in Germany that 170 GERMAN CATHOLICS GERMANICUS CASAR separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1844. hatever might be the deeper causes of the schism, the immediate occasion of it was the exhibition of the Holy Coat at Treves (q.v.). In 1844 Bishop Arnoldi appointed a special pilgrimage to this relic. This proceeding called forth a protest from Johannes Ronge (1813-87), a priest in Silesia, who, having quarrelled with the authorities of his church, ha been suspended. Ronge addressed a public letter to Bishop Arnoldi in which he characterised the ex- hibition of the coat as idolatry. A short time pre- viously, Czerski, a priest at Schneidemiihl, in Posen, had seceded from the Roman Catholic Church, and had formed a congregation of ‘Christian Apostolic Catholics.’ Czerski and Ronge were naturally drawn into confederacy. Ronge addressed an appeal to the lower orders of the priesthood, calling upon them to use their influence in the pulpit and every- where to break the power of the papal curia, and of priestcraft in general, throughout Germany ; to set up a rational German Church independent of Rome, and governed by councils and synods; to abolish auricular confession, the Latin mass, and the.celibacy of the priests ; and to aim at liberty of conscience for all Christians. The first congregation of the new church was formed at Schneidemiihl, and took the name of ‘Christian Catholic.’ The confession of faith, which was drawn up by Czerski, differed little in oint of doctrine from that of the Catholic Church. he confession drawn up by Ronge for the congre- gation at Breslau, on the other. hand, completely eparted from the doctrine and ritual of the Roman Catholic Church. The Scripture was laid down to be the sole rule of Christian faith, and no external authority was to be allowed to interfere with the free interpretation of it. The essentials of belief were restricted to a few doctrines: belief in God as the Creator and Governor of the world, and the Father of all men; in Christ as the Saviour, in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian church, the forgive- ness of sins, and the life aera Baptism and the Lord’s Supper were held to be the only sacraments, though confirmation was retained. At the first council of German Catholics, held at Leipzig in 1845, the principles of the Breslau Confession were substantially adopted ; and by the end of the year there were some 300 congregations. But German Catholicism was destined soon to find enemies both within and without. To say nothing of orthodox Catholics, conservative Pro- testantism began to suspect it as undermining religion. And, as the movement fell in with the liberal tendencies of the times, the governments took the alarm, and set themselves to check its | spread.- Saxony took the lead, and Prussia soon followed, in imposing vexatious restrictions upon the ‘ Dissidents ;’ in Baden they were denied the rights of citizens, while Austria expelled them from her territories. It was more, however, internal dis- agreements than state persecutions that checked the prosperity of German Catholicism. Czerski and his adherents held closely by the doctrines and ritual of Rome; while Ronge’s party approached nearer and-nearer to the extreme Rationalists, and, leaving the province of religion altogether, occupied themselves with freethinking theories and demo- cratic politics. When the great storm of 1848 burst, Song was active in travelling and preach- ing, and, although his freethinking and political tendencies were repudiated by numbers of the body, they predominated in many places. After the molitical: reaction set in,. strong measures were taken against the German Catholics. The early enthusiasm of the movement apparently died out, and after the dissolution of the Frankfort parliament Ronge retired to London (in 1861 he returned to Germany, and lived successively at Breslau, Frankfort, Darmstadt, and Vienna). In 1850 a conference was held between the German Catholics and the ‘Free Congregations’ (Freie Gemeinden), an association of freethinking con. gregations which had been gradually forming since 1844 by secession from the Protectant Church, and with which an incorporate union was effected in 1859. Six years later the council refused to commit itself to belief in a personal God. From a mem- bership of 13,000 in 1867 in Prussia and Saxony, the body has gradually dwindled to almost total extinction. The Old Catholics (q.v.) may be re- garded as having superseded the German Catholic movement. See Kampe’s Geschichte des Deutsch- katholicismus (1860). German, Cousin-. See Cousin. Germander (Teucrium), a large and widely distributed genus of labiate herbs, of which all the European species are of old medicinal repute on account of their aromatic, bitter, and stomachic roperties. The species are numerous. The Wall ee or True Germander (7. chamedrys), often found on ruined walls, has probably been introduced from the south of Europe. With the German 7. Botrys, it enjoyed a high reputation in the treatment of gout. ood Germander or Wood Sage (7. Scorodonia) is a very common British lant, in dry bushy or rocky places. It is very itter and slightly aromatic. It is used in Jersey as a substitute for hops. Water Germander ( 7’, Scordium), in wet meadows, has a smell like garlic, Cat or Sea Thyme (7. Marum), of southern Europe, like catmint and valerian root, has great attractive. ness for cats. It is still sometimes used in the preparation of sneezing powders. Germanicus Cxsar, a distinguished Roman general, was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus, and of Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony and niece of Augustus. He was born 15 B.c., and by desire of Augustus was adopted in the year 4 A.D. by Tiberius, whom he accompanied in the war against the Pan- nonians, Dalmatians, and Germans. In the year 12 he was consul, and next year was appointed to the command of the eight legions on the Rhine. In 14 he was at Lugdunum Batavorum when news came of the death of the Emperor Augustus and of the mutiny for more pay and shorter service among the soldiers in Germany and Illyricum. Germanicus hastened to the camp and quelled the tumult by his personal popularity ; and at once led his soldiers against the enemy. Crossing the Rhine below esel, he attacked and routed the Marsi, and next year marched to meet the redoubtable Arminius (q.v.), the conqueror of Varus and _ his legion- | aries, whose bones had lain whitening for six years in the Teutoburg Forest. With solemn rites his soldiers buried these sad relies of disaster, then advanced against the foe, who, retiring into a difficult country, managed to save himself, and was not subdued until the year after, when Ger- manicus again carried a part of his army up the Ems in ships, crossed to the Weser, and completely overthrew Arminius in two desperate battles. The victories thus achieved were to have been followed up in the succeeding years, but Tiberius, jealous of the glory and popularity of Germanicus, recalled him from Germany in the year 17, and sent him to settle affairs in the East, at the same time appoint- ing as viceroy of Syria, in order secretly to counter- act him, the haughty and envious Cn. Calpurnius Piso. Germanicus died at Epidaphne, near Antioch, 9th October 19, probably of poison, to the profound sorrow of provincials and Romans alike. is wife, Agrippina, and two of her sons were put to death by order of Tiberius; the third son, Caligula, was spared. Of the three daughters who survived their father, Agrippina e as remarkable for he a a ee GERMANIUM GERMANY 171 vices as her mother had been for her virtues. Ger- manicus is one of the most attractive heroes of Roman history. The courage and success of the soldiership that had blotted out a great national di , the noble magnanimity of his private ‘character, the simplicity and purity of his life, and the shadow of impending death that touched him with romantic interest, combined to make him the darling of his contemporaries, and has left him, as rtrayed in the pees of Tacitus (Annals, i. and i.), stall a figure of unique interest to us, Germanium, a metallic element discovered in 1885 by Dr. Winckler in a silver ore (argyrodite) ; symbol, Ge; atomic weight, 72°3. It has a melt- ing-point about 1650° F. (900° C.); is oxidised when heated in air; erystallises in octahedra ; has a perfectly metallic lustre, and is of a grayish- white colour. As gallium had been named from France, the new metal was named after Germany. Fifteen years before its discovery its existence was prophesied by Mendeleétf as required to fill the gap in’ the periodic table between silicon and tin. Atomic THEORY. German Ocean. See NortH SEA. German Silver. This is a triple alloy of copper, nickel, and. zinc, and is sometimes called nickel silver. The best quality of it consists of four ote copper, two parts nickel, and two parts “iy ut this quality - the most, Sa ge to work. or some purposes the proportion of copper is slightly increased, and for a paslan which td be cast instead of stamped or hammered about 2 per cent. of lead is added. To make a malleable alloy, the three metals of which it is composed should all be of the best quality. German silver has a tendency to crack in b eon ing (q.v.), and is all the more liable to do this if its component metals are impure. Its crystalline structure is got rid of by og pant Bonbes and annealing. It is harder and tougher than brass, and takes a fine polish. In colour it is sufficiently near silver to make it valuable for plating with that metal. This, together with its hardness in resisting wear, has caused a great demand for German silver for certain wares made in Birmingham and Sheffield. Spoons and forks of this aber are made in im- mense numbers. Such articles as salvers, dish- covers, jugs, teapots, and the like are also largely made of it, but these objects, or at least some of them, are still more largely made of Britannia Metal (q.v.), a greatly inferior alloy, because much softer. German silver has a coppery odour, and is readily attacked by acid liquids, such as vinegar, which coat it with verdigris. Spoons and forks male of this alloy should therefore either be plated with silver or carefully kept clean. Of late years, through care in Ereperag a suit- able alloy, large objects, such as the bodies of jugs and coffee-pots, can be formed of sheet German silver by ‘spinning’ it on the lathe, instead of by stamping or by the slow process of hammering. Formerly it was only a soft alloy like Britannia metal that could be so treated. For some time past there has been a tendency to substitute for electroplate—i.e. German silver plated with real silver—white alloys having nickel for their basis. These, however, are but varieties of German silver known under different names, such as silveroid, argentoid, navoline, and nickeline. Some of them contain small quantities of tin, cadmium, and other metals. Mountings for ship-cabins, bar-fittings, and also forks and spoons have been manufactured on a considerable scale from these new alloys. German Tinder. See AMADOU. _ Germantown, a former borough of Pennsyl- vania, included since 1854 in the limits of Phila- delphia. Here an attack by Washington on the British camp, in the early morning of 4th October 1777, was EM the Americans losing 1000 men, the British 600, Germanus, ST, was Bishop of Auxerre, and is said to have been invited over to Britain to combat Pelagianism in 429. Acting under his directions the Christian Britons won the bloodless ‘ Alleluia Victory’ over the Picts and Saxons. In 1736 a column was erected on the supposed site, Maes Garmon (Germanus’ field), in Flintshire. There are several churches in Wales and Cornwall dedicated to St Germanus. Germany (from Lat. Germania) is the English name of the country which the natives call Deutsch- land, and the French L’Allemagne (see ALE- MANNI). The word is sometimes used to denote the whole area of the European continent within which the Germanic race and language are dominant. In this broad sense it includes, besides Germany proper, parts of Austria, Switzerland, and perha even of the Netherlands; but in the present article the name is to be understood as denoting the exist- ing Germanic empire, of which Prussia is the head. Germany occupies the central portions of Europe, and extends from 5° 52’ to 22° 53’ E. long., and from 47° 16’ to 55° 54’ N. lat. It is bounded on the N. by the German Ocean, the Danish peninsula, and the Baltic; on the E. by Russia and Austria; on the §. by Austria and Switzerland; and on the W. by France, Belgium, and the Nether- lands. The population in 1871 was 41,058,792; in 1880, 45,234, ; in 1895, 52,279,901. Its area is 211,168 sq. m., or about yet of that of all Europe —slightly larger than France, but not twice as large as Great Britain and Ireland. The coast-line measures about 950 miles. Germany is composed of a federation of twenty- five states, with one common imperial province, the names of which, with their areas and popula- tions in 1895, are given in the following list. eli- oland was ceded by Britain to Germany in 1890. The population of the empire in 1800 was 49,428,803. States. Area in | Pop. in 1895. Kinepoms— PG ey Perr eee te SEDER eet oe 136,073 $1,855,123 DER VEIM. n sinn sacecdanacdss <9 29,632 5,818,544 By BARONY. 2 oe Siate sins svechnn ieee 5,856 8,787, 4. Wiirtemberg..........002..+5 7,619 2,081,151 GRAND-DUCHIES— 5. OM. on oics sncdewcvsecences 5,891 1,725,464 ONO i a ldncn pans reeen ceeds 3,000 1,039,020 7. Mecklenburg-Schwerin...... 5,197 597,436 8 Saxe-Weimar................ 1,404 839,217 9. Mecklenburg-Strelitz ........ 1,144 101,540 10, Oldenburg............+--++- 2,508 373,739 Ducairs— FUN BEGNSWIOE Tics eee cece 1,441 434,213 12, Saxe-Meiningen............-. 964 234,005 18, Saxe-Altenburg ............- 517 180,313 14. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .......... 765 216,603 MAAC s a cvence cc te nade secs 917 293,298 PRINCIPALITIES— 16. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. 337 78,074 17. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .... 367 685 TO, WEldeGk. 6. ok sccsccseccceus 438 57,7 19 Reuss-Greiz...........0..00- 123 67,468 20. Reuss-Schleiz.........-.++++ 323 182,130 21. Schaumburg-Lippe.........- 133 41,224 22. Lippe-Detmold .......+...+++ 475 134,854 Free-Towns— 98. Litbeck .......cccccceceveses 116 83,324 24, Bremen. ..c.ccccscccssecsses 100 196,404 26. Hamburg .......2+eeseeeeees 160 681,632 REICHSLAND— Alsace-Lorraine...........++ 5,668 1,640,986 211,168 52,279,901 These several sovereign states vary enormously in area and influence. Thus, while Prussia alone exceeds the British Islands in area, Bavaria 1s almost as large as Scotland, Wiirtemberg is larger 172 GERMANY than Wales, and Baden and Saxony are neither of them equal to Yorkshire. Waldeck is about equal to Bedford, and Reuss-Greiz is smaller than Rutland, the smallest English county. The Duke of Sutherland’s estates (1838 sq. m.) are larger in area than all Mecklenburg-Strelitz, or than all Brunswick, respectively tenth and ninth in size of the German states. The Duke of Buccleuch’s Scottish estates alone (676 sq. m.) exceed in area Saxe-Altenburg or any of the eleven smaller states. In 1890 Berlin, the capital of the empire, had 1,579,244 inhabitants ; Leipzig, 353,272; Munich, 348,317; Breslau, 335,174; Hamburg, 323,923; Cologne, 281,273; Dresden, 276,085 ; Magdeburg, 202,325. There were in all 26 towns with a popu- lation of above 100,000; 21 between 50,000 and 100,000 ; and 39 between 30,000 and 50,000. Besides the political divisions above mentioned, there are certain distinctive appellations applied to different parts of Germany, which have been derived either from the names and settlements of the ancient Germanic tribes, or from the circles and other great subdivisions of the old empire. Thus, the name of ‘Swabia’ is still applied in common parlance to the districts embracing the greater part of Wiirtem- berg, southern Baden, south-western Bavaria, and Hohenzollern; ‘Franconia,’ to the Main districts of Bamberg, Schweinfurt, and Wiirzburg; ‘the Palatinate,’ to Rhenish Bavaria and the north of Baden; ‘the Rhineland,’ to portions of Baden, Rhenish Prussia, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau ; ‘ Voigtland,’ to the high. ground between Hof and Plauen ; ‘ Thuringia,’ to the districts lying between the Upper Saale and the Werra, as Saxe- Weimar, &c.; ‘Lusatia,’ to the eastern part of Saxony ; ‘ East Friesland,’ to the country between the Lower Weser and Ems; and ‘ Westphalia,’ to the district extending between Lower Saxony, the Netherlands, Thuringia, and Hesse, to the German Ocean. The four Saxon duchies and the four Schwarzburg and Reuss principalities are frequently grouped together as the ‘ Thuringian States.’ ~ Physical Character.—Germany presents’ two ver distinct physical formations. (1) A range of high tableland, occupying the centre and southern parts of the country, interspersed with numerous ranges and groups of mountains, the most important of which are the Harz and Teutoburgerwald, in the north; the Taunus, Thiiringerwald, Erzgebirge, and Riesengebirge, in the middle; and the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), Rauhe Alb, and Bavarian Alps in the south ; and containing an area, includ- ing Alsace and Lorraine, of 110,000 sq. m. The Brocken is 3740 feet high ; the Vosges reach 4700 ; the Feldberg in the Black Forest is 4903; and the Zugspitz in the Noric Alps of Bavaria, the highest peak in Germany, is 9665 feet in height. (2) A vast sandy plain, which extends from the centre of the empire north to the German Ocean, and including Sleswick-Holstein, contains an area of about 98,000 sq.m. This great plain, stretching from the Rus- sian frontier on the east to the Netherlands on the west, is varied by two terrace-like elevations. The one stretches from the Vistula into Mecklenburg, at no great distance from the coast of the Baltic, and has a mean elevation of 500 to 600 feet, rising in one point near Danzig to 1020 feet ; the other line of elevations begins in Silesia and terminates in the moorlands of Liineburg in Hanover, its course being marked by several summits from 500 to 800 feet in height. A large portion of the plain is oceupied by sandy tracts interspersed with deposits of peat ; but other parts are moderately fertile, and admit of successful cultivation. The surface of Germany may be regarded as belonging to three drainage basins. The Danube (q.v.) from its source in the Black Forest to the borders of Austria belongs to Germany; and iN through its channel the waters of the greater part of Bavaria are poured into the Black Sea. Its chief tributaries are the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn on the right ; and the Altmiihl, Nab, and Regen on the left. By far the greater part of the surface (about 185,000 sq. m.) has a northern slope, and belongs partly to the basin of the North Sea, partly to that of the Baltic. The chief German streams flowing into the North Sea are the Rhine (q.v.), with its tributaries the Neckar, Main, Lahn, Sie : Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe on the right, and the Ill and Moselle on the left ; the Weser (q.v.), with its tributary the Aller; and the Elbe (q.v.), with its tributaries the Havel, Mulde, and Saale. Into the Baltic flow the Oder (q.v.), with its tributaries the Warthe, Neisse, and Bober; the Vistula (q.v.), or in German Weichsel, with its tributaries the Narew, Drewenz, and Brahe; the Memel; and the Pregel. The natural and artificial waterways of Germany are extensive, especially in the northern plain. The most important of the numerous canals which connect the great river-systems of Germany are Ludwig’s Canal (110 miles long) in Bavaria, which, by uniting the Danube and Main, opens a com- munication between the Black Sea and the German Ocean ; the Finow (40 miles) and Friedrich-Wil- helm’s (20 miles) canals in Brandenburg ; the Plaue Canal (20 miles), between the Elbe and the Havel; the Kiel and Eider Canal (21 miles), uniting the Baltic and German Ocean ; and the canals between the Oder and Vistula, Rhine and Rhone (225 miles), and Rhine, Marne, and Seine (165 miles). The North Sea and Baltic Canal, from Brunsbiittel at the mouth of the Elbe to Kiel, begun in 1887 and finished in 1895, was designed mainly for the use of warships. Numerous lakes occur both in the table- land of southern Germany (Bavaria) and in the low lands of the northern districts, but few of them are of any great size. The so-called ‘ Haffs’ of the north coasts are extensive bays at the mc aths of eat rivers,so curiously landlocked as to practically orm huge lagoons or coast-lakes. The chief are the Stettiner Haff, the Frische Haff at Kénigs- berg, and the Kurische Haff at Memel. Ger- many abounds in swamps and marsh-lands, which are especially numerous in the low northern: dis- tricts. Its mineral springs occur principally in Nassau, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia. Many of these springs have retained their high reputation from the earliest ages. Geology.—The great plain of North Germany consists of strata of the same age as the Tertiary strata of the Paris basin, covered with very recent sand and mud. Newer Tertiary beds occupy the river-basin of the Rhine north from Mainz; they consist of fine light-coloured loam, and contain the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and other contemporaneous mammals. Erratics are scattered over the north of Germany. The whole district in the centre of Germany, from the Danube north- wards to Hanover, consists of Secondary strata. The rocks of the Trias period are best known in Germany, the typical rocks of Bunter Sandstein, Muschelkalk, and Keuper being developed here so as to justify the name Trias. The Trias is highly fossiliferous, abounding especially in marine shells, and containing several genera of remark- able labyrinthodont saurians. Jurassic rocks occur in central Germany; at Hanover they consist of clays and marl, with beds of sandstone and limestone, containing coal and ironstone of such value that they have been extensively wrought. Intruded igneous rocks have tilted the beds of the Cretaceous strata in some districts to a nearly vertical position, and have metamorphosed them into crystalline marbles and siliceous sandstones. Of the Paleozoic rocks, the Carboniferous strata — are almost entirely absent from Germany. The GERMANY 173 coal obtained in the country is from rocks of a later True coal-beds are found in Rhenish Prussia. the sedimentary rocks of the Harz Mountains are chiefly Devonian; to the south-east, near Harz- gerode, they are Upper Silurian. They are all greatly dislocated by granite and other intrusive rocks. The Harz Mountains are surrounded by a zone of Permian rocks. The stratified rocks of the Thiiringerwald are also Devonian, resting on Lower Silurian strata, the lower portion of which is highly metamorphosed into quartzose schists; the re- mainder consists of graywacke, slate, and sand- stone, with limestone and alum slates. There are numerous fucoid and annelid impressions in the older beds, and graptolites, orthoceratites, and trilobites in the newer. The basaltic rocks, trachytes, and other volcani¢e products are largel developed in the Eifel, Siebengebirge, Westerwald, Vogels, Rhingebirge, and other mountain-systems of central Germany. Climate.—The climate of Germany presents less diversity than a first glance at the map might lead one to infer, for the greater heats of the more southern latitudes are considerably modified by the hilly character of the country in those parallels, while the cold of the northern plains is mitigated by their vicinity to the ocean. The average decrease in the mean temperature is, in going from south to north, about 1° F. for every 52 miles; and in going from west to east, about 1° F. for every 72 miles. The line of perpetual snow varies from 7200 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The mean annual rainfall is 20 inches. The rainfall is heaviest on the coast and in the mountains; least in Silesia, on the Danube at Sigmaringen, in Rhenish Bavaria, and at Wustrow in Mecklenburg. The rainfall in the Upper Harz reaches 66 inches. The difference between the greatest heat and the test cold in Germany is about 130°.F. January is the coldest and July the warmest month. The following table shows the mean annual records of the temperature at different points of the continent : Annual mean. Summer. Winter, REMMI cS sh o.csiah ex s homewa’ 47° F. 64° F, 30° F. PEOPORD kes dsc alec eva ceases 48 67 29 Frankfort-on-the-Main ........ 48°5 66 81 MMMMPRRTEDS 5 hsp nk tos hd'n a Siaia Votes Ade 46°5 66 27 Hanover............. ee eeeeee 48 63 33 KGnigsberg........0scc0005 005048 62 a ' Products.—The mineral products of Germany are very rich and varied, and their exploitation forms a most important industry. The chief min- ing and smelting districts are in Silesia, on the Lower Rhine, in the Upper Harz, and in Saxony. Silver is found in the Upper Harz and Saxony. Iron occurs in numerous mountain-ranges, especi- ally in Upper Silesia and in Rhenish Weetphalia, Alsace and Lorraine contain a t part of per- haps the largest iron-deposit in Europe, which stretches into France and Luxemburg. The iron of the Thiiringerwald is fine, though not abundant. The chief coalfields are in Silesia, Westphalia (on the Ruhr), and Saxony—the first containing the largest coalfield in Europe. Prussia yields nearly one-half of the zinc annually produced in the world. Lead is found in the Harz, in other parts of Prussia, and in Saxony. A little copper is mined at Mansfeld. Tin and kee, SFR are yielded by the Erzgebirge ; manganese at Wiesbaden ; quicksilver in Westphalia; antimony in Thuringia. Salt is roduced at Halle, Stassfiirt, and other of ssia. Germany is rich in clays of all kinds, from the finest to the coarsest: the porcelain of Meissen, the ? aeesatd of Thuringia, and the glass of Silesia and Bavaria are celebrated. Building stone is well distributed ; marble, alabaster, slates, and lithographic stones also occur; and cobalt, arsenic, sulphur, saltpetre, alum, gypsum, bismuth, pumice-stone, Tripoli slate, kaolin, emery, ochre, and vitriol are all among the exports of Germany. The following table shows the production of the five years 1882-86, with the yearly average, and the produce for 1887 and 1894, of the chief mine- “oo of Germany (including the Duchy of Luxem- urg) : Yearl Produce in 1000-2008. average. +1 cals oa tons. tone, tons. tons, Anthracite ...... 281,672,500 66,334,500 60,334,000 76,772,700 Lignite.......... 78,620,300 14,724,060 15,808,600 22,103,400 Dericva Ghatex ed 7,061,700 1,410,340 1,485,500 735,500 SOUR ONG. sane e ci ,669,300 8,733,860 9,351,100 12,408,800 Zine ore. ........ 3,390,300 678,060 700 728,600 Lead ore......... 826,700 165,340 157,600 162,700 Copper ore ...... 2,890,100 578,020 507,600 588,200 In the returns for 1894 there are also 1,643,600 tons of potassic salt and 290,500 tons of ‘other products.’ Silver to the amount of 450 tons was produced in 1893, with 3074 kilograms of gold ; and nickel, bismuth, vitriol, and other chemical manu- factures of a total weight of 29,098 tons. Cereals are extensively cultivated in the north, but the value of the wheat, barley, oats, and {2 imported exceeds the value of that exported by £2,500,000 a year. The export of potatoes exceeds the imports by £400,000. Hemp and flax, madder, woad, and ron grow well in the central districts, where the vine, the cultivation of which extends in suitable localities as far north as 51°, is brought to great perfection. The best wine-producing districts are the valleys of the Daaiabe, Rhine, Main, Neckar, and Moselle, which are, moreover, generally noted for the excellence of their fruits and vege- tables. The best tobacco is grown on the Upper Rhine, on the Neckar, and in Alsace, but inferior qualities are largely produced elsewhere. The hops of Bavaria have a high reputation, and the chicory grown in that country, and in the district between the Elbe and Weser, is used all over Europe as a substitute for coffee. Magdeburg is the centre of a large beetroot-growing industry. According to the survey of 1883, corrected for 1887, 48-7 per cent. (65,779,920 acres) of the entire area of the empire was given up to arable land, garden-land, and vineyards. Anhalt had the highest proportion of such land; and, excluding the domains of the free towns, Oldenburg had the lowest. About 20°3 per cent. (27,361,428 acres) was occupied by heath, meadow, and pasture, Oldenburg containing the test proportion, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha the owest. The chief crops in 1887 were meadow- hay, 14,778,650 acres ; rye, 14,605,700 acres ; oats, 9,525,610 acres; potatoes, 7,295,368 acres; wheat, 4,799,200 acres; barley, 4,327,800 acres; and spelt, 926,790 acres. In 1887-88 tobacco occupied 53,665 acres; in 1881-82, 68,120 acres. Vines covered 300,525 acres in 1887-88, and yielded 52,624,924 gallons of wine. The most extensive forests are found in central Germany, while the deficiency of wood in the north-west parts of the great plain is in some de met by the abund- ance of turf. Germany in 1883 had 34,770,995 acres (25°7 per cent, of its area) in woods and forest. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt had the highest proportion of area devoted to forest ; and, excluding the free-towns, Oldenburg had the lowest. The largest forests are of firs and red pines (as in the Black Forest, Upper Harz, Thiiringerwald, and Riesengebirge), beech (Lower Harz and Baltic coast), pines (east of Elbe, Bavaria, Franconia, and on the Rhine), and oaks (Lower Rhine, West- phalia, Odenwald, and Upper Silesia). Germany has long been noted for the good breed of horses raised in the north ; Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg have an equal reputation for their sheep and the fine quality of the wool which they yield ; and the rich alluvial flats of Mecklenburg 174 GERMANY and Hanover are celebrated for their cattle. The forests of northern and central Germany abound in small game of various kinds; and a few still shelter wild boars. The Bavarian Alps afford shelter to the larger animals, as the chamois, the red deer and wild goat, the fox and marten. Wolves are still found in Bavaria, the eastern provinces of Prussia, and in Lorraine. The bear is now extinct, and the beaver nearly so. In all the plains in the north storks, wild geese, and ducks are abundant. most generally distributed are carp, salmon, trout, and eels; the rivers contain also crayfish, pearl- bearing mussels, and leeches. The oyster, herring, and cod fisheries constitute important branches of industry on the German shores of the Baltic and North Sea. Germany stands next to Great Britain in regard to the care and success with which its agricultural, mining, and other natural capabilities have been cultivated. All the German states, and especially Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, encourage agriculture, and have endeavoured, by the establishment of agricultural colleges and exhibitions, to diffuse among the people a. know- ledge of recent scientific appliances. Forestry receives almost as much attention in Germany as agriculture ; and, like the latter, is elevated to the rank ef a science. The larger woods and forests in most of the states belong to the government, and are under the care of special boards of management, which exercise the right of supervision and con- trol over all forest lands, whether public or private. Manufactures.—The oldest and most important of the German industrial arts are the manufactures of linen and woollen goods. The chief localities for the cultivation and preparation of flax, and the weaving of linen fabrics, are the mountain-valleys of Silesia, Lusatia, Westphalia, and Saxony (for thread-laces); while cotton fabrics are principally made in Rhenish Prussia and Saxony. The same districts, together with Pomerania, Bavaria, Alsace, Wiirtemberg, and Baden, manufacture the choicest woollen fabrics, including damasks and carpets. The silk industry has its central point in Rhenish Prussia, with a special development in the district ‘of Diisseldorf. Germany rivals France more keenly in the production of satins than in that of heavier all-silk goods. Jute-spinning is carried on in Bruns- wick, at Meissen, and at Bonn; thread is manu- factured in Saxony, Silesia, and the Rhine pro- vinces; and hosiery is most largely produced in Saxony and Thuringia. The making of toys and wooden clocks, and wood-carving, which may be regarded as almost a speciality of German industry, flourish in the hilly districts of Saxony, Bavaria, and the Black Forest. Paper is made chiefly in the districts of Aix-la-Chapelle, Arnsberg, and Liegnitz, and in Saxony. Tanning, especially in the south-west, is an ancient German industry. The best iron and steel manufactures belong to Silesia, Hanover, and Saxony; in 1893, 4,986,000 metric tons, representing a value of £10,800,000, were handled in the foundries of Germany. Silesia probably possesses the finest glass-manufactories, but those of Bavaria are also important; while Saxony and Prussia stand pre-eminent for the excellence of their china and earthenware. Augs- burg and Nuremberg dispute with Munich and Berlin the title to pre-eminence in silver, gold, and jewelry work, es in the manufacture of philo- sophical and musical instruments; while Leipzig and Munich claim the first rank for typefounding, printing, and lithography. The trading cities of | northern Germany nearly monopolise the entire business connected with the preparation of tobacco, snuff, &c., the distillation of spirits from the pete and other roots, and the manufacture of eet-root sugar; while vinegar and oils are pre- Among the fishes of Germany the’ ared almost exclusively in central and southern ermany. In 1885-86, 918,948,000 gallons of beer were brewed in the German empire, the chief pro- ducing states being Prussia (477,138,200 gals.) and Bavaria (278,645,400 gals.). The annual consump- tion per head of the population is 19°3 gallons. According to the industrial census of 1882, the number of persons in Germany engaged in manu- factures af commerce was 7,966,783. The follow- ing figures, showing the distribution of that total, afford a view of the comparative importance of the various industries: Clothing, washing, &c., 1,334,007; building and related industries, 946,583 ; retail trading, 853,827 ; textile industries, 850,859 ; metal-working, carriage and ship building, &c., 813,906; preparation of food and food-materials, 663,226; mining (including founding and _salt- winning), 552,020; workers in wood and wicker, 521,660; postal service, transport, &e., 437,040; lodging and refreshment, 279,451; industries in stone, earth, clay, 221,006; popes and leather working, 220,039; chemicals and lighting materials, 88,397; printing, &c., 69,643; art industries, 23,893; miscellaneous, 91,226. Besides these, 8,065,350 were engaged in agriculture, 91,630 in forestry and hunting, 55,168 in horticulture, and 24,348 in fishing. Commerce and Shipping.—The multiplicity of small states into which the German land was long broken up opposed great obstacles to the develop- ment of commerce ; but the difficulty was to some extent obviated by the establishment of the Zoll- verein (q.v.), or Customs and Trade Confederation, and partly also by the absorption of several of the smaller states by Prussia. In 1871 a Zollund Handels-Gebiet (Customs and Trade Territory ) was formed in Germany, including Luxemburg (1010 sq. m.; 213,283 inhabitants in 1885) and the Austrian district of Jungholz (212 inhabitants), but exclud- ing Hamburg, Bremen, and parts of Oldenburg, Prussia, and Baden (together 140 sq. m. ; 754,705 inhabitants). On October 15, 1888, however, all these districts entered the union, with the excep- tion of the Baden territory (4054 inhabitants), and part of the old free-port of Hamburg (152 inhab- itants). The old Zollverein parliament is repre- sented by the Reichstag, and the Zollverein council by the Bundesrath, which appoints three perman- ent committees—for finance, for excise and cus- toms, and for trade. The revenues of the union are derived from customs duties upon imports, and from excise duties on tobacco, salt, beetroot-sugar, brandy, malt, &c., and are divided among the ditferent states according to the populations. The following table Sous the exports of home produce and the imports for home consumption in 1888, for the customs union as constituted before October of that year: Official Class. Exports. Imports. 1. Living animals.............. £4,725,350 | £7,783,200 2. Seeds and plants ............ 1,308,900 129, 8. Animal products ............ 1,057,550 4,051,100 OME fies cl oae 5,764,950 | 8,550,000 5. Food-stuffs............ 19,569,450 87,564,350 6. Tallow, oils, &c........)¢ 1,330,000 10,763,950 7. Chemicals and drugs... | 2 11,805,450 | 12,142,250 8. Stone, clay, and glass.. | 4 5,870,450 2,559,650 9. Metals and metal goods|=E} 24,334,950 | 15,857,500 10. Wood and wickerwork.. [25 4 8,534,800 Vio WGaNer i sa.qsases ous « Ha 4,731,550 711,300 12. Leather and hides......] & g 11,846,100 8,366,050 13. Textiles and felt....... 28| 53,761,950 | 51,271,250 14, Caoutchouc............ 1,252,300 1,420,100 15. Carriages, furniture, &c...... 142,350 25,500 16. Machinery and instruments. . 6,667,100 2,472,500 17, Hardware, toys, &.......... 4,268,450 1,276,000 18. Literature, art, &c........... 3,619,800 1,314,550 19. Miscellaneous............... 83,050 ata TO sey isc cesses £167,730,100 | £171,793,850 GERMANY 175 The development of German exports and imports has been of late years rapid ; the exports to Britain have largely increased, and German manufacturers have now secured a large hold in many markets once ruled by English exporters. Between 1883 and 1893 the value of German manufactured goods imported into Great Britain increased by 30 per cent. or by £5,000,000; in 1894 the value was £26,874,470. Meanwhile British exports to Germany (£17,796,129 in 1894) decreased. And German exports to the United States increased in ten years from £8,750,000 to £14,500,000; to Australia from £315,000 to £890,000. In 1891 Germany sent us 110,000 tons of manufactured iron and steel, while we sent her 32,000. In the five years 1890-94 German exports of iron and steel increased from 957,963 tons to 1,438,585, while the export of Eng- lish iron decreased from 2,706,260 tons to 1,735,787. In textiles Germany has also profited to the dis- advantage of Great Britain. The German mercantile fleet is the fourth in the world, ay 2 excelled only by those of Great Britain, the United States, and Norway. In 1895 it consisted of 2622 sailing ships, of 660,856 tons burden, and 1043 steamers, of 893,046 tons; mak- ing a total of 3665 vessels of 1,553,902 tons. The leading ports are Hamburg, Bremerhaven (for Bre- men), Stettin, Danzig, Kiel, Liibeck, and Kénigs- berg. In 1893 there entered German ports 66,655 vessels, of 14,621,634 tons, and cleared 67,219 ships, of 14,724,658 tons. Of the shipping enter- ing, 3,052,450 tons were British, and 699,000 tons Danish; 5,591,000 tons were German. Besides this maritime shipping trade, Germany carries on a very active commerce between its own internal ports, by means of 20,390 vessels (1153 steamers), plying on the numerous navigable rivers and canals. In her commercial policy Germany has of late years committed herself more and more to protec- tion; and by a law of July 1879 a protective policy was substituted for the previous free-trading principles of the empire. The chaos of coinages in use before the establishment of the empire has been rectified by the substitution (1873) of a uni- form imperial system, the standard being gold (see BIMETALLISM). The silver mark, superseding guldens and thalers, is almost exactly equal to a shilling in value. Since 1872 the metrical system of he: a and measures has been in use. Railways, &c.—The first railway in Germany was the Ludwigsbahn between Nuremberg and Fiirth, completed in 1835; but the first of any length was built between Leipzig and Dresden in 1837-39. In 1887-88 the railways in Germany had a total length of 24,706 English miles. Of that total 21,268 miles were state lines, 263 miles were private lines under state management, and 3175 miles were private lines under private management. The postal and telegraphic systems of all the German states, except Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, are now under a central imperial administration ; and since 1872, in accordance with treaties con- eluded between Austria and Prussia, a German- Austrian postal union has been established. The postal system includes the expedition of passengers and goods by the post-carriages of the several departments. In 1887 there were 19,476 post-offices in the empire, and 14,990 telegraph-offices. The total length of telegraph lines at the end of 1887 was 55,748 miles, with 198,214 miles of wire. This double department employed 101,208 hands. In 1887-88 its income was £10,672,322, and its ex- penditure £9,157,247. Population, &c.—Four-fifths of the population of this country are of the race called in English Germans, in French Allemands, but by the sins themselves Deutsche. The term utsch, in Gothie thiudisk, in Old High Ger. diutisc ( Latinised into theotiscus), is derived from the Gothic substan- tive thiuda, ‘ people,’ and therefore meant originally - the popular aliecane or, in the mouth of the learned, the vulgar tongue. In the 12th and 13th centuries it became the accepted designation both of this widespread tongue and of the race that speak it. The German-speaking inhabitants of the empire number upwards of 43,000,000; but a considerable proportion of these are not of the Germanic stock. Among the peoples retaining their own language (about 3} millions) are Poles (exclusively in eastern and north-eastern Prussia), 2,450,000; Wends (in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), 140,000; Czechs (in Silesia), 50,000; Lithuanians (in eastern Prussia), 150,000; Danes (in Sleswick), 140,000; French (in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace, and Lorraine) and Walloons (about Aix-la-Chapelle in Rhenish Prussia), 280,000. The Germans are divided into High and Low Germans; the language of the former is the cultivated language of all the German states ; that of the latter, known as Platt-Deutsch, is spoken in the north and north-west. As to the colour of the hair, Professor Virchow caused obser- vations to be made on the hair of 1,758,827 school children, four-fifths of the total number. The result showed that 31°80 per cent. belonged to the blonde type ; 14°05 to the brunette type; and 54°15 to the intermediate type. The blondes were most numerous in North Germany, the brunettes in South Germany. It is computed that there are 23,000,000 Germans beyond the boundary of the empire, of whom 94 millions are in Austria, 7 in the United States, 2 in Switzerland, 400,000 in Poland (besides 800,000 German Jews). There are also many in the Volga country, in middle and south Russia, Roumania, and Turkey. The average density of the population of Ger- many is about 222 per sq. m. 1e most densel populated country of the empire is Saxony, wit 513 per sq. m.; the most sparsely populated is Mecklenburg-Strelitz, with 87 per sq.m. The con- centration of the population in large towns is not so common in Germany as in some other countries. Although in 1885 there were 137 towns with 20,000 inhabitants and upwards, only one of these reached a million, three others 250,000 (see p. 172), and seventeen others 100,000; twenty-three had be- tween 50,000 and 100,000. Emigration:—During the last fifty years emi- gration from Germany has assumed very large proportions ; but since 1881, when the highest total (220,798) was reached, the annual number of emigrants has greatly decreased. Between 1830 and 1887 it is calculated that about 4,200,000 emi- ants left the country, five-sevenths of whom were ener for the United States of North America. The others went, in varying proportions, to South America, Australia, Canada, Africa, and Asia. In 1851-60 about 1,130,000 emigrants left Germany ; in 1860-71, 970,000; in 1871-80, 595,150; and in 1881-88, 1,143,570. In 1886 the number was 83,218; in 1887, 103,055; and in 1888, 98,515, besides about 4000 sailing from French ports. By far the largest proportion of emigrants come from the northern parts of the empire: in 1888 the provinces of Posen and West Prussia each con- tributed over 12,000 to the Prussian total of 63,000 Bavaria sent 12,200; Wiirtemberg, 6500; Saxony, 2300. In 1894 the total number of emigrants was only 40,964. On the other hand there were in 1890, 508,594 foreigners in Germany, of whom 205,545 were Austrians and 15,534 were born in Great Britain and Ireland. Colonies.—The colonial extension of Germany was inaugurated under Bismarck in 1884, with the ac- 176 GERMANY quisition of Angra-Pequefia, Africa. Sincethattime, 3 to 1899, the following regions (besides Kiau- - chow, leased by China in 1898) have become Ger- man possessions or come under German protection : Area in | Population. Sq. miles, | I. Arrica— Togoland, on the Slave Coast 400 40,000 CAIMIOTOON (2 fsljcgia asa pow bee 115,000 200,000 Damaraland and Great Nama- MPHGUATL gs Coreg aisle) sicls tneye 3:0 230,000 7 Usagara, &c., in East Africa 60,000 WAGHIBN GAH steed hile er: 520,000 German Protectorate, agreed upon with Britain and Zan- Pah Aaah MeO ears aby ea 240,000 II. Potynrsta— Tn Marshall Islands......... 150 10,000 Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, in NewGuinea....2..5..0... 70,300 109,000 Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, G20.) 032. ea eseee 18,150 188,000 Tn Solomon Islands ......... 4,200 45,000 In Samoan Islands,.......... 1,000 29,100 In Caroline, Ladrone, and Pelew Islands............ 810 42,000 Education.—Education is more generally diffused in Germany than in any other country of Europe, and is cultivated with an earnest and systematic devotion not met with to an equal extent among other nations. Besides the Academy at Miinster (founded 1780; 476 students) and the small Lyceum at Braunsberg (1568), which have only the two faculties of Philosophy and Catholic Theology, there are 20 universities: Heidelberg (1386), Wiirzburg (1402), Leipzig (1409), Reaiack (1419), Greifswald (1456), Freiburg (1457), Munich (1472), Tiibingen (1477), Marburg (1527), Kénigsberg (1544), Jena (1557), Giessen (1607), Kiel (1665), . Gottingen (1734), Erlangen (1743), Berlin (1809), Breslau (1811), Halle (1817), Bonn (1818), Stras- burg (1872). These institutions embrace the four faculties of Theology, Law, Medicine, and Philo- sophy ; in 1889 they had 2260 professors and teachers, and in 1888-89 (winter session) 28,550 students. Berlin (5790 students), Leipzig (3430), and Munich (3602) are the largest universities ; Jena (463) and Rostock (346) the smallest. Of the universities, 14 are Protestant—i.e. in the department of theology they teach only Protestant theology; three are Roman Catholic—viz. Freiburg, Munich, and Wiirz- burg; three—viz. Bonn, Breslau, and Tiibingen— are mixed, Protestantism prevailing in the first two, and Roman Catholicism in the last. There are also 16 polytechnic institutions ; 787 gymnasia, realschulen, &c.; numerous special schools of technology, agriculture, forestry, mining, com- merce, military science, &c.; several seminaries for teachers, and for the ministers of different reli- gious denominations ; and nearly 60,000 elementary schools. The attendance of children at school, for at least four or five years, is made compulsory in nearly all the German states, and hence the pro- portion of persons who cannot read and write is exceedingly small. Among the military recruits of 1887-88 only 0°71 per cent. were unable either to read or write. In East Prussia the percentage was 4:16—the highest in the empire. In all the other states, except Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1°27), the number of illiterate recruits was less than 1 per cent. Several of the smaller states had no recruits unable to read and write. Public libraries, museums, botanical gardens, art- collections, picture-galleries, schools of music and design, and academies of arts and sciences are to be met with in most of the capitals, and in many of the country towns, upwards of 200 of which possess one or more permanently established theatres. In no country is the book and publishing trade more universally patronised than in Germany, where the chief centres are Leipzig and Stuttgart. The press annually sends forth from 8000 to 10,000 works, while about 3000 papers and journals are circulated throughout the empire. Of the current newspapers a comparatively small number only exert any marked influence, but many of the German scientific and literary periodicals enjoy a world-wide reputation (see BOOK-TRADE, Vol. II. page 315). The censorship of the press was abolished by a decree of the diet of 1848, and freedom of the press, under certain restrictions which were promulgated in 1854, has been intro- duced. Religion.—In regard to religion, it may be stated generally that Protestantism predominates in the north and middle, and Roman Catholicism in the south, east, and west, although very few states exhibit exclusively either form of faith. The Pro- testants belong chiefly either to the Lutheran con- fession, which prevails in Saxony, Thuringia, Hanover, and Bavaria east of the Rhine, or to the Reformed or Calvinistie Church, which pre- vails in Hesse, Anhalt, and the Palatinate. A union between these two churches has taken place in Prussia. There are six Roman Catholic arch- bishoprics and eighteen Roman Catholic bishopries in Germany. : The following is the proportion of the- different denominations, according to the census of 1885: man her Protestant. Cathotte. Ciistians, Jews. Religions. EPussIA, isc cps 18,244,405 9,621,763 82,030 366,575 3,697 SAVELIR v.00 scenes 1,521,114 3,839,440 5,781 653,697 217 BAXONY’ «< cdiccice se 8,075,961 87,762 10,263 7,755 262 Wiirtemberg...... 1,378,216 598,339 5,322 18,171 187 ISROOM 35 cco sielodan 66,327 1,004,388 8,322 27,104 114 Hesse. . dae 643,881 278,450 8,005 26,114 161 Mecklenbu 00 hala \ 665,941 4,982 381 2844 75 Oldenburg ....... 264,304 74,363 1,180 1,650 28 Thuringian States 1,187,533 20,073 1,451 8,852 154 Free-towns....... 701,877 22,554 8,252 18,332 5,891 Other States ..... 807,347 23,995 965 5,202. 100 Alsace-Lorraine. . 312,941 1,210,325 3,771 36,876 442 POUR Ss) 3\¢ sia as 29,369,847 16,785,734 125,673 563,172 11,278 Percentage....... 62°68 35°82 0°27 12 03 Judicial System.—In terms of the Judicature Acts of 1877 and 1878, a uniform system of law- courts was adopted by the different states in 1879. The appointment of the judges and the arrange- ment of the courts are left in the hands of the in- dividual federal states, except in the case of the Reichsgericht. The Amstsgericht, with one judge, is competent for civil cases not involving more than £15 value, and for various minor offences. More important criminal cases are tried by the Schdffen- gericht, in which two Schéffen (assessors ), chosen by rotation from among the qualified pee citizens, sit with the judge. It deals with crimes whose punishment is not more than three months’ im- prisonment or a fine of £30, and with theft, fraud, &e., in which the damage is not more than 25s. Abcve these is the Landgericht, divided into civil and criminal chambers (Kawinee and consisting of a president, directors (who preside over the insabers), and ordinary members. In connec- tion with the Landgericht, jury-courts (Schwur- gerichte) are periodically held to try the more serious cases. These consist of three judges and twelve jurymen. A concurrent jurisdiction with the Landgericht in commercial matters is pos- sessed by the chambers for commercial cases (Handelssachen), in which a judge sits as presi- dent along with two arbiters (Handelsrichter) appointed for three years from among the qualified citizens. A revising jurisdiction over the courts below is possessed by the Oberlandesgericht, which is divided into civil and criminal senates, each of 4 i? Fea! rf \ % Lt W & R.CHANBERS, L 5 et i aes < “Pie, OA 4 GERMANY BY J.BARTHOLOMEW, F.R.G.S. es asmA ht Oo mt eke tim a ‘ : a 4 ess Ai . a iw ra (i = a”: Pica a i Pos a i et i el , which must contain four councillors and a presi- dent, The supreme court of appeal for the whole empire is the Reichsgericht at Leipzig, to which appeals lie even from the jury-trials. It possesses an original jurisdiction in the case of treason inst the empire. It also is divided into civil and criminal senates, with a general president, senate-presidents, and councillors, appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the Bundes- rath, ven members are required to be present in order to give a valid decision in any of the senates ; ot in the plenum one-third of the members must be present. The penal and commercial codes are now uni- form throughout Germany ; but the Code Civil is still administered in Alsace-Lorraine and Rhenish Prussia, the Prussian land laws in the greater rt of Prussia, and German common law in ony, parts of Prussia, Bavaria, Xc. Army.—In 1871 the Prussian military system was extended to the whole empire ; alterations were introduced in 1888 and 1893. The Army Act of 1893 raised the annual levies by about 60,000 men, and reduced the term of service with the colours from three to two years for the ay that for cavalry and horse artillery remaining three years as before. About 400, young men annually reach the of twenty, and, deductions made for physical unfitness, &c., about 360,000 are annually available—more than is required in all cases by the legal limitations. The required numbers are obtained by lot, the rest serve twelve years in the Ersatz, a kind of reserve. By the regulations in force, every German who is capable of bearing arms must be in the standing army for six years (gener- ally his twenty-first to his twenty-seventh year). Two years must be spent in active service and the remainder in the army of reserve. He then spends five years in the first class of the Landwehr (q.v.), after which: he belongs to the second class till his thirty-ninth year. esides this, every German, from seventeen to twenty-one and from thirty-nine to forty-five is a saacher of the Landsturm, a force only to be called out in the last necessity. Those who pass certain examinations require to serve only one year with the colours, and are known as ‘volunteers.’ The land forces of the empire form a united army under the command of the emperor in war and peace. The sovereigns of the principal states have the right to select the lower grades of officers ; but even their selections require to obtain the approval of the emperor, whose authority is paramount. The imperial army is divided into 18 army corps, and on the peace pen of 1895-96 contained 22,618 officers, 562,116 rank and file, and 97,280 horses. There are 173 regiments of infantry, besides 19 battalions of jiiger or riflemen; 93 regiments of cavalry; 60 regiments of artillery; 23 battalions of engi- neers ; and 21 battalions of military train. On its war footing, the total is about 3,000,000 men, besides the Landsturm. The cost of the army for 1895-96 was £23,600,000. Navy.—The formation of a German navy, due to the initiative of Prussia, dates from 1848, and of late years rapid progress has been made. In 1889 the imperial fleet consisted of 77 vessels, with a total tonnage of 186,196 tons, Of these, 12 were sea-going ironclads, 14 armour-clad boats, 18 frigates and corvettes, 3 gunboats, 7 avisos or despatch-boats, 4 unarmoured cruisers, 10 training-ships and boats, and 9 others. This fleet was manned by 15,246 seamen and _ boys, and officered by 10 admirals and 688 other officers, besides 90 oh The seafaring population of Germany are liable to service in the navy in of in the army. They are estimated at 80,000, of whom ro are serving in the merchant navy at GERMANY 177 home, and about 6000 in foreign navies. After three years’ active service, four years are spent in the naval reserve and five more in the first class of the Seewehr, which corresponds to the Landwehr of the land forces. Seamen who have not served in the navy belong from seventeen to thirty- one years of age to the second class of the See- wehr. The empire has two ports of war: Kiel (q.v.), and Wilhelmshaven (q.v.) in the Bay of Jahde on the North Sea; and there is a naval dockyard at Danzig. In 1895 there were 87 ships with 21,890 men, and the cost of the navy was £2,763,000. Revenue.—The revenue of the German empire is derived (1) from the customs dues on tobacco, salt, and beet-root sugar, which are entirely made over to it by all the states; from those on brandy and malt, which are also assigned by most of the states ; from taxes on playing-cards and stamps, from posts, telegraphs, and railways, the imperial bank, and various miscellaneous sources; (2) from extra- ordinary sources —as votes for public buildings and loans ; and (3) from the proportional contributions ( Matrikular-beitrdge) of the various states. The chief items of expenditure are the maintenance of the Reichstag and various government offices, the army and navy, posts and telegraphs, railways, justice, pensions, and other miscellaneous claims. he average income for the five years 1881-82 to 1885-86 was £30,121,470, and the average expendi- ture £30,564,200. In 1891-96 the revenue increased from £54,573,000 to £58,919,700; in 1894-95 the expenditure was £64,327,000, in 1895-96 £61, 962,500. In 1894-95 the total funded debt of the empire, £95,785,700—partly at 3 and partly at 4 per cent. There is also an unfunded debt of £60,000,000. Against this there are large invested funds, as £22,800,000 of an invalid fund; while the war treasure of £6,000,000 is kept in gold at Spandau. The ‘matricular’ contributions of the several states amounted in all to £17,842,115 in 1895; of which Prussia paid £11,659,000, Saxe-Weimar only £126,900. ‘ocial Organisation.—All the states of the empire recognise four distinct orders—viz. the nobility, clergy, burghers, and peasantry, and all distinguish three distinct grades of nobility. The highest of these includes the members of reigning houses, and the descendants of families who belonged at the time of the old empire to the sovereign nobility of the state, and were reichs- unmittelbar, or directly connected with the empire, as padi their domains directly under the emperor, but whose houses have subsequently been mediatised, or deprived of sovereign power in accordance with special treaties between the state and the princes. There are at present fifty princely and fifty-one grdfliche (countly) media- tised families, who, in accordance with the act of the diet of 1806, have equality of rank with reign- ing houses, and enjoy many of the special privi- leges which were accorded to the high nobles of the empire. The second grade of nobility is com- posed of counts and barons not belonging to reign- ing or mediatised houses, whilst the third and lowest grade includes the knights and hereditary patrimonial proprietors of Germany. Before we pscene to consider the political organisation of the new German empire, we shall briefly describe—(1) the peers features of the constitution of the old Germanic empire, which was overthrown by the first Napoleon in 1806; and (2) that Bund or federal government which lasted from 1815 to 1866, when Austria was ex- cluded from the Confederation, and the hegemony of Germany was transferred to Prussia. . The Old Germanic Empire.—The states of this empire comprised three chambers or colleges : (1) 178 GERMANY The Electoral College, which consisted of the archi- episcopal electors of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne, and the secular electors, of whom there were origin- ally only four, but whose number was subsequently increased to five, and who at the dissolution of the empire were represented by the sovereigns of Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, and Brunswick-Liineburg or Hanover (see ELECTORS). (2) The College of the Princes of the Empire. who had each a vote in the diet, and were divided into spiritual and temporal princes. (3) The Free Imperial Cities, which formed a college at the diet, divided into two benches, the Rhenish with four- teen cities, and the Swabian with thirty-seven ; each of these had a vote. These colleges, each of which voted separately, formed the diet of the empire. When their respective decisions agreed, the matter under discussion was submitted to the emperor, who could refuse his ratification of the decisions of the diet, although he had no power to modify them. Ordinary meetings were usually summoned twice a year by the emperor, who speci- fied the place at which the sittings were to be held ; during the later periods of the empire they were held at Regensburg (Ratisbon). The diet had the right to enact, abrogate, or modify laws, conclude peace and declare war, and impose taxes for the eneral expenses of the state. The Aulic Cham- er, and the Cameral or chief tribunal of the empire, decided in cases of dispute between mem- bers of the diet. The emperors were chosen by the electors in person or by their deputies; and after their election and coronation, which usually both took place at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the emperor swore to the ‘capitulation’ or constitution of the empire. After the dissolution of the empire in 1806, its place was nominally taken by the Con- federation of the Rhine, which owed its existence to Napoleon, and which lasted till 1815. Germanic Confederation.—The Germanic Confed- eration was established by an act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, on the overthrow of Napoleon. It was an indissoluble union, from’ which no single state could at its own pleasure retire. Its central point and its executive and legislative powers were represented by the federative diet, which held its meetings at Frankfort-on-the- Main, and was composed of delegates from all the confederate states, chosen, not by the people, but by the various governments. The diet delib- erated either in a limited council (the Federative overnment) or as a general assembly (Plenum). n the limited council there were seventeen votes, of which eleven of the principal states had each one, while the remaining states divided the six collective votes between them. The Plenum, which met only when any organic change was to be effected in the diet itself, embraced seventy votes, of which Austria and the five German king- doms had each four, while the other states had three, two, or one vote each in proportion to their individual importance. It rested with the limited council, which executed the enactments of the Plenum, and despatched the ordinary business of the Confederation, to decide (by a majority of voices) whether a question should be submitted to the Plenum, where it was not debated, but simply decided by a majority of ayes or noes. Austria presided in both assemblies, and had a casting vote in cases of equality. The diet, as a collective body, had the right of concluding peace and alliances, and declaring war; but this power could only be exercised for the maintenance of the inde- pendence and external security of Germany and the individual integrity of the several federative states, which on their part were bound to submit to the diet the consideration of all questions in dispute between themselves and other powers. Where such differences could not be settled by the committee empowered by the Plenum to consider them, they were finally referred to a special tri- bunal known as the ‘ Austriigal’ Court, which was. composed of several members of the Confederation invested for the time with full powers. From 1866 . to 1871 the place of this Bund was held by the North German Confederation, which is described in the historical part of this article. _ i Present German Empire.—The_ seventy-ninth article of the constitution of the North German Confederation provided for the admission of the South German states into the new Bund; and the war between France and Germany, which broke out in July 1870, and in which all the German princes and peoples took part, gave an irresistible impetus to the desire for national unity. On the 15th November 1870 the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse joined the Bund; Bavaria followed on the 23d, and Wiirtemberg on the 25th of the same month. Shortly after, the king of Bavaria wrote a letter to the king of Prussia, urging him to re-establish the German empire. This brought the question under the notice of the Bund; and on the 10th December 1870 it was agreed, by 188 votes to 6, that the empire should be restored, and that the king of Prussia should be acknowledged hereditary German emperor. The latter solemnly accepted the new dignity at Versailles, 18th Janu- ary 1871. The constitution for the new empire was pro- mulgated by an imperial decree of April 16, 1871, and is contained in seventy-eight articles, under fourteen sections. Alsace and Lorraine were brought under its provisions from January 1, 1874. The preamble expressly declares that all the states of Germany form an eternal union for the protec- tion of the territory of the Bund, and for the care of the welfare of the German people. The empire possesses the exclusive right of legislation on all military and naval affairs; on civil and criminal law for general application; on imperial finance and commerce; on posts, telegraphs, and railways. in so far as the interests of the national defence and general trade are concerned. Wherever the laws of the empire come into collision with those of particular states of the Bund, the latter must be held as abrogated; and in all disputes that arise: among the individual states, the imperial jurisdic- tion is supreme and final. There are two legislative bodies in the empire— the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, the members of which are annually appointed by the govern- ments of the various states; and the Recchstag, the members of which are elected by universal suffrage and ballot for a period of three years. The former deliberates on proposals to be sub- mitted to the latter, and on the resolutions. received from it. A simple majority is sufficient to carry a vote in the Bundesrath. Acting under the direction of the chancellor of the empire, the Bundesrath, in addition to its legislative functions, represents also a supreme administrative and con- sultative board, and, as such, has eleven standing committees—viz. for the army and _ fortresses ; naval matters; tariff, excise, and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts, and telegraphs ; civil and criminal law ; financial accounts ; foreign affairs; Alsace-Lorraine; matters affecting the constitution ; and the arrangement of business. Each committee consists of representatives of at least four states of the empire, besides the pre- sident; but the foreign affairs committee includes the representatives of the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg, and of two other statee anasakly selected by the Bundesrath. The Reichstag contains approximately one mem- ber for every 120,000 inhabitants; in 1889 there a eo —— — —_—-~ I ne . GERMANY 179 were 397 members. The Reichstag must be con- vened annually, but cannot be assembled unless the Bundesrath is also in session. Its proceedings are public; the members are unpaid, but enjoy various privileges and immunities. A dissolution of the Reichstag before the end of three years requires the consent of the Bundesrath; and the new election must take place within sixty days, and the meeting of the new Reichstag within os Mary after the dissolution. By a law passed in 1888, to come into force in 1890, the legislative has been increased to five years. The chstag elects its own president. The members of the Bundesrath may claim a right to speak in Reichstag; but no one can be a member of both assemblies at once. All imperial laws must receive the votes of an absolute majority of both bodies, and, to be valid, must, in addition, have the assent of the emperor, and be countersigned when promulgated by the Retchskanzler, or chan- cellor of the empire, who is appointed by the ae and is ex officio president of the Bundes- rat The votes in the two assemblies are apportioned as follows: Prussia has 17 votes in the Boadasraih and 236 in the Reichstag ; Bavaria has respectively 6 and 48; Wiirtemberg, 4 and 17; Saxony, 4 and 23; Baden, 3 and 14; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 2 and 6; Hesse, 3 and 9; Oldenburg, Saxe- Weimar, and Hamburg, each 1 and 3; Brunswick, 2 and 3; Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Anhalt, land 2; and the remainder 1 vote in each assembly. Alsace-Lorraine has 15 votes in the Reichstag, but in the Bundesrath is represented only by 4 commis- sioners (Kommissdre) without votes, appointed by the Statthalter. To assist the Reichskanzler in managing imperial affairs, a number of offices (not ministries) have developed in the course of time for the different departments of state. According to the elevénth article of the constitu- tion, the German emperor, with the consent of the Bundesrath, can declare war, make peace, enter into treaties with foreign nations, and appoint and receive ambassadors. If, however, the territory of the empire is attacked, he does not require the consent of the Bundesrath to declare war, but can act independently. Changes in the constitution can be effected rae! ty imperial law, and they are held to be rejected if 14 votes are given against them in the Bundesrath. Political Parties.—There is no imperial respon- sible ministry in Germany, and the government is independent of changes in the relative strength of the various parties in the Reichstag. For years Prince Bismarck formed alliances now with this, now with that party, according to the aim he had in view; and his opponents, even when the defeated his measures, had no thought of tener f ing him in the chaneellorship. The chief political parties in the Reichstag may be roughly grouped under the names Liberal, Conservative, and Clerical. Of the first, the National Liberals, a party dating from the crisis of 1866, whose object is a united Germany on constitutional lines, were long the most influential supporters of Bismarck. In 1879, however, they differed from him on the questions of the new protectionist and military soa and in consequence they suffered a severe efeat at the next election. The advanced wing of the Liberal party, known as the Fortschritt. et, formed a coalition in 1884 with a considerable number of ‘Secessionists’ from the National Libe- rals, and founded the present Deutsch-Freisinnige- partei, under the leadership of Eugen Richter, with a radical programme including demands for a responsible ministry, annual budgets, freedom -of speech, meeting, and press, and payment of Seliapbors. The reorganised National Liberal party once more ohare Bismarck, and, having in 1888 joined the Conservatives in support of the govern- ment measures, now forms part of the so-called Cartellpartei, or Coalition party. The Conserva- tives include the Deutsche Konservativen, a dis- tinctly reactionary group, and the Deutsche Reichs- partei or Frei-Konservativen, best perhaps described as Liberal-Conservatives, aiming at a fair imperial overnment as the first necessity of their country. he Centre or Ultramontane party, organised Windthorst since 1871, is essentially the Roman Catholic clerical party, and has offered the most determined and best-organised resistance to Bis- marck. A temporary alliance, however, with this party enabled the chancellor to ca his pro- tectionist proposals in 1889. The Eisdsser, the French party of Alsace, generally vote with the Centre. Among the smaller parties the most significant is that of the Social Democrats, who, in spite of all the hostile socialist legislation, rose from 2 votes in 1871 to 48 in 1897. The smaller rties, with special and more private views, are nown as Particularisten ; they include the Poles, aiming at the separation of Polish Prussia from Germany, es or Hanoverian royalists, and some individual members. In 1884 the Conserva- tives had 76 votes; in 1887, 129; the National Liberals, 45 and 99; the Freisinnige, 104 and 32; — Centre, 109 and 98; the Social Democrats, 24 and 11. See Statistik des Deutschen Reichs, published periodi- cally by the Imperial Statistical Office, and the Statis- tisches Jahrbuch (annually since 1880). The Jahrbuch for 1889 contains an index to the Statistik since 1871. Kutzen, Das Deutsche Land (3d ed. 1880); Berghaus, Deutschland und seine Bewohner (2 vols. 1860); Daniel, D. nach seinen physischen und politischen Verhdltnissen (2 vols. 5th ed. 1878); Delitsch, Forschungen zur D. Landes- u. Volkskunde (1885); Neumann, Das Deutsche Reich in Geog., Statist., und Topoyraph. Beziehung (1872- 74), and Geog. Lexikon des D. Reichs (1883); 8. Baring: Gould, Germany, Past and Present (2 vols. 1881); Baedeker’s Travellers’ Handbooks; and the Handbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich, Kiirschner’s Staatshandbuch, the Statesman’s Year-book, and the Almanach de Gotha for the current year. On the Constitution, Stérk’s Hand- buch der Deutschen Verfassung (1884). History.—The earliest information we have of the Germans, the ples and tribes who dwelt among the dense forests that stretched from the Rhine to the Vistula and from the Danube to the Baltic Sea, comes to us from-the Romans, the rincipal authority being Tacitus. The term ermans is of Celtic origin, though its meaning is not precisely known. It was in all probability borrowed by the Romans from the Gauls. The Germans were not cne homogeneous nation, but a multitude of separate and independent tribes, who had racial origin, language, and similarity in their mode of life Tor their only links of connec- tion. The first tribes of Germanic race to come into collision with the arms of Rome were the Cimbri and Teutones, who in 113 B.c. had invaded Styria, and there met with defeat from the troops of the consul Papirius. The next Roman general who made trial of their prowess was Cesar. When in 58 B.c. he began his campaigns in Gaul, he found several hordes of Germans, mostly Marco- manni and Snuevi, settled between the Rhine and the Vosges, and even on the western side of these hills. Appealed to by the Gauls of those regions to free them from their German oppressors, Cesar, in spite of the redoubtable stature and strength of his enemies, and of their personal valour, inflicted a crushing defeat upon their ambitious chieftain, Ariovistus, and chased him and his followers across the Rhine. Then, qeriny t his campaign, he drove back (55 B.c.) behind the same river those tribes that had settled on its western side in 180 GERMANY Belgium, and even followed them into their original seats in Germany in two short cam- paigns. The tranquillity which was established through his exertions was, however, so seriously Satasbed again by 15 B.c. that Augustus felt it necessary to make a serious effort to subjugate these troublesome neighbours of Gaul. 212 GILLENIA GILLS 48; and subsequently his Exposition of the Old Testament (republished as one work, 9 vols., with a memoir, in 1810); A Body of Doctrinal Divinity (1769); and A Body of Practical Divinity (1770). He wrote also, as a controversialist, in defence of the doctrine of the Trinity and of Calvinism. Gill received the degree of D.D. from Aberdeen in 1748. He was a robust Calvinist, devout, laborious, and learned. Gillenia, a North American perennial genus of Rosacez, closely allied to Spirzea, and similarly suitable for shrubberies. The roots are often called Indian Physic, sometimes Wild Ipecac, Indian Hippo, Dropwort, and Bowman’s Root. Gillespie, GEORGE, a prominent figure among the Westminster Divines, was born at Kirkcaldy, where his father was parish minister, 21st January 1613. He pursued his studies at St Andrews, and early in 1638, after the power of the bishops had been pulled down, was ordained minister of Wemyss in Fife. He showed characteristic fear- lessness at the Glasgow Assembly that same year, was translated to Edinburgh in 1642, and the year after was sent up, as one of Scotland’s four repre- sentatives, to the Westminster Assembly, where his vigour, ability, and earnestness enabled him to take a great part in the protracted debates on church discipline and dogma. His Aaron’s Rod Blossoming, or the Divine Ordinance of Church- government Vindicated (1646), is admittedly a masterly statement of the high Presbyterian claim for full spiritual independence. In 1648 Gillespie was appointed moderator of the General Assembly, but his already enfeebled frame soon sank under its labours. He died at Kirkcaldy, 17th December 1648. Gillies, JouN, historian, was born at Brechin, in Forfarshire, January 18, 1747. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, and for several years acted as tutor to the sons of the Earl of Hopetoun. In 1778 he published a translation of the Orations of Isocrates and Lysias, with some Account of their * Lives ; and in 1786 his principal work, the History of Ancient Greece, 2 vols. It was extremely popu- lar on its first appearance, but has dropped out of notice since the publication of the histories of Thirlwall and Grote. His View of the Reign of Frederick II. of Prussia appeared in 1789. In 1793 he was appointed historiographer to the king for Scotland. He also published a translation of Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics (1797), and of Aris- totle’s Rhetoric (1823), and a History of the World “hee Alexander to Augustus (2 vols. 1807-10). e died at Clapham, February 15, 1836. Gillingham, a market-town of Dorsetshire, on the Stour, 22 miles by rail W. of Salisbury. Near it are the ‘ Pen Pits,’ thought variously to be quarry- holes or prehistoric dwellings. Pop. of parish, 4131. Gillis Land, Polar land NE. of Spitzbergen, first sighted in 1707 by Gillis, a Dutchman, in 81° 30° N. lat. and 36° E. long., but not visited by him. Some geographers identify it with King Charles or Wiche Land, one of the Spitzbergen group, situated in 79° N. lat., and between 26° 30’ and 32° 30’ E. long. Gillott, JosEPH, born at Sheffield on 11th October 1799, shares with Sir Josiah Mason the eredit of having brought the manufacture of steel- ens to its pean state of high perfection (see ENS). He died 5th January 1872. Gillray, JAMEs, an English caricaturist, borif at Chelsea, of humble parentage, in 1757. He first became known as a successful engraver about 1784, and between 1779 and 1811 issued as many as 1500 caricatures, numbers of which, it is said, ‘ were etched at once upon the copper without the assist- ance of drawings.’ They are full of broad humour and keen satire, the subjects of his ridicule bein generally the French, Napoleon, George IIL, an the principal English politicians ; he also employed his talents in castigating the social follies of his day. He died in London, Ist June 1815. Gillray lived for many years in the house of the printseller, Miss Humphrey, in London. During the last four years of his life he was insane. His caricatures, which were very popular and not without influence upon public opinion, often rise to a lofty level of conception, and display true artistic feeling. storm of kicks with extraordinary rapidity. It is not — easily overtaken even by a fleet horse, and has reatly the advantage of a horse on uneven and Boker ground. Its pace is described as an amble, the legs of the same side moving at the same time. The giraffe was known to the ancients, and was exhibited in Roman _ spectacles. Repreeene t has of it appear among Egyptian antiquities. been supposed to be the zemer of the Jews, trans- lated chamois in the English Bible (Deut. xiv. 5). In the year 1836 giraffes were first added to the collection in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, and since that year numerous specimens have been acquired which bors bred in the gardens. They are fed chiefly on hay placed in high racks, greatly enjoy carrots and onions, and a lump of sugar is a favourite delicacy. The flesh of the giraffe is said to be pleasant, and its marrow is a favourite African dclicaee: Giraldus Cambrensis, the usual literary name of the historian and ecclesiastic, Girald de Barri, who flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries, and was born about 1147 in Pembrokeshire, son of a Norman noble who had married into a princely Welsh family. He was brought up by his uncle, the Bishop of St Davids, was sent to the university of Paris in his twentieth year, and after his return entered into holy orders in 1172, and was appointed archdeacon of St Davids. He was from the first a zealous churchman, strenuous in the enforcement of discipline, and especially of clerical celibacy, and was the chief agent in establishing the payment of tithes within the principality. On the death of his uncle, the chapter of St Davids elected him bishop, but, as the election was made without the royal license, Girald renounced it. King Henr II. directed a new election; and, on the chapter's persisting in their choice of Girald, the king refused "6IZ Fed “A “TOA “ADATIOO GuHVHID GIRARD GIRASOL 219 ’ to confirm the selection, and another bishop was + oho Girald withdrew for a time to the versity of Paris, and on his return was required by the Archbishop of Canterbury to take the ministration of the diocese of St Davids, which had utterly failed in the hands of the bishop. He held it for four years. Being appointed a royal chaplain, and afterwards preceptor to Prince John, he accompanied that prince in 1185 in his expedi- tion to Ireland, where he remained after John’s return, in order to complete the well-known descrip- tive account of the natural history, the miracles, and the inhabitants of that country—his Topo- graphia Hibernia, His Expugnatio Hibernia is an account of the conquest of that country under Heury II. Both are works of very great merit— this latter Brewer describes as ‘a noble specimen of historical narration, of which the author’s age furnished very rare examples.’ In 1188 he attended Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, in his pro; through Wales to preach a crusade, and worked up his observations into the Jtinerarium Cambria. His later years were darkened by disappointment. On the see of St Davids again becoming vacant, he was - oe unanimously elected by the chapter ; but Archbishop Hubert .of Canterbury interposed, and Girald, spite of three different journeys to Rome, failed to get. the nomination confirmed. He devoted the remainder of his life to study, and died at St Davids in 1222. The writings of Giraldus Cambrensis, although disfigured by credulity and by excessive personal vanity, are of t value as materials for the history and for the social condition of his age. A translation of the Itinerarium Cambrie was published in 1806; the complete works have been edited by J. S. Brewer and J. F. Dimock ( Rolls series, 1861-77). Gir STEPHEN, an American merchant, was born near Bordeaux, France, May 20, 1750, and was successively cabin-boy, mate, captain, and part owner of an American coasting-vessel. In 1769 he settled as a trader in Philadelphia, where ulti- mately he established a bank which became the mainstay of the United States government during the war of 1812-14, and advanced several millions to the treasury. He died 26th December 1831. Girard was a man of few friends, in religion a scep- tic, in personal habits a miser, yet in public matters his generosity was remarkable. His estate, vast as compared with fortunes of his day, was distributed by his will among his relatives and employees and a number of charitable objects, the major portion of it being devoted to the endowment of the Girard College for poor, male, white orphans, the city of Philadelphia being the trustee. e principal build- ing at this college, which was completed in 1847, is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in America, On the tract of forty acres occupied by the college are eleven other handsome buildings devoted to its various uses, and affording accommo- dation for 1580 pupils. The income Pati AS for the su okt the college collected in 1896 amounted to ,997.84. Girardin, Emite DE, a French journalist and politician, the illegitimate son of the royalist general Alexandre de Girardin and Madame’ Dupuy, was born in Switzerland in 1806, and educated in Paris. He bore the name of Delamothe until 1827, when he assumed that of his father, who acknowledged him in 1847; and his first attempt in literature was a novel, Emile, in which he pleaded the cause of adulterine children. After the July revolution 1830) he established the Journal des Connaissances tiles, which attained a sale of 120,000 copies; other chea) rege poccem followed, but he did not carry out his idea of a halfpenny nenepeper until 1836, when r he founded the Presse, an eanist journal with Conservative leanin Its rivals accused it of being subsidised by the government, and one of the unfortunate results of the quarrels thus fastened on Girardin was his duel with Armand Carrel, editor of the National, in which the latter fell. From this time onward to the Revolution of 1848 Girardin was ardently occupied with politics, both as a journalist and a deputy, and gradually became a decided republican. He promoted Louis Napoleon's election to the presidency, but disapproved of the coup d état, and was rewarded with a short period of exile. He next threw himself into the arms of the Socialists. In 1856 he sold his share of the Presse, but became its editor again in 1862, eventu- ally abandoning it for the direction of the Liberté, which he maintained till 1870. He excelled his fellows in braggadocio on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war; and during the Commune he proposed a scheme for splitting up the republic into fifteen federal states. In 1874, however, he founded the France, and both in its pages and in the Petit Journal supported the republic. He wrote a few pieces for the stage ; his political ideas he gave to the world in a host of brochures. Girardin died 27th April 1881.—His first wife, whose maiden name was Delphine Gay (1805-55), enjoyed for many years a brilliant reputation as a poetess and beauty, and also wrote several novels and plays. Her best-known work is Lettres Parisi- ennes, Which a red in the Presse, under the ag dan of Vicomte de Launay, in 1836-48. er complete works fill 6 vols. (1860-61). See imbert de Saint-Amand, Madame de Girardin (Paris, 1874). Girardin, Francois Sarnt-Marc, a French journalist and professor, was born at Paris in 1801, studied at the Collége Henri IV. with brilliant success, and in 1827 obtained a mastership in the Collége Louis-le-Grand. After two visits to Germany he published a report on the state of education there, and Notices politiques et littéraires sur l’ Allemagne ; in 1834 he was called to the chair of Literature at the Sorbonne, and became leader- writer for the Journal des Débats, distinguishing himself under the July monarchy as a ready com- batant and resolute enemy to the dynastic and democratic opposition. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1844. His parliamentary career (1834-48) was not noteworthy; and under the Second Empire he retained his chair at the Sor- bonne, where his lectures, following the orthodox lines of criticism, were very popular. He became a member of the National Assembly in 1871, and died near Paris, 11th April 1873. Besides his numerous contributions to the Débats, some collected in Essais de Littérature (2 vols. 1845), he published several large works, among them his Cours de Littérature dramatique (1843; llth ed. 1875-77), being his sixty-three lectures for a period of twenty years, and Souvenirs et Réflexions politiques dun Jour- naliste (1859). See Tamisier, Saint-Marc Girardin, Etude littéraire (1876). Girasol, a precious stone, exhibiting in strong lights a peculiar and beautiful reflection of bright red or yellow light, which seems to come from the interior of the stone. From this it derives its name (Ital., ‘sun-turning’). There are different kinds of girasol, variously referred by mineralogists to quartz and opal, species which, however, are very nearly allied. One kind is also known as Fire Opal, which is found only at Zimapan, in Mexico, and in the Faroe Islands. The Mexican specimens are of a rich topaz yellow colour, and the reflection is very bright. Another kind is the Quartz Resinite of Haiiy, so called because of its characteristic resin- ous ture. It is found of various colours, some- times of a fine yellow or emerald green, more 220 GIRDER GIRTIN generally bluish-white. For a specimen of extra- ordinary brilliancy, not an inch and a half in diameter, £1000 has been refused. The ancients held this stone in high estimation, and called it Asteria (Gr. aster, ‘a star’). They obtained it both from Caramania and from India. The brightest are at present brought from Brazil, but fine specimens are also obtained in Siberia. Imitation girasols are made of glass in which a little oxide of tin is mixed.—The name girasol is sometimes given to a kind of sapphire, also called Asteria sapphire, exhibiting a similar reflection of light, sane some- times to Sunstone, an avanturine felspar. Accord- ing to Castellani, many minerals can be made to reflect light from the interior in the same way as girasol, when they are carefully cut in a spherical or semi-spherical form. | He instances adularia, hydrophane (a variety of opal), milky corundum, some Kinds of chalcedony, Brazilian chrysolite, &c. ' Girder, a beam of wood, iron, or steel used to support joisting walls, arches, &e., in building various kinds of bridges. See BRIDGE; STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Girgeh, a town of Egypt, is situated on the left bank of the Nile, in 26° 20’ N. lat. and 31° 58’ E. long., 104 miles N. of the ancient Abydus. The town is being gradually undermined by the river. It was here that the discontented petits rallied against Mehemet Ali. Outside the town is a Roman Catholic monastery, said to be the oldest in Egypt. Pop. 15,500. Girgeh is the capital of a province, which has an area of 9200 sq. m., and a pop. of 530,000. Girgenti, a town of Sicily, built on an emin- ence overlooking the sea, near the site of the ancient Agrigentum (q.v.), and situated on the south coast, 84 miles by rail SSE. of Palermo. The town is the seat of a bishop and of the prefect and other officials of the province, and has a trade in grain, oil, fruit, sulphur, sumach, salt, and fish. Its port is Porto Empedocle. Pop. 20,000. The province, with an area of 1172 sq. m., has a pop. (1895) of 345,700. Girnar, a sacred mountain in India, stands in the peninsula of Kathiawar, Bombay province, 10 miles E. of Junagarh. It is a bare and black rock of granite rising to the height of 3500 feet above the sea; and, as a holy place of Jainism, is covered with ruined temples. One group contains sixteen temples, nearly 3000 feet above the sea. Gironde, a maritime department in the south- west of France, is formed out of part of the old province of Guienne. Area, 3760 sq. m.; pop. (1872) 705,149; (1891) 793,528. It is watered mainly by the Garonne and the Dordogne, and by the Gironde, the estuary formed by the union of these two rivers. The eastern two-thirds of the surface consist of a fertile hill and dale region ; the remainder, in the west next the ocean, belongs to the Landes (q.v.). In the east and north-east the soil is chiefly calcareous. Wine, including the finest clarets, is the staple product of the depart- ment, several million gallons being produced annually. Grain, vegetables, potatoes, pulse, and fruit are grown largely. On the downs or sand- lulls of the west coast there are extensive planta- tions of pine, from which turpentine, pitch, and charcoal are obtained. The shepherds used to tra- verse the Landes (q.v.) on high stilts, and travel with them also to markets and fairs. Principal manufactures, salt, sugar, wax candles, porcelain and glass, chemical products, paper, and tobacco. The department includes the six arrondissements of Bazas, Blaye, Bordeaux, Lesparre, Libourne, and Réole. Bordeaux is the capital. Girondists (Fr. Girondins), the moderate republican party during the French Revolution. ,went later to the same fate. From the first they formed the Left in the Legis- lative Assembly, which met in October 1791, and though inclined towards republicanism were yet devoted to the new constitution as it stood. The name was due to the fact that its earliest leaders, Vergniaud, Guadet, Gensonné, Grangeneuve, and - the young merchant, Ducos, were sent up as repre- sentatives by the Gironde department. Early in 1792 the reactionary policy of the court and the dark clouds lowering on the horizon of France made the king’s ministers so unpopular that Louis was fain to form a Girondist ministry, with Roland and Dumouriez as its chiefs. Ere long, however, they were dismissed—a measure which led to the insur- rection of the 20th June 1792. The advance of the Austrian and Prussian invaders threw the influence into the hands of the Jacobins, who alone possessed vigour enough to ‘save the revolution.’ The great émeute of the 10th August finally assured their triumph, which vented itself in such infamies as the Lecienbar massacres, Next followed the National Convention and the trial of the king. The Girondists tried to save the king’s life by appealing to the sovereign people. he fall of Roland and the ascendency of Robespierre fol- lowed. Dumouriez, to save his head, rode over into the Austrian camp, and the famous Committee of Public Safety was created. Of its members not one was a Girondist. The last effort of the party was an ineffectual attempt to impeach Marat, who, however, on the 2d July overthrew the party, arresting as many as thirty-one deputies. The majority had already escaped to the provinces. In the departments of Eure, Calvados, all through Brittany, and at Bordeaux and elsewhere in the south-west the people rose in their defence, but the movement was soon crushed by the irresistible energy of the Mountain, now triumphant in the Convention. On the Ist October 1793 the prisoners were accused before the Convention of conspiring against the republic with Louis XVI., the royalists, the Duke of Orleans, Lafayette, and Pitt, and it was decreed that they should be brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal. On the 24th their trial commenced. The accusers were such men as Chabot, Hébert, and Fabre d’Eglantine. The Girondists defended themselves so ably that the Convention on the 30th was obliged to decree the closing of the investigation. hat very night, Brissot, Vergniaud, Gensonné, Ducos, Ponfrsde, Lacaze, Lasource, Valazé, Sillery, Fauchet, Duper- ret, Carra, Lehardy, Duchdtel, Gardien, Boileau, Beauvais, Vigée, Duprat, Mainvielle, and Antiboul were sentenced to death, and, with the exception of Valazé, who stabbed himself on hearing his sentence pronounced, all perished by the guillotine. On their way to the Place de Greve, in the true spirit of French republicanism, they sang the arseillaise. Coustard, Manuel, Cussy, Noel, Ker- saint, Rabaut St Etienne, Bernard, and Mazuyer Biroteau, Grange- neuve, Guadet, Salles, and Barbaroux ascended the scaffold at Bordeaux; Lidon and Chambon at Brives; Valady at Périgueux ; Dechézeau at Roch- elle. Rebeequi drowned himself at Marseilles, Pétion and uso’ stabbed themselves, and Con- doreet poisoned himself. Sixteen months later, after the fall of the Terrorists, the outlawed members, including the Girondists Lanjuinais, De- fermon, Pontécoulant, Louvet, Isnard, and La Riviére, again appeared in the Convention. See Lamartine’s Histoire des Girondins (8 vols. Paris, 1847); and Guadet’s Les Girondins (new ed. 1889). Girtin, THomAs, one of the greatest of the earlier English landscape-painters in water-colours, was born in London, 18th February 1775, and died 9th November 1802. He was a close friend and GIRTON COLLEGE GIVORS 221 fellow-student of Turner; and to them many improvements in water-colour painting are due. Girtin struck out a bolder style than had been attempted, attained great richness of colour and breadth, but was somewhat careless of detail, and sometimes inaccurate in drawing. His best works are panoramic views of London and of Paris. Girton College, the most notable college for women in England, was instituted at Hitchin in 1869, but removed to Girton, near Cambridge, in 1873. Instruction is given in divinity, modern languages, classics, mathematics, moral science, natural science (including physiology and chemis- try), history, vocal music. There are about thirty lecturers, mostly connected with Cambridge Uni- versity. The mistress and five resident lecturers are ladies. The students, who number above 100, are admitted after an entrance examination; the ordinary course extends over three years, half of each year being spent in college. ‘ Degree Certifi- cates’ are granted to those who satisfy their examiners as to their proficiency according to the standard of the examinations for the B.A. of Cam- bridge University ; £35 per term covers all college charges. Girvan, an Ayrshire mpepces and burgh of barony, is at the mouth of the river Girvan, and 21 miles SSW. of Ayr by rail. The harbour is small, but has been improved since 1881. The valley of the Girvan is one of the most fertile and best- cultivated districts in the south of Ayrshire. The town is opposite Ailsa Craig (which is 10 miles W.), was once a thriving seat of weaving, and is now frequented for sea-bathing. Pop. (1851) 7306 ; (1881) 4505; (1891) 4081. Gisborne, « post-town of New Zealand, in the North Island, is situated on the river Turanganui (fine bridge, 1885), 250 miles SE. of Auckland, with which city it has steamer communication. It is the port of entry for Poverty Bay, a name given by Captain Cook in 1769, and sometimes still retained for the town ; only small vessels can come up to the wharves, but in 1889-96 a harbour costing £200,000 was constructed. The country round is a rich dairy region, and in 1886 petroleum was struck in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2158. Gisors, a town in the French department of Eure, on the Epte, 43 miles NW. of Paris by rail. Its double-aisled church, whose choir dates from the 13th century, has a splendid flamboyant portal ; and the octagonal donjon of the ruined castle was built by Henry I. of England. Here Richard I. defeated the French in 1198 ; his watchword, Dieu et mon Droit, has ever since been the motto of the royal arms of England. Pop. 3960. Gitschin (Czech Jiéin), a town of Bohemia, 60 miles by rail NE. of Prague, with 8071 inhabitants, who manufacture sugar and carry on agriculture. Gitschin was once the capital of the duchy of Fried- land, and here Wallenstein built a splendid palace (1630). On 29th June 1866 the Austrians were severely defeated here by the Prussians. Giugliano, a town of Italy, 8 miles NW. of 6% with a trade in corn and grapes. Pop. Giulio Romano. Giulio Pippi de’ Giannuzzi, the chief pupil of Raphael, and after his death head of the Roman school, was born at Rome about 1492 —some authorities say 1498. His excellence as an architect and engineer almost equalled his genius asa painter. Giulio assisted Raphael in the exe- cution of several of his finest works, such as the series of the so-called Raphael's Bible in the loggie of the Vatican and the ‘ Benefactors of the Church’ in the Incendio del Borgo, and at Raphael’s death he completed the ‘ Battle of Constantine’ and the / ‘ Apparition of the Cross’ in the Hall of Constan- tine in the Vatican, He likewise inherited a great vortion of Raphael's wealth and his works of art. he paintings executed by Giulio in imitation of Raphael reflect not only the style and character, but the sentiment and spirit of the master; but, on the other hand, his more original creations are deficient in the ideal of Raphael, and dis- play rather breadth and power of treatment and oldness of imagination than poetical refinement or elevation. ith a thorough knowledge of design he combined a facile skill in composition and a thorough appreciation of classical ideals. Before he left Rome he built the Villa Madama, and adorned it with a fresco of Polyphemus. Abont the end of 1524 Giulio accepted the invitation of Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, to proceed thither and carry out a series of architectural and pictorial works. The drainage of the marshes sur- rounding the city, and the protection of it from the frequent inundations of the rivers Po and Mincio, attest his skill as an engineer; while his genius as an architect found scope in the restoration and adornment of the Palazzo del Te, the cathedral, the streets, and a ducal palace at Marmirolo, a few miles from Mantua. Amongst the pictorial works of this period were the ‘History of Troy,’ in the castle, and ‘ Psyche,’ ‘ Icarus,’ and the ‘ Titans,’ in the Te palace. In Bologna, too, he designed the facade of the church of 8. Petronio. Perhaps the best of his oil-pictures are the ‘Martyrdom of St Stephen’ (at Genoa), ‘ A Holy Family’ ( Dresden), ‘Mary and Jesus’ (Louvre), and the ‘Madonna della Gatta’ (Naples). Giulio died at Mantua, Ist November 1546. See D’Arco’s Vita e Opere di Giulio Romano (1842). Giurgevo (Roumanian (Giurgiu), a town of Roumania, on the left bank of the Danube, directly opposite Rustchuk, 40 miles by rail SSW. of ucharest, of which town it is the rt. It imports iron and textile goods, coal, and spirits, and exports corn, salt, and petroleum. It was originally settled by the Genoese in the 14th cen- tury, who called it St George. Since 1771 the town has played an important part in all the wars between the Turks and the Russians. Pop. 15,300. Giusti, GIUSEPPE, pense! ‘post and satirist, was born 12th May 1809, at Monsummano, near Pistoia. He studied law at Pisa, and for a time ractised at Florence; but from 1830 onwards ound his sphere as a keen and incisive satirist, writing in brilliant and popular style a series of poems, in which the enemies of Italy and the vices of the age were mercilessly denounced. But it was not till 1848 that he published a volume of verse under his own name. Save in satire his work is second-rate. He was elected a member of the Tuscan chamber of deputies in 1848, and died 31st March 1850. Among his most notable poems (all short) were J/ Dies Ira (1835), Lo Stivale (1836), Girella (1840), Sant’ Ambrogio (1844). Editions of his works were published in 1863 and 1877. See Fioretto, Giuseppe Giusti (1877). Givet, a frontier town and first-class fortress in the French department of Ardennes, on both banks of the Meuse, 31 miles by rail S. of Namur in Belgium, and 193 NE. of Paris. The citadel of Charlemont, on a rock 700 feet above the stream, was reconstructed by Vauban. There are manu- factures of lead-pencils, and sealing-wax, copper- wares, soap, &c. Pop. (1891) 5211. Givo a smoky town in the French depart- ment tg Rea on ifm right bank of the Rhone, 14 miles S. of Lyons by rail. Glass, especially bottles, and silk and iron goods are extensivel manufactured, and a considerable trade in coal is carried on. Pop. (1891) 10,792. 222 GIZEH GLACIAL PERIOD Gizeh, or GHIZEH, a small town-in Egypt, on the opposite side of the river from Old Cairo, and approached from Cairo by the great swinging bridge constructed over the Nile in 1872. It was formerly fortified by the Mamelukes, but is now a poor place, though it has some cafés, dilapidated bazaars, and a pop. of 10,500. Artificial egg-hatching has been practised here since the days of the Pharaohs. The pyramids of Gizeh are not close to the town, but lie five miles away to the west. See PYRAMID. Gizzard. See BiRD. ’ Glacial Period, or IcE AGE, is a term used in geology to designate that period the records of which are included in the Pleistocene System (q.v.). ‘Glacial period’ and ‘Pleistocene period’ are in fact synonymous as regards all northern and tem- perate regions—the former term being used when the prominent climatic characteristics of the period are thought of, while the latter is employed with reference to its life. The chief geographical and climatie changes of this period, and the general features of its fauna and flora, will be considered under PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM. But here a short account may be given of the relics which furnish evidence of former glacial conditions having obtained in many regions that are now in the enjoyment of temperate climates. It is chiefly in the northern parts of Europe and North America, and the hilly and mountainous districts of more southern lati- tudes, that the glacial deposits, properly so called, are developed. These deposits consist partly of morainic materials, erratics, &c., and partly of marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial accumulations. The most important member of the series is Boulder- clay (q.v.), or, as it is often termed, ¢//. This is an unstratified clay, full of ice-worn stones and boulders, which is believed to have been formed and accumulated under glacier-ice. Several dis- tinct and separate sheets of boulder-clay have been recognised, divided from each other by intercalated ‘interglacial beds,’ which last are often fossilifer- ous. The lowest and oldest boulder-clay covers vast areas in the British Islands and northern Europe—extending south as far as the Bristol Channel and the valley of the Thames in Eng- land, and to the foot of the Harz Mountains, &c., in middle Germany. Boulder-clay of the same age spreads over the low grounds of Switzerland, and extends from the great Alpine valleys for many miles into the cireumjacent low-lying regions. Similar ground-moraines have been met with in all the mountainous and hilly tracts of Europe, as in central France, the Pyrenees, the Spanish Sierras, the mountains of Corsica, the Apennines, the Vosges, the Black Forest, the Erzgebirge and other ranges of Germany, the Carpathians, &c. The rock-surfaces on which the boulder-clay rests are often smoothed and striated, or much crushed and broken, while the hills and mountain-slopes in regions where boulder-clay occurs give evidence of having been abraded and smoothed by glacial action (see RocHES MOUTONNEES).. At the time the boulder-clay was formed, Scotland, Ireland, the major portion of England, Scandinavia, Denmark, Holland, the larger half of Belgium, Germany as far south as Leipzig, and vast regions in Poland and Russia were covered with a great mer de glace. Con- temporaneously with this ice-sheet all the moun- tain-regions of the central and southern regions of the Continent nourished extensive snowfields and glaciers, which last flowed out upon the low ground often for very great distances. Thus, Lyons stands upon old moraines which have been carried down from the mountains of Dauphiné and Savoy. The interglacial deposits point to great changes of climate when the snowfields sat glaciers melted away, and temperate conditions of climate super- vened, as is shown by the ii oe distribution of these deposits, and by the character of the plant and animal remains which they have yielded. The youngest boulder-clay, overlying, as it does, such pee aN beds, proves that the glacial period closed with another advance and final retreat of the Scandinavian ice-sheet and the great glaciers of the Alps, &e. The terminal mordines of the last ice-sheet do not come so far south as those of the first-and greatest mer de glace. 'These moraines show that the ice covered the Scandinavian penin- sula, filled up the Baltic, invaded north Germany, and overflowed Finland and wide regions in the north of Russia. Similarly in the Alps, &c., the last great extension of the glaciers was not equal to that of the first. See EUROPE. The boulder-clays are not the only evidence of glacial conditions. Besides those accumulations and the scratched and crushed rock-surfaces already referred to, we encounter numerous erratics (see BOULDERS, Erratic), eskers or kames (see ASAR), Giants’ Kettles (q.v.), clays with Arctic marine shells and erratics (in Scotland, Prussia, &c.)—the organic remains associated with the glacial deposits often affording strong evidence of cold conditions, The following table shows the general succession of the glacial deposits in several parts of Europe: ScorLanp— 6. Valley-moraines and fluvio-glacial gravels = small local glaciers. 4 3 5. Kames, erratics, fluvio-glacial deposits, laid down during retreat of last general ice-covering. 4, Clays, &¢., with Arctic marine shells, occurring up to a height of 100 feet = deposits: belonging to the period of retreat of mer de glace, and contemporaneous to a large extent with those of 5. 8. Upper boulder-clay = moraine profonde of latest mer de glace. 2. Interglacial beds= disappearance of cold conditions 5 clothing and peopling of the land-surface with temperate fauna and flora; subsequent submergence to not less than 500 or 600 feet below present level. 1. Lower boulder-clay with intercalated interglacial fossil- iferous beds = the product of more than one mer de glace. The lowest clay marks the period of greatest glaciation. ENGLAND AND IRELAND— 6. Valley-moraines and fluvio-glacial gravels. 5 and 4. Kames or eskers, erratics ; fluvio-glacial deposits. 8. Upper boulder-clay of last mer de glace. 2. Interglacial beds, marine and fresh-water. Disappearance of glacial conditions; land-surface at first; subsequent submergence to considerable extent. 1. Lower boulder-clays with intercalated aqueous deposits, indicating probably same conditions as 1 in Scottish series. J NortTHERN EvuROPE— 4, Sand and gravel; erratics; shelly marine clays (in Baltic area ). 3. Upper boulder-clay and terminal moraines of last mer de glace. 2. Interglacial beds, partly fresh-water and terrestrial, partly marine. 1. Lower boulder-clay = greatest extension of ice. SwITZERLAND— 4, Fluvio-glacial gravels in terraces, 3. Moraines and upper boulder-clay of last great glaciers. 2. Interglacial beds, with mammalian remains, &c. 1. Lower boulder-clay. CENTRAL FRANCE— 4. Fluvio-glacial gravels. 3. Moraines. 2. Interglacial beds, richly fossiliferous. 1. Ground-moraines (Mont Dore). In North America glacial deposits are developed upon a great scale, and there, as in Europe, the boulder-clays are separated by interglacial deposits. The northern part of the continent was drowned in ice during the greatest extension of the mer de glace, the ice flowing south into New Jersey, whence its front extended north-west through Pennsylvania, after which it trended south-west through Ohio and Indiana to reach the 38th parallel of latitude in Illinois. It then appears to have swept away to the north-west in the direction of the Missouri valley. The latest American mer de glace did not come so far south—its terminal moraines being well developed in Minnesota, Wis- GLACIATION GLACIERS 223 -consin, Michigan, &e. Evidence of former exces- sive glacial conditions has been met with in many other of the world—old moraines, &c. having been detected in the Caucasus, the mountains of Asia Minor, the Lebanon, the Himalayas, &c. in Asia; in the Atlas, the Kagu and Krome Moun- tains, &c. in Africa; in the Andes, Tierra del Fuego, &c. in South America; in New Zealand, &e, The probable cause of the glacial period is discussed under PLEISTOCENE SYSTEM. Glaciation. See GLACIAL Periop, GLACIERS. Glaciers are rivers of snow compacted by pressure into ice, which move slowly from higher to lower levels. In tropical and temperate climates meget are found only upon the higher parts of ofty mountains, but at the poles whole continents and great islands are entirely or partially covered by them. Distribution.—Their distribution is very exten- sive: they occur in Greenland, which is almost an entire sheet of ice; on the islands between Greenland and North America; in North America towards the centre, in Alaska and dotted along the Pacific coast, and continued down to the extremity of South America; in Europe, in Norway, among the Pyrenees, and along the Alps ; in Asia they per- vade the Himalayan system, and appear in Japan and on the opposite mainland. ty e unexplored Antarctic continent is, to all appearance, covered entirely by one great ice-sheet of over 10,000 feet in thickness. Traces of their presence in past geo- logical ages are even more neral, appearing as they o over the larger part of North America, the southern portion of South America, all northern Europe, as well as smaller areas in Africa, Australia, New Zealand, &e. Of the 1155 glaciers of the Alps, the longest is the Aletsch, 15 miles in length ; the depth of the Aar glacier has been estimated at 1510 feet. Next to the Aletsch among European glaciers is one in the Caucasus. Position.—At and near the equator a height of 16,000 feet is necessary for the formation of glaciers, but, as cooler regions are 5 1 Rag the required altitude becomes less and less, until the poles are reached, where the ice-sheets are presented empty- ing themselves into the ocean. But wherever occurring, they are always greatest and most fre- — on eminences of the required height, which rst meet the vapour-laden winds coming from the sea, and presenting a side or sides , Be little exposed to solar influences. Thus, the Himalaya Mountains, being directly in the track of the south-west monsoon, with no intervening heights of any consequence between them and the ocean, first receive its watery burden, with the conse- quent formation of the t glaciers of that region. In the same way the Andes of South America, meeting the breezes from the Pacific, bear great ice-sheets upon all their more prominent reese In New Zealand, while the glaciers of the ount Cook range reach down to 700 feet above the sea on the west side, they reach only to 2000 feet on the east side. Movement.—On the higher summits of glacier- bearing mountains the snow lies loose, in granular form and comparatively lightly ; but, as it is impelled i The edge of the Muir Glacier, Alaska. down the sides of the eminences by gravitation, the pressure of the masses from behind and from the sides gradually hardens and compacts it, until at last the air is driven out, and, the forces from above acting with greater power from increase of weight and impact, the glacier assumes its best- known pas Gor of a homogeneous concretion of blue, crystalline ice. Thus slowly pushed forward, the glacier continues to descend, until, in the warmer latitudes, a zone is reached where the sun becomes too powerful to be resisted, and the ice melts, thus forming the headwaters of rivers, many of which take their origin in this ba 6 In more rigorous climates the ice-sheets are pushed down to the lowest-lying grounds, until their edges are pro- truded into the sea, and until a sufficient donee of water is reached to float the buoyant ice, which is now submerged to two-thirds of its thickness. Partly by the action of the swell, partly because of its own weight, the edge becomes detached from the parent mass, and floats out to sea in the form of Icebergs (q.v.). This process of dissolution is known among whalers as ‘calving.’ But even in the higher latitudes, such as Greenland, where the temperature is always’ exceedingly low, the ice dissolves and reaches the sea by rivers as well as by icebergs. The melting in such cases is almost entirely due to ressure, the water escaping from below the ice-sheet.: The solar influences being weak, even in the height of summer the supply of moisture derived from the exposed surfaces in these regions is small and insignificant. —S SS SV’ Although the onward movement of a glacier is too slow to be perceptible to the eye, it is none the less present and, generally, continuous. J. D. Forbes found (from measurements made by himself in the Mer de Glace, near Chamouni; see ALPS) and first proved that the whole sheet does not s the same rate of motion, the centre advancing more rapidly than the sides. He discovered that in summer and in the fall of the year the middle of that glacier drew forward at a rate of from. 1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet 3 inches, and at the sides at from 1 foot 1 inch to 1 foot 74 inches per diem. Agassiz at about the same time carried on a series of independent experiments on the glacier of the Aar, and arrived at similar conclusions. Helland later on demon- strated that in Greenland a more rapid motion was to be found, and that the Jacobshafn glacier advanced at a rate of from 48°2 feet to 64°8 feet in the twenty-four hours. This result has lately been generally confirmed, although somewhat modified, by Dr Rink, who, from a considerable 224 GLACIERS = collection of data, concludes that the quickest rate of progress of the centres of the glaciers of that region averages 21 feet in twenty-four hours. In pey. areas in Greenland, however, the limits of the ice-sheets were found to be almost stationary, and prolonged and careful observations became neces- sary before any progress could be noted. In these cases the configuration of the ground was the prin- cipal cause of the more gentle motion. The varia- tion in the rate of movement in different parts of the mass is analogous to that of rivers, and there are many other points of similarity between glaciers and streams of water which will call for notice below. The above remarks broadly point ont the general movements of glaciers, but various modifying agencies are frequently present, which change for a time the regularity of the motion. Thus, when slipping down a steep incline the rate of progress is much more rapid than when level tracts or rising ground are being traversed. The surface of the ice-sheet, too, travels with somewhat greater velocity than the lower strata, and the nature of the glacier’s bed here again produces modifica- tions. When the path is smooth and sloping, the rates of speed at which the upper and under por- tions advance are much more equal than when obstacles intervene, preventing the lower strata from keeping up an equal ratio of motion with the portions nearer to and at the surface. When the ice- sheet turns aside from following a straight course and forms a curve, the maximum of motion is no longer in the centre, but at points along the sur- face nearer to the convex side of the curve. In temperate and tropical latitudes the exposed ee of the glacier is being continually lowered and reduced by evaporation, and it would appear that, as a general rule, the ice masses in such situations lose more by this process than they gain from the snowfalls of winter. When a series of hot summers and mild winters succeed each other, the amount of ice dissolved and conveyed away in thé form of running water exceeds considerably the supply brought down from higher levels by gravitation, and the glacier retreats up its bed or valley. On the contrary, when a succession of cold summers and severe winters are experienced, it pushes itself farther down, and appears, through these effects of the seasons, to possess a kind of elasticity. When decided inequalities in the ground are acpi over, the hollows become filled up with ice elonging to the bottom of the glacier, the super- incumbent masses, passing over them; in this manner ‘ice eddies’ are formed. On coming down a sharp declivity the glacier becomes much cracked and fissured, pinnacles and towers become con- a eit and the whole fall presents a scene of chaotic confusion. No sooner, however, is com- paratively level ground again reached than the pressure exerted by the flow from the heights once more asserts itself, and again cakes the shattered fragments into a smooth, solid whole. Crevasses are cracks in the ice-sheet, at first narrow, and of no great depth; but as the glacier progresses they increase in size, often assuming the dimensions of huge chasms, frequently reaching from the top to the bottom of the mass and travelling downwards with it, until some temporary stoppage in front presses the edges one against the thet, and seals up the orifice. ; ; ’ It has been urged that, when glaciers flow over a level or rising surface, something more than the mere force of gravitation must be sought to account for their forward movement, and the theory has been advanced that water, percolating from the surface through openings into the body of the ice, and there Bite, et Hrs expansion during the process of freezing, may be a powerful factor in impelling the glacier onwards, where gravitation alone could hardly be sufficient to account for its advance. Work.—Glaciers have many features in common with rivers. Thus, they have regular drainage areas from which they draw their supplies; they move from higher to lower levels with more or less rapidity as the configuration of the ground varies ; the whole mass does not move at the same rate ; they carry along with them rocks, boulders, gravel, sand, and earth; they reach the ocean in the forms either of ice or water; and they convey to the sea their burdens of terruginous materials. Their in- fluence upon marine deposits would, in the present state of our knowledge, appear to be very great— greater, indeed, than that of the largest rivers dis- charging on a bold and little indented coast, and nearly as great as that of large rivers falling into bays and partially enclosed seas. Thus, the con- tinental marine deposits off the shores of Antarctica extend almost as far out into the ocean as those brought down into the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea by the Ganges, Indus, and the other great streams of India, and to an infinitely greater extent than those conveyed by the great rivers of the smooth, east coast of Africa, which empty them- selves directly into the open ocean. The formation of moraines is one of the most evident phenomena connected with the work of glaciers. They are of three varieties, known as terminal, lateral, and median. A terminal mo- raine consists of a gathering of boulders, rubbish, &c., pushed down by the advancing ice-sheet and heaped up before it. When the glacier re- treats, the moraine is seen to be of a crescent shape, the extremities pointing backwards and the centre pushed more or less forward—evidence of the greater rapidity of motion of the centre than of the sides of the glacier. Lateral moraines are formed by the denudation of the sides of the bed or valley down which the ice-sheet flows. In its forward movement it scrapes off immense quantities of rubbish from the sides, which, falling on the outer edges of the sheet, are carried forward and down- ward and thrown off laterally. When two glaciers meet, they coalesce and flow onward as one; the lateral moraines at the sides of juncture unite also, and form a medial moraine down the centre of the great trunk glacier. Boulders, so long as they are carried upon the ice-sheets, are in nowise changed by transport, preserving all their angularities and sharp corners. Many of them, however, fall into the crevasses, and, reaching the bottom, are ground and rasped along the rocky bed of the ice-stream. These boulders, as well as the solid rocks they are rubbed over, become polished and striated, and in this way evidence of the presence of glaciers is pre- served long after they themselves have disappeared. The water discharged from the extremities of ice- fields is always muddy, heavily charged with a fine powder, produced by the scraping of rock and ice against rock and soil. In the warmer regions, when a glacier protrudes below the snow-line the amount of water melted from the surface is very considerable, often finding its way into a crevasse and uniting with the water already collected there, produced by the higher temperature prevailing in the lower strata of all glaciers, and resulting from the effects of pressure. The falling water in the course of time drives a shaft or tunnel through the ice at the bottom of the crevasse, and these shafts are known as mouwiins. The closing of the crevasse does not necessarily imply the destruction of the moulin, which often remains entire, with a deposit of rubbish, left by the water, all along the bottom, and may come to light again through the opening of a fresh chasm much farther down the ctor For particulars and discussions regarding glaciers and MUIR GLACIER, ALASKA. GLADIOLUS 225 GLACIS their work, see De Saussure’s Vo, dans les Alpes. ; ’ Agassiz’ Etude sur les Glaciers ; Crole’s Climate and Time ; Geikie’s Great Ice Ave; Forbes’s Travels in the Alps; Tyndall’s Glaciers of the Alps; a yoga egg Ys Soe., 1856-57 ; Scottish Geoy. , vol. v.; Heim, Hand- buch der Gletscherkunde 1886} ; also Dr Frederick Wright's important work, The Ice Age in North America (New York ond Lond, 1889), For the influence of on marine deposits, see maps by Dr John Murray the Scottish Geog. May., vol. v. Glacis (allied to pate in the sense of a lawn) is the slope of earth, generally 1 in 20, which inclines from the Covered-way (q.v.) of a fortress towards the country. It obliges the assailants to proach over an open space swept by fire from e fortress, and at the same time masks the general works of the place. See FORTIFICATION. Gladbach, or Berciscu-GLApBaAcu, an_in-: dustrial town of Rhenish Prussia, 8 miles NE. of Cologne. Its industries include the manufacture of drag-nets, paper, papier-maché, and gunpowder, and it has zine and various other metal works. Peat is cut in the neighbourhood, Pop. 9928. Gladbach, or MONCHEN-GLADBACH, a rapidly growing manufacturing town of Rhenish Prussia, 6 miles W. of Diisseldorf, is the centre of the Rhenish cotton-spinning. industry. It has also manufactures of silk, wool, linen, and paper, cotton- rinting works, dyeworks, bleachtfields, iron-foun- ries, machine-shops, breweries, and brickworks. Gladbach, which has been a town since 1366, was formerly the seat of an important linen trade ; the cotton industry was introduced in the end of the 18th century. The town formerly contained a famous Benedictine abbey, founded in 792, and still possesses a chureh dating from the 12th and 13th centuries (the crypt from the 8th). Pop. (1858) 13,965 ; (1871) D6 354; (1885) 44,067 ; (1890) 49,628, mostly Roman Catholics. Gladiator (from Lat. gladius, ‘a sword’), a professional fighter in the arena of a Roman amphitheatre, against either another gladiator or a wild beast. The eustom of giving gladiatorial exhibitions seems to have been borrowed from Etruria, where slaves and prisoners were sacrificed on the tombs of illustrious chieftains. This practice was common in Greece and the East. At Rome the Soagrargens contests took place at first at funerals only, but afterwards in the amphitheatre ; and in process of time they lost all trace of a religious character, and came to be a common form of amusement. The first show of this kind that we read of in Roman history was one between three airs of gladiators, arranged by Marcus and Decius oo — the peg wh their —— in 264 B.C. e fashion rapidly gain und, especially durin the last years of the sos and ads id so it became customary for magistrates, public officers, and candidates for the popular suffrages to give tuitous gladiatorial exhibitions to the people. ut the emperors exceeded all others in the extent and magnificence of these spectacles. Julius Cesar gave a show at which 320 couples fought; Titus gave an exhibition of gladiators, wild beasts, and sea-fights which lasted 100 days; Trajan one of 123 days, in which 10,000 men fought with each other or with wild beasts for the amusement of the Romans ; and the taste for these cruel spectacles spread through every part of the extensive Roman empire. Even under the republic efforts had been made to limit the number of gladiators, and to diminish the frequency of these spectacles. Cicero proposed a law that no man should give one for two years before becoming a candidate for office. The Emperor Augustus forbade more than two shows in a year, or that one should be given ho man worth less than half a million sesterces. , in 325 prohibited gladiatorial contests ‘ altogether ; but their final abolition was due to the splendid daring of Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, who in 404 journeyed to Rome, and there, rushing into the arena, strove to part two gladiators. The pone ay stoned him to death, but the Emperor onorius proclaimed him a martyr, and issued an edict suppressing such exhibitions. The gladi- ators were for the most part, and always at first, prisoners taken in war and slaves, with the worst classes of criminals. But in the times of the em- vee freemen and men of broken fortunes began enter the profession ; and later on knights and senators fought in the arena, and even women. The Emperor Commodus was particularly proud of his skill and prowess as a gladiator. The successful combatant was at first rewarded with a palm branch, but in later years it became the custom to add to this several rich and valuable presents and a substantial prize of money. He was in fact the hero of the hour, like the espada of the Spanish bull-ring. It used to be commonly unders that, after a gladiator had been thrown down or dis- armed, if the spectators turned up their thumbs, they wish the vanquished man’s life to be spared, and, if they turned them down, that he was to be slain. So it is interpreted in Gérome’s famous picture. But this is certainly erroneous. The question mainly turns on the interpretation of vertere pollicem and premere pollicem. Mayor takes the first phrase to mean ‘to turn the thumb to- wards the breast, as the signal for stabbing;’ the latter, ‘to turn downwards, as the signal for drop- ping the sword.’ Wilkins takes premere as closing the thumb on the hand ; and oe eoving pollex, the signal for death, seems to have been an upturned thumb. Gladiators were trained in special schools ; and it was regarded as a legitimate business to keep them and let them out on hire. The revolt of Spartacus (q.v.), the gladiator, and his companions forms an exciting episode in Roman history. Gladiators were known by different names according to the arms, offen- sive and defensive, that they wore. Thus, the Samnites carried a shield, helmet, greave, some kind of defensive armour on the chest, and a short sword ; the retiarit carried a trident and a net to entangle their opponents ; the /aquearii had a noose or lasso. Gladiolus, a genus of Tridaceze (q.v.), with beautiful spikes of flowers, sword-shaped leaves (whence the name—dim. of Lat. gladius, ‘a sword’), and corms or bulbous rhizomes, Several species are Euro (G. palustris, communis, &c.), though none are British; the majority, however, are from the Cape. They are propagated by offset corms or from seed : in this way innumerable hybrids have been produced. The hardy European forms are well adapted to the mixed border, wild garden or shrubbery in dry and sunny situations. Among the leading Cape forms are G. cardinalis (red), psit- tacinus (yellow with rape spots), floribundus (purple and Gladiolus Ramosus. white), &c., and these have given rise to numerous hybrids—e.g. the first two to G. gandavensis, which again stands at the head of many new series of hybrids and varieties. The 226 GLADIOLUS GLADSTONE scarlet G. brenchleyensis is similarly a standard form. The corm of G. communis was formerly officinal ; and the Hottentots dig up some of the Cape species for the sake of their starchy corms. See Nicholson’s Dictionary of Gardening ; Robin- son’s Flower-garden, &c. : Gladstone, WituiAmM Ewart, statesman, orator, and author, was born in Rodney Street, Liverpool, on the 29th December 1809. He was the fourth son of Sir John Gladstone (1764-1851), a well-known and it might almost be said a famous Liverpool merchant, who sat for some years in parliament, and was a devoted friend and supporter of George Canning. Mr Gladstone was of Scotch descent on both sides, and declared more than once in a public speech that the blood that ran in his veins was exclusively Scottish. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford. He became a student at Oxford in 1829, and graduated as a double first-class in 1831. He had distinguished himself greatly as a doi in the Oxford Union Debating Society, and had before that time written much in The Eton Miscellany, which indeed he helped to found. He appears to have begun his career as a strong opponent of all vaneed measures of political reform. In the Oxford Union he proposed a vote of censure on the government of Lord Grey for introducing the great Reform Bill which was carried in 1832, and on the Duke of Wellington because of his having yielded to the claims for Catholic emancipation. e also opposed a motion in favour of immediate emancipation of the slaves in our West Indian islands. He soon became known as a young man of promise, who would be able to render good service to the Con- servative party in the great struggle which seemed likely to be forced upon them—a struggle, as many thought, for their very existence. It was a time of intense political emotion. Passion and panic alike prevailed. The first great ‘leap in the dark’ had been taken; the Reform Bill was carried ; the sceptre of Ponte’ had passed away from the aris- tocracy and the privileged ranks to the middle and lower middle classes. The Conservative party were looking eagerly out for young men of promise to stiffen their au in the new parliament—the first elected under the Reform Bill, the first which the middle-class had their due share in creating ; the first in which such cities as Manchester and Liverpool and Birmingham were allowed to have representation. Mr Gladstone was invited to contest the burgh of Newark in the Conservative interest, and he had the support of the great Newcastle family. He stood for Newark, and he was elected. He de- livered his maiden speech on a subject connected with the great movement for the emancipation’ of the West Indian slaves; but he seems to have con- fined himself mainly to a defence of the manner in which his father’s estates were managed, the course of the debate having brought out some charge against the management of the elder Gladstone’s possessions in one of the West Indian islands. The new orator appears to have made a decided impression on the House of Commons. His manner, his voice, his diction, his fiuency were alike the subject of praise. Mr Gladstone evidently continued to impress the House of Commons with a sense of his great parliamentary capacity. We get at this fact rather obliquely ; for we do not hear of his creating any great sensation in debate ; and to this day some very old members of the House insist that for a long time he was generally regarded as merely a fluent speaker, who talked like one read- ing from a book. But on the other hand we find that he is described by Macaulay in 1839 as ‘the rising hope’ of the ‘stern and unbending Tories,’ and the whole tone of Macaulay’s essay—a criti- cism of Gladstone’s first serious attempt at author- ship, his book on the relations between chureh and state—shows that the critic treats the author as a young man of undoubted mark and position in. the House of Commons. ; In December 1834 Sir Robert Peel appointed Gladstone to the office of a Junior Lord of the Treasury. In the next year Peel, who was quick to appreciate the great abilities and the sound commercial knowledge of his new recruit, gave to him the more important post of Under-secretary for the Colonies. Gladstone looked up to Peel wit intense admiration. There was much to draw the two men together. Knowledge of finance, thorough understanding and firm grasp of the principles on which a nation’s business must be conducted— perhaps it may be added a common origin in the middle-class—these points of resemblance might well have become points of attraction. But there were other and still higher sympathies to bring them close. The elder and the younger man were alike earnest, profoundly earnest ; filled with conscience in every movement of their political and private lives; a good deal too earnest and serious perhaps for most of the parliamentary colleagues by whom they were surrounded. Mr Gladstone always remained devoted to Peel, and knew him perhaps more thoroughly and intimately than any other man was privileged to do. Peel went out of office very soon after he had made Mr Gladstone Under-secretary for the Colonies. Lord John Russell had brought forward a series of motions on the ominous subject of the Irish Chureh, and Peel was defeated, and resigned. It is almost needless to say that Gladstone went with him. Peel came back again to office in 1841, on the fall of the Melbourne administration, and Mr Glad- stone became Vice-president of the Board of Trade and Master of the Mint, and was at the same time sworn in a member of the Privy-council. In 1843 he became President of the Board of Trade. Early in 1845 he resigned his office because he could not approve of the policy of the government with regard to the Maynooth grant. The great struggle on the question of the repeal of the Corn Laws was now coming on. It would be impossible that a man with Mr Gladstone’s turn of mind and early training could have continued a protectionist when once he had applied his intellect and his experience to a practical examination of the subject. Once again he went with his leader. Peel saw that there was nothing for it but to accept the principles of the Free-trade party, who had been bearing the fiery cross of their peaceful and noble agitation all through the country, and were gathering adherents wherever they went. It is utterly unfair to say that Peel merely yielded to the demands of an agitation which was growing too strong for him. The more generous and the more truthful interpretation of his conduct is that the agitation first compelled him to give his atten- tion to the whole subject; and that as he thought it out he became converted and convinced. When the agitation began, and for long after, Lord John Russell and the Whigs generally were no whit more inclined to free rate than Sir Robert Peel and Mr Gladstone. It is a somewhat curious fact that Mr Gladstone was not in the House of Commons gxnag the eventful session when the great battle of free trade was fought and won. In thorough sympathy with Peel, he had joined the government again as Colonial Secretary. Knowing that he could no longer be in political sympathy with the Duke of Newcastle, whose influence had obtained for him the representation of Newark, he had given up his seat, and did not come into Saageeanleants again until the struggle was over. At the general elections in ¥ os g of .. possib E ‘any other part of the creed. With a mind like his, inquiry once started must go on. tion which he gave in 1851 0 y world. Burke himself could not when he knew that his cause was alread GLADSTONE 227 1847 Mr Gladstone, still accepted as a Tory, was en ae of the representatives for the university ord. Up to the time of the abolition of the Corn Laws, or at least of the movement which led to - their abolition, Mr Gladstone had been a Tory of a rather old-fashioned school. The corn-law agita- robably first set him thinking over the i defects of our social and legislative system, showed him the necessity for reform at least in one direction. The interests of religion itself at one time seemed to him to be bound up with the principles of the Tory party; and no doubt there a te period of his career when the principle of otection would have seemed to him as sacred as There was always something impetuous in the workings of his intellect, as well as the rush of his sympathy. He startled Europe, and indeed the whole civilised _ world, by the terrible and only too truthful deserip- ‘f the condition of the of Naples, under the king who was known the nickname of ‘Bomba,’ and the cruelties h were inflicted on political prisoners in par- ticular. Again and again in Mr Gladstone’s public _ life we shall see him carried away by the same ig and passionate emotion on behalf of the i of despotic cruelty in any part of the more sym- thetic, more earhest, or more strong. By the death of Sir Robert Peel in 1850 Mr Glad- stone had lost a trusted leader and a dear friend. But the loss of his leader had brought Gladstone himself more directly to the front. It was not until after Peel’s death that he compelled the House of Commons and the country to recog- nise in him a supreme master of ' gperng debate. The first really great s made by Mr Gladstone in parliament—the first speech which could fairly challenge comparison with any of the finest speeches of a past day—was made in the _ debate on Mr Disraeli’s budget in the winter of 1852, the first session of the new parliament. Mr Disraeli knew well that his government was doomed to fall. He knew that it could not survive _ that debate. It was always one of Mr Disraeli’s peculiarities that he could fight most enenily ; y lost. _ That which would have disheartened and disarmed other men seemed only to animate him with all Macbeth’s wild courage of despair. Never did his gift of satire, of invective, and of epithet show to more splendid effect than in the s with which he closed his part of the debate and mercilessly assailed his opponents. Mr Disraeli sat down at two o’clock in the morning, and then Mr Gladstone rose to reply to him. Most men in the house, even on the Opposition side, were filled with the belief that it would be impossible to make any real im- pression on the house after such a speech as that of Mr Disraeli. Long before Mr Gladstone had concluded every one admitted that the effect of Mr Disraeli’s speech had been outdone and outshone. From that hour Mr Gladstone was recognised as one of the great historic orators of the English par- liament—a man to rank with Bolingbroke and Chatham and Pitt and Fox. With that speech began the long parliamen duel between these two great masters of debate, Mr Gladstone and Mr Disraeli, which was carried on for four-and-twenty years. On the fall of the short-lived Tory administration Lord rdeen came into office. He formed the famous Coalition Ministry. Lord Palmerston took what most ey would have thought the un- congenial office of Home Secretary. rd John Russell became Secretary for Foreign Affairs. Mr Gladstone, who with others of the ‘ Peelites,’ as they were called, had joined the new administra- tion, was Chancellor of the Exchequer. His speech on the introduction of his first budget was waited for with great expectation; but it distanced all expectation. It occupied several hours in delivery, but none of those who listened to it would have wished it to be shortened by a sentence. It ma be questioned whether even the younger Pitt, with all his magic of voice and style and phrase, could lend such charm to each successive budget as Mr Gladstone was able todo. A budget s h from Mr Gladstone came to be cxpecier with the same kind of keen artistic longing as waits the first performance of a new opera by some great com- poser. A budget speech by Mr Gladstone was a triumph in the realm of the fine arts. The Crimean war broke up the Coalition Ministry. A motion by Mr Roebuck for inquiry into the condition of the army before Sebastopol was carried by a large majority against the govern- ment. Lord Aberdeen at once resigned. Lord Derby was sent for by the Queen, but he could not see his way to form a cabinet without Lord Palmerston, and Lord Palmerston would not go with him. Lord John Russell was summoned, but did not believe he could succeed. In fact, Lord Palmerston was the one indispensable man, and he became prime-minister. Mr Gladstone held his former office for a short time; but when Lord Palm- erston a way to the demand for the appoint- ment of the committee of inquiry, Mr Gladstone believed that as he had conscientiously op the appointment of such a committee, he ought not to remain a member of a cabinet which was willing to accept it. His conviction was shared by his Peelite colleagues, Sir James Graham and Mr Sidney Her- bert, and they too retired from office. Mr Glad- stone , et the government of Lord Palmerston a general support, until, after the attempt of Orsini on the life of the Emperor Napoleon IIT. in 1858, Palmerston introduced his ill-fated Conspiracy to Murder Bill. Mr Gladstone strongly supported the amendment to the motion for the second read- ing, which declared that before introducing any proposal for an alteration in the law of conspiracy the government ought to have replied to the French despatch, which virtually accused England of lending her protection to foreign assassins. The government was defeated, Lord Palmerston re- signed, and Lord Derby was called on to form a new ministry. —~ The short stay of the Conservative party in office gave to Mr Gladstone an opportunity of accepting a mission which must have ‘Seeks very much after his own heart. This was the famous visit to the Tonian Islands (q.v.) in 1858. The year 1859 saw Lord Palmerston back again in office and Mr Gladstone in his old place as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The budget of 1860 . was remarkable, as it contained the provisions for the reduction of the wine-duties and the whole simplified system of taxation intended to epply to the commercial treaty which Mr Cobden had suc- ceeded in persuading the emperor of the French to accept. Mr Gladstone also introduced a provision for the abolition of the duty on paper—a duty which was simply a tax upon reading, a tax upon popular education. The House of Lords struck out this clause ; a somewhat impassioned popular agitation followed; and in the next session the Lords passed the measure for the re of the duty without offering any further opposition. The death of Lord Palmerston in 1 called Lord Russell to the position of prime-minister and made Mr Gladstone leader of the House of Commons. Mr Gladstone’s mind had long been turning in the direction of an extension or rather expansion of the 228 GLADSTONE suffrage. It was assumed by every one that, Lord Russell and Mr Gladstone being now at the head of affairs, a reform bill would be sure to come. It did come ; a very moderate and cautious bill, enlarging the area of the franchise in boroughs and counties. The Conservative party opposed it, and were sup- ported in their opposition by a considerable section of the Liberals, who thought the measure was going too far on the road to universal suffrage and the rule of the democracy. The bill was defeated, and the Liberal statesmen went out of office (1866). Mr Gladstone had carried his point, however, for when Mr Disraeli came into office he saw that a reform bill was inevitable, and he prepared his party, or most of them, for the course which would ave to be taken. In the very next session Mr Disraeli introduced a Reform Bill of his own, which was enlarged and expanded until it became practically a measure of household suffrage for cities and boroughs. Somewhere about this time the attention of Mr Gladstone began to be attracted to the condition of Treland. The distressed and distracted state of Treland, the unceasing popular agitation and dis- content, the Fenian insurrection, brought under England’s very eyes by the scheme for an attack on Chester Castle—all these evidences of malady in Ireland’s system led Mr Gladstone to the convic- tion that the time had come when statesmanship must seek through parliament for some process of remedy. Mr Gladstone came after a while to the conclusion that the Protestant state church in Ireland must be disestablished and disendowed, that the Irish land tenure system must be reformed, and that better provision must be made for the higher education of the Catholics of Ireland. He made short work with the Irish state church. He de- feated the government on a series of resolutions foreshadowing his policy ; the government appealed to the country; the Liberals returned to power, and Mr Gladstone became prime-minister (1868). In his first session of government he disestablished and disendowed the state church in Ireland. In the next session he passed a measure which for the first time recognised the right of the Irish tenant to the value of the improvements he had himself made at his own cost and labour. Never probably was there such a period of ener- getic reform in almost every direction as that which set in when Mr Gladstone became prime- minister. For the first time in English histo a system of national education was established. The Ballot Act was passed for the protection of voters. The system of purchase in the army was abolished—by something, it must be owned, a little in the nature of a coup d’état. Then Mr Gladstone introduced a measure to improve the condition of university education in Ireland. This bill was intended almost altogether for the benefit of Irish Catholics ; but it did not go far enough to satisfy the demands of the Catholics, and in some of its provisions was declared incompatible with the prin- ciples of their church. The Catholic members of the House of Commons voted against it, and with that help the Conservatives were able to throw out the bill (1873). Mr Gladstone tendered his resigna- tion of office. But Mr Disraeli declined just then to undertake any responsibility, and Mr Gladstone had to remain at the head of affairs. The great wave of reforming energy had, however, subsided in the country. ‘The period of reaction had come. The by-elections began to tell against the Liberals. Mr Gladstone suddenly dissolved parliament and appealed to the country, and the answer to his appeal was the election of a Conservative majority. Mr Disraeli came back to power, and Mr Gladstone retired from the leadership of the House of Commons (1874). For a while Mr Gladstone occupied himself in literary and historical studies, and he published essays and pamphlets. But even in his literary studies Mr (ladatone would appear to have always kept glancing at the House of peal as Charles V. in his monastery kept his eyes on the world of politics outside. The atrocious conduct of the Turkish officials in Bulgaria aroused his generous anger, and he flung down his books and rushed out from his study to preach a crusade against the Ottoman power in Europe. The waters rose and lifted him, whether he would or no, into power. The parliament which had gone on from the spring of 1874 was dissolved in the spring of 1880, and the Liberals came in with an ver whalnonae majority. The period of reaction had gone. Mr Gladstone, now after the famous Midlothian campaigns M.P. for the county of Edinburgh, had to become prime- minister once more. His name was the only name that had come out of the voting urns, It was an unpropitious hour at which to return to office. There were troubles in Egypt; there was impending war in the Soudan and in South Africa. There was something very like an agrarian revolu- tion going on in Ireland ; and the Home Rule party in the House of Commons was under new, resolute, and uncompromising leadership. Mr Gladstone succeeded, nevertheless, in carrying what might be called a vast scheme of parliamentary reform, a scheme which established something very near to universal suffrage, arranged the constituencies into “eal ig divisions, extinguished several small oroughs, leaving their electors to vote in their county division, and in general completed the work begun in 1832, and carried further in 1867. It is to the credit of the Conservative party that after a while they co-operated cordially with Mr Gladstone in his reforming work of 1885. This was a triumph for Mr Gladstone of an entirely satisfactory char- acter; but he had sore trials to counterbalance it. He found himself drawn into a series of wars in North and South Africa; and he whose generous sympathy had of late been so much given to Ireland, and who had introduced and carried another land bill for Ireland, found that in endeavouring to pass the measures of coercion which the authorities in Dublin Castle deemed advisable, he had to encounter the fiercest opposition from the Irish members of parliament and the vast bulk of the Irish popula- tion. That time must have been for a man of Mr Gladstone’s nature a time of darkness and of pain. Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr Burke were assassinated in Dublin ; General Gordon perished at Khartoum. In the end the Irish members coalesced with the Conservatives in a vote on a clause in the budget, and Mr Gladstone's government was de- feated. Lord Salisbury came back into office, but not just then into power. His was a most precari- ous position, depending on the course which might be taken by the Irish members. He was out of office in a few months, and then the general elec- tions came on. These elections were to give the first opportunity to the newly-made voters under Mr Gladstone’s latest reform act ; and these voters sent him back into office and apparently into power once again. The use Mr Gladstone made of office and of power astonished his enemies, and startled and shocked not a few of his friends. His government had had in the years between 1881 and 1884 to fight a fierce battle against the policy of obstruction organised by Mr Parnell, the leader of the Home Rule party. The obstruction was organised to prevent or delay the passing of coercion measures, and to force the attention of the British public to the claims of Ire- land. The struggles that were carried on will be always memorable in the history of parliament. The fiercest passions were aroused on both sides, 4 GLADSTONE GLAMORGANSHIRE 229 Home Rule, and he reso to stake power and pularity on an acceptance of their demand. In March 1 he brought in a measure to give a statutory liament to Ireland. A sudden and serious split took place in his party ; some of his most influential colleagues declare inst him ; the bill was rejected on the second reading, and Mr Gladstone appealed to the country, only to be defeated at the general election. The Conservative party, with the help of the Liberals who had de- clined to follow Mr Gladstone, came back into wer with a strong majority, Mr Gladstone lead- the Opposition. At the general election of 1 his party, including both sections of Irish Nationalists, secured a majority of above forty over the combined Conservatives and_ Liberal Unionists. In 1893 his Home Rule Bill was earried in the House of Commons in spite of the strenuous opposition of the combined Unionist sections, but was thrown out in the House of Owing to the increasing infirmities of age, especially se eyesight, the veteran states- man resi 3d March 1894, and was succeeded by Lord Rosebe He still took an interest in public affairs and busied himself with literary work —in January 1898 he published his reminiscences of Arthur Hallam ; but falling rrrigin ill, after some months of suffering borne with noble fortitude, he died at Hawarden on the 19th May 1898. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Mr Gladstone’s contributions toliterature, ranging from political pamphlets to Homeric studies (in- cluding the article HoMER in this volume) and theological treatises, would have made another man’s reputation ; but to the world they are inter- esting chiefly as illustrating a marvellous and un- resting mental activity. Probably no other English minister has left behind him so long and so success- ful a record of practical legislation ; some of the best legislation accomplished by his political opponents was his own work taken out ot his hands. Asa rliamentary debater he never had a superior—it is doubtful whether he ever had an equal—in the whole of the political history of these countries. There have been even in our own time orators who now and then shot their arrows higher; but so ready, so skilful, and so unerring an archer as he, taken all round, never drew bow on modern parlia- mentary battle-ground. Nature had given him an exquisite voice—sweet, powerful, easily-penetrat- ing, capable of filling without effort any public building however large—vibrating to every emotion. The incessant training of the House of Commons turned nature’s gifts to their fullest account. He was almost too fluent; his eloquence sometimes carried him away on its impassioned tide ; but his listeners were seldom inclined to find fault with this magnificent exuberance. He was one of the greatest orators, and the very greatest debater, of the Honse of Commons. ) rages. Bowe Gladstone’s works are The State in its Rela- tions with the Church (1838); A Manual of Prayers from the Liturgy (1845); Two Letters on the State Persecutions of the Neapolitan Government (1851); Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age (3 vols. 1858); A Chapter of Auto- yee Aol Juventus Mundi (1869); The Vatican Decrees, bearing on Civil Allegiance (1874); Vaticanism (1875); Homeric Synchronism (1876); Gleanings of Past Years (7 vols, 1879) ; The Irish Question (1886); a trans- lation of Horace (1894); and an edition of the Psalter with a Concordance (1895)—besides innumerable articles, as already mentioned, There are Lives by J. M‘Gilchrist (1868), Barnett Smith (1879), Thomas Archer (1883), G, W. E. Russell (1891), Leech (compiled from letters and speeches, 1894), Lucy (1895), Robbins (1895), the present writer (1894 and again in 1898), Sir E. Hamilton (1898), Sir Wemyss Reid (1899), In 1900 Mr John Morley was engaged cn the official life. Glagolitic Alphabet, the ancient Slavonic alphabet (see ALPHABET), older than the Cyrillic alphabet (see CyriL) by which it was superseded. Both were derived from the Greek minuscules. Glairine, another name for Baregine (q.v.). Glaisher, JAMES, meteorologist, was born in London in 1809. When twenty years of age he began to make meteorological observations as an officer of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. For three years from 1833 he was employed in the observatory at Cambridge, and in 1836 removed to Greenwich, where four years later he became super- intendent of the magnetical and meteorological department of the Royal Observatory, a post which he held for thirty-four years. Since 1841 he has prepared the annual and quarterly meteorological reports issued by the registrar-general. Between 1862 and 1866 he made twenty-eight balloon ascents for the purpose of studying the higher strata of the atmosphere, on one occasion reaching a height of over 7 miles (see Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1862-66, and BALLOON). Mr Glaisher was the founder of the Royal Meteorological Society, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849. He has written numerous works and papers on subjects relating to astronomy and meteorology. In 1879-83 he ee a complement to Burckhardt and Dace’s actor Tables. Glamorganshire (in Welsh, Gwlad Morgan), the most southerly of the counties of Wales, is bounded 8. and SW. by the Bristol Channel, NW. by Caermarthen, N. by Brecknock, and E. by Mon- mouth. Area, 855 sq. m.; pop. (1801) 70,879; (1841) 171,188; (1871) 397,859; (1881) 511,453; (1891) 687,147. This increase, which is unexampled in the kingdom, has been brought about by the development of the coal and iron industries. In the western portion of the county the coast is indented by Swansea Bay, from which it poreoe westward into the peninsula of Gower. he northern district is covered with rugged hills, the highest of which, however, Llangeinor, is only 1859 feet in height. This district com- rises one of the richest coalfields in the king- om. The southern portion of the county consists of a series of fertile valleys, richly wooded and with a mild climate, the finest being the Vale of Glamorgan, the ‘garden of Wales.’ The soil is a deep rich loam resting on limestone, and is excel- lently adapted for the growth of cereals. The mountainous district is intersected by numerous picturesque valleys, affording good pasturage for sheep and cattle. The chief rivers—the Rhymney, Taff, Neath, Tawe, and Llwchwr—flow southward into the Bristol Channel. Besides coal, anthra- cite or stone-coal, coking-coal, ironstone, and limestone are found. At Merthyr-Tydvil and Dowlais are large ironworks; at Swansea, Neath, Aberavon, large copper-smelting works. Tin and lead are also euvelioa in the county. Wheat, bar- ley, oats, and potatoes are the chief crops raised ; and butter pall Tort are largely produced. The farms are generally small, and agriculture is not in a highly advanced state. The county sends five members to parliament; the represented boroughs are Merthyr-Tydvil (with two), Swansea town (two), and the Cardiff boroughs (one). Glamorgan- shire contains some interesting Roman remains, 230 GLANCE GLANDS and many ruined memorials of the middle ages. Of these last Oystermouth Castle, Caerphilly Castle, and Castle Coch are the finest specimens. Cardiff Castle is a fine restored edifice. See Thomas Nicholas, History of Glamorganshire (1874). Glance (Ger. Glanz), a term often applied in popular language, and also by mineralogists, to a numerous order or family of minerals, of which Galena (q.v.) or Lead-glance may be regarded as a type. Ali of them are metallic, and many of them are known by names indicating the metal which is their principal constituent, as Lead-glance, Silver- glance, Bismuth-glance, &c. In these and many other species the metal is combined with sulphur, so that the mineral is a sulphuret; but there are also numerous species of glance in which sulphur is not present, but selenium, arsenic, or tellurium takes its place. In some kinds, also, two or more metals are present instead of one, in combination with one or other of these non-metallic or semi- metallic substances. Thus, Gold-glance, or Silvan- ite, consists of gold and silver in combination with tellurium ; it occurs in veins in porphyry, in Tran- sylvania, and is wrought for the sake of both the precious metals which it contains. Several kinds of glance are very valuable ores, as Lead-glance or Galena, Copper-glance or Redruthite, and Silver- lance or Argentite. Although some mineralogists have adopted the names Pyrites, Glance, and Blende as names of orders or families, the limits and dis- tinctions of these groups are not well marked. All kinds of glance are fused without much difficulty by the blowpipe. They are also soluble in acids. Glance-coal. See ANTHRACITE, and COAL. Glanders, or EQUINIA, a malignant, conta- gious, and fatal disease of the horse and ass, due to the introduction into the body, or perhaps to devel- opment within it, of a virulent organism called the Bacillus mallet. Discovered by Dr Striick of Berlin, and almost identical with the microbe of tuberculosis, this organism is about 35}, th of an inch broad, but varies from g@ypth to zpto5ath of an inch in length. This microbe, whilst infecting the whole system, shows specific effects more especially upon the mucous membrane of the nose, upon the lungs, and on the lymphatic system. Glanders and its modification Farey are capable of transmission to man—on whom the virus increases in malignancy—to sheep, goats, dogs, the feline species, and even to mice and rabbits; pigs and fowls resist the contagion, and until lately cattle were thought to do so, but experiments have thrown doubt upon this. In a typical case of glanders ulcers form in the nose, characterised by ragged and inflamed edges, discharging a viscid or sticky pus; a hard tumour forms under the jaw; the animal usually loses condition very rapidly; farey buds and ulcers rs si on the skin in various regions of the body;. the limbs swell; and the animal dies a loathsome object. Any cause which interferes with the purity or integrity of the horse’s blood or pro- duces a deteriorated or depraved state of his system predisposes to glanders. It has been frequently developed in healthy animals by their breathin for a short time a close, impure atmosphere, an cases of this sort were thus produced amongst the horses of several cavalry regiments during their transport in badly - constructed, overcrowded vessels to the Crimea in 1854. Confined, over- crowded, badly - ventilated stables are almost equally injurious, for they prevent the perfect aeration of the blood, and the prompt removal of its organic impurities. Bad feeding, hard work, and such reducing diseases as diabetes and _ in- fluenza also rank amongst the causes of glanders. Government by the Act Vict. 16 and 17, of date 14th August 1853, very properly compels the immediate. destruction of every glandered horse. Glanders, like farcy, is dealt with by the Con- tagious Diseases Acts, 1878-86. Horses frequent] have the disease in a chronic form, and if well fed and managed they might sometimes live and work for years in this condition: in the old coach- ing-days some stages were known to be worked by glandered teams. But no animal with glander- ous ulcers or discharge should on any account be preserved ; for, besides being perfectly incur. able, the fatal disease is communicable not only to healthy horses, but also to human beings. The symptoms of glanders in man are very similar to those in horses, the disease in man being gener- ally regarded as fatal. The only available treat- ment consists in good nutrition, tonics, disinfect- ants, and detergent applications. In 1889 one of two Viennese surgeons who had been experiment- ing with bacilli from a human case of glanders, and artificial cultures from these bacilli, was infected bien this disease in its most malignant form, and ied. ; Glands are secreting structures, the component elements of which in various ways alter the material brought to them by the blood, extracting and excreting waste products as in the kidneys, or manufacturing valuable by-products, such as the glycogen and Tile of the liver. In a typical gland three parts have to be distinguished: (a) the secreting cells usually enclosed in some more or less distinct membrane; (0) the surrounding net- work of blood-vessels ; and (c) the duct by which the products of secretion pass from the gland. Most true glands are pockets of glandular skin, mucous membrane, or epithelium, and occur on the outer surface of the body, as in the sweat-glands of the skin; on the lining of the alimentary canal —e.g. salivary glands, liver, pancreas, intestinal glands, &c. ; or on other internal surfaces—e.g. in connection with the genital ducts. They may be classified according to their origin from (1) the ectoderm or epiblast, (2) the mesoderm or meso- blast, and (3) the endoderm or hypoblast. Thus, (1) in connection with the outer skin there are, besides glandular cells (so-called unicellular glands), numerous secretory pockets, such as the sweat, scent, anal, poison, adhesive, byssus, slime, spinning, and mammary glands. At each end of the (endodermic) gut there is a more or less pro- longed invagination of ectoderm, and the glands connected therewith are obviously in the above embryological category. (2) The fF of most animals illustrate glands of mesodermic origin, but a b LR ee ee ae Ee Diagram of Glands (from Hertwig) : a, simple tubular gland ; b, branched tubular glands; ¢, simple acinous glands; d, branched acinous gland ; e, duct of gland ; f, sac of gland. : it is inaccurate to speak of the reproductive organs (as is often done) as glands. They liberate reproductive cells, differentiated elements, not products of secretion. (3) The numerous glands - 1636, enter GLANVILL GLARUS 231 connected with the main part of the alimentary canal are of endodermie origin. . The structure of seeebety pouches varies greatly, and, as the accompanying diagram suggests, glan may be classified according to their morphological complexity, as tubular, saccular, lobed, much branched or racemose, &c, The more complex glands—e.g. liver or kidney—will be discussed under their proper headings. In all simple glands the pouch is at first a mere sac; but as the epithe- lium increases greatly, and yet is more or less cir- _ cumscribed in its expansion, lobing and branching naturally result. A third classification of glands is possible—viz. according to their functions—excretory or secre- tory, lubricatory or digestive, and so on. The patlons functions of the different glands will be discussed under separate headings ; see the articles CIRCULATION, DIGESTION, IDNEYS, LIVER, PANCREAS, REPRODUCTION, SALIVA, SECRETION, SPLEEN, Xe. Many structures are often called glands, which are so far removed either in structure or in function or in both from those above mentioned that the term is misleading. Such are the reproductive organs, the ‘pineal’ gland,’ the spleen, the thyroid and thymus ‘glands,’ the ‘lymphatie glands,’ the rene capsules, and so on, ISEASES OF THE GLANDS.—The ‘lymphatic lands’ are subject to enlargement from acute in- mation and abscess, usually in consequence of irritation of the part from whieh their lymphatics — , as in the case of scarlet fever (in which the glands of the throat are affected), in gonorrhea (the glands of the groin), &c. The treatment of such abscesses belongs to the errs % principles of | surgery (see ABSCESS, ADENITIS ). much more troublesome affection of the glands is the slow, comparatively painless, at first dense solid swelling which they.undergo in Scrofula (q.v.), which tends very slowly, if at all, to suppuration, and some- times remains for years. In Syphilis (q.v.) and Cancer (q.v.) there are also Ped A ments of the lymphatic glands. Scrofulous or tubercular disease of the mesenteric glands in children constitutes Tabes mesenterica (see MESENTERY). The larger glands, as the liver, kidney, pancreas, spleen, thyroid, thymus, testicle, have all their special diseases, which will be noticed, so far as necessary, in treating of these organs. Glanvill, JosepH, was born at Plymouth in ed Exeter College, Oxford, in 1652, and took his de in due course, residing afterwards at Lincoln College. The dominant Aristotelianism of Oxford weighed on him almost as heavily as the revailing Puritan dogmatism of the outer world— 1e would have breathed more freely in the air of Cambridge, and so have reached the ‘new philo- sophy’ of Descartes by a much shorter route. After the Restoration, Wood tells us that he ‘turned about and became a Latitudinarian.’ He took orders, and was appointed in 1662 to the vica: of Frome in Somerset, which he exchanged in 1672 for the rectory of Street in the same county. Already in 1666 he had become rector of the Abbey Church in Bath, and in 1678 he was installed | oe ame tf of Worcester. He died of fever in 680, and was buried in the north aisle of the Abbey Church at Bath. Glanvill early succeeded in shaking himself free from religious and scientific dogmatism, and his famous work, The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions (1661), was a noble appeal for freethought and experimental peng its Slontifiees (1665) it - the new e of Scepsis Scientifica, or Confest Ignorance the Way to Science, prefaced by a warm panegyric on the newly-founded Royal Society, of which he had me a fellow the year before (new ed., with introductory essay by John Owen, 1885). A strong sense of the in rmity of human reason was a fundamental axiom in Glanvill’s thought; and a striking corollary to this was his credulity as to witcheraft, seen in his Philosophical Considera- tions touching the Being of Witches and Witchcraft (1666), and in later books marae’ by the doings of the invisible drummer at Mr Mom n’s house at Tedworth, Wiltshire, in 1663. His notions on this subject are seen further in the posthumous Sadducismus Triumphatus, or a Full and Plain Evidence concerning Witches and Apparitions (168) ). The book is inductive in the form of its argument, the proof being based on a collection of modern relations, but of course it is based upon a funda- mental misconception of the nature of human testimony. Glanvill maintained that Atheism was begun in Sadducism, and that witches disproved, all spiritual existence vanished with them. His superstition was at least a relief from the gross materialism that was the inevitable reaction from Puritan dogmatism ; and, if it was really unphilo- sophical, it was shared by Boyle, Henry More, Baxter, and Cudworth. ; Glanvill, RKANULF DE, chief-justiciary of England in the reign of Henry II., and author of the earliest treatise on the laws of England, the Tractatus de Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglia, which was composed about the year 1181]. It treats of the forms of procedure in use in the Aula Regis or King’s Court, over which he presided, and consists of fourteen books. It was first printed in the year 1554; and the best edition, with a trans- lation, of it is that by Sir Travers Twiss ( Record Publication, 1892). The treatise closely resembles the Scottish Regiam Majestatem, which, however, it is now generally agreed, is of later date than the Tractatus. Glanvill was born at Stratford in Suffolk, but in what year is not known ; in 1175 he raised a body of knights to fight against William the Lion of Scotland, and in 1180 became justiciary of all England. Being removed from this office by Richard I. on his accession, Glanvill took the cross, and died at the siege of Acre (1190). Glanville, BARTHOLOMEUS DE. See ENcy- CLOPADIA. Glapthorne, HENRY, a minor dramatist in the period of decadence that followed the Elizabethan, of whose life nothing whatever is known save that he flourished between the years 1639 and 1643, was a friend of Cotton and Lovelace, wrote a few fair poems and five plays—Albertus Wallenstein, a tragedy; Argalus and Parthenia, a poetical dramatisation of part of the Arcadia ; two comedies, The Hollander and Wit in a Constable ; and Love's Privilege, a tragico-comedy. Mr Bullen, on dubious internal evidence, attributes to him also The Lady Mother. Glapthorne’s dramatic faculty is but feeble, and it was hardly a kindness to his memory to reprint his works (2 vols. 1874), which long encumbered the book-stalls. Nor was it wise of his anonymous editor to i to eke out our slender knowledge of his life by irrelevant and unedifying details about one George Glapthorne of Whittlesea, who need not even have na relative. Glarus, a canton of Switzerland, bounded by the cantons of St Gall, the Grisons, Uri, and Schwyz, with an area of 2664 sq. m., and (1888) 33,52. inhabitants, of whom four-fifths belong to the Re- formed Church, It is an Alpine region, trenched by the valley of the Linth or Limmat and its lateral vales, and rising in its south-western corner, in the Tédi peak, to an altitude of 11,887 feet. The climate is very severe, and only one-fifth of the land is arable. The rearing of cattle and the manu- facture of cotton and woollen goods are the chief 252 GLAS GLASGOW occupations of the people. The green cheese called Schabziger is wholly made here, and it and other agricultural products are exported. The constitution is drawn on broad democratic lines. Full freedom of the press, of religion, of industry, and of trade prevails. The capital of the canton is the town of Glarus (5330 inhabitants in 1880), 43 miles SE. of Zurich by rail. It was founded by an Irish monk, Fridolin, in the end of the 5th cen- tury. Zwingli was pastor here from 1506 to 1516. Glarus, having been peopled by German settlers, passed after various changes into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Niifels in 1352 and 1388. In 1450 it joined the Swiss Confederation. Glas, JoHN. See GLASSITES. Glasgow, the industrial metropolis of Scotland and the most populous city in Great Britain next to London, is situated on the banks of the Clyde; in the county of Lanark, the portions heretofore in Renfrew and Dumbarton shires having been trans- ferred to Lanark under the act of 1889; at Green- ock, 22 miles below, the river spreads out into a great estuary, the Firth of Clyde. Glasgow is within a nine hours, railway journey of London, the distance being 4054 miles, and is about an hour’s run (45 miles) from Edinburgh. The city in extent is about 34 miles from north to south, and the extreme length is 5 miles from east- to west. In reckoning area and population, however, the ring of burghs which have since the passin of the ‘ Lindsay’ Burgh Act sprung up around an almost hemmed in Glasgow ought to be taken into consideration, as these burghs have been formed by the overflow of the population from the city has In 1891 the population within municipal boundaries was 565,714; within suburbs incorporated on Ist November 1891, 91,232; within suburbs not yet incorporated (Govan, Partick, &c.), 113,525—a total of 770,471 in city and suburbs. To this may be added 40,940 persons in business in Glasgow residing beyond the suburbs, and 3000 at the coast at census time, giving a grand total of 814,411. In 1881 the municipal population was 511,415, and, with the nine suburban burghs and the non-burghal suburbs, the total was 692,322; in 1801 the population was only 77,385, so that the increase has been rapid and enormous. The origin of the name Glasgow is a subject which has been much disputed, and is still at best a mere matter of conjecture. From the position of the original settlement on the banks of the Molendinar, which stream flowed to the Clyde through a dark ravine, it has been argued that the name means ‘dark glen.’ A more favourite interpretation, however, is based on the fact that a village actually existed on the present site of the city prior to the settlement of Kentigern, and that it was called Cleschu, which name by a series of natural changes in time came to be written Glasghu or Glasgow. This conclusion is probably correct, and admits easily enough of the meaning deduced from it—viz. that in Celtic Glas signifies ‘green,’ and cw or ghu ‘ dear,’ thus making the com- bination Glasgow mean the beloved green spot. gael does not occupy an important place in the early history of Scotland. As an archiepiscopal seat, and subsequently as a centre of Covenantirg activity, it has a Snags in religious affairs ; but as an industrial city its history can hardly be dated further back than the Union of 1707. This event opened up to the town—the most favourably situated in Scotland for the enterprise—an immense trading prospect with America, and roused in its inhabitants the extraordinary mercantile activity which has been its leading feature ever since. And yet the city of Glasgow is a very old one. It was about 560 A.D. that the half-mythical St Kentigern (q.v-) or Mungo established himself on the banks of the Molendinar, and appeared as the apostle of Christianity to the rude Celts of Strathclyde. There he built his little wooden church on the ve spot where now rises the venerable cathedral. rom this date for five hundred years the history of the settlement by the Clyde is a blank. The church disappeared from history, and if the village which had clustered round it and grown under the fostering care of the clergy still remained, it was a lace of no importance. In the year 1115 the rince of Cumbria, afterwards David I. of Seot- land, ordered an investigation to be made into the lands and churches in the bishopric of Glasgow, and from the deed still existing of that date it is evident that a cathedral had been previously en- dowed. In 1116 the diocese was restored, and when David a few years after became king of Scotland he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick, besides restoring to it much of the property of which it had been despoiled. In 1124 he also gifted money for the purpose of building a church, which was dedicated in 1136, and afterwards enriched by many royal and private donations. Between 1175. and 1178 Jocelyn, Bishop of Glasgow, received ~ authority from William the Lion to ‘have and hold’ a burgh in the neighbourhood of the cathe- dral. Alexander II. supported Glasgow in a con- fliet of jurisdiction with Rutherglen, and bestowed on it the rights of trade throughout the kingdom. Robert the Bruce confirmed to the bishop the vari- ous charters granted to him, and James II. pro- hibited Renfrew and Rutherglen from exacting toll ‘by water or by land’ within its territories. In 1450 the city was erected into a regality which gave the bishop the highest jurisdiction the crown could bestow on a subject-superior, and within the same year the university was constituted under a bull of Pope Nicholas V.,; which was confirmed three years later by a letter of privileges from the king and a charter from the bishop and chapter. In 1454 reference is made to one John Stewart as the first provost that was in the city of Glasgow. After that date the magistrates are described as prease and bailies ; and, though it is not recorded ow they were elected at that time, in 1476 James III. authorised the ruling bishop in Glasgow to elect so many bailies, sergeants, and other officers. as were needed within the city, and to appoint a provost, all to hold office during his pleasure. This unsatisfactory mode of procedure continued in force till 1587, when the whole of the church lands were annexed to the crown, and several months later granted to Walter, Commendator of Blantyre, in feu for payment to the crown of £500 Scots annually. Mon with other privileges, Blantyre and the Duke of Lennox both claimed the right of choosing the provost and bailies of the burgh, which privilege had been taken from the church. James VI. in 1600 conveyed to Lennox that right ; but five years later the city itself was authorised to have the freedom of election of its own magistrates, and in 1611 this authority was confirmed by act of parliament—not, however, without the stipulation that both the church and Lennox should reserve the right to influence the election. Glasgow therefore did not fully receive the position of .a royal burgh till 1636, when it was incorporated into one free royal burgh, with the freedom of the Clyde from the bridge of Glasgow to the Clochstane in the Firth of Clyde. At the time of the Commonwealth the Glasgow citizens made a. strenuous effort to effect the union of England and Scotland; but the death of Cromwell and sub- sequent restoration of Charles II. delayed it, and materially hindered the active trade between the two countries which the policy of the Protector had —— i i i = — FT acquired powers to purchase the million of money. GLASGOW 233 = inaugurated. The city in 1656 is described as a ‘very neate burghe toun—one of the most consider- ablest burghs in Scotland, as well for the structure as trade of it ;’ and the same writer commends the ‘mercantile genius of the people.’ As early as 1516 trades in Glasgo ing into guilds, but it was not till 1672 that w were form- : the letter of guildry, adjusted in 1605, was con- firmed by parliament, which put an end to the perpetual disputes between the merchants’ and the trades’ guilds. These two classes still exist, the former being represented by the Mer- chants’ House, and the latter by the Trades’ House, the heads of which, the dean of guild and the deacon-convener respectively, have been since : 1711 constituent members of the town-council. In 1833 all the complicated arrangements in con- nection with municipal elections were set aside by the Burgh Reform Act, and the number of councillors in Glasgow was fixed at thirty, over and above the dean of guild and the deacon- convener. Since then the number of magistrates and councillors has increased with the increase of the city boundaries. As constituted in 1890, the town-council has forty-eight members elected by the citizens—three for each of the sixteen wards of the city—with the addition of the dean of guild and the deacon-convener of trades. The council elects the Lord Provost, ten bailies, a bailie of the River and Firth of Clyde, and other officers, The city is represented in parliament by seven members for as many different electoral divisions ; and the suburban divisions, Govan and Partick, also each return a member. The corporation of Glasgow, since it became a popularly elected one, has carried through great operations for the improvement of the city. By its various departments, each controlled by com- mittees from the general council, the lighting, cleansing, water-supply, &c. are administered. In connection with the water-supply, the corporation in 1854-59 constructed immense works for a supply of water unequalled in the kingdom, bringing it from Loch Katrine, a distance of 34 miles. The water is conveyed by aqueduct and piping to a reservoir, 70 acres in area, about 7 miles from Glasgow, where it is filtered and distributed by pipes over the city. The average da‘!y distribution now exceeds 40 million gallons. ‘fhe cost of the con- struction of these werks, including the price paid to the previously esc water companies, has been £2,350,000 ; and in I889-96 extensive works were completed at a further expenditure of £1,000,000, for raising the supply of the city to 100 million gallons daily, The valuation of the city in 1855, the first year of the Lands Valuation Act, was £1,362,168; in 1870 it was £2,126,324; and in 1894-95 it reached £4,208,000. The lighting of the city also forms one of the municipal departments, the corporation having roperties of the two gas companies which formerly supplied Glas- gow and its suburbs. At the present time over 2300 million cubie feet of gas per annum is supplied to the public: the capital expenditure on the various works amounted in 1889 to £610,000, and the annual revenue is £390,000. Between 1866 and 1890 the town-council as the City Improve- ment Trust spent two millions sterling on ebjects such as are indicated by its title, and at present that body holds property valued at over half a f thoroughfares in Gl Ww there are about 200 miles, and the Clyde is within the burgh spanned by ten bridges, of which three are railway viaducts and two suspension bridges for foot-ps gers. Parliamentary sanction was obtained in 1889 for constructing a tunnel for foot and vehicular traffic under the river at the harbour. Throughout the city there are hy of 100 miles of main-sewers, the largest—in brick—being 6 feet in diameter, and the smallest 2 feet. Of buildings possessing historical interest Glas- gow is conspicuously destitute, with the very notable exception of the cathedral, which is a fine example of the Early English Gothic style of architecture. It was begun by Bishop Jocelyn about 1197, to replace. the church built in 1136 by Bishop John Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The structure was largely added to by Bishops Bonding- ton and Lauder, and was A separa brought to its present form by Bishop Cameron in 1446. It was saved from injury in the fit of iconoclastic zeal which followed the Reformation by the activity of the Glasgow craftsmen, and afterwards, from time to time, was carefully repaired by the Pro- testant archbishops who governed the see until the Revolution. ‘The cathedral is in length from east to west 319 feet, and in width 63 feet. It was designed to be in the form of a cross, but the transepts were never erected. From the centre rises a tower, surmounted by a graceful spire, 225 feet in height. The most famous part of the building is the so-called crypt under the choir, which for elaborate designing, and richness of ornamentation on pillars, groining, and doors, stands unrivalled amongst similar structures in Britain. Properly speaking, however, it is not a erypt, but a lower church formed to take advan- tage of the ground sloping eastward towards the of the Molendinar, About 1854, under the direction of the government, the building was repaired and renewed, its general character being scrupulously maintained. At the same time the ancient tower and consistory house on the west face of the cathedral were removed. Since then a series of stained-glass windows has been provided, mostly by Munich artists. The city chambers opened in 1889, built at - cost of £530,000, ky an architectural feature of great importance, and occupy a prominent posi- tion, fillin gots east side of Cor 4 Square. Phe Royal Exchange, a handsome building ornamented with colonnades of Corinthian pillars, contains a newsroom 122 feet in length by 60 feet broad. In the building of churches Glasgow has made great strides during the last thirty years, so that ecard no other town in the United Kingdom as done more in this respect, and the ecclesi- astical buildings of all denominations vie with each other in the elegance of their adornment. The architecture of many of the banks and other public buildings is varied in style and rich in detail, and the post-office buildings, of which the founda- tion-stone was laid by the Prince of Wales in 1876, though severely plain and massive, deserve mention for their great size and perfect planning. Not with- out reason, indeed, Gl w has been called one of the best-built cities of the empire: its streets are well laid out and spacious, and the houses which line them are substantially built of excellent stone which is quarried in abundance around the city. Glasgow is Se ae well provided with public parks, having three beautifully planned pleasure- unds in different districts of the city, besides the lasgow Green—a wide ex along the north bank of the river—all of which are maintained by the town-council as a Parks and Galleries Trust. The statues in Glasgow are not numerous, though some of them are very fine. The equestrian statue of Wellington stands oP ite the Royal Exchange, and that of William III. at the east end of Argyle Street, near the site of the old cross. The greatest number of monumental statues are in George uare, where in addition to the equestrian statues of the Queen and the late Prince Consort are to be found figures of James Watt, Sir Walter Scoit, 234 GLASGOW Robert Burns, David Livingstone, Sir John Moore, Thomas Campbell, Lord Clyde (the last three natives of the city), and others. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College was formed in 1886 by the amalgamation of several institutions (including the arts depart- ment of Anderson’s College, q.v.) under a scheme formulated by the Educational Endowments Com- mission. It has over 2000 students attending its day and evening classes. It provides suitable education for those who wish to qualify themselves for following any industrial pursuit, and trains teachers for technical schools. St Mungo’s College, dating from 1889, has faculties in medicine and law; and the medical department of Anderson’s College is a separate school. St Margaret’s College is for women. The Free Church College possesses conspicuous buildings ; and mention should also be made of the Normal Schools, and of the School of Arts and Haldane’s Academy. Of the secondary schools in Glasgow the Bagi is the High School—a_ survival of the ancient grammar- school of the city—which is under the manage- ment of the school-board. Other schools of a like standing are the Glasgow and the Kelvinside academies, both large and efficiently managed ; while, richly endowed from the Hutcheson Trust, two schools for boys and girls provide at a very low rate a thoroughly good secondary education. Scattered throughout all the districts of the town are the seventy elementary schools of the Board. Amongst educative agencies may be reckoned the Glasgow Art Gallery and Museum in the Kelvin- side Park, being built in 1900 beside the more tem- porary buildings for the Exhibition in 1901. Unfortunately, the city is entirely destitute of fine buildings wholly devoted to library purposes. There is no free lending library in the town, but there are several great collections which may be used free of charge as consulting libraries. Of these the Mitchell Library, which is under corpora- tion management, contains over 75,000 volumes ; and the Stirling’s and Glasgow Publie Library contains about 45,000 volumes. Baillie’s Library is under the same roof. The university has a library of 175,000 volumes, among which number Glasgow, from the Broomielaw. are many notable examples of Caxton’s and Pynson’s and other 15th-century printing; but the library is only available to alumni of the university. The Athenzeum includes a newsroom, magazine-room, and a library of 12,000 volumes. Of subscription lending libraries there is an abund- ance in the city, and private libraries are to be found in such large numbers as to form a distine- tive feature. The publishing of books and news- papers has of late been more largely developed. Glasgow has two daily morrfing newspapers, three evening, and about a dozen weekly newspapers and periodicals, and one or two monthlies. An industrial museum has been instituted in the city in which a considerable collection, especially in the natural history department, is now displayed. It is supported under the Parks and Galleries Trust, as are also the Corporation Galleries of Art, a collection of pictures and statuary acquired partly by purchase, but more largely by donation and bequest. The galleries contain a very valuable series of old Dutch masters, and there is a noble statue of Pitt by Flaxman. With benevolent and charitable institutions the city is richly endowed. In addition to numerous hospitals and dispensaries for special diseases, there are three general infirmaries, which among them accommodate upwards of one thousand patients. These are the Royal Infirmary in the north-east district, the Western Infirmary adjoining the University, and the Victoria Infirmary in the Queen’s Park, South Side. They are all main- tained by voluntary contributions and bequests. Three magnificent terminal railway stations bring traffic to the heart of the town, respectively form- ing the headquarters of the three great Scotch lines —the Caledonian, the Glasgow and South-Western, and the North British. St Enoch’s Station, the terminus of the Glasgow and South-Western, is modelled on the plan of St Pancras; the Central Station is the headquarters of the Caledonian, The Underground Railway (1886), in connection with the North British system, and the Cit Union line afford every facility for rapid travel- ling into nearly every quarter of the town; and in 1889-95 there was constructed an under- round system connected with the Caledonian Sail passing through the busiest and most GLASGOW 235 _ populous districts. There is also a cirenlar cable- ear subway 6) miles long, with fifteen stations, on both sides of the river. Originating with the cor- poration authorities, the ranning of tram-cars—now the property of the town and driven largely by electricity—in Glasgow has proved a great success. Another means of transit is found in the magnifi- cent fleet - ited gna — are no = 8 , comfort, and elegance of appointment, anc ote a rapid and easy means of con to all the Western Highlands and Islands, thus making Glas- gow the metropolis of the West. Two of the fore- most of these ‘ floating palaces’ are the Columba and the Lord of the Isles, the former of which attains a speed of 22 miles an hour, and can accommodate 2000 passengers on its daily journey of 160 miles. The river Clyde (q.v.) has been a chief source of the t prosperity of Glasgow, and it is to the credit of Glasgow citizens that through their enter- prise its utility has almost been created by the a works of narrowing the channel and dredg- , 80 that what within the memory of persons still alive was a stream over which one could wade has now become a channel capable of allowing ships which draw 24 feet of water to ride at anchor. The quayage of the harbour and docks from the Broomielaw extends to over 11,000 lineal yards, and the water space covers 154} acres, while since 1875 two graving-docks have been provided a ing of accommodating the largest mercan- tile steamers afloat. On the river and harbour the Clyde Navigation Trust has spent about eleven millions sterling, and the annual revenue usually exceeds £300,000; while the customs revenue of the port amounts to more than £1,500,000. _ The principal feature of the Clyde beyond the harbour is the t shipbuilding and marine engineering yards which line its sides, and which have flourished since the second quarter of this century. The pioneers of these industries— the Napiers, Charles Randolph, John Elder, &c.— have a world-wide fame. They launched from their yards the most perfect examples of naval architec- ture and engineering skill of their day, and their successors at the present day amply uphold that reputation by marvels of naval architecture, such as the City of New York, City of Paris, Lucania, and Campania (see SHIPBUILDING). The greatest tonnage launched in any aoe on the Clyde was 419,600 in 1883: the normal output is from 200,000 to 300,000 tons; in 1889-95 the yearly tonnage built was upwards of 300,000 tons. To the success of the little Comet, the earliest trading steamship in the Old World, which began to ply between Glasgow and Greenock in 1812, may be traced the t development of shipbuilding and shipping on the Clyde. But another factor in the industrial prosperity of the city is the fact that it is built over a coalfield rich in seams of ironstone. Glasgow is exceptional in having blast-furnaces actually within its municipal bounds. It was in the neighbourhood of the city that the first experiments with Neilson’s hot-blast in iron-furnaces, patented in 1828, were made, and the economy thereby effected developed the iron industry so ra eh in Glasgow as to distance for a pon op all competition. Great forges, with powerful steam-hammers and other appliances, the making of steam-tubes, boiler-mak- ing, locomotive-engine building, sugar machinery, and general engineering are among the most im- portant industrial features of the city. Bleaching and calico-printing were established in Glasgow in 1738, nearly thirty years earlier than in Lancashire. The dyeing of Turkey-red was inau ted in 1785 as a British industry by two Glasgow citizens, David Dale and George Macintosh—the colour being known for a long time as Dale’s red; and this branch of trade has developed in Glasgow and the neighbourhood to an extent unequalled in any other manufacturing centre. In Glasgow, also, bleaching-powder (chlor- ide of lime) was discovered in 1798 by Mr Charles Tennant, who thereby laid the foundation of the gigantic St Rollox chemical works, and gave the first impetus to chemical works generally. These, along with the spinning and weaving industries which have been centred in the great city factories since the inventions of Arkwright, Cartwright, and others superseded hand-loom weaving, have for the past century afforded employment for a great pro- portion of the population of the town. THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW was founded on 7th January 1450-51 by Bishop Turnbull, who a a bull of ratification from Pope Nicholas V. n 1460 James, first Lord Hamilton, endowed a college on the site—in the densest part of the High Street—of the late buildings, the older portions of which were erected between 1632 and 1656. Queen Mary bestowed on the university 13 acres of adjacent ground. In 1577 James VI. granted increased funds in a new charter. In 1864 the university buildings and adjacent lands were sold for £100,000, and handsome new buildings, designed by Sir G, Gilbert Scott, were erected at Gilmore- hill, overlooking the West End Park, and opened in 1870. The total cost was about £470,000, of which £120,000 was granted by parliament, and above £250,000 edhacelied and otherwise obtained, chiefly in Glasgow. For the erection of a common hall the Marquis of Bute gave £40,000; and a be- quest of £70,000 by Charles Randolph was utilised in completing the buildings. More recent bequests have been employed Jargely for laboratories and other adjuncts of scientific teaching and research. Chairs, Office-bearers, Degrees. —The office-bearers of the university consist of a Chancellor, Rector, Principal, and Dean of Faculties. The Chancellor holds his office for life, and was formerly elected by the senate, but since 1875 he is elected by the general council ; the Rector is elected triennially b the matriculated students, who are divided, accord- ing to their place of birth, into four nations— Glottiana (Lanarkshire), 7ransforthana (Scotland north of the Forth), Rothseiana (Buteshire, Ren- frewshire, and Ayrshire), Loudoniana (all other places). In the university there are now (through the recent separation of the faculty of science from that of arts) five faculties: Arts, Science, Divinity, Law, and Medicine; thirty-one profes- sorships (eighteen founded during the nineteenth century), and upwards of thirty lectureships (all of recent foundation). The degrees are Master of Arts (M.A.), Bachelor of Science (B.Se.), Doctor of Science (D.Se.), Doctor of Medi- cine (M.D.), Master of Surgery (C.M.), Bachelor of Divinity (B.D.), Bachelor of Law _(B.L.), Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), Doctor of Divinity (D.D.), and Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), the last two being honorary. The university also grants certili- cates as Literates in Arts (L.A.) to candidates who have attended two sessions, and certificates of various grades to women and students not attending university classes, on the results of local examina- tions ; besides which it has instituted a diploma for teachers. The number of matriculated students in 1870-75 was about 1300; of late years the aver. age number is a little under or a little over 2000, nearly half being in the faculty of Arts. The students reside outside the college walls ; and those in certain classes of the Faculty of Arts wear scarlet = The university, conjointly with that of berdeen, returns one member to parliament. Bursaries and Exhibitions.—There are upwards of 300 bursaries for students still attending lectures, 236 GLASNEVIN GLASS ranging in value from £6 to £80; and with exhibi- tions, fellowships, and scholarships (besides 9 com- mon to Glasgow with the other Scottish univer- sities), the amount distributed yearly exceeds £8000. Of the latter the most valuable are the four Clark scholarships, founded in 1872, and each worth £200 a year. The oldest are the Snell exhi- bitions, founded by John Snell, a native of Ayrshire, who in 1677 presented to the university a landed estate, for the purpose of supporting at Balliol College, Oxford, ten students wh had previously studied at Glasgow. Owing to the rise in the value of land, the foundation was made to maintain 14 exhibitioners, who were each to receive £110 a year for five years ; but at present the yearly stipend is only £80, with an arrangement that the total sum, £400, may be paid within three years. Several men who have risen to great eminence went to Oxford on Snell exhibitions ; among whom may be named Adam Smith, Sir William Hamilton, Archbishop Tait, Principal Shairp, and Lord President Inglis. Libraries, Museums, &c.—The library was founded prior to the Reformation, and now contains about 175,000 volumes. It is supported by an annual grant of £707 from the Treasury, graduation fees, the contributions of students, &c. Subsidiary libraries are attached to several of the classes, the books being selected with a view to the subjects treated of in each class. In July 1781 the cele- brated Dr William Hunter of London framed a will, leaving to the principal and professors of the univer- sity his splendid collection of books, coins, medals, and anatomical preparations ; and for the accom- modation and conservation of these a building was erected in 1804; but they are now located in the new university. The university also possesses an observatory. ; Among the men of eminence who have taught or studied in the university are Bishop Elphin- stone, John Major, John Spottiswoode, Andrew Melville, James Melville, Boyd of Trochrig, John Cameron, Zachary Boyd, Robert Baillie, Lord Stair, Bishop Burnet, Robert Simson, Hutcheson, William Hunter, Tobias Smollett, Dr Jolin Moore, Adam Smith, Thomas Reid, William Cullen, Joseph Black, Matthew Baillie, Thomas Campbell, Francis Jeffrey, J. G. Lockhart, Sir William Hamilton, Sir Daniel Sandford, Archbishop Tait, Professor Jebb, the two Cairds, and Lord Kelvin. See John M‘Ure, A View of the City of Glasgow (1736); John Gibson, The History of Glasgow (1779) ; Andrew Brown, History of Glasgow (1795-97) ; Cleland, Annals of Glasgow (1829); Dr Gordon, Glasyhu Facies (1872); Macgeorge, Old Glasgow (1880; 3d ed. 1888) ; George MacGregor, The History of Glasgow (1881); A. Wallace, Sketch of the History of Glasgow ; Glasyow Past and Present, by ‘Senex’ and others (1882; new ed. 1884); and Glasyow: its Municipal Organisation and Administration, by Sir J. Bell and the present writer (1896 ).—For the recent anti-academic and original school of painting in landscape and portraiture that has at- tracted: notice at Paris, Munich, and Venice, see The History of the Glasgow School of Painting, by David Martin, with introduction by F. H. Newbery (1897) ; Guthrie and Lavery are conspicuous representatives. Glasnevin. See DUBLIN. Glass (Anglo-Saxon gles) is essentially a com- bination of silica with some alkali or alkaline earth, such as lime, barytes, &c. Generally speaking, it is understood to be a silicate of soda, or a combina- tion of silica or flint with one or more of the salts of sodium, with the addition of certain metallic oxides, &c,, as explained on page 239. History.—The invention of glass dates from the earliest antiquity, and the honour of its discovery has been contested by several nations. As the oldest known specimens are Egyptian, its inven- tion may with great probability be attributed to that people. It is mentioned as early as the 5th or 6th dynasty, about 3300 B.c., and called bashnu the Coptic bijni ; articles made of it are represen in the tombs of the period; while its fabrication is depicted in sepulchres of the 12th dynasty—i.e. about 2500 B.c. The glass of Egypt was generally opaque, rarely transparent, and always coloured, the articles made of it being of small size, and principally for adornment, as beads, vases, small figures, and objects for inlaying into wood or other material. Specimens exist of this glass bearing the name of the queen Hatasu of the 18th dynasty, and vases of blue glass, with wavy lines in white, light-blue, yellow, black, red, and green, of that and a later-age, have been discovered. The re hea also successfully imitated precious and other stones in glass—as emeralds, lapis-lazuli, turquoises, jaspers, onyx, and obsidian. ‘Trans- arent glass, indeed, does not appear earlier in eypt than the 26th dynasty, about 660 B.c., when bottles and a few other objects were made of it. Under the native Pharaohs, Egyptian glass seems to have been extensively exported to*Greece and Italy, and its reputation still continued under the Ptolemies, when the furnaces of Alexandria produced glass vases of numberless shapes and considerable size. Egypt retained the pre-eminence in the manufacture of glass under the Romeie the sand of Alexandria being indispensable for the finest qualities, and it exported glass to Rome. Hadrian, on his visit, was struck with the activ- ity of the manufacture, and sent to his friend, the Consul Servianus, one of the vases, called allo- sontes, or ‘opalescent ;’ and the Roman writers mention with admiration the melting, turning, and engraving of Egyptian glass. The art of glass-making, in fact, has never become extinct in Egypt, the Fatimite Califs having issued glass coins in the 10th and 11th centuries, and beautiful lamps of glass enamelled on the surface with various colours having been made in the 14th century. After the Egyptians, the people of antiquity most renowned for glass were the Pheenicians, who were its legendary inventors. Certain of their merchants, says Pliny, returning in'a ship laden with natron or soda, and having been compelled by stormy weather to land on a sandy tract under ount Carmel, placed their cooking-pots on Jumps of natron on the sand, which, fused by the heat of the fire, formed the first glass. This statement, in- troduced by Pliny himself with fama est, points only to the great antiquity of the art among the Pheenicians, for the occurrence is a simple impossi- bility. Sidon, indeed, was early celebrated for her lass-wares made of the sand brought down from ount Carmel to the mouth of the river Belus. The nature, however, of the earliest Phoenician glass is unknown, unless the opaque little vases of the toilet found in the tombs of Greece and Italy, and the beads of the same discovered in the bar- rows and tumuli of the old Celtic and Teutonic tribes were imports of the Pheenicians. It is cer- tain that at avery early period the manufactures of the Phenicians were widely distributed over the Mediterranean coast, and even reached the shores of Britain, where they were exchanged for the mineral wealth of Cornwall. The vases of Sidon were highly esteemed at Rome under the Antonines, fragments of bowls of blue and amber glass, with the names of the Sidonian glass-makers, Artas and Treneus, stamped in Latin and Greek, having been found in the ruins. From these two centres, Egypt and Pheenicia, it is probable that a knowledge of the art radiated, and was transplanted into neighbouring countries with the growth of civilisation. The manufacture, it might be inferred, was early established in Assyria, for in his excavations at Nimrud Mr Layard unearthed with other glass remains a vase , GLASS 237 of white glass having stamped or inscribed on it a lion and the name of Sargon, who reigned 722 B.c. But this specimen may have been brought from Sidon; and other fragments of glass are Roman in form, and certainly belong to the period when the Romans __ there established their colony of Claudiopolis. In Greece the know- ledge and use of glass were by no means ancient. In the days of Homer it was un- known. Herodotus, indeed, mentions its employment for ear- rings, but these may 1+—Glass Vase, bearing e name of Sargon, from have beenof Phoenician Nimrud. fabric. It was called hyalos, crystal or ice, and lithos chyté, or fusible stone. Aristophanes, 450 B.C., mentions glass or crystal vessels, and vari- ous inscriptions confirm its use; but its value was next to gold, which could hardly have been the case if it had been of native manufacture. In the 4th century B.C. Pausias, a celebrated painter, had depicted Methé, or ‘ Intoxication,’ drinking from a transparent glass bowl which revealed her face. Glasses and plates, amphorze and diote, large two- handled jars, were made of it, and also false stones for phe called sphragides hyalinai. These last, called by archzeo ogists pastes, were imita- tions of engraved stones in coloured glasses, used for the rings of the poorer classes, and were no doubt often copies or impressions of engraved stones of celebrated masters. False gems and cameos having a subject in opaque white, sometimes like the sardonyx, with a brown layer superposed on the parts representing the hair, and the whole laid on a dark-blue ground, appear before the Christian era. Lenses also were made of glass, and the celestial sphere of Archimedes was made of the same material. Among the Romans the glass-making art does not date earlier than the commencement of the empire, importations from Sidon and Alexandria having previously supplied the want of native manufacture ; but there is ample evidence of its extensive manufacture at that period. As early as 58 B.c. the theatre of Scaurus had been decorated with mirrors or glass plates disposed on the walls. Glass was also used for paving, and for the blue and green tessere of mosaics (see MOSAIC). Window-glass does not appear to have been much used till about the 3d century A.D., the houses at Herculaneum and Pompeii, destroyed in the reign of Titus, being gl principally with tale ; but remains of glass-filled windows have been dis- covered in both cities, showing that its employ- ment was at least begun in the Ist century. Lactantius, in the 3d century, and St Jerome, in 422 A.D., mention glass windows. Older windows of this material are said to have been found at Ficul- nea, and even in London. Under the Romans, coloured as well as white glass was extensively used ; it had a greenish tint in the first days of the empire, but had sensibly improved in colour and p erred in the days of Constantine. The first pro- uction of a white glass like crystal, probably much freer from air-cavities and other imperfections than had > ricer rnd been accomplished, was in the days of Nero, Its use was most extensive, and it was either blown or stamped according to the objects required. Glass vases, vasa vitrea escaria potoria, are mentioned. So are costly cups of many colours, purple ones of Lesbos, and balsam- arii, especially the kind long called lachrymatories, which eld perfumes, medicine. drugs, and other substances like modern vials, amphorm, ampulla, pillar-moulded bowls, bottles for wine (lagen), urns (urn) for holding the ashes of the dead, and ae bowls or cups ( pocula), hair-pins, yeads, rings, balls, draughtsmen, dice, knuckle- bones (astragali), mirrors, multiplying-glasses, Fig. 2.—Moulded Glass Roman Cup, with the Circus and Gladiators, found in London. prisms, magnifying-glasses, and water-clocks were made of this material. Most of the precious stones were successfully imitated in glass pastes ; and the Empress Salonina was egregiously cheated by a fraudulent jeweller. But the most remark- able works in glass are the cameo vases (toreu- mata vitri); f which the most celebrated is the Portland Vase (q.v.) in the British Museum, which seems to have held the ashes of a member of the imperial family of Alexander Severus, who died 235 A.D. a rv = MELTING x = x FURNACES é > Pas Deas: - r | = TING TABLE » a a KILNS Fig. 13. Fig. 14. which regulate the thickness of the plate, and also, by their distance apart, determine its width. The roller, passing backwards and forwards at a uniform or over the table, spreads the glass into a plate of the size required. In some works the casting- table with its apparatus is run on rails from kiln to kiln, and in this case the plate is pushed direct from the table into the kiln. In other works (and this is the more modern plan) the casting-table is fixed, and the plate is pushed from it on to a movable table, and thence into the kiln. The annealing ovens or kilns are large shallow brick chambers, in which the plates lie during the process of annealing, and which are heated to a suitable temperature prior to receiving the glass. It is obvious that in the arrangements of the eatng hall considerable variety is possible. In the older works the furnaces were in the middle, and the annealing kilns on either side. Fig. 13 represents a hall of this kind. Fig. 14 isa more modern arrangement, and, of course, other com- binations can be adopted. When the plates are sufficiently cool to be removed from the kilns they are carefully examined, and such as are sufficiently free from defects are taken to the grinding-room. Formerly the ae process was accomplished by ee oe — upon another, with sand inter- posed, both plates being bedded in plaster. At the present time for the upper glass 1s substituted a rubbing plate of cast-iron, both the lower plate of glass and the Spree one of iron being set in motion while in contact by machinery adapted for the pur- pose. In the preliminary stage of grinding, sand and water are used ; but, when the greater portion of the rough surface of the glass has been removed, mF a is completed by using powdered emery of coarser sorts. When one surface of the glass has been thus treated, the operation is repeated on the other. The next process is that of smoothing, for which a separate machine is required. Instead of cast-iron plates, one sheet of glass is used to rub upon another, the upper sheets which are movable being weighted. Emery of the finer description is used in this process, the final touches being given by hand, with the ‘aid of the very finest emery powder, After both sides have received this smoothing, the plates are removed to another room, where they are again embedded on tables which are movable by machinery, so that the whole surface of the plate may be brought under the action of the polishers, These are padded iron buffers attached to short iron rods passing through holes in a beam acted on by springs or weights. The buffers are covered with felt, and rub the glass as it passes from side to side; the surface of the glass being supplied with oxide of iron, in a very fine state of division and mixed with water. hen any in- ualities are encountered, the springs yield and allow the buffers to pass freely over them. An older plan of polishing is to use wooden rubber- blocks covered with felt. Rolled Plate.—Mr Hartley, of Sunderland, intro- duced about 1850 a method of making rough plate- lass suitable for roofs and other purposes where ight only is required without transparency. The casting-table has generally a series of fine grooves upon it, but it can be marked with any required ree Very large pots or continuous tanks can used for this process, as only a ladleful of glass is required for each sheet. Quite recently rough late has been made by passing the contents of the adle between two rollers revolving in opposite directions, but the glass thus made has not as yet eee that made by Mr acta process, atent Plate.—Sheet-glass made by the cylinder rocess, when free from flaws and of good colour, 1s to a limited extent ground and polished much in the same way as ordinary plate-glass, but it is rather higher in price. However, its lightness is an pepsi for some purposes, such as the glazing of picture frames and for Lenape gp negatives. It is called patent plate to plate-glass. Qualities of Piate-glass.—lt is of importance to know that there is a great difference in the quality of plate-glass supplied by different manufacturers. We do not refer to air-cavities or other imperfec- tions which can be readily seen, and from whicly the highest-priced glass, such as that used for mirrors, is almost entirely free ; but to a defect by which the a of the whole surface of the glass is impaired. It will often be found, for ex- jon! ar that, of two plates Speereeny equally pure and free from flaws, one will take on a uliar dimness a few days after being cleaned, while the other will remain quite clear and transparent for as many weeks. Plate-glass which does not keep long clean—to use a homely phrase—may often pass unnoticed for a long time until experience of a better quality calls attention to it. Some inferior qualities of ‘ pressed glass,’ noticed below, also take on a kind of scum even when newly cleaned, a fault most readily noticed in plain articles, Flint-glass.—M. Bontemps in his Guide du Verrier ves the following mixture for ordinary flint-glass : and, 100; red lead, 66°66; carbonate of potash, 33°33—i.e. one part of carbonate of potash, two of red lead, and three of sand. Sometimes a little peroxide of manganese is added, and a portion of the carbonate of potash may be replaced by refined nitrate. Cullet is usually added to the extent of about one-fourth part of the whole mixture. The pots for flint-glass (fig. 6) are covered or hooded, so as to protect the melted glass from any impurities in the flames of the furnace. The materials used are istinguish it from cast 244 GLASS very carefully selected, as the glass must be of great purity; the greenish tint in sheet or plate, due to the soda, would be very objectionable in flint glass. Its brilliant flashing appearance, when cut into suitable patterns, is owing to its high power of refracting and dispersing light, a property arising from its comparatively high density. The working of flint-glass resembles in a general way that of the other kinds; and, as we have not room for details, we note here a list of the stages in making a wine-glass, to give an idea of the process up to the point where the manipulation of the metal in a welding state finishes : (1) Gathering of metal; (2) same marvered, and bowl formed ; (3) glass with metal for stem dropped on; (4) same with stem formed; (5) same with foot stuck on; (6) same with foot heated and half opened ; (7) same with foot opened, bowl cracked off, heated, and sheared; (8) same finished. It is then an- nealed. Crystal is a name loosely used for superior kinds of glass. Optical Glass.—This is made both of flint and crown glass. In the case of lenses for a telescope, for example, a combination of the two kinds is necessary to make it achromatic—their unequal densities conferring upon them different refractive powers. Good flint-glass for optical purposes is extremely difficult to make, especially when the required slabs or discs are of large size. It must be perfectly homogeneous and free from striz, and it will be deficient in refractive power if it does not contain a very large proportion of lead, which, from its weight, has a strong tendency to settle at the bottom of the crucible, and so destroy the homo- geneity of the glass. ‘The fused glass is therefore continually stirred until it has cooled to a consist- ency sufficiently thick to prevent the lead settling, and is then left still in the crucible to complete the cooling. When cold, the crucible is broken away, and the result is a cake of immensely heavy glass, of which it is not yet known whether the value is to be calculated in pounds or pence.’ It is after- wards reheated, brought to the required dise-like shape, and then tested for flaws. If these are numerous, as many smaller discs or slabs are taken from it as possible. Messrs Chance of Birmingham supplied in 1871 a pair of discs meter for the telescope of the Washington Naval Observatory. The Lick Observatory and other large flises will be mentioned under TELESCOPE. The tiard crown made by the above firm has a density of 2-485; soft crown, 2°55; light flint, 3°21; and double extra dense flint, 4°45. A oe many experiments in connection with optical glass have been tried of late years with chemical substances other than those we have named, the results of which will be found in the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Slag-glass.—The slag from iron blast-furnaces is itself a coarse glass, but, until lately, it has been a waste product in the fullest sense. Bricks, however, have been successfully made from it of late years; and still more lately, under a patent obtained by Mr Bashley Britten, glass bottles are being made from it by a company in Northamptonshire. The slag is used in the molten state as it runs from the iron-furnaces, which, of course, so far saves fuel ; but it requires to be mixed to the extent of nearly one- half its bulk with other materials. The process is said to be successful; yet we fancy there must be great difficulty in procuring, for any length of time, slag of nearly the same composition. Slag-wool is a name for the same iron-slag when blown into glass threads of a hair-like fineness, in which state it somewhat resembles wool, and is now much used for covering steam-boilers, it being, like all glass, a powerful non-conductor of heat. Toughened Glass.—Much curiosity was excited inches in dia- . when, in 1875, M. de la Bastie, a French engineer, announced that he had sueceeded, after man experiments, in making glass so ‘tough’ that it could searecely be broken. So great was the value which the inventor attached to his process, that he demanded no less than one million sterling for the English patent right, and abroad it was proposed that the purchaser of the patent should pay so much per head of the population. His original process consists in heating — piece or pieces of glass till they are about to soften, and then plunging them into a bath of oil at a greatly lower temperature. Usually, however, a mixture chiefly of oily sub- stances; such as oils, tallow, wax, rosin, &e., is put in the bath; and some manufacturers, who worked the process for a time, dropped the newly-made glass vessels while still hot into the oleaginous mixture, by which plan neither reheating nor annealing by the ordinary process is required. After the articles acquire the temperature of the bath, they are removed. Either from the want of care or from some other cause, the results of the treatment of glass by De la Bastie’s process are not uniform, because many samples of his toughened, or, as it should rather be called, hardened glass, are almost as easily broken as ordinary glass. Objects such as tumblers, when allowed to fall, nearly always break if they strike the floor on the lip or mouth. Still, there is no doubt that most glass treated by this process will stand a great deal of rough usage, and that some examples are practically unbreakable, In the case of window-glass, there is the disad- vantage that a diamond will not cut it, and no variety of glass so hardened can be safely engraved or ‘cut,’ because when the tool penetrates much below the skin the glass falls to pieces—almost to dust. This is a difficulty which has baffled not only M. de la Bastie, but all other producers of the hardened article. These defects, as well as the high price of toughened glass, have as yet prevented its coming into extensive use. In 1885 Mr Frederick Siemens produced three kinds of ‘tempered glass,’ of very homogeneous character and of great strength and hardness, by means of his regenerative gas-radiating furnace. ‘Press-hardened glass’ is that which, after being cut into the proposed shape, is softened in the radiation furnace, and then placed between cold metal plates. It may thus be so rapidly cooled that the diamond will not,touch it. Colouring of Glass.—Any kind of glass can be coloured by metallic oxides, and the chief colours given by these are noted in the following list. Crimson of various shades, from gold, ‘Purple of Cassius’ (a compound of gold and tin) being the compound generally used. So small a quantity as rovesoth part of gold imparts a rose colour to glass. A red colour is also got from protoxide of copper. Purple or violet-red is obtained from peroxide of manganese. Blue from oxide of cobalt or oxide of copper, but chiefly from the former. Green from the same oxides, together with sesquioxide of iron ; a fine green is likewise got from sesquioxide of chromium. Yellow from oxide of antimony or sesquioxide of iron; sometimes from carbon. Ses- quioxide of uranium gives a beautiful opalescent- yellow with a greenish cast. Chloride of silver is used to stain glass yellow. Arsenious acid produces an opaque white ; so also does the mineral Cryolite (q.v.), as well as aluminate of soda. Aventurine glass is a beautiful material of a brownish-red colour, with gold-like spangles, in imitation of Aventurine (q.v.) quartz. It is largely used in the ornamental glass made at Venice. Coloured glass is made in several ways. When the colour is all through the body, the glass consists of pot-metal ; but for some purposes, and especiall when the colouring material is expensive, it is GLASS 245 . flashed—i.e. a thin veneer of colour coats a ers are ‘gathered’ from different pots on the blowing-iron, and blown out cone as one sheet, Sometimes a very thin coloured coating is put on clear glass by spreading, say, a red glassy powder on the surface of the latter, and then carefully - fusing it. When the chloride or other salt of silver is used to give a yellow, orange, or red, the glass is merely stained on the surface. In painted glass the decoration is usually produced by the use of enamel colours painted on with a brush, and after- wards fired at_a moderate heat. Single sheets of glass, each with several shades of the same colour, are now made for glass-stainers, by which much shading by hand is dispensed with. A pane or vessel of flashed glass may be ornamented by partially removing the coloured layer, either by cutting or —— ; and in the case of many designs additional enamel colours are added. Hydrofluoric acid, which corrodes glass, is commonly used to produce etched patterns upon it, by protecting certain portions with a varnish, and allowing the acid to act upon the park pp so parts. For painted windows, see GLASS (PAINTED); and for artificial gems of glass, see STONES ( PRECIOUS). The beautiful éridescence of much very ancient glass is known to be due to the partial decomposi- tion of its surface and the formation of innumerable thin scales. Many attempts have been made to produce a like result artificially, and several methods have been suceessful. One is to submit . the object to the influence of acid solutions, with the help of heat and pressure. Venice, which prior to 1859 produced almost nothing in glass but beads, now, thanks to Salviati (q.¥.), is onee more making on a large scale glass objects, whose quaint forms and rich colours are but little, if at all, inferior to the best products of her ancient glass-houses. The well-known Bohemian glass, much of which is coloured and gilt, but which in = days was often more showy than tasteful, has recently shown quite remarkable advances in the character of its decoration. Some very tastefully ornamented coloured glass is also made in France. : Glass-cutting and Engraving.—It is usually flint- lass that is so treated; and vessels intended to ve cut patterns are blown with thick walls. The first operation in glass-cutting is usually done on an iron grinding-wheel 10 or 12 inches in diameter, and about three-fourths of an inch thick, which is made to revolve vertically by means of a belt and pulley. Immediately above a hopper-shaped cistern is placed, which supplies the wheel with the neces- sary mixture of sand and water. If a faceted pattern is to be A pe to a decanter or other object, it is first roughed out on this wheel by the grinder ee the vessel against it. The facets now formed on the glass are next made smoother by a fine sandstone wheel, fed with water only, and simi- larly driven. For many purposes this wheel is of an angular section on the edge. The ground parts are finally polished upon a wooden wheel, supplied with moist putty-powder (oxide of tin) or other fine polishing material. The obscuring of glass b the ordinary process is done with sand and wa alone; but much of this kind of work is now done by ee gem sand-blast process, to be presently noticed. Engraved patterns are produced by means of small copper discs, revolving in a lathe, emery powder, mixed with oil, being applied to the edges of their circumference. We have already referred to the use of hydrofluoric acid for etching glass. Tilghman’s Sand-blast.—This is a very striking invention. The well-known fact that windows to the action of wind-blown sand by the seashore eventually become completely obscured groster thickness of clear glass. In this case the wo lay appears to have suggested the process to Mr Tilgh- man. The Matthewson’s patent sand-blast appar- atus, manufactured by the Tilghman's Patent Sand- blast Company, is altogether independent of any blower or engine, and occupies a very small space, being about 2 feet square and 34 feet high. The piece of glass to be operated on is held on the top of the machine. The sand is set in motion by a steam ejector (part of the machine), being drawn by the vacuum caused by the flow of steam into an annular space where it mingles with the steam, and is ejected through a small pipe against the glass. The machine does exceedingly fine and a work as regards obscuring both plain and ashed glass. It cuts away the flashed surface almost as soon as the glass is held in position. The parts which are to remain bright are protected either by a composition or by brstoiyme Pape mi which, having been soaked in glycerine and glue, has been stuck on to the glass, and from which the pattern is cut out. The blast will drill holes in a glass plate }-inch thick of a diameter from 4-inch to 1 inch in less than two minutes. This machine is not adapted for obscuring large sheets of glass, which is accomplished by a machine in whieh the sand is set in motion by a Baker’s blower driven b a non-condensing engine. The latter apparatus is not capable of perforating glass or of removing the Saaket bartace Pressed Glass.—By this name is known a certain cheap class of objects, sueh as tumblers, small dishes, &c., with patterns in imitation of cut glass, It is an American invention, and the process consists in ghagram or shaping glass into form by means of a metal mould and reverse, called a plunger, or, for larger work, by a weighted lever, or a screw and fly-wheel. The chief seat of this branch of the trade in Great Britain is at New- castle-on-Tyne, where a glass in which baryta is largely or wholly substituted for lead is used. By a somewhat similar but much older process, ‘pinched glass’ objects such as buttons are largely made at Birmingham. Soluble Glass.—When silica (flint or sand) is fused with an excess of akali, a glass is formed which is slowly soluble in cold, but readily soluble in hot water if powdered. The soluble silicate of soda or of potash formed by this or by other methods is known as soluble glass or water-glass. When pure and solid it has the apt rance of com- mon glass, and it is the more soluble the larger the quantity of alkali that it contains. This substance has a number of applications in the arts. Whena solution of it is mixed with sand, und chalk, dolomite, or other minerals, it gradually binds them into a stony mass. See STONE (ARTIFICIAL). It is also employed as a Cement (q.v.). Soluble glass is useful as a material for rendering calico and even wood non-inflammable, for improving the cleansing wer of cheap soaps, and as a dung substitute in yeing. A small quantity of silicate of soda mixed with hard water improves it for washing purposes. As far back as 1825 Fuchs of Munich suggested the application of soluble glass to the surface of fresco-painting, in order to fix the colours, the climate of northern Europe not being suitable for the preservation of this Kind of decoration, when sim iy executed in the old way, with colours applied with water on a — ground. It has frequently been stated that Fuchs’s plan of applying solutions of silicate of soda or silicate of potash to fresco- painting has effectually preserved it. But in most eases it has not done so. The action of the car- bonie acid of the atmosphere upon either of these compounds has usually, in the course of time, brought out an efflorescence like mildew on the surface of the picture. Professor Barff, who has paid a good deal of attention to the behaviour of 246 GLASS these soluble silicates, asserts, in an essay written in 1876, that if, instead of silicate of soda or silicate of potash, a solution of aluminate and silicate of potash be used with the fresco colours on a properly prepared ground there is no fear of the surface de- caying, and adds that paintings executed in this way have stood for many years. The _plaster- ground should consist of sand and lime, plaster of Paris should be mixed with it. The name Volcanic Glass is not infrequently given to Obsidian (q.v.), as also to vitreous lava, and even to a kind of pitchstone. See Neri, Ars Vitraria (Amsterdam, 1668); Pellat, _ Curiosities of Glass-making (1849); Sauzay, Marvels of Glass-making (1869); Peligot, Le Verre, son Histoire, sa Fabrication (1877); Nesbit, Glass: South Kensington Museum Art Handbook (1878); Froehner, La Verrerie Antique (1879); Gerner, Die Glas Fabrikation (1880) ; Chance, Z'reatise on Crown and Sheet Glass (1883); M. A. Wallace-Dunlop, Glass in the Old World (1883); Gerspach, L’ Art de la Verrerie (1885). Glass, PAINTED or STAINED. There are two kinds of painted glass known in modern times, Enamel and Mosaic glass. In enamel glass proper certain fusible pigments are painted on a sheet of white glass, which is then fired, and the result is a picture the tints of which even in the high lights are not wholly transparent. A modification of this method produces its picture partly by enamel- ling on white glass, partly by the use of pot-metal glass (i.e. glass coloured while in a state of fusion, and therefore of the same tint all through), the colour of which is heightened or modified by the use of enamels. In this style, if any junction between two pieces of glass becomes necessary, the lead calms used for the purpose are studiously con- cealed by being made to run along leading lines of drapery or other forms in the picture. The object of this enamel and semi-enamel glass-painting is the closest possible imitation of an oil or water- colour picture ; and the results of it are never satis- factory. For at the best it can only do with diffi- culty and imperfectly what the oil-painting does with ease and perfection ; while at the same time it refuses to avail itself of the special characteristics of glass, which can produce effects that no opaque painting can approach. This imitation of easel or wall pictures also leads the designer into making designs untitted for the ornament of windows, an wandering from their true purpose of decoration. Indeed, not infrequently the work of a great master in picture-painting is taken as a model for a stained-glass window, and laboriously and servilely imitated, with the result that a mere caricature of the great work is produced, which is as far as possible from being an ‘ornament’ to the building in which it is placed. The ord method capable of producing stained glass which shall be beautiful aaa interesting, and which at the same time can plead some reason for its existence, is that which has been called mosaic glass, the process of which very briefly stated is as ollows : A design is made wherein the drawing is given and the colours indicated, which is the working- drawing of the glass-painter. From this working- drawing a kind of map is made which gives all the various pieces of the mosaic. The glazier cuts these pieces out from sheets of glass of various colours, and hands them back to the painter, who proceeds first to paint the leading lines with a solid opaque enamel, the colouring matter of which is an oxide of iron. This being done (and the glass sometimes having been fired at once, but sometimes not), the pieces of glass are stuck together temporarily (by means of wax) on a glass easel, and the painter slightly shades his bold traced lines with the same opaque colour; using sometimes washes (in which ut no case, of course, the colour is much diluted, and is only semi-opaqne), and sometimes hatching of lightly laid-on lines, as in a black and white draw- ing on paper. Sometimes both washes and hatch- ing are used, and sometimes the washed shadows are ‘stippled ’—i.e. part of the colour is removed by dabbing it with the end of a broad brush. In any case the object of the methods of shading is to keep the shadows as clear, and to dull the glass as little as the explanation or expression of the subject will admit of. ‘Two or three or more firings are necessary during the process of this painting, but as far as the painting as distinguished from the mosaic is con- cerned this is all that has to be done, though it must be said that to do it well requires considerable experience and artistic skill and feeling. his painting being done, the glass goes back to the glazier’s bench again, and he ‘leads it up’ (i.e. joins it together with lead calms soldered at the junction ), and the window, after having been solid- ified by a stiff cement or putty rubbed into the leaf of the leads, has then only to be put in its lace and strengthened by the due iron stay-bars. t may be mentioned here that in this mosaic glass- painting, so far from there being any necessity for concealing the ‘leads,’ it is highly desirable to break up the surface of the work by means of them, always taking care that their direction is carefully considered from the point of view of their appear- ance. The obvious strength which the network of leads gives to the window on the one hand, and the obvious necessity for picking out small pieces of exquisite colour on the other, take away all . sense of discomfort in the arbitrary disposition of these constructive lines. A mosaic stained-glass window, therefore, seems a very simple affair, and so it is as a process (bating some difficulties in the making of the material). Its real difficulties are all on the artistic side, and have to do with the qualities of design and the choice of material. As to the design, it must be repeated that sugges- tion, not imitation, of form is the thing to be aimed at. Again, the shading is, as above said, for the sake of explanation, not to make the work look round, and also for diversifying the surface of the glass, to make it look rich in colour and full of detail. The qualities needed in the de- sign, therefore, are beauty and character of outline ; exquisite, clear, precise drawing of incident, such especially as the folds of drapery. The whole design should be full of clear, crisp, easily-read incident. Vagueness and blur are more out of place here than in any other form of art; and academical emptiness is as great a fault as these. ‘Whatever key of colour may be chosen, the colour 1 should always be clear, bright, and emphatic. , Any artist who has no liking for bright colour had better hold his hand from stained-glass designing. Consideration of the colour of the work naturally leads to consideration of the material. The ordinary machine-made window-glass, thin, and without any variety of surface, is wholly unfit for stained glass, but it should be stated in passing that a modern mechanical imitation of the unevenness of surface found in old glass, which is commonly called ‘ cathe- dral glass,’ is the worst of all materials for windows, and should never be used in any kind of glazing, ornamental or plain. The due varieties of surface are those that occur naturally in the process of making thick cylinder or crown glass. All glass used for glass-painting should be very thick, or, whatever the pigments used for colouring may be, the effect will be poor, starved, and, if bright colours be used, glaring. The glass which has to show as white should, when laid on a sheet of white paper, be of a yellowish-green colour; for the colours in stained glass are so powerful that - home was northern Euro -_ 7 GLASS 247 ” unless the whites are toned in the material itself mer will always be inharmonious and cold. It is necessary in addition to state briefly what the varieties of coloured glass proper for the purpose are, First comes pot-metal, in which the colour is an integral part of the glass; then flashed-glass, where the colour forms a coloured skin to a white body ;* and lastly a transparent yellow stain (de- duced from silver), which attacks the silica, and thus forms a part of the glass, is much used to colour portions of the pot-metal, for ornaments on , hair, flowers, and the like. is art of mosaic window-glass is especially an art of the middle ages; there is no essential difference between its processes as now carried on and those of the 12th century ; any departure from the medieval method of production in this art will only lead us astray. It may be added that its true during the middle ages, as the importance of the wall-pictures in Italy made its fullest development less necessary to the buildings in that country, and accordingly the Italians did not understand its principles so well as the artists of France and England, and had not the full measure of unerring instinct which the latter had. And besides, as Gothic architecture lasted longer with us and the French, there was more opportunity for the development of the later styles here, since the neoclassic architecture had searcely a place for stained glass. The 12th century begins the real history of the art. The windows of that date that are left us are very deep and rich in colour, red and blue being the prevailing tints. They are mostly figure designs, isposed in ornamental frames, and are admirably designed for their pur ; the Lega: is very simple, nothing but a little washed shading sup- porting the traced lines; the figures are he small, except in the case of windows far removed from the eye, as in some of the windows at St Denis near Paris. The beautiful windows in the choir aisles at Canterbury Cathedral are usually referred to the 12th century, but if they belong to it they must be of its later years. _ There was a slow development of the glass all through the earlier years of the 13th century, and a great deal more work is left us of that period; a apron deal of the glazing of the early pointed archi- tecture was of mere geometrical work. The igno- rant architect, Wyatt, who gutted Salisbury Cathe- dral in 1790, found most of the windows so glazed, and destroyed the glazing except for a few - ments. The window of the north transept at Yor Minster, now called the ‘ Five Sisters,’ is a well- known example of this beautiful work. _ The 14th or end of the 13th century invented a ig beautiful kind of glazing especially suitable to the large traceried windows hos coming into ‘vogue ; in this style bands of very richly coloured ' figure-glass, us Oxford may he cited as giving us very perfect specimens of this glazing, whic * Flashed-glass is mostly used for the beautiful Me Ss deduced from oa the making of which was re by Messrs Powell of itefriars, in London, with the help of Mr Winston about the year 1853. stained glass, though, of course, that change was very gradual. The glass now had a tendency to become paler in colour; a great part of the great traceried windows of the style was oftenest made up of elaborate canopies, in which white touched with yellow stain played a great part. Some very beautiful windows of this date are almost entirely carried out in silvery whites and yellow stains. The shading of the figures and drapery, &c. was much more elaborate; the stippling and hatching above mentioned was common, especially in the later part of the style ; but the luminons quality of the shadows was generally well maintained. In pe of the ravages of the Puritans both of the formation and of the Cromwellian episodes, ex- amples of stained glass, usually very fragmentary, are common throughout England. The antechapel at New College, Oxford, the great east window of Gloucester cathedral, many windows in the choir of York Minster, and many of the parish churches in that city, notably All Saints, North Street, are splendid examples of the work of this period. In the 16th century the art was on the wane: it became leavier in shading, less beautiful in colour, and aimed too much at pictorial effect. As a reasonable art stained glass can hardly be said to have existed after about 1540; a few pieces of rather pretty and fanciful glazing and a little heraldic work are in the Elizabethan period all that represent the splendid art which adorned such buildings as York Minster and Canterbury Cathedral. The windows of Fairford Church, in Gloucestershire, form a very interesting collection of the work of the earlier Paste of the century. King’s College Chapel at Cambridge is almost entirely glazed with picture-work of this period. It has suffered much from reglazing, and is now very hard to read; nor could the art in it have ever been of a very high order. _ With the ruin of Gothic architecture stained glass was swept away entirely; and indeed it rished sooner and more completely than any of the other subsidiary arts, doubtless because its successful practice depends more en the instine- tive understanding of the true principles of decora- tive art than any other of the arts connected with architecture. The art of glass-painting has been revived with the eclectic revival of Gothic architecture, which is such a curious feature of our epoch, and has shared to the full in the difficulties which an eclectic style must of necessity meet with. Still it must be understood that glass-painting is no ‘lost art’ in the sense of its processes being for- gotten: whatever the deficiencies of the modern art may be, they are the result of the lack of feel- ing for decoration, rather than of difficulties as to material, workshop receipts, and the like. The very praiseworthy studies of Mr Winston and his collaboration with Messrs Powell of Whitefriars in the manufacture of window-glass fit for the pur- pose made it possible for us many years ago to produce good stained-glass windows if our artistic powers did not fail us, or rather if they could be turned into the right direction; if the designers could understand that they should not attempt to design pictures but rather pieces of ornamental glazing which, while decorating the buildin of which they formed a part, should also tell stories in a simple straightforward manner. This they have in a great measure learned to understand, and the public also are beginning to see that the picture-window of the semi-enamel style (as represented chiefly by the elaborate futilities produeed by the Munich manufactories) cannot form, as a window should do, a part of the architecture of the building. On the other hand, there has been (unavoidably doubtless) too much 248 GLASS-CRABS GLASS-SNAKE mere copying of medieval designs; it has been forgotten that the naivetés of drawing of an early stage of art which are interesting when genuine and obviously belonging to their own period, be- come ridiculous when imitated in an epoch which demands at least plausibility of drawing from its artists. But that very demand for plausibility and the ease of its attainment form another snare for the stained-glass designer, whose designs, though made with a knowledge of the requirements of the art, and though not actually imitative of medieval work, are too often vacant and feelingless, mere characterless diagrams, rather than the expression of thought and emotion, as.the work of the middle ages always was in spite of any rudeness of drawing or shortcoming in knowledge. One drawback to the effectiveness of painted windows comes from the too common absence of any general plan for the glazing of the building. The donors of windows are allowed to insert what- ever may please their individual tastes without regard to the rest of the glazing or the architectural requirements of the building; so that even where the window is good in itself, it fails in effect: of decoration, and injures, or is injured, by its neigh- bours. The custodians of nil dines before they allow any window to be put up should have some good plan of glazing schemed out embracing a system of subjects, an architectural arrangement, and a scheme of proportion of colour, and this plan should be earatalt adhered to. Thus, one window would help the other, and even inferiority of design in one or two of the windows would be less noticed when the whole effect was pleasing. The gain of such a careful arrangement is sufficiently obvious in cases where the ancient glazing of a church is left intact ; as, for instance, in the beautiful church of St Urbain at Troyes, a work of the end of the 13th century, and whose glazing is perhaps the most satisfactory example of glass-painting. The worth of stained glass must mainly depend on the genuineness and spontaneity of the archi- tecture it decorates: if that architecture is less than good, the stained-glass windows in it become a mere congeries of designs without unity of pur- pose, even though each one may be good in itself. See works by Winston (1847 and 1865), Warrington (1848), F. Miller (1885), and especially Westlake, A History of Design in Painted Glass (4 vols. 1879-95). Glass-crabs (Piyllosoma), the larval forms of rock lobsters, &c. (Palinuride), formerly regarded as adults, and made into a genus or family. The body consists of two transparent leaf-like discs; there are beautiful eyes on long stalks. -Glasse, HANNAH, was the author of the famous Art of Cookery (1747): as also of The Compleat Confectioner (1770), and of The Servant’s Directory (1770). The proverb ‘ First catch your hare’ does not expressly occur in her Cookery. Glass-houses. See PLANT-HOUSES. Glassites (properly Glasites), a religious body popularly so named from John Glas (1695-1773), some time parish minister at Tealing, near Dundee. In 1730, after three years of inquiry, Glas was ileposed by the General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland for opinions set forth in The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom (John, xviii. 36, 37), that National Church estab- lishments are unscriptural and anti-christian in doctrine and persecuting in spirit, and that a con- gregation of believers in church order (i.e. with bishops or elders, and deacons) is subject to no jurisdiction under heaven. Glas and those who adhered to him formed a congregation, and other churches were formed in Scotland, England, and America. Out of Scotland the brethren were called Sandemanians, from Robert Sandeman (1718-71), son-in-law to Glas, who helped in the work, and died at Danbury in Connecticut. The doctrines professed are taken literally from Scripture. Sal- vation through grace and by the work finished by our Lord upon the Cross, the helplessness of sinful men to aid in their own salvation, and the necessity for works as evidences of living faith sum up their doctrine. They consider the celebration of the Lord’s Supper as the chief purpose of the Sabbath assembly, all else being subordinate to this. The Lord’s Prayer is used to begin and end the service, prayers in which the brethren take part in turn, praise in which the Psalms alone are used and the stated reading of the whole Scripture, form parts of the service, exhortation by the elders following. Before the ordinance the ‘fellowship’ is observed, this being a collection for the necessities of poor members. Bishops or elders are chosen by the marks given in 1 Tim. iii. 1-7, &c., and a plurality of elders is required for the ordinance and for acts of discipline. Deacons and deaconesses have care of the poor and of all secular affairs of the church. All services to the church are given free as from love to the truth. Love feasts are held at mid-day on Sabbath, at which all members not necessarily absent attend. The baptism of members and their children is practised. The law of discipline (Matt. xviii. 15-17) is strictly observed as a means of pre- serving peace and unity in the church, while eating of blood, the use of oaths as between brethren, the use of the lot for frivolous purposes, and the covetous accumulation of riches are forbidden. The kiss of charity and services of kindness are enjoined. The brethren take no part in worship with any not accepting those scriptural doctrines. Glass Paper or Cloth, for polishing woodwork, is made by sprinkling powdered glass over paper or calico still wet with a coat of thin glue. Glass-rope Sponge (Hyalonema), a Japanese flinty sponge (one of the Hexactinellida), the body of which is anchored in the mud or ooze by a spirally twisted wisp or rope of siliceous threads. The latter, stripped of the sponge and manipulated by the Japanese divers, is a common curiosity. See SPONGES. Glass-snake (Opii- sauris ventralis), a limb- less serpent-like lizard (belonging to the short- tongued section) common in North America from Virginia to Florida. It is about 3 feet long, and varies greatly in colour. The joints of the tail break off readily on irrita- tion, but are soon repro- duced. The glass-snake feeds on worms, insects, mice, &e., chooses dr regions, and spends mue of its time in holes under- ground. Only the above specs is known, but a closely-allied genus (Pseudopus) occurs in southern Europe and Assam. Hyalonema, Tw Pea GLASSWORT GLAUBER 249 Glasswort (Salicornia), a genus of Cheno- iacew of which one species (S. herbacea), a leaf- ess plant with jointed stems, is common in salt- marshes in Britain. It makes a good pickle or antiscorbutic salad. Several species grow abun- dantly on the shores of the Mediterranean, and, as they contain a large quantity of soda, were formerly of importance in making barilla, along with the species of Saltwort (q.v.). Glastonbury, an ancient municipal borough of Somersetshire, lies, engirt by the river Brue, amid orchards and level pastures—once fen-land—at the foot of the conical tower-crowned Tor (500 feet), 6 miles by rail SSW. of Wells, and 36S. of Bristol. The Celtic Ynysvitrin, the Avalon of Arthurian legend, and the Glestingaburh or Glestings’ borough of the West Saxons, it was hither, says William of Malmesbury, that Joseph of Arimathea came bearing the Holy Grail, here that he founded the first Christian church in Britain. On Weary- all Hill he planted his pilgrim’s staff; it took root, and grew into the Holy Thorn, which blossomed miraculously every Old Christmas-eve until it was eut down by a Puritan. [Grafts from it flourish still; one at Sutton Poyntz, near Weymouth, duly blossomed on the night of the 5th January 1884 in presence of 250 persons. It is the Crategus precox of botanists.] Certain at least it is that, unlike Canterbury or York or London, ‘Glastonbury was the one church of the first rank in England which stood as a memorial of British days, the only one which had lived unseathed through the storm of English conquest.’ For the wattled basilica, which contained the grave of a St Patrick and of Gildas, was in 630 encased by Paulinus of York in boards and lead ; and to the east of it in 719 King Ine reared the great church of SS. Peter and Paul. The Abbot’s Kitchen, Glastonbury. This, spoiled by the Danes, was the abbey re- founded by St Dunstan (q.v.) about 946, and became the sepulchre of Kings Edmund, Edgar, and Edmund Ironside, if not indeed of Dunstan himself, of Joseph of Arimathea, or of Arthur and Guinevere. It had just been rebuilt when in 1184 the whole pile was consumed by fire; and the splendid minster, 528 feet long, then undertaken by Henry II., was not dedicated till 1303. In 1539 Richard Whiting, the last of ite mitred abbots, was hanged on the Tor by Henry VIIL ; and the ruins of this great Benedictine house, which had covered 60 acres, are now comparatively scanty, having long been the quarry of the district. Yet still on the site of the ‘ Vetusta Ecclesia’ stands the roof- less chapel of Our Lady or St Joseph, a fine example of Transition Norman, with its 15th- century crypt; still there is the massive stone Abbot’s Kitchen (14th century), 334 feet square, and 72 high, with its four huge fireplaces and pyramidal roof. Apart from its abbey and its two parish churches, one of which has a noble tower 140 feet high, Glastonbury is a quaint, old- world place, a very store of domestic antiquities, with the 15th-century Pilgrims’ Inn (now the ‘George’), the Tribunal, and the Abbot’s Barn. Sharpen, 2 miles south-west, was Fielding’s birthplace. Sheepskins, mats, rugs, gloves, and pottery are manufactured. Pop. (1851) 3325; (1891) 4119. from French t ranny by the reverses of the French arms in the Russian expedition. Appealing to the national sentiment of his countrymen in the Rheini. the ischer Merkur, he became, in truth, the centre of the national movement. After re-establishment of German independence denounced the encroachments of domestic wz utism with the same energy, until, having drawn upon himself the displeasure of the Prussian government, he was obliged to flee to France, and afterwards to Switzerland. In 1827 he accepted the professorship of the History of Literature in the university just founded at Munich by the liberal King Louis of Bavaria. His later years were devoted to literature, and to the contro- _Yersies as to mixed marriages and Hermesianism (see Hermes). Hewas the founder of the Cath- olie journal, Die Historisch-Politischen Blatter. His chief work was his Christliche Mystik (1842; new ed. 1879). He died 29th January 1848. An edition of his works (9 vols.) appeared between 1854 and 1874. See the Life by Sepp (1876). Gortschakoff, Prince ALEXANDER MICcH- AELOVitcH, Russian statesman, was born at St Petersburg, 16th July 1798, being the son of Prince Michael, a distinguished-officer. He was educated at the celebrated Lyceum of Tzarskoe-Selo, and ac- uired experience in diplomacy under Nesselrode. aa or at Vienna (1854-56), he displayed great judgment and ability during the Crimean war, and t was chiefly through his influence that Russia an to the treaty of Paris. After this event ince Gortschakoff succeeded Nesselrode as minis- ter of foreign affairs. When France became hostile to Austria on the Italian question, he cultivated the friendship of the former. Desirous of restor- ing the prestige of Russia in European affairs, he addressed a circular dispatch to the Powers in 1860 in favour of the principle of nationalities in the Two Sicilies. He also favoured the French expe- dition of 1861 to Syria on behalf of the oppressed Christians, but he declined to associate himself with France and Great Britain in their unfriendly attitude towards the United States after the out- break of the civil war. Touching the Polish in- surrection of 1863, he repudiated foreign dictation, and asserted the right of Russia to settle her internal affairs in accordance with her own interests and the integrity of the empire. By’ this step he acquired great popularity at home and respect abroad, and he was appointed chancellor of the empire in July 1863. From this time until the ascendancy of Bismarck he was the most powerful minister in Europe. He remained neutral during the struggle be- tween Prussia and Austria; and, owing to a ___ definite understanding between the Russian and Prussian chancellors, the neutrality of Austria was secured in the t Franco-Prussian war of 1870. Gortschakoff further availed himself of this war to counteract the injury done to Russian influence by the treaty of Paris. At the London Conference in January 1871 he procured the re- vision of the treaty, and the formation of another ogee Sey end to the neutralisation of the Black € or this service the emperor conferred upon him the dignity of Serene Highness, In 1873-74 he manifested a desire to preserve friendly relations with England in regard to central Asia, but this was scarcely consistent with his ive policy. In the Servian war of 1878 Gortschakoff took up an indecisive attitude; and after the conclusion of the Turko-Russian war, the repudiation of the 4 treaty of San Stefano, and the signing of the . of Berlin his influence nto wane. At , the Berlin Congress Bismarck and Beaconsfield had : paid more attention to Schouvaloff than to the chancellor. Gortschakoff altogether ceased to be the first factor in European politics before Alex- ander II. was assassinated, and long before he was a by M. de Giers as minister for foreign airs in March 1882. Gortschakoff’s sphere of action was European, not local; he ignored too much Russian developments and Russian aspira- tions, took no active interest in the serious finan- cial and industrial problems affecting his country, or in the growth of Nihilism, and he even failed to bear his part in the abolition of serfdom. After his retirement he left Russia for Baden-Baden, where he died on Ist March 1883. Gortschakoff was a man of considerable culture and a friend of the liberal arts. His diplomatic circulars were remark- able for their excellent diction, their wit, and their resistless logic. The name is also Englished by Gortchakoff and Gorchakov. See Klaczko’s Two Chancellors (Eng. trans. 1876). Gortschakoff, Prince MICHAEL, cousin of the above, was born in 1795, and served against the French in 1812-14 and against the Turks in 1828-29. In the war of the Polish revolution of 1831 he greatly distinguished himself, and was made general of artillery. He was appointed military governor of Warsaw in 1846, and took part in the invasion of Hungary in 1849. On the outbreak of the Crimean war he twice commanded the Russian army despatched to the Danubian Principalities, on the second occasion leading the retreating Russian forces into Bessarabia after | the raising of the siege of Silistria. In 1855 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the Crimea and southern Russia. He was defeated on the Tchernaya, but recovered his laurels by his gallant defence of Sebastopol, and by his skilful retreat to the North Fort after the blowing up of the fortress. Alexander II. appointed him governor of Poland iff 1856, and he was engaged in carrying out the conciliatory policy of the ezar when his death occurred on May 30, 1861. Gory Dew, «2 dark-red slimy film sometimes seen on damp walls and in shady pines. Its appearance on the whitewashed walls of damp cellars, &c. is apt to occasion alarm from its resemblance to blood. It is one of the lowest forms of vegetable life, an alga of the group Pal- mellacez, and allied to the plant to which the pacercanes of Red Snow (q.v.) is due. Its otanical name is Porphyridium cruentum (Pal- mella cruenta). See PALMELLACEZ. Gérz, capital of the Austrian crown-land of Gérz-Gradisea, in the Kiistenland, is charmingly situated in a fruitful plain, near the Isonzo, 35 miles NNW. of Trieste by rail. Shut in by mountains on all sides except the south, it enjoys an almost Italian climate, and has of late years acquired some fame as a health-resort. Among its principal buildings are the old castle of the former Counts of Gérz and the former Jesuit college, both now used as barracks ; the cathedral, with a beautiful sacristy ; and the prince-bishop’s and several other palaces. The surrounding plain is covered with vineyards, and industries are the cultivation and export of fruit and wine, whilst Giérz’s specialty has long been the printing of Hebrew ks for the East. There are dyeworks, and important manufactures of flour, sugar, cotton, silks, rosoglio, paper, leather, soap, and matclies. In a Franciscan cloister close by are the graves of Charles X. of France (q.v.), the Due d’Angouléme and his wife, and the Comte de Chambord. Pop. (1869) 16,659; (1890) 21,888. See Schatzmayer, Der Kurort Gérz (1886).—The Austrian-Illyrian Kiistenland (‘ Coastland ’) includes the doe taygeuer § of Gérz-Gradisca, the pad Sieben of Istria, wit the Quarnero Islands, and Trieste and its territory. Its boundaries are the Adriatic on the south, and 308 GOSCHEN GOSPELLERS on the remaining sides Venice, Carinthia, Carniola, and Croatia. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1880) 647,943 ; (1890) 695,394. Goschen, GEORGE JOACHIM, English states- man, son of a London merchant of German ex- traction, was born in London, August 10, 1831, and was educated at Rugby and Oriel. He is LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., and P.C. In 1863 he wrote an exchange, and entered parliament as a Liberal for the City of London. When Lord Russell, after Palmerston’s death, reorganised the Liberal ministry, he appointed Goschen Vice- resident. of the Board oF Trade, November 1865. n the following January the latter entered the cabinet in consequence of his appointment as chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. When Gladstone became prime-minister in 1868, Goschen took office as President of the Poor-law Board, but three years later became the head of the Admiralty, which post he retained until the fall of the Gladstone ministry in 1874. Goschen’s next public work was the regulation, in con- junction with Joubert, of the Egyptian finances (1876). Then in 1878 he represented Great Britain at the international monetary conference held at Paris, and, two years afterwards, as am- bassador extraordinary to the Porte, enforced on Turkey the fulfilment towards Greece of the treaty of Berlin. He strenuously opposed Home Rule; in 1887-92 was Unionist Chancellor of the Exchequer, and in 1888 converted part of the National Debt. In 1895-96, as First Lord of the Admiralty, he made ee for inereasing the navy. He has pub- ished addresses, pamphlets, or books on finance (Foreign Exchanges, 16th ed. 1894), education, &e. ; and has been Lord Rector of Aberdeen and Edin- burgh Universities. He sat for London 1863-80; Ripon 1880-85; East Edinburgh 1885-86, and St George’s, Hanover Square, 1887-96. His grand- father was the famous Leipzig bookseller, Georg Joachim Goschen (1752-1828). , Goshawk (lit., ‘ goose-hawk ’) (.Astur), a genus in the family Falconide, nearly related to the sparrow-hawks (Accipiter), and like the latter distinguished from the faleons proper by not having a toothed or notched bill. The British species (A. palumbarius) is now only a visitor, and a rare one. It is common in the forests of north- ern and central Europe, and ranges as far east as Japan, and as far south as Morocco and Egypt. It isa rapacious _ bird, fsa te small mammals and game-birds in swift, persistent, and rapidly altered flight. The prevalent colour of the planeny is ashy- rown; the size - of the females, \; which are de- cidedly the larger, is about two feet. The nest is large, built of sticks, and placed in a tree. The eggs (four) are bluish- gray in colour, and laid in April or May. The goshawk used to breed in Britain, and though termed ‘ignoble’ was employed in Falconry (q.v.) Goshawk (Astur palumbarius). for hunting ground-game, on which it naturally reys. The goshawk of the northern United States (A. atricapillus) is larger and handsomer, but other- wise very like the European species. Audubon describes its meteor-like flight, the power of steer- ing afforded by the long tail, its vigilant industrious rapacity, and the characteristic erectness of its attitude when perched or engaged with its prey. A stray specimen, said to have been shot in Perth- shire, is preserved in the Edinburgh Museum. The Australian Goshawk (A. nove hollandie), some- times called a white eagle, is remarkable in being ‘apparently a permanent albino.’ Goshen, that part of ancient Egypt which Pharaoh presented to the kindred of Joseph when they came to sojourn in that country, appears to have lain between the eastern delta of the Nile and the Isthmus of Suez, as far south as the modern Ismailia. The district is generally sup- sed to have lain round about the Egyptian esem (Goshen is Gesem in the Septuagint), a name preserved in the classical Phaaeae ( Pa- Kesem ), now Fakoos, about 45 miles S. of Dami- etta. But in 1885-87 M. Naville tried to prove that Goshen is represented by Saft-el-Henna, 6 miles E. of Zagazig, in the Wady Tumilat. See the Fourth Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund (1888 ).--The LAND OF GOSHEN was the name given to a part of the Barolong country in Bechuanaland, South Africa, which became in 1884 the seat. of a mushroom Boer republic, founded by the marauders who had supported Moshette, the rival of Mont- sioa in his contest for the headship of the Baro- sonae: It was, along with the rest of Bechuana- land, declared to be under British protection in September 1885. Goslar, an ancient town of Hanover, situated on the north slope of the Harz Mountains, 27 miles SE. of Hildesheim. At one time a free imperial city, and the residence of the emperors, it has several noteworthy old buildings, as the tower called the ‘Zwinger,’ with walls 23 feet thick; the Late Romanesque church Neuwerk, of the 12th century, and the Frankenberger church (1108, restored 1880), both with ancient frescoes; the emperor's house, built in 1050 by Henry III., the dwelling-house of the emperors till the middle of — the 13th century, the meeting-place of more than a score of imperial diets, restored in 1867-80, and adorned with frescoes by Wislicenus; the town- house, built in 1136-84; and the Kaiserworth, an old building containing statues of eight emperors. To the south of the town is the Rammelsberg, a mountain formerly very rich in silver, gold, copper, lead, sulphur, and green vitriol (sulphate of iron), The mines have been worked since 968, and are still in operation. Goslar was founded by Henry I. in 920. About 1350 it joined the Pariaeatic League. Its ancient poe began to depart from it in the middle of the 16th century ; and it suffered severely from the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War. In 1802 it ceased to be a free imperial town and fell to Prussia, to whom it again returned in 1866, after having in the meantime belonged to Westphalia (from 1807) and Hanover (from 1816). Here were born Henry IV. and Marshal Saxe. The Wordsworths were here in 1798. Pop. (1875) 9838 ; (1895) 18,966. “See works by Mithoff (1874) and Wolfstieg (1885): Gospellers, a word used with three different designations. (1) A term applied by the Roman Catholics to those Reformers who taught the people the words of Scripture in their own vulgar tongue, as Wyclif and his followers.—(2) class of Antinomians, about the period of the Reformation, who drew ‘strange inferences’ from the doctrine ri ™ rt 7 : = Tale eve: re ho, ree. =f) q eal Greek originally meant ‘the reward for _ veniently be treated in the separate article. _ *synoptical GOSPELS 309 of predestination.—(3) The priest who reads the | in the communion service of the Church of , Standing on the north side of the altar. Gos The word ewaggelion, which in slesdt. news " (Odyssey, xiv. 152; comp, 2 Sam. iv. 10, LXX.), but afterwards simply ‘good news’ (Plutarch, Lucian, Appian), has from Anglo-Saxon times been rendered by the word Gospel (Godspell—ie. story of God [Christ}). In the New Testament it is always used in the singular, and means ‘ the good news of the lag = "as proclaimed by Christ and his apostles. erhaps, however, in Mark i, 1 1s some trace of the technical sense, as denot- ing a written narrative of the life and utterances of Jesus, which it had fully acquired by the end of the 2d century (Justin Martyr, Apol. J. 66: ‘the memoirs of the apostles... which are called Is’). The gradual rise of the historical por- n of the New Testament (belonging for the most _ to a later period than the Epistles, which are e earliest extant documents of Christianity) has already been briefly traced in the article BIBLE (Vol. it p- 124), where also the fact of the fixation of the four-fold gospel canon before the close of the 2d century has been stated ; see also separate articles on MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE, and JOHN. Here it is enough to say that, since the canon was ecclesiastically settled, it has been the un- varying belief of the church in all its branches that these four gospels are to be received as clothed with apostolic authority—Matthew and John as written by apostles, Mark and Luke as written by companions of apostles. the four, that of John is distinguished by oy pabay which give it a unique place among e New Testament writings, and will most oe e first three, on the other hand, have very much in common; in fact, they present such a similarity in matter and form that they readily admit of en brought under one and the same ‘com- bined view’ or ‘synopsis,’ from which circum- stance they have since the time of Griesbach (who coined thie phrase) been commonly designated the ) pels (see the Harmonies, such as Tischendorf’s Synopsis Evangelica). The re- semblance is both in substance and in language. (1) my give the same general outline of the e of Jesus, and to a large extent select the same incidents for detailed treatment. Thus, they relate, on the whole, the same miracles, and pre- serve the same discourses. They are silent also on the same points; two, for example, give the woe pronoun upon Chorazin and Bethsaida, but no one of the three has anything precise to say about the occasion that called it forth. Various attempts have been made to represent in tabular and graphic form the amount of material coincidence between the synoptics ; but it is probably impossible to do so with absolute exactness, The following estimate, however, the result of a recent somewhat careful examination, may be taken as approximately repre- senting the facts. Of a totel of 1071 verses, Matthew has 387 in common with Mark and Luke. 130 in common with Mark, 184 in common with Luke, and 370 peculiar to himself. Of Mark’s 662 verses, 406 are common to all three synoptists, 145 common to Mark and Matthew, 60 common to Mark and Luke, and 51 (on a liberal estimate ) oe to himself. Luke out of 1151] verses shares ”) with Matthew and Mark, 176 with Matthew, 41 with Mark, and has 544 liar to himself. (2) They often agree in a remarkable manner in the order in which they give the events they relate, even the events themselves are only loosely con- 1; thus, in Matt. ix., Mark ii., and Luke v., the miraculous healing of the paralytic, Matthew's call and feast, the discourse on fasting, follow one another; in two gospels the last-mentioned dis- course is immediately followed by the incident in the cornfield, which again, in all three, is fol- lowed by the healing of the withered hand. In Matthew and Mark the death of the Baptist is introduced at the same point and in the same way, but out of its chronological order. For full discussion of these and other instances refer- ence must be made to the text-books. (3) In many instances they use identical language. This cir- cumstance would be striking enough even if it were observable only in cases where discourses are reported, when it is remembered that these dis- courses were almost certainly spoken in Aramaic ; but its significance is vastly increased when it occurs in narrative passages (Matt. xiv. 19, 20; Mark, vi. 41, 42; Tabs: ix. 16, 17; Matt. xvii. 5; Mark, ix. 7; Luke, ix. 35; Matt. ix. 1-8; Mark, ii. 1-12; Luke, v. 17-20—where observe the paren- thesis common to all three, ‘then saith he to the sick of the palsy’), when it is shown in the use of rare words or expressions, or when all coincide in quoting the Old Testament in a way that differs both from the Hebrew and the Septuagint text. It is only in modern times that such phenomena as these in the synoptic gospels have attracted serious attention or received critical study. Doubt- less they had been often noticed before, but the fact of so large a degree of coincidence was not felt to be at all surprising. All three gospels were held to be first-hand narratives, and primarily all by the same author, the inspiring spirit of God. he resemblance, therefore, was only what might have been expected. Were further explanation a for, it was enough to cre ip that Mark ad copied from Matthew, and Luke had access to both, and this assumed dependence of the later on the earlier evangelist was not felt to affect in any way their importance as really independent, be- cause immediately inspired. ore embarrassing were their apparent divergences and even seeming contradictions in narrating what purported to be the same events (e.g. the resurrection and the ost-resurrection appearances of Jesus), and their iscrepancies of language in relating what seemed to be the same discourses. The reconciliation of these discrepancies and divergences (which were held to be apparent only) was the object of numer- ous compilers of ‘Gospel Harmonies.’ The so-called ‘synoptical problem’ took shape in Germany towards the close of the 18th century. The discussion began in a refutation by rr gt (Marcus non Epitomator Matthei, 1782) of the traditionally received view, first started by Augus- tine, that Mark in writing his hg had merely followed Matthew and abridged him. Important contributions towards the advancement of the question were made in succeeding decades by such men as Lessing, Eichhorn, Griesbach, Schleier- macher, Gieseler, De Wette, Lachmann, Baur, Ewald, Bleek, Ritschl, and others too numerous to mention. In the course of the investigation three broad lines of explanation were attempted. (1) The ‘ Benutzungs-hypothese,’ or borrowing hypothesis, sought to explain the facts by supposing that the second evangelist in order of time (whoever he was) borrowed from the first, and that the third borrowed from either or both of his predecessors. Of this theory numerous forms are logically and mathe- matically conceivable, and almost all of these have in the course of a century's discussion found able advocates. Perhaps the most popular form has been the ‘combination’ theory—that Mark is a combination of Matthew and Luke. (2) The ‘ Ur-evangeliums-hypothese ’ sought to establish the existence of a primitive written gospel, no longer extant, to which, however, all the evangelists had 310 GOSPELS access, and of which they each made independent use. (3) The ‘tradition-hypothesis’ was that each evangelist drew his matter independently of the others from an oral apostolic tradition which had become stereotyped. The result of the discussion has been to make it plain that no one of these theories is by itself sufficient to cover all the facts of the case. The borrowing hypothesis may account for the coinci- dences, but it leaves the discrepancies unexplained and inexplicable. The same remark applies to the assumption of a primitive gospel or gospels ; it has been found necessary by its advocates to assume a multiplicity of lost documents in a manner that raises difficulties, historical and other, quite as great as those which it seeks to remove. The oral tradition theory, again, might serve to account for the discrepancies, but when it is sought to explain the immense amount of coincidence by means of it, the improbability of a stereotype tradition of such mass, confining itself so closely to the same inci- dents, told in so nearly the same order and in lan- uage so little varying, is seen to be very great. But. on the other hand, it is now more or less generally admitted that all three theories contained important elements of truth. (1) In connection with the oral tradition hypothesis it seems tolerabl clear that for at least a generation after the daxth of Christ no important attempt was made to com- mit to writing any record, however brief, of the leading facts of his life or the main elements of his preaching. This was no doubt partly due to the widespread belief that his second coming and the end of the world were close at hand. The epistles were, as has already heen said, the earliest literary productions of Christianity, and these were all called forth by occasions much more definite than any that had as yet presented themselves for writing memoirs of Christ. But the life and words of Christ were the continual subject of the preach- ing and catechising of the apostles and their con- verts, a subject they naturally expounded in connection with the Old Testament scriptures. These he had perfectly and completely fulfilled, and Christ was therefore sought in the Old Testa- ment prophecies in a way that made the ny Christians feel little need of a written gospel. That this traditional preaching and catechisin would tend to become stereotyped within eac apostolic circle is manifest ; but that it was also capable of taking different forms in different circles is shown (to take obvious examples) by the want of correspondence between the narratives of the nativity and of the resurrection as given in Matthew and Luke respectively. (2) As regards a primitive gospel (or Ur-evangelium, as Eichhorn first called it), specialists are becoming more and more at one in recognising two relatively primitive documents embodied wholly or in part in the exist- ing: synoptists. These consist (@) in the gospel according to Mark, or an earlier draft thereof; (6) in a so-called ‘logia’ document, composed mainly of sayings and discourses of the Lord—a document which was largely drawn upon by the authors of the first and third gospels for much of what they have in common with each other apart from Mark. The reasons for abandoning the ancient view of Mark’s dependence on Matthew, and for now regarding his as the earliest of our existing gospels, depend largely on considerations as to his language, style, and general point of view which cannot be even indicated, here, nor does space allow mention to be made of the various minute Poy which have led many acute scholars to istinguish between an Ubi wise Mark ( Ur-Marcus) and the present form of the second gospel. The designation of the ‘logia’ document is taken from a much discussed fragment of a very early author, Papias, preserved by Eusebius, to the effect that ‘Matthew composed ta logia [the oracles, or the discourses of our Lord] in the Hebrew [i.e. Jewish- Aramaic | dialect, and each one interpreted them as he could.’ Schleiermacher was the first to point out the importance of this passage in its possible bearings on criticism. (3) Whe orrowing hypo- thesis, in the sense that the authors of the firstand third gospels knew and very freely used the earlier work of Mark, is by no means a violent one, and seems in many cases to afford the true explanation of the facts. The drift of current opinion among specialists may perhaps be stated somewhat as follows: When after the lapse of a generation or so it began to be seen that probably the end of all things was not yet quite at hand, and that in all likelihood the chureh had still before her a prolonged period of work in the present world, it was felt to be a fitting thing that the most important utterances of the Lord, which the apostles had been in the habit of quoting as supremely authoritative for all Christians, should be preserved from the risk of perversion, interpolation, or oblivion. Thus came to be written down, by some apostolic man —very likely by the apostle Matthew himself, a practised scribe—a collection of discourses, par- ables, predictions, and aphorisms, not improbably in somewhat loose connection, yet at the same time not without some incidental notice of the circumstances which occasioned a given utterance, or some notes of the dialogue which led up to the weighty aphorism. This collection was (as has been seen) written in Aramaic. About the same time, Mark, the ‘interpreter’ of Peter, as ancient tradition calls him, was arranging in Greek his fragmentary recollections or memoirs of what he had heard Peter tell of the incidents of the period of his own personal converse with Jesus. These he would not scruple to supplement with matter drawn from other sources, so long as he knew it to be trustworthy. Both the above documents obtained wide currency, the former was translated into Greek more or ices inadequately, the two were seen to be mutually Som DISS and it was inevitable that an attempt should be made to combine them. This was successfully done by the author of the first gospel, a writer in Greek, who had in view in the first instance Jewish Chris- tians, and sought to bring into all possible clear- ness the organic development of Christianity out of the Old Testament dispensation of symbol, rophecy, and promise. After the destruction of (PLS when Rome had become one of the most important centres of Christianity, there was edited in that city the present form of the second gospel, specially adapted for the apprehension and acceptance of Gentile Christians. At a somewhat later date, and possibly in Rome also, was cem- piled the third gospel in dependence chiefly on the ‘logia’ document and on Mark, but not without some knowledge of the first gospel, and with im- portant additions from oral or written sources which eannot now be traced, but which probably represented a Judzean tradition. hus it appears that each of the three theories enumerated above has something real to contribute by way of explanation of the origin of the synoptic gospels. Primitive documents are embodied in them; they contain an element of ancient oral tradition ; and they are not independent one of another. But no one of them is a primary docu- ment in the sense of having been written in its resent form from direct personal knowledge ; and it is obvious that each succeeding evangelist, in availing himself of the labours of his predecessor, did so with a feeling of perfect freedom, not claim- ing for himself, nor according to his fellow, nor 2d century, who GOSPELS GOSSAMER 311 expecting for either from the church any title to rity as infallible. au HArMontes or THE GospeLs,—Compilations of this nature, designed to facilitate comparison and mutual _ illustration of the different narratives, and to bring out their essential agreement and consistency in seeming divergence, began to be made at an early date. The known is the Diatessaron of Tatian (q.v.). Jerome also makes allusion to the work of a certain "theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, toward the close of the ad left a monument of his ingenuity by ‘fitting ther into one whole the things said by the four evangelists.’ Eusebius tells us that in the middle of the 3d century a certain Ammonius of Alexandria also Aen a diatessaron, taking Matthew as his basis, ing side by side with him the parallel passages in the other three gospels. This work suggested to Eusebius himself the plan of his own Sections and Canons. In this each gospel is divided separately into sections which are numbered continuously, and, further, there is a table of ten canons each containing a list of passages. The first canon, in four columns, exhibits all the passages which are common to the four gospels; the second, third, and fourth, in three columns, show the which are found in any three; the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth, those which are common to any two; and the tenth, in four separate lists, the pass- + a peculiar to a single evangelist. This work of bius, which was afterwards adapted to the Vulgate by Jerome, continued to be used as a key to the concord- ance of the gospels, down to the 16th century. Of t-Reformation harmonies, the earliest is the Harmonia elica of Osiander (1537), whose doctrine of inspira- tion led him to believe that each evangelist must have written in strict chronological order, and that therefore, wherever there is the slightest divergence as to time, place, or circumstance between any two evangelists in any given narrative, it is necessary to assume the events thus differently related to have been distinct. On these rinciples he is compelled to make out that Peter denied is Lord nine times. Calvin’s Harmonia ex tribus Evangelistis Composita (1553) represents a much more moderate view. The number of works bearing the title of Harmonies or Synopses that have appeared during the last three centuries is very great. The best and most ome! of them—such as those of Clericus (1700), knight (1756), Griesbach (1776), Robinson (1845) Wieseler (1843), Anger (1852), Stroud (1853)—are enumerated by ‘Tischendorf in his own Synopsis Evangelica, the latest and most convenient of them all (5th ed. 1884). , LiteratuRE.—For the older literature on the synoptic gorpels, reference must be made to the handbooks of Introduction and Church History, and to the more recent commentaries, Among these last that of Alford in his Greek Testament (7th ed. 1874-77) retains an honourable place. See also the Speaker's Commentary. 2 ee aire the German, the ve prego of e nge claim special mention; of the former, which is the less homiletical and more scientific of the two, the latest (7th) German edition is by B. Weiss (1883-85). Keil’s Commentary on Matthew appeared 1877, and that on Mark and Luke in 1879. bE the new Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testament the synoptics are ably treated by H. J. Holtzmann (1889), Ewald’s Die drei ersten Evangelien iibersetet u. erklért (1871) is still of value. See too Reuss, Histoire nyelique oe? and compare the bibliographies under BIBLE and U P - On the synoptical problem the fullest and latest state- ments are to be found in Holtzmann, Finleitung in das Neue Testament (2d ed. 1886). and B. Weiss, Hinl. in d. Neue Test. (2d ed. 1889). The latter has been translated into English, A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament (1887). Both these writers recognise a logia’ document, and the priority of Mark to both the first and the third canonical Weiss, however, thinks that the logia document contained a very consider- able number of incidents also, and that Mark had access to it. The fullest discussions by English scholars are those of Dr E. A. Abbott in the art, ‘Gospels’ in vol. x. of Eney. Brit. (1880), and by Professor Salmon, His- torical Introduction to the Books of the New Testament (4th ed. 1889), Dr Abbott seeks to disentangle the original ‘triple’ tradition borne witness to by the three synoptics; he finds that Mark is of earlier date than Matthew, and contains the earliest Greek tradition, itself a translation of the very early Aramaic tradition. Dr Salmon argues for a form of the Ur-evangelium hypothesis; he thinks the theory of a common Greek original is required by the verbal coincidences, and by the common citations of the Old Testament. Mark’s gospel represents the original source most fully, but was probably latest in publication, and certainly not copied either by Matthew or by Luke. Dr Westcott in his Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (1851; 7th ed. 1888), which un- fortunately has not been brought down to date, argues for the oral hypothesis, This theory is also that of Alford. Of the borrowing hypothesis the latest and ablest exponent is Dr Pfleiderer, who in his Urchristen- thum (1887) shows the priority of Mark, but thinks that Matthew depended chiefly on Luke. For detailed study of the relations of the synoptics, Rushbrooke’s Synop- ticon (1880), which gives all the textual facts with graphic completeness, may be characterised as indispensable. Compare also Rushbrooke and Abbott’s little manual entitled Common Tradition of the Synoptical Gospels in the Text of the Revised Version (1884). Gosport (‘God’s port’), a market-town and seaport of England, in the county of Hants, stands on the western shore of Portsmouth harbour, and directly opposite Portsmouth, with which it is con- nected by a floating bridge. Here are an exten- sive iron-foundry for the manufacture of anchors and chain-cables, naval powder-magazines, several barracks, the sepa arence victualling yard, which contains a brewery, a biscuit-baking estab- lishment worked entirely by steam, and numerous storehouses, and Haslar Hospital (q.v.). The town has also some sail-making and yacht-build- ing, and considerable coasting trade. Pop. (1881) 12,343; (1891) 15,457; with Alverstoke, 25,452. Gossamer, a light filamentous substance which often fills the atmosphere to a remarkable degree during fine weather in the latter part of autumn, or is spread over the whole face of the ground, stretching from leaf to leaf, and from plant to plant, loaded with entangled dew-drops, which glisten and sparkle in the sunshine. Various opinions were formerly entertained concerning the nature and origin of gossamer, but it is now suffi- ciently ascertained to be produced by small spiders, not, however, by any single species, but by several, not improbably many, species; whilst it is also said to be produced by young and not by mature spiders, a circumstance which, if plae beyond oubt, would help to account for its appearance at a particular season of the year. The production of gossamer by spiders was first demonstrated by the observations of Dr Hulse and Dr Lister in the 17th century; but these observations did not for a long time meet with due regard and credit, par- in:| ticularly amongst the naturalists of continental Europe. It is not yet well known if the gossamer spread over the surface of the earth is produced by the same species of spider which produces that seen floating in the air, or falling as if from the clouds. Why gossamer threads or webs are pro- duced by the spiders at all is also a question not very easily answered. That they are meant merely for entangling insect prey does not seem proven the extreme eagerness which some of the small spiders known to produce them show for water to drink has led to the supposition that the dew- drops which collect on them may be one of the objects of the formation of those on the surface of the ground, whilst it has been also supposed that they may afford a more rapid and convenient mode of transit from place to place than the employment of the legs of the animal. As to the gossamers in the air, conjecture is still more at a loss. They are certainly not accidentally wafted up from the ground, as might be supposed ; the spidérs which produce them are wafted up along with them; but 312 GOSSAN GOTHAM whether for the mere So Nagra of an aérial ex- cursion, or in order to shift from place to place, is not clear, although the latter supposition is, on the whole, the most probable. 1e threads of Syed are so delicate that a single one cannot e seen unless the sun shines on it; but, being driven about by the wind, they often become beaten together into thicker threads and flakes. They are often to be felt on the face when they are scarcely visible. The spiders which produce these threads shoot them out from their spinnerets, a viscid fluid being ejected with great force, which presently becomes a thread; sometimes several such threads are produced at once in a radiating form, and these, Sti caught by the ascending current of heated air, are borne upwards, the spider along with them. It has been said that the spider has even some power of guiding in the air the web by which it is wafted up (see SPIDERS). The biyinlony has been much disputed. According to Skeat, gossamer, the Middle English gossomer, is goose-summer, the summer meaning summer-film. Another derivation is from God and summer, the latter word being from the Romance samarra, ‘a skirt,’ from the legend that gossamer is shreds of the Virgin Mary’s shroud, which she cast away when she was taken up to heaven. Gossan, a mining term for oxide of iron and quartz. See IRON. Gosse, PHitip HENRY, naturalist, was born at Worcester, 10th April 1810, and brought up at Poole. In 1827 he went to Newfoundland as a clerk, and was afterwards in turns farmer in Canada, school- master in Alabama, and professional naturalist in Jamaica. Returning to England, he published in 1840 the Canadian Naturalist, and after another stay in the West Indies settled in England to a busy life of letters. His early experiences and observa- tions supplied the material for his popular books, the richly illustrated Birds of Jamaica (1851) and A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica (1851). His Naturalist’s Ramble on the Devonshire Coast (1853), Aquarium (1854), and Manual of Marine Zoology (1855-56) inspired Charles Kingsley’s Glaucus, and opened up a new branch of science to Englishmen. Gosse was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1856, and over sixty monographs in its Proceedings are from his pen. His best-known work, the Romance of Natural History, ap ared in 1860-62. Later and more severely scientific works were his Actinologia Britannica (1860) and the Prehensile Armature of the Papilionide (1885). In 1886 he placed in the hands of Dr C. T. Hudson the notes and drawings of a lifetime on the microscopic study of the Rotifera. Mr Gosse spent the last thirty years of his life in a retired South Devon village, and died 23d August 1888.—EDMUND WILLIAM Gossk, his only son, was born in London, September 21, 1849, was educated in Devonshire, and became at eighteen an assistant-librarian at the British Museum, in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. He travelled in Scandinavia and Holland, and made himself master of the languages of these countries. In 1884 he succeeded Mr Leslie Stephen as Clark lecturer in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, a post from which he retired in 1889, having four years before received the honorary degree of M.A. from the university. During 1884-85 he lectured in Boston, at Harvard and Yale colleges, and in Baltimore and New York. Mr Gosse has tried various forms of verse, and possesses many of the qualities of the genuine poet. Among his writings in verse are Madrigals, Songs, and Sonnets (1870); On Viol and Flute, lyrical poems (1873); King Erik, a tragedy (1876); The Unknown Lover, a drama (1878) ; New Poems (1879); and Firdausi in Exile, and other Poems (1886). His chief writings in prose are in the field of literary eriticism: Northern Studies, a series of essays on Scandinavian and Dutch literature (1879); Gray, in ‘English Men of Letters’ (1882); Seventeenth-century Studies, on Lodge, Webster, Rowlands, Herrick, Crashaw, Cowley, Etheredge, and Otway (1883); From Shakespeare to Pope (1885); Life y. Congreve (1888); History of Eighteenth-Century Literature (1889) ; Critical Kit-Kats (1896); and a History of Modern English Literature (1897). Besides these he con- tributed many critical essays towards English Poets (1880-81), edited English Odes (1881), and a fault- less complete edition of Gray (4 vols. 1884). Gossypium. See Corron. Got, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND, actor, was born at Lignerolles in 1822, entered the Conservatoire in 1841, and in 1844 made his début at the Comédie Francaise in a servant’s part. He rapidly pushed | his way to the front rank, and was recognised as one of the finest comedians of his day. From 1850 to 1866 he was a member of the Comedie Francaise, playing with success such parts as Figaro in the older comedy, but in general regarded as the main- stay of the new dramatic school. In 1866, with the emperor’s special permission, he appeared at the Odéon as André Lagarde in Augier’s Contagion, and organised a company to carry the play through France. He repeatedly played in London. In 1881 he received the cross of the Legion of Honour. His most finished performances were as Giboyer in Augier’s Effrontés and Fils de Giboyer, and as Bernard in Les Fourchambault. He died in 1901. Gotha, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the capital of the auch: of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, stands 31 miles W. by ‘. of Weimar, on the northern outskirt of the Thuringian Forest, and is a handsome, well-built town, with fine parks. The principal publie building is the castle ot Friedenstein, built in 1648 on the site of a former one, on a rock 78 feet above the town; it contains a library of 200,000 volumes and 6000 MSS., and a very valuable numismatic collection. The new museum (1878), in the Renaissance style, now harbours the picture-gallery, in which Cranach, Van Eyck, Holbein, Rubens, and Rem- brandt are represented; a very excellent cabinet of engravings; a natural history collection; col- lections of Egy tian, Roman, Greek, and German antiquities ; and a Japanese and Chinese museum. A new observatory was built in 1874. Gotha is an active industrial town, the principal manu- factures being shoes, fire-engine pipes, sugar, and toys. Gotha sausages have a widespr celeb- rity. Several hundreds of designers, engravers, rinters, and colourers of maps are employed here in the large geographical establishment of Justus Perthes (q.v.), who also publishes the Almanach (q.v.) de Gotha. Pop. (1875) 22,928 ; (1890) 29,134. See Beck, Geschichte der Stadt Gotha (1870). Gotha, Ducuy or. See Saxon DUCHIEs. Gotham, TALES OF THE MEN Of, a collection of jests, in which the people of Gotham, a village in Nottinghamshire (7 miles SSW. of Notting- ham), are represented as saying and doing the most foolish things. These tales are similar to the Asteia, or facetix, ascribed, without authority, to the 5th-century Alexandrian philosopher Hierocles. The stories seem to have been first printed about the middle of the 16th century, under the title of Merrie Tales vA the Mad Men of Gotham, gathered together by A. B., of Phisicke Doctour ; but they had been orally current in the time of Henry VI., reference being made to ‘ the foles of Gotam’ in the Towneley miracle-plays, the only known MS. of which was written about that period. The initials ‘A. B.’ of GOTHAM GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 313 the putative compiler were doubtless intended by the printer to signify Andrew Boorde (q.v.), who was popularly regarded as ‘a fellow of infinite al t there is no reason to suppose that e had any hand in the work, his initials peng placed on the title-page—as also on that of the Jests of Scogin—in order to promote its sale. ‘Long before the men of Gotham were saddled with the unenviable reputation of being typical block- heads similar jests had been told at the expense of the people of Norfolk, as we learn from a curious Latin poem entitled Descriptio Norfolciensium, written in the 12th century by a monk of Peter- borough, which is prin in Wright's Larly Mysteries and other Latin Poems. In this ‘poem’ occurs the familiar jest of the man who was riding on horseback with a sack of meal, and considerately the sack on his own shoulders to lighten the rse—a ory which reappears in the Gothamite drolleries and in the Bigarrures of the Sieur Gaulard, by Etienne Tabourot (1549-90), and which is at the present day current in Ceylon. The Gothamite jest most generally known is that of the attempt of the villagers to hedge in a cuckoo, so that it should ‘sing’ all the year round. Amon other witless exploits they tried to drown an ee that had eaten up all the fish in their pond ; they fastened their rents on a hare which they had eaught, and sent it off to their landlord ; a smith burned down his smithy by thrusting into the thatch a red-hot ploughshare, to destroy a wasp’s nest; and twelve of them went a-fishing, and before returning home one counted their number to see whether all were safe, but omitted to include him- self, whereupon they weened that one of them was drowned, and were lamenting this misfortune, when a traveller coming up, and learning the cause of their distress, soon set their minds at ease. Such jests are—mutatis mutandis—common to almost all the races of mankind, from Iceland to Japan, from Ceylon to the West Highlands of Scotland ; and it is curious to find that the inhabitants of some par- ticular district or village are popularly held up as arrant simpletons. In Britain, besides the men of Gotham, the ‘carles of Austwick’ in Yorkshire, the villagers near Marlborough Downs in Wilt- shire, the ‘gowks of Gordon’ in Berwickshire, and the folk of Assynt in Sutherlandshire ; in Ger- many, the Schildburgers; in Holland, the people of Kampen; in Belgium, the townsfolk of Dinant ; in France, the inhabitants of Saint-Maixent, are credited with all sorts of absurdities. The citizens of Abdera, Sidonia, &c. were the noodles of the ancient Greeks, and not a few of the so-called jests of Hierocles reappear in our early lish collections of facetia, with a blunderin Welshman or Frenchman in place of the pedant o the Asteia, and in more recent compilations—‘ Joe Miller’ and its congeners—the conventional Irish- man or Highlander, The similarity of simpleton stories in countries far apart at once suggests the question of their origin and diffusion, as in the case of popular tales generally. No doubt in many instances they sprang up independently, for human nature is everywhere much alike; but it is equally certain that a considerable number have been borrowed by one roe from another, sometimes imported orally, most frequently taken from written sources. But however widely modern scholars may differ in = regarding the genealogy of popular fictions, their virtual identity among divers races is an interesting evidence of the kinship of man. The Tales of the Mad Men of Gotham continued to be issued in chap-book form down to the second decade of the 19th century. The first reprint of the original work was made in 1840, with an introduction by Mr J. O. Halliwell. The Tales were also printed in W. C. Hazlitt’s Shakespeare Jest-books (1864); in John Ashton’s Chap-books of the Eighteenth Century (1882); and in R, H, Cunningham’s Amusing Prose Chap-books (1889). For a compendious collection of simpleton stories—of which the Gothamite tales form but a trifling part—see W. A. Clouston’s Book of Noodles (Lond, 1888), which will be found to contain references to all the important books dealing with the subject, oriental and other. See also W. J. Thoms, in the Foreign Quarterly Review (1837, No. 40); and Deutscher Volkshumor, by Moritz Busch ( Berlin, 1877). Gothard, See St GorrHarn. Gothenburg (Swed. Goteborg), next to Stock- holm the most important town of Sweden, stands at the mouth of the Géta, in 57° 42’ N. lat. and 11° 58’ E. long. Although originally founded by Gustavus y YER in 1618-21, the town, in consequence of numerous fires, is quite modern —regularly built and clean, with several canals, crossed by numerous bridges. The harbour is excellent, and seldom obstructed by ice. The few buildings which deserve special mention are the exchange, cathedral, and town-hall. There is a museum (art, zoology, industry) besides a fine no belonging to the Horticultural Society. he more important industries embrace ship- building, iron-working, sugar-refining, the manu- facture of matches, paper, wood pulp, and porter, and _herring-fishing. he exports consist prin- cipally of iron, timber, grain, butter, matches, paper, wood pulp, zine ore, hides; the imports of coal, iron, salt, flour, grain, machinery, oils, rice, wines and spirits, and sugar, the annual value of imports and exports being each about 3 millions. The lige is entered and cleared by about 5070 vessels of 1,815,380 tons burden every year. The commercial importance of Gothenburg dates from the Continental blockade of 1806, when it became the chief British dep6t in northern Europe. The town has given its name to the Gothenburg Licensing System, which originated here in 1865. All the wine and spirit shops are kept by a company licensed by the town authorities, and are conducted by salaried managers 4 all profits remaining after the company has been allowed five id cent on its capital go into the town treasury. e LICENSING LAws. Pop. (1877) 71,707 ; (1888) 99,647 ; (1891) 107,965 ; (1895) 111,250. Gothic Architecture. Under this title are comprised the various styles of architecture which prevailed in western Europe from the middle of the 12th century till the revival of classic architecture in the 16th century. The term Gothic was at first bestowed by the Renaissance architects on the medieval styles as a term of reproach. This epithet they applied to every kind of medieval art which had existed from the decline of the classic taste till its revival, all other styles being by them considered as barbarous and Gothic. The name has now, however, become generally adopted, and has outlived the reproach at first implied in it. It has also become limited and defined in its fy During the 19th century the arts ot the middle ages have been attentively studied, and their origin and history carefully traced ; and as the knowledge of these styles has increased, a feeling of admiration has succeeded to that of con- tempt, and Gothic now ranks as one of the noblest and completest styles of architecture. Origin.—The origin of Gothic architecture has iven rise to many very ingenious speculations. It cos been said that the style was copied directly from nature; that the pointed arches and ribs of the vaults were imitated from the overarching branches of trees ; and that the stems of an avenue were the originals of the pillars of the Gothic aisles. Others have strenuously maintained that the invention of the pointed arch was a mere accident, arising from this form having been observed in the interlacing of the circular arches of a Norman 314 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE arcade. It has also been stated that the style was imported from the East during the Crusades, and that the medieval architects had but little to do with its origin, More careful study of the Gothic buildings which remain to us has dispelled these fanciful ideas, and settled the origin and progress of the art on historical as well as internal evidence. To trace Gothic up to its primary elements we have to go far back in the world’s history. Many diverse styles have prevailed at different epochs and in different countries, and the later styles have, invariably been influenced by those which preceded them. All the various styles of architecture may, however, be classed under two groups, the represent- atives of which are Greek architecture and Gothic architecture. These are the two typical styles, and in them are contained and exhibited in a very pure form the elements from which all other styles are produced. This is true in the same sense as it is also true that all things in nature are derived from a few primary elements. But as there are many varieties in nature, so there are many develop- ments of the two typical forms of architecture, all of which may be classed as styles. The principles which underlie the two great divisions of architecture are structural in character ; for the decorative features of all true styles are founded on the construction. The first of these divisions is distinguished by the employment of the horizontal beam as the method of spanning openings; while in the other the arch is the means used for the same purpose. All other spauee differences of style are subordinate to these leading factors. Of these divisions Greek architecture is accepted as the highest type of the trabeated style—i.e. the style whose princi- pal feature is the straight lintel; Gothic, as the type of arcuated architecture, in which the voids are spanned by arches. These typical forms resent many varieties, Roman Architecture (q.v.) eing the transitional form between them, he trabeate form of construction was common to the rimitive inhabitants both of Greece and Italy. he early Romans’ buildings were therefore tra- beate in principle, and their exteriors were decor- ated with columns crowned by straight architraves and cornices. But in course of time they gradually introduced inside these, and hidden from view, a real construction with arches and vaults, These constructional elements had long been in use amongst the Etruscans in Italy for drains, bridges, gateways, and other utilitarian purposes, and by slow degrees they obtained recognition as architec- tural features in the elevations. Their use gradu- ally extended, especially in the construction of in- teriors, and by means of vaults the Romans were able to roof in large areas without encumbering the floor with pillars. This was found to be a very advantageous and lasting system of construc- tion, and under the empire was carried out in many important examples, as, for instance, in the baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, the Basilica of Maxentius, &c. In their works of public utility, where use, not decoration, was the chief object, the Romans always adopted the arch as the fittest mode of construction—as in their Aqueducts (q.v.), bridges, &e. The arch thus came gradually more and more into use; and about the time when the barbarians first overran the provinces the arcuated form of construction was universal, and some attempts had been made to conform the trabeate decoration to the circular arches by bending the architrave round the curve—as in the palace of Diocletian at Spalato in Dalmatia. To the Romans, therefore, is due the introduction of an arcuated construction with a well-developed internal, and a partially-developed external, decora- tion. The early Christians adopted their forms of construction and decoration from the Romans. They were also indebted to them for the plans of the buildings which became the types of the Christian sacred edifices during the middle ages, There was no new style created by the early Christians. | Their buildings were all founded on Roman design till about the 10th century. The Basilica (q.v.), or Roman court-house and market-place, was found to be admirably adapted for early Christian worship, and the general opinion has hitherto been that the church was derived from the basilica. But this view has been combated by Professor Baldwin Brown in his work From Schola to Cathedral (1886), in which he derives the form of the nave from that of the schole, or halls of meeting of guilds em ao under the empire, amongst which the urial societies of the Christians were numerous ; whilst he attributes the apse, a very prominent feature in early churches, to the memorial celle erected by pagans and Christians alike in the cemeteries, and afterwards introduced along with the bodies of saints into the churches. There can be no doubt, however, that the circular temples were the prototypes of the Christian Baptisteries ~ (q.v.) which usually accompanied the basilicas. In erecting their buildings the Christians not only adopted the plans and mode of construction, but used the actual materials of the buildings of the Romans, many of which had been destroyed by the barbarians. here such materials were abundant —as in Rome and central Italy—the early Christian architecture very closely resembled that of the Roman buildings which had preceded it. But in more remote districts the builders, finding no ready- made materials at hand, had to design and prepare new ones. In doing so they followed as closely as they could the Roman originals, but their buildin artook more of the constructional than the ecorative elements of Roman architecture. The Roman ornament thus dropped out of use; and when, in process of time, decoration was desired, each new people followed its own ideas. The traditional Roman decoration thus became to a great extent lost, and new styles developed. In this way the Teutonic tribes introduced into their architecture the scenes of hunting and fighting in which they rejoiced, the ornament showing the figures of animals and men intermixed with the acanthus leaves and other foliage of Roman design. The different forms of vaulting developed by the Romans were followed throughout the empire during its decline, but gradually special forms were adopted in the different provinces. Thus the architects of the East preferred the dome as the dis- tinguishing feature of their style, and those of the West retained the plain tunnel-vault. The former style is called Byzantine (q.v.), and has been the type of all Eastern medieval architecture ; and the latter Romanesque (q.v.), and has been the origin of all the medieval architecture of western Europe. This Romanesque style varied much in different rovinces—being more Roman in type in central taly and Provence where Roman examples abounded, and more Gothic on the Rhine and in Switzerland and Lombardy where the Teutonic elements prevailed. Roman forms were still adhered to in the Gothic provinces as late as the 9th century, when we find Charlemagne erecting his great mausoleum at Aix in imitation of San Vitale at Ravenna, which was itself derived from a Roman original. F History.—The various modifications in different countries all contributed to the general progress of the art; but, as might be expected, it is to the banks of the Rhine where the successors of Charle- magne chiefly dwelt that we must look for the first step in the development of Gothic architecture. Christian churches (for article BASILICA), were divided into a central nave and two or four side-aisles, the former separ- GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 315 4 The following short sketch of the history of the will show how this occurred. The man basilicas, and, like them, the early und-plan see the ated from the latter by one or two rows of columns on each side. These columns carried arches on which rested the side-walls of the nave, were carried sufficiently high to clear the roofs of the side-aisles, and admit windows to light the central nave. This row of windows afterwards became the Gothic Clerestory (q.v.). At the east end of the nave was a great arch leading into an nm space, in the centre of which was the apse. ‘the latter was semicircular in plan, and was usually roofed with a vault in the form of a semi- dome. This feature was also afterwards more full developed, and surrounded with radiating chapels in Gothic churches. The nave and side-aisles were originally roofed with wood, but, owing to their uent destruction by fire, it became necessary to cover the churches with a more enduring kind of construction. It was then attempted to intro- duce vaulting; but the skill of the workmen had degenerated, and ‘many efforts were needed before a system suitable for the requirements of the period and within the ae cred of the builders was arrived at. But, as we shall presently see, when the principle of pointed vaulting was once grasped, the development of the style followed with astonishing rapidity. To trace the progress of vaulting from the early simple tunnel-vault copied from the work of the Romans to the fully-developed and magnificent groins of Gothic cathedrals is a most interesting inquiry ; and indeed includes the history of the development of Gothic architecture. There is one consideration which will help to explain how the Roman vaults came to be gradually modified and new forms sought out. To the Roman emperors who built the splendid vaults of the bathe, and who had a subdued world at command, materials and labour were of small consideration. They could therefore afford to build in a style which required perfect materials and workmanship. But medieval princes and bishops could obtain neither. To economise these, therefore, the utmost skill and attention were required. It was necessary to avoid those large and expensive materials of which the Romans were so lavish, and to adopt the simplest and easiest forms of construction. e first vaults tried were simple semicircular oe anganhant: ae It was found that these, ey eigen being very gloomy, required very massive walls to resist their thrust. An aieupe was then made to relieve this thrust by transverse arches (a, a, fig. 1) thrown across—at intervals—under the idianel- vault, to act as strengthening ribs. This idea was Fig. 1. . ulso borrowed from Roman precedent. Buttresses with a slight projection were applied outside to abut the transverse arches, and a beam of wood was sometimes introduced at the wall-head from buttress to buttress to assist in opposing the thrust of the vault. This wat. the first attempt to concentrate the weight of je vault on single points. In the side- aisles, wherg the span was small and manageable, Romaz./ intersecting vaults (b, 6, fig. 1) were used; and as the main roofs with their tunnel- vaulting were found very gloomy and ill lighted, it was considered desirable that similar intersecting vaults should be used to cover them also, so as to admit of the clerestory windows being raised in order to light the vaulting. But how was this to be managed with the inferior materials and work- manship at command? If the transverse arches AB, CD (fig. 2) are semicircular, and the side- arches AC, BD the same—the vault being formed by two intersecting cylinders —then the intersectin sroins AD an ‘B must be elliptical. This was a difficult form of construction : the medieval builders found it easier to construct the groin or diagonal arches of a circular form with ius EA (fig. 3), and to fill in the triangular spaces ABE, &e., with slightly domed vaults. hese semi- circular edges or groins gradually came to form independent ribs. At first they were only marked by a bead on the angle, but being the chief con- structional element of the vaulting they soon came to be distinctly separated ftom the rest of the vault as independent members with the name of groin ribs, the sae dag arc of which as ag so important a part in Gothic vaulting. hen the space to be covered was square the above form of vault was found to answer, and each bay of the nave usually included two bays of the side-aisles, as in fig. 4. But this arrangement looked awkward externally, the windows of the clerestory not group- ing well with those of the side-aisles. A transverse arch (a, a, fig. 3) was then introduced, carrying up the design irons the nave piers to the vaulting. Fig. 2. This form of vault is called hexapartite. All the above varieties of vaulting were fully developed during the llth and 12th centuries in the round- arched styles of the Rhine. In France these forms were also tried; but it was found that the semicircle is not a good form of arch unless loaded on the haunches, many of the churches which were vaulted in this manner during the llth century having to be buttressed or rebuilt in the 12th and 13th centuries. In Provence (where the Roman influence continued to be strongly felt, owmg to the large number of Roman buildings still surviving in the country ) the tunnel- vault (fig. 4) was in use probably as early as the 9th or 10th century. But the form of the vault adopted then differed from that of the Romans in being pointed instead of round. The pointed form may have been borrowed from the Moors in Spain, by whom it was used as a decorative feature, but it was undoubtedly adopted in Provence as a simply-constructed method otf vaulting. This form of arch was thus probably suggested in the 12th century to the architects of the north of France, who at once saw how well it would overcome the 316 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE difficulty of the yielding of the haunches in the semicircular arch. They were thus led to the adop- tion of the pointed form for their transverse arches as a structural expedient, and still retained the semicircular form in the groins. The next question which engaged attention, and the solution of which led to the further use of the pointed arch, was the Fig. 4. vaulting of oblong spaces. This had been tried with semicircular arches, but it was found that with that form the vault would require to be very much domed—the diameter of the arches ¢, ¢ (fig. 1) being so much smaller than that of a, a— whereas by using pointed arches, of different radii, for the transverse and side arches all might be kept to about the same height. This is more fully explained by fig. 5. If AB be the dia- meter of the transverse arch (aa, fig. 1) and AC that of the side arches (cc), it is clear that the semicircular side arch ADC cannot reach the height C Fig. 6. Fig. 5. of the transverse arch AEB, even when stilted as at D’. But in the pointed arch CEB the same dia- meter rises to very nearly the height of the trans- verse arch. The pointed arches ACB and A’CB’ (fig. 6) show how easily arches of this form, what- ever their diameter, can be carried to the same height. By the introduction of this new form of arch the vaulting was strengthened, and the thrust brought to bear steadily on single points. We have now traced the history of vaulting from the time of the Romans to the 12th century, when the principles of Gothic pointed vaulting were fully developed ; and we have dwelt particularly on this subject, because it includes the principles which regulated the whole of the Gothic style. Gothic was not the invention of an individual, but a necessary growth—a gradual development from structural requirement. This is clearly the case with regard to the vaulting, as we have en- deavoured to show above, and the same might be proved regarding every member of the style. Thus it might be shown how the ribs became gradually more decided, expressing the part they bore in the support of the roof; how the nave piers or pillars were subdivided by degrees into parts, each shaft bearing on a separate cap a separate member of the vaulting; how the buttresses were developed as they were required to resist the thrust of the groins concentrated on points; and how the flying but- tresses were forced upon the Gothic architects much against their will, as a mode of supporting the arches of the roof. The history of the flying buttress is curious. The thrust of the tunnel-vault was sometimes resisted by half-tunnel-vaults over the side-aisles (see fig. 4). The latter, therefore, required to. be high, and a pad was usually introduced. In the Narthex at ezelay (fig. 7) we have this gallery with the vault- ing used as a counterpoise to that of the central vault. This is a fine example of vaulting in the transition state, that of the gallery resisting the main vault, as in fig. 4, and being at the same time groined. Fig. 7. This leaves rather a weak point opposite the trans- verse arches, to strengthen which the part of the semi-tunnel-vault (fig. 4) opposite the transverse arch is left standing, although the rest is altered by the groining. At Vezelay (fig. 7) this arch timidly shows itself as a small flying buttress above the roof. It is easy to see how this idea would gradu- ally develop itself into the bold ‘are-boutant’ of a later date. The. galleries were, in later examples, dispensed with to admit of larger clerestory windows, and the flying buttresses were left standing free. The architects finding them indispensable, then turned their attention to render them ornamental. Pinnacles may also be shown to owe their origin to their use; they acted as weights to steady the buttresses and piers. We shall, under their separate heads, point out how each element of Gothic architecture was in the strictest sense con- structional, the decoration being in harmony with its actual use, or as Pugin has said, ‘decorated construction, not constructed decoration.’ The full development of Gothic vaulting, which was the forerunner of the whole style, was first carried out in the royal domain in irmnre about the middle of the 12th century. i The Normans had settled in the north of France more than two centuries before this, and had applied their talents and the fruit of their conquests to the building of splendid temples in honour of their victories. In doing so they followed out the round- arched style, and brought it forward by a great stride towards true Gothic. See NORMAN ARCHI- TECTURE. South of the royal domain, in Burgundy, there had existed for centuries great establishments of monks, famous for their architecture. The abbey. of Cluny was their central seat, when¢s \they sent out colonieg, and built abbeys after thay model of the parent one. The style in which ti,»y worked was also an advanced Romanesque, bit different GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 317 _ from that of the Normans. We have already seen that another school existed in Provence; and in Aquitaine, Auvergne, and Poitou still further varieties of Romanesque were developed. Between these ag trong lay the royal domain. Owing to the weak state of the kingdom, architec- ture had hitherto made little progress in the Isle of France. About the beginning of the 12th century the monarchy revived, and for the next two cen- turies the royal domain was governed by wise and werful monarchs, who succeeded in re-establishing the royal supremacy. A new impulse was thus given to the literature and arts of the country, by which architecture profited largely. From the state of ruin into which the kingdom had fallen, there were scarcely any churches existing worthy of the new state of things. Novel and great designs were formed: hitherto almost all the important churches of France belonged to the abbeys; now, under the patronage, cathedrals began to be built. e bishops, envious of the ee of the monks, lent their powerful aid, and the whole of the laity, especially in the towns which were now emancipat- (operat and forming independent communes, jot ed heartily in the work. With such a universal , no wonder that architecture took a great stride and new forms were introduced. It is to this period and people that we owe the earliest development of the pointed Gothic style. We have already seen at Vezelay how nearly the Burgundian monks had approached to Gothic. To complete the development it only required the side-walls and vaulting of the nave to be raised, so as to admit of windows over the roofs of the side- galleries ; and the flying buttresses to be raised with them, so as to receive the thrust of the vault —the latter being constructed with pointed groin ribs, and the side and transverse archon carried to the height of the groins. The lay architects of the royal domain soon nace talaa this step, and the new style sprung up and progressed with the most astonishing rapidity. The earliest example we have of the fully developed Gothic style is the cathedral of St Denis, in which are deposited the remains of the kings of France. It was founded by the Abbé Suger in 1144. The cathedral of Notre Dame of Paris soon followed, and almost contemporary with it arose the magnificent cathedrals of Chartres, oes Amiens, Beauvais, Bourges, and a host of others. Another cause which tended much to hasten the progress of the style was the invention about the same time of painted glass (see GLASS, PAINTED). The Romanesque architects had been in the habit of decorating their churches with frescoes and other paintings ; but this new mode of introducing the most brilliant colours into their designs was at once seized upon by the northern architects. The small round-arched windows, which were still in many instances retained long after the pointed arch had beeome usual in the vaulting, no longer sufficed when filled with stained glass to light the churches. They were therefore enl , two or even three were thrown into one, divided only by mullions ; this compound window was again increased until the compartment of the clerestory became almost wholly absorbed. The architects were then forced to conform the arches of their windows to the pointed outline of the side-arches of the vaulting. This desire for more and more space for stained glass was the origin of the window-tracery which forms so beautiful a feature of the style. It is the last attenuated remains of the wall space of the clerestory, which was at last entirely absorbed. Fig. 8, from Notre Dame, Paris, is a good illustra- tion of the mode of progress of French Gothic. The left-hand portion of the elevation shows the kind of fenestration adopted. The clerestory win- dows are stnall; and, in order to admit more light, the windows and vault of the gallery are kept very high. This was the original design; but durin the construction of the cathedral the importance o stained glass had become so great that the desi was altered so as to give larger windows in the clerestory for its display, as shown on the right- hand portion of the elevation. The gallery is at the same time reduced to a mere triforium with very small windows, and the aisle windows are greatl sere The epost or clerestory window also shows the simple early form of tracery ; that in the aisle window being later and more advanced. Sa kUSERETe Nii | ‘eo! Seek tei (l. La) b8ees Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 9 shows two bays from Tournay Cathedral, and is a good specimen of the mode in which the whole x joe of the side-walls was made available for window-tracery and stained glass. The further history of Gothic architecture in France is simply the enthusiastic following out, to their furthest limits, and in the most logical and artistic manner, of the principles above indicated, on which the early architects had unconsciously been working when they originated the style. So long as the Gothic architects worked on these principles they advanced and improved their archi- tecture. When, however, the style had become fully developed and matured (about 1300 A.D.) the spirit of progress died. No new features were developed. The architects seemed to think that in its main elements their style was complete, and contented themselves with continuing the tradi- tional style of their forerunners, and pushing to their extremest limits the principles handed down to them. They became proud of their scientific knowledge, and of the accuracy with which they could calculate and provide for the thrusts of the different arches, and the artistic element became subordinate to the engineering. The height of the cathedrals was extended till, at Beauvais, it ex- ceeded the power of the architects to prop up the vaulting. The system of buttresses and pinnacles was developed with the utmost skill, till at last the original simplicity and repose of the designs were lost, and the exteriors presented a scientific but con- fused system of scaffolding and propping-up in stone (see BuTTREsS). The simple an utiful forms of the early tracery became altered into all manner of flowing curves, graceful but unmeaning, in the Flamboyant period (q.v.); and, in short, the art became lost in mere cleverness of design and 318 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE dexterity of execution, and the architect’s place was usurped by the freemason. It is in the cathedrals of the 12th and 13th centuries, above referred to, that we find the noblest development of the.Gothic style. Every- thing tended to this result. The nation was united in the effort—all the science, all the arts, all the learning of the times were centred in the church. In it, and that almost exclusively, the sculptor, the painter, the historian, the moralist, and the divine, all found scope for the expression of their ideas on the sculptured walls, porches, and niches, or the painted windows of the cathedrals— the churches of the people. The development of the decorative features progressed simultaneously with that of the constructional. The Roman acan- thus and other enrichments were long followed, but gradually modified (as above mentioned) by Teu- tonic influence as shown in the hunting and fight- ing, as well as religious scenes represented in the ‘historied’ capitals and sculptures of their archi- tecture wherever they penetrated. This style of carving became traditional, and was adhered to for centuries by the monastic orders. But at the re- vival of the 12th century these traditional forms were gradually departed from, and the architects sought inspiration for their sculpture directly from nature. At first the foliage was treated conven- tionally, but gradually came closer to nature, till in the completed style of the 14th century each leaf and flower exactly imitated the shape and embodied the spirit of the natural type. ould- ings, buttresses, pinnacles, and all the smaller features following the rule of nature were in- finitely varied and beautiful. These will be treated of under their separate heads. The progress of the Gothic style in other countries is no less remarkable than in France. At no time in the world’s history did any style of architecture ever spread so wide, or give rise in such a short time to so many splendid buildings. No sooner had the style been invented in the central provinces of France, than it immediately spread over the west of Europe, superseding all other styles, and pro-. ducing similar splendid buildings wherever it went. We shall note shortly a few of the peculiarities of the style in England, Germany, and Italy. It spread also over the south of France and Spain; but in the latter countries it presents the char- acter of an imported rather than that of a native or freely-adopted art. English Gothic.—At the Conquest in 1066 the Normans introduced their round-arched style, some fine specimens of which still exist both in England and Scotland—St Cross, near Winchester ; Durham Cathedral ; Kelso and Jedburgh Abbeys, &ce. But these buildings are not copies of those of Normandy. The English have always, in adopting styles, given them a national impress. As it was with the Norman, so it was to a still greater degree with the pointed Gothic, which was introduced into England about 1174 by William of Sens, who superintended the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathe- dral. The English architects soon began to follow out a-pointed style of their own. They borrowed much from France, and worked it out in their own way, forming what is now called the Zarly English style. The differences between the early Gothic of France and England extend to almost every detail. The mouldings, bases, caps, pinnacles, buttresses, and foliage of the latter are all impressed with the early English feeling. In France the character of the early Gothic is one of unrest—a constant struggle forward. In England the effort after progress is not so distinct—that of carefulness and complete- ness prevails. In the plans of the cathedrals the differences are marked (see figs. 10, 11), as the accoinpanying plans of the cathedrals of Salisbury and Amiens show. The eastern termination of a French cathedral or church is invariably cireular ended or apsidal—a form derived from the early Christian apse. The English cathedral, on the con- trary, has almost always a square east end. The French transepts have almost no projection beyond $e eee ee te + ee Fig. 10.—Salisbury Cathedral. the line of the aisles; the English ones have great pe Salisbury (q.v.) and Canterbury (q.v.) aving two transepts. ‘The French cathedrals are short and very lofty ; the English, long and compara- tively low. The French buildings are perhaps the randest and most aspiring, the English the most finished and picturesque. The construction of the exterior of the ‘chevet’ or apsidal east end was a difficulty with the French and Germans, and, as at Beauvais and Cologne (q.v.), resembles an intricate and confused mass of scaffolding. One of the churches in which this picturesque feature is most successfully carried out is St Ouen, Rouen. The great complication of pinnacles and flying buttresses which marks so many of the great French churches is here reduced toaminimum. This difficulty was avoided by the English square ends, which afforded scope for a large field of stained glass in a single great traceried window, as in most of the English examples. The western portals of the French cathedrals, such as Rheims (see Door) and Amiens (q.v.), are among the boldest, and most magnificent features of their architecture. In these the English were GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 319 occasionally not far behind, as the western portals ‘of Peterborough and York show ; but the English po are generally smaller and less effective than F French ones. ___ - The outlines of the English cathedrals are usually very picturesque and well balanced, the western fa es 2S - a | ; , i : | tf “4 ia vy) ‘ Fig. 11.—Amiens Cathedral. [: towers grouping harmoniously with the central, _ and in this respect the English have the advantage. ¥ The vaulting of the French churches is almost 9 always quite simple in design, but in the applica- ‘ tion of vaulting the English carried out their own F ideas. They were always fond of wooden roofs, and probably this may have led to the invention of Li the many beautiful kinds of vaults which form so fine a feature of English Gothic (see FAN-TRACERY P VAULTING). In England the style lasted longer a than on the Continent, being retained till the time of Henry VIII. about the middle of the 16th century. he Germans were nearly a century in adoptin the pointed style after its invention in France ; ait when it was introduced it retained the appearance of a foreign importation. It never was so com- letely naturalised as in England. The so-called uties of the German Gothic are, for the most part, to be rded rather as excellent specimens of masonry than as artistic developments of the ‘tyle. The open-work spires, for example, which are of frequent occurrence in England, are fine eces of construction, and have a striking effect ; t from the first there is a tendency to commit the work to masons, who rejoice in displaying their manual dexterity. The later Gothic in Germany is the most splendid development of the stone-cutter’s art and the draughtsman’s ingenuity ; these run riot, while the artist is entirely wanting. The distortions of fig. 12 may serve as an example. Fig. 12. The Gothic style forced its way also into classic cane but there it was never understood nor prac- tised in its true spirit. It was evidently an imita- tion from the beginning. The Italian architects tried to vie with those of the north in the size of their buildings, some of which, such as San Petronio at Bologna and Milan Cathedral, are enormous. The former illustrates the defects of Italian Gothic. The arches are very wide, and there are few piers. There is therefore a bare and naked effect, which is not compensated for by any richness of sculpture or colour. There is a want of scale about Italian Gothic buildings, as there is about those of Italian classic architecture, both ancient and modern. Size alone is depended on for producing grandeur of effect. No attempt is made to eek the size, and give a seale by which to judge of the dimensions of the buildings in those styles. A large classic Pah bye is simply a small one magnified. In true Gothic architecture the case is different. Not only are the general dimensions magnified in a large edifice, but also the parts are multiplied. The columns and shafts remain of the same size, but their number is increased. The arches are enlarged in propor to the general dimensions, but the caps, bases, and mouldings remain of the same size as in a smaller building, and thus indicate the greater size of the arch. A true Gothic building of large dimensions thus tells its own greatness, but in a classic or Italian Gothie edifice the size has to be found out. Stained glass was little used in Italy. It may have been intended to decorate the walls, which otherwise have such a bare and cold appearance, with frescoes—as indeed is the case in a few examples. The church of St Francis, at Assisi, is the most remarkable building of this kind, and is a very interesting exam le of fresco- decoration (see FRESCO). Italian Gothic, however, was most successful, especially in Venice and Verona, in domestic edifices, the palaces of those cities being amongst the finest structures of their kind in Europe. The medieval monuments of Italy, too, are especially beautiful and appropriate. The towns of Italy, being early enfranchised, have also many municipal buildings in the Gothic style ; and to these, as well as to those of Belgium, allusion is made in the articles on the several towns and in MUNICIPAL ARCHITECTURE, We might, in the same manner, trace the Gothic style in all the other countries of western Europe ; but its history is similar in all. It is in England and France that the true spirit of the style was most felt and the finest examples remain. Our 8 has not permitted us to enter minutely into the various styles of Gothic in each country. The 320 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE GOTHS more important of these will be treated separately (see EARLY ENGLISH, DECORATED STYLE, PER- PENDICULAR, FLAMBOYANT). We may, however, state generally that both in France and England the style had a complete exist- ence—it was born, arrived at maturity, and died. When the spirit of the early architects had pushed the design to its utmost limits they rested from their labours, well satisfied with their splendid achievements. Their successors occupied them- selves with forms and details, and with the perfeet- ing of every minute part. The art finally passed away, and left architecture in the hands of trade corporations—masons, carpenters, plumbers, &e.— who monopolised the whole work, and acted inde- pensentty, to the exclusion of one directing mind. he result was as we have seen: architecture be- came masonic skill, and Gothic was finally super- seded by the revival of classic architecture in the 16th century. The Renaissance of the arts of Greece and Rome during the last two or three centuries has in the 19th century been followed by a revival of Gothic architecture. Even during the 17th and 18th centuries a few attempts were made to resuscitate the old style in churches, and in the 18th century a bold effort in the direction of introducing it into domestic architecture was undertaken by Horace Walpole, Batty Langley, and others. But the present revival may said to have fairly commenced in 1819, when Rickman published his Attempt to discriminate the Styles of English Architecture, a very careful and complete work, the conclusions of which have been genersiy adopted and adhered to. Other works y Pugin, Cotman, Britton, and others soon followed, illustrative of Gothic architecture both at home and abroad. One of the most prominent supporters of the revival was Augustus W. Pugin (1812-52), who both by his writings and in his practice brought the Gothic style practically before the public in the first half of the 19th century. Since that time it has been greatly used, almost all our modern churches sat many other public buildings being designed in the Gothic style. The names of Edward Barry, George Gilbert Scott, E. Street, and Burgess are well known in connection with the Houses of Parliament, the Law Courts in London, and numerous churches and cathedrals both in England and abroad. A _ reaction has within recent years taken place, especially in secular structures, but Gothic is still regarded as the most suitable style for ecclesiastical edifices. In the United States classical models were generally followed, even in ecclesiastical archi- tecture, till the building of Trinity Church, New York, in 1840, by Richard Upjohn—the first in- stance in which the Gothic style (English Gothic) was used with skill. Since then Gothic has been the prevalent style for churches; and a modified Gothic, mainly North Italian, has also been much used for civil buildings in the United States. In France, the land of its birth, Gothie archi- tecture has been very thoroughly studied, and its principles’ and beauties have been admirably analysed and illustrated, notably in the splendid work by the late Viollet-le-Duc, Le Dictionnaire raisonné de l’ Architecture francaise. The beauties of Italian Gothic have also had their admirers, and have been charmingly described and illustrated by Ruskin. But this style has not been much adopted in northern countries. In the changes of fashion with regard to archi- tecture Gothic may at present appear to be reced- ing, but the study and elucidation of its principles have done much to modify men’s views with regard to. the elements of the art, and will doubtless con- tinue to influence the principles and practice of the architecture of the future. See Bloxam’s Principles of Gothic Architecture (1829 ; 11th ed, 3 vols, 1882); Rickman’s Gothic Architecture by Parker (1848); Britton’s Antiquities of Great Britain (1835); Pugin’s works, such as the Examples of Gothic Architecture (1835) and the Specimens, &c. (1823); H. Sharpe’s Architectural Parallels (1848); Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire (1854-69); Street’s Brick and Marble of Middle Ages (1874) and Gothic Architecture in Spain (1869); Ruskin’s Stones of Venice (1851-53); Fergusson’s History of Architecture (1865-76). Gothland (Swed: Gétaland and Gétarike), the southernmost of the three old provinces of Sweden, with an area of 35,800 sq. m. and a population of over two and a half millions.—(2) A Swedish island (Swed. Gottland) in the Baltic, 44 miles E. from the mainland, constitutes with Faré, Gotska, Sandé, and other smaller islands the province of Gottland or Wisby. Area, 1217sq.m. The island consists mainly of terrace-like slopes of limestone, which are encircled by cliffs broken by numerous deep fiords, more especially on the west coast ; the eastern parts are flat. The climate is mild. Next toagriculture, the chief occupations of the inhabit-_ ants (a little over 50,000) are shipping, fishing, seal- fishing, fowling, and lime-burning. In the middle ages the island belonged to the German Hanseatic League, but was restored to Sweden in 1645. The capital is Wisby (q.v.). Goths. The native name of the Teutonic pseple known as Goths (in Lat. Gothi, Gotth7) had the two forms Gutans (sing. Guta) and Gutds (sing. Guts); from the latter was formed the compound G'ut-thiuda, ‘people of the Goths,’ Their earliest known abode was on the southern coasts and the islands of the Baltic. The island Gothland derives its name from them. The Scandinavian traditions, reduced to writing in the 12th century, speak of a country on the Baltic called Hreidhgotaland, which must have owed its name to the branch of the Goths called in Anglo- Saxon poetry Hreéde, and (perhaps with etymolo- ising corruption) Hréthgotan and Hréthas. The Hr e are stated in an Anglo-Saxon poem (Wid- sith) to have had their home on the Vistula. Whether Goths ever inhabited the Scandinavian peninsula is doubtful; the ‘Gothland’ of Sweden is etymologically not ‘the land of the Goths,’ but ‘the land of the Gauts’ (in A.S. Géatas), a dis- tinct, though doubtless a kindred people. The native tradition of the Goths, according to their historian Jordanis (6th century), represented them as having originated from Scandinavia. This tradition, however, is probably a mere develop- ment of the common Teutonic myth which placed the creation of mankind in an unknown region beyond the northern sea, and has therefore no historical value. The elder Pliny (died 79 A.D.) mentions the Goths (Guttones) in two passages of his Natural History, once in a mere enumeration of the Ger- manic peoples, and once in what purports to be a quotation from the Greek traveller Pytheas (4th century B.C.). If Pliny’s citation be accurate, Pytheas referred to the Guttones as dwelling on the shores of an estuary called Mentonomon, and as trading in amber, gathered by the inhabitants of an island distant from them a day’s sail. It has, however, been suggested that the people mentioned by Pytheas were the Teutones living near the mouth of the Elbe. In a Greek MS. it would be easy to misread Teutones as Guttones, and the former name actually occurs in the context. But even if this be so, we may perhaps infer that in Pliny’s time the ‘Guttones’ were a maritime people, as he quotes the supposed statements of Pytheas without any remark. A generation later the Goths (Gotones, Gothones) are spoken of by Tacitus, who says that among them the kingly power was greater than GOTHS 321 ~ among the other Germanic les, though they ‘still retained their ieesltan i relates that in 4 toe velge of Tiberius a Marcomannic exile named ‘i. a, who was resident among the Gotones, ¢olleeted an army and made himself king of the Mareomanni. The indications given by Tacitus seem to imply that he regarded the Goths as the easternmost porns of Germany (the boundary of whieh was the Vistula), and that their territory reached to the Baltic. Their southward emigra- : — must os means soon afterwards, for the geographer tolemy (2d century) assigns to the rthones’ a £ ition in Sarmatia (on the _ vight bank of the Vistula), divided from the sea by the Slavonic Wends. The history of their south- ward wandering is unknown, the story told by being obviously mythical. hat seems ¢ertain is that early in the 3d century the Goths, - vastly increased in numbers by the accession of many conquered peoples, were cocupying a territory north of the Black Sea and the Danube mouths. The eastern portion of them received the distinctive names Ostrogoths (‘East Goths’) and Greuthungs (‘dwellers on the sand’), while the western portion were called Visigoths (‘ West Goths’) and Thervings (probably i avectlats among the trees’). Mingled with the Goths proper, or adjoining them, were a number of other East Germanic peoples who, like them, had emigrated from the Baltic coasts. Chief among these were the Vandals and the pee, the neighbours of the Goths on the west and on the north respectively. The geographical position of the Heruli, Burgunds, Scirians, Rugians, and Turcilings at this time cannot be determined. All these nations were often classed together under the general name of Goths. In the reign of the Emperor Philip the Arab (248-49) the Goths are said to have been ruled by a king named Ostrogotha. (There is no stron reason for regarding this name as an etymologica figment: it does not mean ‘Ostrogoth,’ but is to be compared with such Teutonic names as Austro- wald, Easterwine, Earcongota.) In his reign a war broke out between the Goths and the Roman empire; at the battle of Abritta the Romans were totally defeated, and the Emperor Decius and his son were killed. For eighteen years the eastern rovinces of the empire suffered terrible ravages m the Goths, but these calamities were avenged J by the victories of the Emperor Claudius (thence a surnamed Gothicus). After the death of Claudius in 270, his successor Aurelian conceded to the c Goths the province of Dacia, on condition of | furnishing a Lege of 2000 men to the imperial * army. Such of the native inhabitants as did not % choose to remain as subjects of the Goths were 3 et with new settlements south of the Danube. a. ith some interruptions, the peaceful relations legge the yas oa the Romans continued for ~ more than a hun years. During this period 2 the old names Visigoth and Ostrogoth aaccived a : new sense as expressive of a national distinction. The Visigoths or Thervings of later history are the descendants of the people established by ‘Aurelian in Dacia; the Ostrogoths or Greuthungs are the descendants of the Goths who remained in southern y ussia, ; - In the 4th and succeeding centuries writers who affected classicality of diction frequently applied to _ the Goths the obsolete names of Gets and Scythians, which in antiquity belonged to the inhabitants of the regions in which the Goths were now settled. Usually the Goths were regarded as the actual descendants of these historic peoples, and the name Gothi seems to have been imagined to be a corrup- tion of Getw, In the 6th century Cassiodorus, followed by the Goth Jordanis, endeavoured to blend ante one story the facts of Getic history, —— > mf taken from Herodotus and other classical writers, and the Gothic traditions of a migration from the extreme north, In modern times the hypothesis of the identity of Goths and Geta has been advocated by so distinguished a scholar as Jacob Grimm, but is now generally rejected. In the middle of the 4th century the Ostrogothic king Ermanaric established by conquest a powerful empire, extending from the Black es to the Gulf of Bothnia. About the year 375 this empire was subjugated by the Huns. The Visigoths, with a small portion of the Ostrogoths, escaped a similar fate by crossing the Danube, and placing them- selves under the protection of the Roman empire. The oppression of the provincial governors soon provoked a revolt. The eastern emperor, Valens, collected a great army and marched into Thrace for the pu of subduing the barbarians; but at the battle of Adrianople (August 9, 378) the Romans suffered a ruinous defeat, and Valens himself was killed. The Goths, however, were too ill organised to make effective use of their victory, and Theodosius, the successor of Valens in the empire of the East, and afterwards sole sove- reign of the Roman empire, found it possible in a few years to bring back to their allegiance the whole Gothic people, excepting those who were under the yoke of the Huns. This result was not attained without great and dangerous concessions. The Visigoths received large grants of land in Thrace, and the Ostrogoths in Phrygia. They were permitted to govern themselves by their own laws, and 40,000 of their warriors were embodied into a separate army (called fwderati), receiving a high rate of pay. any of their nobles also were romoted to high positions in the imperial service. 0 long as Theodosius lived these measures were successtul in securing the loyalty of the Goths; but the excessive favour shown to barbarians who had so lately been enemies provoked serious dis- content. The Goths thus incorporated into the Roman empire had for the most part been converted to Christianity ; principally, it is believed, owing to the labours of the Arian bishop Wulfila or Ulphilas (q.v.), a Goth who had received a learned education at Constantinople, and who lived as a missionary among the Visigoths from 340 to 381. The new faith was with extraordinary rapidity accepted, not only by the two great branches of the Gothic people, but by all the smaller nations of kindred race. For two hundred years the Goths remained faithful to the Arian creed taught by Wulfila and his disciples. Unlike the Vandals, who were adherents of the same sect, the Arian Goths were honourably distinguished by their freedom from bigotry. Although themselves the object of the most virulent religious hatred, they were, even at the height of their power, very seldom guilty of persecution. On the death of Theodosius in 395 the sovereignty of the Roman world was divided between his two sons, Areadius becoming emperor of the East, and Honorius emperor of the West. One of the first acts of the ministers of Arcadius was to lower the pay of the Gothic soldiery. The Visigoths at once rose in rebellion, and, electing as their king a young ofticer of distinction named Alaric (q.v.), proceeded to overrun Greece. The emperor was compelled to make terms: Alaric was made military governor of Eastern Illyricum, and remained quiet for three years, preparing for an irruption into italy. In the year e entered the peninsula, but Srpernuy met with no great success. After being defeatea by Stilicho at Pollentia (Easter Sunday, 402), he retired to Illyria, receiving, however, a large sum of money from the Romans as the price of peace. A second invasion in 408, provoked by the 322 GOTHS disregard of treaty obligations on the part of the Romans, had very different results. Stilicho was dead, and the barbarian soldiers of Italy, exas- perated by official tyranny, deserted to the standard of, Alaric in great numbers. Rome was thrice besieged ; twice the city was saved by the sub- mission of the senate, but on the third occasion it was taken by storm and delivered up to plunder. Although terrible excesses were committed by the Goths, the Roman writers speak with great admira- tion of the humanity and moderation displayed by Alaric himself. Honorius, secure in the impreg- nable fortress of Ravenna, and encouraged by hopes of support from Constantinople, refused to come to terms, and Alaric was preparing to effect the entire subjugation of Italy, when his career was cut short by death in 410. Alarie’s successor, Atawulf, abandoned the design of conquering Italy, and led his people into southern Gaul. At Narbonne he married the daughter of Theodosius, the princess Galla Placidia, who had been taken captive by Alaric in Rome. On the approach of a Roman army under Constantius the Visigoths crossed the renees into Spain, where Atawulf was murdered in 415. The next king, Wallia, submitted to the Romans, and in the name of the empire conquered nearly the whole of Spain. As the reward of his services, he received permission to settle with his people in the south of Gaul. The ‘kingdom of Toulouse,’ founded by Wallia in 418, was increased by the conquests of his suc- cessors, until under Eurie (who died in 485) it included the whole of Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, as well as Provence and the greater part of Spain. The most noteworthy event in the history of this kingdom was the great battle fought in 451 on the Mauriac plains near Troyes (commonly miscalled the battle of Chalons), in which the Visigoths under their king Theoderice (or Theoderid) I., united with the Romans and the Franks, inflicted a crushing defeat on~the vast army of the Huns under Attila (q.v.). _Theoderic was killed, but the result of the battle was the dissolution of the Hunnish empire, and the salva- tion of European civilisation from the deluge of barbarism which had threatened to overwhelm it. In the reign of Alaric IIL., the successor of Euric, the kingdom of Toulouse came to an end. The Frankish king Clovis (Chlodovech, Hlédawih), whose recent conversion to Catholic Christianity enabled him to give to a war.of unprovoked aggres- sion the specious aspect of a crusade against the heretics, invaded the Visigoth territories in 507. The battle fought on the ‘ field of Voclad,’ near Poitiers, decided the sovereignty of Gaul. Alaric was killed, and the Visigoths abandoned to the conqueror all their territories north of the Pyrenees, retaining of their Gaulish possessions only a small strip of country bordering on the Gulf of Lyons. The subsequent history of the Visigoths must be reserved until we have related the history of their Ostrogothic kinsmen. After their subjugation by the Huns in the later part_of the 4th century, the Ostrogoths, Gepide, and the smaller ‘Gothic’ peoples appear to have adopted the nomad life of their conquerors, and they formed part of the vast horde which followed Attila into Gaul. On the collapse of the Hunnish dominion these nations regained their independence. The Ostrogoths settled first in the neighbourhood of Vienna, under their king Walamer, a member of the Amaling family, who traced their descent through Ermanarie and Ostrogotha to a legendary hero named Amala. Immediately after their emancipation the Ostrogoths are found occupying the position of mercenaries of the Eastern Empire. In 462 the friendly relations between Walamer and the emperor, which had been for a time re- linquished, were renewed, and Walamer’s nephew, Theoderic, the son of Theodemer, a boy eight years old, was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, where he remained ten years, receiving the education of a Roman noble. Shortly after his return the Ostro- goths, pressed by famine, abandoned their homes, and migrated in a body towards the south-east. Their inroads in Meesia and Thrace caused great alarm at Constantinople, and the emperor was constrained to purchase peace by granting them permission to settle in Macedonia, and by eae ing on them large gifts of land and money. In 474 the young Theoderic became king of the Ostrogoths. After fourteen years spent in petty warfare, sometimes as the ally and sometimes as the enemy of the Romans, he obtained from the Emperor Zeno permission to wrest the dominion of Italy from the usurper Odovacar (Odoacer, q.v.). Like most of the military expeditions of the Goths, the invasion of Italy was the emigration of an entire people; and the number of persons who accompanied the march of Theoderic was probably not less than a quarter of a million. After a war of five years the work of conquest was completed by the capture of Ravenna and the submission of Odovacar, who, it is said, was soon afterwards brutally and treacherously murdered by Theoderic’s own hand. ; Notwithstanding this evil beginning, the thirty- three years’ reign of Theoderiec in Italy was one of singular humanity and wisdom, and secured for the country a degree of tranquillity and prosperity such as it had not enjoyed for centuries. The historian Procopius, though a Byzantine courtier, pronounces him not inferior to the best and wisest of Roman emperors. The partisans of Odovacar received a eneral amnesty ; the necessary provision of lands or the Goths was carefully carried out so as to press as lightly as possible on the native popula- tion; the fiscal and judicial systems were re- organised, and all acts of extortion or injustice on the part of officials were sternly repressed. The Goths and the Romans continued to be distinct nations, each judged by its own tribunals and by its own laws, limited and supplemented by a new code containing a few provisions which were made binding on all the subjects of the kingdom. The Catholics were granted entire equality with the adherents of she kins own faith ; the Jews, in all other Christian lands the victims of oppression, en- joyed under Theoderic full liberty of worship, and protection from all encroachment on their civil rights. It is impossible to read the official letters written in Theoderic’s name by his Roman secre- tary, Cassiodorus, without the deepest admiration for the king’s unwearied energy and enlightened zeal for the welfare of his subjects. It is true that in the last three years of his life, when he was worn by age and harassed by suspicions of wide- spread treason, his fame was tarnished by the judicial murders of Boethius and Symmachus, and y acts of oppression directed against the Catholic Church. But there have been few possessors of ie tng power who, on the whole, have used it so nobly. iisotedts died in 526, and his daughter Amala- swintha was appointed regent on behalf of her son ‘Athalaric, then ten years old. When Athalarie died at the age of sixteen, Amalaswintha asso- ciated with herself in the kingdom her father’s nephew, the base and cowardly Theodahad, b whose orders she was soon afterwards murdered, Theoderice had not long been dead before the dis- ordered state of the kingdom testified to the in- capacity of his successors; and the Ostrogothic ve was threatened by a new danger in the am- ition of the Emperor Justinian, who, not content GOTHS 323 . with the formal acknowledgement of supremacy which had satistied his predecessors, was resolved to make Italy an integral part of his own dominions. In 536 the great general Belisarius was sent for the of conquering the country, The Goths Theodahad, and elected to the throne a q isting ished soldier named Witigis, who, on his elevat on, married Amalaswintha’s daughter Mata- After four years Belisarius, though enormously overmatched in numbers, had subdued +3 but the extreme north of Italy, and held and his queen prisoners, when he was by Justinian’s jealousy to Constantinople. ter his return the oppression of the imperial representatives in Italy not only provoked into revolt the Goths who had submitted to Roman rule, but excited mutiny among the Roman soldiers, who deserted to the enemy in Shere numbers. In a few months the new king of Goths, Hildibad, who had previously maintained a precarious footing in the north, found himself at the head of a powerful army. His career, however, was cut short by assassination ; and after a short um the Goths conferred the crown on his nephew Totila, otherwise named Badwila. After a struggle of a few years,in which Totila displayed not only brilliant military talent, but a chivalrous generosity and humanity which extorted the ad- miration of his enemies, the imperial cause in Italy was felt to be desperate, and in 544 Belisarius was again sent to take the command of the army. But owing to the insubordination of his officers, and to other causes, he had little success, and after five years was recalled at his own request. The enter- prise in which Belisarius had failed was accom- — by the aged eunuch Narses, who, in 552, anded in Italy at the head of a colossal army. The Ostrogoths suffered a nace, | defeat at Tagine (Tadino), where Totila was killed. His suecessor, Teia, fell a few months later in the battle of Mons Lactarius, near Vesuvius. The remnant of the defeated army was suffered by Narses to march unmolested out of Italy; their subsequent fate isunknown. In the course of the next two years the few outstanding Gothic garri- sons surrendered, and Italy became a portion of the Byzantine empire. The nation of the Ostrogoths had to exist. We now return to the history of the Visigoths. The conquering progress of Clovis, after the battle of Voclad in 507, was checked by the armed inter- vention of Theoderic the Ostrogoth, who compelled the Franks to leave the Visigoths in possession not only of their Spanish dominions, but also of a small tract of country in Gaul, including the cities of Carcassonne, Narbonne, and Nimes. he former Visigothie territories in Provence Theoderic an- nexed to his own kingdom, and he assumed the guardianship of his infant dson Amalaric, the son of Alaric II. During Theoderie’s life the Visi- gothic kingdom was administered by him in the name of Amalaric; in Spain, however, his general Theudis practically Dh ar as a tributary king. After Theoderic’s death Amalaric was acknow- ledged as sovereign of the Mas eer but his direct rule was confined to the Gaulish dominions, Theudis still retaining the real authority in Spain. A defeat by the Franks having caused Amalaric to eross the ancic he was murdered in 531 by order of Theudis, who then assumed the crown, and ee he died by an assassin’s hand in 548. The Visigothic state now became what it had been prior to 419, a purely elective monarchy, and the choice of the kings was frequently attended by civil war. Athanagild, who was pl on the throne by a rebellion in which he was aided by an army from Justinian, reigned prosperously for fourteen years (554-567); but his Byzantine ‘allies (the ‘Greeks,’ as they were called) seized several of the Spanish cities, and were not completely dis- lodged until about 625, he brilliant reign of Leovigild, who made Toledo the capital of the kingdom, was marked by the subjugation of the Suevic kingdom in north- western Spain and Portugal. In 572 Leovigild associated with himself in the kingdom his two sons, Ermenegild and Receared. The former, a convert to Catholicism, rebelled against his father, but after two years was conquered, and afterwards ut to death. It is said that he was offered his ife and restoration to his royal dignity if he would return to the Arian faith, By the Catholic Church he was reverenced as a martyr, and was formally canonised by Pope Sixtus V. On the death of Leovigild his son Reccared, already a crowned king, succeeded without the formality of election. One of his first acts was to announce his determination te adopt and to estab- lish the Catholic religion. The Goths, who were evidently weary of their position of ecclesiastical isolation, and had lost interest in their hereditary creed, accepted the change with surprising readi- ness. Revolts took place in Gaul and in the former Suevie kingdom, but these were soon sup- pressed ; and the Arian clergy and laity were in overwhelming numbers admitted into the Catholic Church. The conversion of the Visigoths was a political necessity. The secure establishment of their dominion was impossible so long as they were divided from the subject people by religious differ- ences, and had against them the powerful organ- isation of the Spanish Church. his formidable adversary was now converted into an ally; but unhappily the weakness of the monarchy enabled the church to exact ruinously great concessions as the price of its support. In the course of the 7th century the Visigothic state became gradually more and more subservient to the church. The kings were elected by an assembly of bishops and court officials, the former often being in a mage majority. The three sovereigns who succeeded for a time in vindicating their independence—Swinthila (620-631), Kindaswinth (641-649), and Wamba (672-680 )—were eventually either deposed or induced to abdicate ; and in the next reign the ground lost by the church was always more than regained. It is hardly too much to say that under the more ecclesiastically-minded kings the country was governed mainly in the interests of the clerical order; and on the whole the influence of the priesthood was so exercised as to foster, instead of to check, the many causes of decay and disorganisation which brought about the ruin of the kingdom. The efforts of Witica (701- 710) to carry out extensive reforms in church and state were indeed seconded by the Archbishop of Toledo, but were virulently opposed by the great body of the clergy. Of his successor, Roderic, ‘the last of the Goths,’ pe yr has a great deal to say, but history knows only that his defeat on the banks of the Guadalete (August 711) placed the dominion of Spain in the hands of the Moorish invaders. Under the pressure of the Moslem yoke the Christians of the Susiooala became united into one nation, and the Goths ceased to exist as a separate le; but the Spanish nobility have always laid claim to Gothic descent. The last portion of the Gothic race to disappear as a distinct community was that branch of the Ostrogoths (known in the 6th century as 7etrazi- te) who inhabited the Crimea from the time of Ermanaric. In the reign of Justinian these Goths received a Catholic bishop from Constantinople, and in the official lan. of the Eastern Church ‘Gothia’ continued to be the name of the Crimea 324 GOTHS GOTTINGEN down to the 18th century. In 1562 the famous traveller Busbecq met at Constantinople with two Crimean envoys, and wrote down a long list of words of their language, which he recognised as having an affinity with his native Flemish. The words are for the most part unquestionably Gothic. It is possible that in the Crimea the Gothic speech may have survived to a much later time; in 1750 the Jesuit Mondorf learned from a native of that region, whom he had ransomed from the Turkish alleys, that his countrymen spoke a language aving some resemblance to German. The Gothic language is now classed by phil- ologists as belonging, together with the Sceandi- navian dialect, to the ‘East Germanic’ group, so called in contradistinetion to the ‘ West Germanic,’ which includes Old English and Low and. High German. In some of its features the East Ger- manic form of Teutonic speech is more primitive than the other branch—e.g. in the preservation of the inflexional final -z (becoming in Gothic s and in Old Norse 7), which in West Germanic is lost. On the other hand, there are certain features (such: as the substitution of -aggw-, -iggw-, for the original -auw-, -euww-) in which the eastern branch shows a later stage of development. As the Bible trans- lated by Wulfila is several centuries older than the earliest written remains of any other Teutonic language, the value of Gothic in the study of Teutonic philology is very great, although the mistaken notion that it represents substantially the ancestral form of the Teutonic languages as a whole led the scholars of an earlier generation into many errors which are still often repeated in 9 ore! handbooks. The Gothie written character, elieved to be the invention of Wulfila, is substan- tially an adoption of the ordinary Greek alphabet of the 4th century, some letters, however, being taken from the Latin, and others from the Runic alphabet used by the Goths before their conversion. The most scientific grammar of the language is that of W. Braune (Eng. trans. 1883); Douse’s Introduction to the Gothic of Ulphilas (1886) is also valuable. The most complete dictionary is still that of Schulze (Magdeburg, 1848), which gives full references to the passages in which the words occur, and also the Greek words which they render in Wulfila’s translation. It should, however, be checked by comparison with later works—e.g. with Schulze’s abridgment of 1867, or the concise «dictionaries of Heyne and Bern- hardt. eth gout may be given here with some abbrevi- ation. After some weeks of previous indigestion, attended with flatulent. swelling and a feeling of weight, rising to a climax in spasms of the thighs, the patient goes to bed free from pain, and having had rather an unnaturally strong appetite the day before. In the middle of the night he is awakened by a pain in the great toe, or sometimes in the heel, the ankle, or the calf of the leg. The pain re- sembles that of a dislocated bone, and is accom- panied by a sense as if water not perfectly cold were poured over the affected limb ; to this succeeds chilliness, with shivering, and a trace of feverish- ness, these last symptoms diminishing as the pain increases. From hour to hour, until the next evening, the patient suffers every variety of torture in every separate joint of the affected limb; the in being of a tearing, or crushing, or gnawing character, the tenderness such that even the weight of the bedelothes, or the shaking of the room from a person’s walking about in it, is unbearable. The next night is one of tossing and turning, the uneasy limb being constantly moved about to find a better position ; till towards morning the victim feels sudden relief, and falls over into a sleep, from which he wakes refreshed, to find the limb swollen; the venous distention usually present in the early stage having been succeeded by a more general form of swelling, often with itching between the toes, and a peeling-off of the cuticle. This indi- vidual attack may be repeated many times in the course of what is termed ‘a fit of the gout,’ which sometimes extends over a period of weeks, or even months, before the patient is completely relieved ; or the attacks may occur in both limbs, or in several other parts of the body in succession, the real termination of the ‘ fit’ being at last indicated by an apparently complete restoration of health and even, in some cases, by a period of improved condition and capacity for exertion, as compared with the state of the patient before the attack. Such are the principal features of the ‘ lar ard In this form it might almost be called a local isease ; although the connection of the attacks with deranged digestion, or with a variety of other minor ailments too complex to be described here, and the obvious relief obtained through the ‘fit’ the symptoms of constitutional suffering, to a cause of the disease operating over a range of functions than those included in the ocal manifestations at this period. Regular dyes eater EE forms only DS of a nosological picture, in which the so-called irregular, atonic, metastatic, or retrocedent forms have to be included before it can be said to be at all complete. These, indeed, form almost all the darker shadows of the picture; for regular gout, though a very painful disorder, can hardly be said to be dangerous to life, or even to the limb affected, at least until after many attacks. It is the tendency, however, of gout to fall into irregular forms; and herein lies its danger. One source of local aggravation is, indeed, soon apparent, and it leads rapidly to other evils, The joints which have been repeatedly the seat of the regular paroxysm become, more or less permanently, crippled and distorted. A white, friable, chalk- like material is gradually deposited around the cartilages and ligaments, and sometimes in the cellular tissue and under the skin (tophi or chalk- stones). Sometimes this material is discharged externally by ulceration, and then usually with relief. At other times it accumulates into irregu- lar masses, or ‘ nodosities,’ which entirely destroy, or at least greatly impair, the movement of the limb. The patient is laid up more or less perman- ently in his arm-chair; and exercise, the great natural specific remedy of the gouty, is denied by the very conditions of the diseased state itself. Other Manifestations of Gout.—With regard to what should included under the term irregular gout there is much difference of opinion. It is sometimes no doubt used as a refuge for ignorance, when no other cause can be discovered to explain symptoms of ill-health. It is certain, however, that regular gout often alternates with a morbid con- dition in some other part of the body, and that many diseases occurring in those whose family history or habits of life may be considered to pre- dispose to gout, whether they themselves have suffered from regular gout or not, are benefited by hygienic and medicinal measures similar to those which do good in undoubted cases of gout; and most physicians agree in speaking of such as forms of gout. The most important of these we shall here enumerate, in connection with the organs affected. Heart and blood-vessels—palpitation, irregularity of heart action, angina Cntr and atheroma with its consequence, phlebitis. Lungs—asthma, bronchitis. Nervous system—neur- algia, headache, epilepsy, mental disorder. Skin— eczema. Digestive organs—inflammation of throat, various forms of indigestion, cramp or inflamma- tion of stomach, jaundice. Urinary organs—irri- tability of bladder; stone, especially the uric acid form (see CALCULUS); diabetes ; above all, chronic Bright’s disease. It is impossible within the limits of such an article as the present to give any de- scription of the various manifestations of the gouty tendency ; the above list of ailments (most of them treated separately) will give some idea of their complexity and importance. - Treatment of Gout.—The cure of gout, in the highest sense of the word, demands the careful consideration of all its predisposing causes in the individual, and the strict regulation of the whole life and habits accordingly, from the earliest pos- sible period. It is the dittieulty of accomplishing this which makes gout a disease proverbially in- tractable; for the regular attacks of the disease seldom occur till pretty late in life, long after the habits have been fully formed which are most adverse to the cure. Rigid temperance in eating and drinking, with daily exercise proportionate to the strength and condition of the individual, in reality constitutes the only radical cure of the gout, the lesson of ages of experience as read to the gouty by the light of science. ut the lesson is not learned, or only learned when too late. It should never be forgotten that a man of gouty family, or individually much exposed to the causes of the disease, can only hope to escape it in his old age by habits of life formed at an early period, and by a 330 GOUTWEED GOVERNMENT careful avoidance of most of the common dissipa- tions of youth. That the disease may be warded off in this way there is ample evidence ; and it is not less certain that there is no other way of living secure from gout. The treatment of the fit, in so far as it does not resolve itself into the celebrated prescription of ‘patience and flannel,’ must be a subject of medical prescription. Blisters, leeches, and especially cold applications, though they may give temporary relief, are studiously to be avoided ; the last sometimes even lead to a fatal result. The well-known virtues of Colchicum (q.v.) are perhaps somewhat overrated by the public ; and its dangers are not less striking than its virtues. It is certain, however, that in cautious medical hands colehicum is a remedy of great value in the gouty paroxysm ; and of equal value perhaps are certain natural mineral waters, as those of Vichy and Carlsbad. Alkalies and their salts, especially potash and lithia waters, as prepared artificially, with minute doses of iodine and bromine, have likewise been much recommended for the cure of gouty deposits. For the distinctions of gout and rheumatism, and the presumed relation between them in some cases, see RHEUMATISM. See Sir Dyce Duckworth’s 7reatise on Gout (1889). Goutweed. See BISHOPWEED. Govan, a police-burgh (since 1864) of Lanark and Renfrew shires, on the south bank of the Clyde, outside the municipal boundaries of Glasgow, and about 3 miles west of its centre, but connected with the city by continuous rows of buildings. Its leading industry is shipbuilding. Govan Park, 40 acres in extent, was gifted in 1885 by Mrs Elder, at a cost of £50,000. Pop. (1836) 2122; (1871) 19,200; (1881) 50,492; (1891) 61,364. Government. The term ‘government’ signi- fies the administration of the public affairs of a community ; in a secondary sense it denotes the persons to whom that administration is committed, or a select number of such persons in whom the precipel powers of management are vested. The omain of government extends in theory over the whole leginlative and administrative business of the country at home and abroad ; but some depart- ments of our domestic affairs, such as the adminis- tration of justice and the business of the perma- nent civil service, are not treated in practice as matters of government. According to the various uses of the term, we speak of our constitutional government or our system of government by party, or the policy of a particular government, and we draw a distinction, when necessary, between the principal and the subordinate members of the government of the day. There is a distinction in kind between the administration of public affairs and the management of any private concern ; but we speak metaphorically of the domestic govern- ment of a household ; or, with a nearer approach to correctness, of the self-government of municipali- ties and other civil districts in regard to their local affairs. There may also be small and imperfectly developed communities, whether carried on under a patriarchal rule or under the form of a village- community, or in some other rudimentary form of society, to which it would be difficult to apply the terms of the art or practice of government with anything like exactness. In the case of an ordinary in ependent state the sphere of government in- cludes the administration of public affairs at home and the intercourse of the community with foreign nations. These funttions may be separated and modified, as when a state forms part. of a federal union or confederation or combination of states, in which the component communities have divested themselves of some portions of their sovereign power in favour of a central or combined authority, to which certain kinds of public affairs have been delegated. The same remarks apply to dependent and semi-independent states, including such as have been brought under an empire, or have been mediatised, or neutralised, or in any other way have come under the protection or management of a superior power or combination of powers. In colonies the local authorities may be entitled to exercise the rights of government almost as freely as in the case of a protected state, subject only to the reserved rights of the mother-country and the supreme dominion of the home-governnient, if the necessity for its exercise should occur. There is indeed hardly any limit to the modes in which the relations between superior and subordinate com- munities may be constituted in matters of govern- * ment, subject to the observation that the rights conferred on the inferior power may be so great that they practically amount to independence, or may be so closely bound that they give hardly more than the benefits of municipal self-govern- ment. The origin of government may be found in the social instincts of mankind. As soon as a com- munity attains to great numbers, or a large extent of territory, some form of regular authority will be required and will necessarily be established. Plato is accused of having seen no difference in kind between a large household and a small state. Aristotle, or the Aristotelian author of the Politics, conceived the state as being ‘prior to the indi- vidual,’ in the sense that-it is the true object of the social instinct implanted in all men, and only requiring the legislator’s wisdom to bring it to perfection. Every community is established with a view to some good end, and the state (which embraces all other communities) must have been established with the object of attaining the highest good. This theory is nearly identical with the modern opinions, in which a distinction has been made without much real difference, that. the state was founded with the object of obtaining the greatest happiness of the greatest number, and that governments are intended to fulfil the higher aspirations of humanity. Many other theories of government have been advanced according to the varying circumstances of different times. It was found convenient in one age to secure a respect for authority by an appeal to the divine right of kings; at another time thinkers have been content to find the principles of government in following the momentary wish of the majority. Hobbes solved the difficulty by a new and arbitrary dogma. Mankind, according to his view, seeking refuge from the dangers of a state of nature, were led, not by any social instinct, but by motives of fear and prudence, to enter into a solemn compact by which they finally renounced the freedom which belonged to the individual man. The compact having once been made, the state becomes the ‘ Leviathan,’ or all-powerful being, to whom absolute and unchang- ing obedience is due. Locke and many later writers took up the idea of a social contract as a convenient image for describing the combined action of mankind, but guarded their position by declaring that the compact might at any time be altered or reversed. “We may leave these barren speculations as to the origin of government with the remark that, according to the more modern opinion, such questions can only be solved, if at all, by the methods of comparative history. It is of more importance to baguire as to what are the essential characteristics of government in the political sense of the term. In the consideration of this part of the subject the mere forms of govern- ment may be disregarded. The correct answer to the problem seems to be that government, in a ‘ oI GOVERNMENT 331 relation to the subject-matter with which it is con- cerned, is in the long-run, and continually tends to be, the expression of the will of the dominant power in the state. The expression may be difli- cult, owing to the complexity of the constitution _ or the number of constituent parts among which power is distributed, or owing, as often happens, to the existence of artificial restrictions ed to afford opportunities for delay. Again, the will of the rulers may be in a state of acquiescence, and the arriving at any decision in - favour of change may be impeded in many ways, as by the influence of custom and tradition, the reluctance felt about disturbing an existing dele- ‘gation of power, or the feeling that responsible and removable governors can safely be trusted. After making all deductions it seems clear that government is in fact an expression of the wishes of those who have the ultimate dominion, and that in free communities its course and even its form are determined by the general will of the ple. The forms of government are, however, in some de determined by accidental circum- stances, such as the survival of institutions which have become obsolete, or which have been adapted to existing needs though their original object has come to an end. The possible variations in the form of government are almost countless, but it is still convenient to adopt to some extent the ancient methods of classification, according as the rule of the state is given to the one, the few, or the many. Another method of division is based on the dis- tinction between those states in which the gover- nors and governed have apparently been opposed to each other, and those in which the contest between prerogative and popular liberty has ended in national self-government. Plato and Aristotle distinguished governments as true or pure when power is given and used for the eve 3 of the subject, and as false or per- verted when it is maintained for the private inter- est of the ruler. Among such true forms they counted monarchy or royalty, in which one ruled for the good of all, and aristocracy or the rule of a class, equally acting in the common interest ; besides these rare and ideal forms they found an- other pure form in the mixed or constitutional government, which was the favourite ‘polity’ of the Greek states when placed under favourable circumstances. It must remembered, however, that their arguments are made difficult of applica- tion to modern times by the facts that the states were very small, and that the great bulk of the population was enslaved; the last circumstance gave a disproportionate importance to the military class, on which the existence of society ecmnien so that the ancient ‘polities’ were in practice dominated by an armed middle class, taken collec- tively as regesornting the whole people. Hence it was expressly laid down in the Aristotelian Politics (Jib. iii. chap. 7), that ‘in a constitutional govern- ment the fighting-men have the supreme power, and the armed men are the citizens.’ In the same place will be found an account of the perversions of true government. ‘Tyranny,’ or despotism, is a monarchy having in view the interest of the master of the state. Oligarehy, of which there are many varieties, exists when a small class, generally con- sisting of the rich, has the whole government in its power. In Aristotle’s view the rule of a wealthy class was of the essence of an oligarchy. Demo- eracy, or the rule of the many, was on the same principle identified with government in the interests of the needy. The author of the Politics does not seem to have believed that a wealthy community could be a democracy, or to have conceived the idea of representative government or of a democracy in the modern sense of the term. The democracy described by him was obviously of an unstable and temporary character, ready to suffer a further perversion towards ochlocracy or a mere mob-govern- ment, ending’ in anarchy and the eventual interposi- tion of a despotic or military form of government. Aristotle distinguished five kinds of monarchy among the true or legitimate systems. The first was the Spartan form, or that which existed in Crete, the wer of the kings in each case being strictly limited by the constitution. Next came the despotic form of monarchy, such as was found in the Asian empires, differing only from tyranny because the barbarians, as slaves by nature, were perfectly willing to obey. The third was the Dictatorship, which in Greece was not hereditary, but which has always tended in modern times to become so. Another kind might be called the Heroic form, the kings in ancient times having been ‘ priests, and judges, and warriors, and having a supreme authority in all things.’ Last in the list was the absolute kingship, ‘exercising an universal power, like that of the state over the public pro- perty, or that of the master over a household’ (Arist. Pol. iii. chap. 15; Jowett’s Introd. \xv.). The last-described monarchy is certainly a separate form of government, but it was obviously liable to pass at any moment into a tyranny, unless a succes- sion of disinterested ‘ benevolent despots’ could be found. It should be observed that Aristotle did not think that any monarchy ought to be heredi- tary, and that he considered absolute monarchy to be contrary to the law of nature. His summary of the causes which had induced the transition from the old kingship to the modern republic is full of interest 8h information. The reason, he says, why ancient governments were monarchies is that in early times there were only a few good men who could confer benefits, and so they were made into kings. The reason, he adds, why democracies are now necessary is that all men are ‘ pretty much on an equality; ’ he is referring, of course, to the free- men who had the franchise and a capacity for office. ‘When good men increased in number, royalties passed into aristocracies. These degenerated into oligarchies. Oligarchy passed into “‘ tyranny,” and tyrannies became democracies, for the rich became fewer and fewer, and the poor more and more numerous ; and democracy seems to be the only form of government any longer possible, now that cities are increased in size.’ He shows, however, his personal preference for the mixed constitution or ‘ polity,’ as ait ae the best form of government after the ideal ‘rule of the best,’ or ‘ aristocracy’ in the highest sense of the term. The stages through which oligarchy usually passed are summed up as follows : at first there is a high qualification for office, and then as vacancies in office occur, a scheme of co-optation is devised : afterwards hered- itary succession is introduced, and finally a few powerful families set up an absolute and arbitrary tule. Democracy in the same way has several stages from that in which all men are equal in cir- cumstances and power, if such an ‘ Utopian parity’ were possible, to the stages when a small qualifi- cation is imposed, when every one takes a share in the government, and lastly, when law ceases and the government is carried on by the decrees of the transient majority. Plato constructed an ideal state, an aristocracy in which philosophers were kings, and thought that of inferior governments there were only four worthy of notice, though, doubtless, there were many intermediate forms both among Greeks and barbarians. He calls the first Timocracy, being a constitution of the fashionable Spartan type, in which the powers of the kings and classes of citizens were limited by strict discipline, and the govern- ment was conducted on ‘principles of honour,’ 332 GOVERNMENT GOWER which in practice came to something like military government. It should be observed that the word ‘timocracy ’ is also used to denote the system of distributing honours and offices according to wealth, a state of things to which the title of a plutocracy would perhaps be more appropriate. Next in Plato's list came Oligarchy, with its attendant evils of avarice and corruption; then Democracy, de- scribed as ‘a pleasing lawless and various kind of government ;’ and lastly, Despotism, the ‘disease and death of government.’ Polybius (book vi. extr. 3, chap. 1) mentions the states of Lacedzemon, Mantinea, Crete, and Carthage as those which were praised by all writers of antiquity. He differs from Plato as to the fact of resemblance between the governments of Crete and Sparta, not perceiving that they were alike in their balance of power, though their laws and institutions were different. The laws of Lycurgus appeared to him tobe rather the ‘work of some divinity’ than the effort of a human mind. The government of Carthage was raised as being limited in much the same way, the do. with ‘that the stock and the clay applied. scion should be of not / very different thickness. A slit or a very narrow angular incision is made in the centre of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards, both having been first cut eaeely at corresponding angles; and, the tongue thus made in the scion being inserted into the incision in the stock, they are fastened very closely and thoroughly together. In saddle-grafting the end of the stock is cut into the form of a wedge, and the scion is affixed to it, the base of the scion having been cut or slit up for the pu —Shoulder-grafting, used chiefly for ornamental trees, is performed by cutting obliquely, and then cutting across a small part at top of the stock, so as to form a shoulder, the scion being cut to fit it.—Peg-grafting, not now much in use, is accomplished. by making the end of the scion into a Peg, and boring the top of the stock to receive i Whichever of these modes of grafting is adopted the graft must be fastened in its eae by tying, for which peepee a strand of bast-matting is commonly used. The access of air is further pre- vented by means of clay, which has been worked up with a little chopped hay, horse or cow dung, and water, and which is applied to the place of junction so as to form a ball, tapering both upwards and downwards, In France a composition of 28 parts black pitch, 28 vb are aap 16 yellow wax, 14 tallow, and 14 ashes is generally used instead of clay. The progress of the buds shows the union of the graft and stock, but it is not generally safe to remove the clay in less than three months; and the ligatures, although then loosened, are allowed to remain for some time longer. From some kinds of fruit-trees fruit is often obtained in the second year after grafting. Budding (q.v.) is in principle the same as graft- ing; and flute-grafting is a kind of budding in which a ring of bark with one or more buds is used ins of a single bud, and, a stock of similar thickness having been cut over, a corre- sponding ring of bark is removed, and the foreign one substituted. This is commonly performed in spring, when the bark parts readily, and is one of the surest modes of grafting.—IJnarching or graft- ing by approach, in which the scion is not ent off from its parent stem until it is united to the new stock, is practised chiefly in the case of some valuable shmnbs kept in pots, in which success by the ordinary methods is very doubtful. An effect is produced: by the stock on the scion which it nourishes analogous to that of a change of soil; much of the vigour of a strong healthy stock is also communicated to a scion taken even from an aged tree. There is, moreover, in some degree, an influence of the elaborated sap descend- ing from the scion on the stock which i” hg it. An important part of the practical skill of the gardener or nurseryman consists in the selection of the proper kinds of stocks for different species and varieties of fruit-trees. The stock and scion, how- ever, must not be of species extremely dissimilar. No credit is due to the statements of ancient authors about vines grafted on fig-trees, apples on lanes, &c., the semblance of which can only have en brought about by some delusive artifice ; for all attempts at grafting fail except among plants of the same genus, or at least of the same natural family. Herbaceous plants with firm stems, as dahlias, are sometimes grafted. Some kinds of plants, of small size, in ang are placed in moist hothouses or hotbeds, under bell-glasses, whilst the junction of the scion and stock is going on, which in these circumstances takes place very surely and ve expeditiously. But an accumulation of too much moisture under the bell-glass must be guarded against. Grafton, a rising town of New South Wales, 350 miles NE. of Sydney, situated on both sides of the Clarence River, and 45 miles from the sea. The river is navigable. The agricultural district yields sugar and tobacco; and gold, silver, coal, and copper are found. Pop. 4770.—Grafton is also a town of 5000 inhabitants, 9 miles SE. of Worcester in Massachusetts ; and of a railway centre (pop. 3100) in West Virginia, 99 miles SE. of Wheeling. Grafton, AuGustus HENRY Firzroy, DUKE OF, statesman, a descendant of Charles II., was born Ist October 1735, and in 1757 succeeded his by aoragate the second duke (see CHARLEs IT.). e first came to the front in political life in 1763 in the opposition to Bute, and in July 1765 he took office as Secretary of State under Rockingham, but resigned in the following May. Two months later Pitt became premier and Earl of Chatham, making Grafton First Lord of the Treasury ; but in conse- quence of Chatham’s continued illness Grafton was compelled to take upon his own shoulders the re- sponsible duties of head of the government from eptember 1767. He resigned in 1770, accepted the office of Lord Privy Seal under Lord North in 1771, and filled it until November 1775. When the new Rockingham ministry was formed in March 1782 Grafton took his old post as Lord Privy Seal, but resigned office thirteen months later. e died at Euston Hall, Suffolk, 14th March 1811. In- dolent, vacillating, somewhat obstinate in his Sale life, and openly immoral in his private ife, Grafton was the target at which Junius (q.v.) shot some of his sharpest invectives. 342 GRAGNANO GRAHAM Gragnano, a town of Italy, 20 miles by rail SE. of Naples, with manufactures of wine and macaroni. Pop. 8611. Graham, the name of an illustrious Scottish family of Anglo-Norman origin, who settled in Scotland during the 12th century. A Sir William de Graeme received from David I. the lands of Aber- corn and Dalkeith, and extensive grants of estates were made to his descendants by William the Lion, Alexander II. and IIL, and by One of their chiefs, Sir John de Graham of Dundaff, was the bosom friend of the patriot Wallace, and was killed at the battle of Falkirk, July 22, 1298. 7From the war of independence downwards the Grahams have taken a prominent part in the public, and especially in the warlike, affairs of the country. Patrick Graham of Kincardine was made a peer in 1451 under the title of Lord Graham. His grand- son was created Earl of Montrose by James LY. (1504-5 ), and fell with his sovereign at the battle of Flodden. The third earl twice held the office of High Treasurer of Scotland, and was appointed Lord Chaneellor in 1599. On resigning that office he was appointed Viceroy of Scotland for life. His grandson, the fifth earl and first Marquis of Mon- trose, is the glory of the House of Graham (see MON- TROSE). His eldest surviving son, who was born in 1631 and died in 1699, was termed the ‘Good Mar- quis.’ He was peculiarly amiable in his disposition, and delighted in the quiet and peace of private life. The fourth marquis was appointed High Admiral of Scotland in 1705 and President of the Council in 1706. He was a firm supporter of the union between England and Scotland, and was created Duke of Montrose in 1707. He held the office of Keeper of the Privy Seal under Queen Anne (1709-13), was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland by George L. in 1717, and a second time Keeper of the Great Seal in Scotland. He was Chancellor of the univer- sity of Glasgow, and died in 1742. His grandson, the third duke, held in succession, under the ministry of William Pitt, the offices of one of the Lords of the Treasury, Paymaster of the Forces, one of the Com- missioners of the Indian Board, Master of the Horse, Lord Justice-general of Scotland, President of the Board of Trade, and Joint Paymaster of the Forces. He was also, like his father, Chancellor of the univer- sity of Glasgow, and Lord-lieutenant of the counties of Stirling and Dumbarton, in which he had great influence. ‘ Few individuals,’ says Sir Nathaniel Wraxall, ‘ however distinguished by birth, talents, parliamentary interest, or public services, have attained to more splendid employments, or have arrived at greater honours.’ He died in 1836. The fourth duke was Lord Steward of the Household, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and Post- master-general. He died in 1874. The family honours and estates were then inherited by his third and only surviving son, the fifth duke. It is note- worthy that the title of the family is not taken from the town of Montrose, but from their hereditary estate of ‘Auld Montrose,’ which David Graham received from Robert Bruce in exchange for the lands of Cardross in Dumbartonshire.—The Grahams of Fintry, Duntrune, Inchbrakie, Esk, Menteith, Netherby, and Norton Conyers are minor branches of the family. See Dr James Tay- lor’s Great Historic Families of Scotland (1887). Graham, DovGat, the literary bellman of Glasgow, was born in the village of Raploch, near Stirling, about 1724. He was a hunchback, and from an early age laboured irregularly as a farm- servant. He followed Prince Charlie’s army on its southern march to Derby, apparently as a kind of sutler, and made his way home soon after the dis- aster at Culloden. Five months later he had his metrical narrative ready, which, grotesque and ing Robert Bruce... pitiful doggerel as it is, has no mean value as a record of the fresh observations of an honest and not unintelligent eye-witness. Soon after this he took up his abode in Glasgow, where his ready wit soon made him something of a public character, but he still plied his calling as a prosperous chap- man or pedlar. Here also he made himself the poetical chronicler of passing events, and wrote ee of the chap-books which he sold, and which quickly became extraordinarily popular. He was appointed ‘skellat’ bellman (for ordinary announce- ments) of the city, not earlier than 1770; but there is no mention of his name in the town- council records. He died 20th July 1779. Many of his rambling ballads and prose chap-books were anonymous, and are now impossible to trace; of the former the best known are John Hielandman’s Remarks on Glasgow and Turnimspike. His num- erous prose chap-books are both humorous and ood-humoured, but never touch the region of the iterary, and are moreover disfigured by a constant coarseness and by occasional grossness of obscenity which admit of no extenuation. The most popular were Zhe Whole Proceedings of Jockey und Maggy, Paddy from Cork, Lothian Tom, The History of John Cheap the Chapman, the Comical and Witty Jokes of John Falkirk the Merry Piper, Leper the Tailor, John Falkirk’s Cariches, Comical History of Simple John and his Twelve Misfortunes, and George Buchanan. Both Scott and Motherwell meant to have edited some of Dougal Graham’s work. This was finally done in a complete edition in two handsome volumes by George MacGregor (Glasgow, 1883). Graham, Sir JAMES RoBERT GEORGE, Eng- lish statesman, was born at Netherby, in Cumber- land, June 1, 1792, and educated at Westminster and Queen’s College, Cambridge. As _ private secretary to the British minister in Sicily in 1813, he had a hand in the negotiations with Murat at Naples. After his return for Carlisle as a Whig in 1826 he became a warm supporter of Catholic emancipation and a zealous advocate of the Reform Bill. Earl Grey thereupon offered him, in 1830, the post of First Lord of the Admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. But in 1834 he seceded from the government, disagreeing with his col- leagues on the appropriation clause of the Irish Church Temporalities Act ; and, going over to the Conservatives, became in 1841 Home Secretary under Sir Robert Peel. In 1844 he issued a war- rant for opening the letters of Mazzini, and caused the information thus obtained to be communicated to the Austrian minister, an act by which the min- istry, and Graham in particular, incurred great obloquy. He also encountered great displeasure north of the Tweed by his high-handed method of dealing with the Scottish Church during the troubles which ended in the Disruption and the formation of the Free Church. He gave Peel warm support in carrying the Corn Law Repeal Bill, and resigned office (1846) with his chief as soon as that measure was carried. On the death of Peel in 1850 he became leader of the Peelite party in the Lower House, and in December 1852 took office in the Coalition Ministry as First Lord of the Admiralty. He retired from official life in February 1855, and died at Netherby, October 26, 1861. See Life by Torrens (2 vols. 1863) and by Lonsdale (1868). Graham, JoHn, Viscount DUNDEE, was the elder son of Sir William Graham of Claverhouse, in Forfarshire. His birth is placed with more like- lihood in 1649 than in 1643, for he did not matricu- late at St Andrews till February 1665. After three years there, then four perha soldierin under Turenne, in 1672 he entered the Dute service as cornet in the Prince of Orange’s horse- guards. In 1674 at the battle of Seneff he saved (according to the Grameid) William’s life; in 1677 GRAHAM GRAHAME 343 ‘he returned to Scotland, and next year received a commission as lieutenant in a troop of horse commanded by his cousin, the third arquis of Montrose. At this time the government of Charles Il. was engaged in its insane attempt to force. E pacy upor the people of Scotland. A system of tines and military coercion was carried on _ against all nonconformists; conventicles and field- 5 — were prohibited; penalties were in- : ted on ail who even harboured the recusants ; and the nation lay at the mercy of informers. Maddened by oppression, and fired by a tierce zeal for the Covenant, the western peasantry flew to arms; but their efforts were irregular and detached, and each successive failure only aggra- vated their sufferin Many were executed ; the gaols were crowded with prisoners; and those who fled were outlawed, and their property confis- eated. In this miserable service Claverhouse, now sheriff-depute of Dumfriesshire, was employed. At Drumelog, on Sunday, Ist June 1679, he encoun- tered an armed body of Covenanters, but was defeated, some forty of his troopers being slain, and himself forced to flee from the field. Three weeks later, at Bothwell Brig, he served as a simple captain of cavalry. These are the only affairs that can even by courtesy be called battles in which Claverhouse was engaged in Scotland previous to James II.’s abdication. They dis- meyed no generalship. In detecting and hunting own the Covenanters he oelgset the utmost activity ; still, he had nothing whatever to do with the Wigtown martyrdoms, and if he caused shoot John Brown, the ‘ Christian Carrier,’ it was after finding of arms and refusal to take the oath of abjuration. He rose to the rank of colonel, and in 1682 became sheriff of Wigtownshire, in 1683 was sworn a privy-councillor, in 1684 got a gift of the Forfarshire estate of Dudhope, and was made constable of Dundee. That same year he married Lady Jean Cochrane, the daughter of a Whig house, who bore him one short-lived son, and who afterwards wedded the Viscount of Kil- syth. In November 1688, on his march up to ndon to stem the Revolution, Claverhouse was raised to the peerage as Viscount Dundee; four months later he rode with fifty troopers out of Edinburgh, and, being joined by the Jacobite clans and three hundred Irish, raised the standard for King James against William and Mary. After various 5p movements in the north, he seized Blair Castle, the key of the Highlands; and General Mackay, commanding the government forces, marched against him from Edinburgh. On the evening of 27th July 1689 the two armies met at the head of the Pass of Killiecrankie. Mackay’s force was between 3000 and 4000; Dundee’s only 2000. ‘Two minutes decided the contest; before the wild rush of the clansmen the _redcoats wavered, broke, and ran like sheep. Their loss was 2000, the victors’ 900 only; but one of the 900 was Ian Dhu nan Cath (or ‘ Black John of the Battles’), as the Highlanders called Dundee. A musket-ball struck him as he was waving on his men, and he sank from his saddle into the arms of asoldier named Johnstone. ‘How goes the day ?’ murmured Dundee. ‘Well for King James,’ said Johnstone, ‘ but I am sorry for your fordship.” ‘If it is well for him,’ was the dying man’s answer, ‘it matters the less for me.’ Wrapped in two plaids, his body was borne to Blair Castle ; and in the church of Old Blair they buried him, where in 1889 the Duke of Athole placed a tablet to his memory. ‘Bloody Claverse,’ ‘Bonnie Dundee’—the two names illustrate the opposite feelings borne towards one whom the malice of foes and the favour of _ friends have invested with a factitious interest. He was neither the devil incarnate that legend and Lord Macaulay have painted him, nor the 17th- century Havelock of Aytoun, Napier, and Paget. True, Wodrow himself admits that ‘the Hell- wicked-witted, bloodthirsty Graham of Claver- house hated to spend his time with wine and women ;’ Lochiel’s biographer records how he never was heard to swear, and how, ‘ besides family worship, performed regularly evening and morning in his house, he retired to his closet at certain hours, and employed himself in that duty.’ But, then, we have Claverhouse’s own admission (1679) : ‘In any service I have been in I never inquired farther in the laws than the orders of my superior officers ’—an admission that accuses whilst excus- ing, and that is applicable to his whole career. Bonnie at least he was in outward form, with the ‘long dark curled locks,’ and the ‘ melancholy haughty countenance,’ which we know by his por- traits and by Scott’s matchless description. The letter purporting to be written to James II. by Dundee after s bed got his death-wound, and first pub- lished in Macpherson’s Original Papers (1775), is almost certainly a folate: though not Macphersons. The Grameid is a long but unfinished Latin epic by James Philip of Almerieclose (c. 1656-1713), one of Dundee’s followers. Written in 1691, it was first edited by the Rev. A. D. Murdoch for the Scottish History Society (1888). Mark Napier’s Memorials and Letters of Dundee (3 vols, 1859-62) is perhaps the worst life in the language, still well worth sifting. See also Aytoun’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers (1849); Paget’s Paradoxes and Puzzles (1874); Claverhouse, by Mowbray Morris (‘English Worthies’ series, 1887); and Clavers, the Despot’s Champion, by ‘a Southern’ (1889). Graham, THOMAS, a Scottish chemist, was born in Glasgow, 21st December 1805. Having studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh, he became in 1830 professor of Chemistry in his native city, and in 1837 he accepted the corresponding chair at University College, London. n 1855 he was appointed Master of the Mint, and resigned his professorship. He died in London, 16th September 1869. .His name is most closely associated with the subject of the molecular diffusion of gases, his researches in connection with which led him to formulate the law ‘that the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density.’ Amongst his important memoirs on chemistry we may mention the following : ‘ Absorption of Gases by Liquids ;’ ‘ Absorption of Vapours by Liquids ;’ Pe of Diffusion of Gases ;’ ‘ Researches on the Arseniates, Phosphates, and Modifications of Phos- horic Acid ;’ ‘ Motion of Gases, their Effusion and ranspiration ;’ ‘Diffusion of Liquids ;’ ‘Liquid Diffusion ae to Analysis;’ ‘Liquid Trans- piration in Relation to Chemical Composition ;’ and ‘Molecular Mobility of Gases.’ These were con- tributed to various scientific journals, and were collected in 1876. His excellent Elements of Chem- istry appeared in 1837. See Life and Works of Graham, by Dr R. Angus Smith (Glasgow, 1884). Graham, THomas. See LyNEDOCH (LORD). Grahame, JAMES, author of The Sabbath, was born at Glasgow, April 22, 1765. The son of a prosperous lawyer, he went in 1784 to Edinburgh to study law, and, after qualifying as a writer to the Signet, was admitted as an advocate in 1795. Finding law uncongenial, at forty-four he took orders, and was successively curate of Shipton in Gloucestershire and of Sedgefield in the county of Durham. [Ill-health compelled him to return to Scotland, where soon after he died, September 14, 1811. Grahame’s poetical works include Mary, Quéen of Scots, a dramatic poem (1801); The Sa bath (1804); British Georgics (1804); The Birds o Scotland (1806); and Poems on the Abolition of th Slave-trade (1810). His fame rests securely on his 344 GRAHAWMW’S LAND GRAIL blank-verse poem, The Sabbath. It falls far short of Cowper’s vigour, variety, and real genius, but in its tender devotional feeling and occasional felicity in describing quiet Scottish scenery it is not ‘un- worthy of that master, whom he resembled further in the retiring amiability of his character. Graham’s Land, an island of the Antarctic Ocean, discovered by Biscoe in 1832, lies between 65° and 67° S. lat. In front, towards the north, are a number of islets, called Biscoe’s Chain. Grahamstown, the capital of the eastern pro- vince of Cape Colony, stands near the centre of the maritime division of Albany, 1728 feet above sea-level. By rail it is 106 miles NE. of Port Elizabeth, and 43 NW. of Port Alfred. It is the seat of two bishops—Anglican and Roman Catho- lie; and in its Anglican cathedral is a.monument to Colonel Graham, after whom the city is named. Leather is manufactured, and among the institu- tions of the place are its museum, St Andrew’s College, a public library, a general hospital, and large barracks. Pop. (1875) 6903; (1891) 10,436 (two-thirds white, the rest coloured natives). Grahamstown, New Zealand. See THAMEs. Graian Alps. See ALPs. Grail, LEGEND oF THE HOLY (etymology un- certain). The spelling varies considerably in the oldest texts from graal to gréaus. A vessel of some kind is obviously intended, and derivation has been suggested from the Low Lat. gradalis or radalus (‘a shallow vessel’), which appears also in the forms grasale, grassale, grazala, and Old Fr. grasals or grazals. See Ducange-Favre, Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lat., under ‘Grasala.’ This etymology is supported by the testimony of Helinandus (c. 1204), ‘ gradalis dicitur gallice scutella lata et aliquantu- lum profunda, in qua dapes solent apponi, et dicitur nomine graal.’ iez, Htymol. orterbuch, 601, suggests a lost cratalis from cratus, the Low Latin form of crater, as the original of the above-cited forms. Other etymologies have been suggested, but all are worthless. Chronological Arrangement of the Grail Romances.—(a) Chrestien’s portion of the Conte du Graal, circa 1190; (6) Gautier de Doulens’ con- tinuation of same, circa 1195 in one form, with expansions circa 1200; (c) Robert de Borron’s poem, 1200-10; (d@) Queste del Saint Graal, about the same date; (e) Grand St Graal, only known in a redaction of circa 1230-50, but extant in a less extended form prior to 1204; (f/) Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival, circa 1210; (g, 4) continua- tion of Conte du Graal by Manessier and Gerbert, circa 1220-30; (7) the prose Perceval le Gallois, cirea 1225; (k) prose continuation of Robert de Bor- ron’s poem known as the Didot Perceval, circa 1230- 50; (7) Heinrich von dem Tiirlin’s Diu Krone, prior to 1250. Personages and part of the subject- matter of the Grail romances also appear in () the Mabinogi of Peredur ab Evraw and (n) the alliterative metrical romance Sir Perceval. Both these last are in 14th—-ldth century MSS., but are certainly older, though posterior in their present form to Chrestien, whom both have used. Subject-matter of the Romances.—The legend consists of two portions: a Quest relating (1) how Perceval comes to the castle of the Fisher King, sees the Grail, fails to ask concerning it, is re- proved, has to wander many years, comes a second and third time to Grail Castle, makes whole a vroken sword or slays the enemy of the Fisher King, is hailed by the latter as his nephew, and succeeds him in his kingship (a, 6, f, g, 4), or releases him at once from supernaturally prolonged life (/) or from the enchantment of death in life (7) (the same inci- dents as in a, f, g, h reappear in part in m, but the Grail is replaced by a head in a dish); (2) how Galahad, Perceval, and Bors alone of Arthur’s knights succeed in beholding the Grail, follow it to the east, where Galahad and Perceval die, but Bors returns to Arthur’s court (d, e¢)—and an Early History relating how the Grail was given by Christ to Joseph of Arimathea (c, d, e, g, h, k), and how it came to England either in the charge of Brons, Joseph’s brother-in-law (c, k), or of Josephe, Joseph’s son (d, e). In all these versions the Grail is a cup or vessel, and in the Early History forms it is the cup used first by Christ at the Last Supper, secondly by Joseph to collect the blood ihe flowed from Christ’s wounds as he hung upon, or after his body was descended from, the cross. In ( 2? Wolfram an entirely different account is found : the Grail is a precious stone, fallen from heaven, and given in charge to Titurel and his dynasty the Grail kings. Nature and Properties of the Grail.—In the Quest romances, the oldest portion of the eycle, and notably in the Conte du Graal, the Grail is simply a miraculous food-producing vessel. With a broken sword which only the destined hero can make whole, and a lance which drops blood, it is simply one of three talismans, and its importance in the conduct of the story is not greater than theirs. The Chris- tianisation of the legend brought about a profound change in the conception of the Grail. This change is only fully manifest in Robert de Borron, where the properties of the Grail are exclusively spiritual : it separates the pure from the impure, and gives to the former as full and sweet solace as their heart could long for. In the other Early Histo forms, and in those later Quest versions whic have been affected by the Early History, the Grail retains its material side by side with its spiritual properties, even where, as in the case of d, e, kad h, these versions are written in a mystical and theological spirit. From (d) Queste we learn that the Grail strikes with dumbness those to whom it appears. In Wolfram (/) the spirit is likewise mystical and theological, but of course the sacramental nature of the Grail, so prominent in those romances which identify it with the Last Supper cup, is wanting, hence the symbolism is on different lines. Here too, however, the material properties of the Grail are as strongly insisted upon as the spiritual ones. Hypothetical Development of the Legend.—The Grail is originally a portion of the gear of old Celtic divinities, more especially of the god of the underworld, whose name among the Cymry was Bran. Numerous Celtic sagas, as well as existing Celtic folk-tales, tell of a hero who journeys to the land of shades and brings back talismans, prominent amongst them the inexhaustible vessel of plenty and rejuvenation. At an early period this tale got mixed up with a Peredur saga, in which the hero, to avenge a kinsman, had to seek for a magic lance and sword. The result of the fusion may traced in the forms which underlie the Mabinogi of Peredur, the Conte du Graal, and the metrical Sir Perceval. Peredur thus came in contact with Bran, lord of the under-world, who was identi- fied with Bran the Blessed, whom later Welsh tradition made the hero of a conversion of Britain story. This Bran is the Brons of the Joseph of Arimathea legend, and by this means the old Celtic heathen vessel of increase and youth came into connection with the follower of Christ, who was at an early date a favourite legendary figure on British soil, the Evangelium Nicodemi which relates his legend having been widely known there at a time when continental literature is altogether silent regarding it. The Christianisation of the Celtic saga had probably begun before Chrestien, though only to a very slight extent. It was fully carried out by men who wrote after, and in GRAILE GRAMMAR 345 opposition to him, and who wished to make the ry a vehicle for moral and religious teaching. Robert de Borron alone worked out the conception in a fairly consistent way ; in the other theological romance-writers—e.g. the authors of the Queste, of the Grand St Graal, and Gerbert—the Graal is at least as much heathen as Christian. In these romances the tendency is rather moral than dog- matic: they are in the main glorifications of asceticism, and in especial of physical chastity. This latter idea, almost foreign to the earlier works of the cycle, is most fully worked out in the Queste, a new hero, Galahad, being especially created to typify the virtue of bea The Queste was one of the romances used by Malory in his Morte Darthur; hence the Galahad story has had a great and abiding influence upon English literature cS Tennyson and others. Wolfram von Eschenbach, like Robert de Borron and the author of the Queste, received the story from Chrestien, and, like them, was dissatisfied with the latter’s treatment of it. He, however, has worked out a religious and ethical ideal of a far nobler and truer kind than that found in the Queste. His conception is based, not upon chastity, but upon charity, and the Grail becomes with him a symbol, not of ascetic longing and its unearthly reward, but of human striving and human love in their noblest manifestation. Evidence in support of the foregoing contentions, ther with fall paaninkvios of the romances them- selves, and bibliography and analysis of the inves- tigations of previous students, will be found in the writer's Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail, with ial Reference to the Hypothesis of its Celtic Origin (1888). Compare also M. Gaston Paris’s Histoire Littéraire de la France, vol. xxx. (1888); and for alleged Buddhist influence upon the Grail legend, the writer’s article in the Archeo- logical Review, June 1889. See also KOMANCES, AP (WALTER), TENNYSON. Graile. See Grapvat. Grain. For grain imports and exports, see Foop, Vol. IV. p. 720; also the articles WHEAT, &e. Grain, as a unit of weight, is supposed to be the ian weight of a seed or well-ripened ear of wheat; of such grains 7000 are held to be a pound avoirdupois. The grain is also the 20th part of a scruple in apothecaries’ weight, and the 24th part of a pennyweight troy. See also GRAMME. Grain Coast. See GUINEA. Graining, a kind of dace found in the Mersey and some few English rivers, and in Swiss lakes, distinguished by Pennant and Yarrell as a sepa- rate species ( Leuciseus lancastriensis), but regarded by Giinther as only a local variety of the dace (L. vulgaris). See DAcE. Grains of Paradise, or Ma.ecurrra PEPPER, an aromatic and extremely hot and pungent seed imported from Guinea. It is the produce of Amomum Grana Paradisi, a plant of the order Zingiberacere. By the natives these seeds are used as a spice or condiment ; in Europe chiefly in veterinary practice, and fraudulently to increase the pungency of fermented and spirituous liquors. By 56 Geo. III. chap. 58, brewers and dealers in beer in England were prohibited, under a heavy penalty, from even having grains of para- dise in their possession. This drug is much used to ere apparent strength to bad gin. The name M etta Pepper, or Guinea Pepper (q.v.), is also given to other pungent seeds from the west of _ Grakle, the common name of many birds of the Starling famil ya Sturnide), all tropical or subtropical. They have very much the habits of starlings, which some of them even excel in their imitative powers, and ng caeaied in the imitation of human speech. This is remarkably the case with the Mina Birds or Hills Mynas Ntectenar javana), common in India, which are easily tamed and taught. Many grakles feed on seeds and fruits, while others are useful as destroyers of insects. See STARLING.—In the United States the name Grakle or Grackle is applied to several species of the genera Scolecophagus and Quiscalus, omnivorous birds, also called ‘blackbirds’ and ‘ boat-tails.’ Gralla, or GRALLATORES (Lat., ‘stilt- walkers’), an old order of wading and running birds, including rails ( Rallide), snipes and curlews (Scolopacide), plovers (Charadriidw), bustards (Otidide), cranes (Gruide), herons and bitterns ( Ardeide ), storks (Ciconiidz ), and numerous other families. These are ae by modern ornithol- ogists in a number of smaller orders, while the old order Gralle is abandoned as too hopelessly large. They are mostl in Ne marsh or coast birds, generally with long legs and bills. Their distribu- tion is very wide, the four largest families (rails, snipes, plovers, and herons) being quite cosmo- politan. Gram. See CHIcK PEA. Graminez. See GRASSES. Grammar deals with the usage of some one form of speech. It may be described as a section of the larger science of language (see article PHIL- OLOGY), which treats of the origin, development, and general character of the principal families of language and of human speech as a whole. In common use, however, grammar means not a branch of science, but a treatise on some one well-defined form of speech as used in the present day, as by French grammar we mean a tick on the usage of Paris; by English grammar we mean an account of the language spoken and written by educated men throughout Great Britain, which language, however, is only one dialect of English s 1, the East Midland. That dialect by favouring condi- tions has superseded the other dialects, southern and northern, which were once spoken and written, and are still in a lessening degree spoken, in different parts of the island. Grammar has two parts. The first describes the forms of a language, the single words which occur in it, its nouns, verbs, &e. ; and its modifi- cations of such forms, the cases of its nouns, the persons and tenses of its verbs, &c., used to express modifications of the same idea, as ‘ child,’ ‘ child’s,’ ‘children,’ ‘spring,’ ‘sprang,’ ‘ sprung,’ in English. This is called the morphology of a language, or (more loosely) its etymology. The second part deals with the use of these forms in combination : their syntax—i.e. their arrangement in order of speech. The oe principles of this will vary little in the different langu of the same family ; but each language has its idioms, as we call them, its own special refinements of usage, and it is in the clear discrimination of these that the practical value of a grammar lies. Grammar in this function may be called special. It does not enter into the history of the forms which | it describes ; it is sufficient if it sets forth what they are at a particular time, without showing how they became such. But it is possible to a considerable extent to trace the history of these forms—e.g. we can see how literary English has developed out of the English of Chaucer, and that from the English of an earlier day, how the forms have changed mostly in the direction of uniformity, and how (to a lesser degree) their syntax has altered. To trace this belongs to historical grammar, and some of the results of this science are now commonly given in 346 GRAMMAR each special grammar. Lastly we can compare together the forms and usage of cognate dialects. We can compare, e.g., the grammar of our literary English dialect and that of the speech of Dorset, as set forth by Mr Barnes; and, employing the results of historical grammar, we can trace back the varying development of English speech as a whole; or we can compare the development and trace the connection of English and of German speech, and the relation of each of these to Latin or to Greek, till we arrive at some knowledge of a common speech of which all these are only derived forms. This is the work of comparative grammar. Naturally, we do not learn our own speech from a written grammar. A child learns his words and their use from those around him, not as a whole, but one by one; and he forms new words for him- self on the analogy of those he has already acquired. When he finds that any of these formations are not used by others he rejects them, and so he assimilates his speech to that of those around him. It is when we have to deal with a speech which is not our own, either that of a foreign nation, or of our own language at some earlier period, or of some dialect of our own language, that we need a ammar. The earliest works on grammar were ue to the second of these causes. t Alexandria, the great commercial and literary centre of Greece in the days when the separate Greek states had ceased to be autonomous, there was for the first time a huge collection of the works of earlier writers, especially the Homeric poems. The age was one destitute of original ability ; the loss of freedom had caused the loss of the motives which had produced the literature of the past. But it contained a large number of literary men, whose activity was chiefly spent on the work of their pre- decessors. This was to them in language and in style archaic; it required glosses—as we should say, glossaries—and explanations of disused. forms. Hence arose the first grammarians, men often of conspicuous ability in their own Tine, such as Zenodotus and Aristarchus. . At a later time, Romans who wished to learn Greek had grammars based upon Greek models, compiled for them in Latin, and these have been the parents of all European grammars to the present day. The grammatical terms with which we are familiar are consequently in the main Latin translations of Greek originals, and because of this they are often less intelligible than they might be. It is to the Greeks that we owe the number of the so-called ‘parts of speech.’ But their eight were not the same as ours. They had (1) the noun; (2) the verb (terms which go back to Aristotle, though in his use the ‘verb’ meant all that is logically called the predicate); (3) the participle, so called because it partook of the nature of both the noun and the verb—it was a noun in form, yet it governed a case like a verb; (4) the article; (5) the pronoun; (6) the preposition, so called not as being placed before a case, but as set before a verb or noun in composi- tion; (7) the adverb—i.e. the ‘additional predi- cation,’ not anything specially belonging to the verb, as the Latin name seems to imply; (8) the con- junction. The Romans modified this list. First, they rejected the participle, and supplied its place by dividing the noun into the substantive and the adjective ; this is a gain to logic, but as a matter of history the two go back to the same origin. The thing and the quality of the thing were alike expressed by the noun, and the analogic feeling in man suggested that they should be represented when together by nouns of the same class—i.e. with the same terminations: hence we have the grammatical property called gender, which is alto- — gether independent of natural gender. Secondly, they rejected the article in their grammar, not having it in their speech. Here they were histor- ically right, for the Greek article was only a pronoun. Later Latin developed a new one out of a different pronoun, ¢/e, seen in various forms in the different Romance languages—French, Italian, Spanish, &c. But having lost the article they felt bound to fill up its place: therefore they put in the interjection, wich is the conventional stereo- typed expression of the natural eries which, we may believe, in days before articulate speech existed, eked out the earliest and simplest means of communication—i.e. gestures (see article PHIL- OLOGY). The interjection is therefore no ‘ part of speech ;’ it is an imperfect undeveloped ‘speech- whole;’ and the Greeks rightly did not inelude it in their list. If we exclude the interjection, we can prove by means of historical grammar that these different parts of speech run back to two, the noun and the verb; and the distinetion even of these rests on the inability of our analysis to separate them completely. It is true that nouns are distinguished by ‘case-suffixes "—/upus, lupum, lupi, lupo, &c. in Latin; and the verb by ‘per- sonal suffixes ’—amo, amas, amat, &c. ; but there was doubtless a time in our parent-speech when no such ‘suffixes’ existed, and all that lies be- hind them may have been in those earlier days identical for noun and verb. Our own language shows the possibility of using one form—e.g. ‘ love,’ alike for noun and verb. The pronoun differs from the noun in meaning by its greater generality. ‘This’ includes all objects in our immediate neigh- bourhood, books, chairs, tables, &e.; ‘he’ includes all ‘Johns,’ ‘Smiths,’ &c. In form it differs only by the simpler and on the whole the more archaic character of its root or ultimate element. The term ‘pronoun’ expresses only one subordinate use—the anaphoric or ‘reference’ use, by virtue of which, having once uttered a man’s differentiating name, ‘John,’ or the like, we refer to him afterwards, so long as clearness permits, only as ‘he.’ The origin of adverbs and prepositions out of nouns or pro- nouns is very obvious in our own language : ‘ once’ is Old Eng. dnes, the genitive of dn (‘one’); ‘seldom’ is an old dative plural of seld (‘rare’); to go ‘afoot’ was to go ‘on’ foot; ‘ beside’ is ‘ by side (of) ;’ and, if we are unable to reach the original form of prepositions like ‘on’ and ‘by,’ we do not doubt that in days beyond our analysis they were nouns modifying other words which then filled the place of the nouns and verbs of later times. Similarly, conjunctions are either noun-cases or condensed sentences ; ‘ whil-s-t’ is ‘ whiles,’ the genitive of ‘while’ (time), with a final ¢, which may be analogous to that of ‘lest’ (another con- junction), originally ‘thi less the,’ then ‘lesthe,’ and ‘leste ;’ ‘howbeit,’ ‘ because’ (by cause of) ex- plain themselves. Thus the eight parts of speech may be traced back to not more than two. All language at all times of which we have any knowledge, and doubtless from the very beginning of human speech, is a modification of existing combinations of sound. Language probably began, as has been already suggested, with the use of cries to help out gestures. ‘These cries were associated by use with particular ideas, and that most ele- mentary language (or languages, for there is no need to suppose that language sprang up in one place only, the circumstances being everywhere similar) was subject to the same laws which mould our speech at the present day. Groups of sound expressing the required thought are combined together, as ‘man’ and ‘kind,’ or ‘house’ and ‘top.’ The combination may be such that the different parts are always separable; then each GRAMMAR 347 Seer ercap (or word, as we may now call it remains intact, and the relation which one wo bears to another in the expression of the entire thought depends on the position of the words, the stress, or the pitch of the voice with which each is pronounced, or other more minute conditions. A e of which this is the prevailing character is call : Sco om Chinese is —_ ore t seems in uate, yet the facility with DReh ideas can be pe mend in such a language may be seen from the different grammatical values which the same sound-group can have in our own language in phrases like ‘love is sweet,’ ‘ we feel love,’ ‘God is love,’ ‘I love you,’ &e. But nearly all languages admit of combination more complete than this, whereby two or more words can be joined together, so that a single sound-complex expresses two or more ideas in com- bination —e.g. ‘ free-man,’ ‘ black-bird,’ ‘ thank-ful,’ *high-born,’ ‘ back-bite,’ ‘ill-treat,’ &c. Each of these may form the model for numerous copies ; thus, ‘thankful’ can produce ‘ youthful,’ ‘ health- ful,’ which are later English compounds. Then came hybrid compounds, where the first member is of Latin origin (of course through the Norman), as ‘merciful,’ ‘masterful.’ In this last we see that the exact nature of the original compound is obscured, and that ‘ful’ gives merely the addi- tional sense of ‘like,’ as though the compound had been ‘masterlike,’ which does indeed occur in a briefer form, and with a secondary sense, as ‘masterly.’ This example throws light on the history of all word-formation. A word may cease to be felt as a conyg Stag commonly through change of form in one or both of its parts, as ‘masterly,’ where the idea of the skill of a master in some art alone remains; or ‘hussy’ (house-wife), where both parts of the compound are lost. Sometimes only one syllable may remain, as in ‘lord’ (loaf- ward). Often some great change of idea joins with phonetic change in obscuring the nature of a com- pound, as in fortnight (fourteen-night). Now, when the last part of the compound fulfils certain condi- tions, it may be used in the formation of countless other words : -lie (like), which is found in O. E. in ‘eorth-lic,’ ‘cyne-lic’(earthly, kingly), passes on in its simpler form -/y in ‘daily,’ ‘ princely,’ &c. ; and -ly is then what grammarians call a suffix, an element which cannot be used alone, but can be added on at pleasure to another word to modify its meaning. The conditions are (1) that the form of the so-called suffix must’ be a convenient one phonetically ; (2) that it must have been in use in a considerable number of compounds at the same time : for ‘ bridegroom’ ( bride-man), ‘ nightingale’ (nihte-gale, night-singer), ‘gossip’ (God-sib, ‘God- related) have produced no analogous forms in English owing to the rarity of the use of their second member ; (3) that the last member must be general in its sense, or at least acquire some general sense in composition. A suffix is especially favoured which can be mentally referred to some common word of general sense, meee it may really have nothing to do with that word. Thus, in ‘credible,’ ‘invincible,’ &c. the original suffix -ble (-bili in Latin) is seen; but in many words which come to us through the French, ‘ probable,’ ‘amiable,’ a preceded the last syllable : thus these words seemed to mean ‘able’ to be proved, or to be loved ; and so words like ‘knowable,’ ‘lovable,’ ‘reliable’ sprang up in abundance. Independently of these conditions of the origin of suffixes, it is also neces- sary that the first member of a compound remain unobscured. Thus, no words have been formed on the model,*¥ ‘orchard’ (wort-yard), though -ard as a Normarg’¥rench suffix has produced derivatives like ‘dru,fard,’ on the analogy of ‘bastard,’ ‘wizard.’ We are justified in inferring from the English suffixes which can be explained as remnants of words (-ful, -ly, -dom, -hood, and the like) that the others whose history can no longer be traced had a similar origin; and even in extending this cg to those formative suffixes which reach k to the earliest period of language. It is a sound axiom that what is in language has been and will be; it is only by dealing with spoken languages that we can infer the nature of those known to us by tradition only. It cannot be said with certainty that we should assign the same origin to those other suffixes—which we call infleetional—to which we owe the cases of our nouns, and the persons, tenses, and voices of our verbs. The persons, in- deed, of the verbs were, it is most probable, pro- nouns. The min ‘am’ represents original ‘I,’ so ‘am’ meant ‘exist I,’ and was a compound of two words, originally as separate as ‘I exist ;’ s repre- sented ‘thou,’ and ¢ (Eng. th in ‘loveth,’ &c.) was ‘he. But. we cannot say exactly what the tense- suffixes were, though we believe they are the rem- nants of words; nor what were the case-suffixes of the nouns—what, for example, was the s which still marks our genitive case, or the s of our plurals. But we know that we can make a ‘noun of multitude’ by making such a compound as ‘man-kind,’ and there is no reason why -es (the original form of -s, our plural suffix) may not once have been some such word as ‘kind,’ and com- pounded in the same manner. Such a history is in accordance with all we know of the processes of a at It will be apparent from what has been said that there never was in any language some one period in which its suffixes were made, succeeded by a period in which there was no more growth but only decay. Formation is always going on, though more slowly in languages which are stereotyped by literature. In English we have almost ceased to use our second personal suffix -s/, in * lovest,’ &e. But that st is itself an English growth: the older English form was s: in the old Mercian Psalter (edited by Mr Sweet in his Oldest English Texts) we find both ‘thu dydes’ and ‘thu dydest,’ ‘thu bis’ and ‘thu bist,’ &e. Other Teutonic languages show the same (independent) development. Still more do ‘formative suffixes’ go on growing. One of our commoner English suffixes (used to make a diminutive) is -Jet, seen in comparatively recent words, like ‘brooklet,’ ‘streamlet,’ &e. But the form is really a development of the older -e¢ (the French -ette) in ‘helmet,’ ‘banneret,’ ‘cygnet.’ Several of these forms, like ‘islet,’ ‘circlet,’ and ‘eaglet,’ were formed out of nouns which ended in 1; and so new ones were formed—‘ ring-let,’ &c., as though the 7 had always belonged to the suffix. We are getting a new suffix in -nist, seen in ‘ tobacco- nist,” &c. This is an extension of the old suftix (Greek, through Latin into French) -dst, in ‘ jurist,’ ‘dentist,’ &c. ; this seems to be due to words where the n belongs to the root-part, as ‘mechan-ist,’ ‘ pian-ist,’ and other late forms. A common method of inflection in language is, not by suffix, but by change of the original vowel : thus, we have ‘man,’ but plural ‘men;’ and in verbs we find present ‘drink,’ preterite ‘drank,’ past participle ‘drunken.’ These can, however, be traced to the influence in different ways of lost suffixes, Thus, the old declension of ‘man’ was nom. ‘mann;’ gen. ‘mannes;’ dat. ‘menn(i);’ plur. nom. ‘ menn(i);’ gen. ‘manna;’ dat. ‘man- num.’ It is clear that the change of a toe had at first nothing to do with the plural, for it is found in singuiar and plural alike when 7 followed : this vowel had the property of modifying @ in a preced- ing syllable to e. But when the cases were lost, as happened in English mainly through Norman 348 GRAMMAR influence, ‘man’ remained as the only singular form, and ‘men’ as the only plural; so, for gram- matical purposes, the plural might truly be said to be made by changing a to e. Similar is the history of ‘mouse,’ plur. ‘mice ;’ ‘goose,’ plur. ‘geese,’ &c. The Ee shacie, 7, a, u, has a most symmetrical look, and seems as though it must have been devised to express the change of rela- tion. As a fact, however, in this and all similar cases, ¢ and a represent in all Germanic languages original e and 0; and these two vowels probably represent developments of a minute variation in itch-accent (e being higher than o), dating from eyond the historic period of the parent-speech ; and this variation marks indeed tense distinctions —e.g. in Greek, pres. dérkomai, perf. dédorka ; but it is also found in nouns such as génos, génos, and it seems to have had nothing to do with tenses at first. The second change, that in ‘drank,’ ‘drunken,’ has quite a different origin, but one equally removed from tense-formation. Like the first variation, it represents a very ancient change—due to the fact that in the parent language the syllables immediately pre- ceding or following that which bore the stress- accent were weakened : no language shows better than English how to slur a syllable immediately preceding or following a stressed one—e.g. in ‘alone’ (where the last syllable is stressed) the a, originally the full a of ‘all,’ is sounded like the u of ‘but,’ or the o of ‘son;’ the same sound is commonly heard—e.g. in such a word as ‘liberty,’ instead of the ev of the middle syllable, the stress being on the first. Now in the past participle the stress was on the suffix -no (seen as -en in ‘drunken’), and hence the vowel-change in the root. But it oddly happens that just the same change took place in the plural of the perfect itself, owing to the plural personal suffixes being stressed in the parent language; and so the Old English singular third person was ‘drank,’ but the third - p ural was ‘druncon’ (a procively parallel case is the Greek sing. oda, plur. idmen, orig. idmén). So there was a time when it was right to say ‘I drank’ and ‘we drunk;’ but a meaningless dis- tinction like this could not be maintained: one form was bound to supplant the other, and ‘drank’ won; but ‘ won,’ the plur. of ‘ winnan,’ supplanted the sing. ‘wann ;’ ‘stung’ beat ‘stang ;’ ‘sprang’ and ‘sprung’ were used indifferently at the begin- ning of this century, as by Scott and Byron, to help their rhymes; and here and in other verbs there is still some fluctuation of use, even among educated men. These examples may suffice to show that vowel-change, though extremely useful to mark grammatical distinctions, was not in any- way designed for this end, which has been reached by unconscious differentiation: for we may infer from what we can observe in languages whose history can be traced that the prehistoric dis- tinctions in the earliest recorded languages had a like accidental origin. The history of grammatical forms may _ then he roughly sketakad thus. They arose probably always from composition. Such compounds were subject to phonetic corruption, and the unstressed syllables were slurred and lost their individuality ; or one member of the compound ceased to be used independently, some other word having superseded it, the result being the same as in the first case— viz. the loss of special significance in one part of the compound ; and when the part so generalised is the final syllable, that syllable becomes a mere suffix, and can express relation, as the -/y in ‘fatherly,’ or the -s in ‘fathers.’ Furthermore, the cases of the nouns and the persons of the verbs thus formed were liable to variations of form in the same noun or verb, due to the incidence of stress or the influence of one syllable on another. The irregularities thus produced were again levelled in process of time by the natural tendency to do away with differences which are no longer significant; hence came symmetry of inflection, which is not the earliest stage in grammar, but rather the result of long unconscious play of physical and mental forces. Again, infloetingts constantly perished, either by simple phonetic decay, or more commonly through change of nationality, as, for example, when the Teutonic and other races adopted the Latin of the conquered Roman provinces, or when the descendants of the Normans began to use the national speech of England. Thus arises much simplification of what is to the speakers a foreign grammar; also there is a great growth of hybrid forms, Norman-French words combining with English suffixes, and vice versa. With the dying out of inflections arises a great growth of indeclinable words—adverbs, con- pupetions, and prepositions: some cases, as the ocative or the ablative in Greek, or the instru- mental in Latin, became almost extinct; the few surviving forms, as Greek locatives in -ez and abla- tives in -6s, belonging to nouns of the o class, lost their connection with those nouns; they remained isolated forms, freed from the levelling tendencies which affected the other cases of the same noun, because no longer felt to be in connection with them. Thus they could become the origin each of a new group of forms, extending (as did the so-called Greek adverbs in -ez and -6s) to many other classes of nouns besides that which gave them birth. Very commonly this isolation of some particular form may arise while the case is still in full use, through some accidental break of connection. In English our one surviving case-form in the genitive is -s, yet this very form has been the parent of numerous adverbs: ‘fines’ (already mentioned) was the genitive of ‘fan’ (one): the connection was lost, and the adverb ‘once’ arose, and pro- duced ‘twice’ (older form ‘twi-es’), ‘thrice’ by mere analogy, no such genitives having ever existed ; so, too, ‘forward-s,’ ‘alway-s,’ and many others are analogical forms—no true genitives, but copies of the model set by an isolated genitive. It has been well said by one of the greatest of modern German philologists, Professor H. Paul, that isolation is the essential condition of all speech-development. Lastly, even while cases survive in use, it is necessary to supplement them by piene because (except perhaps in languages which, like the Finnish, A fifteen cases) there are not enough case-forms to express the numerous rela- tions in space (‘to,’ ‘from,’ ‘in,’ ‘upon,’ ‘by,’ ‘near,’ ‘with,’ &c.) in which one person or thin may stand to another. As cases die out this nee increases, and modern European languages express practically all relations by prepositions. his principle is sometimes called analysis, as con- trasted with the combinatory ‘synthetic’ principle of older forms of languages. Naturally no language. is ever completely analytic : even in English words like ‘father’s’ and ‘love’s’ still attest that the language was once synthetic. Those who desire fuller insight into the principles of grammar (as seen in languages of the Indo-European e) may consult the well-known works of Prof. Max Miller; A. H. Sayce’s Principles of Comparative Philology, and his Introduction to the Science of Language, which treat the subject from a different standpoint; W. D. Whitney’s Life and Growth of Language, and his Linguistic Studies; H. Paul’s Principien der Sprach- geschichte, an invaluable but difficult work, translated, though not made materially easier, by Pr, Strong. A synoptic view of the relation of the Indo-Fg:ropean lan- guages will be found in the still unfinished ¢ “undriss der vergleichenden Grammatik of Karl Brugm| nn (vol. i. GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS GRAMPUS 349 trans. by Wright). Excellent works on special languages are Whitney’s Sanskrit Grammar and Delbriick’s A/t- indische Syntax ; for Greek, af be mentioned (out of | many) Brugmann’s Grammar in J. Miiller’s Handbuch der | klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, and D. B. Monro’s | Homeric Grammar—a most suggestive book; for Latin, Stolz’s Grammar (also in Miller's Handbuch), and | Driiger’s Historical Latin Syntax, which, though old, is | still the most systematic work on the subject; mnumer- | able valuable articles bearing on both Greek and Latin are to be found in Kuhn’s Zeitschrift, Bezzenberger’s | Beitriiye, the Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique, the Cambridge and the American Journals of Philology; for Keltic, the Grammars of Zeuss and Windisch (Old Irish, trans. by Dr N. Moore), and Prof. Khys’s Lectures on Welsh Philology ; for the Romance languages collectively, the Grammar of Diez and the (stiil unfinished) Grund- viss der romanischen Philologie of G. Griber ; special works on these languages are too numerous to mention. For Teutonic langu there is an excellent series of gram- mars published - Niemeyer (Halle), on Icelandic by Noreen, on Old High German by Braune, and on Middle High German by Paul (Strong and K. Meyer’s History of the German Language may also be found useful); on Gothic, Braune ; see also Douse’s las, and Prof. Skeat’s little edition of the Gospel of St Mark in Gothic. For English, Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Reader and Cook’s trans. of Sievers’ Grammar of Old English are the best; Prof. Skeat’s Principles of English Etymology should also be consulted ; Storm’s Englische Philologie is excellent, but still a fragment; A J. Ellis’ Karly English Pronuncia- tion (5 vols. 1869-89) is a mine of information on the history of the English language. Grammar-schools, See EDUCATION. Gramme is the standard unit of French measures of weight, and is the weight of a cubic centimetre of distilled water at 4° Centigrade (cor- responding to about 39° F.); the other weights have received names corresponding to the number of grammes they contain, or the number of times they are contained in a gramme (see DECIMAL SYSTEM, METRE). A gramme = 15°43248 grains troy, from which the equivalents in English measure for the other weights ean easily be found ; thus : Grains Troy. Lb. Avoirdupois, Centigramme = 1543234 = *0000220462 Decigramme = 1°543234 = 000220462 GRAMME = 1543234 = 00220462 Decagramme = 1543234. = 0220462 Hectogramme = 1543°234 = “220462 Kilogramme = 15432°34 = 220462 Myriagramme = 154323°4 = 22°0462 == 19684 cwt. Quintal (q.v.) = 1543234 = 2207462 = 19684 GRAMME-ATOM.—A quantity of an elementary substance, such that the number of grammes- weight is the same as the atomic number of the element—e.g. 12 grammes of carbon (C= 12). GRAMME-EQUIVALENT.—A number of grammes- weight of a substance, elemehtary or compound, ual numerically to the quantity of that substance which is chemically equivalent to unit weight of Ss alg g. 8 grammes of oxygen, 9 grammes of water. GRAMME-MOLECULE.—A quantity of a substance, elementary or compound, such that the number of grammes and the molecular weight are numerically the same—e.g. 32 grammes of oxygen (O,=32), 18 grammes of water (H,O=18), Grammiche le, a town of Sicily, 33 miles SW. of Catania, on a mountain-ridge, 1768 feet above sea-level. Beautiful marbles are produced in the neighbourhood. It was founded in 1693 in place of the neighbouring town of Ochiola, which had been destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. 11,804. Grammont (Fr.; Belg. Geeraerdsbergen), a small town in the Belgian province of East Flanders, on the Dender, 14 miles by rail S. by E. of Ghent, with an episcopal seminary, and famous manu- factures of black lace. Pop. (1893) 11,031. Gramont, or GRAMMONT, PHILIBERT, CoMTE DE, a celebrated French courtier, was born in 1621. His ndfather was husband to ‘la belle Coris- ande,’ one of the many mistresses of Henry IV. While still very young he distinguished himself as a volunteer under Condé and Turenne, and uickly became a favourite at the court of Louis IV., from his handsome figure, lively wit, and wonderful luck at play. But his gallantries brought him exile from France in 1662, He found a pleasant _— and congenial society among the merry profligates that thronged the court of Charles LI. of England. Here he took his share in all the intrigues that formed the sole occupation of those gilded reprobates of both sexes who modelled their morals on the king’s. He married, but not without ne socom Elizabeth Hamilton, sister of Count Anthony Hamilton, with whom he afterwards re- turned to France, there to live as he had lived in England. Ninon de |’Enclos said he was the only old man who could affect the follies of youth without being ridiculous. At eighty he inspired his memoirs, or at least revised them when written by his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (1646-1720). This strange book is a remarkable revelation of a world of intrigue and villainy, saved from detesta- tion only by its brilliancy and wit. It is written with equal grace and vigour, and its portraits are among the best materials for the domestic history of the time. Gramont survived till 1707. His Mémoires was first. printed anonymously in 1713, and an English translation by Boyer was published in 1714. The work, though actually the composi- tion of a foreigner, is an acknowledged French classic, and has often been reprinted, sometimes in forms as sumptuous as the editions by Renouard (1812) and Gastave Brunet (1859). The best English editions are Edwards's (1793), Malleville’s (1811), Bohn’s (1846), and that published by John C. Nimmo in 1889. Grampians, a name very loosely applied to the mountain-system of the Scottish Highlands. Some, for instance, restrict it to a ‘chain’ of heights bordering the Lowland plain from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, whilst others include a ‘range’ ex- tending from Stonehaven to Ben Nevis, as well as the Cairngorm group, Schiehallion, &c. Hector Boece adopted the name in 1527 from Tacitus’s Mons Grampius or Granpius, the scene in 86 A.D. of Agricola’s crushing defeat of Galgacus. Where that battle was fought has itself been hotly con- tested. Ardoch, Dalginross, near Comrie, and Urie, near Stonehaven, are sites named, also the junction of the Isla and Tay. See also VICTORIA. Grampound, a decayed Cornish village, till 1824 returning two members to parliament, 7 miles SW. of St Austell. Pop. 495. Grampus (a sailor's corruption of Ital. gran Grampus (Orca gladiator). pesce, or Span. gran , ‘great fish’), a cetaceous animal, common in almost all seas from Greenland 350 GRAN GRANBY to Tasmania, not unfrequent in the Atlantic, and well known on the British coasts. Constituting the genus Orea, it is the largest of the Delphinide, often more than 20 feet in length ; its form spindle- shaped, but thicker in proportion than the porpoise, from which it also differs in the much greater height of its dorsal fin, in its rounded head, and its permanent conical teeth. It is remarkable for its great strength and voracity, and is the only cetacean which preys systematically on its warm- blooded kindred—on small dolphins and porpoises, belugas, and even whales—the grampuses, or ‘killers’ as English sailors also call them, assem- bling in herds to pursue whales. Gran, a royal free-town of Hungary, is situated on the right bank of the Danube, here crossed by a bridge of boats, 25 miles NW. of Pesth, and opposite the mouth of the river Gran (length, 150 miles). The town is the see of the primate of Hungary, and its great domed cathedral (1821-56), on the castle hill, rivals in its magnificent propor- tions St Peter’s at Rome. The palace of the prince- archbishop, who is primate of Hungary, and has a rent ott of £80,000, is the chief of many build- ings in connection with the cathedral. The warm mineral springs of Gran have also some fame. Pop. (1890) 9349. Gran was the cradle of Christian- ity in Hungary; here St Stephen, the first king, was born in 979, and baptised and crowned in 1000. In the next two centuries it became the greatest commercial town in the kingdom; the old name, Istrogranum (‘Danube grain-town’), appears now in the Magyar Esztergom, and the Hungarian-Latin Strigonium. Gran’s fortunes never recovered from the storming by the Tartars in 1241. Granada, an ancient Moorish kingdom of Spain, embracing the south-eastern portion of Andalusia, and now divided into the three modern provinces of Granada, Almeria, and Malaga, the united areas of which amount to 11,062 sq. m., and the united pop. (1877) 1,328,464; (1887) 1,361,456. Except in the narrow strip of coast region along the Mediterranean, the surface is a succession of moun- tain and plateau rising in the centre to the snow- capped Sierra Nevada; but the soil is fertile, and the ancient Granada, which became an independent kingdom after the fall of the caliphate of Cordova in 1236, supported a population of 3 millions, and sent 100,000 men into the field. From 1246 the Moorish kings were obliged to recognise the supremacy of the kings of Castile. A quarrel, however, which arose between the vassal king of Granada and Ferdinand and Isabella in the 15th century resulted in a war of eleven years’ duration, the result of which was the complete conquest of Granada by the Spaniards in 1492, and the total destruction of Moorish authority in Spain. The modern province of Granada has an area of 4928 sq. m., which includes the highest mountains in the Peninsula, and one of the most picturesque regions in Europe. A great portion belongs to the basins of the Jenil and the Fardes (Guadiana Menor), tributaries of the Guadalquivir; the Guad- alfeo and other streams flow into the Mediterranean. The climate is warm, but tempered by the snow- clad mountain-ranges ; the fruitful soil yields the products of both the temperate and subtropical zones. Neither the mineral springs nor the rich deposits of salt, iron, lead, copper, zine, sulphur, marble, and alabaster are much worked; the silk industry, formerly important, has nearly dis- appeared, and the manufactures are now chiefly weaving, sugar and brandy refining, &c.; and the trade of the province, hindered by a rock-bound, inhospitable coast and the absence of roads, is unimportant. Pop. (1877) 479,066 ; (1887) 480,594. GRANADA, the chief town of the province, and formerly capital of the kingdom, has sadly declined since the days of its Moorish masters, but still ranks as one of the larger cities of Spain. It lies at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, on and between two hills, the southernmost being the site of the famous Alhambra (q.v.), and is 2245 feet above sea- level, and 126 (by rail 179) miles E. by 8. of Seville. it overlooks a fertile and extensive plain, and stands on the right bank of the Jenil, which is here joined by the Darro. The northern hill is occupied by the Albaicin, the oldest part of the town. The main part of the town lies in the plain to the west of this, on both sides of the Darro, which is here mostly arched over; and the wide suburbs of Elvira and Antiqueruela stretch farther to the west and north. The modern town is common- place and dull, with wide streets, open squares, and many-windowed houses; but the old houses, with their flat roofs, turrets, many-coloured awn- ings, balconies, and fountains, preserve still a half oriental aspect, and the labyrinths of narrow, tor- tuous, ill-paved Janes that for the most part pass for streets here and there offer picturesque views. The chief centres of anise activity are the old and handsome square known as the Vivar- rambla and the Zacatin, or old bazaar, a street which still retains much of the Moorish style. On the outskirts of the town there is a shady Alameda. Granada is the seat of an archbishop, and has a university (1531) attended by a | 1000 students. The cathedral, begun in 1529, is profusely decorated with jaspers and coloured marbles, and contains the tombs of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Philip I. and his consort Juana, fine specimens of Italian Renaissance sculp- ture, doubtfully attributed to Torrigiano. In the monastery of San Geronimo the ‘Great Captain,’ Gonsalvo di Cordova, is buried. The industry and trade of the town are inconsiderable. Pop. (1877) 76,108; (1887) 66,778. The modern city of Granada was founded by the Moors in the 8th century, not far from the ruins of an ancient Celtiberian town, IIli- beris, and rapidly rose to distinction as a wealthy trading city and as a seat of arts and architecture. According to the common account, about 1350 the Ee. numbered 200,000, and at the time of the panish conquest reached 400,000; the city was surrounded by a wall fortified with 1030 towers, contained 70 libraries, and was the seat of 50 schools of learning. But this is more or less legendary.—The etymology of Granada is doubtful, but the worst explanation is that which makes the name mean pomegranate. The Moors called it Karnattah or Karnattah-al-Yahoud—i.e. Granada of the Jews, to whom this quarter of the early town was given up, the Arabs retaining Illiberis, which they called Elvira. Karnattah possibly signifies the hill or city of strangers. See Prescott’s Ferdi- nend and Isabella (1837); Washington Irving’s Conquest y Granada (1829); Lafuente y Alcantara, Historia de Granada (4 vols. Gran. 1843). Granada, a department and city of Nicaragua. The department, lying between the Pacific and Lakes Nicaragua and Managua, has an area of nearly 2600 sq. m.; it is mostly a level savannah, -but contains the voleano of Masaya and the Mom- bacho peak (4500 feet). Pop. about 70,000.—The city stands on the north-west side of Lake Nicar- agua, and is connected with Managua by rail. Founded in 1522, it was formerly the chief town of the republic, but has suffered preatly from the civil wars ; it is still, however, of some importance as a trading centre. Pop. about 10,000. Granadilla, the edible fruit of Passiflora quadrangularis. See PASSION-FLOWER. Granby, JoHN MANNERS, MARQUIS OF, an English general, the eldest son of the third Duke GRAN CHACO GRAND RAPIDS 351 of Rutland, was born January 2, 1721. He en- the army, and soon after attaining the rank of pecans general (1759) was sent to Ger- many as second in command, under Lord George Sackville, of the British troops co-operating with the king of Prussia. After the battle of Min- den he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British troops, and held wr ey during the ar, remainder of the Seven Years’ After the of 1763 he was constituted master-general of the ordnance, and in 1766 commander-in-chief of the army. He died at Scarborough on 19th October 1770. Though very popular in his time, as is evidenced by the f sop with which his portrait was used as a public-house sign, he was the subject of some of the most terrible invectives of Junius. His military qualities appear to have been overrated by his contemporaries. Gran Chaco, an extensive central tract of South America, extending from the southern tropic to 29° S. lat., and bounded on the E. by the Para- guay and Parana, and on the W. by the Argentine provinces of Santiago del Estero and Salta. Its area, about 180,000 sq. m., exceeds that of Great Britain and Ireland by one-half. The portion south of the Pileomayo belongs to Argentinia, and the remaining third to Paraguay ; but the possession of the upper section of the Pileomayo is disputed by Bolivia. The country rises gradually from the Parana towards the north-west as far as 25° 40’ 8. lat., when it dips to the valley of the San Francisco —part of a great op extending through Bolivia nearly to the frontier of Peru, and subject to annual inundations. The Chaco is watered principally he ee long, narrow, and tortuous streams, the Bermejo and the Pilcomayo, flowing south-east in courses generally parallel, and about 180 miles distant from each other. Only the former has been explored throughout, but it is known that both possess an unusual number of obstructions, though these are quite removable, consisting mainly of shallows caused by the com- pact argillaceous bed which is a geological charac- teristic of the whole Chaco subsoil. The bed of the Bermejo also oscillates backward and forward, and in 1870-72 the river opened up a new channel (known as the Teuco) for nearly 200 miles. The most northern part of the Chaco is an extremely arid zone, but the banks of the upper Pileomayo are fertile and its sands auriferous. To the north of the Bermejo there are numerous and wide marshes and stretches of san le, drained by many small streams; but the jand is well wooded, chiefly with vast seas of palms (here an indication, however, of marshy lands subject to inundation, as the local algaroba is of dry, high land), while south of the Bermejo the primeval forest extends into Salta, The annual rainfall is probably 80 inches, all con- centrated into the six months from November to May; then wide sections become almost a lake district, whilst in seasons of extraordinary floods the Paraguay and the other great rivers create a vaster sea than the Nile. Thus much of the region is of modern alluvial formation, and exceedingly fertile. A very dry season su , and some districts are then utterly waterless, or the wells that have been sunk are impregnated with salt. The average temperature is 80° F. ; the climate is said to be equable, and in the southern section suitable to colonists of the Anglo-Saxon race. Since 1537, when the first explorer, Captain Juan de Ayolas, marched with 250 men into the wilder- ness from which none ever returned, numerous expeditions have been sent out from the surround- ing countries; but the savage tribes (still un- subdued throughout the unexplored interior), swamps, lagoons, and floods defeated all early attempts to open up the country. In 1884 garrisons were established along the Bermejo, and since 1885 permanent settlements have been made. Alread there are many agricultural colonies and sm towns along the Paraguay, connected by rail and telegraph ; the Berinejo lands, on both banks for 400 miles from its mouth, have been conceded by the Argentine government for various enterprises ; thousands of hands are employed in the timber trade, and steam sawmills are in operation ; cattle- raising and farming are carried on, and from the sugar-cane refined sugar and rum are manufactured. Concessions also have been granted for railways from Corrientes to the Bolivian frontier. See an interesting paper by Captain John Page in Proc. Roy. Geog. oe. (1889).—Chacu, the Quichua word for ‘hunt,’ may refer to the great Indian battues ; but under the Incas it was applied to the numbering of flocks, and so came to signify wealth —Gran C thus meaning ‘ great riches. Grand-combe, La, a town in the French department of Gard, 41 miles NNW. of Nimes. Near it are very important collieries. Pop. 6111. Grandees (Span. grandes), since the 13th century the most highly privileged class of nobility in the kingdom of Castile, in which the members of the royal family were included. Their honours were hereditary ; they held lands from the crown on the tenure of military service, were exempted from taxation, could not be summoned before any civil or criminal judge without a special warrant from the king, and could leave the kingdom, and even enter the service of a foreign prince at war with Castile, without incurring the penalties of treason. Besides this, they had the right of bein _ covered in the presence of the king. In the nationa assemblies they sat immediately behind the prel- ates and before the titled nobility (¢itulados). Under Ferdinand and Isabella they were deprived of most of their peculiar privileges ; and Charles V. converted them from an independent feudal nobilit into a dependent court nobility. Under Joseph Bonaparte their dignities and privileges were entirely abolished ; but they were partially regranted at the subsequent restoration. Grandees are still members of the senate in their own right. Grand Forks, capital of Grand Forks county, North Dakota, on the Red River of the North, opposite the mouth of Red Lake River, is about 75 miles N. of Fargo, at tie intersection of two railways. It has severai flour and saw mills, iron- works, and a brewery, besides a large transit trade in wheat. Pop. (1880) 1705; (1900) 7652. Grand Haven, capital of Ottawa county, Michigan, on Lake Michigan, and on the south bank of Grand River, 31 miles W. by N. of Grand Rapids by rail. It has a good harbour, with two lighthouses, and ships large quantities of lumber and grain. It contains several lumber-mills and manufactories of wooden wares, &c. ; and a medici- nal spring renders the place a summer resort. Pop. (1880) 4862 ; (1900) 4743. Grand Jury. See Jury. Grand Pensionary. ‘See PENSIONARY. Grandpré, a village in the French department of Ardennes, on the river Aire, 40 miles NNE. of Chialons. Here on 14th September 1792 Dumouriez was defeated by the Allies. Grand Rapids, capital of Kent county, Michigan, stands at the head of steamboat naviga- tion on Grand River, here crossed by six bridges, and at the junction of several railways, 60 miles WNW. of Lansing. The river, which enters Lake Michigan 40 miles below, here falls 18 feet in a mile, and across it extend the rapids which give name to. the town. Conducted” by canals, it 352 GRAND SERJEANTY GRANITE supplies motive-power to numerous sawmills and manufactories of furniture and wooden ware, farm- ing implements, flour, machinery, &c., though steam is now in use in most of the factories ; gypsum-quarries near the town supply abundant material for stucco-plaster and kindred prepara- tions. White bricks are also largely made here, and many of the houses and churches are built of them. The city is the seat of an Episcopal bishop. Pop. (1870) 16,507 ; (1880) 32,016; (1885) 41,934 ; (1890) 60,278; (1900) 87,565. Grand Serjeanty (magna serjeantia, or magnum servitium, ‘great service’) was one of the most honourable of the ancient feudal tenures. According to Littleton, tenure by grand serjeanty is where a man holds his lands or tenements of our sovereign lord the king by such services as he ought to do in his proper person to the king, as to carry the banner of the king, or his lance, or to lead his army, or to be his marshal, or to carry his sword before him at his coronation, or his carver, or his butler, or to be one of his chamberlains of the receipt of his exchequer, or to do other like services. These honorary services were expressly retained when the military tenures were abolished in 1661. Strathfieldsaye is held by the Duke of Wellington in grand serjeanty, the service required being the presentation to the sovereign of a flag bearing the national colours on each anniversary of the battle of Waterloo. The service by which the Duke of Marlborough holds the manor of Woodstock is the presentation to the sovereign of a French standard on the anniversary of the battle of Blenheim. In Scotland grand serjeanty was not known as a separate tenure—that is to say, lands held on condition of honorary services rendered to the sovereign were not attended with any privileges other than those attaching to lands held in a similar manner of a subject superior. In that country a tenure by honorary service was known as a Blanch Holding (q.v.). Grandson. See GRANSON. Grandville, the pseudonym of JEAN IGNACE IstIpORE GERARD, a French caricaturist, who was born at Nancy, 3d September 1803. In 1828 he first attracted attention by a series of humorous sketches entitled Les Métamorphoses du Jour, in which men with animals’ faces show forth the follies and foibles of human nature. This was followed by several similar series of satirical cari- catures of social relations, as Animaux Parlants, Les Cents Proverbes, Les Fleurs Animées, &c. He also practised political caricature with great success. Besides this line of work, he contributed illustrations to splendid editions of the Fables of Lafontaine, Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's Travels, &e. Grandville died in Paris, 17th March 1847. Grangemouth, a rising port in Stirlingshire, 3 miles ENE. of Falkirk. Founded in 1777, and erected into a police-burgh in 1872, Grangemouth has extensive quays and warehouses, docks (in- cluding a large one opened in 1882), a graving- dock, and shipbuilding yards. The trade of the port has risen very rapidly. In 1840 the shipping entering and clearing it was 31,686 tons annually ; in 1876, 840,326; in 1885, 1,457,991; and in 1894, 1,790,281 (one-third in the foreign trade) tons—the per? ranking fifth in Scotland. Since 1887 there as been a regular line of passenger steamers between Grangemouth and London, owned by the Carron Iron Company, whose works are within 2 miles of the port. The principal imports are timber, hemp, flax, tallow, deals, iron, and grain ; and the exports are manufactured iron, and coal. Grangemouth is noteworthy as having been the place where some of the earliest experiments in Steam-navigation (q.v.) were made. In 1801 the first Charlotte Dundas was built there. Pop. (1831) 1155; (1871) 2569 ; (1881) 4560; (1891) 5833. Granger, JAMES, born about 1723, was edu- eated at Christ Church, Oxford, and died vicar of Shiplake, in Oxfordshire, in 1776.. He published a long popular Biographical History of England (1769; 5th ed. 6 vols. 1824), which was ‘adapted to a catalogue of engraved British heads,’ and insisted much ‘on the utility of a collection: of engraved portraits.’ His advice led to extraor- dinary zeal in collecting portraits, and ‘ granger- ised copies’ became the name for works embellished with engravings gathered from all quarters—fre- quently secured by the unconscionable mutilation of valuable books of all kinds. A grangerised Bible, in 45 vols. folio, contained 6000 prints, and was valued at 3000 guineas. An edition of Lefevre’s Voltaire in 90 vols. contained 12,000 engravings (mostly portraits), and cost the labour of twenty years; it sold in 1856 for £800. .A grangerised Clarendon’s Rebellion was illustrated by Mr Suth- erland at a cost of £10,000. In 1888 a London bookseller had on sale, for £1500, a copy of Boydell’s Shakespeare, extended by the insertion of thousands of plates to 36 volumes ; the sale price probably did not represent the cost of the grangerising. Grangers, an American association of agricul- turists, founded by a government clerk named Kelly in 1867, under the title of ‘patrons of hus- bandry.’ The society had a ritual and four orders for men and women, and aimed at the social im- provement and industrial benefit of the farming class. By 1875 there were as many as 30,000 granges organised, but the number was after- wards reduced by dissensions. In 1888 the asso- ciation was united with the National Farmers’ Alliance, founded in the Western States about 1871; and in 1892 the united body, which had attracted a following amongst working men gener- ally, acquired political importance as the People’s Party or Populists, and had to be reckoned with at elections. ‘This party advocates the public owner- ship of the railways and tramways, direct issue of money by government without the intervention of banks, free coinage of silver, and bi-metallism. Grani’cus, the ancient name of a small river of Asia Minor, flowing from the northern side of Mount Ida to the Propontis, and now known as the Kodsha-su. On its banks Alexander the Great (q.v.) defeated the Persians. Granier de Cassagnac. See CASsAGNAC. Granite (Ital. granito, ‘ gritty ;’ Lat. granum, ‘grain’). This well-known rock is a thoroughly crystalline-granular aggregate of quartz, felspar, and mica. .The felspar is generally orthoclase (pink or gray), but some plagioclase is often present. The mica may be muscovite or biotite, and other varieties also occur, but the most common perhaps is muscovite. There is no base or matrix in this rock—the several crystals and crystalline granules, confusedly commingled, being bound together by their faces. In crystalitattg out, the felspar and mica have interfered with each other’s development, so that these minerals rarely assume perfect crystalline forms. The quartz still more rarely appears in the form of perfect or even approximately perfect crystals, but occurs as irregular crystalline granules, or seems to be moulded upon and hemmed in between the other minerals. Fluid cavities are generally plentiful in the quartz. As a general rule the component crystals of granite have separated out in the follow- ing order: mica, felspar, quartz. Occasionally, how- ever, it is found that the felspar and the quartz have crystallised together, and thus mutually interfered with each other’s form. More rarely the formation of the quartz has even preceded UE = a GRANITE GRANT 353 ~ that of the felspar. All varieties of texture are met with among granites, from very fine-grained up to coarsely-crystalline rocks, in which the component crystals may be several inches in diameter. The coarser-grained kinds are called pegmatite. In the variety known as graphic granite the quartz is crystallised in the ortho- clase, forming alternate zigzag-shaped lamine, which, on a cross-fracture, present the appear- ance of Hebrew writing. The accessory minerals, such as beryl, topaz, tourmaline, garnet, sphene, &e., are met with chiefly in its by ar cavities, and in such cavities very fine crystals of the essential minerals often occur. Scattered through the body of the rock, however, accessory minerals are not uncommon, especially apatite and sphene, and less frequently zireon—these three minerals occurring as inclusions in the essential minerals. The rela- tive proportion of mica, felspar, and quartz varies ; in ites felspar forms more than half of the alk of the rock—quartz coming next, and mica last. In other granites there is extremely little quartz, while mica is more plentiful. Sometimes the rock is rendered por- phyritie by the appearance of large crystals of orthoclase, embedded in a granitoid or _finely- crystalline ground-mass. It is generally the Bieoar which gives the prevalent colour to a | ite—the rock bein or y according as atacolsared or white irae predominates Very often dark patches and nodules occur in granite. Sometimes these are fragments of foreign rocks more or less altered; at other times they are com- 1 of the same minerals as the poet itself, ut in different proportions—mica often predomi- nating. Veins of similar composition are also found ramifying through granite. These and the pei together are supposed to be ‘the result of ifferentiation accompanying the crystallisation of the original magma ’—the dark portions being more basie in composition than the rock in which they occur. Most granites are traversed by lighter- coloured veins—some of which are finer ined and others coarser than the rock in which they ag The origin of these veins is uncertain. ey would appear to be of contemporaneous origin with the granite, and to have sometimes formed in rents of the original pasty magma, pos- sibly by segregation of the minerals from the sur- rounding mass. The fine-grained veins, on the other hand, were probably injected before the granite had become quite consolidated. It seems certain at least that the rock of the veins and the granite itself originally formed portions of one and the same molten mass. Amongst varieties of granite may be mentioned hornblendic granite, im which hornblende is added to the other constituents. When this is the case, mica is only sparingly present. When schorl (black tourmaline) replaces mica, we have schorl- aceous granite. Greisen is a granular aggregate of quartz and mica. Aplite is a fine-grained aggre- fate of quartz and orthoclase, with sometimes a ittle mica. These three last-mentioned varieties are met with chiefly in veins proceeding from masses of ordinary granite. Granite usually occurs in great bosses or amorphous masses—and frequently forms the nuclei of mountain-chains. Its characters and behaviour in the field prove it to be of igneous origin, at all events in the great majority of cases, and to have consolidated at con- siderable depths in the earth’s crust. Hence it belongs to the Plutonic class of igneous. rocks. Some writers have held that certain granites are of metamorphic origin, but the appearances which seem to support this view have of recent years “ia oe interpretation. And although, trographical | in the present state of our knowledge, it cannot be asserted that no granite is of metamorphic origin, yet it would appear that granites of demonstrably metamorphic origin have not yet been discovered. Those which are sup to be of such origin are intimately associated with crystalline schists, which themselves are believed to.be the result of metamorphic changes. At one time granite was looked upon as the oldest of primitive rocks, but it is now known to be of various ages. Its presence at the surface is due of course to denudation, which has removed the great masses of rock that origin- aa: covered it. he more durable kinds of granite are largely used as building materials in ages and engineering- works, and also in public bui dings and dwellings. The difficulty of working it makes it expensive, but this is counterbalanced by its great durability. It cannot be cut, like the majority of building- stones, with saws, but is worked first with large hammers, and then with pointed chisels. The success with which the Egyptians operated upon this refractory stone is very extraordinary. They worked and polished it in a way that we cannot exeel, if, indeed, we can come up to it, with all the appliances of modern science; and not content with po ening. they covered some of the blocks with the most delicate and sharply-cut hieroglyphics ! The granites best known in the British Islands for ornamental purposes are the gray Aberdeen ite and the reddish-coloured Peterhead granite. f this last-mentioned variety handsome polished columns for public halls have been constructed. On the Continent granite has been quarried for similar purposes in several countries: as near Baveno in Italy, and in the islands of Sardinia and Elba; in Normandy and Brittany; in southern Sweden, Finland, the Tyrol, Switzerland, &c. In North America granites are worked at a number of places, as in Maine, New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, New York, Michi yan, and California, and at various places in the Canadian province of Quebec. The rock would probably be more abundantly used than it is, were it not for the fact that in many cases it occurs at elevations and in districts more or less difficult of access. The soil produced by the weathering of granitic rocks should be fertile, as their component in- ogo ield the necessary elements. But in illy districts, where granite is chiefly developed, the fine clay which results from the decomposition of the felspar is washed away, so that only the quartz ia is left on the slopes—forming a thin, ungrateful soil. In the hollows and flats whither the clay is transported we find generally a cold, stiff, and wet subsoil, which is only worked with difficulty. In low-lying granitic tracts, especiall under ee climatic conditions, the soil which results from the weathering of granite is sometimes very fertile. See Geo. F. Harris, Granite and the Granite Industries (1888). Gran Sasso @’ Italia (‘Great Rock of Italy’), also called MONTE CoRNO, from the resemblance to a horn which it presents on the east, is situated on the borders of the Abruzzi, between Teramo and Aquila. It is the highest summit of the Apen- nines, having an elevation of 9574 feet. Granson, or GRANDSON, an ancient town in Switzerland, on the Lake of Neuchitel, 21 miles SW. of Neuchatel; pop. 1762. Here in 1476 the Swiss defeated Charles the Bold (q.v.). Grant, in English law, the conveyance of pro- perty by deed. Movables are nted when they are comprised in a bill of sale or deed of gift. Incorporeal hereditaments, and interests in land not involving actual ion, were also said to lie in grant; but a hold in possession could 354 GRANT only be conveyed by livery of seisin—i.e. by solemn delivery of possession. The Real Property Act of 1845 enacted that the immediate freehold might be conveyed by deed of grant. It is no longer neces- sary to use the word ‘grant;’ other words, such as ‘convey,’ will have the same effect. A grant of the reversion of land under lease was formerly completed by the lessee attorning ( becoming ) tenant to the grantee ; but the necessity for attornment is now abolished. In the United States generally livery of seisin is dispensed with, and the term ‘grant’ applies to all transfers of real property. Grant, FAMILY or. Among various conflicting theories as to the origin of this family, the most robable is, as the name seems to indicate, that it is of Norman extraction, and that it was intro- duced into Britain at the Conquest. Occasionally it appears in parts of England; but by the middle of the 13th century it had established itself in the north of Scotland—Laurence le Grant holding the responsible office of sheriff of Inverness in 1263. He and his descendants ‘acquired large territories in the great Caledonian Glen, and also in Strath- spey, Freuchie, now Castle Grant, near Grantown, becoming their principal barony and _ residence. The sixth laird of Freuchie was knighted by King James VI., and his grandson had his lands erected into the regality of Grant—whence their designa- tion since. Sir Ludovick Grant, fourth laird of Grant, married as his second wife, Lady Margaret Ogilvie, daughter of James, fifth Earl of Findlater and Seafield, and, through this marriage, their grandson succeeded in 1811 to the earldom of Sea- field, assuming the surname of Ogilvie in addition to that of Grant. Through another marriage, a younger brother of the fourth laird of Grant suc- ceeded to the estates of the Colquhouns of Luss, and, assuming the surname of Colquhoun, became the ancestor of the present family of that name. The Chiefs of Grant (3 vols. 4to, 1883), prepared by Sir William Fraser, K.C.B., for the family, pre- sents a history of its descent, and also shows the dispersion of its numerous cadet branches, many members of which have become distinguished in various spheres of life. Grant, Sir ALEXANDER, of Dalvey, was born at New York in 1826, and represen one of the oldest branches of the Clan Grant. Educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, he gradu- ated B.A. in 1848, and was elected to an Oriel fellowship. Here he edited the Ethics of Aristotle (1857), with English notes, a work which still maintains a reputation by its suggestive pre- liminary essays. He succeeded as baronet in 1856, was appointed inspector of schools at Madras in 1858, and became professor of History in Elphin- stone College there ; then its principal; and after- wards vice-chancellor of Elgin College, Bombay, in all which positions he did much to promote the interests of education in India. On the death of Sir David Brewster he was in 1868 chosen as principal of the university of Edinburgh, an office which he enjoyed for sixteen years, during which took place the inauguration of the new medical school, and the tercentenary celebration of the university. His sa | of the University of Edin- burgh (1884) was published in connection with the latter event. Earlier works were Aristotle and Xenophon, in Blackwood’s ‘ Ancient Classics ;’ and * Recess Studies (1870), a volume of essays written by various scholars. The universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow conferred upon him the degree of LL.D., and Oxford that of D.C.L. He married, in 1859, Susan, daughter of Professor Ferrier of St Andrews, and died suddenly on 1st December 1884. Grant, Mrs ANNE, a miscellaneous writer, whose works were among the first to draw public attention to the romantic scenery and uliar manners of the Scottish Highlands, was born in Glasgow, 21st February 1755. She was the daugh- ter of a British officer, Duncan M‘Vicar, who became barrack-master of Fort-Augustus. She married in 1779 the Rev. James Grant, former] chaplain of the fort, minister of Laggan. Left a widow in destitute circumstances in 1801, Mrs Grant published by subscription a volume of Poems. (1803), which were well received ; Letters from the Mountains (1806), a highly popular work; Memoirs of an American Lady (1808); Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland (1811), &c. In 1825 she received a pen sion of £100 a year, and by legacy from Sir William Grant, Master of the Rolls, she enjoyed a similar annuity. She died on 7th November 1838. A memoir of her life, and a selection from her correspondence, forming a continuation of her Letters from the Mountains, were edited by her son, J. P. Grant, in 1844. Grant, CHARLES, LORD GLENELG, son of Charles Grant, sometime M.P. for Inverness-shire, and a distinguished director of the East India Company, was born at Kidderpur, near Caleutta, in 1778. He was of the Grants of Sheuglie, cadets of the Grants of Grant. He was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he took - his degree of M.A. in 1804. In 1805 he published a poem on the Restoration of Learning in the East, which had won the university prize awarded by Dr Claudius Buchanan. He was called to the bar in 1807, but never practised. In 1811 he was elected M.P. for the Inverness district of burghs ; and afterwards, succeeding his father in the county representation, continued in the House of Com- mons till 1835, when he wasraised to the peerage. Grant held for five years the office of a Lord of the Treasury, and in 1819 was appointed Secretary for Ireland, which he continued to be for about two years. As Irish Secretary he endeavoured to suppress the Orange demonstrations, to secure the impartial administration of justice, and to_ devise a system of national education adapted for Catholics as well as Protestants. From 1823 to 1827 Grant was Vice-president of the Board of Trade; from 1830 to 1834 President of the Board of Control; and from 1834 to 1839 Secretary of State for the Colonies. After this he with- drew in a great measure from public affairs, but supported the Liberal party by his vote. He died at Cannes, in France, in 1866, unmarried. Lord Brougham aSee rest Grant. to be ‘the purest statesman he had ever known.’ He was an DAP eat speaker, though, partly from diffidence and partly from indolence, he spoke but seldom. Some of his despatches as colonial secretary, on the rights of the natives in the colonies, on repressing idolatry, and abolishing slavery throughout the British possessions in South Africa, are models of elevated and just thought, and of fine impressive English. Grant, Sir FrAncis, fourth son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born in Edin- burgh on 18th January 1803. He was educated at Harrow and the university of Edinburgh for the Scottish bar, but abandoned that profession to follow his natural genius for painting. A noble portrait by Velasquez is said to have exercised an especial influence over the young painter's future career. His first picture was exhibited in 1834, when he at once took rank among the best portrait- painters of the day, and was regarded as a worthy successor of Lawrence. His most famous works are those in which he has combined the like- nesses of distinguished characters with scenes of English sport. The ‘Meet of H.M. Staghounds,’ : Ae Pe GRANT 355 ted in 1837 for Lord Chesterfield, and contain- no less than forty-six portraits; the ‘ Melton Hunt,’ executed for the Duke of Wellington ; and the ‘Cottesmore,’ for Sir R. Sutton, are the best known in this class. Among his other paintin may be mentioned the equestrian portraits of the ueen and Prince Consort for Christ's Hospital ; the picture of the beautiful Marchioness of Waterford ; and those of Lords Palmerston, Russell, Gough, Macaulay, Hardinge, &c. In 1842 Grant was elected iate, and in 1851 Academician. In 1866 he became President of the Royal Academy and was knighted. In 1870 Oxford conferred upon him the degree of D.C.L. He died on 5th October 1878. Grant, JAmes, of Corrimony, in Inverness- shire, a cadet of the Grants of Grant, born in 1743, ee 1835, was a of raged = “ Origin of i (1785) an ts on t rigin a Descent of the Gael (18i4) Grant, JAMEs, military novelist, was born in Edinburgh, Ist August 1822, and in 1832 sailed with his father, an army officer, for Newfound- land. Home again, in 1839 he was gazetted to an ensigney in the 62d Foot, but within a few years resigned his commission, and turned to litera- ture. Having already contributed copiously to the United Service Magazine and the Dublin University Magazine, he in 1846 published his first book, The Romance of War. Since then he supplied his legion of readers with a long and close series of novels and histories, illustrative mainly of war, and, more particularly the achievements of Scottish arms abroad. Among his many works may be mentioned Adventures of an Aide-de-Camp ; Adven- tures of Rob Roy; Frank Hilton, or the Queen’s Own ; Bothwell, or the Dark Days of Queen Mary ; The Yellow Frigate; Ha Ogilvie; and Old and New Edinburgh. Most of his works have rn seat in German and Danish, as also a few in French. In 1875 Cardinal Manning received him into the Roman communion. He died in London, 5th May ‘1887. Grant, CoLoneL JAmes AvcGustus, C.B., F.R.S., was a son of the Rev. James Grant of Nairn where he was born in 1827. ents. been educated at the grammar-school and Marischal College, Aber- deen, he was in 1846 appointed to the Indian army. His. services at the battle of Gujerat, under Lord emgh, gained him the medal and two clasps, and his further services in India, in the course of which he was wounded, were honoured by the Mutin medal and clasp for relief of Lucknow. Wit Captain Speke he explored (1860-63) the sources of the Nile. He also received the medal for ser- vices in the Abyssinian Expedition of 1868. Among his publications are A Walk Across Africa ; ‘Sum- mary of the Speke and Grant Expedition,’ in the Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1872); Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition; and Khartoum as I saw It in 1868. A gold medallist of the Royal Geographi- cal Society, he died 10th February 1892. Grant, Sir JAMes Hops, general, brother to Sir Francis, was born at Kilgraston, Perthshire, 22d July 1808. He first saw service in the Chinese war of 1842, and next distinguished himself at Sobraon, Chillianwalla, and Gujerat in the two Sikh wars. During the operations of the Indian Mutiny Grant, who had risen ‘to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, took a leading part, assisting in the recapture of Delhi (20th September), in the relief of Cawnpore, and in the retaking of Luck- now, and he commanded the force which effected the final pacification of India. In 1859 he con- ducted the war against China, defeating the enemy three times under the walls of Pekin, assaultin the Taku forts, and finally capturing the capital o the empire, for which work he was created G.C.B, After commanding the army of Madras from 186) to 1865, he returned to England, and was made eneral in 1872. He died in London, 7th March 875. From his journals a ed Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-68 (1883) and Incidents in the China War of iso (1875), edited by Col. H. Knollys, who also published a Life of him (2 vols. 1894). Grant, Mrs, of Carron, author of the popular song, ‘ Roy’s Wife of Aldivalloch,’ was born near Aberlour, Banffshire, in 1745. She was twice married—tirst to her cousin, Captain James Grant of Carron, in Strathspey; and afterwards to Dr Murray, a physician in Bath. She died in 1814. Grant, ULysses Simpson, a distinguished gen- eral, commander of the Union armies, and the eigh- teenth president of the United States, was born at Point Pleas- | 1900 in the u. 8. by ‘J. B. ant, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He | Mppinestt Company. was of Scottish ancestry, but his family had been American in all its branches for eight generations. Ulysses was the eldest of six children born to Jesse R. Grant and his wife Hannah Simpson, and assisted his father on the farm in summer, attend- ing the village school during the winter. In the spring of 1839 he was appointed to a cadetship in the United States Military Academy, and gradu- ated in 1843. He was commissioned brevet second- lieutenant, and assigned to duty at Jefferson Bar- racks, Missouri. In May 1844 he accompanied his regiment, the Fourth Infantry, to Louisiana, and in September 1845 he was commissioned second- lieutenant, and joined the army of occupation under General Zachary Taylor. Grant participated in the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and was also present at the capture of Monterey. Later the Fourth Infantry embarked for Vera Cruz, to join the army of General Winfield Scott, and Grant took part in all the battles of Scott’s success- ful penipele® and in the final capture of the city of Mexico. In the summer of 1848 his regiment returned to the United States, when he obtained leave of absence, and in August of that year was married to Julia B. Dent, of St Louis, by whom he had three sons and a daughter, the eldest of whom, Colonel Frederick D. Grant, was in April 1889 appointed American Minister to Austria. Lieu- tenant Grant served at various posts; was in 1853 appointed to a captaincy ; and in the following year resigned his commission, and settled on a farm near St Louis, Missouri. When the war be; in April 1861 Grant was residing in Galena, Illinois ; he immediately offered his services to the government, and in June he was rere colonel of the 21st Regiment of Illinois Infantry, with which he was sent to Missouri. In August he was advanced to brigadier-general of volunteers, and assigned to the command of a dis- trict, and in November he fought the battle of Bel- mont. In February 1862 he captured Fort Henry, and ten days later Fort Donelson, with 14,623 prisoners, for which victories he was made major- general of volunteers. In April Grant fought a two days’ battle at Shiloh, amongst the severest of the war, in which General A. S. Johnston, commanding the Confederate army, was killed. After various unsuccessful movements against Vicksburg, which commenced in the November of 1862, Grant crossed the Mississi pi, April 30, 1863, defeated the enemy at Port Gibson and at Champion Hill, and drove them behind their entrenchments at Vicksburg, to which place he laid siege. After many assaults, the stronghold surrendered conditionally on July 4, 1863, with 31,600 prisoners and 172 cannon, and the Missis- sippi was opened from its source to its mouth, In October Grant was ordered to Chattanooga, Copyright 1800, 1897, and 356 GRANT GRANTOWN where he fought a battle, capturing the enemy’s entire line, and driving him out of Tennessee. In March 1864 Grant, having previously been made a major-general in the regular army for his victory at Vicksburg, was promoted to the grade of lieutenant- general, and assigned to the command of all the armies of the United States, with his headquarters with the army of the Potomac. His plan of cam- paign was to concentrate all the national forces into several distinct armies, which should operate simultaneously against the enemy, Sherman movin, toward Atlanta, while Grant himself accompanie the army of the Potomac against Richmond. Dur- ing the night of May 4 the latter crossed the Rapi- dan, encountered General R. E. Lee in the Wilder- ness, and fought a desperate three days’ battle, one of the fiercest of modern times. Grant moved for- ward on the 7th, and fought again at Spottsylvania Courthouse on the 10th, and still ain on the 12th, on which occasion he captured an entire division of the Confederate army. The smoke of battle hung over the mighty hosts for six days, while the North remained in a state of suspense bordering upon agony; but on the 11th Grant wrote to Washington, ‘I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer.’ Thus, fighting and flanking, ever pursuing the offensive, and daily draw- ing nearer to Richmond, he at length drove the enemy within the defences of that city, and there held him in a vice, while he left to his lieutenants —Sherman, Sheridan, and Thomas—a harvest of laurels by active movements’and successful battles. On March 29, 1865, there began a week’s hard fight- ing, at the close of which Lee surrendered his entire army at Appomattox Courthouse, April 9, receivin from his victor most generous terms. The fall o Richmond substantially ended the war, and Grant returned to Washington to prepare his report of the operations of the armies of the United States from the date of his appointment to command the same, and to muster out nearly a million of troops that the country no longer required. In July 1866 Grant was advanced to the grade of full general, and in May 1868 he was nominated for the presidency by the Republican convention, and in the following November was elected. Out of the 294 electoral votes Grant received 214, and Horatio Seymour, the Democratic candidate, 80. He was again elected to the presidency in November 1872, thus filling the office of chief-magistrate for eight years. Among the most important events of his administration were the adoption in 1869 of the fifteenth amendment to the constitution, which guaranteed the right of suffrage without regard to race, colour, or previous condition of servitude; and the peaceful settlement of the‘ Alabama Claims’ (see ALABAMA). After retiring from the presi- dency, General Grant spent two years in ee travel, receiving unusual attentions from the rulers of the various countries which he visited in his tour round the world. In June 1880 his name was again presented to a Republican con- vention, but, chiefly owing to a traditional senti- ment against a third term of the presidency, the nomination was given to James A. Garfield, In 1881 Grant purchased a house in New York, where he afterwards passed his winters, while his summers were spent in his seaside cottage at Long Branch, New Jersey. Finding himself unable with his in- come to properly maintain his family, he became a partner in a banking-house in which one of his sons and others were interested, bearing the name of Grant and Ward, and invested all his available capital in the business, but.taking no part in the affairs of the firm, which were left almost entirely in the hands of the junior partner. In May 1884 the house, without warning, suspended, and it was then discovered that two of the partners had robbed the general and his family of all they possessed. Until this time Grant had refused all solicitations to write the history of his military career; but now, finding himself bankrupt, and with the hope of providing for his family, he began the prepara- tion of his personal memoirs. The contract with his publishers was made February 27, 1885, and the work appeared about a year later. In the summer of 1884 he complained of a soreness in his throat, and an examination detected the presence of cancer at the root of the tongue. The sym- athies of the nation were now aroused, and on arch 4, 1885, congress passed a bill creating him a general on the retired vist, thus restoring him to his former rank in the army, which he had lost on accepting the peetsescy. It may be doubted if since the world began any book has been written under similar conditions ; the dying soldier, suffer- ing constant and at times the severest agony, yet struggled on successfully, completing his literary labours only four days before his death at Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, N. Y., J uly 23, 1885. His remains were interred on August 8 with great pomp in Riverside Park, New York City, overlooking the Hudson ; President Harrison laid, April 27, 1892, the cornerstone of his costly tomb. Of the many lives of Grant, the most valuable is his own Personal Memoirs (2 vols. 1885-86). Grantham, a market-town of Lincolnshire, on the left bank of the Witham, 25 miles SSW. of Lincoln, and 105 NNW. of London. It lies on the ancient Ermine Street, and is an important junction on the Great Northern Railway ; whilst a canal (1793), 30 miles long, connects it with the Trent near Nottingham. High over the red-tiled brick houses soars the noble gray spire (278 feet high) of St Wolfran’s Church, which, in style mainly Early English of the 13th century, has been finely restored by the late Sir G. G. Scott since 1865. An Eleanor cross was demolished in 1645, and a castle has left no trace ; but the quaint Angel Inn is still standing, in which Richard ILL signed Buckinghaim’s death-warrant. Of King John, too, Grantham has memories, and of Olive Cromwell, who here on 13th May 1643 won his first success ; but the town’s greatest glory is Sir Isaac Newton, who during 1655-56 ‘died. fought, and rose to be head-boy ‘in its grammar-school. bronze statue of him by Theed was erected in 1858. The said school was founded by Bishop Fox in 1528, re-endowed by Edward VI. in 1553, and reconstituted in 1876. The manufacture of agri- cultural implements, malting, and brick-making are the chief industries. Grantham was incor- porated by Edward IV. in 1463, and from then till 1885 returned two members to parliament—a number reduced now to one. The borough boundary was largely extended in 1879. Pop. (1851) 10,873 ; (1871) 13,250; (1881) 17,345, of whom 16,886 were within the municipal borough ; (1891) 17,170. See the local histories of Turnor (1806), Marrat (1816), and Street (1857). Grant Land, a North Polar region, lying north of Grinnell Land, between 81° and 83° N. lat., dis- covered by Hayes, Hall, and Nares in 1875, and partly explored by Nares, who wintered on its coasts, in the most northerly latitude (82° 27’) in which the winter has been passed by any ship. Granton, a harbour on the Firth of Forth, 3 miles NNW. of Edinburgh. It was constructed by the Duke of Buccleuch in 1835-45 at a cost of nearly a quarter of a million. Grantown, a village of Elginshire, ? mile from the Spey’s left bank, and 142 miles by rail N. by W. of Edinburgh. Founded in 1776, and created a olice-burgh in 1890, it is a popular holiday resort. Bor 1374. clase with garnets. GRANULATIONS GRAPHIC METHODS 357 Granulations, the materials of new texture as first formed in a wound or on an ulcerated surface, See INFLAMMATION, CICATRISATION, Wounps, ULcers. Granulite, or Leprynire, a schistose but sometimes inassive aggregate of quartz and ortho- he garnets are disseminated i larly, and are not infrequently accompanied by Kyanite (q.v.). This rock is classed with the erystalline schists. Granvelle, ANTOINE PERRENOT DE, Cardinal and statesman (whose name out of France was subsequently spelt Granvella), was born in 1517 at Ornans in Burgundy. He studied law at Padua, and theology at Louvain. A canon for a short time at Besancon, he was in 1540 appointed Bishop of Arras. His father now ahanod or of the empire under Charles V., he was entrusted with many diplomatic missions, which he discharged with marked ability. Succeeding his father in the chan- cellorship in 1550, he accompanied Charles V. in the flight from Innsbruck, and framed the treaty of Passau, 1552. On the abdication of Charles in 1555 he transferred his services to Philip Il. In 1559 he was appointed prime-minister to Margaret of Parma in the Netherlands. In 1560 he was created Archbishop of Malines, and next year was made cardinal. Such, however, was the hostility which his policy of repression provoked in the Low Countries that at the king’s advice he retired in 1564 to Franche Comté. After six years of com- oetive quiet he in 1570 represented Spain at me in drawing up a treaty of alliance with Venice and the papal see against the Turks. For five years (1570-75) he agro giry’/ held the office of viceroy of Naples. He died at Madrid in 1586. Granville, a fortified seaport in the French department of La Manche, is situated on a rocky Seay on the English Channel, 23 miles E. of St Malo. The 15th-century church and a mg as college are the principal institutions. 1ief industries, fishing (oysters and cod), ship- building, manufacture of brandy, chemicals, iron- ware, and tanning ; chief exports, fish and building- stone ; chief imports, salt, manure, corn, and flour. Pop. (1891) 10,469. The town has been captured by the French (1450) and the English (1695), and unsuccessfully besieged by the Vendéans (1793) and the English (1803). Granville, EArt. See CARTERET. Granville, Georce LEVESON-GoWER, second EARL, statesman, was born May 11, 1815, bein the eldest son of the first earl. e was educa at Eton and Oxford, and entered parliament in 1836 as member for Morpeth, exchanging that seat for Lichfield in 1840. His long and intimate acquaintance with foreign politics began at this time, and he filled for a brief period the post of Under-secretary for Foreign i He was a consistent Liberal and a free-trader. He succeeded to the pee in 1846, and five years later entered the cabinet of Lord John Russell, holding the seals of the Foreign Office. From that time forward he held office in every Liberal ministry. He became President of the Council in 1853, and leader of the House of Lords in 1855. He laboured arduously in connection with the great: exhibitions of 1851 and 1862. Lord Granville was charged to form a ministry in 1859; but having failed to do so, he joined Lord Palmerston’s second administration. He retired with Earl Russell in 1866, having the pre- ceding —_ been made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In December 1868 he was appointed Colonial Secretary in Mr Gladstone’s first ministry, and on the death of Lord Clarendon in 1870 became eee for Foreign Affairs. He arranged the treaty between England, France, and Prussia guaranteeing the ay rma aie of Belgium; and confirmed with Prince Gortschakoff the agreement that Afghanistan should form an intermediary zone between England and Russia. His lordship went out of office in 1874, took the tempor leadership of the Liberal party on Mr Gladstone's retirement in 1875, and for six years led the opposition in the House of Lords with ability and spirit. In 1880 he again became Foreign Secretary under Mr Gladstone, and displayed considerable diplomatic skill in matters relating to the Berlin Treaty, the occupation of Tunis, and the revolt of Arabi Pasha in Egypt. He issued a circular note to the powers on Egyptian reforms, and in 1884 convened a conference on Egyptian finance, which roved abortive owing to the hostile attitude of ‘rance. Troubles in the Soudan, difficulties with Germany in consequence of Prince Bismarck’s colonial schemes, differences with France, and the threatened rupture with Russia over the demarca- tion of the Afghan boundary caused Lord Granville much solicitude during the closing years of Mr Gladstone’s second administration. He retired with his chief in 1885, but returned once more to otlice as Colonial Secretary in 1886, sy again with his colleagues in August of the latter year. A steady supporter of Mr. Gladstone’s Home-rule policy, he died 31st March 1891. Grape. See VINE. : Grape-hyacinth (Muscdri), a genus of bulb- ous-rooted plants, of the natural order Liliacezx, nearly allied to the hyacinths, but differing in the globose or subcylindrical perianth, contracted at the mouth, and 6-toothed. The species are natives chiefly of the countries near the Mediterranean, and the warmer temperate parts of Asia. Most of them are now frequent in our flower-borders. M. moschatum has a smell of musk. MM. racemosum, cate af named Starch Hyacinth, is a somewhat oubtful native of the south-eastern counties— having, it is believed, escaped from gardens—of England. The flowers of the grape-hyacinths are mostly normally blue, but there are pure white varieties of some species. Grape-shot, called also tier- shot, consists of small iron balls piled round an iron pin, hold- ing together a series of parallel iron plates of the same diameter as the gun from which they are to be fired, between which are the shot, kept in their places by holes in the plates. , On being na they spread over a wide area. In another pattern called quilted grape the shot are held to- gether on the central pin by can- vas ins of iron plates. Both have now almost ceased to be used, their place being taken by case-shot, sometimes called canister. Grape-sugar. See SuGAR. Graphic Methods. Under Composition and Resolution of Forces it has been noticed that the point of application, the direction, and the intensit, of any force may be represented by the end, direction, and length of a straight line. Similarly, any other physical quantity, such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, or barometric height, electric tential, &c., may be represented by straight ines. Such modes of showing the value of a quantity are called graphic methods; they are largely employed in physical investigations as aids to calenlation, and for the purpose of exhibiting the nature of the law according to which some henomena vary. The principal use of this method . is to show the mutual variations of two quantities. This we will illustrate by a particular example. 358 GRAPHIC METHODS GRAPHIC STATICS Suppose a table is drawn up, in one column of which are the months of the year, and in the other the corresponding average temperatures of the air, at some particular place, during these months (the average temperature for each month being the mean of the daily temperatures). Let two lines, OX and OY, be drawn from O, one horizontally, the other vertically; let the successive months of the year be represented on any convenient scale along OX, and let temperature be measured along OY, also on a convenient scale. Corresponding to each month in the year there will be a length along OX, and to each temperature there will corre- spond a point on OY. At the middle point cor- responding to each month draw perpendicular to OX a line representing the temperature on the seale of OY. series of lines will thus be obtained, 65 Y 30 (O_. ‘ ; . . . 4 ' ‘ ? x Jan. Feb. Mar. Ap. May Ju. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. through the upper ends of which there may be drawn, freshen. a smooth curve. The points on the curve in the figure represent the ape ends of these lines. A general glance at such a curve will reveal certain features regarding the tempera- ture of the whole year; at what dates maxima and minima occurred ; when the temperature rose or fell quickest, and so on. Such a curve, repre- senting the gradual change of daily temperature, may be produced automatically by photographic representation : a sheet of sensitised paper passes uniformly, by means of clockwork, behind the thermometer stem, in front of which is placed a source of light; the paper above the mercu column is blackened, that below being left unaffected ; the curve separating the black and white portions represents the temperature at different times. The same principle is used in the thermograph, barograph, and tide-gauge recording machine. Instead of time and temperature any other two variable quantities may be taken. When the curve obtained by such graphical methods has some regular geometrical features the mathe- matical law of the phenomenon may be found ; temperature at different points of a body, and from it may be deduced, if its thermal conductivity be known, the flux of heat across any section of it. The thermo-electric diagram (see Tait’s Heat) is also a valuable application of the method. Andrew’s diagram of the volume of carbonie acid gas under varying pressure may be mentioned as another (see Andrew’s Collected Scientific Papers, Lond., Macmillan, 1889). The method has also many applications in electricity—e.g. the ‘ arrival’ curve in a submarine cable; and in sound, where acoustic vibrations, beats, and harmonics may be graphically represented. Graphic Statics. When forces simultane- ously act on a particle which remains at rest they are in equilibrium, and, if there be three of them, lines drawn so as to represent the respective forces in magnitude and direction may be so arranged as together to form the well-known Triangle of Wares Problems in which trigonometrical methods of find- ing the magnitude and direction of the third side of such a triangle (the resultant) are applied, when those of the other two (the components) are known, or of resolving any given force in any given direction into two ‘components’ in any two assigned diree- tions, are of common occurrence in text-books. For practical purposes, however, it is very useful actu- ally to draw to scale the triangle of forces appro- riate to the data of any particular case ; two sides eing thus drawn to scale, the third side can be laid down by simply joining two points, and then the line so drawn can be Reamer with respect to its length and its direction. Similarly the resultant of a number of simultaneous forces can be usefully ascertained by drawing the corresponding Polygon of Forces, and ascertaining the lie and the length of the missing side. The utility of this graphic method is, however, most fully seen in the recent extensions of this method to engineering work. The subject of Graphic Statics is a large one, and we can do little more here than refer the reader to Cotterill’s Applied Mechanics, which gives, incident- ally, full references to the literature of the subject ; but in order to give an idea of the nature of the method one il- lustration may here be sup- plied. Suppose a Sipe irder (weightless) made up of two ; N girders in ten divisions (fig. 1), the diagonals being all so arranged as to be in tension ; it is 100 feet long, and a load of 100 tons is distributed over it so as to rest uniformly upon the lower booms. Find the stress in each bar. First draw the girder to scale, and mark the bars as in fig. 2: The lower boom of each division may, so far as the Fig. 1. 3 4 5 6 Z 8 9 and many quateys and quantitative results in physics are obtained in this 2 way. It must be remembered that such “graphical representations do no more than einbody the results of observation o experiment, and cannot be made more accurate than the data themselves. . The graphic method is so largely em- ployed in physical science, and also in statistics, that only a few instances of its i application may be given. Watt’s Indi- cator Diagram shows the amount of work done in a complete (double) stroke of the piston; it acts on the principle that the force applied multiplied by the distance through which it acts is a measure of the work done. Pressure and volume are therefore the variables here involved. ‘The temperature of a body at different times may be given by a curve, from which may be found the rate of cooling; a-curve may also represent the @ ©. 2 Fig. 2. irder at large is concerned, be considered as hav-— ing its proportion of the uniform load (10 tons) aeuaser in 5-ton loads at its two ends ; hence at the angle between 1 and 22, and also at 12-13, there are imaginary loads of 5 tons; at be, de, fy, &e., imagine 10-ton loads. The supporting piers each exert an upward pressure of 50 tons. There is equilibrium, and this equilibrium may be traced out GRAPHIC STATICS GRAPHOTYPE 359 at eve —— of the structure. At the angles 1-22 and 12-13 the upward pressure of the piers is portly neutralised by the local weight of 5 tons ; e vertical bars 1 and 12 have each an upward thrust of 45 tons, which carries con, perm ut at these angles there are no horizontal components | iN 45 tons (bar 1). 45 tons (bar 12). dia + — Fig. 3. along 22 and 13, which, therefore, have no thrust along them, and are neither compressed nor in ten- sion. If a vertical line a ¢ (fig. 3) be drawn, each division in which represents 10 tons, the distribution of load may be set out by taking a starting-point, A: then there is in the girder, from 1 round to 12, no load introduced ; between 12 and 13 there is in- troduced what is equivalent to an upward force of 45 tons in bar 12, and the representation of this is | Aq; 1l= As. ~— Upper Bar, COMPRESSIONS : 2=Ab; 8=Ad; 4=Af; 5= Ah; 6,7 = Ajk; 8 = Am; 9=Ao; 10= Lower Bars, TENSIONS : 22 = 22-a = 0; 21 = 21-c; 200 = 20-¢ 19 = 19-g; 18 = 18-i; 17 = 17-1; 16 = 16-n; 15 = 15-p; 14 = 14-7; =13-+=0. upwards, to 14; so for each of the junctions as far as 21-22, and then at 22-1 there is an upward 45 tons in bar 1, the setting-off for which brings us back to A. At the junction 1-2 we have three bars in equilibrium ; these are 1, 2, and ab ; the stress in 1 is 45 tons ; drawing a triangle, Aad (fig. 3), in which the sides are parallel to 1, 2, and «a, we find the relative compressions in 1 and 2, and tension in ab. At the next junction, ab-be (fig. 2), we have four balanced forces, the tensions in 21 and ab, compres- sion in bc, and a load of 10 tons. From the extremi- ties of ab (fig. 3) draw 22-21 representing the 10-ton load acting downwards, and bc a line parallel to be in fig. 2; join 21 and the line bc by a line parallel to the rod 21, the tension in which is now repre- sented by the line 21-c, while be (fig. 3) represents the compression in be (fig. 2). Next consider thie junction 2-3 ; four bars, 2, be, ed, and 3; 2we know (=A), fig. 3), and also be ; we draw a line ed, and a line parallel to 3 which, in order to complete the polygon, can only start from A ; Ad and ed represent compression and tension in 3 and cd respectively. At the next junction, 21-20, we have 21 (= 21-c), cd (=cd), de (unknown), 20 (unknown), and a 10-ton load ; the polygon is completed by 20e and de drawn from the ends of the broken line de 21-20, Step by step, by mere drawing of intersecting lines, an by a process which, once the foundation has been laid by setting out the distribution of loads, is far more expeditious and simple than | the explanation of it can at first enable it to appear, fig. 3, the measurable diagram of the girder-bar stresses, is evolved, and it is seen that as we near the centre the tensions on the diagonals diminish, that the vertical bar ji is neither under compression nor tension, and that the bars 6 and 7 are under the maximum compression ( = A-j/), and the bars 18 and 17 under the maximum tension (18-7, 17-2). It will be seen that the diagram is symmetrical ; but, if we take the case of a non-uniformly distributed load, the diagram becomes unsymmet- rical. Suppose another 100 tons to be laid uniformly upon the lower booms of the left-hand half of the girder : now the piers respectively support 125 and 75 tons ; the stresses in bars 1 and 12 are 110 and 70 tons ; the dia- gram, built up on the same principles as in the preceding case, and drawn to a scale 110 tons (bar 1). reduced to three-fourths, takes the form shown in fig. 4. R. H. Smith, Graphics ; or the Art of Calculation by Drawing Lines (1889). Graphis (Gr. graphé, ‘I write’), a genus of lichens, ives its name to a tribe, Graphidez, remarkable for the resemblance which the fructifi- —_ > =_ . — = + si Ee . vk i cation (apothecia, or shields) assumes to the forms of the letters of oriental alphabets. G. scripta is common in northern i h " 90 tons (bar 12). <= oe. Zz (4 V4 See Fig. 4 tt off 44 divisions downwards ; en between 4 there is a downward load of 10 tons, and the diagram sets off one division YU Europe, but of the twenty species the great majority are tropical. Some are said to assist in the identification of cinchona barks of particular species, growing on certain kinds and not on others. Graphite. See BLAcK LEAD. Graphophone. See PHONOGRAPH. Graphotype was one of the many processes intended The desi to supersede wood-engraving. was sketched with silicate on a prepared chalk 360 GRAPPLE-PLANT GRASSES surface, and the chalk brushed away from between the lines. From the chalk an electrotype could be taken. It had a temporary partial success, but has been in turn completely superseded by the zinco- type and other processes. See ILLUSTRATION. Grapple-plant ( Uncaria procumbens), a pro- cumbent plant of the same genus with the Gambir (q.v.), a native of South Africa. The seed-véssel has many hooked thorns, and clings most tenaciously to any animal—a provision for the distribution of the seed. When it lays hold of the mouth of an ox, Livingstone says, the animal stands and roars with pain and a sense of helplessness. Graptolites, + group of fossil hydrozoa, appar- ently related to the recent Sertularia. They had simple or branched Popanice, formed of. a chit- inous substance, and the polyparies were usually strengthened by a horny-like rod, which is called the ‘solid axis.’ Professor Nicholson thinks that the term ‘solid’ is probably a misnomer, and that the axis was most likely hollow and filled with living material. The cellules in which the poly- pites lived were arranged in a single series on one side of the axis, or in a double series on both sides; the axis was generally prolonged beyond the cells at the growing end of the polypary. Re- productive buds, or ovarian vesicles, have been observed attached to the polypary, exhibiting a method of reproduction similar to that in the hydro- zoa, but they differ from the ovarian vesicles of the modern Sertularians in becoming detached from the parent colony. The graptolites appear to have been free-floating organisms. They are generally divided into Monoprionidian and Diprionidian groups. In the first named the polypary, whether single or branched, had only one row of cellules, or ‘hydrothecz ;’ in the second the polypary was furnished with a row of cellules on each side. The former group ranges from the base to the top of the Silurian system, while the latter is confined chiefly to the Lower Silurian. To this system the grapto- lites may be said to beconfined. Nunierous species have been described, and from their abundance in the argillaceous shales and grey wackes it is obvious that they must have swarmed in the Silurian seas. There are several other Sertularian-like fossils often described as graptolites; such as Dendro- raprus—a rooted plant-like form (Cambrian and aver Silurian); Dictyonema, also plant-like, and probably rooted (Silurian); Retiolites, with no said axis (Silurian), but otherwise resembling the graptolites. Graslitz, a town of Bohemia, on the border of Saxony, 142 m. WNW. of Prague by rail. Musi- cal instruments are manufactured. Pop. 9780. Grasmere, a Westmorland village, 4 miles NW. of Ambleside. There are four hotels. Pop. 684. Its antique church is the church of the Excursion ; and in the churchyard, washed by the Rothay, are the graves of Wordsworth and Hartley Coleridge. ‘Grasmere’s peaceful lake,’ with its ‘one green island,’ lies } mile to the south, between Loughrigg Fell (1101 feet) and Helm Crag (1299). Measuring 1} by 4 mile, it is 208 feet above sea- level, and 130 feet deep. Grass-cloth. This name is sometimes given by travellers and missionaries to different kinds of coarse cloth, made by various savage races, the } fibre of which is rarely that of a grass. Cloth is, or at least has been, made from Bamboo (q.v.), and a coarse matting is made from Esparto (q.v.), both of which are true grasses. A fine cloth is woven from the fibre of a species of Boehmeria (q.v.), popularly called China-grass, but the plant is really a nettle.—To the nettle order also belongs the so-called Queensland Grass-cloth plant (Pip- turus argenteus), which yields a fine, strong fibre. Grasse, a town in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes, is situated on. the southern slope of the Basses-Alpes, 1066 feet above sea-level, and 12 miles N. of Cannes by rail. An ancient place, the seat of a bishopric from 1244 to 1801, it has steep, narrow, crooked streets, a cathedral, and an interesting hétel-de-ville. Grasse is second only to Paris in its manufactures of essences and perfumes, made from the roses, orange-flowers, helicieaaas mint, &e., which, thanks to the mildness of the climate, are most successfully grown in the neigh- bourhood. It has also manufactures of olive-oil, silk, We., and is growing in favour as a winter resort. Pop. (1891) 9786. Grasses form the order Graminez, which with Cyperacez (Sedges) makes up the second great division (Glumaceze) of Monocotyledons (q.v.). The first division (Petaloidez) consists of orders whose flowers are of the liliaceous or orchidaceous type; while the flowers of Glumacez are best. described as ‘grassy.’ The following characters. are sufficient to distinguish grasses from sedges : grasses have generally cylindric or compressed ointed stems, usually with internodes becoming ollow ; leaves alternate with sheath clasping the stem, but edges of sheath not joined; embryo at. one side of the base of the endosperm (albumen). Sedges have generally triangular, sometimes cylin- dric, stems, jointed but solid; leaves in three vertical. rews with leaf-sheath entire and forming a hollow cylinder round the stem ; embryo within the base of the endosperm. The term ‘grass’ is. often applied to any herbaceous plant that helps to form pasture, and agriculturists speak of natural and artificial grasses, the former only belonging to _ Graminez. Cereals (q.v.) and some pasture grasses. are annual, but most pasture and woody grasses are: perennial. Cereals and pasture grasses are herba- ceous ; bamboos are woody and may grow to a height of 100 feet in one season. There are 250 genera of grasses, and 3200 distinct species ; of these 41 genera with more than 100 species are natives of the British Isles, and fully 800 species. and varieties within the limits of the United States. Description.—The leaves are long and tapering, one being given off at each node of the stem; the leaf-sheath is a modified stalk, and is often pro- longed upwards for a short distance beyond “its junction with the blade, into a membrane or ring of hairs (ligule), which forms a collar round the stem. The parallel veins of the leaves are con- tinued downwards into the stem and anastomose only at the nodes. The stem (culm) at first con- sists of solid nodes and internodes, but the inter- nodes, except in sugar-cane and a few other tropical grasses, become hollowed out, and thus the A, spikelet of wheat : a, glume; 6, awn of outer bract; c, barrem terminal flower; d, stamen. B, vertical section of same spike- let: 0, ovary; s, stigma; i, inner bract. C shows position of lodicules (1, 1) in relation to the ovary. stem is rendered comparatively lighter, and at the same time better able to resist the lateral pressure of the wind ; because a cylinder offers more resist- ance to pressure than does a solid rod of the same | } a a ; ~ r = : . GRASSES 361 weight and kind of material, The stems of grasses are further strengthened by impregnation with silica. Annual grasses have tufted, fibrous roots, but most grasses perennate by means of solid under- ground stems (rhizomes), from the nodes of which roots are developed; roots also grow freely from the lower nodes of the aerial stems of all grasses. The flowers are mostly hermaphrodite, as in barley and oats; maize and a few others are moncecious ; and some of the fescue tribe have the lower hermaphrodite and the upper male. Each flower is enclosed by two bracts (pales), which are the homologues of the two spathe-like bracts in the In- florescences (q.v.) of Iridacesze. The posterior bract is two-nerved, indicating its two-fold nature, and often clasps the fruit when mature; the anterior (’ flowering glume’) surrounds both, and sometimes an Awn (q.v.), as in barley. A number of flowers may be crowded together to form a spikelet ; raceme is loosely branched, the inflo- rescence becomes a panicle, as in Oats (q.v.); or the spike- lets may be sessile on a central axis, to one flower each. the stalks of the spikelets have not been developed; each spikelet may again be reduced to a single flower, and then a simple spike like that of mat-grass (Nardus stricta) is the result. Beneath the lowest flowers of many spikelets there are two bracts (glumes) which may or may not bear barren flowers in their and, further, a number of such spikelets may be at- tached by stalks to a central axis, form- ing a raceme, as in Melica nutans A (fig. 2); when the A B C forming a com- pound spike, as in Fig. 2. ryegrass (Lolium). A, Melica nutans; inflotescence a The spike may be raceme of spikelets. 4 B, cone ientd on as a re- ne; a compound spike. C, Nardus’ stricta ; Eptkdlels. feauasd duced raceme or panicle, in which axils. There is no perianth such as is found in most insect-pollinated flowers. Grass flowers are wind-pollinated and generally inconspicuous; in some, however, there are two or rarely three scales peeieales) within the flower bracts; and these, m their position and relation to the other parts of the flower, may be regarded as segments of a e., © A, floral diagram of Bambusa (for explanation, see article FLower): a, stigma; b, ovary; c, stamen; d, lodicule; e, inner bract; /, outer bract ; q, stem. B, Avena: h, glume; stamens reduced to three. C, Coleanthus: lodicules awant- ing; two stamens. D, Monandraira: one stamen. rudimentary perianth. These scales, becoming turgid at the period of sexual maturity, press the anterior bract outwards, and expose stigmas and a cor eee pyre se weat cas occur w stage is reached the pow en may become clogged and kept from being Sw about thus preventing fertilisation and the opportunity of producing seed. tamens vary from six or more to one; in British usually three, but three to one in the escue tribe. The slender filaments are inserted at the bases of the anthers, but the anther lobes grow downwards below the point of insertion, and the anthers appear to be, but are not, versatile. The ovary is one-celled; there are three or two styles, with long and hairy, or short and feathe stigmas, which are thus enabled to catch the wind- borne pollen. The fruit is one-seeded (caryopsis) ; the seed is adherent to the pty The embryo the farinaceous endo- by the great development o: sperm is dis- placed to one side at the base of the latter, itssur- face of con- tact being confined to oes of a arge process of aah uted homology, the scutel- lum. When a grain of ; wheat or A, grain of wheat in vertical section: % other grass pericarp; b, endosperm; c, scutellum; d, begins to ger- young stem and leaves (plumule); e, first fly 8 root (radicle). B, grain of wheat after minate, the germination ‘has begun: /, secondary scutellum roots. acts as a pla- cental surface to the embryo, digesting the sub- stance of the endosperm, and passing it on in a soluble state to the embryo, which soon begins to develop roots and leaves, When all the endo- sperm has been used up the seedling grass has put forth roots aqete to draw a sufficient supply of sap from the soil, and green leaves to transform the sap into food materials for the tissues of the eae The seutella of grains may be compared to he suckers (haustoria) of mistletoe, for it is by means of suckers that plant parasites fix upon, and draw sap from, their hosts. Classification.—The order is divided into two divisions, the divisions into tribes, genera, and species. The genera are omitted here, and only the better-known species are given as examples. (a) Panicew.—Spikelets articulate with the pedicels below the lowest glume, with a single terminal fer- tile flower, while the lower inferior is male or sterile. Tribe. Examples. PARICE Rs. .iccee os Panicum ; Setaria. MAYVDRAG; <5. sciess Job’s Tears (Coix); Maize ( Zea). OBYSBA. 6.5. e066 Rice (Oryza); Cut Grass ( Leersia). TRISTEGINEA...... Arundinella, ZOYSIE.......... . ANDROPOGONE,.,Sugar-cane (Saccharum); pogon) ; Millet (Sorghum). (b) Poacee.—Spikelets usually articulated above the lowest glume, Il- or many flowered; male or imperfect flower above the fertile ones. Examples. PHALARIDEZ...... Reed Canary Grass (Phalaris) ; Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum); Fox-tail Grass ( Alopecurus ). . AGROSTIDEZ. ..... Millet Grass (Milium); (Phleum); Bent (Agrostis). Durra (Andro- Timothy Grass AVENE. .....0.5. Hair Grass (Aira); Soft Grass (Holcus); Oats ( Avena). CHLORIDEZ....... Dog’s-tooth Grass (Cynodon); Eleusine. FESsTUCE&........ Reed (Phragmites); Dog’s-tail Grass (Cyno- surus); Cock’s-foot Grass (Dactylis); Melic Grass (Melica); Quaking Grass (Briza); Poa; Fescue; Bromus. _ HoRDEZz....... ...Rye (Secale); sn manag (Lolium); Wheat Lee ab Barley (Hordeum); Mat rass ( Nardus). BaMBUSES...... ..Bambusa; Arundi 362 GRASSHOPPER GRASS OF PARNASSUS Distribution.—Grasses are almost universally distributed on land, and are found at all elevations up to the snow-line, wherever there is soil. In temperate climates they form natural pastures, but in warm regions they are more tufted, and, like the sugar-cane and many bamboos, often attain a great height. The species of a single genus have often widely different habitats—e.g. Poa annua is a low-growing field-grass, while a closely allied species, P. aquatica, forms tall reed-like rowths by the margins of rivers and lakes. The’ distribution of grasses in time dates from the Upper Eocene (q.v.) and subsequent formations. Uses.—The seeds of cereals furnish the principal material for Bread (q.v.) in most countries, y the process of malting, the starch of grains is con- verted into sugar, which is then allowed to undergo alcoholic fermentation ; Beer or Ale (q.v.) is made’ in this way from barley, and from this liquor Whisky (q.v.) is obtained by distillation. Sugar is also obtained directly from the juices of some grasses—e.g. Sugar-grass (Sorghum saccharatum), unripe maize, and Sugar-cane (q.v.). Rum is the fermented and distilled liquor produced from the sugar of sugar-cane. Some grasses form Pasture (q.v.) and Fodder (q.v.). A few are medicinal, as Job’s Tears (Coix lachryma) (q.v.); the reeds, Phragmites arundinacea, Calamagrostis, and Arundo Donax ; and Couch-grass ( Triticum repens), the rhizomes of which form a mild diuretic. Very few have poisonous properties. Darnel (q.v.) is held by some to be poisonous. Coldstream rates of S. Punjab) says: ‘There is a curious fact regard- ing the qualities of Sorghum vulgare as food for cattle —viz. that in a dry season, before it flowers, the plant.is poisonous to cattle. This poisonous uality is also shared by its congener, S. alepense.’ Sots grasses are fragrant ; Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) contains coumarine, a crystalline aromatic substance which gives the sweet scent to meadow hay. Some East Indian grasses are even more strongly scented, as Lemon- grass (Andropogon citratum) and others of the same enus, which yield grass-oil. The woody stems of amboos and other Jarge grasses are applied to a great variety of economical purposes; and the straw of many of the smaller grasses is used for thatching, rope-making, plaiting, &c. (see STRAW- MANUFACTURES). Thus the fibres of the Moonja (Saccharum Munja) of India, the Esparto (q.v.) of Spain, and a few others are made into ropes, mats, sacks, and other coarse fabrics. Paper is made in China from the young shoots of bamboo ; and in most civilised countries from the straw of esparto, rye, wheat, barley, and oats. All grasses, by means of their roots, help to fix the soil, and prevent it being washed away by rain and floods. See Parnell’s ‘British Grasses,’ and ‘Gramines’ in Engler’s Pflanzenfamilien. For classification, see also Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has published several valu- able bulletins and monographs on American grasses, by Dr George Vasey. Grasshopper, a name given to numerous insects forming the family Locustide, included in the order Orthoptera, and nearly related to Crickets (Gryllidz) and Locusts (Acridide). It is unfortunately confusing that ‘locusts’ are not in- cluded in the family Locustide, and that one of our commonest grasshoppers is Locusta viridissima. It must be noted that in this article ‘grasshoppers’ mean the majority of Locustide. Whether grass- hoppers are herbivorous or, as is oftener the case, carnivorous, they usually live among vegetation, in woods and thickets or in the open field, keeping quiet during the day, but making the woodsides me with their love ‘songs’ in the summer evenings. Most of them feed on flies and cater- | tag in catching which they use their powerful ore-legs, but many affect plants, and some combine both diets. During their courting season they may be'seen flying even in the afternoon, but they are predominantly nocturnal and twilight insects. By their frequent green colour and yet subtler mimetic characters they are in many cases well concealed in their leafy haunts. The family is large and world- wide in distribution, but best represented in tropical and temperate regions. In the easter family (Loecustide) the head is placed vertically ; the slender antennz are longer than the body; there are hemispherical eyes, but rarely eye-spots; wings and wing-covers are generally present. The right (and occasionally also the left) wing-cover of the male bears posteriorly a SX \\ N : ING Bal (fs Grasshopper, Female ( Locusta viridissima). a clear, round ‘membrane stretched on a ring, which produces the well-known ‘chirp’ when set in vibration by the action of a serrated ridge on the under side of the opposite wing-cover. The left wing-cover is the bow, the right is the fiddle of the male grasshopper’s music. There is usually a well- developed auditory organ at the base of the anterior legs. The females have a long ovipositor. Sexually mature grasshoppers appear in late summer and autumn. The eggs are laid by means of the ovipositor either in the earth or in some dr stem. From these in spring larvee are developed, which are virtually like the adults, but moult at least six times before they become full-grown. The Great Green Grasshopper (Locusta viridis- sima), common in Europe, and occurring in Britain, has a body over an inch long. Equally large is Decticus verrucivorus, also British, which owes its specific title to the habit Swedish peasants have of making it bite their warts, which the secretion of a fluid from the mouth of the insect is said to affect favourably. Very common in Europe are Thamno- trizon cinereus, Platycleis grisea, and other species. Among American grasshoppers Conocephalus ensiger, type of those with a conical forehead, is very common, as are also various species of Xiphidium and Orchelimum. The nearly allied Katydids—e.g. Cyrtophyllus concavus and Micro- centrum retinervis—will receive separate notice (see KATYDID). The tropical genus Copiophora is noteworthy for the length of its ovipositor, which sometimes attains a length of two inches, while Phyllophora and Phylloptera deserve mention for the exceedingly leaf-like appearance of their wing- covers. See CRICKET, KATYDID, LOCUST. Grass-moth (Crambus), a genus of small moths, allied to the Clothes-moths. The species, which are numerous, inhabit pastures, where they may be often seen to rise in great numbers when disturbed, and soon to settle again on the blades of ass. Their form, when their wings are closed, is oa and narrow, pointed at the head, abruptly cut off at the opposite end. They are often brown and white, sometimes silvery and golden. _ Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Saxifragacez. GRASS-OIL GRATIOLA 363 The popular and also the botanical names are founded on the myth that the best-known species (P. palustris) first appeared on Mount Parnassus, the abode of grace and beauty. The plant is a native of bogs and moist heaths in Britain and throughout northern Europe and Russian Asia, becoming a mountain plant in southern Europe and west central Asia. The calyx is deeply 5-cleft, the petals white, 5 in number, and there are 5 perfect and 5 imperfect stamens, the latter bearing instead of anthers a tuft of 10 to 12 ' globular-headed hairs. There are several other species natives of Asia and North America. Grass-oil, a name under which several volatile oils derived from widely different plants are srouped. The grass-oil obtained by distillation rom the leaves of Andropogon warancusa is used for rheumatism, and has the same stimulant effect as cajeput oil. Ginger-grass Oil is obtained from A. nardus, a native of India, and other species of the same genus, Geranium Oil, derived from Pelargonium radula, is so like ginger- oil in its properties that they are used or the same purposes, and are bought and sold under either name, mainly as an adulterant of Oil of Rose. Turkish Grass-oil is obtained from A. nodes, indigenous to India, Persia, and Arabia. mon-grass Oil, or Citronella Oil, is derived by dis- tillation from A. schenanthus, indigenous to India and cultivated in Ceylon. It has an odour resem- bling oil of citron, and is largely used for scenting soap. Cyperus-grass Oil is extracted from the tubers of yp rus esculentus, indigenous to southern Enrope, and is used both as a table oil and in the manufacture of soap. Grass-tree (Xanthorrhea), a genus of plants of the natural order Liliacez, natives of Australia, - and constituting a very peculiar feature in the - vegetation of that part of the world. They have shrubby stems, with tufts of long wiry foliage at the summit,’ a long cylindrical spike of densely aggregated flowers shooting up from the centre of the tuft of leaves. The base of the inner leaves of some species is eatable, and forms, particularly when roasted, an agreeable article of food. It has a balsamic taste; and all the species abound in a resinous juice, which, on exposure to the air, hardens into a reddish-yellow inodorous substance with a shining fracture, soluble in alcohol, and aseful as a tonic in 2 Oe il cael and other intestinal maladies; used also by the natives of Australia for uniting the edges of wounds, and with an aluminous earth for caulking their canoes, and as a cement for various pu .—The Common Grass-tree (X. hastilis) has a stem about four feet high, but sometimes a foot in diameter. It is of very slow ately and is sup to be many centuries old when it has reached such dimensions. — Several species are found in eastern Australia and also in New Zealand, where their leaves are used as fodder for all kinds of cattle. Grassum, in the law of Scotland, is a lum sum paid by persons who take a lease of land property. ‘Rent,’ says Bell, ‘is naturally periodi- cal, but sometimes part is paid in anticipation in grassum. d so grassum is, when analysed, a proportion taken from each year’s rent, and paid at once by anticipation, either to supply some necessity for ready money, or to disappoint some future pos- sessor of the estate.’ In land the words ‘ pre- mium’ in some cases, and ‘fine’ in others, mean the same thing. Grasswrack (Zostéra), a genus of plants of vlogs aia order eae oe of the few genera of phanerogamous plants whic Ww amongst sea- weeds at the bbiptons of the ca The eaten are narrow and grass-like, and the flowers consist merely of stamens and pistils, without any peri- anth, inserted on the central nerve of one side of a flat thin linear spadiz, with a leafy spathe. The pollen is confervoid.—The Common Grasswrack (Z. marina) is a perennial plant, which forms green meadows on the sandy bottom of shallow arts of almost all the European seas, and abounds in creeks and salt-water ditches. It is found in great plenty on the British shores. It becomes white by exposure to theair. The rush-like cover- ings of Italian liquor-flasks are made of it: it is much used for packing glass bottles; and it serves well for thateh. Cattle eat it as forage; it is burned to obtain soda, and has been employed in the manufacture of paper. It has been long used in Holland, Toetand and elsewhere for stuffing pillows and mattresses; and this use has of late reel very much extended, so that the plant has ome an article of commerce, under the name of Alga marina, or more commonly, but ineor- rectly, Alva marina (Ger. See-gras). Grate. See WARMING. Gratian, a Benedictine monk, who at Bologna between 1139 and 1142 compiled the Decretum Gratiani. See CANON Law. Gratianus, AuGustus, Roman emperor from 75 to 383, was the eldest son of Valentinian L., and was born at Sirmium in Pannonia in 359. At nine he was elevated by his father to the rank of Augustus at Ambiani, or Amiens, in Gaul, and next year accompanied him in his expedition against the Alemanni, in order to learn the art of war. On the death of Valentinian the troops elevated Gra- tian to the throne, giving him at the same time as a colleague his half-brother Valentinian II. Gaul, Spain, and Britain fell formally to Gratian’s share, but as his brother was only four years old he virtually ruled also over the rest of the western empire, rma 3 his residence at Treviri (7réves). At first he showed vigour in repelling the incur- sions of the turbulent barbarians, and’ suddenly found himself in 378, on the defeat and death at Adrianople of his uncle Valens at the hands of the Goths, sovereign also of the eastern empire. Finding himself inadequate for the task of ruling the whole empire, he recalled Theodosius from Spain, and appointed him his colleague on the 19th January 379. Gratian possessed some admirable virtues: he was pious, chaste, temperate, and eloquent ; but his character was too pliant, and he was often led to commit gross acts of cruelty and tyranny. His persecution of the pagans, and after- wards of heretic Christians, made him a great favourite with orthodox ecclesiastics, but rather alienated the affections of his subjects generally ; while his fondness for frivolous amusements and unworthy associates excited the contempt of the army, so that when Maximus was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain crowds of the disaffected flocked to his standard. Gratian was defeated by him near Paris, and fled to Lyons, where he was put to death 25th August 383. Grati‘ola, a genus of plants of the order Scro- phularinee. G. officinalis, or Hedge Hyssop, found in most parts of Europe, is extremely bitter, a violent purgative, diuretic, and emetic, and in overdoses an acrid poison; but as a medicine was formerly called Gratia Dei (‘ Grace of God’). Gratry, ALPHONSE, Catholic theologian, born 3¢th March 1805 at Lille, became General-vicar at Orleans, professor at the Sorbonne, and member of the Académie. He wrote a Cours de Philosophie, a work on the creed, a commentary on Matthew, and La Morale et la Lot de l Histoire (1868). He confuted the policy of the Vatican Council, but submitted himself, and died 25th November 1871, leaving Souvenirs de ma Jeunesse. 364 GRATTAN i Grattan, HENRY, one of the greatest of Irish pees and orators, and, like Curran, Flood, Isaac utt, and Parnell, a Protestant, was born in Dublin, July 3, 1746. His father was recorder of the city, and one of its members from 1761 till his death in 1766; his mother was daughter of Thomas Marlay, Chief-justice of Ireland, one of whose sons lived to become Bishop of Waterford. At seventeen he entered Trinity College, Dublin, and here gave himself with remarkable eagerness to the study of classics. Already Henry Flood had been forming a regular party of opposition in the Irish House of Commons, and young Grattan embraced his reforming principles with such impolitic ardour that his irate father disinherited him from such property. as he could alienate. At twenty-one e entered the Middle Temple, London, and read law in a desultory fashion, nourishing his peculiar ambition the while by listening to the debates in the House of Commons and by constantly declaiming in set terms to imaginary audiences in the privacy of his chamber. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and three years later, through the influence of the genial and enlight- ened Earl of Charlemont and by the advice of Flood, entered the Irish parliament as member for the borough of Charlemont. It was but two months before that Flood had thrown away his popu- larity by accepting office under government, and the young orator leaped at one bound into his place. He found the nation fast drifting to bank- i hese and ruin from the loss of market that followed the war with America, and the odious restrictions upon Irish trade that had come down from the days of William III.; and he at once flung himself with all the vehemence of his nature into the cause of retrenchment and reform. Meantime, in the dread of French invasion, the volunteer movement spread from Belfast over Ireland, and ere long the attitude of the people in their demand for free export became so for- midable that Lord North, whose own inclina- tions had formerly been thwarted by the interested opposition of the English manufacturers, granted in 1779 a total repeal of all the restriction acts. This gained, Grattan plunged into a greater struggle for nothing less than legislative independ- ence. On the 19th April 1780 he made perhaps his greatest speech, concluding with a memor- able series of resolutions to the effect that while the crown of Ireland was inseparably annexed to that of England, the king with the consent of the parliament of Ireland was alone competent to enact laws to bind Ireland. After fifteen hours the debate was adjourned indefinitely, but all men felt that Grattan had gained a great moral victory. The popular demands were formulated at the Con- vention of Dungannon (February 15, 1782), and asserted by Grattan in a famous speech (April 16), which began with the words, ‘I am now to address a free people.’ A month later the Rockingham ministry, which numbered among its members Grattan’s friend Fox, surrendered apparently un- conditionally, and the Irish parliament in grati- tude voted Grattan a reward of £50,000. Un- fortunately the question was soon raised whether the mere repeal of the Declaratory Act (6 Geo. I. chap. 5) was sufficient as a renunciation of the pinctnls of England’s right to legislate for Ire- and, Grattan- wished his countrymen to trust to the generous instincts of English honour, and accept the gift without factious wrangling about the manner of its giving, but Flood put himself at the head of the malcontents, demanding ‘ simple repeal’ and renunciation rather than concessions antes merely to the exigency of the moment. e carried the mass of his countrymen with him, and what was perhaps the historic moment for the reconciliation of England and Ireland was lost. The quarrel between the two leaders culminated in one dramatic scene on the floor of the house, when Grattan overpowered his antagonist with a tornado of rhetoric that has perhaps never been surpassed for the ruthless energy of its invective. he history of ‘Grattan’s parliament,’ as it has deservedly been called, did not correspond to the patriotic dreams of its great founder. It was im- possible for a parliament. so little really represent- ative and so much subject to corruption and undue influences from without to rise into the region of real statesmanship. In his ideas about the rights of his Catholic fellow-countrymen Grattan was far more advanced than most of his own followers. Apart altogether from the fact that the Roman Catholics, comprising two-thirds of the whole popu- lation, were entirely without representation ; out of a house of 300 members no fewer than two-thirds were nominated by but a hundred patrons. The urgent need of parliamentary reform and the remedy of domestic abuses soon occupied the minds of all irish atriots, the high-minded and the self-seeking alike. nce more at Dungannon there assembled on Sep- tember 8, 1783, as many as 500 delegates to formulate the demands for parliamentary reform, which were resented to the house by Flood and rejected, while rattan looked on in a kind of neutrality that was perhaps a consequence of the recent quarrel. He devoted himself to advocating the reform of special abuses, but his Place and Pension Bill, as well as his bills to prevent revenue officers from voting at elections, and offices of state being given to absentees, and for the commutation of ecclesi- astical tithes, were in turn rejected. Meantime continued commercial depression had produced a strong counter-feeling in Ireland for rotection, which was yet unable to prevent the i astotary Orde’s remedial measure for absolute free trade from being carried. This measure, however, Pitt found himeelf unable to carry in the English House of Commons, except subject to a number of stipulations, one of which was that all English navigation laws now and here- after were to be adopted as such by the Irish parliament; and to this Grattan and the Irish patriots found themselves unable to accede, as an outrage upon the freedom of the Irish parlia- ment. itt’s mortification at this and his dis- pleasure at the independent attitude of the Irish parliament in the regency dispute of 1789 helped to confirm his determination that union was the only effective means of final pacification. Grattan was returned for the city of Dublin in 1790, and by this time he had definitely taken up the cause ob Catholic emancipation. The corruption of the Castle government and of a parliament venal be- yond all precedent ; the persistent repression of the agitation for Catholic relief, changed for a moment into hope at the pane tary of Fitzwilliam as Lord-lieutenant, only to be dashed to the ground again by his withdrawal; and the spirit of dis- content generated by the French Revolution that was now everywhere in the air had fomented the movement of the United Irishmen, which was to be extinguished in the bloodshed of 1798. Hope- less of his country and broken by ill-health, Grattan retired to his house at Tinnehinch on the eve of the rebellion, but returned to take his seat for Wick- low in the last session of the Irish parliament. Weak as he was he fought the bill for the Union with an heroic courage that would have overcome everything but the gold and the coronets of Pitt, pouring his showers of invective upon the head of Corry the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who retorted with a challenge, and in the duel was wounded in the arm. Once more Grattan _re- tired to private life, from which he emerged in —— a ; 5 : : J ee GRATUITOUS DEED GRAVEL 365 1805 as member for Malton in Yorkshire, and for Dublin the following year. His first speech in the — House of Commons fully sustained his oratorical reputation. It contained the well-known passage about the Irish parliament: ‘Of that assembly I have a parental recollection. I sat by her e; I followed her hearse.’ The remaining energies of his life were devoted to the cause of Catholic emancipation, which he reiterated was the price of the union, apart altogether from the intrinsic justice of the demand. ‘ eat majority cannot overcome a great principle. God will guard his own cause against rank majorities. In vain shall men appeal to a chureh ery, or to a mock thunder ; the proprietor of the bolt is on the side of the people.’ Instead of one-sided ‘securities’ he demanded from his opponents adequate reasons for their opposition—‘ some apology to after ages for inflicting on one-fourth of their fellow-sub- jects political damnation to all eternity.’ Despite all his eloquence and the support of Canning and other statesmen, he was not to see triumph in his lifetime. In December 1819 his health began finally to give way; but as he grew weaker his responsibility to this question weighed the more upon his mind. On thé 20th of the following May he crossed from Dublin, a dying man, to speak once more for the cause, and, unable to bear the motion of a carriage, was carried to London from Liver- pool by canal. But his voice was never to be heard again. A day or two after his arrival he sank, a pagal for his country on his lips, June 4, 1820. e was buried in Westminster Abbey beside the ve of Fox. Grattan’s figure was small and spare; his face long, thin, and slightly marked by smallpox. His gestures in speaking were violent and eccentric, and his voice of no t volume, yet he wielded his listeners at will by his energy and passion, his overpowering earnestness and enthusiasm. He was a consummate master of epigram, and few orators have had his os ap and vigour. His description of Flood as standing ‘with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his pocket’ is but one among a hundred phrases that will never be forgotten. His Sagem was enlightened and incorruptible, and is honour remains without a stain. The best collection of his Speeches is that made by his son, Henry Grattan, M.P. (4 vols. 1822), who also edited in the same year his Miscellaneous Works. The standard Life is also that by his son (5 vols. 1839-46), but this is far from being a satisfactory work. See also the sym- pathetic essay in W. E. H. Lecky’s Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (2d. ed. 1872); Dunlop’s excellent study in the ‘Statesmen’ series (1889); and Lecky’s England in the Eighteenth Century, vols. vii and viii. Gratuitous Deed, in the law of Scotland, means a deed granted without any value received. Such deeds, if made after the contracting of debt, and in favour of a near relation or confidential friend, are presumed to be fraudulent and so null. In England gratuitous deeds are usually styled Gifts. See the article Girt. Gratz, or GRAZ (formerly Grdtz), the capital of Styria, in Austria, 141 miles SSW. of Vienna by rail, is a picturesque old town with four suburbs, built on both sides of the Mur, and encircled by fine gardens and pleasure-grounds. Of the former fortress, erected on a hill in the centre of the town, and dismantled in 1809 by the French, two towers and other remains still exist. The town itself con- tains several old buildings, as the Late Gothic cathedral (1462), two other Gothic churches (one built in 1283), the ancient castle of the Styrian dukes, the Landhaus, where the nobles of the duchy held their meetings, the university, originally founded in 1586 (with 1134 students in 1885, and @ library containing 120,000 volumes), an armoury, « stg of the Styrian nobles, and four monasteries ating from the 16th and 17th centuries. There are also national archives, a cabinet of coins and antiquities, a technical school (Johanneum), a second library of 70,000 volumes, and a botanic garden. The most important of its many indus- tries are the manufacture of machines, steel goods, rails and railway carriages, sugar, wine, rfumery, stearine candles, soap, &c. Fat capons, iscnits, and chocolate figure prominently as articles of trade. Gratz is a favourite place of residence for Austrian officials retired from service. Pop. (1890) 113,540, including a garrison of 5000 men. The town is mentioned in the annals as early as 881. In 148] it repulsed the Hungarians from its walls, and in 1532 the Turks. In 1797, and again in 1809, it was occupied by the French. In the vicinity are several hydropathic establishments and holiday resorts. See Ilwof and Peters, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Graz (1875). Graubiinden. See Grisons. Graudenz, an old town in the province of West Prussia, on the Vistula, 37 miles N. of Thorn. It carries on a trade in corn, wool, and cattle, and has iron-foundries, breweries, and tapestry and cigar manufactories. Pop. (1875) 14,553; (1885) 17,336; (1890) 20,385. About a mile north of it on a hill (282 feet) is the fortress of Graudenz, built in 1776, and successfully defended against the French in 1807. It was maintained as a fortress till 1874, and now serves as a barrack and military prison. Grauwacke. See GREYWACKE. Gravel, the name given to aggregations of water-worn and rounded Ge eka of rocks, vary- ing in size from a pea to a hen’s egg. When the fragments are cinnien’ the deposit is sand; when larger, it is* called shingle. s of gravel occur in formations of every 2c 57° 9’ 32°206 : ; PE: ON uy emp incon d enckiest es $2°255 From these figures it will be seen that a body apparently = weight as it is carried from the equator to higher latitudes. This is due to two causes, First, owing to the ellipsoidal shape of y the earth, gravitational attraction at the poles is f xb; greater than at the equator; (2) owing to the ‘ centrifugal force’ of the earth’s axial rotation, bodies at the equator are yt, lighter than at the ‘ joles, where this cause does not affect their weight. hese two fractions together make up the differ- ence, y}x, between equatorial and polar gravity. \ The fraction denoting diminution of weight due to the centrifugal force of the earth’s rotation, may be employed to find at what speed the earth would need to revolve in order that gravity would just be balanced by ‘centrifugal force.’ It is found that, to fulfil this condition, the earth would require to revolve at seventeen times its present speed ; when revolving at this rate bodies would not have an tendency to remain on the earth’s surface, and wit an increased speed they would be projected into space. ‘Taking also into consideration the diminu- tion of gravity with increase of height, the value of terrestrial gravity is expressed by the formula g = 32°173 — ‘082 cos 2 2 — 000003 A where 2 is the fati- tude, and A the height, in feet, above sea-level. It must be remembered that this value of g is different from that which would be obtained were there no axial rotation of the earth; under the latter cir- cumstances, the value of gravitational attraction alone would be g = 32°525 — 026 cos 2 a. To account for the phenomenon of gravitational attraction several theories have been advanced ; but in spite of the best efforts of mathematicians and physicists, the real cause remains undiscovered. Nor is there any pliysical reason in evidence of the truth of the several assumptions upon which these theories have been based. As Clerk-Maxwell has pointed out, their chief value lies in their suggestive- ness, and in there being an incentive to the deeper and more prolonged research after ible causes for gravitation. The earliest speculations on the subject were, of course, almost wholly metaphysi- cal, and therefore misleading, if not absolutely erroneous. To begin with, the assignment of an attraction between the earth and sun as the cause of the earth’s motion was set down as_ being impossible, on the plea that a body could not act in the place where it was not. Again it was urged that such a cause would be simply ‘action at a distance,’ and hence impossible. Newton’s only speculation on the’ subject showed that he looked to some intervening medium as the agent by means of which attraction between bodies was exerted ; that if bodies rarefied this medium round them at a rate lessening as the distance increased, gravita- tional attraction might thus be accounted for. Another hypothesis, and one of an entirely novel kind, was put forward in 1818 by Le Sage. He powree that space contains an exceedingly arge number of small bodies moving rapidly in all directions. To these bodies he gave the name of ultramundane corpuscles. They would impinge upon any single isolated body in space in all directions, the result being that the y would not be moved, the impacts being equal on both its sides. But with two bodies in space, one would screen the other from a certain number of blows, so that on their opposed faces there would be a fewer number than on their distant faces ; in consequence of this excess of impacts on one side over those on the other, each y would tend to move towards the other. The attraction between the two would be inversely as the square of their distanee, and proportional to the surface of the bodies resolved normally to the line joining their centres. So that if mass be proportional to surface, there should be coincidence between the results of the hypothesis and the observed law. The chief objection to this hypothesis is that it would require not only that the corpuscles be infinitely small compared with the molecular distances in ordinary matter,. but that they move at a speed enormous compared with anything we are acquainted with. Moreover the amount of ene required to maintain the preseeee attraction of a comparatively small y near the earth’s surface would, if converted into heat, be sufficient to raise the earth to the temperature of incandescence. Sir William Thomson has shown that gravitation might be explained by the assumption of the existence of an incompressible fluid filling all space, being either created in each particle at a rate proportional to its mass, and flowing off everywhere to an infinite distance ; or by each particle absorbing a quantity ches ager to its mass, the supply coming in all irections from an infinite distance. Another method of accounting for gravitation is that of 368 GRAVITY GRAY Clerk-Maxwell, who showed that if in a medium, such as that of the luminiferous ether, there be ressure along, and tension at right angles to the a of force, the effect would be an attraction such as that of gravitation. The main objection to all these proffered hypotheses is that they pre- supposed the existence of quantities of energy in the universe which are absolutely enormous com- pared with the effects they produce; or, at all events, postulate some cause working not in accordance with the known laws of energy. Gravity, SPECIFIC. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Gray, a town in the French department of Haute-Sadne, on the Saéne, which is here crossed by a stone bridge of the 13th century, 25 miles NW. of Besancon. It has remains of an ancient castle of the dukes of Burgundy, some trade in _ corn, flour, and iron, and iron-industries and boat- building. Pop. 6737. Gray, ASA, an eminent American botanist, born at Paris, Oneida county, New York, November 18, 1810. He took his degree of M.D. in 1831, but soon relinquished the practice of medicine, and devoted himself to his favourite study of botany. In 1834 he received the appointment of botanist of the United States exploring expedition to the southern seas; but, as a long delay took place before it was ready to sail, he resigned his post in- 1837. He was afterwards elected professor of Botany in the university of Michigan, but declined the appointment, and in 1842 became Fisher pro- cessor of Natural History at Harvard. In 1873 he retired from the chair, but still retained charge of the great herbarium he had presented to the uni- versity in 1864; and in 1874 he succeeded Agassiz as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. He ranks among the leading botanists of the age. His numerous writings evince equal ability in 2ommunicating elementary knowledge and in elucidating recondite theories. He came forward at a time when the old artificial systems of botany were giving way to the natural system which has taken their place, and he was the first in America, in conjunction with Dr John Torrey, to arrange the heterogeneous assemblage of species upon the natural basis of affinity; and he became an in- fluential supporter of the Darwinian theories of evolution. In 1838 he commenced, with Dr Torrey, the Flora of North America; and in 1848-50 appeared the Genera Flore Americe Boreali- Orientalis Illustrata. Among his remaining works may be mentioned, besides memoirs on the botan- \eal results of several government exploring expe- ditions, and a number of text-books that have long been in general use in the United States, A Free Examination of Darwin's Treatise (1861), Darwinia (1876), and Natural Science and Religion (1880). He died 30th January 1888. A selection from his scientific papers was published in 2 vols. in 1889. He was a member of the principal learned societies of both America and Europe, to whose transactions and to periodicals he contributed much. His Letters, edited by Jane L. Gray, appeared in 1893. Gray, DAVID, a minor poet, was born 29th January 1838, at Duntiblae, on the south side of the Luggie, about 8 miles from Glasgow. He was the eldest of the eight children of an industrious weaver, who gave him as good an education as he could at the Normal School and university of Glasgow, in the hope of making him a Free Church minister. But the boy began early to write verses, and seems to have made from the beginning an enormously exaggerated estimate of his own pro- mise. In May 1860 he started for London along with Robert Buchanan, with the usual lofty hopes, and quickly met the usual discouragements. He made an appeal to Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton, who found him some employment, but failed to get his pvems printed. eantime consumption seized him, and a stay in Devonshire, for which Milnes, Sydney Dobell, and other friends had found him the means, proving useless, he went home to his parents at Merkland, a mile from Kirk- intilloch, todie. The end came quickly, 3d Decem- ber 1861, but the day before he had had the happi- ness to hold in his hand a specimen page of the volume. of his poems in print. The volume was entitled The Luggie and other Poems (1862), and was prefaced by an introduction by R. Monck- ton Milnes and a memoir by J. Hedderwick. His latest work was his best, and, indeed, the sonnets grouped together here under the title ‘In the Shadows’ are stamped with a solemn and touch- ing beauty of their own, An enlarged edition, edited by Sheriff Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also R. Buchanan’s too high-pitched essay, in David Gray, and other Essays (1868). Gray, ELIsHA, an American inventor, was born at Barnesville, Ohio, 2d August 1835, and studied at Oberlin College, meanwhile supporting himself by working as a carpenter. He was afterwards engaged in the manufacture of telegraphic appar- atus. His patents number about fifty, including several for the speaking telephone, of which he claims the invention, and others for a multiplex telegraph, by which he has succeeded in sending eight messages ata time. He died 21st January 1901. Gray, JOHN EDWARD, English naturalist, born at Walsall in 1800, was educated for the medical profession. Supplement to the Pharmacopwia, in the prepara- tion of his Natural Arrangement of British Plants in 1821, he entered in 1824 the British Museum as assistant in the Natural History Department, and in 1840 was appointed keeper of the Zoological Collec- tions, a post which he retained till 1874. A few months later, on 7th March 1875, he died in London. To him belongs the merit of having made the zoo- logical collections of the British Museum the most complete in the world. Dr Gray wrote much on subjects connected with his department. The titles of his books and papers number more than 500. Of these the most important are his cata- logues of the British Museum collections, which are not mere lists, but are enriched with synonyms and ample notes. Next to these come Jilustrations of Indian Zoology (1830-35) and The Knowsley enagerie and Aviary (1846-60). Dr Gray also assisted in the formation of some of the most pros- perous scientific societies of London, and was a vice-president of the Zoological Society.—His wife, MARIA EMMA, wrote Figures of Molluscous Ani- mals for the Use of Students (5 vols. 1842-57).— His brother, GEORGE ROBERT GRAY (1808-72), an officer in the Zoological Department of the British Museum from 183] till his death, is known as author of The Genera of Birds (1849), and of works on the birds of Polynesia and New Guinea. Gray, THOMAS, one of the greatest of English oets, in value if not in bulk, was born in Cornhill, ondon, 26th December 1716. His father, Phili Gray, a money-scrivener, was of so violent an jealous a temper that his wife (Dorothy Antrobus) was obliged to separate from him, and it was mainly through her own exertions that the boy was placed at Eton, and afterwards at Cambridge, where two of her brothers were fellows of colleges, and after- wards tutors at Eton. Both the mother and her sister Mary loved the boy with a devotion that was rewarded by a life-long and passionate attach- ment. In 1727 he was sent to Eton, whither in the same year also came Horace Walpole, son of the prime-minister. As a boy Gray was shy and studious, and he carried the same temper to After assisting his father, author of ee _writing, when absent “men at that time could write. His holidays were and early next year reprin GRAY GRAYLING 369 a a which he entered in 1734. The pre- dominant mathematics in the studies of Cambridge were distasteful to his mind, and a habitual but as melancholy early seized and mastered him. in the March of 1739 he was prevailed upon by Walpole to accompany him on the grand tour, They spent the next two and a half years visitin the towns and exploring the picture-galleries o France and Italy, and Gray’s letters home reveal not only an exquisite taste in art and music, but also the tirst touch of that romantic love of nature which Rousseau was soon to make so fashionable. The two friends quarrelled at Reggio pa Walpole afterwards took the blame entirely on himself, and certainly by his efforts the breach was healed within three years, and the friendship never again wy he Gray reached England in the September of 1741, and seems now to cave begun seriously to write poetry, his Ode on Eton nate being written in the autumn of 1742, and the Elegy at least begun. In the winter he went back to Peterhouse, took his bachelorship in civil law, and became a resident there. For the next four or five years he studied Greek literature rofoundly, and busied himself with abortive pro- jects for editions of Strabo, Plato, and the Greek Anthology. This was perhaps the happiest period of his life, while he breathed the serene air of noble libraries, and was as yet untroubled by broken health. He found his relaxation and his keenest pleasure in the company of his friends, and in m them, letters such as only spent with his mother and aunt at Stoke Poges, with alpole at London, Windsor, and Strawberry Hill, or in travelling in different parts of the country. From his letters we see that he had a quick eye for _ the variety and colour of nature, and certainly he was almost the first of modern Englishmen to see the beauty as well as the horror in the Highland mountains—those ‘ monstrous children of God.’ In the summer of 1747 Dodsley printed Gray’s famous Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College, it with two other 7 in his Miscellany. The death of Gray’s aunt, Mary Antrobus, in the November of 1749 a rs to have brought back to his recollection his Elegy, and he seems about June 1750 to have finished it where he began it seven years before—at Stoke P. This humane and stately poem is perhaps the best-known piece of English verse, a master- iece in the balanced perfection of a metre that eats true to the pulse of human sympathy in the solemn alternation of passion and reserve, and especially happy in a subject that can never lose its interest for mankind. The poem was sent to Walpole, was handed about in manuscript, and soon became so well known that Gray was forced to print it in the February of 1751. Early in March 1753 appeared in a thin folio the editio rinceps of Gray’s collected poems, with designs by ntley, only son of the famous Master of Trinity. Gray’s mother died 11th March 1753, and was buried at Stoke Poges, with an exquisitely simple and affecting epitaph from her son’s pen upon her tombstone. Walpole said that Gray was ‘in flower’ during the years 1750-55, and during this period he com- menced his most ambitious poems, the Pindaric Odes, the splendidly resonant Progress of Poesy, ag his really test. work, fecing” finield y the close of 17 The Bard, begun at the same time, was not completed till the summer of 1757. Gray had long a nervous horror of fire, and had fixed a rope-ladder from his window in Peterhouse by which to escape in em cy. One night in Fe 1756 he was bay a ak sleep bya —- arm of fire, and, without staying -by the long many-rayed dorsal fin. to put on his clothes, descended from his window into a tub of water that had been placed under his window by some frolicsome undergraduates. Dis- pleased at the authorities of Peterhouse for not punishing this brutal practical joke, the poet migrated in 1756 to Pembroke Hall, where he spent the remaining fifteen years of his life sur- rounded by congenial friends, in the midst of his books, his china, his pictures, and his flowers. His two odes were poe at Strawberry Hill in 1757, and were admitted to have put their author at one bound at the head of living English ts. The laureateship was offered him in 1757 on Colley Cibber’s death, but declined. During the years 1760 and 1761 he devoted himself to early English poetry, of which he intended to write a history ; ater he made studies in Icelandic and Celtic verse, which bore fruit in his Eddaic poems, Zhe Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin—genuine precursors of romanticism. In 1768 he collected his poems in the first Ae ag edition, and accepted tlie pro- fessorship of History and Modern a at Cambridge, an office which entailed no duties and yielded an income of £400 a year. Johnson in his perverse life of Gray made, from ‘a slight inspec- tion of his letters,’ one solitary remark that showed insight, that Gray ‘was a man likely to love much where he loved at all.’ Certainly no silent and pcleneholy ay was ever more happy in his friend- ships, and few men have been loved with such singleness and devotion. His biographer Mason’s affection was not entirely disinterested, but the love of friends like Nicholls, Bonstetten, Robinson, ‘Wharton, Stonehewer, and Brown proves that there must have been some singular charm in the object on which it was lavished. xray’s latest journeys were made to Glamis Castle and to the Cumbrian lakes, the beauties of which he was the first to discover. He was now comparatively rich, and enjoyed a reputation u- liarly dear to a scholar’s heart, and his life glided quietly on, troubled only by tits of dejection and by attacks of hereditary gout. As he was dining one day in the college hall at Pembroke, a severe attack seized him, and after a week’s suffering he died, 30th July 1771. He was buried fittingly by his mother’s side in his own Country Churchyard —Stoke Poges. Gray said of his own poetry that ‘the style he aimed at was extreme conciseness of expression, yet pure, pers icuous, and musical.’ The excel- ence he aimed at he attained, and in his lyrical work, moreover, he reached in a high d the Greek quality of structure, especially in his Pin- daric Odes. ‘1 do not think,’ says Edward Fitz- aps ‘that his searcity of work was from oon : e had but a little to say, I believe, and took his time to say it.’ At anyrate all his work bears the stamp of dignity and distinction, and it was perhaps as much the fault of the chilling atmosphere of his as of his own hyper-refinement of taste or inter- mittency in the hits of creative fancy that its quantity was so little. Yet this slender garland of verse has been sufficient to give Gray his rank among the dii majores of English poetry. The earlier Lives of Gray and editions of his works by Mason and Mitford have Soa superseded by the study by Edmund W. Gosse (1882)-in the ‘English Men of Letters’ series, and by the same editor’s complete edition of his works in prose and verse, including as many as 349 of his letters (4 vols. 1884). See also the essay by Matthew Arnold in vol. iii. (1880) of T. H. Ward’s English Poets. Gray’s Inn, one of the four Inns of Court (q.¥.) in London, Grayling (Thymallus), a genus of fresh-water fishes ‘s tie salmon family, distinguished trout, &e. by the smaller mouth and_ teeth, and The genus is 376 GRAYSTONE GREAT BRITAIN represented by five species, inhabiting clear streams in north Europe, Asia, and North America. The British Grayling (7h. vulgaris) has a wide but lecal distribution ; it prefers rivers with rocky or ———s — =~ - = Grayling (Thymallus vulgaris). gravelly bottom and an alternation of stream and ool. The back and sides are silvery gray, with ongitudinal dusky streaks; the dorsal fin is crossed by rows of spots. The fish, which may attain a weight of 4 to 5 lb., is esteemed for the table, but should be cooked when newly caught, when it has an odour compared to that of wild thyme. It spawns in April or May, and is in best condition when trout are out of season, in October and November. Another well-known species is Zh. signifer, a beautiful fish from the clear affluents of the Mackenzie River, called ‘ Hewlukpowak,’ or ‘fish with the winglike fin,’.by the Eskimos, and ‘poisson bleu’ by the Canadian voyageurs. See Pritt, The Book of the Grayling (1888); Walham, Grayling, and how to catch them (1895). Graystone, Graywacke, &c. STONE, GREYWACKE, &c. Graz. See GRATZ. Grazalema, a town of Spain, situated in a very strong natural position 53 miles EN E. of Cadiz. Its 8000 inhabitants are principally engaged in See GREY- manufacturing cloth and in smuggling. Grease, a term of general application to all oily or fatty matters, but generally to those having some degree of solidity, as tallow. specially applied to fatty matters which are so deteriorated by dirt or other impurities as to be unfit for candle-making and other manufactures requiring some degree of purity in the material. Grease is largely employed as a lubricant for heavy machinery, and especially for the wheels of carriages. The grease employed for the axles of wagons and carts consists of inferior kinds of grease mixed with a little tar. On English rail- ways grease is used for goods and mineral wagons; for passenger carriages palm-oil is used. See LuB- RICANTS. Great Basin, a remarkable triangular plateau of North America, occupying the western portion of Utah and nearly the whole of Nevada, as well as a section of Oregon and California, and extend- ing at its north-eastern angle into Idaho. It is bounded on the W. by the Sierra Nevada, and on the E. by the Wahsatch Mountains. The base of the triangle, in the N., is some 500 miles from east to west; it extends from N. to 8. for nearly 800 miles, and its area is slightly greater than that of France. mountains, and traversed throughout by numerous ranges, frequently parallel, yet as often irregularly blending or crossing ; the valleys are usually sinks, the chief drainage centre being Great Salt Lake (q.v.), and the Humboldt and Carson sinks, at about the same elevation. It has been pointed out by the United States Geological Survey that the Great Basin’s areas of greatest depression are to be found near the borders, while its central portion reaches It is more. It is girdled round on every side by high a much greater elevation. The loftiest range is the East Humboldt, near the middle, which culminates in Mount Bonpland (11,321 feet). Volcanic masses form or conceal the original rocks of many of these ranges. The Great Basin contains many streams and lakes, the latter for the most part salt, whose waters never reach the ocean, but are either taken up by evaporation or sink in the desert sands. The mean annual rainfall ranges in different localities from 4 to 15 inches. The plateau is nearly desti- tute of trees, and in general only the upper parts of the valleys are clothed with desert shrubs, their lower portions often being occupied either by bodies of water or by a muddy bottom covered with several inches’ depth of alkaline salts left by evaporation. See, besides reports to the United States Geol. Survey. works by I. C. Russell on Lake Lahontan (1883 and 1885 } and Southern Oregon (1884); and Hague, The Volcanic Rocks of the Great Basin (1884). Great Bear Lake. See BEARLAKE (GREAT). Great Britain. Under this head are noticed (1) the island of. Great Britain—its geology and geography ; and (2) the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland—its general statistics, &e. Great Britain was so called to distinguish it from Britannia Minor, or Brittany, in France (see BRITANNIA). The name was a poetical or rhetorical expression till in 1604 James I. styled himself kin of Great Britain, although the term was propos in 1559 by the Secttish Lords of the Congregation. Lying between 49° 57’ 30” and 58° 40’ 24” N. lat., and between 1° 46’ E. and 6° 13’ W. long., Great Britain is the largest island of Europe. It is bounded on the N. by the Atlantic, on the E. by the North Sea, on the S. by the English Channel, and on the W. by the Atlantic, the Irish Sea, and St George’s Chan- nel. The most northerly point is Dunnet Head, in Caithness; the most southerly, Lizard Point, in Cornwall ; the most easterly, Lowestoft Ness, in Suffolk; and the most westerly, Ardnamurchan Point, in Argyllshire. Its greatest length is about 608 miles, and its greatest breadth (from Land’s End to the east coast of Kent) about 325 miles; while its surface contains 88,226 es m. Geology.—The geology of Great Britain is of peeu- liar importance. The fossiliferous strata havin been first systematically studied and expound here, British geologists have given to the world the names whereby most of the larger divisions and subdivisions of these strata are known. Nearly all the recognised ‘systems’ occur in Britain, although some of these are more fully represented elsewhere. Indeed, the only system not found in Britain is the Miocene—the beds formerly classed as of this age being now included in the Oligocene. British geology is no less import- ant from the influence it has had in the develop- ment of the country. The mineral wealth, especi- ally the coal and the iron, are the real sinews and muscles of Britain’s mighty power. No other country has similar advantages in such an area. (See also the article on the geology of EUROPE.) We shall, in this sketch of the distribution of the British rocks, follow the order of the strata, begin- ning with the lowest and oldest. It may be said that, in general, the mountainous regions of the north and west are formed of the oldest rocks, and that, as we move south-eastwards, we gradually ass over newer strata, until, in the east of Eng- fahd: we come to the uppermost divisions of the Tertiary. The base rocks of the whole series occur in the Outer Hebrides, in Rona, Tiree, and Coll, and along the western shores of Sutherland and Ross. They are assigned to the Archean System (q.v.), and consist chiefly of coarse gneiss, usually hornblendic, GREAT BRITAIN 371 a various schists, with occasional crystalline . tones—the whole series being veined more or less abundantly with pegmatite. Small isolated areas of Archwan occur also in England (Charn- - wood Forest, the Wrekin, the Malverns). No fossils are met with in any of the Archean ‘The oldest fossiliferous strata in Britain belong to the Cambrian System (q.v.), and are well de- veloped in Wales and Shropshire, attaining a thick- ness of more than 30,000 feet. They consist chiefly of dark-red and purple sandstones, grits, and con- rates, with green slates and slaty shales. fossils are not abundant, but show a remark- able variety of forms. In Scotland the Cambrian to be represented by the red grits, con- - glomeraes, and sandstones which rest directly on . Archean rocks of the outer Hebrides and the north-west Highlands. The Silurian System (q.v-) occupies a large por- tion of the surface of the country. The typical rocks occur in Wales, extending over the western awe of the principality from Pembroke to nbigh, and including the northern portions of Pembroke, Carmarthen, and Brecknock, the whole of Radnor and Montgomery, the south-west of Denbigh, and the whole of the counties to the west. The oldest or Lower Silurian beds are next the coast. The series consists of an immense thickness of shales, slates, grits, and greywackes, with inter- ealated limestones more or less pure. Immense tracts have hitherto proved devoid of fossils ; in other districts the calcareous rocks are almost entirely compdsed of the remains of marine in- vertebrate animals, while the shales abound in zoophytes and crustacea. The high lands in the north of Lancashire and south of Westmorland are Silurian; but it is in Scotland that these strata are most extensively developed. A line drawn from Dunbar to Girvan forms the northern limit of these beds in the south of Scotland. Ex- = the lower half of the valley of the Tweed, the whole region from this line to near the base of the Cheviots is Silurian. The rocks are chiefly grey- wacke, with scattered beds of impure limestone. The chief fossils are graptolites, crustacea, brachio- , and mollusca, e lead-mines of Wanlock- and Leadhills are in this district. East and south-east of the Archean and Cambrian rocks of the north-west Highlands come Silurian rocks which are more or less metamorphosed. Up to recent years geologists believed with Sir i. L Murchison that all the schists, &c., lying to the east of the Cambrian and Archean areas, and extending down to the borders of the lowlands in Strathmore, &c., were altered Silurian strata. Probably this is the fact, but the work of the Geological Survey in the north-west Highlands has suggested some doubts. A line drawn from Stone- haven to Helensburgh marks the southward range of those schists and slates, &e. The Old Red Sandstone System (q.v.), consisting of conglomerates, coarse and fine grained sand- stones, and dark-coloured flagstones and shales, with characteristic fossils of ganoid and placoid fish, overlies the Silurian in several districts in Scotland. Nearly all Caithness and the seaward — of Sutherland, Ross, Cromarty, Inverness, airn, and Elgin, | belong to these strata. ) eeslecne 2,485,000 255,000 200,000 2,940,000 WAILOMRIL 2 Unk ei eedcaaseceaeees 6,880,000 1,340,000 1,570,000 9,790,000 ee FR fare yr hpeee rere 445,000 160,000 805,000 1,410,000 Turnips, Vetches, &...........22.006- 2,385,000 500,000 435,000 3,320,000 BR SORES SR A eae 3,640,000 1,690,000 1,330,000 6,660,000 IIREMOUE «chive ich besaaaniadisede 13,350,000 8,690,000 4,140,000 21,180,000 MUN ns i nasa S4 270 354 ll DOL dlawisin.wie us adgaes 76 235 811 8 From the foregoing table it will be seen that we produce now only § bushels of grain per inhabitant, against 17 in the year 1830. At present the aver- is 19 bushels per inhabitant in France, 15 in a, and 18 in Australia. The following statistics of live-stock are for England and Wales down to 1831, and the United Kingdom afterwards : Year. Horses. Cattle, Sheep. Piga. 1088. ses mata Ae 12,000,000 cane chy, ee Saad re 25,600,000 sane BOGS: «2 =e 26,150,000 woes WSL, oats 1,500,000 5,220,000 39,650,000 4,000,000 BOTs cie's ae 8,730,000 83,820,000 4,220,000 To 1,890,000 9,780,000 82,220,000 —- 3,730,000 taps"; 1,940, 10,270,000 28,940,000 —- 3,820,000 The returns for 1888 show as follows : England. Scotland. Ireland. Unit, Kingd Horses ..... 1,240,000 190,000 510,000 —1,940,000 rs ee 5,060,000 1,110,000 4,100,000 10,270,000 Sheep...... 18,580,000 6,730,000 —_ 3,680,000 940, igs . 2,265,000 155,000 1,400,000 8,820,000 M‘Culloch estimated the products of the three 5 gene in 1846 at 218 millions sterling; his table compares with the products of 1887 thus— all farm products, in million pounds sterling : 1846. 1887. cuter | Pastoral.| Total \ouiteray |Pastoral. Total England........ 80 62 142 92 65 | 157 Scotland ....... 19 9| 3 | «| | 4 Ireland......... 28 2 | «| 17 | 87 | 5 United Kingdom| 197 o1 | 218 | 133 | 118 | 951 376 GREAT BRITAIN M‘Culloch’s estimate for Ireland in 1846 was perhaps toolow. The Registrar-general for Ireland in December 1889 published a report on the total value of farming products, thus : 1851-55 annual average........ £71,990,000 1866-70 on ” austteaiet 72,210,000 1884-88 Wo! Bone ye we 54,010,000 This shows a national loss of £18,200,000 per annum to the Irish people, or double the total rental of the country. In seven years, down to August 1888, the Land Court has reduced rents on 243,490 farms from £3,852,000 to £3,094,000, the saving thus effected to tenants being equal to 4 per cent. of their loss by the fall in prices. Middleton estimated the total value of farm products of England and Wales in 1820 at 127 millions sterling; M‘Culloch, in 1846, at 142 millions. In 1887 the total for the three king- doms was 251 millions—viz. : 1846. 1887. ‘ay om and Great Britain ales. and Ireland GIOIA, on vp che o thas Keg eteeehe £51,500,000 £41,400,000 WITEON: Crops: .o:ay sncnte ones 28,500,000 52,400,000 Hay and Straw. .¢ove oe, os 2s 18,000,000 3,000,000 NN S45, ons ass tatetasnomeeetheree wee 26,200,000 51,500,000 PMS cts. picepiereda atee ues? 12,000,000 31,200,000 Eggs and Poultry.............. 1,400,000 10,100,000 POG rds cas cena Pees eee 8,000,000 6,000,000 Hides, Wool, &6..05...5 cea. seserte 4,300,000 14,000,000 TUN DSL. 35 cs oc aenae wants ahaete 1,800,000 1,400, Vegetables and Fruit............ pas! 10,000,000 OURE 0 Kawika Siac. £141,700,000 £251,000,000 The value of farm products in the three kingdoms in 1846 was 218 millions sterling, equal to 45 per cent. of the then estimated earnings of the whole people. In 1887 it was 251 millions, or only 20 per cent. The above figures merely express the gross product, utterly apart from profits. The following table of agricultural capital does not include Ireland before 1814. Land is capital- ised at thirty times the rental. Million pounds sterling. Year. Land. Cattle. Sundries. Total. 1750 498 25 58 581 1814 1470 74 172 I 1716 1843 1677 94 197 1968 1868 1925 170 233 2328 1880 2086 209 255 2550 1887 1873 185 229 2287 In the preceding table an allowance of 10 per cent. is included as ‘sundries,’ but Chaptal and other French economists allow 14 per cent. It will be noted that the agricultural capital of the United Kingdom has only risen 30 per cent. since 1814, while the wealth of the nation (since Colquhoun’s estimate in 1811) has risen 370 per cent. Agricul- ture, in fact, is by no means so prosperous as it was one hundred years ago, nor is the gross product so high relatively as elsewhere. The agricultural capital of the United States is only 52 per cent. higher than in the United Kingdom (the value of land being in the United States so much less); the gross product is 200 per cent. greater. Germany has the same agricultural capital as the United King- dom, while her product is 66 per cent. overours... The agricultural capital and product of various nations are approximately as follows, in million pounds sterling : Capital. Gress Product Ratio, United Kingdom.............. 2287 251 10°9 United States... oie cccesees 3696 776 21°0 CONHOG 25.555 vais alex es bead ome 343 65 19°0 USO oS 5,5 ois Wario a's ceca, 413 62 150 BYANGC Is 5 vs-3 sn wis eel oleic e¥9 WEN 3229 440 13°7 Germany - sith. 6/2. Radin $405 2336 415 17°8 PUBS os cca sisal Soahiews sae 2090 523 25°0 FINANCES.—The revenue of the British govern- ment has been as follows : Reign. Amount, William I. £1,320,000 Henry I 990,000 Henry IIL 264,000 Edward IV. 162,000 Henry VIII. 1,300,000 Charles I. 950,000 .. William ITI. 4,135,000 .. George II. 9,030,000 . George III. 55,810,000 .. William IV. 59,400,000 Victoria. 71,100,000 " 89,800,000 In the earlier reigns of the above table the nomi- nal amount was only one-third of the above sums ; but it must be remembered that the groat (4 pence) contained as much silver as our shilling of to-day. Hence the above represents the exact value in- silver. The purchasing power was three times greater down to 1540 (Henry VIII.), and twice as great from that time till the death of George II. than what our prace money can buy. “, Revenue and expenditure since 1842 show as follows, in million pounds sterling: * Period. Expenditure. DOSZABL.. .. cig ccintanphas scree tee tipees 567 549 ES ee errr rire 678 709 HTL co ain cniele was ait eae ameiala ie si6 ter 711 692 BBLErOL. c.o.s cca saasea thw Melee esses 799 794 BOBE+OS, cis. obs es siske Daal BOR Cw OmmeGe 616 619 47 YOATB ics. ores x dee Oncowass 3371 3363 pounds sterling : Period. Customs. Excise. Stamps. ernst pe og Sundries, Total. 1842-51...... 226 151 71 55 18 46 567 1852-61...... 237 181 78 102 30 50 678 1862-71...... 221 204 94 78 45 69 711 1872-81...... 199 268 110 71 74 77 799 1882-88...... 139 184 . 838 90 68 52 616 47 years. .1022 988 436 The expenditure pounds sterling : Period. Service of Army ant = Government. Total. 1842-51 ......... 287 160 102 549 1852-61 ......... 285 288 136 709 1862-71 ......... 265 263 164 692 typ) ie 28 280 233 794 1882-88 ......... 96 218 205 619 47 years......1314 1209 840 3363 National expenditure, not including local taxes, compares with the estimated capital wealth of the nation as follows, in million pounds sterling : National Public Ratio of Year. Wealth. Expendit Expendit 1 0-4 4 08 56 26 53 13 71 1:3 90 1:0 If we include local taxation, and compare the oss public burden with the estimated earnings of the British and Irish people, we find thus, in million pounds sterling : All Public Earnings Ratio of Year. Expenditure. of People. Burden. ABAD Shastene ows a 0.920» 63 540 11°6 per cent. LL A ee ees 68 620 11°0 " 31 URES ees Stes 86 760 113 " SOT eo hea new ae tce s 107 10°8 " FROG GN hoasete sens ys 143 1170 12°2 " TABS ceive hi ope caine oe 157 1280 12°3 " The national debt was only 13 millions sterlin at the beginning of the last century. George III. found it 147 millions at his accession, and raised it 5 ‘ 4 , "1 GREAT BRITAIN 377 Seteds sniilone (in 1817) by his wars in America, be dia, Srcaas lea’, at his death it was ‘$41 Ireland, In g ual to 34 per cent. of the wealth of the United millions, or about 7} per cent. of the estimated wealth of the nation. , . eae _COMMERCE.—Official records of British trade om. In March 1889 it amounted to 698 | (including Irish from 1820) show as follows : Year. Re’ Imports. Exporta. Total. Per Inhabitant. ER Adensbic0.cs0sna-0b4ncenine ee Edward [II £120,000 £290,000 £410,000 £9 210 ibs, BEY ii exes Veckaubdavetheh Elizabeth. 2,100,000 1,880,000 8,980, 000 015 0 BEEGG aks bcatvivssssuee> adenine James IT. 4,200,000 4,080,000 8,250,000 110 2 PNAS Lvonco anise enecs ee yee George I. 6,700,000 7,700,000 14,400,000 118 0 SER eG kaghnacnsecdsst Vapors te George LIL. 13,400,000 16,000,000 29,400,000 360 SE cw ibyode coskentudunciagess " 24,100,000 43,200,000 67,300,000 680 EEL, a5 Pic ahva oSaten sseeeees+George IV. 29,700,000 44,200,000 78,900,000 310 0 SGC AR Wecustcedéchsseunwes sins Vi 51,600,000 62,000,000 113,600,000 440 SE ita sCactegs isan canea> " 99,000,000 70,000,000 169,000,000 640 atc vk ness tapsnaaey sera ck " 210,500,000 164,500,000 375,000,000 1217 0 1870...... iat asaavawewaphetcaneas " 808,300,000 244,100,000 547,400,000 17 7 0 ce can eave sesuctbaces as " 411,200,000 286,400,000 697 ,600,000 20 5 0 aS verter deea soe ire 2, 200,000 280,800,000 643,000,000 17 7 0 Ses; cb ss cdiw cadee cance " 887,635,743 297,885,236 685,520,979 18 6 2 The Board of Trade returns were as follows for imports : Cane od 1854. 1870, 1887. sumption in 1887, Grain (including rice and potatoes)............ £22,800,000 £36,700,000 £51,200,000 £49,800,000 DI iy av hob w9ees cv ab neces cbeanir's 20,200, 53,600,000 40,200,000 34,500,000 ES Mavisiticriveriey con arenvsxcewss 4,100,000 26,500,000 35,400,000 85,400,000 Meat (including live cattle).................+. 8,800,000 7,700,000 22,800,000 . 22,400,000 _ ree Rare ER Casas hain aeons 6,500,000 15,800,000 24,500,000 10,700.000 MRCECN YE CAs vatiromth debs e ooh Bab Gn 10,800,000 17,600,000 16,500,000 15,900,000 IG /5T lin wpe dc ¥sindedch Sind mes 3,100,000 11,900,000 16,400,000 16,400,000 SEINE 5) 5.00 Succ scndbesiediate seins 4c 7,200,000 15,400,000 15,000,000 10,600,000 ee nan ans pacenwsidar spsios oul ae 11,500,000 13,200,000 12,100,000 12,100,000 a renee ets Feeerre Poy tee ‘ Seta 8,900,000 18,000,000 13,900,000 Wines (including s' ATEN a Oy 400, 000, 700,000 6,600,000 Flax th ONE g iv cd¥eus vege ay erat beareeneee 5,800,000 10,400,000 8,600,000 8,600,000 NS 0. than av US Rings Bud FR Go 00 CSRQIDa 0% 6,400,000 8,200,000 2,100,000 2,100,000 iyi xt Gadi h. sateicvee sien sinvasanes, cena 69,500,000 95,800,000 5 ee £152,400,000 £308,300,000 £362,200,000 The principal exports of British and Irish products were as follows : 1 1870. 1887. MMR vin de 5a 5 rain Steely eet e's caemnheds ee deve £31,700,000 £71,400,000 £71,000,000) &@ 2 pone pects. Pee Li Wed shes eaiddans es rmumncae nap Vang 10,700,000 600,000 24,600,000 22s Linen PUM MOOG a oi 8c ebb x ex veWet dt aobbas eek sgaves 5,100,000 10,400,000 8,700,000 | * 23 nm goods....... abie sbUb ae ss axinediaieddwablepied swaeneynaF 200,000 2,600,000 2,800,000 ¥ 55 ce BOE THRO os cde hn sieed tenn avs 700,000 £111,000,000 £107,100,000 | Se 2 EERO BABA Ee NECA SS SERA PR eng 11,700,000 26,500,000 25,800,000 = : Other metals ..........5cegseedeee EUshc wade so cnrnecs sleals 800,000 4,700,000 4,300,000 [ 2 #3 edge oes. xr: cates ibd bests Deiohica ob aii dence sds 4,100,000 6,400,000 3,100,000 5g ar DERCHINETY.%. is< os cencccscececcesseaseeccscccistenesccces 200,000 5,300,000 12,800,000 | SES REID te oh xs aw ks Sats onss ar SaMteois «cease co nvecas gh 2,100,000 5,600,000 10,200,000 eSo5 PRUE Liss Ladies ssbwiea Letbosiiasedeuebbeesows 24,600,000 40,100,000 58,100, E g3 ae AL: Nerves, she or oiet £97,200,000 £199,600,000 z221,400,000) 255 The ate trade in merchandise only, ex- | Shipping.—The merchant shipping of the British clusive ion, for seven years ending December | empire, colonies included, showed as follows : 1887 showed thus, in million pounds sterling : Imports | Exports | Gros Y Vessels, | Sailors. sya Reign. T. Ratio. ear, esse! -Tons. —_—_—_—_ trom. to. open Ship. | Sailor. United States ...... 254 881 18°6 1588 470 37,400 80 Elizabeth. France ............. 264 180 444 9-4 1610 910 | 83,000 90 James I Holland ... 174 lll 285 80 1666 | 1,320 | 120,000 90 Charles IT Germany . 171 202 373 79 1688 | 2,620 | 210,000 80 James II ars woe das 120 53 173 36 1702 | 38,260 | 261,000 ve 80 Anne. Belgium 102 97 ‘| 199 4°2 1760 | 5,730 | 487,000 = 85 | .. | George III Sweden and Norway 76 85 lll 23 1800 | 17,410 | 1,856,000 | 140,000 | 106 | 14 " Spain 71 31 102 29 1810 | 23,708 | 2,426,000 | 162,000 | 102 | 15 " 38 48 81 17 1820 | 25,874 | 2,654,000 | 175,000 | 105 | 15 22 54 76 16 1830 | 28,721 | 2,533,000 | 155,000 | 107 | 16 | William IV. 36 7 53 et 1840 962 | 3,311,000 | 201,000 | 114 | 17 | Victoria, 69 57 196 27 1850 | 84,288 | 4,233,000 000 | 124 | 18 " 61 22 83 18 | 1860 | 29,469 | 5,713,000 } 230,000 | 198 | 25 " 87 6 83 18 1870 | 32,920 | 7,150,000 | 261,000 | 216 | 27 " 14 46 60 12 1881 | 30,531 | 8,535,000 | 270,000 © t " 19 15 84 07 1887 | 28,212 | 8,936,000 | 280,000 | 320 | 32 " 21 17 88 os ae 22 13 35 o7 Aes “ ‘ . 135 121 256 5°38 “does shipping of the United Kingdom, excluding 2078 lai oak = colonial, has been as follows : 241 223 464 98 Tons per 173 181 354 75 Year. | Vessels, Tons. 8 75 66 141 3-0 Vessel. | Seaman. 32 22 54 12 38 39 77 16 1810 . 2,211,000 | 145,000 | 105 15 7 75 152 33 1830 | 19,174 | 2,202,000 | 131,000 | 114 17 1850 | 25,984 | 3,565,000 | 148,000 | 138 24 636 606 1242 | 26-4 1870 | 26,367 | 5,691,000 | 196,000 | 215 29 1881 | 24,880 | 6,490,000 | 193,000 | 260 33 Grand Total... .. 2710 2025 4785 100°0 1887 22,136 | 7,340,000 203.000 334 36 378 GREAT BRITAIN The following table shows the ratio of British and Colonial tonnage in the world’s shipping : British and All other Year. Colonial. Flags. The World. British Ratio. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1820... . 2,654,000 8,900,000 6,554,000 40 per cent. 1842... .3,311,000 6,200,000 9,511,000 35 " 1860... .5,713,000 7,973,000 3,686,000 42 " 1870... .7,150,000 8,426,000 15,576,000 46 " 1881... .8,535,000 12,111,000 20,646,000 41 " 1887. ...8,936,000 12,966,000 21,902,000 42 In the foregoing tables no distinction is made between steam and sailing tonnage. A steamer, however, is found to make three ocean voyages or six short trips in the same time that a sailing- vessel takes for one; we must therefore multiply steam tonnage at least by four, to arrive at the earrying-power. The following table makes this allowance, and under the head of Effective Carry- ing-power it will be observed that the shipping of the British empire has multiplied six ail a half times since 1840. Reference to American statistics shows that in the same interval the sea-goin shipping of the United States increased in nomina tonnage only 200,000 tons, or 25 per cent. z= Steam (nominal tonnage). Sailing (nominal tonnage ). Effective Carrying-power. ear, British. Other Flags, British. Other Flags. British. Other Flags. 1840........ 95,000 21,000 3,216,000 6,180,000 3,596,000 6, 264,000 ROOD Ss crefas 188,000 204,000 4,045,000 6,800,000 4,797,000 7,616,000 BECO. Daisiwa.vs 502,000 318,000 5,211,000 7,655,000 7,219,000 8,927,000 1870. .2500% 1,203,000 715,000 5,947,000 7,711,000 10,759,000 10,571,000 ABBE ieca.5e7e% 3,105,000 2,539,000 5,430,000 9,572,000 17,850,000 19,728,000 1887 . 2.20... 4,355,000 3,877,000 4,581,000 9,089,000 22,005,000 24,515,000 _ The carrying-power of the British merchant navy Seed the British merchant shipping has doubled. (including colonial) in 1887 was 22,000,000 tons, or | It is now almost equal to the total effective tonnage considerably more than the total carrying-power of | of all other nations in the aggregate. The above the world (21,300,000 tons) in 1870, since which | table gives the following result : Carrying-power. Ratio. 1840. 1860. 1887. 1840. 1860. 1887. Tons. Tons. Tons. British ......... 3,596,000 7,219,000 . 22,005,000 36°5 44°6 47°3 Other flags...... 6,264,000 8,927,000 24,515,000 63°5 55°4 ; 52°7 The world...... 9,860,000 16,146,000 46,520,000 100°0 100°0 100°0 In the above table British includes colonial rp If we compare the merchant shipping of the United Kingdom only with that of other flags we find : Year 87 Renton) Querying ome, ate United Kingdom.......... 7,340,000 19,590,000 42°0 United States ............ 4,130,000 8,300,000 17°8 SFOPIDANY 925 cniccet to oa Sust's 1,285,000 2,640,000 57 POOR WRG ts hota ous Solita nest 1,524,000 1,860,000 4:0 PAMRES eas cinta Seeds Core 1,078, 1,310,000 2°8 PRUGRIB Fics fase ce cade Sararste 1,025,000 1,395,000 3°0 BOMMTAOO 3 ya's. a's. v ek aco Cllrs fe 993, 2,495,000 54 TRU Cota ord go's orsca ork acct 946,000 1,380,000 30 RAN, Con) lane 4:0 v8.6 Gore santes 594,000 1,640,000 3°5 BWPGO, B56 Fs coco s Seetes 517,000 ,000 19 PUR TPALR oo sie na cle'la esp 349,000 770,000 16 PADUA sorb baleen easy onions . 610,000 13 IDEDABIE is cosas wk 35 ia 273,000 530,000 12 Pe la) Ve, = eee : 530,000 12 PRPOGCG os cies ca leiesp raise »,s\<00 262,000 370,000 0-8 South America............ 253,000 490,000 1°0 Other Countries .......... 785,000 1,720,000 3°8 The world........ 21,902,000 46,520,000 100°0 WEALTH.—Comparing Porter’s table for 1840 with the estimates for 1860 and 1887, we find as follows, in million pounds sterling : 1840. 1860. 1887. RAUWAYS:. Sisk edsgisaewekece 21 348 831 SEOUSOR tik view 5 hy css Sess 770 1164 2640 UPRIGULE | 05.7:s00 ea spear wens 385 582 1320 MRIS co kaka sec tenet anes 1680 1748 1560 Oattle, SO a cducds tan ees 280 350 414 BIMPPINR . icis tresses a aadeces 23 44 130 Merchandise... .....s.000 70 190 821 WGNIONG: Veet es ekacte eee. 61 105 143 Sundries. Wei. svi civn cseeune 810 827 1869 POA ceesa:s.0 2552 4100 5358 9228 In the above table land in 1887 is put down at 1560 millions, whereas the official valuation at thirty years’ purchase, as already shown under the item agriculture, is 1873 millions; but it is gener- ally admitted that the official valuation is twenty per cent. over the real value. The increase of wealth from 1840 to 1887 was 124 per cent., or three times greater than that of population. The annual accumulation averaged 64 millions sterling between 1840 and 1860, and 143 millions between the latter year and 1887. Wilson estimated the accumulation in 1840-45 at 60 millions yearly; Giffen, in 1880, at 150 millions. Houses constitute the largest item of public wealth—viz. 2640 millions sterling, the value being taken at twenty times the assessed annual rental. In this item alone we see an in- crease of 1870 millions since 1840, the number of new houses built between that year and 1880 being 2,218,000—say 55,000 yearly. It is probable that new houses represent only one-third of the increase of value, as the old ones (4,430,000) have likewise risen. Allowing for houses built since 1880, the number and value would be approximately thus : No Value, Per house, million : &, Built before 1840.......... 4,400,000 1730 393 Since 1840 ...........0.60. 2,700,000 910 340 Total in 1889...... 7,100,000 2640 372 The value of house-property per inhabitant varies in the three kingdoms : £s, per inhab. £s, per inhab PNGIBNG jididirscvene vse sce 77 Londons, .’ssh 1869 The amount of British capital in foreign stocks is variously estimated. Bullion.—This is not properly wealth, but a token of it. However, in deference to vulgar prejudice, we include the estimated amount of gold and silver at different dates. neoonne to the Probate returns for 1881-85 the wealth held by the inhabitants of the United i aa would then have heen only 8200 millions sterling. It must, however, be observed that estates under £100 escape the Probate Court, and many large estates are under-valued in proving succession ; also, that the royal navy, abckvarda, prisons, lighthouses, high-roads, &e. have to be added to the Probate estimates, which will bring us up to the total of 9228, as first stated. RELIGION.—The census takes no note of religion og in Ireland, but the ratios of marriages in the different churches-enable us to form a close estimate of the adherents to the various creeds in England and Scotland. On the basis of the census of 1881 the figures would stand thus : P Numbers. Percentage. England, Scotland. Ireland. England. Scotland, Treland. Unit. Kingdom. Church of land.... | > 18,798,000 99,000 636,000 72°3 27 12°3 55°8 Roman Catholic....... ,066, 318,000 8,952,000 41 86 174 15°2 b Raibeiak oe 114,000 2,997,000 ,000 0-4 810 9-4 10°3 Methodist, &........ 5,990,000 281,000 48,000 23°2 77 0-9 18°7 Total........ 25,968,000 3,695,000 5,122,000 100°0 100-0 100°0 100°0 The Established Church, before the disestablish- rei pe en ii eS er 14,578 ment in Ireland in 1869, comprised the following | —_Inaependent ...............sssscssccusccscesee 22608 livings : DUNE cipro nae Ade sotsinteraseeaatodcsas= tens 2,243 Nominated by England. Ireland. _—Total. REV any ooh 0% beapeescs scent bb 0040 ipekceeses 895 MUNI dee tg Zu cles so na'ss.ce epee 952 181 1,083 ROMAN CHGNOHG i 50 ve ceca ened ecedccesoeesue 824 PENN a Li 9.03 8 xa .s re nd-eiaines 5,096 340 5,436 Quakers 5.2 ose ces sscceccececccncceccseecoeess 375 SION OE Gees coe st'c08a500 4,694 924 5,618 PAR RGTIERS SU so die tacecd pile seme s snicenanes eau 201 . — PLN AEE MOTE 5 thine 5 sisks ERSDA aE UDR EN EAC Da nbeaeenss 60 ot ae 10,742 1395 12,137 NMENONG Sa canes: pe dvsnasen as e¥ecsecsbs ccceyseads 2,628 A report, published in 1880, on the income of the aos has eto dacs « epteids 35,916 Established Church in England and Wales, was as follows : RUNGE, Puree hy bs castawed bisa vive be cavers £4,054,000 Committee grants ........c.ceecececscecees 776,000 MERE MOUTOOR 6 eine nagandsbscs candor ne eses 8,000 DOMEAVI SG weue OEE oun dno £5,803,000 The above, however, included £962,000 of tithes ‘that go to laymen, the real Church income being £4,841,000, distributed thus : Clergy. No. Income. Per head. PNONG wiisvance Wecnssas 33 £168,000 = £5100 MOE cis ca we nc sub akin 166 ,000 1440 ae awisecabaseces 11,780 3,830,000 330 re ee ee 5,050 000 120 pe pny: 17,029 4,841,000 The above does not include the ‘offertory,’ which has been found to range from £100 to £240 per annum in each church, and is estimated to sum ere yearly, at £120 per church. The lesiastical Report for 1880 shows that in forty years the commissioners have expended 22 millions in creating new endowments to an annu value of £746,000 in aid of 4700 distressed parishes —say £160 each. The commissioners distribute about £700,000 a year in creating new benefices, to an ave amount of £23,000 per annum. Balance still in hand, £8,200,000. The above tables do not include collegiate endowments, worth £550,000 a year. Total clergy of Church of Eng- land 19,000, including 2000 schoolmasters. The Church of England has, moreover, 232 clergymen in Scotland, in Ireland, and 2700 in colonies cop aging countries, making a grand total of The number of churches of all persuasions in England and Wales in 1883 was as follows : In the above are not included 364 Roman Catholic chapels attached to religious houses, possessing no marriage license. The condition of the Anglican Church in Ireland in 1880 was as follows : BOON ON ORI rn oi rand kod tS hastdes vdune sans 820 Number of laity... ...- 2... evesescocsesccoeeeves 635,100 | TO WIROR cos anne he veate ee etd s 06's x's.05 Sas £130,000 OMNI tes asics Da ei ta eheeavincees cetce hs ces an 118,000 OR EMIS oor s as vue Es haeNcsosensecaeceoe 248, NAO WON CRIMI ee ike Sos dieied se ce dwccese cd 8,260,000 There are twelve bishops, who receive £41,500 r annum—ave £3600. each. In November 880 the residue of property formerly belonging to the Anglican Chureh in Ireland was valued at 12 millions, producing a revenue of £574,000, to be devoted to purposes of general utility or benefi- cence. The condition of the Roman Catholie Chureh in the British empire in 1882 was as follows : Bishops. Priests. Churches, Laity. England............ 51] 2112 188 1,066,000 Scotland........... 6 306 295 318,000 relat: i i.cas.c0s- 28 8290 2760 8,952,000 Wis een oak 24 1210 1050 2,150,000 Australia .......... 16 376 787 584, PAAles 250 kis 22 1179 700 1,318,000 Other colonies...... 20 315 240 466, Total...... 131 8788 7020 9,854,000 The average income in the United Kingdom is £400 for a bishop, and £80 for a priest. In India it is £260 per bishop, and £36 per priest. In Canada and Australia it is higher than in England. There are 51,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. MANUFACTURES.—M‘Pherson’s table of British manufactures in 1782 compares with the estimates for 1882 (United Kingdom) as follows : BRITAIN 380 GREAT Ratio, 1782. 1882. 1782. | 1882. Cotton goods .. £960,000 £95,200,000 17 | 116 Woollen 16,800,000 46,400,000 29°5 55 Linen " 1,750,000 11,770,000 3-1 14 Silk mis 8,350,000 7,230,000 59 0-9 Leather ....... 10,500,000 34,030,000 18°4 4°2 lron and steel.. 12,100,000 127,000,000 21°4 | 15°4 Sundries....... 11,200,000 496,670,000 20:0 | 61:0 Total...... £56,660,000 |£818,300,000 | 100°0 | 100-0 The growth of the principal manufactures is shown as follows—value in million pounds sterling : 1830. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1881. COOGAN Oe cee ub eis ca ke 31 43 78 94 95 ME POUMNE ois ciaaaes seh 23 29 388 55 46 Dinen, Ges. is.cs'e Ueas 9 17 17 28 21 BUACMLN 5.2 4h. 2 s.a x acda whsd p Rie 8 10 18 16 7 PBMOTI OS ose c<.05 0 keh eee 7 10 17 22 26 Weetilese, f.:.0+ vate 78 109 168 215 195 Hardware...0..2. 02%: 81 42 65 82 127 Textiles and Hardware..109 151 238 297 822 The preceding tables were prepared by Mr Mul- hall from the materials of his Dictionary of Statistics (enlarged edition, 1891). One rather unsatisfactory aspect of British manu- facture in recent years has been the extent to which German goods have superseded, both in the United Kingdom and abroad, those of British make. The facts are thus summed up in E. G. Williams’s Made in Germany (1896). While in twenty-three years our population has increased by over 7,000,000, the declared value of our exports has fallen by over £30,000,000 a year. In 1883-93, while British ex- orts were declining, the value of German manu- actured goods imported into this country increased by £5,000,000 a year. In the same years, 1883-93, our imports of mannfactured goods inereased by £30,000,000, while the total value of our exports declined by £22,000,000. In iron and steel and in textiles, German goods are superseding British goods in the United States, some British colonies, and many markets where British commerce was formerly supreme. PoPULATION.—The following table shows the population of the United Kingdom at various dates since the first census—that of 1801, in which Wales is given along with England. The counties, with their areas (in acres) and populations, are given for each of the main divisions of the empire under ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, IRELAND, and under their own heads. Area in fac hi 1801. 1841. 1891, byeTed 0s Seana Pe See 50,823 8,892,536 15,002,443 27,483,490 Waleaiinn SOx 70edkesn 7,363 911,705 1,519,035 Scotland..... .......+ 29,820 1,608,420 2,620,184 4,025,627 Prelandsscces.cd)'s csp 82,581 5,395,496 8,196,597 4,704,750 [sle‘or Man... si ss 220 47,975 55,608 Channel Islands....... 7 76,065 92,234 Army, Navy, &c...... 202,954 224,211 Total, Unit. Kingd. .120,832 27,057,923 38,104,175 At the census of 1881 the population was 35,241,482; in 1895 it was caleulated at 39,134,166. In 1890-91 {not to mention those in the colonies, &c.) there were 3,122,911 natives of the United Kingdom in the United States, 39,687 in France, and 15,534 in Germany. In 1891 there were in England and Wales 282,271 natives of Scotland (253,528 in 1881), 458,315 natives of Ireland (562,374 in 1881), and 198,113 natives of foreign states, 50,599 (as against 37,301 in 1881) bein ermans, 20,797 (as against 14,596) French, and 19,740. (as against 17,767) American citizens. . CoLONIES.—The British colonial empire com- prises some fifty distinct governments, and, in- cluding India, extends over nearly 10 millions of square miles—more than eighty times the area of the mother-country, or one-sixth of the habitable land-surface of the globe. The colonies and depen- dencies have a population of near 2504 millions as compared with the 40 millions in the mother- country. Of this, nearly 10,000,000 square miles belong to the nine self-governing colonies, with a population of over 10,000,000. he following table shows the area and popula- tion of the colonies and dependencies of the empire. The populations are even according to the census of 1891 or later official estimates : Area in sq. maine.” Population. 221,172,952 Tadd (British). ......0..casssee0esees 512,842 Straits Settlements...............00-- BEOHGSKON DR sc 5 '0.:0:0:0,0.5,00 cons eemas hemes NIMGEMLID cc cass bic v's 9,48 000.6 2,051,003 New Zealand Pe eth s teas eeaeka Palksand Isles... 00h seveuscetsae sun die Nata. eee eee eee ee ee) Tere eee ee eee eee eee ee eee) eee eee eee ee ry Sere eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee ee ee The above figures do not include the feud- atory states of India (595,167 miles; pop. (1891) 66,050,479), the Maori population of New Zealand (41,993), or the aborigines of South Australia. Innumerable other subjects bearing on the re- sources, history, administration, &c. of the United Kingdom will be found under such heads as : Agriculture England, Church of. | Parish. Army. English Language. | Parliament. Banking. " Literature. | Police. Bridge. Equity. Poor Laws. Canal. Fisheries. Post-office. Chancery. Friendly Societies. | Railways. Coal. Gaelic Lang. and Lit. | Religion. Colony. Harbour. Savings-banks. Common Law. Immigration. Scotland. Cotton. Treland. Shipbuilding. County. Tron. Tax. Criminal Law. Land. Telegraph. Dialect. Lighthouse. Trade Unions. Dock. Local Government. | Universities. Education. National Debt. Volunteers. Emigration. Navy. Wales. England. Ordnance Survey. Wool. For the arms of Great Britain and Ireland, see FLAG, HERALDRY. The history is dealt with under ENGLAND, ScoTLAND, IRELAND, and WALES. cited ; also: Allen, national wealth, 1840. Anderson, history of com., 1764. Anderson, machinery, 1873. Bailly, finances, 1837. Baines, cotton industry, 1835. Baxter, wealth & taxation, 1869. Beeke, national wealth, 1800. Bertram, fisheries, 1882. Bevans, manufactures, 1880. Brabrook, friend.societies, 1875. Bryson, medical statistics, 1853. Bullion Report, 1810. Burdett, medical statist., 1881. Caird, agriculture, 1852-68. See the works there Campbell, nat. resources, 1774. Capper, agriculture, &c., 1801. Carlisle,survey of U. King. ,1813. Chadwick, sanitary, 1847-80. Child, woollen industry, 1693. Cobden Club essays, 1876. Colquhoun, natl. wealth, 1806. Comber, " " 22. Cooke, British products, 1828. Craik, hist. of commerce, 1844, Danson, insurance, 1873. Davenant, natl. wealth, 1701. Doubleday, financial hist., 1847. Eden, history of labour, 1797. GREAT BRITAIN GREAT CIRCLE 381 , cotton trade, 1858. navigation, &c,, 1674, — 3 parl, blue-book, Parr, vital statistics, 1837-78. Fenn, funds & finances, 1838-84. Lavergne, Brit. agricult., 1863, Lawes, ” ” 1880, Levi, commerce, 1870. Lowe, agriculture, 1822. Mabson, indust. charts, 1882, M‘Culloch, Brit. empire, 1837, dict. of com., 1869. Fleetwood, prices & wages, 1745, , coal and iron, 1s60, " Se iron and steel, 1883, M'‘Pherson, hist. of com., 1805, local taxes, 1846. M‘Queen, British empire, 1850. - Mann, cotton trade, X See venking. 1560, Marshall, digest of stat., 1833. , meteorology, 1859. Martin, colonies, 1839. Glover, shipping, 1880, Moreau, commerce, 1828, Graunt, vital statistics, 1759. Mulhall, dict. of statist., 1886. a " " 867. Newmarch & Tooke, prices, 1857. Brit. manufac., 1715, Ogle, vital statistics, 1882. at " 1879. Palgrave, local taxes, 1871. Hawkins, medical statis., 1829. | Parnell, finances, 1827. Heron, statist. of Ireland, 1862, | Porter, progress of nation, 1850, Herschel, meteorology, 1351. Redgrave, factories, 1876. Hull, Prof., coalfields, 1881. Rogers, Thorold, agricul., 1888. Humphreys, vital statist., 1883. | Seeley, geography, 1889. Hunt, mining industries, 1882. | Statesman’s Year-book,1864, &c. Jeans, iron and steel, 1888. Valpy, commerce, 1853. Jeula, shipping, 1874. Williams, railways, 1879. Jevons, prices, &c., Yeats, commerce, 1872. Jones, national wealth, 1844, Young, agriculture, 1780-1808. Great Circle or Tangent Bailing. In order to have a clear idea of the advantages o t cirele sailing it is necessary to remember that the shortest distance between two places on the earth’s ace is along an are of a great circle (see SPHERE); for instance, the shortest distance be- tween two places in the same latitude is not along the parallel of latitude, but along an are of a circle whose plane would pass through the two places and the centre of the earth. The object, then, of great cirele sailing is to determine what the course of a ship must be in order that it may coincide with a great circle of the earth, and thus render the dis- tance sailed over the least possible. This problem may be solved in various ways. The handiest practical solution is to stretch a string over a terrestrial globe quite tight between the ge of departure and arrival. The string will lie on the great circle required. A few spots on the track of: the string should be transferred to the ordinary poiecrge A (i.e. Mereator’s) chart, a free curve should drawn through these transferred spots, and the ship should be kept as close to that curve as possible. The solution by a is simply the calculation of sides and angles in a spherical triangle. The method by computation will be understood from the accom- panying , Where ns are the poles of the 7 0) w 2 ~ e m 8 earth, we the equator: nwse represents a meridian which passes through the place Pp, nxvs another meridian through the place z, and pam a portion of a t circle; let p be the place sailed , an x place sailed to, then is the t circle , and it is required to determine the length of px (called the distance), and the angles npx, nap, which are equal to the first and last true courses. To determine these we have three things given: nz, the co-latitute of x; np, the co-latitude of p ; and the angle znp, which, measured ong: ve, gives the difference of longitude. The problem thus becomes a simple case of spherical trigo- nometry, the way of solving which will be found in any of the ordinary treatises on the subject of Spherical Trigonometry. Next, several longitudes on the route, say at 5° intervals, are chosen, and the co-latitudes of the spots on the great circle which correspond to these assumed longitudes are calculated. The latitude and longitude of these spots on the great circle being now obtained, the courses and distances from one to the other in succession can be found by the ordinary processes of navigation. The work is somewhat shortened by finding that particular spot on the entire great circle which lies farthest from the equator. 5 7 is called the vertex, and is easily found by the property that the meridian running through it is at right angles to the great circle at that spot. To avoid these, or some of these somewhat troublesome calculations, charts have been constructed on projections different from that of Mercator. On one of these, called the Gnomonic Projection, all the great circles are straight lines; on another, all the great circles are true cireles. It has also been suggested that the ports of departure and arrival being iven, and the vertex (described above) having n found, and all three having been marked on a Mercator’s chart, a true circle drawn through these three spots will be near enough to the great circle for practical purposes. A modification of this approximate method is useful in the run between the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, on which the great circle route goes too far into the southern ice-region. If a spot of highest safe south latitude be here substituted for the latitude of the vertex, a circle drawn through the places of departure, of arrival, and of the substituted safe a will give what is called a composite great circle. From the theory of great circle sailing the follow- ing most prominent features are at once deduced : A ship er on a great circle makes direct for her t, and crosses the meridians at an angle chk always varying, whereas, by other sail- ings, the ship crosses all meridians at the same angle, or, in nautical phrase, her head is kept on the same point of the compass, and she never steers for the port direct till it is in sight, except in the two cases where the ordinary track lies (1) on a meridian, or (2) on the equator. As Mercator’s Chart (see MAP) is the one used by navigators, and on it the course by the ordi- nary sailings is laid down as a straight line, it follows, from the previous observations, that the great circle track must be represented by a curve, and a little consideration will show that the latter must always lie in a higher latitude than the former. If the track is in the northern hemisphere it trends towards the north pole ; if in the southern hemisphere it trends towards the south pole. This explains how a curve-line on the Mercator’s chart represents a shorter track between two places than a straight line does ; for the difference of latitude is the same for both tracks, and the great circle has the advantage of the shorter degrees of longitude measured on the higher circles of latitude. Con- sequently, the higher the latitude is the more do the tracks differ, especially if the two places are nearly on the same parallel. The point of mazxi- mum separation, as it may be called, is that point in the great circle which is farthest from the rhumb-line on Mercator’s chart. Since the errors of dead-reckoning, or even of dead-reckoning 382 GREAT EASTERN GREAT SALT LAKE supplemented by astronomical observation, prevent a ship from being kept for any length of time with certainty on a prescribed track, and thus may neces- sitate the calculation from time to time of a new path, in practice the accurate projection of a great circle track on the chart would be a waste of time. Some ignorantly object to great circle sailing on the ground that, on account of constant change of the course steered, a ship cannot be kept with absolute precision on the correct great circle track. But, in fact, all that is required of a navigator is to sail as near to his great circle track as con- venient ; and each separate course will be approxi- mately a tangent to his track, and the shorter these tangents are made the more will the length of a voyage be diminished, Great Eastern. This great ship, the largest _piece of marine architecture ever put together, was planned (1852) by Brunel and Scott Russell at the instance of the Eastern Steam-navigation Company, a vessel being wanted for the route to Australia round the Cape which could carry enough coal for the voyage out and home, and have besides space for a large number of passengers and cargo. he scheme was for a ship that would accommodate 1000 passengers, 5000 tons of goods, and 15,000 tons of coal. As at first arranged for, the measurements were: length, 680 feet between perpendiculars, or 692 feet upper deck ; breadth, 83 feet, or 118 over paddle-boxes ; height of hull, 60 feet, or 70 to top of bulwarks. Ten partitions of plate crosswise of the ship divided the interior into 11 watertight compartments, further subdivided by longitudinal partitions. The propelling power comprised both addle and screw. The 4 paddle-engines had 4 oilers; the 4 screw-engines had 6 boilers. The smoke from the furnaces ascended 5 funnels, 100 feet high by 6 in diameter. Setting aside the nominal power, all the 8 engines at full force were estimated to work up to 11,000 horse-power. There were 6 masts, 5 of them iron. The vast wall-sided compartments of the ship had facilities for conversion into cabins for 800 saloon passengers, 2000 second-class, 1200 third-class, and 400 officers and crew; or 5000 might have been accommodated in all if emigrants or troops. The height of the *tween decks was 13 feet. Stich were the plans for the mighty ship, which were never fully carried out in all their details, owing to numerous altera- tions and refittings. During 1854-57 the operations proceeded at Millwall, in spite of frequent and heavy financial difficulties. November 1857 the ship had advanced to the launching condition ; ut it required various attempts, between November 3, 1857, and January 31, 1858, and an expenditure of £60,000, to effect the launching. During 1858 and 1859 the works continued as fast as the company could supply money ; and altogether the vessel was estimated to have cost £732,000. Uncertain how far the original intention of a trade to and from Australia could be realised, the directors determined on a trial trip across the Atlantic. It was a disaster. The ship left the Thames, September 8, 1859; an explosion of steam-pipes took place off Hastings ; seven persons were killed and several wounded ; and the voyage abruptly came to an end at Port- fand. The ship started again on June 17, 1860, from Southampton, crossed the Atlantic in eleven days, and reached New York on the 28th. During the remainder of 1860 and the greater part of 1861 she made many voyages to re fro, including the conveyance of Foot Guards to Canada, losing money by the insufficiency of the receipts to meet the current expenses, and constantly requiring repairs. For the arrangement and services of the ship in 1865 and 1866 in paying out the Atlantic cable, zee ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. In 1867 she was chartered to bring passengers from New York to Havre in connection with the Pans International Exhibition, but the scheme proved a failure. From 1869 onwards the Great Eastern successfully laid some of the most important telegraph cables— across the Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, Red Sea, &e. After acting as a coal-hulk at Gibraltar in 1884, the gigantic vessel was sold in London by auction for £26,200. Finally, after having been used for a time as a ‘show’ ship, she was sold by auction at Liverpool in November 1888, to be broken up, the five days’ auction fetching £58,000. Great Fish River, (1) in ne Colony, rises in the Sneeuwberg Mountains, and, after a gener- ally south-easterly course of 230 miles, enters the Indian Ocean in 33° 25'S. lat. and 27° E. long. The Midland Railway which connects Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred with Kimberley skirts part of the river ; there is an iron bridge at Cradock, and Fish River Station is 207 miles from Port Elizabeth.— (2) Great Fish River, or Back’s River, in North America, enters an inlet of the Arctic Ocean in 95° W. long., after passing through Lake Pelly. Sir George Back (q.v.) traced its course to the ocean. Great Grimsby. See GRIMsBy. Great Kanawha (pronounced Kanaw'wa), an affluent of the Ohio River, is called New River in the upper part of its’ course, and rises in the Blue Ridge of North Carolina. It has a course of 450 miles, and is navigable to a fall 30 miles above | Charleston, and about 100 miles from its mouth. Great Marlow. See MARLow. Greatrakes, VALENTINE (sometimes called Greatorex and Greatarick), the ‘touch doctor,’ was born at Affane, near Lismore, in County Water- ford, 14th February 1628. During the troubles of the Rebellion his mother fled in 1641 to Eng- land, and settled in Devonshire. From 1649 till 1656 he served as an officer in the Parliament- ary army, and from 1656 till the Restoration he acted as a magistrate in his native place. About 1661 he began ‘touching’ for the king’s evil, in obedience, he said, to a divine impulse, and ere long he touched or ‘stroked’ for ague and for all manner of disease. He was summoned to the king at Whitehall; multitudes flocked to him, and his cures were witnessed and attested by men so emi- nent as Robert Boyle, Ralph Cudworth, and Henry More. This predecessor of Mesmer did not profess to be always successful; but his claims provoked much controversy, and in 1666 he published in his own defence his Brief Account. of himself and his cures. He seems to have died in 1682. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the Wahsateh Mountains, about 4200 feet above the sea, forming a principal drain- age centre of the Great Basin (q.v.). Well-marked shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching 1000 feet higher than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent; this rehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. reat Salt Lake is over 80 miles long and from 20 to 32 broad, but for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the largest, Antelope Island, about 18 miles long. _ Its tribu- taries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan, and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah ; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of saline matter in solution ; in 1850 the proportion was 22°4 per cent., in 1869 it was only 14°8. Between these dates the annual tribute exceeded the evaporation, and the area of the lake increased from 1700 to 2360 sq. m.; more recently, it has again been slowly receding. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp have been found in its waters, but no fishes : large flock GREAT SEAL = GREECE 383 of water-fowls frequent the shores, The first men- tion of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and deseribed in 1843 by Fremont; for the value of Baron La Hontan’s fables, see H. H. Bancroft’s Utah (San Francisco, 1889). A thorough survey was made in 1849-50 by Captain Howard Stans- bury, U.S.A. See Savt Lake Cry, and UTAu. Great Seal of England. See Seat. Great Slave Lake lies in the Canadian North- west Territory (62° N. lat.). Its greatest length is about 300 miles, and its greatest breadth 50 miles. By the Slave River it receives the surplus waters of Lake Athabasca; and it discharges by the Mackenzie River into the Arctic Ocean. See ATHABASCA. Great Wall of China, See Cuina, Vol. ILL. p. 185. , Greaves. See ARMouR. Grebe pees oy a genus of diving birds (Pygopodes), usually frequenting rivers and fresh- water lakes, and visiting the sea only when ting or in winter. e foot of the grebe is and flattened ; the toes lobed and bearing te membranes unitéd only at the base; the etiage are short and rounded ; and there is virtually no tail, The legs are placed so far back that the bird stands erect like the penguins, Its move- ments on land are ungainly in the extreme, but it swims gracefully, and is the most expert of divers, not using its wings, but propelling itself on its downward career solely by the aid of its paddle- like feet. The grebe seldom leaves the water, and can even swim under the surface for a considerable distance, threading its way with wonderful expert- ness among the stalks and leaves of aquatic plants. A floating nest is built of leaves and twigs and moored to reeds or grasses. The egys are covered with a chalky incrustation, and are so wide in the middle as to look almost biconical. The mother- bird, before leaving the nest, scratches the weeds over them with her feet, so that the whole looks like a tangled mass of rubbish. She is careful of her young, carrying them on her back, and even diving with one under her wing. The grebe feeds chiefly on crustaceans, frogs, and small fishes, partly, however, on vegetable food. The plumage varies at different seasons. The Great Crested Grebe (P. cristatus) is found Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus) and Nest. all the year round on inland lakes in England and Treland, more rarely in Scotland, and at the sea-coast in winter when driven by frost from the lakes. The adult male is 22 inches in length, and is very conspicuous in fl because of the glossy whiteness of the plumage on the ventral surface; the female is smaller and has a less develo crest. The best-known British species is the Little Grebe or Dabechick (P. fluviatilis), one of our most beautiful river-birds, which ie widely distributed throughout England and Ire- land, and is also found in Scotland, where it breeds at an elevation of 2000 feet. In summer the head, neck, and Be parts are dark brown, the under rts grayish-white; in winter the colours are aler, Gould describes the young dabchicks as 1aving ‘delicate rose-coloured bills, harlequin-like markings, and rosy-white aprons.’ The adult bird only reaches a length of 9 to 10 inches. The Red- necked Grebe (P. griseigena) and the Slavonian or Horned Grebe (E. auritus) visit our shores in autumn and winter, and the Black-necked or Eared Grebe (P. nigricollis) in spring and summer. An allied genus, Podilymbus, comprising two species, is confined to North and South America. The bes are much sought after for their plumage, ut their shyness and their great agility in diving and swimming under water render them extremely difficult to shoot. So easily alarmed are they that Mr Ruskin, in his somewhat revolutionary treat- ment of ornithological nomenclature, proposed to rename the genus Trepida. The skin of the grebes is made into muffs or cut into strips for trimmings, the beautiful, satiny plumage on the lower parts of the body of the Great Crested Grebe being in par- ticular request for these pu . See Howard Saunders, Manual of British Birds ; and Ruskin, Love's Meinie. Grecian Architecture. See GREEK ARCHI- TECTURE. ‘ Greece is the easternmost of the three penin- sulas projected southwards by Europe into the Mediterranean ; and being for the most part lime- stone, is a continuation of the great mountain- system which stretches from Spain to Syria, encloses the basin of the Mediterranean with pre- cipitous edges, and shuts off the three peninsulas from the continent. In no other country has the eography more influenced the history than in reece ; and the tendencies of this influence are expressed on the one hand in Wordsworth’s lines : Two Voices are there ; one is of the Sea, One of the Mountains ; each a mighty Voice : In both from age to age thou didst rejoice, They were thy chosen music, Liberty ! and on the other in Hegel's dictum : ‘ Mountains alone divide, seas unite.” Thus, as the west coast of Greece is mountainous and harbourless, whilst the east is full of bays, gulfs, and havens, Greece turned her back on Italy, and was brought into intimate communication with Asia Minor. The easternmost of the three basins into which the Mediterranean is divided became a Greek lake. The test factor in Greek unity was the A’gean Sea, for it united the Greeks of the mother-country with the Greeks of the isles and of the coast of Asia Minor. At the same time, as the coast is the first rt of a new country to become civilised, and reece has relatively a longer coast-line than any other country in Europe, just as Europe has more coast than any other quarter of the globe, the history of Euro civilisation begins with Greece. On the other hand, the spirit of liberty, which nerved the Greeks to resist the Persians, and so save the civilisation of the world, was due to the moun- tains of Greece; but the divisions between the Greeks themselves were also due to the mountains, which divided the land into cantons incapable of effectual combination against the Macedonian invader who conquered them all. Let us then begin with the mountains, and, so to speak, articulate the skeleton of Greece. The range which in the north cuts off the peninsula from 354 GREECE the continent of Europe is an extension of the Bal- kans. From it run chains from north to south, or rather from north-north-west to south-south-east, which form the skeleton of Greece. The most im- Sapegl of these is the range which forms the back- one of the country, separating first Illyria on the west from Macedonia on the east, and then Epirus on the west from Thessaly on the east. Thus the western boundary of Thessaly is formed by Pindus (7111 feet), the main offshoot of the Balkans. The eastern boundary is also marked not only by the sea, but by important mountains derived from the Balkan system. These are Olympus (9750 feet), Ossa, Mavrovuni, and Pelion. Helnming to Pindus, we find that its tendency to the east becomes now more pronounced, and a branch of it, under the name of Othrys, starting from the mighty Tymphrestus (mod. Veluchi, 7606 feet), forms the south boundary of Thessaly. It then is continued in the celebrated mountains Parnassus (8036 feet) and Helicon, forms the land of Attica, and reappears as the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siph- nos. The subsequent course of that branch of the Balkans which we have mentioned as marking in part the eastern boundary of Thessaly is equally interesting, for it forms first the island of Eubea, and then the isles of Andros, Tenos, Myconus, Naxos, and Amorgos. The Peloponnese, ‘the island of Pelops,’ or by its modern name the Morea, is connected with northern Greece merely by the narrow isthmus of Corinth, and is separated from it by the long if narrow Gulf of Corinth on the west and the Saronic Gulf on the east. The commercial supremacy of ancient Corinth, standing as it did on ‘two bright havens,’ and on the road from Pelopon- nese to the mainland, was due to its position; and we need only add, in further explanation, that all the great trade routes from the Ural Mountains, the Black Sea, and Asia Minor to Sicily, Marseilles, and the West converged at Corinth. The Peloponnese has a mountain-system which is derived, like the others of Greece, from the Balkans, runs parallel to and west of Pindus, and shows itself in the Acroceraunian Mountains and in Aracynthus. From the central group of mountains which surround Arcadia, and are highest on its north frontiers between Arcadia and Achza—e.g. Cyllene (Ziria), Aroania (Chelmos, 7724 feet), and Erymanthus (Olonus)—run two important chains, in the same north-north-west to south-south-east direction which we observed in the Pindus. Of these, the westernmost is the Taygetus (Hagios Elias, 7901 feet), the highest pone in the Peloponnese, which, after dividing aconia on the east from Messenia on the west, ends in the promontory of Tznarum; while the eastern one separates Arcadia from Argolis, runs down Laconia under the name of Parnon (Malevo), and makes its last appearance as the island of Cythera. And here we may complete our account of the isles of Greece by adding that the Ionian Isles, Coreyra, Cephallenia, Leucas, and Zacynthus, off the west coast, follow the same north-north-west to south-south-east direction as the mountain-chains of the Peloponnese and the mainland. ‘ The rivers of Greece are unimportant. They flow generally, both in the Peloponnese and the main- land, south or west. In the latter the four princi- pal rivers have their source on Mount Lakmon, the starting-point of Pindus, and flow, the Aoos ( Viosa) into the Adriatic, the Achelous (Aspropo- tamos) to the Gulf of Patrze, the Peneus (Salam- brias) and Haliacmon into the Thermaic Gulf, The principal rivers of the Peloponnese rise near the north of Taygetus: the Alpheus (Ruphia) flows west, the Eurotas south. People.—The ancient Greeks were a branch a of that family which includes most Euro peoples, and also the Persians and the Hindus, and 1s variously called Indo-Germanic, Indo-European. and Aryan. The Indo-European family is not an ethnological division of the human race, but 2a linguistic : the languages spoken by the various Indo-Europeans are descended from one and the same original language (now lost), but the peoples who speak it, indeed the people who pa: the original language, need not necessarily, though they may quite possibly, be all of the same descent, for one nation may, directly or indirectly, compel another to adopt its language. Whether the original Indo-European home was in Europe o1 in Asia is a matter still in dispute. What is less open to doubt is that it was from the north that the reeks entered Greece, and that they were nomac tribes depending for subsistence mainly on thei flocks, though they knew how in extremity to culti vate the ground in a primitive fashion. Metal: they were hardly acquainted with; they were stil in the Stone Age. As they moved southwards ir separate tribes, the foremost tribes were impellec forward by the pressure of those behind ; and ever when the whole of the peninsula had been for some time filled and fully occupied, a fresh wave of im. migrants might wash over the whole country. disturbing everything. Such a wave was the ‘Return of the Heraclide,’* or the ‘ Dorian In. vasion.’ The result was to drive emigrants on t¢ and over the isles of Greece to plant Greek citie: and Greek culture on the coasts of Asia Minor, At later times Sicily, the Black Sea, Libya, &c. were dotted with Greek colonies ; and wherever Greeks were, there, to the Greek mind, was Hellas, whicl is thus an ethnological rather than a territoria. term. As for the name of the Greeks, they called themselves Hellenes, a designation the origin of which is still unknown; the inhabitants of Italy called them Greci ; the Orientals, Jonians ; while in Homer they are called Danaans and Acheans. The modern Greeks are by no means pure-bred descendants of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, it has been maintained by Fallmerayer that from the 7th century A.D. there have been no pure Greeks in the country, but only Slavs. It is, however, pretty certain that the 14 million of modern inhabitants are descendants of the three races that occupied the soil at the time of the Roman Conquest—viz. Greeks, Thracians (mod. Wallachians), and Illy- rians (Albanians). Language.—The Indo-European family of speech includes, in addition to Greek, the following branches: Hindu-Persian, Armenian, Albanian. Italian, Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavo-Baltic. 0: these that with which Greek was supposed tc have the most affinities was the other classical language, Latin ; and the two peoples were accord ingly supposed to have dwelt together after leaving the original home, and to have jointly gone through a Greco-Italian period. This view, however, is exposed to many difficulties : the inflections of the Latin verb are more closely connected with Celtic : the syntax of Greek bears more resemblance to that of Sanskrit ; and while the vocabulary of Latin is more closely bound up with that of the Teutonic languages, the Greek coincides more frequentl with the Hindu-Persian. The dialects into whic the ancient language was divided may be grouped as follows : (1) Ionic and Attic ; (2) Dorian (cover ing the Peloponnese and its colonies); (3) the North-western dialects (those of Phocis, Locris, ABtolia, Acarnania, and Epirus); (4) ®oliar (Lesbos, North Thessaly, Beeotia); (5) Elis; (6 Arcadian and rien ; (7) Pamphylian. The ancient dialects continued to be spoken at anyrate till the time of Tatian (adv. Grec. 171)— i.e. the end of the 2d century A.D. By 263.A.D.. < % y | CA al g i 2 GS <4: oll i = ig i | 2 id pall Ey 8 : — Re Te \ I ont 3 AS sa le A | SE i et =} 3 o | > ol i ae « Ss Le fe . eel) 8 | “HOYNGNICS FNOQNO?) G3LINIT ‘SY3GWVHO'Y PM ec YOANVeay Jo TF iseg epuarwuc, AX ‘A ~~ nN) 7 | jst ] z4) \ NS s SAVING. Ivy 5 —_— | 3 | | } ; : —~Silte 35% ; Y sa opn 4g SADTMASS UK “ee | Ly We Sid * ~ wanting under the capital. _ ists of Sicily and M GREEK ARCHITECTURE 393 The pillars of this tom to be Doric; it is only on close inspection we find that the echinus (see MOULDING) is The echinus was, how- ever, used by the Egyptians, We here find our- selves in the cradle of Greek art; here we must seek for the primitive elements of the style, not in Greece, where the earliest example is already complete in all its parts. There, the earlier the le, the more massive is the form. This com- pletely disproves the theory that the pillars were of stems of trees used as posts. In Assyrian Hindu architecture evidence is preserved in the forms of the bracket capitals of the wooden origin of the pillars and beams, but in Greek architecture there are no such indications. It seems more likely that the first pillars in Egypt were square piers of rubble or brickwork, with a flat stone or tile laid on the top to form a good bed for the beams to rest on. The lintels or architraves are short and mas- sive, and the pillars are placed close together, as would naturally be the arrangement in stone con- struction. It has been sup that the triglyphs represent the ends of wooden cross-beams resting on the architrave. But when the principles of Greek construction are analysed it becomes apparent that the triglyphs have been employed as stone supports set upon the architraves for the purpose of carrying the cornice, the mutules or spaces be- tween the triglyphs being sometimes left open, although generally filled with sculptured slabs. It is also to be observed that the triglyphs are used on the ends as well as the sides of the temple, where they could not represent the ends of cross-beams. The rafters were certainly of wood, and gave their sloping form to the pediment. It seems also likel that the ends of the rafters and projecting root- tiles at the eaves may have suggested the detailed features of the.cornice with its modillions. It will, however, be observed that although the mode in which stone is employed in Greek architecture is quite appropriate for that material when the space to be spanned is small, still the principle involved is the trabeate one, or that of beam construction, which is more applicable to wooden framing than to stonework, for which the arch is the proper medium both of construction and expression. The square form of the pier may have been afterwards modified by cutting off the corners, and again cutting off the remaining corners, until the polygon suggested the fluted shaft. The same process was afterwards gone through by the medieval architects in developing the piers of Gothic architecture. Be this as it may, the circular and fluted form of the column had been developed before it was adopted in Greece. After the temple at Corinth, the next remaining example is the temple at Aigina (q.v.), built about a century later, or B.c. There may have been many temples of the same date, but none now exist; they were probably destroyed during the Persian war, or removed to make way for finer edifices during the t building epoch of Greece which dacebatlad that war, an when she was at the zenith of her power. Of this epoch we have many remains. e temple of Theseus and the Parthenon at Athens ( B.C.), those of Zeus at pia (440 B.c.), Apollo Epicurius at Basse, Minerva at Sunium, and all the best examples of the Doric style of Greece are of the age of Pericles. povies | fhe Torrhennenae, teers ae the Pa ne on y the Gree which we can look for remains of Greek architecture. The Dorian colon- Grecia carried with them thé architecture of their native country, and fur- nish us with many fine examples. In Selinus there are six temples, the oldest being about the same age as that at Corinth. At igentum there are three Doric temples, one of them founded by Theron (480 B.c.); this is the largest Grecian temple of the period, being 360 feet long by 173 feet broad. At Syracuse, A‘gesta, and Pestum there still remain valuable examples. As the Dorie art progressed, the early massive forms gave place to more elegant and slender pro- portions. In the temple at Corinth the column is only 4°47 diameters in height; in the Parthenon (fig. 2), which is universally recognised as the finest Fig. 2. example of the style, the column is 6°025 in height; and in later examples it becomes still taller and thinner, until it runs into the opposite extreme from which it started, and becomes so meagre and attenuated as to lose entirely the boldness and vigour of design which are the chief characteristics of the style. One thing to be particularly admired in the Dorie style is the beauty of the sculpture with which it is adorned, and the appropriate manner in which the sculpture is placed in the building, and the building suited for the sculpture. Mr Penrose has endeavoured to prove by elaborate measurements and drawings that every line was the subject of the deepest study on the part of the architect, for the purpose of correcting and allowing for all optical aberrations. The result is that there is hardly a single straight line in the building ; all the lines which appear to be perfectly straight are drawn with accurately calculated curves, so as to produce the smoothest and most pleasing effect to the eye. Every harsh angle is softened, and every disagreeable combination of lines avoided. For example, the columns instead of straight sides have an entasis or slight swelling formed by a hyperbolic curve; the architrave of the front is curved upwards, so as to correct the optical illusion caused by the sloping lines of the pediment, and the columns are sloped slightly inwards so as to give greater appearance of eogirn > It must, how- ever, be stated that in the part of Durm’s Handbuch der Architectur (1881) which treats of Greek archi- tecture, this extraordinary refinement of details is to a great extent denied. The Parthenon is built entirely of white marble, and the whole of the masonry in this, as in other Doric works of import- ance, is put together with the most perfect work- manship. There seems to be no doubt that this and other Greek temples were adorned externally with colour. To what extent this decoration was carried is not clearly ascertained ; but it is probable that the exterior walls were covered with historical ictures, which were sheltered from: the effects of he weather by the portico surrounding the temple. This colouring also served as a background against which the white-fluted pillars would stand well out. The sculpture was probably also relieved by a flat colour on the background, and the mouldings decorated with painted or gilded ornaments. Tonic.—This style took its rise about 500 B.C., and a: we have seen that the earlier Dorie was 394 GREEK ARCHITECTURE imported from Egypt, so the Ionic seems to have originated from the influence of Assyrian art. The discoveries of Layard and others have shown that many of the characteristic ornaments of the style were in common use in Assyrian architecture. The volutes of the capitals are particularly in- dicative of an eastern origin, the scroll being an ornament of very frequent occurrence in all eastern art. The finest examples of the Ionic style remain- ing in Greece are the temples of Wingless Victory (Niké Apteros) and the Erechtheum at Athens,' built about 450-420 B.c. In the Ionian and other colonies of Asia Minor also many fine specimens of this style were erected. The celebrated Temple of Diana at Ephesus was of the Ionic order. It was the largest temple we know of up to its time, - being 425 feet long by 220 feet wide. The site was discovered and excavated by Mr Wood in 1869- 74. The Ionic is a graceful and elegant style, but not so pure and severe as the Doric. The latter is distinguished by simple and beautiful outline, enriched with the most perfect sculpture; the former trusts rather to ornamental carving for its effect. This love of ela- , borate ornament is an indication of the eastern influence under which the style originated, and the mouldings and many of the ornaments are found to be borrowed from those of Assyrian architecture, only refined and simplified by the Greeks. The honeysuckle ornament (fig. 3), so commonly used both in Assyrian and Ionic architecture, is a good example of the improvement effected by the Greeks on the original type. In the Ionic as well as in the Doric, we find the most perfect execution and workmanship, the spirals, entasis, &c. being all drawn and cut with the greatest possible exactness. . Corinthian. —This style was the latest intro- duced, and combines to some extent the charac- teristics of both the preceding. It unites and blends together the Egyptian and Assyrian elements, the cap being probably derived from the bell-shaped capitals of the former country, ornamented with the carved leaves and spirals of the East. This order was first used about the time of Alexander the Great, the earliest example extant being the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (335 B.C.). There are also the Temple of the Winds and that of Zeus Olympios at Athens, the latter being one of the largest and finest examples of the style. The Corinthian is the most florid of the Greek styles, and although invented by the Greeks, it was not brought into use till after the power of the republics, to which we owe the finest works of Greek art, had begun to wane. This style, from its richness and splendour, became afterwards the greatest favourite with the Romans, in whose hands Greek art spread over the whole empire. Caryatides.—Besides the above styles, which constitute the Greek orders of classic writers, the Greeks also used Caryatides (q.v.), or female figures, in place of columns, as in the Erechtheum; and Telamones or giants, as at Agrigentum. These were gow! derived from the figures used y the Egyptians in their architecture, but the latter never used them as columns; they always placed them as statues in front of the columns. Greek temples are technically classed and designated by the mode in which the columns of the porticoes are arranged. The ce//, or temple proper, is a square chamber contained within four walls ; the simplest form of portico is called distyle Fig. 3. Fig. 4. in antis (fig. 4), the two side-walls being con- tinued past the end-wall, and terminated with ante, or pilasters, with two columns between. When the portico has four columns between the ante, it is called tetrastyle. The temples have generally the same arrangement at both ends. n front of both ends of the plan distyle in antis (fig. 5), there is frequentl tweed a range .of six columns, aie Pate the flank columns a row is continued along both sides, thus forming a con- tinuous portico all round the edifice. Such an arrangement is called perip- teral, and the temple is designated hexastyle and peripteral. . This was a common arrangement. The Parthe- non is an exception to the general rule: it has a hexastyle portico at each end of the cell, in front of which is placed an octastyle pact and seventeen columns at each side. The great temple at Agrigentum had seven columns at each end, and four- teen at each side, and was pecutign in having the space between the columns all round filled up with a wall. The reason probably was that the space between the columns was too great to be spanned by architraves in single stones. The wall was pierced with windows. Considerable doubt has existed as to the mode adopted by the Greeks for. lighting the interior of their temples; that suggested by Mr Fergusson seems the most probable, as being similar to the plan used by the Egyptians and Assyrians. The interior had generally a double row of columns, one over the other, dividing the width into three spans. This arrangement still exists in the Temple of Neptune at Pestum. Fergusson supposes that the light was introduced ly countersinking a part of the roof, so as to admit the light between the pillars of the upper range, thus forming a kind of clerestory, as shown on the annexed section of the Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Parthenon (fig. 6). Windows, however, were also used, as in the temple at Agrigentum and in the Erechtheum. The theatres of the Greeks formed another very important class of works; they consisted of semi- circular rows of seats cut in the rock, or partly built (see ATHENS). Remains of these structures are found in all the countries inhabited by the Greeks, and were frequently of great size—that at Dramyssus being 443 feet across. The proscenia were the parts on which architectural design was chiefly displayed ; but these have unfortunately all perished, | None of the -palaces or domestic edifices of the Greeks remain to us; we are thus totally deprived of a very interesting chapter in the history of domestic architecture, for it is highly probable that the houses of Greece, although not so splendid GREEK ARCHITECTURE GREEK CHURCH 395 and enduring as the temples, were more varied in le, and exhibited many picturesque and beauti- ful forms, which are now entirely lost. But from what is known of the jealous feelings which per- vaded the republics of Greece, and from the aspect of the houses in the streets of Pompeii, we may conclude that the exterior appearance of the town- houses would be quite plain and unpretending, any richness or decoration being reserved for the interior. The attempt was made in the early part of the 19th century to revive Greek architecture, and some ingenious modifications and adaptations of it have been carried out. But it was found that this style, so beautiful and appropriate in the warm and genial climate of Greece, was quite unsuited for our northern latitudes. The porticoes are useless in a climate where external painting cannot last, and where the sunshine is courted rather than excluded ; the pitch of the roof is not high enough to throw off our snows; and windows of sufficient size for our dark skies are not admissible. Grecian archi- tecture has therefore been abandoned; and _ its place is now taken by a style more appropriate to a northern climate, and more suited to the feelings of the people. See Fergusson’s History of Archi- tecture and other general works on the subject ; Antiquities of Ionia (Dil. Soc. 4 vols. 1769-1881) ; Athenian Architecture (Dil. Soe. 1851; new ed. 1889). Greek Church, THE (styled ‘orthodox’ by reason of its vindications of dogma, and ‘ Eastern’ from its geographical distribution ), is the church of those Christians who follow the ancient rite of the East and accept the first seven councils, but do not admit papal supremacy, and reject those in- novations on the dogmas and the practice of the early church which were introduced by subsequent councils in the West. She is ‘the aged tree beneath whose shade the rest of Christendom has sprung up;’ and ‘it is her porcivee to claim direct con- tinuity of s h with the earliest times, to boast of reading the whole code of Scripture, old as well as new, in the language in which it was read and spoken by the Apostles’ (Stanley, East. Ch.). he dogmas of Christianity were first expounded by the Greek fathers; the earliest forms of Chris- tian worship were composed by Greeks in Greek, and during the first five centuries the Eastern Church may fairly be said to have comprised the whole body of Christianity. History.—The tendency and desire, natural to the Eastern mind, to endeavour to estimate and define in the abstract the attributes of Deity, pushed to extremes during a time of absorbing theological controversies, brought about, in the earlier period of the church, the formation of sects to which we shall hereinafter advert. But the t Schism be- tween the eastern and western portions of Christen- dom, an event which has exercised abiding influence on the whole course of subsequent European his- tory, was due to two primary causes—the inherent difference in the spirit and the traditions of East and West, and the transfer of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople. As the Christian faith became predominant ecclesiastical jurisdiction necessarily coincided with civil government, so that, when the Council of Nicwa declared Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch to be patriarchal sees, it but recognised the litical importance of those three centres of Christianity. As such, Rome was then the least important of the three. Indeed the early Roman Chureh was a colony of Greek Christians and Grecised Jews; the first popes themselves were Greeks, not Italians, and the very name of * pope’ is not a Latin name, but the Greek designation (papas) of every pastor of the Eastern Church. When, however, the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople (330 A.D.), although Rome was thus deprived of its sovereignty and its courtly splendour, a signal opportunity for increase of power and self-assertion was given to the Roman pontiffs. Favoured by the absence in their diocese of theo- logical controversies, such as distracted the East, and endowed for the most part with rare ability and worldly astuteness, they were not slow to seize upon and gradually appropriate the prerogatives and the civil authority of the absent emperors, and they soon arrogated to themselves even their pagan titles and military prestige. Constantinople, on the other hand, now rose rapidly to pre-eminence, not in the same sense of an ambitious ecclesiastical despotism, but as the official centre of a church already venerable, which had just received into its fold the first Christian emperor. A generation had ey passed when Gregory Nazianzen (360) spoke of the city as a ‘ bond of union between East and West to which the most distant extremes from all sides come together, and to which they look up as the common centre and emporium of the faith.’ It is true that, on the ground that ‘ Constantinople is the new Rome,’ the second general council (381) assigned to it ‘precedence of honour’ next after Rome. But this declaration, and the subse- quent decree of the fourth Council of Chaleedon (451), establish that these ecclesiastical honours were grounded upon the political distinction only to which both cities had successively risen. Jerusalem itself, in spite of its unrivalled associations, was included amongst the patriarchates—which thus reached the number of five—only at this latter council. Yet the initial advantages which the Greek Church already possessed never disappeared ; they still subsist, ‘a perpetual witness that she is the mother and Rome the daughter’ (Stanley ). But other and irresistible inward causes militated against the maintenance of even outward unity. Rome was destined soon to detach herself from the sisterhood of patriarchates, and renounce even that venerated title. According as the political ties between the eastern and western halves of the empire grew weaker, antagonistic ideas seemed to guide the two rival sections of the church. In each the divergent genius of their pagan forerunners, no less than opposed local temperaments, reappeared with fresh vigour, and influenced both thought and action. he Greeks were still swayed, how- ever unconsciously, by the liberal tradition of demo- cratic Hellas ; while the autocratic and centralising tendency of Rome never ceased to pervade the Latin ntificate. The fathers of the Greek Church in- erited and christianised the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle; the Latin Church modelled its Christianity after Roman law. ‘The East enacted creeds ; the West discipline’ (Milman). The one was controlled by a calm conservatism, the other was impelled by a restless desire for change. The one church remained ancient and catholic in spirit ; the other was transformed into a medieval and Latin institution. These contrasts, apparently superficial, were more deeply rooted and were fraught with weightier consequences than the outward theo- logical differences which now mark the distine- tions between other Christian churches. They were such as to lead to open rupture. Rome furthermore seemed again by its tradi- tional feeling of mingled jealousy and disdain for the Greeks, who were gradually becoming supreme at Constantinople, and. who finally transformed the Roman empire into a Greek monarchy. There- fore, in the disputes which followed in quick succession, political considerations weighed more in proportion as the temporal power of the popes found sustenance in the gradual growth of an 396 GREEK CHURCH independent confederation amongst the Italian states. The first notes of disunion were sounded in Rome, by such innovations as the enforcement of clerical celibacy (385), followed by more or less peremptory demands for the recognition, first of the hierarchical, and later of the doctrinal supre- macy of the Roman pontiff, which was ultimately to be admitted as ‘by divine right.’ Minor changes were gradually introduced into the Western Church, such as denying to priests power to administer confirmation, and the use of un- leavened bread in the eucharist. These innova- tions the Greeks regarded as expressly designed to foree upon them either a complete rupture or an unconditional submission to papal authority. But the chief and most abiding point of dogmatic difference consisted in the doctrine of the two- fold procession of the Holy Ghost and the inter- polation in the ancient creed of the church of the words Filiogue (‘and from the Son’). With- out entering into the details of this interminable, hopeless, and bitter controversy, it may be safely said that the complete absence of such a doctrine from the deliberations of the early councils is not denied by the Latins; that popes, such as Leo III. and John VIII., admitted that its surreptitious insertion into the Creed was reprehensible ; and finally, that the Greeks base their uncompromising reprobation of it on the explicit word of Christ : ‘The spirit of truth which proceedeth from the Father’ (John, xv. 26). Such being the abundant sources of an estrange- ment which steadily increased, the pope was not at a loss for pretexts in hurling his first excom- munication against the emperor and the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria in 484. Thus the East and West were de facto separated for a period of nearly forty years. Efforts at concilia- tion followed, and successive excommunications were withdrawn to be renewed from both- sides with intensified animus. But while the pope sub- ordinated dogmatic differences to the recognition of his supremacy, the title of ‘ceeumenical,’ which the emperor conferred on the patriarch of Con- stantinople, proved a fresh stumbling-block. The contest which followed (862) between the learned atriarch Photius and the popes Adrian I. and icholas I. was one of the most memorable periods of that long and eventful struggle, and although the so-called ‘ Photian Schism’ was again compromised, the reconciliation proved neither cordial nor lasting. The same causes of difference, with others of a disciplinary nature, reappeared in the 11th century ; and in 1054 Pope Leo Tk: issued a formal excom- munication against the patriarch Michael Ceru- larius. Since that time the separation has sub- sisted rigidly ; for although more than one attempt was made by either side to restore interecommunion between the two churches, every effort failed before the unalterable demand for submission to papal supremacy and jurisdiction. Pope Gregory IX. conceded even the omission of Filioqgue by the fireeks, provided they burned publicly all books inimical to the Roman see; and the desire of many Greeks for reconciliation was so sincere that some sort of reunion might have been effected at a later time, if the old antipathies of East and West had not been rendered even more intense and irre- mediable through the eonquest of Constantinople by the Latins in the fourth erusade (1204). The atrocities of this unprovoked and fanatical on- slaught, which was instigated by the papal see, the outrageous desecrations of Greek churehes, the horrors of the sack ‘of a refined and civilised capital by a horde of comparative barbarians’ (Stanley), and the eruel tyranny by which the Franks maintained their power, rendered the existing breach irreparable. The Frank invasion, by disorganising and weakening the Greek empire, opened the gates of Europe to the inroads of the urks, whose rising power had carried before it everything in Asia. So that on his restoration to the throne of Constantinople (1261) the emperor Michael Palzeologos, preaielk by dangers, was com- pelled, on a promise of material assistance from the West, to submit to the dictates of Rome at the Council of Lyons in 1274. When, however, he endeavoured, at a synod held at Constantinople, to obtain ratification of that union, he failed to gain the assent of the body of bishops to what was a one-sided measure, resulting from political necessity. In the succeeding reign the breach was even more seriously widened by the councils held at Constantinople in 1283 and 1285. The last attempt at union was the one made by the Emperor John Paleologos, who, to save Constantinople, and with it the West, from the invasion of the Turks, appeared (1437) with the patriarch Joseph and several Greek bishops at the Council of Ferrara, better known from the place of its close as that of Florence. Protracted discussions took place on all the points at issue; but while received with marks of distinction and outward show of friendship, the Greeks were, as on former occasions, deceived, out- reached, and entrapped into signing misleading and fraudulent documents, with the inevitable result that, even before their return to Constantin- ople, they renounced and repudiated the proceed- ings of what they characterised as one of the most scandalous of Roman conclaves. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks followed in 1453, and the fall of the Greek empire removed the political considerations which alone had dictated these latter attempts at reconciliation. Thus the Greek Church may be said to have died politically, but it has never surrendered its religious heritage. Doctrines.—As already stated, the Greek Church receives the first seven cecumenical councils, and the canons of the Trullan Council (from TpodAXos, the domed chamber of the imperial palace at Constan- tinople, where it was held). They adopt as their rule of faith not only the Bible, but also the traditions of the church ‘maintained uncorrupted through the influence of the Holy Spirit by the testimony of the Fathers,’ amongst whom Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, and St John Chry- sostom are held in special veneration as ‘ the three hierarchs.’ The Greek Church admits seven sacra- ments—viz. baptism, confirmation, penance, eucha- rist, matrimony, unction of the sick, and holy orders ; but both in the acceptation and the use of them it differs widely from the Church of Rome. Baptism is administered by a triple immersion, in accordance both with the meaning of the term itself and with the indisputable practice of the early church. Confirmation (Mépov or Xpicua) follows immediately upon and in connection with baptism, even in the case of infants—again in obedience to apostolic precept. In the sacrament of Penance the charel requires (@) admission before God of one’s own sins, (6) faith in His mercy, (c) resolve of self-amendment : this confession to be made before a priest, (1) that he may offer spiritual guidance and admonition ; (2) that he may announce to the penitent, in the name of Christ (‘May the Lord absolve thee’), absolution and hope of salvation; (3) that he may recommend penitential work. ‘Therefore the scandals, the influence, the terrors of the confessional are alike unknown in the East’ (Stanley). As to the Zucharist, the Greeks admit the propitiatory sacrifice, the real presence of Christ, and transubstantiation, which, ‘if used at all as a theological term, is merely one pa ae 4 many to express the reverential awe with which the eucharist is approached’ (Stanley). They differ GREEK CHURCH 397 from the Latins in the use of leavened bread and in the administration of communion in both kinds to all, even to children—this again in strict obedience to acangeties! precept (John, vi.). Marriage is held to dissoluble in case of adultery, but not till a probationary period has ela during which a bishop or priest mediates with a view to reconciliation. A fourth marriage ed as unlawful. Unetion is administered not in extremis, as in the Latin Church, but in ordinary sickness, as laid down by St James (v. 14, 15), and is therefore called oil of prayer (Bixé\aov). The sacrament of Holy Orders is celebrated by the observance of rites which have remained unchanged since the earliest times. With the exception of this last, all the sacraments may be administered by priests. The Greek Chureh not only reprobates clerical celibacy, but, although it has at all times favoured monastic orders, it re- unires that the parochial clergy should be married, so that they may not be cut off from the domes- ticity of the life of their flocks. Priests cannot marry after ordination, and consequently cannot contract a second marriage, nor may they wed a widow ; but they must be married before ordina- tion. Bishops are selected from the monastic orders, and are therefore single. Monastic life originated in the East, and in countries of the Greek rite numerous convents of both sexes are established, most of which follow the rule of St Basil. The rule of St Anthony (the ptian hermit who first instituted Christian mon- asticism ) prevails at Mount Sinai (established 527). This monastery, Jerusalem, and Mount Athos form the three ne centres to which convents throughout the t are affiliated. According to their mode of life, monks are distinguished as (a) ‘Acxnral, if leading the ascetic existence of her- mits; (6) ’Avaxwpnrai, when living in retirement and in se te cloisters ; and (c) Kowofiaxol, when as- sembled in a convent under an ‘Hyovuevos or abbot. If several convents are subject to one abbot he is called *Apx:uavdpirns, archimandrite; but bishops often hold the t of abbot. Nuns must either be virgins or widows, and they follow the rule of St Basil under an ‘Hyouuévyn, abbess. With both monks and nuns the duty of manual labour is a leading observance ; the nuns, like their western sisters, apply themselves to the care of the sick and to the education of girls. But the chief glory of the Greek monastic institutions is that in them Greek learning and Greek nationality found refuge, rotection, and. succour during the long night of urkish tyranny and Mohammedan persecution. Worship and Liturgy.—Fasts in the Greek hurch are many and rigorous, Besides four yearly fasts—the forty days of Lent, from Pente- cost to the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, the fifteen days before the festival of the Sleep of the Theotokos (August 15), and the six weeks before Christmas — Wednesdays and Fridays through- out the year should observed. Indulgences are not sed ; and although prayers for the dead are practised they give rise to no ecclesi- astical abuse. ‘A general expectation prevails that, by some unknown process, the souls of the sinful will be purified before they pass into the Divine presence ; but this has never been consoli- dated into a doctrine of purgatory’ (Stanley). The Mother of our Lord is venerated, and homage (bwepdovdela) is paid to her, but such homage has never been transformed into a dogma of immacu- late conception ; and the Greek Church speaks of the sleep ° (xolunois) not the ‘assumption’ of the irgin. Reverence (dovNa as distinguished from 4dndwh rarpela, actual worship) is paid to saints, and their icons freely adorn the churches; but, With the exception of the crucifix, no graven image is permitted, Instrumental music is forbidden in churches, but singing is universally in use. In — prayer the kneeling posture is used only at entecost ; at ordinary times they stand, the body being turned towards the east, and the sign of the cross is frequently made during prayers. The ceremonial of the Eastern ritual is not inferior in splendour to that of the Western, but it is more solemn and archaic; though ‘organs and musical instruments are as odious to a Greek or Russian as to a Scottish Presbyterian’ (Stanley). Origin- ally several liturgies were used in the East; but the liturgy of St James prevailed in the Greek Chureh. In its shorter form, as defined by St Chrysostom, it is read in churches throughout the year, with the exception of two or three festivals, when the longer version, attributed to St Basil, is said. This version is invariably used in convents. The Scriptures are in the hands of all believers, who are encouraged to strdy them in the vernacular, and although the idioms of some of the eastern churches into which the Bible as well as the liturgy were originally translated are now antiquated, ‘the actual difference may be about that between Chancer’s English and our own.’ Hierarchy in the Eastern Church is thus defined in the catechism of Philaretus, which is in universal use in Russia: ‘The four patriarchs, of equal dignity, have the highest rank among the bishops, and the bishops united in a general council repre- sent the church, and infallibly decide under the guidance of the Holy Ghost all matters of faith and ecclesiastical life.’ Thus the authority of the church is not despotic, centralised, or vested in one person. Each patriarch is independent in the exer- cise of his canonical authority, within his own diocese; but he is amenable to an cecumenical synod. The Greek clergy levy no tithes, claim no civil power over their flocks, and hard] pee any organisation as a separate body. op e Eastern Church has never ruled that religious light and instruction are confined to the clergy.’ And its strength ‘reposes not so much on the power and influence of its clergy, but on the independent knowledge and manly zeal of its laity’ (Stanley ). The Eastern Church has become inactive since its subjection to Turkish rule. It is not a missionary church, and it abstains from proselytism. On the other hand, it never was intolerant, and its history has not been disgraced by persecutions, inquisition, or a St Bartholomew’s massacre. Relations with the Reformed Churches.—Owing to these reasons the early reformers turned their eyes to the Eastern Chureh in hope of support and eventual union. Melanchthon was the first to address a letter to the — Joseph of Con- stantinople, through a Greek deacon, Demetrius Mysus, who visited Germany in 1558. Another Lutheran embassy, of a more formal character, headed by the well-known Tiibingen divines Jacob Andrew and Martin Crusius, visited Constantin- te during the patriarchate of Jeremias (1576- 81). Both missions were equally devoid of im- mediate practical results. ut in the following century the celebrated Cyril Lucaris, a native of Crete, was educated in factions. and was there imbued with the tenets of the Reformers. On assuming the patriarchate of Alexandria first (1602) and then of Constantinople (1621) he opened nego- tiations with the Calvinists with a view to union and the reform of the Greek Church; he corre- sponded with the English Archbishop Abbot and with Laud, and he presented the Alexandrian Codex (q.v.) to Charles I. ; and in 1629 he issued a con- fession of faith of a decidedly Calvinistic tendency. But his efforts were bitterly opposed by the intrigues of the Jesuits, who brought about his deposition five times after successive reinstate- 598 GREEK CHURCH ‘ments in the patriarchal chair, and are ys finally to have instigated his murder by the Turks. The innovations contemplated by Lucaris called forth a doctrinal declaration signed by the patri- archs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch, and defining the differences between the Greeks and the Reformers. This exposition was later (1672) adopted at a synod held at Jerusalem. But within our time the. conciliatory spirit which animates these two branches of Christianity has found ex- pression in practical measures of closer intercourse. In February 1872 the Greek bishop of Patras was present and delivered his benediction at the laying of the foundation-stone of an Anglican church in that town. And when later Lycurgus, the learned Archbishop of Syra and Tinos, and the Archbishops of Corfu and of Cyprus, visited England, they each attended Anglican services, and delivered their -benediction in Anglican churches. But the most notable advance towards ‘intercommunion’ was made in 1859, and again in 1874, when the House of Convocation appointed a committee ‘to establish such relations between the two communions as shall enable the laity and clergy of either to join in the sacraments and offices of the other without forfeiting the communion of their own church.’ As a first step towards this end the patriarch of Constantinople issued an encyclical enjoining his clergy to bury deceased members of the Anglican Church in orthodox burial-grounds, and to cele- brate their funeral rites with prayers taken from the funeral office of the orthodox church. Sects. —The early theological controversies within the Greek Church itself, resulting in sectarianism, differ in this respect from the secessions from the Roman Church—that in the West the protest was directed mainly against abuse and ultramontanism, whereas in the East objections have always been raised against what was deemed innovation. All the branches of the Eastern Church receive the first two councils, those of Nicea and. Con- stantinople. But these two only are admitted by the Chaldeans, the earliest of Eastern separatists, whose dispute related to the meaning of évavO@pwmrnois (‘incarnation’). This doctrine gave rise to two distinct and opposed theories. The one accepted complete union of the human and the divine nature of Christ, and formed the belief of the Mono- physites. The other maintained a separation of the two natures, so as to deny their co-existence in one person, and rejected the term Theotokos as appued to the Virgin Mary. Such were the tenets ot Nestorius, whom the third Council of Ephesus (431) condemned, and after whom the Chaldeans are also called Nestorians. This sect spread rapidly throughout the interior of Asia, and became active In missions, not only to the neigh- bouring Persians and Indians, but to the Bactrians and Huns, as far north as the Caspian, to Samar- kand and the very confines of China, and to Soco- tra, Ceylon, and the Malabar coast in the south. In this last locality a remnant of the former growth and power of this church still exists. They are the Christians of St Thomas, so called either from the apostle, or more probably from a Nes- torian missionary of that name. Mussulman per- secution, however, and the inroads of eastern bar- barians have weakened, and at one time had al- most annihilated, the Nestorians, who are now found principally in Kurdistan, and who believe them- selves to be the lost tribes of Israel. Their sacred city is Edessa, the reputed lirthplace of Abraham, and their ‘catholikos’ or primate assumes the title of ‘Patriarch of Babylon,’ his seat having been successively removed thence to Bagdad, Mosul, and Julamerk (or Giuliamerk), where he now resides. The Nestorian patriarch is the only Eastern prelate who may marry. r The tenets of the Monophysites were condemned by the fourth cecumenical council of Chalcedon (451), which established that Christ is to be acknowledged in two natures, ‘invisibly and un- changeably.’ On this the larger portion of Syrian and Egyptian Christians, who had accepted the three former councils, seceded from the church, and soon broke up into three minor communities, largely through the influence of nationality. In Syria the Monophysites were called Jacobites, from James the Apostle as they pretend, but more probably from Jacobus Baradeus, the Syrian heresi- arch, since the name is equally applied to the other churches of the sect. The patriarch of the Syrian Jacobites bears in succession always the hallowed name of Ignatius, and resides at Diarbekir (the ancient Amida), on the right bank of the Tigris. The country beyond was originally under the charge of the ‘Maphrian (‘ fruit-bearer”) of the East,’ so called from the fact that his was princi- pally a missionary see—it is now established at osul. This church, like the Nestorian, was formerly widespread and flourishing, extending to more than a hundred bishopries, of which but five now survive. The Jacobites of Egypt are better known under their national designation of Copts (q.v.), and form the great majority of the Christian population of northern Africa, as well as the most civilised of its native races. They have intercommunion with the Jacobites of Syria. Their patriarch, who takes his title from Alexandria, but resides at Cairo, claims jurisdiction over Jerusalem, Egypt, Nubia, Abys- sinia, and the Pentapolis. He is Slacned by the body of bishops from candidates nominated by the four convents which possess this right. He alone has power of ordination, which is conferred, not by imposition of hands, but by the act of breathing. A third branch of the great Jacobite communion is the Ethiopian Church in Abyssinia, where Christianity was first introduced in the 4th century by missionaries from Alexandria. The ‘abouna’ or metropolitan is, under the nominal supremacy of the Coptic patriarch at Cairo, primate of the Abyssinian Church, which presents an extraordi- nary combination of Christian and Jewish observ- ances. Both baptism and circumcision are deemed necessary; both the Sabbath and Sunday are observed ; polygamy is permitted, though not com- mon; and the flesh of swine is forbidden. The old controversies as to the nature of Christ still con- tinue in Abyssinia; and Pilate, because he washed his hands of the blood of Christ, is canonised by the Ethiopian Church. The Armenian Church, which is often considered Jacobite, because it also receives only the first three councils, is, in all essential points, much more akin to the Church of Constantinople ; and, indeed, the non-united section of the communion call them- selves ‘Orthodox.’ The absence of the Armenian delegates from the Council of Chaleedon was due to the internal disorders of their country, but they were definitely separated from the Greek Church in 552. The Armenians were converted to Christianity by Gregory the Tluminator, and are therefore often called Gregorians (see ARMENIA). They, of all Christian churches, in- | clude as anaakeal Old Testament books the ‘ His- tory of Joseph and Asenath,’ and the ‘Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs ;’ and in the New Testa- ment the ‘Epistle of the Corinthians to St Paul,’ and ‘ Third Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians.’ The decisions of the sixth cecumenical council held at Constantinople (680) resulted in the seces- sion of the Monothelites, whose tenets as to the one will of Christ that council condemned. _ They included the Christian population of the Lebanon, who have since been better known as Maronites, “1 5 by ~ - , : 3 aan ot ality the nites submitted : Chart. of which they now and churches so described there are, almost with- out exception, three divisions, resulting from the Sener ~ aiid GREEK CHURCH 399 LS St Maro, as they allege, the Syrian anchorite the 5th century, after whom the famous con- vent near Cyrus is named, but more credibly from Jolm Moro, their first patriarch in 701. ‘Their primate is the patriarch of Kanobin, In the 12th , however, by the influence of the Crusaders, Metre to the Roman orm an integral part. influence respectively of old traditions, national- _ istic proclivities, and the Jesnit Propaganda. In each of these Eastern communions one should there- fore distinguish (1) the ‘ Orthodox’ section, with decided leanings towards the church of Constantin- e@; (2) the ‘National’ section, which maintains independence of each particular heresy ; and (3) the ‘ United’ or ‘ Catholic’ section, which acknow- ge the supremacy of the pope. niats or United Greeks.—This last catego forms an important fraction of the Greek Chure itself. on ye of x nes tg the ee trigues of the Roman Propaganda, which, especially after the Reformation, Tapitavcared actively to secure the submission to. Rome of isolated Greek communities in the East; while, in the West, the influence of Catholic governments was brought to bear, to the same 8.5 on the scattered Greek colonies, and on the outlying portions of the Greek Church. Thus, the numerous Greek and Albanian refugees from Epirus, who had settled in Sicily and southern Italy, were soon com- proed to succumb; as also the indigenous ortho- Ox pulations in Austria and Poland—i.e. the umanians in Transylvania and_ eastern pes gt and the Ruthenians in Galicia and Little Russia. The Polish Greeks, however, who had become ‘ Uniats’ in 1590, reverted, for the most , to the Russian Church in 1839. It is difficult to state exactly to what degree union has thus been. attained. The primary, and in most cases, the only condition, was submission to papal supremacy; all else—clerical matrimony, communion in both kinds, church discipline, rites, and liturgy—being allowed to remain Greek. But when circumstances were favourable, more strin- gent conditions were gradually imposed. And therefore the ‘Unia,’ as the pact 1s styled, is not. uniform in aught else but the unremitting efforts of the Propaganda to efface the individu- of these dismembered churches. The Four Patriarchates.—The Mohammedan in- vasion eget a and curtailed the area, especiall in Asia and Africa, over which the Eastern Church had spread; and the other vicissitudes to which reference has been made modified from time to time the extent of that area. Still, the four patriarchates claim jurisdiction within their ce aoe boundaries, with the exception of the ependent states which were successively emanci- pated from Turkish rule. The patriarchate of Constantinople includes the whole of European Turkey, Asia Minor and Pontus (Trebizond ), and all the islands. The patri- archate of Antioch includes Syria, Phcenicia, Isauria, and Cilicia. This patriarchate, which at one time extended its influence to India and as far as China, has suffered most from the spread of Mohammedanism. The patriarchate of Jerusalem includes the whole of Palestine, and, prior to the Saracenic conquest, was one of the most flourishing, although the one established last (451). The ser aarchate of Alexandria, once the most power- and important, has shrunk, since the Mussul- man gy ries of Feypt, into the narrow limits of the see of that particular city. The archiepiscopal see of Cyprus, which formed part of the patriarchate of Antioch, was raised to an independent position by the Council of Ephesus (431), and its primate, though inferior in rank to the patriarchs, has precedence over all other arch- bishops. He enjoys the exceptional privilege of affixing his signature in red ink. The church of Constantinople is known as ‘the Great Chureh’ (MeydAn ExxAnoia), from its ancient pre-eminence as the see of the wcumenical patriarch —a title conferred by the emperor on John the Faster (587) against the remonstrances of Gregory I. The Church of Antioch claims to have been founded by St Peter, and that the similar pre- tensions of Rome are at once more recent and less certain. The name of Christians was first given to the believers in Antioch, and to its chief panier alone the title of patriarch belongs by right. he patriarch of Alexandria is the first Christian primate who was styled ‘pope.’ His other title of ‘ecumenical judge’ arises from the right which the early Alexandrian Church possessed of fixing the period of Easter. National Churches.—The authority which the Byzantine emperors exercised over the government of the Greek Church passed, with Constantinople, to the sultans. After the massacre which followed the conoase of the city, and in which the patriarch had fallen with the emperor, Mohammed II. in- stalled as patriarch George Gennadius, a Greek monk, renowned for his piety no less than for his scholarship, for which he was surnamed Scholarius. The courage and persuasiveness with which he ex- pounded before the sultan the tenets of Christi- anity induced Mohammed to confer certain privi- leges on the patriarchate, enabling it to exercise a measure of authority over the orthodox church within Turkish dominions. This first concession constitutes to this day the charter regulating the relations of the church to the Porte. The patriarch is elected by a synod of bishops, but the candidate must be approved of by the Porte, which also issues firmans enabling the bishops to act within their dioceses. This gives to Turkish authority so effectual a control over the church, that its having survived at all is a proof of extraordinary vitality. But the abuse and scandal consequent upon the exercise of that authority was such as to make it the interest, both of the patriarchate and of the independent states which recognised its spiritual uidance, not to continue under a jurisdiction sub- jected to the sultan’s will. Fortunately the consti- tution of the Eastern Church favoured the creation of autocephalous churches, which, while enjoying a separate internal administration, could remain bound to the Church of Constantinople and to each other by the unity of faith and dogma. The Church of Russia, which alone of eastern churches presents historical continuity, was estab- lished when in 988 Anne, sister of the Emperor Basil, was wedded to Prince Vladimir, who was thus con- verted, and who at the same time ordered all his eople at Kieff to be baptised in the Dnieper by the Greek clergy. From that time the Christian civili- sation of Russia was Greek, from the alphabet which the Greeks adapted to the Slavonic language to the baptismal names of emperors and peasants alike ; gad Russia recognised this debt of gratitude by the powerful protection she has extended to the eastern Christians, amongst whom she is conse- quently known as ‘Holy Russia.’ The metro- litan, residing first at Kieff and later (1320) in oscow, was subject to the patriarch of Constant- inople. In 1582, haweree: with the concurrence of the whole church, the patriarch Jeremiah II. raised the Russian see to a patriarchate, still dependent on, Constantinople. his dependency continued till the time of Peter the Great, who in 1700, again with the sanction of the whole body of eastern 400 GREEK CHURCH patriarchs, suppressed the patriarchate of Moscow and confided the government of the Church of Russia to a synod composed of five or six bishops and a number of lay dignitaries, all appointed by the ezar, who remained supreme head of the church. In Russia there are several dissenting sects. The Church of Georgia (ancient Iberia) dates from the time of Constantine, when Nina, a Chris- tian slave, converted the king and his people, It first formed part of the patriarchate of Antioch, and was subsequently transferred to that of Con- stantinople. But since the annexation of Georgia: to the Russian empire the archbishop of Tiflis has been a member of the Russian synod. The Montenegrins, who never acknowledged the suzerainty of the sultan, did not admit the juris- diction of the Constantinopolitan patriarch. They were governed, since 1697, when they formally pro- claimed their independence, by a ‘ Vladika’ or prince-bishop of their own, chosen from the family of Petrovié, and who exercised both spiritual and temporal power. In October 1851, however, Danilo I., on succeeding his uncle, the last Vladika, abandoned his ecclesiastical functions, and assumed the temporal title of hospodar or prince. The bishops of Montenegro have since been consecrated by the Russian synod. In Austria-Hungary there are over three mil- lion orthodox Christians, principally of the Servian and Roumanian nationality, besides four million Uniats. Of the former, who are there known as Byzantine Greeks, about half a million are scattered through the Austrian dominions, and the rest are in Hungary, with two archbishops (Carlowitz and Hermannstad) and eight bishops, six in Hungary proper, and two in Croatia. The archbishops exer- cise their jurisdiction under Austria. In England a Greek Church has existed since the middle of the 17th century. The periodical emigrations of Greeks to the west, consequent upon each fresh recrudescence of Turkish tyranny, resulted in the formation of a Greek oper in London, which must have been considerable both in numbers and position; for we find that many young Greeks were sent to Oxford, as a rule to St John the Baptist (Gloucester) Hall, where they replaced the Irish, who, after the establishment of Trinity College, remained in Dublin. A certain Nathanael Conopius, however, was at Balliol, where he first taught the Oxonians to make coffee, and whence he was expelled by the Puritans in 1648. When the Archbishop of Samos, Joasaph Georginos or Georgirenes, had to flee from his dio- cese, and arrived in England about 1666, he found amongst his co-religionists in London Daniel Bulgaris as priest, but there was no church. He therefore applied to the then Bishop of London, Henry Compton, who befriended him, and who with other English bishops collected a small fund, to which even King Charles II. is said to have contributed, for the erection of a Greek church on a piece of land in Crown Street, Soho Fields, given by the parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields. (See A Description of the Present State of Samos, Nicaria, Patmos, and Mount Athos, by Joseph Georgirenes, Archbishop of Samos; Lond. 1678.) This church, which was dedicated to St Mary the Virgin’s Sleep, is still extant, and a marble tablet over the west door bears an inscription in Greek recording these facts, as well as the names then given to Greek Street and Compton Street in the same neighbourhood commemorate those events. The church, which is the one repre- sented in Hogarth’s well-known picture of ‘Noon,’ soon passed to the French Protestant refugees ; it was subsequently fitted up as a meeting-house for the Rev. John Rees, and in 1850 it was recon- secrated as an Anglican church, to St Mary the Virgin (Kcclesiologist, xi. 120). A copy (made about 1760) of the original register, which seems to have perished, of that first Greek community exists in the chapel of the Russian embassy in London (Welbeck Street), and records the fact that when the Archimandrite Gennadius was priest in London, both the church and the com- munity had become ‘Greeco-Russian.’ After the death of Gennadius (February 3, 1737), who was buried in St Pancras’ Churchyard, the entries in the register record more and more frequent mar- riages between English and Greeks, who thus appear to have been absorbed by the indigenous aleienk: their anglicised names which are still to be met with (Rodos, Pamphylos, Lesbos, &e.) con- firming the fact. But in the beginning of the 19th century another Greek community sprung up in London by the arrival in 1818 from the island of Chios of three out of the five brothers Ralli, who founded the great firm of that name, and who were soon followed by others of their country- men. They at first met at a chapel in one of the houses in Fimsbury Circus, and in 1847 built a church in Londén Wall. As the community increased in riches and in numbers, this modest building was replaced in 1879 by a magnificent Byzantine piss: in Moscow Road, Bayswater, built after the model and bearing the hallowed name of ‘Hagia Sophia.’ Flourishing Greek churches exist also in Liverpool and in Manchester. In the United States there are a Greek church in New Orleans and a Russian in San Francisco. The Church of Greece offers a strong instance of the causes which militate against dependence upon a jurisdiction subject to the will of the sultan. The Greek struggle for freedom, which carried with it the active sympathy of the whole Greek nation, was, at the dictate of the sultan, put under the ban by the patriarch Gregorius, who, nevertheless, was soon afterwards hanged for complicity in the national cause. In the second year of the war the Assembly of the Greeks at Epidauros proclaimed (1822) the orthodox church as church of the new state, and the Royal Decree of 15-27th July 1833 organised the church on a plan similar to that of Russia, with a synod of five bishops, presided over by the Archbishop of Attica. A lay government commissioner attends the deliberations, but may not vote. The synod is the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal, and elects bishops under the confirmation. of the crown. The clergy are excluded from all partici ation in politics, and are not eligible to sit in the legislature. In 1850 the patriarchate of Con- stantinople acknowledged the independence of the Chureh of Greece, which has already rendered to the other Greek-speaking churches great services in the education and training of priests. Of the large number of convents which existed in Greece, many were destroyed during the war of independence, and others have been utilised for educational pur- poses. Of those still extant the Meteora in Thes- saly and Mega Spileon in the Peloponnesus are the most notable for extent and historical interest. The Church of Servia existed, under the early Servian kings, as an independent church, with a patriarch at Belgrade (1300). The Turkish con- uest disorganised that church, and, in 1679, 37,000 Barend families emigrated to Hungary under Arsenius Czernowitz, and established the see of Carlowitz. In 1765 the Servian patriarchate was suppressed by the Turks, and the Servian Church laced under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Pecstaatagople. When the semi-independence of Servia was achieved under Kara George (see CZERNY), in 1810, the government of the church was again transferred to the metropolitan of Carlowitz. Finally, in 1830, Servia declared her church auto- cephalous under the Bishop of Belgrade. GREEK CHURCH GREEK-FIRE 401 "Phe Church of Roumania is the outcome of more violent and untilial prencekings The ecclesiastical administration of the two Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia was originally vested in the metropolitans of Jassy and Bucharest respec- acting under the patriarch of Constantinople. ot ergy in both principalities were almost exclu- sively Greek, few Roumanians ora | at that ‘time either education or vocation for clerical life. numerous conventual institutions in which were assembled possessed immense landed estates, the bequests of Sonal merchants and bene- i who, through many generations ee this as the only safe mode of endowing philan- Ber and educational institutions within the of Turkish rule. Those estates, as well as nationality and incipalities under Alexander Couza (December 1861), one of the first acts of the new Rou- ‘manian government was to sequestrate the Greek monastic property and declare the Roumanian - Church autocephalous. It is now governed by the primate of Roumania, whose see is at Bucharest, with an archbishop of Moldavia at Jassy, and six bishops. The defy ed nae even before their political inde- pendence, had organised, for political Boal ten a church of their own under an exarch. The Turkish government, anxious to foment disunion between its Christian subjects, encouraged the forcible appropriation by the Bulgarians of Greek churches and schools, and sanctioned their ecclesiastical policy. As, however, canon law does not admit of the co-existence within the same diocese of two separate churches of the same faith, the patriarch of Constantinople signified his readiness to acknow- ledge the independence of the Bulgarian exarchate, if its territorial limits were clearly defined, and if the exarch designated his see within those limits. This the Bulgarians refused to do, their avowed object being to extend their political influence through the exarchate, not only in mixed Greco- Bulgarian districts, but even over purely Greek dioceses. A general synod of the four patriarchs was therefore convened (1873) at Constantinople, and the excommunication of the exarchate followed. The Russo-Turkish war resulted in 1878 in the constitution of an independent Bulgarian state ; but its ecclesiastical head, the Bulgarian exarch, continues to reside at Constantinople and to claim jurisdiction over the Bulgarians in Thrace and northern Macedonia also. He does not concede, however, to the patriarch of Constantinople a similar right over the Greeks in Bulgaria, The excommunication of 1873 is still maintained. The total number of adherents of the Greek Church it is impossible to state precisely; the following are the only available reliable figures : OrTHODOX GREEKS. Uniats. DAMNING. db vs cca dowcd 61,940,000 | Russia.................. (Of these about i Austria... 2.2.20. 31586000 million are dis- Hungary........... 1,500,000 i senters. 10s; Tar ade eee eWiES ou a Hungary........... 2,434,000 ee eee Greece. .... 22.00.0008: 2,200, Sects. Roumania. ...(about) 5,250,000 | Nestorians............. 250,000 Bulgaria ............. 2,007, Jacobites.............. Eastern Roumelia, ...734,000 | Maronites.............. x char ender ew a ae 1,939,000 | Armenians — Montenegro ............ 000 In Euro Turkey.. 380,000 Turkish Empire In Asiatic Turkey... .760,000 (approximately ) 7,000,000 | Abyssinians. (about) 1,250,000 LITERATURE.—The first portion of this article is founded on Dean Stanley’s admirable Lectures on the Hi of the Eastern Church, which have served as a basis to later treatises on the same subject, But the following author- ities may also be consulted —(1) History: Gibbon; Robertson ; Gieseler’s Ecclesiastical History ; J. M. Neale, History + oe Holy Eastern Church,—(2) Controversies : Dorner, History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ (in Clark’s translations); Swainson, The Apostles’ and Nicene Creed ; Walch, Historia Controversia: de processu Spiritus Sancti; J. H. Newman, The Arians of the Fourth Century ; W. Palmer, Dissertations on Subjects relating to the Orthodox Communion.—(3) Councils and Common Law ; Hefele, History of the Councils (Clark's translations); Photius, Nomocanon (Paris, 1615); G. A. Ralli and M. Potlis, Sivrayya trav Oclaw wal raw iepav xavdvew (Athens, 1852-56).—(4) Liturgy, Ceremonies, dc. : E. Renaudot, Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio (Paris, 1715-16); J. Goar, Euchologium sive Rituale Grecum (1647); H. A. Daniel, Codex Liturgicus Ecclesia Urien- talis cna fe J. M. Neale and R. F. Littledale, The Liturgies (trans. 1869); H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus Hymnologicus (Leip. 1841-56); J. M. Neale, Hymns of the Eastern Church (trans, 1868); Kimmel, Lili Symbolici Ecc. Orientalis (Jena, 1843); J. Covell, Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church (1722); H. C. Romanoff, Rites and Customs of the Greco-Russian Church (1868); Les Religions Anciennes et Modernes des Mos- covites (Cologne, 1698); Myvoddjov and Luvataporhs, for lives of saints.—(5) Genius and Condition of the Church : D. Stourza, Considérations sur la doctrine et Vesprit de V Eyl. Orthod. (trans. from the Greek; Jena, 1816); A. N. Mouravieff, Question religieuse de U Orient et de l’ Occident (Moscow, 1856) and Lettre & un ami sur V Office Divin (St Petersburg, 1850); Angeli (Ch.) Grzci, De Statu hodiernorum Grecorum (Leip. 1671); Th. Smith, De Gr. Eccl. hodierno Statu (1698) ; P. Ricaut, Histoire de UV Etat présent de VEgl. Grecque et de U Egl. Arménienne (1692); Helladius ( Alex.) Greecus, De Statu presente Eccl. Gr. (1714); T. Ellsner, Beschreibung der Gr. Christen in der Turkei (1737).—(6) Hierarchy and Dioceses: M. le Quien, Oriens Christianus (an account of the Eastern dioceses and their occupants from their foundation to 1732); Philippi Cyprii. Protonotarit Constantinopolitani, Chronica Eccl. Gr. (1679); H. Hodius, De Grecis illustribus (1742); F. Cornelius, Creta Sacra, sive de Epi. is in insula Creta ( Venet. 1755).—(7) Relations with the Reformers : G. Williams, The Orthodox Church and the Nonjurors (1868); Eastern Church Association Papers (1866-76).—(8) Uniats: P. P. Rodota, Dell Origine et Stato presente del Rito Gr. in Italia (Rome, 1758).—(9) Sects, &e. : Bibliotheca Orien- talig (Rome, 1719-28), by J. Simon Assemanni, a Maronite (contains list of MS. and writers of Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Ethiopia); Simon, Histoire critique de la Créauce et des Coutumes des Nations du Lévant (1684; trans. in-Eng. by Lovell, 1685); G. H. Badger, The Nestorians and their Ritual (1852); J. Wortabit, Researches into the Religions of Syria (1860); J. W. Etheridge, The Syrian Churches (1846); J. M. Vausleb (Dominicain), Hist. de VEgl. d@Alewandrie que nous appelons celle du Jacobites Coptes (1677); M. La Croze, ist. du Christianisme d’ Ethiopie et de 0 Arménie (1739) ; Harris, Highlands of Ethiopia (1844); Th. Wright, Early Christianity in Arabia (1855); J. G. Miillern, Disputatio de Eccl. Maronitarum (Jena, 1668); E. Dulaurier, Histoire, Dogmes, Traditions, et Liturgie de VEgl. Arménienne Orientale (Paris, 1855); 8. C. Malan, Short History of the Georgian Church (1866). Greek-fire, a composition supposed to have n of pounded resin or bitumen, aetennts oo tha (the principal ingredient), and probably nitre, with which, from about 673 A.D. onwards, the Greeks of the Byzantine empire were wont to defend themselves inst their Saracen adver- saries. The accounts of its effects are so mingled with obvious fable that it is difficult to arrive at any just conclusion as to its power; but the mix- ture appears to have been highly inflammable, and to have been difficult to extinguish; though the actual destruction caused by it was hardly propor- tionate to the terror it created. It was poured out, burning, from ladles on besiegers, projected out of tubes to a distance, or shot from balistw, burning 402 GREELEY GREEN on tow tied to arrows. The invention of this material has usually been ascribed to Callinicus of Heliopolis, and to the year 668 A.D. At Constantin- ople the process of making Greek-fire was kept a rofound secret for several centuries. The know- edge, however, of its composition gradually spread; and the use of it spread to the West. ubsisting for some time concurrently with gun- powder, it gradually died out before the advances of that still more effective competitor. Combust- ibles with a similar aim were used at the siege of Charleston in 1863, composed of sulphur, nitre, and lampblack; and naphtha in shells was also tried. he petroleum bombs of the Paris Com- mune of 1871 corresponded more nearly to Greek- fire than does gunpowder. Greeley, Horacr, American journalist, de- scribed by Whittier as ‘our later Franklin,’ was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, February 3, 1811. His father was a small farmer, always poor ; and Horace, the third of seven children, after acquiring the rudiments of education at a common school, entered a printing-office as an apprentice (1826), at East Poultney, ‘Vermont, and rose so far as to assist in editorial work on the Northern Spectator. Released from his apprenticeship in 1830 by the suspension of this paper, he worked for some time as a journeyman printer in various country offices, and in August 1831 made his way to New York with ten dollars in his pocket, and his stick and bundle over his shoulder. He had difficulty in obtaining work at first owing to the oddity of his appearance. For fourteen months he worked as a journeyman printer, when he started business along with a fellow-workman, and in 1834 commenced the New Yorker, a literary weekly paper, for which he wrote essays, poetry, and other articles. His first marked success, how- ever, was the Log Cabin, » Whig campaign paper which contributed largely to bring about the elec- tion of General W. ie arrison to the presidency in 1840, and which was afterwards continued for some months. On April 10, 1841, he published the first number of the Beg York Tribune, of which he was the leading editor till his death. In the same year he merged his weekly papers, the Log Cabin and the New Yorker, in the J 0 Tribune, which rose to have a large cireulation in the rural districts. The Tribune has been an earnest advocate of temperance, co-operation, international copyright, a protective tariff, the abolition of slavery and ie punishment, and other reforms ; was at first Whig, then anti-slavery Whig, and was finally recognised as the organ of the extreme or radical Republican party. Greeley advocated and adopted to some extent the social theories of Fourier. Among the contributors whom he gathered around him were such well-known writers as G. W. Curtis, . H. Fry, C. A. Dana, Margaret Fuller, and Bayard Taylor; while he was amongst the first American journalists to recognise the genius of Dickens, Bret Harte, and Swinburne. His business faculty was indifferent, and he was easily imposed upon by impecunious people and adventurers. In 1848 Greeley was elected to congress by one of the districts of New York, to fill a vacancy, but failed in his congressional career by agitating an unwelcome reform in the mileage payments to members. In 1851 he visited Europe, and was chairman of one of the committees of the Great Exhibition. He was again in Europe in 1855. His aspirations to political position were defeated by the more conservative party leaders, and he, in turn, is supposed to have helped the nomination of Lineoln instead of Seward in 1860. On the secession of the southern states from the union, Greeley at first advocated their right to secede, as being in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Independence ; but when the war began he became one of its most zealous advocates, rival newspapers alleging that he caused the pre- mature advance that resulted in the defeat of the government troops at Bull Run, July 21, 1861. He published an impressive anti-slavery appeal in the Tribune, ss ‘The Prayer of Twenty Millions,’ which, besides making a profound im- pression, drew from Lincoln a remarkable letter; and within a month thereafter the emancipation roclamation was issued. After Lee’s surrender e warmly advocated a universal amnesty ; and his going to Richmond and signing the bail-bond of efferson Davis awakened a storm of publie indig- nation. In spite of oratorical defects Greeley was a good and popular speaker. In religious faith he was a Universalist. In 1872 he was an unsuc- cessful candidate for the presidentship, receiving 2,834,079 of the popular vote, as against 3,597,070 for General Grant; the strain proved too great - for him, and he died 29th November of the same ear. A bronze statue of Greeley, by Alexander oyle, was erected in Greeley Square (23d street. and Broadway, New York) in 1894. Greeley’s works include The American Conflict (1864-66); Recollections of a Busy Life (1868); Essays on Po- litical Economy (1870); What I know of Farmi (1871). There are Lives by Parton, Reavis, an Ingersoll, and a memorial volume (1873). Greely, ADoLPHUS WASHINGTON, Arctic ex- plorer, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, 27th March 1844. He ‘served as a volunteer through the war of 1861-65, and shortly after its conclusion entered the regular army as leutenant, and in 1868 was placed on the signal service. In 1881 he was selected to conduct the American expedition to the head of Smith Sound, for the purpose of carrying on observations in pursuance of the international scheme arranged at Hamburg in 1879. He and the survivors of his party were rescued in June 1883, when at the point of perishing from starvation, after spending three winters in the Arctic north. Their sufferings were so extreme that some of the party had even been reduced to eating the bodies of the dead. Lieu- tenant Lockwood of this expedition travelled to within 396 miles of the geographical pole, the farthest point north hitherto reached. In 1887 Greely was appointed chief of the signal service, at the same time being gazetted brigadier-general. In 1886 he published 7hree Years of Arctic Service. See also W. 8S. Schley, The Rescue of Greely (1885). Green, JoHN RICHARD, historian, was born at Oxford in December 1837, and had his education at Magdalen College School and at Jesus College there. The atmosphere of his native city had filled -him, while still a boy, with sympathetic interest in the past, but the reading of Gibbon at sixteen shaped him into a historian. His earliest writing was a striking series of papers in the Oxford Chronicle on ‘Oxford in the last Century.’ He took orders, and was in succession curate and vicar of two East-end London parishes, where he gave himself with characteristic unselfishness and enthusiasm to the pressing social problems around him. Yet he snatched time from his bus life to pursue his studies and to contribute histori- cal articles to the Saturday Review. In 1868 he became librarian at Lambeth, and next year he was struck down with an attack of consumption, a disease which darkened all his remaining years, and made any kind of active work hereafter impossible to him. Yet he toiled on with noble and uncom- plaining heroism, and at last the instant popularity of his Short History of the English People (1874) justified the patience and endurance with which he ad laboured to bring his work up to his own ideal. GREEN GREENBACKS 403 Tt was the first complete history of England from the social side, and showed at once marvellous grasp of = real Merificance of great historic movements, fine sense of historical perspective and proportion, and startling dramatic force in the realisation of men and motives; while its style was fluent and unforced, yet ever vigorous and effective. His vast yet intimate topographical and antiquarian : Soulcdce of England added life and truth to the 1 ve toa degree hitherto unexampled among historians, The work attained an unpar- success, as many as 150,000 copies having been sold within fifteen years. He issued also a larger and independent edition of the work as A istory of the English People (4 vols. 1877-80) ; Stray Studies from England and Italy (1876), the frnit of his winters in Capri; and a Short Geo- y of the British Islands (1879), written in conjunction with his wife, and lightened up by his us for to phy. In 1879 he received the of LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh. He brought out in 1880 a selection of essays of Addison, with an introduction. He also prepared for Macmillan’s educational series a selection of readings from English history, in three parts, and was general editor of their well-known series of historical and literary primers. In 1881] his feeble health finally gave way, yet he continued to the last his heroic struggle against hopeless disease, blishing in 1882 his Making of England, and Leaving Conquest of England to be edited by the pious care of his widow. His last two books are ments of a projected history of England. He died at Mentone, France, 7th March 1883. See the admirable memoir prefixed to the 1888 edition of the Short History, by his wife Alice Stopford heen 1849), who with Miss Norgate issued a richly Illustrated edition of the Short History (1892-93). Mrs Green is the author of Henry II. (1888) and of Town Life in the 15th Century (1894). Green, MAry ANNE EVERETT, née Wood, was born in 1818 at Sheffield. She received an excellent education, and her culture was promoted by James Montgomery, the ‘ Bard of Sheffield.’ In 1841 she removed with her parents to London, where in 1845 she married Mr ri P. Green, artist. Having free access to libraries and MS. collections, she edited Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies (1846) ; The Di of John Rous (Camden Soe. 1856) ; Letters of Queen Henrietta Maria (1857). By ap- pointment of the Master of the Rolls she calendared the papers of the reign of James I. (1857-59), and those of Charles IT. (1860-68). She next completed the calendar of the state papers of Queen Elizabeth, with addenda from Edward VI. to James I. (6 vols. 1869-74), and edited the papers of the Common- wealth (12 vols. 1875-88), besides contributing to — literature. She died 1st November Green, THomAs HIL1, philosopher, was born at Birkin in the West Riding of Yorkshire, where his father was rector, April 7, 1836. At fourteen he was sent to Rugby, then under Goulburn’s mastership, and in October 1855 he entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he was profoundly in- fluenced by Jowett, Conington, and C. Parker. Tn 1859 he took a first-class in the school of littere humaniores, later a third in law and modern his- tory, and in November 1860 was elected to a fellow- ship in his college, and re-elected in 1872, becoming also its first lay tutor in 1866. He married a sister of John Addington Symonds in 1871, was appointed in 1877 to be Whyte’s professor of Moral Philo- sophy, and died after an illness of but eleven days, March 26, 1882. By his will he left £1000 to the university for a prize essay in the depart- ment of moral philosophy, £1000 to found a scholar- ship at the Oxford High School for boys, and £3500 to Balliol College for the promotion of higher edu. cation in large towns, Green's singularly noble character, contagious enthusiasm, and rare union at once of profundity and subtlety in philosophical speculation with strong interest in practical life and in social questions, drew around him a school of disciples that included many of the best men of his time at Oxford. “His philosophy grew out of Hegelianism, but was strikingly original and vital in its form, no less than in its applications to the duties of everyday life. Thus, popular education and the spread of temperance were two objects that lay near his heart, and he gave himself with earnestness to the business of the Schools Enqui Commission of 1864-66, and of the Oxford School- hoard (1874), and hel to force on the Bribery Commission at Oxford to purge the political con- science of its citizens; because the natural conclu- sion of his philosophy was towards an association of individuals as homogeneous co-factors in the eternal spirit; the supreme and comprehensive rule of life being the law of love which binds men at once to human society and to God, society itself the necessary condition for the development of personality, and religion but the highest form of citizenship. He had written but little before he contributed in 1874 his masterly introduction to the Clarendon Press edition of Hume’s 7reatise on Human Nature. His Prolegomena to Ethics, left incomplete at his death, was edited by A. C. Bradley (1883), and two unusually preeties? ‘lay- sermons’ by Arnold Toynbee in the same year. His scattered essays in Mind and elsewhere were collected and published as the Works, by R. L. Nettleship (3 vols. 1885-88 ; 2 vols. ah a on 3d, miscellanies and a memoir). is lectures on The Principles of Political Obligation appeared in 1895. See Fairbrother, The Philosophy of T. H. Green (1896). Greenbacks. During the civil war in America, from 1861 to 1865, the immense expendi- ture of the United States government led to the printing of an unprecedented number of bank- notes, bonds, and currency papers of various kinds. These documents, from the colour presented by them, or some of them, obtained the name of greenbacks, a designation which came to be loosely uséd for all United States bank-notes. The first ‘demand notes’ were issued in August 1861; the first greenbacks proper were of date March 10, 1862. Soon forged notes and bonds were in cir- culation; but by degrees a large establishment was organised at Washington, under the imme- diate control of the Secretary to the Treasury, and the precautions used were such as almost com- pletely to baffle forgers. The paper currency, whose value had fluctuated greatly, was declared convertible into coin on Ist January 1879, and specie payments completely resumed. For the manufac- ture of the notes Scie first to last, see BANK- NOTES, E The great inflation of the currency during the war, along with the heavy demand for all sorts of farm-produce, brought a period of prosperity to the western farmers, which ended with the war itself. In 1867-68 the ‘ Ohio idea,’ as the demand for an irredeemable paper currency was called, found much favour with the Democrats, especially in the West; and in 1874 an independent Green- back held a convention at Indianapolis and formulated its demands. In 1876 the party nomin- ated Peter Cooper (q.v.) for the presidency; he received ‘97 per cent. of the popular vote. In 1880 the Greenback candidate was James B. Weaver, who polled 3°33 per cent.; and in 1884 General B. F. Butler was put forward, and received 1°33 per cent. of the popular vote. None of the candidates BAY 404 GREEN GREEN EARTH ever received electoral votes. In 1888 there was no Greenback candidate, and most of the sup- porters of the party are now to be found in the ranks of the Labour party. Green Bay, capital of Brown county, Wis- consin, is at the head of Green Bay, in Lake Michi- gan, and at the mouth of Fox River, 65 miles NNE. of Fond du Lac. It exports lumber and grain, and has a handsome Roman Catholic cathedral. Pop. (1900) 18,684. Greenbush, a post-township of Penobscot county, Maine, bounded on the west by the Penob- scot River. It has a station on the Maine Central Railroad, 23 miles N. by E. of Bangor. Pop. 586. Green Cloth, BoAarD oF, a committee of the royal household of England, attached to the de- partment of the lord steward (see STEWARD), who presides over its deliberations. Its duties are to examine and pass all the accounts of the household, and to correct all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the palace, which extends to two undred yards beyond the gates. . Greene, NATHANAEL, a famous American vapetag was born 6th June 1742, at Warwick, hode Island. His father was a leading preacher among the Quakers, and educated his son very simply, training him from childhood to work on his farm, and at his forge and grist-mill. By his own perseverance, however, Nathanael the younger acquired considerable knowledge of ancient and English history, geometry,’ law, and moral and political science ; he was also fond of reading books upon war. In 1770 he was chosen a member of the Rhode Island Assembly, and, to the great scandal of his fellow Quakers, was among the first to engage in the military. exercises preparatory to resisting the mother-country. In 1774 he enlisted as a private, and in 1775 he was appointed to the command of the Rhode Island contingent to the army around Boston, with the rank of brigadier- general. Promoted to be major-general, he dis- tinguished himself at the engagements of Trenton and Princeton. At the battle of the Brandywine he commanded a division, and by his skilful move- ments saved the American army from utter destruc- tion; and at Germantown he commanded the left wing, and skilfully covered the retreat. In 1778 he accepted the office of quartermaster-general, retaining the right to command in the field. In 1778 he fought at Monmouth Court-house; in 1780 he foiled Clinton at the Rahway bridges, was president of the board that condemned André, and, having resigned the quartermaster-general- ship owing to the delays of congress in providing ei ed was appointed to Arnold’s post at West oint. In December 1780 he succeeded Gates (q.v.) in the command of the army of the south, Gates had just been completely defeated by Cornwallis, and Greene found the army in a wretched state, with- out discipline, clothing, arms, or spirit. By dint of great activity he got his army into better condi- tion, and in January 1781, one of his lieutenants having nearly annihilated an English detachment, and this having drawn upon Greene the whole army of Cornwallis, much his superior in numbers, he made a masterly and successful retreat. On 15th March, having drawn Cornwallis more than 200 miles from his base, he forced on him a battle at Guilford Court-house, which resulted in a victory for the British, but one so costly that Greene was allowed to pass unmolested into South Carolina. The inland portions of this state and Georgia were rapidly reconquered, and fort after fort reduced, until, at the battle of Eutaw Springs, the war in the south was practically ended in what was virtually a victory for the Americans. Congress presented Greene with a gold medal in honour of this battle, and the Carolinas and Georgia made him valuable grants of land. When peace was restored in 1783 he returned to Rhode Island, where he received numerous testimonials of the ublic admiration. In 1785 he retired with his amily to his estate at Mulberry Grove, Georgia, where he died of sunstroke, 19th June 1786. Greene was one of the very best generals of the war of independence, second, perhaps, only to Washington, whose close friend he was. See the Life by his grandson, Professor G. W. Greene (3 vols. 1867-71),and that by Capt. F. V. Greene (1893). Greene, RosBeErt, an English poet and drama- tist, was born at Norwich about 1560. He was a apere at St John’s College, Cambridge, and took is degree of A.B. there in 1578. He afterwards travelled in Spain and Italy. On his return he re- entered the university, and took his degree of A.M. at Clare Hall in 1583. He was incorporated at Oxford in 1588. On leaving Cambridge he pro- — ceeded to London, where he supported himsel by writing plays and romances. e led a very irreg- ular life, but his literary activity was ceaseless. ‘Glad was that printer,’ says Nashe, ‘that might be so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit.’ His romances, many of which are written in Lyly’s manner, are frequently. tedious and in- sipid ; but they abound in beautiful poetry. One of them, Pandosto: The Triumph of Time, opts Shakespeare with hints for the plot of The Winter's Tale. The most popular of his plays was Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay, which has an interesting story, and (in spite of occasional lapses into bom- bast) is attractively written. As Greene helped to lay the foundations of the English drama, even his worst plays are valuable in the eyes of students , but his literary fame rests on the poetry which he scattered through his romances—some of his pastoral songs being unsurpassed for tenderness and natural race. Though his life may have been dissolute, nis works are singularly free from grossness. He died of the consequences of a debauch, 3d Septem- ber 1592, and was buried next day in the New Churchyard, near Bedlam, On his death-bed he sent a most pathetic letter to his wife, whom he had deserted. After his death appeared the singu- lar pamphlet entitled The Repentance of Robert Greene, Master of Arts, in which he lays bare the wickedness of his former life. His Groat’s Worth of Wit bought with a Million of Repentance con- tains one of the few authentic contemporary allu- sions to Shakespeare. Chatile, in Aind-Harts Dreame, describes him as ‘ of face amible, of body well-proportioned, his attire after the habite of a scholler-like gentleman, onely his haire was some- what long.’ Greene’s plays and poems were edited by Alexander Dyce ; his complete works (15 vols.), with a biography from the Russian of Storojenko, are included in the Huth Library of Dr Grosart, who also edited a selection, Green Pastures (1894). Green Earth, a mineral of a green colour and earthy character, often found filling or lining the vesicular cavities of crystalline igneous rocks, sometimes also disseminated through highly de- composed basic eruptive rocks, in which it is evidently a product of the alteration of such minerals as pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, &c. It consists principally of silica, alumina, magnesia, and protoxide of iron, the silica constituting about one-half. There are probably several minerals included under the ‘green earth’ of such igneous rocks. Some of these closely resemble Serpentine (q.v.) and others Chlorite (q.v.), in their general appearance.—Glauconite is the name given to the green earth which is not infrequently met with in sedimentary rocks, such as some of the sandstones GREEN FINCH GREENLAND 405 Cretaceous system. In such rocks glau- occurs in the form of grains, which in many eases are casts of minute shells. The same mate- > deep water. There is also a green earth used as a yment by painters in water-colours, who know it the name of Mountain Green. For their use it 3 is mostly bronght from Monte Boldo, near Verona, and from Cyprus. finch, or GREEN LINNET (Ligurinus " ehdoris), a bird of the finch family (Fringillide), a common resident in most parts of Britain, fre- mting gardens and copses and cultivated dis- fricte generally. It occurs in many parts of Europe, and extends its range into Asia, also visiting in winter such regions as North Africa, Asia Mi nor, and Palestine. The bill is much thicker than that of the true linnets, to which, however, it is nearly allied. A prevailing green tint, mingling with gray and brown, characterises the plumage, and gives the bird its name. The female is much less brilliant and somewhat smaller than the male, which measures about 6 inches in length. The nest, usually placed in shrubs, is somewhat loosely built of fibres, moss, hair, and the like ; the eggs (four to six) are greenish-white, with brownish or gray spots ; two broods are often in a season. The food consists of insects, seeds, and berries. The proper song of the green- finch is not very sweet, but in confinement it readily imitates the song of other birds, and in consequence of this and of its very easy domestica- tion it is rather a favourite cage-bird. See Howard Saunders, Manual of British Birds. Gree €, @ variety of plum, of a green or yellow co ae and roundish — shape, the Reine Claude of the French, generally esteemed as one of the finest varieties in cultivation, if not certainly superior to all others. It is not of the largest size, but in delicacy and richness of flavour it is Some reckon it a variety of Prunus insititia, others as a distinct species, P. italica. Greenheart, or BeBeERru ( Nectandra Rodiei), a tree of the order Lauracez, a native of Guiana, of great value as a timber-tree, and also yielding a valuable medicinal bark. The timber is commonly called Greenheart ; the bark is better known as Bebeeru (Bibiri, &c., or Sipiri), and its alkaloid as Bibirine or rine (q.v.). The wood is ex- tremely strong and hard, resembling lignum-vite. It takes a high polish. It is so heavy as to sink in water. It is remarkable for its durability, and for being almost exempt from the attacks of the white ants on land and of the teredo in water. It is much valued by harbour engineers, and is admirably adapted for all pu which demand exceptional strength and durability. Its costliness, however, largely restricts its use, save for turning. Other species yield valuable timber, notably NV, concinna, the ‘Laurier marbré’ of Martinique. The seeds of N. Puchury are used as a digestive tonic, and in diarrhoea and dysentery, especially in Brazil; they are known as Pichurim Beans ( Faha pichurim of pharmacy ). Greenhouse, See PLANT-HoUsEs. Greenland, an extensive region, stretchin a) far as we know, from 59° 45° to 83)° N. lat. mid from 17° to 73° W. long., its north-eastern ex- tremity, however, being not yet accurately defined. Tt may be taken for proved that it constitutes an island engirt by smaller islands, but an island of almost continental size. Even its southern end has a thoroughly arctic character. It was discovered by - igthearwnag Poaegpra ong natn in Ieeland. t v n unbjérn, it was visited by Enik the Red, who, shar a explored it, founded there in the year 986 two colonies, the Osterbygd and Westerbygd (Eastern and Western Settlements). The colonies afterwards came under the dominion of Norway, but were neglected and suffered from disaster and privation. Finally, the Westerbygd was attacked and destroyed by Eskimo intruders from the north some a after 1340, ps ogy soem the connection with Europe gradually grew less and less, until, according to obscure accounts, it wholly ceased after 1448, and Green- land almost passed into oblivion. When it was rediscovered by John Davis in 1585 the Eskimo were the only inhabitants. In 1721 the modern Danish settlements on the west coast were founded by Egede (q.v.) as missionary stations. During the three centuries since Davis’s discoveries the question of the site of the ancient colonies, and the possibility of remnants of a Scandinavian popula- tion being found somewhere, have been the subject of much discussion; they have even given rise to several expeditions. Remarkable ruins of un- doubted Scandinavian origin were early discovered on two points of the west coast, one in the present district of Julianshaab between 60° and 61° N. lat., the other in Godthaab between 64° and 65°. In each case the ruins lie scattered over an area of some hundred square miles, occupying small flat and fertile spots around the heads of the fjords. The southern group contains about one hundred such spots, each with ruins of from two or three up to thirty houses (possibly the old Osterbygd); the northern group is smaller. In 1885 it was proved conclusively that no ruins of a similar description exist on the east coast. The part of the Greenland coast still unknown is that between Cape Bismarck in 764° N. lat. and Independenee Bay in 81° 37’, discovered in 1891 by Peary, about half a degree south of the NE. corner of Greenland, which he was the first to reach, and which he visited again in 1895. In 1898 he planned an expedition to the North Pole to start from this corner of Greenland. The whole coast-line of Greenland may be roughly estimated at 3600 miles, or 192,000, following every island, fjord, and peninsula. The area again may be variously estimated at 512,000 and 320,000 sq. m., according as one includes or omits the islands and fjords running inland, which are 60 miles long on an average. The interior of Greenland is of great interest with regard to physical geography in general. Owing to its size and continental character, it is the only known home on the northern hemisphere of real icebergs. Nearly half of the supposed circumference of the interior has recently been explored by a series of expeditions, whose results explain adequately how the ice- bergs are produced. It has been proved that a ae ice-sheet covers the whole of the interior like a deluge. The surface of this enormous glacier, only occasionally interrupted by protruding moun- tain-tops, rises slightly towards the interior. Several travellers have tried to penetrate into this unknown region, crossing the ice till they reached heights of 7000 feet ; but it was not until 1888 that Greenland was crossed from east to west (by Nan- sen), when the ‘divide’ was found to attain some 10,000 feet above the sea. On account of this ice- cap Greenland has no rivers corresponding to its magnitude ; instead of its being drained by rivers, the inland ice at certain points of the coast is thrust into the sea by forces which have their origin in extensive lateral glaciers in the interior. These points are represented by the so-called ice-fjords, of which six or eight of first-rate magnitude are found in Danish Greenland (between 67° N. lat. on the east coast and 75° on the west coast). Five of these have been narrowly explored, and it has been ascertained that the inland ice, which produces the bergs, and whose thickness may be £06 GREENLAND GREENLET ISLAND estimated at 1000 feet, is pushed on an average with a velocity of 50 feet in twenty-four hours into the sea, where it breaks into fragments—-the bergs. The mass thus annually delivered into one of the largest class of ice-fjords would be equal in size to a mountain more than 1000 feet high and covering 4 sq. m. The coast-margin that surrounds the ice-covered inland is by no means devoid of perpetual ice itself, but its glaciers are more or ae isolated. It is very mountainous; bold headlands, 3000 to 5000 feet high, are common in the north as well as in the south, and some mountains even rise to a height of 6000 to 7000 feet. Low flat land is found only in small patches, especially round the heads of some of the fjords. These inlets generally take the form of narrow channels, frequently more than 1000 feet deep. During the summer the whole east coast, and the west coast up to 64° N. lat., are more or less encumbered with drift-ice from the Spitzbergen sea. The climate of Greenland, when contrasted with the climate of the eastern coasts of the Atlantic in the same latitude, shows a.surprising difference. The southern point of Greenland has a mean temperature like that of the most northern shores of Iceland and Norway. But the difference con- sists more in the want of summer than in the severity of the winter. The following figures give the approximate mean temperature in Fahrenheit respectively of the summer,. the winter, and the year for three stations on the west coast: Lichtenau (604° N. lat.), 44°, 22°, and 33°; Upernivik (73° N. lat.), 38°2°, — 6°6°, and 13°3°; Rensselaer Har- bour (784° N. lat.), 33°4°, — 28°6°, and - 2°5°. The minimum observed in the north was -—66°5°; the maximum in the south 68°. On the east coast, in 744° N. lat., the summer heat was about 40°, the winter — 10°; the maximum was 55°6°, the minimum — 40°4°. The mean temperature of the winter months on the west coast is very variable from one year to another, owing éspecially to a warm wind: from south-east and east. The mountains of Greenland consist chiefly of ranitic and gneissose rocks. On the west coast, etween 69° 15’ and 71° 20’ N. lat., they are inter- rupted by high tablelands, consisting of trap and basalt, accompanied by sandstone and slate, with beds of coal. The fossil flora discovered in con- nection with the latter exhibits 613 species, partly Cretaceous, with subtropical forms, partly ertiary, indicating a climate like that of southern Europe. Metallic ores have hitherto proved rather scarce. Besides coal, different varieties of graphite have been discovered, but the only mineral of real economical value hitherto made use of is eryolite, which is exported for the manufacture of soda and avery pure alum. The mine is situated at Ivigtut (61° 10’ N. lat.). It is worked by foreign labourers, and the export is about 10,000 tons annually. A remarkable collection of different minerals occurs in close connection with the ery- olite, comprising lead and tin ore, but only in small quantities. Another peculiar group of min- erals occur in connection with eudialyte some- what farther south; this mineral also has become an object of commercial speculation.. A mineral- ogical rarity is finally the native iron, of which a mass found on Disco Island was estimated to weigh 46,200 pounds. In sheltered slopes and valleys around the fjords south of 65° N. lat. copse-woods are found, con- sisting of alder, white birch, more rarely rowan- trees, which grow to 6 or 8 feet high. The highest birch discovered measured about 14 feet. Berries are abundant, especially crowberries and whortle- berries. An attempt to grow potatoes at the south- most settlement failed. The Greenland flora comprises 395 species of phanerogams and higher cryptogams, and 330 species of mosses. he fauna numbers 33 species of mammalia, 124 of birds, 79 of fishes. It is from the animal kingdom, especially from the seals and whales, that the natives derive almost their whole sub- sistence. The number of these animals annually killed in the Danish trading districts on the west coast is estimated as follows: Phoca fetida, 51,000; Phoca vitulina, 1000; Phoca grenlandica, 33,000; Phoca barbata, 1000; bladdernose seals, 3000; walrus, 200; white whales, 600; narwhals, 100; humpback whales, 1 or 2. Reindeer, of which 25,000 were shot annually in the years 1845-49, are now rather scarce. Of fish sharks only have any commercial value, but several other kinds afford food for the inhabitants. American ships have for some years tried halibut-fishery on the banks off the west coast. The dogs used for draught are of reat importance in the north. A few goats and Ragied cattle have been kept by the Europeans, but more as a curiosity. The inhabitants of Greenland (see ESKIMO) are of the Eskimo race, more or less mixed with Euro- ean blood. The individuals of the mixed race ardly differ as to language and habits from the enuine Eskimo. Besides the natives, about 250 uropeans usually reside in the.country, thirty to forty of whom have married native women. The number of natives, including the mixed race, was, in Danish West Greenland, 9648 in the year 1855, 9983 in 1886; in Danish East Greenland, 548 in 1884; the Smith Sound tribe may number 150; and lastly some few must be added for the imperfectly known north-eastern coast, where natives have been met with. The whole popula- tion in this way may amount to 11,000. Since 1774 the trade of Greenland has been a royal monopoly ; the service employs 2 inspectors, 30 agents and clerks, and 180 handicraftsmen, boatswains, and labourers, most of the latter being natives. There are 12 chief stations for trading and the Danish Mission; the southernmost is Julianehaab (60° 42’ N. lat.), the northernmost Upernivik (72° 48’ N, lat.). At Godthaab there is a seminary for training native catechists ; of late, too, natives have been appointed pastors. The Moravian Mission has four chief stations. Since 1863 a municipal system has been tried, for which native representatives are elected by their country- men. During the twenty years from 1853 to 1872 the annual export by the royal trade was 1185 tuns of oil and 40,000 ea besides some eider-down, feathers, &c. In 1890-95 the exports and imports were each a value of between £25,000 and £30,000 a year. Further information will be found in Danish Green- land, by the present writer (Lond. 1877), and the series Meddelelser om Grénland (Copenhagen, 1879-95), which give the results of investigations since 1876. As regards the rest of Greenland, our principal sources are, for the east, the works of Scoresby, Clavering, and the second German north polar expedition ; information about the north-western part is scattered over the reports of several well-known Arctic expeditions, especially those by Kane, Hall, Nares, and Greely. See also Nordenskiéld’s record of his exploration on the east coast and the interior (German, 1886), and Nansen’s account of his expedition across the interior of southern Greenland in 1888. Greenlaw, a small town of Berwickshire (q.v.), on the Blackadder, 38 miles ESE. of Edinburgh (by rail 55). Its court-house (1834) is a large Grecian pile. Pop. 744. Greenlet Island, a small island in the Strait of Belle Isle, in 51° 34’ N. lat. and 56° 36’ W. long., the proposed landing-place of a Canadian Atlantic cae to extend from near Clew Bay, in Treland. ae oe GREEN MOUNTAINS ~ “+ 4 GREEN PIGMENTS 407 - Green Mountains, a portion of the Appala- chian Range. See APPALACHIANS. Greenock, an important seaport of Renfrew- , , the seventh largest town in Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3% miles by S. of Helensburgh, and 224 by rail WNW. of w. or more than four miles it stretches eee. the level strip of ancient sea-margin, or climbs up the slopes of the hills, which rise rapidly behind it to a height of 813 feet, and which com- mand splendid views of the opposite coasts of Argyll and Dumbarton shires, fringed with white gleaming vo a of Highland mountains, and of the firt itself, stretching away into narrow sea-lochs, and dotted with every variety of craft. Greenock has & reputation of being always wet, and the yearly rainfall does exceed 60 inches ; but as the prevalent winds are from the south and west, they are gener- ally mild. The west end of the town, with its t and commodious villas of every style of architecture, its beautiful esplanade 14 mile long, its wide and well-paved streets, planted with trees, is particularly attractive. The public buildings are many of them very handsome. The chief among these is the town-hall and municipal buildings 1886), Renaissance in style, with a tower 245 t high ; then come the county buildings (1867), the custom-house (1818), the rhouse and lunatic asylum (1876), Wood’s Mariners’ Asylum (1851), the temperance institute (1870), the Y.M.C.A. Institnte (1887), and the Watt Institution (1837), containing a marble statue of Watt by Chantrey. There are several handsome churches. To Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart the town is largely in- debted for the Well Park (1851), the Welling- ton Park (1872), and the Lyle Road (1880). The new cemetery, 90 acres in extent, with its Watt cairn, and the magnificent water-works (1827-83) also deserve mention. The harbour-works date from 1707, and have cost upwards of 14 million penne. Accessible at all states of the tide, they nelude Victoria Harbour (1850), the Albert Har- bour (1866), and the James Watt Dock (1886). The tonnage of vessels belonging to Greenock rose from 29,054 in 1825 to 103,919 in 1867, and 229,912 in 1888 (besides 306 fishing-boats); whilst the tonnage of vessels entering the port ranges be- tween | and 14 million per annum. Shipbuild- ing has been carried on since 1760; and during the twelve years 1876-87, the tonnage of vessels built here (mostly iron or steel steamers) varied from 14,500 in 1877 to 52,744 in 1882. Sugar- refining, commenced in 1765, in spite of bad recent years has still its chief seat at Greenock ; and there are also manufactures of steam-engines, anchors and chain-cables, ropes, saileloth, paper, wool and worsted, &e. Since 1832 Greenock has returned a member to parliament. Pop. (1696) 1328 ; (1801) 17,190 ; (1851) 36,689 ; (1881) 66,704 ; (1891) 63,423. Created a burgh of barony in 1635, Greenock owes its growth from a mere fishing-village to the Shaw family and to the Treaty of Union (1707), by which commerce was opened up with America and the West Indies. Besides being the birthplace of Watt, of be ape mathematician, and of Prin- cipal Caird, ilson, and Galt, and contains the grave of Burns’s Greenough, Horatio, an American sculptor, was born in ton, 6th Copter 1805, studied for two years at Harvard, and from 1825 spent the greater part of his life in Italy. His principal work, and one remarkable both for accuracy and for lofty conception, is the colossal statue of Washing- ‘ton, which now stands in front of the national capitol ping, Other important sculptures are his ‘ Medora,’ ‘ Venus Victrix,’ and a group of four figures, ‘The Rescue,’ for the purpose o which he returned to America in 1851. suddenly at Somerville, Massachusetts, December 1852. Green Pigments, These are numerous and some are very important. Several of them are mechanical mixtures of blue and yellow; a larger number are chemical compounds which are natur- ally green; but of either kind only a few are extensively used. All those which are serviceable or have any special interest are noticed in what follows. Sap green is the only one of vegetable origin that need be mentioned. It is prepared from the gummy juice of the berries of a species of buckthorn (hamnus catharticus), and is a fine transparent og aetna sare It is unfortunately fugitive, ut is occasionally employed in water-colour painting. Terra verte is a kind of ochre. This pigment is much used by artists for painting in oil, being one of the most permanent greens. It has not much body, but can be mixed with other colours without injurious results. Oxide of chromium, like the last, is found native, but for use as a colour it is always artificially pre- ared. It isa sober, permanent green much liked y some landscape-painters. Viridian and Veronese green are also oxides of chromium, but the latter is often adulterated with arsenic. Emerald green (cupric aceto-arsenite).—This very bright (but poisonous) green, also called Schweinfurt green and Paris green, is employed to a limited extent by artists and decorators, and is used as an insecticide. Scheele’s green (cupric arsenite) is another bright green, although not so vivid in colour as the last, which it resembles in stability and in other pro- perties, This is a dangerous pigment, and is unfor- tunately a good deal employed for colouring paper- hangings, artificial leaves, and toys. Brunswick Green.—Several distinct pigments are known by this name. One of the kinds employed by the house-painter is a basic carbonate of co per, mixed with gypsum or other bodies. It is fairly permanent. ountain green, mineral green, and malachite green are also carbonates of copper. In chemical books Brunswick green is usually said to be the oxychloride of copper. Chrome green, noticed below, is likewise alin Brunswick green. Rinman’s green, known also as zine green and cobalt green, consists of 88 per cent. of oxide of zine and 12 per cent. of protoxide of cobalt. This ions is permanent, and is not affected by strong eat. Chrome green is a mixture of chromate of lead and Prussian blue. It is a bright, strong colour, and is suitable for ordinary mechanical painting. It is, however, not permanent; a more durable een, but one of less power, being formed with rench ultramarine and chrome yellow. Hooker's a is a mixture of Prussian blue and gamboge, an some permanence as a water-colour. Peisetan green o formed in the same way, but contains more blue. Greens which are compounds of copper are all more or less poisonous even when they do not also contain arsenic. Artists generally prefer to make up the shade of lacin e die 18th green they require by mixing blue and yellow pig- ments for bright shades, and blue and brown colours for dull shades. As a rule the green portions of pictures have stood the effects of time worse than other colours. For the materials used in dyeing textile fabrics green, see DYEING and CALICO-PRINTING ; and for 408 GREEN RIVER GREENSTONE green colours used in painting or printing pottery, see POTTERY. Green River (1) rises in Western Wyoming, flows SE. into Colorado, and then SW. and 8. through Utah, joining the Grand River, a branch of the Colorado, after a course of 750 miles.—(2) Green River, Kentucky, rises near the centre of the state, flows west and north-west, passing near the Mammoth Cave, and crosses the northern bound- ary, entering the Ohio 9 miles above Evansville, Indiana. It is about 350 miles in length, and is navigable’ for small steamers for 150 miles; its lower course is through the coalfields of Western Kentucky. Greenroom, a room near the stage in a theatre, so called because originally painted green, where, during a performance, the actors wait while off the stage. Greens, the common name of all those varieties of kale or cabbage (Brassica oleracea) which do not boll, and of which the leaves are used for the table as boiled vegetables ; some of which are also called colewort, &c., whilst others, particularly those with curled leaves, as German greens, have no other name than greens or kale. Young unbolled cab- bages, and shoots from the stocks of cabbages, are often also called greens, as well as turnip-tops, and other leaves of plants used in the same manner.— The leaves of German greens are very much waved or curled. This herb is one of the best kinds of open greens. It is either sown in spring and planted out soon after, or it is sown in autumn and planted out in spring. Greensand, the name given to two divisions of the Cretaceous System (q.v.). They are so called from the occurrence in some of the strata of numer- ous small green specks of glauconite (a hydrous silicate of iron, alumina, and potash; see GREEN EARTH), sometimes so abundant as to give a green colour to them. The term is, however, far from being descriptive of the various included strata ; it must be considered simply as a name. In some districts, especially on the Continent, the green particles are entirely absent from the strata. The petrographical character of the Upper Greensand is so like that of the Lower, that it is scarcely ossible to separate them when the intermediate ault is absent, except by their organic remains, which are very distinct ; so much so, indeed, as to have caused the placing of the one series in the Lower Cretaceous group, and the other in the Upper. tthe Upper Greensand consists of beds of sand and sandstone, generally of a green colour, with beds and concretionary masses of calcareous grit, called firestone, and chert. In the Wealden district the average thickness of the formation is about 60 feet. It is only doubtfully present north of Folke- stone ; in Sussex it reaches 20 feet, and in the Isle of Wight 100 feet in thickness. This formation is supposed to have been a littoral or shore deposit of the cretaceous sea. While the chalk was being deposited out at sea these sands were being laid down along the shore contemporaneously with the chalk, although they appear inferior to it. Their position would necessarily result from the cretaceous sea widening its area; as the shore was submerged the greensand became covered with the chalk, and thus appears as an older and under- lying deposit. The beds of this series are rich in fossils, abounding especially in the remains of sponges, mollusca, and echinodermata. The Lower Greensand consists chiefly of yellow, gray, white, and green sands, but includes also beds and bands of clay, limestone, and ironstone. It attains a thickness of 500 or so feet. The sands preponderate in the upper, and the clays in the lower portion of the formation. In Surrey, Kent, Sussex, &c. it is subdivided as follows : 4, Folkestone beds, 3. Sandgate beds. 2. Hythe beds. 1. Atherfield clay. Some beds of clay of considerable thickness, occa- sionally as much as 60 feet, are used as fuller’s earth. The calcareous stone is a highly fossiliferous band of limestone, locally called Kentish rag, much used for building in Kent and Sussex. The formation was formerly known as the iron-sand, because of the sands being cemented together by an abundance of oxide of iron; this gives them a reddish colour. The Lower Greensand contains numerous fossil mol- lusca and other remains. It is a marine-deposit, and rests on the fresh-water Wealden strata, show- ing that while it was being accumulated the sea made considerable encroachments on the land. In the Isle of Wight the strata are well developed, reaching a thickness of some 800 feet. In the Midland counties the same beds are recognised and have assumed various names, such as ‘ Faringdon beds,’ ‘Shotover sands,’ ‘ Woburn sands and Wicken beds.’ The Tealby series is the name given to the Lower Greensand beds of Lincolnshire. Near Flam- borough Head the Lower Greensand and Wealden beds are represented by the Speeton clay. Greenshank (TZotanus canescens), a bird of the snipe family (Scolopacide), in the same genus as the redshank and some of the sandpipers. It is about the size of a woodcock (14 inches in length), Mn Benn” Greenshank ( 7’otanus canescens). but has much longer legs; the general colours of the plumage are brown and gray, the latter pre- vailing in winter, when the under surface is pure white ; the bill is about 2 inches long; the tail is short. The greenshank nests on the ground, which the eggs (four) more or less resemble in colour ; when disturbed the bird behaves and cries ver much like a lapwing. ‘he food consists of small animals of all sorts. In spring and autumn small flocks occur on the British coasts or by inland lakes ; in Ireland it often winters, and in the north of Scotland, may even breed. Its general range is virtually co-extensive with the eastern hemisphere. See Howard Saunders, Manual of British Birds. Green Sickness. See CHLOROSIS. Greenstone, a rock term (now disused) for any dark green basic crystalline ‘trap-rock.’ The greenish tint which such igneous rocks so frequently show is now recognised as being in most cases due to the presence of serpentine, chlorite, or other pro- — ducts of decomposition. Most greenstones are thus ———— =. a GREENVILLE GREENWICH 409 (q.¥.). ville, capital of Greenville county, South Carolina, on Reedy River, 95 miles (112 by rail) NW. of Columbia, with a cotton inctory, and manufactures of oil, flour, furniture, and machinery. It is the seat of a Baptist university (1851) and of a Baptist ladies’ college. Pop. (1900) 11,860. Greenweed, a name given to certain half- imabty species of Geacaler: See GENISTA, and Dyer’s Broom (@. ¢inctoria) under Broom. Hairy Greenweed (G. pilosa) is sometimes grown in France on light soils as fodder for sheep. Greenwell, Dora, religious poet, was born 6th December 1821 near Lanchester in Durham, and after 1848 lived in Durham. She died 29th March 1882. Amongst her works, all marked by a lofty strain of patience, Christian hope, holy con- fidence, and withal of deep-seated melancholy, are a volume of poems in 1848, and another in 1861; several short prose works, including The Patience of Hope, Two Friends, and a sequel, Colloquia Crucis ; a Life of Lacordaire (1868), and Carmina Crucis (1869). See the Memoirs by William Dorling (1885). Greenwich (A.S. Green-wic, ‘green creek or bay’), a parliamentary borough of Kent, is situated 5 miles ESE. of London Bridge, on the south bank of the Thames, here crossed by a steamship ferry, on the American system, which was opened in 1888. The town is chiefly memorable on account of its great national institutions. First amongst these comes Greenwich Hospital, which occupies the site of an old royal palace, in which Henry VIII. and his Co nie ary and Elizabeth were born, and where Edward VI. died. The first idea of its foundation is said to have originated in 1692 after the great naval victory of La Hogue; it was then proposed to raise a suitable monument as a mark of the gratitude which England felt towards her brave sailors. According to the Latin inscription which runs round the frieze of the hall, ‘The pious regard of Queen Mary dedi- cated this Palace of Greenwich for the relief and maintenance, at the public expense, of those sea- men who have protected the public safety in the reign of William and Mary, 1694.’ The hospital consists of four distinct piles of buildings, all of which are quadrangular and named according to the respective sovereigns in whose reigns they were suecessively built. King Charles’s building, to the west, was erected in 1664, from the original design by Inigo Jones. On the other side of the square towards the east is Queen Anne’s building ; to the southward of these are King William's building, containing the Great Hall, and Queen Mary’s building, containing the chapel. The last three were from designs by Sir Christopher Wren. The Great Hall is remarkable for its painted ceil- ing, a work carried out by Sir James Thornhill in 1707-27. It contains several valuable pictures of t naval battles and of the heroes who fought in them; there is still preserved the coat which Nelson wore when he was shot at Trafalgar. The chapel is a fine specimen of Greek al ackare : it was restored in 1789 from designs by James Stuart. A statue of George I]. by Rysbrach adorns the central square, _ The first pensioners were received in the hospital in 1705; these numbered 100; in 1814 the maxi- mum number was reached—viz. 2710, In 1763 out- pensions were granted from the funds; in 1849 the number of in-pensioners to decrease, until in 1865 they only numbered 1400. For some time the in-pensioners had been discontented with their manner of living at the hospital, and in 1869, when they had the option of receiving a grant of money referable to the Basalts (q.v.) and the Diorites in lieu of their board and lodging, a very large majority preferred to take the money and go to their friends. A few old or bedridden men were transferred to the various naval hospitals and the Seamen's Hospital Society, to be maintained at the expense of Greenwich ee Fund. Greenwich Hospital was thus disestablished by the votes of the very men for whose benefit it was originally founded, The revenues of the hospital are derived from different sources, the principal of which are gifts by King William and the original commis- sioners, the rental of the forfeited estates of the Earl of Derwentwater, contributions of the sea- men and marines of Her Majesty’s fleet, as well as from those who served in the mercantile marine ; large sums have been uired from unclaimed pret mosey and fines. The annual income of the 1ospital is £167,259. From this sum numerous pensions are paid; 1000 boys, the sons of sea- men and marines, are maintained and educated at Greenwich Hospital Schools at an average cost of £23,000 a year; gratuities are granted to widows of seamen and marines; and 50 children of officers who have died receive grants for their education. It is estimated that 9000 persons, exclusive of tlie children mentioned, derive benefit from the funds. In 1873 Greenwich Hospital became the college for the Royal Navy, and all naval officers belong- ng te the combatant branch are now compelled to take their degree at Greenwich. Having reached a certain seniority as midshipmen, they are entered at the college, and, after having passed through a course of instruction, they are examined and classi- fied according to merit. Executive officers of different ranks have the privilege of studying and earning extra distinctions by passing meritorious examinations. A certain number of the engineer officers also go through a course of study at the Royal Naval College. he Naval Museum contains many objects of interest connected with the navy, such as models of ships both ancient and modern, specimens of ns, torpedoes, and ammunition, plans of British ockyards, relics of Sir John Franklin’s expedition, and, last but not least, the famous original Chatham chest—established at Chatham by Queen Elizabeth in 1588 for the relief of wounded and decayed sea- men, and removed hither in 1803. The Royal Hospital School was first established in 1712 for the purpose of clothing and educating the sons of the pensioners. One thousand boys enjoy its benefits, besides one hundred day- scholars nominated under the Boreman Trust. Entries are made at 11 years of age, and, ii the boys prove fit for service in the navy, they are retained till they reach the age of 154 years. The school is essentially a training place for the Royal Navy, the boys being passed thence to training-ships at Portsmouth and Devonport. The ‘Queen’s House’ in the centre of the school buildings was a favourite residence of Queen Henrietta Maria. The school possesses a spacious gymnasium, a large swiin- ming-bath, several good model rooms for seaman- ship instruction, and a very fine dining-hall. The admissions are limited to the sons of seamen of the Royal Navy, the Royal Marines, and the Royal Naval Reserve, with a few from the mercantile marine. Another national institution at Greenwich, not less important than these naval establishments, is the Royal Observatory, which crowns the hill that rises in the park behind the hospital (see OBSERVA- TORY). It was built by Charles II. in 1675, the first astronomer-royal being Flamsteed. From here the correct time is flashed every day by the electric telegraph to the principal towns of the kingdom. From Greenwich, too, geographers and seamen reckon longitude. The park is a favourite 410 GREG GREGOIRE resort of Londoners on Sundays and _ holidays. The Whitebait (q.v.) Dinner, a banquet held by the cabinet-ministers to celebrate the termina- tion of a parliamentary session, is held at Green- wich, which is famous for the fish from which the dinner is named. Greenwich is well supplied with charitable institutions, chief among which may be mentioned the Jubilee Almshouses, Norfolk or Trinity College, Roan’s Charity, the Green-coat and Blue-coat Schools. The manufacturing estab- lishments of the town include engineering, tele- graph works, chemical works, &c. Tt returned two members to parliament down to 1885, when the new parliamentary boroughs of Deptford and Wool- wich were formed out of its boundaries, and it was restricted to one member. Pop. (1861) 40,002; (1881) 46,580; of parliamentary borough in 1891, 78,131. See L’Estrange, The Palace and the Hos- - pital: Chronicles of Greenwich (2 vols. 1886). Greg, WILLIAM RATHBONE, author of several works in literature and politics, was born in Man- chester in 1809, became a Commissioner of Customs in 1856, and acted as Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office from 1864 to 1877, when he resigned. He died November 15, 1881. He was a man of profoundly earnest character, had a con- spicuous power of incisive writing, and was in- terested in many philanthropic measures. In his Rocks Ahead he took a highly pessimistic view of the future of England, and regarded some present tendencies as pregnant with. danger, anticipating with foreboding the political supremacy of the lower classes, the approaching industrial decline of England, and the divorce of the intelligence of the country from its religion. His works inelude The Creed of Christendom (1851); Essays on Political and Social Science (1854); Literary and Social Judgments (1869); Political Problems (1870); Enigmas of Life (1872; 18th ed. with memoir by his widow, 1891); Rocks Ahead, or the Warnings of Cassandra (1874); Mistaken Aims (1876); Mis- cellaneous Essays (2d series, 1884). Gregarinida, or SPoROzOA, a class of parasitic single-celled animals or Protozoa. As adults they are entirely destitute of cilia or other locomotor structures, and emphasise in their history the -encysted phase of cell-life. They are found in almost all kinds of animals, inside the cells, or loose in the alimentary canal, body-cavity, and other spaces. The food consists of the diffusible albuminoids of the host, absorbed by the general surface of the ‘mouthless’ unit. The Gregarine is wholly surrounded by a rind, and sometimes shows fibril-like, probably contractile, structures ; there is a large spherical nucleus, but no contractile vesicle. They vary greatly in size, from minute forms which live within blood corpuscles to others visible to the unaided eye, and measuring some- times ;!;th of an inch. A typical life-history is indi- cated in the diagram, the important points being as follows: in early life the Gregarine usually lives inside a cell, whether it keep this habitat or not; the young forms not unfrequently divide ; Gregarines are fond of associating in couples (or even in trios), but this union does not seem to be usually followed by fusion; at a certain stage the unit, or sometimes the pair, becomes en- cysted and divides into numerous clothed spores ; each of these, when liberated by the bursting of the cyst, gives origin to a young Gregarine, or usually to several; these are at first flagellate or ameeboid, or at least more active than the adults, but with nutrition and growth the juvenile activity is soon lost. Among the most important Sporozoa are the following : Monocystis, represented by at least two species in the male organs of the earthworm; Gregarina, a type of those with the body divided by a partition, and furnished with a curious, an- terior, proboscis-like appendage, found in the ali- mentary canal of crustaceans and insects—e.g. lobster and cockroach ; Klossia, in molluses, espe- cially cuttle-fish ; Drepanidium, in frog’s blood, a Life-history of Gregarine : a, common adult type, showing rind, nucleus, and protoplasm; b, two individuals within a cyst; c, the formation of spores, - usually several within each little case; d, the escape of the spore-cases by rupture of cyst; e, an enlarged spore-case, showing two enclosed spores ; f, a young individual or spore, escaping from its spore-case; g, two Gregarines united end to end; h, an adult, showing attaching anterior portion and the slight partition dividing the cell; i, two young Gregarines emerging from the cells in which they have spent their early life. sur les Sporozoaires ( Paris, 1884); Leuckart, ] of Man ( Edin. 1886); Lankester, art. ‘Protozoa,’ Encycl. Brit.; Schneider, Yablettes Zoologiques (1886, &ec.) 3 Hatchett Jackson’s ed. of Rolleston’s Forms of Animal Life (Oxford, 1888). Grégoire, HENRI, the most remarkable among | the so-called constitutional bishops of France, was born of poor parents at Vého, near Lunéville, December 4, 1750. Educated by Jesuits at Nancy, he took orders, and lectured for some time at the Jesuit College of Pont-a-Mousson. His Essai sur la Régénération des Juifs (1778) breathed the toleration that was in the air, and became widely popular. Becoming curé of Emberménil, he was sent to the States-general of 1789 as one of the deputies of the clergy. He was an ardent democrat in all his views, and, attaching himself from the first to the Tiers-état party, acted a prominent part throughout the ake drama of the Revolution. One of the secretaries of the National Assembly, he supported oy coer the abolition of the privileges of the @®bles and clergy alike, and the civil constitution of the clergy. ie was the first of his order to take the oaths, and was elected the first ‘constitutional bishop’ of the department of Loir-et-Cher, which he accepted, although the old and legitimate bishop, Monseigneur de 'Thémines, was still alive. Grégoire carried into every depart- ment the stern democracy to which he was devoted, and which he identified with the Christian brother- hood of the gospel; and upon the fundamental doctrine of the Revolution—the rights of man—he sought to ingraft his own early advocacy of the Jews and of the negroes, and especially the doctrine of the duties of man. At the blasphemous Feast of Reason, the weak Gobel; constitutional Bishop of Paris, publicly renounced Christianity; but Grégoire faced the infuriated rabble with all the courage of the primitive martyrs, and refused to deny his Master. After the 18th Brumaire_he became a member of the Corps Législatif. His GREGORIAN GREGORY 411 extreme republicanism was highly distasteful to gel and it was only after a third attempt that he was appointed member of the senate. On the conclusion of the concordat between Pius VII. and Bonaparte he ceased to exercise ecclesiastical functions, being unable conscientiously to give the = retractations required by the church, and he died without reconciliation at Auteuil, near Paris, 28th May 1831. His Mémoires were edited by H. Carnot, with a life (1831). Of his numerous writ- may be named Histoire des Sectes Religieuses 1814); Essai historique sur les Libertés de ’ Eglise licane (1818). ee the studies by Kriiger (Leip. 1838) and Béhringer (Basel, 1878). Gregorian Calendar, See CALENDAR. Gregorian Tones. See PLAIN-sonG. Gregorovius, FERDINAND, a distinguished an historian, born in East Prussia, 19th January 1821. He studied theology at Kénigs- berg, but soon devoted himself to poetry and litera- ture. In 1852 he went to Rome, where he subse- quently spent most of his time. His great work is the History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages (8 vols. 1859-72 ; 3d_ed. 1875). He wrote also on Italian geography and history, on Corsica (1854), Capri, and Corfu, on the graves of the popes (1857 ; 2d ed. 1881), on Lucrezia Borgia (1874), on Urban VIII. (1879), on Athens (1881), and on the Byzan- tine empress, Athenais (1882); also a tragedy on the death of Tiberius (1851), and an epic, Luphorion (4th ed. 1880). Died May 2, 1891 popes, of whom and saint of in the eit; century. His father Gordianus was a senator of the same family as that to which Pope Felix III. had belonged, and his mother Sylvia was famed for her surpassing virtues. At a comparatively early age Gregory was appointed by the Emperor Justin II. to the wden, Life of Gregory VIT. (1840); Voigt, Hi brand als es (2d ed. 1846); Ohne, ae VII, (7 vols. 1859-61); W. R. Gregor . Stephens, nd is mind, and his Times (1888); and the studies by Séltl (1847) Villemain (1872; Eng. trans. 1873), Langeron (1874), and Meltzer (1876). His whole literary remains are included within seven books or Hegisters of letters, which have been often printed, GREGORY XIII., UGO BUONCOMPAGNO, was born at Bologna, January 7, 1502, He was edu- cated in his native city, where he filled the chair of Law for several years. Having settled at Rome in 1539, he was distinguished by several important employments, and was one of the theologians of the Council of Trent; on his return thence he was created cardinal in 1565, and sent as legate to Spain. On the death of Pius V. Gregory was elected pope in 1572. Not one among the t- Reformation pontiffs has surpassed Gregory XII I. in zeal for the promotion and improvement of education ; a large proportion of the colleges in Rome were wholly or in part endowed by him ; and his éxpenditure for educational purposes is said to have exceeded 2,000,000 Roman crowns. The most interesting event of his pontificate, in a scientific point of view, is the correction of the Calendar (q.v.), which was the result of long consideration, and was finally made public in 1582. Under his care was published also a valuable edition of the Decretum Gratiani with learned notes. He was a zealous patron of the Jesuits, and supported the League in France against the Huguenots ; and it was he who ordered a 7e Deum in Rome on occasion of the massacre of St Bartholomew, and had a medal struck in honour of the oceasion. He strongly supported Philip IT. of Spain in his designs against England; and he left the mark of his energy on almost every department of church life and work. He died in 1585, in the eighty-third year of his age. Gregory, ST, surnamed ILLUMINATOR (Ar- menian Lusavoritch, Gr. Phétistés), was of the royal Parthian race of the Arsacidz, and son of Anak, murderer of Chosrov I., king of Armenia. For this crime his whole family was slain save himself. He owed his escape to a Christian nurse, who secretly conveyed him, when he was two years old, to Czesarea, in Cappadocia, her native town. He there married a Christian, who bore him two sons, and soon afterwards became a nun. Gregory roceeded to Rome, and entered the service of erdat, Chosrov’s son. After Terdat (Tiridates III.) had, with the help of the Romans, recogered his father’s kingdom (286), Gregory, for his refusal to crown with garlands the statue of Anahit, tutelary dess of Armenia, was thrown by Terdat into a eep pit, where a pious widow nourished him for fourteen years. About the end of that time Terdat was visited with the punishment of Nebuchad- nezzar. Healed and baptised by Gregory, he be- came a zealous Christian, and established Chris- tianity by force throughout his dominions. Gregory was consecrated bishop and head of the Armenian Church by Leontius, Archbishop of Caesarea, and erected a great number of churches, monasteries, hospitals, and schools in which the sons of heathen priests were trained for the Christian priesthood, whereby a strongly national stamp was given to the church in Armenia. Having resigned the patri- archate in favour of his second son Aristaces, Gregory in 331 retired to a cave at the foot of Mount Sebnh in Upper Armenia, where he died in a few her The patriarchate was held for many years y his descendants. The sources for the history of G ry, which is partly legendary, are two early Armenian histories written by Agathangelos and by Simeon Metaphrastes. A French translation of the former by Victor Langlois appetts in vol. i. of the Historiens de Arménie (1867); the latter (evidently drawn from the former) is given in vol. exv. of Migne’s Patrol. Grec. The former was known to 414 GREGORY Moses of Khorene, the Herodotus of Armenia, who flourished in the 5th century. ‘The best edition of his work was printed at Venice in 1865: a Latin translation by the brothers Whiston appeared at London in 1736; a French by Levaillant de Florival at Paris in 1841. See S. ©. Malan’s Eng. translation (1868) of the life of Gregory, from the Armenian work of the Vartabed Matthew (published at Venice, 1749). Gregory Nazianzen was, by his own account, born about 330, at Arianzus, a village near Nazi- anzus, in Cappadocia, not far from Caesarea. His father, whose name also was Gregory, and who had originally belonged to the heathen sect of Hypsis- tarians, worshippers of the Most High, but also of the fire, like the Persians, and keepers of the Jewish Sabbath and the law of the purity of meats, had, chiefly through the influence of his pious wife Nonna, become a convert to Christianity about the time of the great Nicene Council (325), and four years later was raised to the dignity off Bishop of azianzus. Formed to piety by domestic example, Gregory was at an early age sent to Caesarea in Palestine, where the study of eloquence then flourished. He next attended the schools of Alex- andria, and subsequently (about 348 to 358) of Athens, where he met Basil the Great, then also a young student, and became his most intimate friend. At the same time there studied at Athens Julian, later emperor and apostate, and there is no doubt that the three often met and had friendly discussions on the subjects of their common studies ; although Gregory, even at that time, augured no good for Julian, who exhibited signs of ‘an unsettled and arrogant mind.’ Gregory, having made brilliant progress in eloquence, philosophy, and sacred literature, returned to Nazianzus, and in 360 received baptism at the hands of his own father, consecrating to God, at the same time, all ‘his goods, his glory, his health, his tongue, and his talents ;’ at in order to be still more able to pursue a life of austere devotion, he took up his abode with Basil in the desert near the river Iris, in Pontus. Recalled by his father, Gregory was ordained priest, but afterwards fled. Being recalled a second time, he returned to Nazianzus, assisted his father in the ministry, and preached to the erp. In 371 or 372 St Basil, who in the meantime ad become Bishop of Ceesarea, prevailed upon him to accept the see of Sasima, a small town in Cappa- docia. But he had scarcely taken possession of his newlignity, when, overcome again by his innate re- pugnance to public life, he retired, a bishop without a bishopric, to Nazianzus, where he stayed until the death of his father in 374. He then went into a monastery: at Seleucia, which, however, after the death of the Emperor Valens (378), he was induced to leave, in order to undertake the charge of a small Nicene congregation in Constantinople, where until then Arianism had held undisputed sway. Gregory was after a short time, when his erudition and eloquence became conspicuous, elected arch- bishop, upon which the Arians became so exasper- ated that his very life was in danger. Gregory, although upheld by Pope Damasus and the Emperor Theodosius, preferred resigning his see voluntarily, ‘in order to lay the storm, like another Jonah, although he had not excited it.” He went back to Nazianzus, and took up his solitary abode near Arianzus, where, after some years of a most ascetic life, he died in 389. His ashes were con- veyed to Constantinople, and thence, during the Crusades, to Rome. is day is, with the Latins, the 9th of May. His character and temper, ardent and enthusiastic, but at the same time dreamy and melancholy, hard, but also tender, ambitious and et humble, and all his instability and vacillation etween a life of contemplation and of action, are vividly depicted in his writings. These mostly’ serve the great aim of his life—to uphold the integrity of Nicene orthodoxy against the heresies of the Arians and Apollinarists. The merits of his writings are very unequal, sometimes rising to sublime flights of poetical genius, and displaying classical elegance and refinement, at other times redundant, pedantic, and heavy with far-fetched similes. Yet Gregory may fairly be pronounced one of the first orators and most accomplished and thoughtful writers of all times. His surviy- ing works consist chiefly of about 45 sermons, 243 letters, and 407 poems (dogmatic and moral poems, prayers and hymns, autobiographic and istorical poems, epitaphs, and epigrams). The poems were separately printed in a beautiful Aldine edition at Venice in 1504. The first edition of his complete works appeared at Basel in 1550, folio. All the earlier editions were set aside by the great and long-delayed edition that appeared under the auspices of the Benedictines, in 2 vols. ( Paris, 1778- 1842). The first volume was finally edited by Clemencet ; the second by Caillou. is separate works have frequently been edited, and partly translated into different tongues. See monographs by Ullmann (1825; Eng. trans. 1851 ; 24 ed. Gotha, 1867) and by A. Benoit (Paris, 1876); and Montaut’s Revue critique (1878). Gregory of Nyssa, the younger brother of Basil the Great. After being educated by Basil, he showed an inclination to become a teacher of elo- quence, but by the influence of Gregory Nazianzen was prevailed upon to devote himself to the church. Though married, he was in 371 or 372 consecrated by Basil bishop of the little town of N ysse, in Cap- padocia. During the persecution of the adherents of the Nicene Creed in the reign of Valens, Gregory was, at the instigation of the governor of Pontus, deposed by a synod held in Galatia, on the pretext that he had wasted the church’s goods. He made his escape, and after the death of Valens was joy- fully welcomed back by his flock (378). He was present at the Council of Constantinople in 381, and (along with two other bishops) was appointed to the general oversight of the diocese of Pontus both by the council and by a decree of his friend Theo- dosius, by whom he had been called ‘the common illar of the church.’ He travelled to Arabia and erusalem to set in order the churches there, and was again at a synod in Constantinople in 394, He must have died soon afterwards. Of the three Cappadocians Gregory was the greatest speculative theologian, the most faithful to Origenistic views, and not the least zealous defender of Nicene doctrine. He was a less able ruler than Basil, who sometimes lamented his untimely ‘good nature’ and ‘simplicity.’ His chief dogmatic work is his Twelve Books against Eunomius (the so-called 13th book is an independent work). Among his other works are treatises on the doctrine of the Trinity, including Antirrheticus (against Apollinaris) and an appeal To the Greeks, from ‘common notions’ (axioms), an attempt to establish the doctrine on grounds of abstract reason; a treatise On Destiny (against pagan fatalism); On the Soul and Resur- rection (ed. Krabinger, Leip. 1837), in the form of a dialogue with his sister Makrina on her death- bed ; several ascetic treatises, many sermons, and 23 epistles. In his great Catechetical Discourse (ed. Krabinger, Munich, 1838), which was written to convince educated heathens and Jews, he argues that the incarnation is the best possible form of redemption, as manifesting the four chief attributes of God—his omnipotence, mercy, wisdom, and justice. God alone ¢s, and all turnin cake Ea God to the things of sense (things without being) is death. Christ did not assume a single human nature, but human nature itself in its entirety. ‘His return from death is for the mortal race the GREGORY 415 me beginning of their return to eternal life.’ His in- ea. is of cosmical ificance, and extends to the whole spiritual creation, beinging the whole ‘ universe into harmony. ‘Not only among men is he born man, but (with absolute consistency ) A por ges eames into being among angels he brings him- self down to their nature’ (Disco urse on the Ascen- sion of Christ). ‘By this,’ says Harnack, ‘the ne on is resolved into a necessary cosmical process; it becomes a special case of the omni- =. of the Deity in his creation. Alienation Dems God is as much included in the plan of the Kosmos as is restitution to him, Gregory helped to hand on to later times the pantheistic thought which he never himself conceived lesraah and apart from the historical. There is a real kinship between him and the pantheistic Monophysites, the Areo- A pagite, Scotus Erigena, and even the modern Wiad 1” theologians of Hegelian dye.’ we works were edited by Fronton du Duc (Paris, A reprinted 1638), and more completely in Migne’s (series Greeca, vols. xliv.—xlvi.), A beginning was made towards a good critical edition by G. H. Forbes egreegae 1855) and Fr, Oehler (Halle, 1865). The i has published a selection with a German transla- tion (4 vols, Leip. 1858-59). on Gregory (1834); H. Weiss; Die drei grossen Cappado- eter (1872); and Harnack, Doymengeschichte, vol. ii. (1888 ). Gregory of Tours, the ‘father of Frankish history,’ was born about 540 at Arverna (now Cler- mont), the chief town of Auvergne, and belonged to one of the most distinguished Roman families of Gaul. Originally called Georgius Florentius, he assumed the name by, oat out of respect for his See J. Rupp’s monograph ‘mother’s dfather, Gregory, Bishop of Langres. He was educated by his uncle, Gallus, Bishop of Clermont, and after his death by Avitus, a priest of his native town. His recovery from a severe sick- hess, through a pilgrimage to the grave of St _ Martin of Tours, led Gregory to devote himself to % the service of the ehurch, and by the choice of the _ ¢lergy and people and favour of Sigbert, king of __ Austrasia, to whom Auvergne had fallen on the death of Clothar I. in 561, he became Bishop of Tours in _ 573. He gave himself zealously to his sacred office and the public In the struggles between _ Sigbert and his wife Brunhilda on the one side - — Chilperic and his wife Fredegond on the _ other he took the side of the former, and in the vicissitudes of a conflict in which Tours frequently changed masters had to suffer many persecutions. After the death of Chilperic, whom Gregory calls ‘the Nero and Herod of our time,’ he enjoyed great influence over his successors, Guntram and Childebert Il. He died 17th November 594. The fame of Gregory rests on his Historie sive Annalium _ Francorwm libri x., the chief authority for the his- tory of Gaul in the 6th century. It begins with a summary of universal history, but by the end of book i. reaches the Frankish conquest and the death of St Martin. From this point onwards the narrative is written with much greater fullness, the last seven years (585-91) extending to four books. Gregory himself laments his unskilfulness in writing —his wro genders and cases, and misused pre- positions. His ten books are the artless memoranda » Offa mpage tag + bearing on their face the clear stamp of truth. It is entirely to him that we owe our exact knowledge of the dark and stormy times of the Merovingian kings. Besides his Hi. he wrote Miraculorum libri vii., hagiographical ‘comptlasi in the his works was published by Ruinart in 1699 (1 vol. folio), and in Mi SP wollestian’ (wok lxxi.). Of the Histor itions are by Guadet and Turanne (1836-88), and that in the Monumenta Germania Historica (1 85). French translations are by H. L. Bordier (2 vols, 1859-61) and that edited by Jacobs (2 vols, 1861) ; there is a German translation by W. Giesebrecht (1851; 9th ed, 1873). The historical material supplied by Gregory is reproduced in Thierry’s Recit des Tempe Merovingiens (Paris, 1840). A French translation of the Books of Miracles and lesser writings was published by H. L. Bor- dier (4 vols, 1857-64). See Libell, Grevor von Tours und seine Zeit (1839; 2d ed. 1869); G. Monod, Etudes critiques sur les sources de U Histoire Merovingienne ( Paris, 1872); and vol. i. of Mark Pattison’s Lesays (1889). Gregory Thaumaturgus worker '), a celebrated disciple of Origen, and the apostle of the Christian church in Pontus. He was born about 210, of wealthy heathen parents at Neocesarea, in Pontus, and was originally named Theodorus. His early education was for the prac- tice of law, but, coming under the influence of Origen at Ceesarea in Palestine, he was his disciple for about eight years, with- an at le caused by the persecution under Maximin the Thracian, during which he probably studied at Alexandria. Origen, in a letter to him, expressed the wish that he would ‘spoil the Egyptians’ by placing the intellectual treasures he gathered from the Greeks in the holy service of Christian philosophy. After this he produced his Panegyricus on Origen, and, returning to his native country, was consecrated Bishop of Neocesarea by Phiedimus, Bishop of Amasea. The influence of Gregory in Asia Minor continued from the middle of the 3d century to far down into the 4th, and its extent may be inferred from the numerous legends of his miracles, and the tradition that at his death (about 270) there were only as many pagans in Neocesarea as there had been Christians in it at his consecration—viz. seven- teen. His celebrated Ekthesis, or Confession of Faith, said to have been derived by revelation from the Virgin Mary and the apostle John, is a sum- mary of the theology of Origen, and was used as the basis of the instruction given to catechumens at Neocwsarea. It is of the greatest value as a record of the state of the theology at the middle of the 3d century. ‘There is scarcely a sentence in it,’ says Harnack, ‘that recalls to us the Bible; itis a com- pendium of the sublimest speculation, only in the words ‘‘ Father,” ‘‘Son,” and ‘ Spirit” reminding us of the gospel.’ Its genuineness is disputed, but is ably defended by Caspari. Gregory is said to have contended against Sabellianism, yet in his lost Argument with Aflian Basil tells us there stood this sentence: ‘the Father and the Son are two in idea, but one in essence.’ But as Basil also testifies that he spoke of the Son as a ‘creature’ and a ‘work,’ the above sentence is probably no more than an Origenistic assertion of the substan- tial unity of the Deity in opposition to tritheistic views. The genuineness of two other treatises attributed to him, one addressed to Philagrius, on the co-essentiality of the persons in the Godhead, and the other, a dialogue with Theopompus, on the question whether the Deity is capable or incapable of suffering, is undecided. Gregory’s works are printed in vol. iii. of Galland’s Bibliotheca Pat- rum, and in Migne’s collection, vol. x. His Pane- gyricus (which contains an ape yc of its writer) is printed among the works of Origen. A special edition was published by J. A. Bengel in 1722. See Ryssel, Gregorius Thaumaturqus ; sein Leben und seine Schriften (Leip. 1880); and Harnack, Dogmen- geschichte, vol. i. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1888). Gregory, the name of a Scottish family distinguished, like that of the Bernouillis, in the history of science. —JAMES GREGORY was born at Aberdeen in November 1638, and studied at Marischal College there. Before completing his twenty-fourth year he invented the reflecting telescope known by his name, and described it in a work entitled Optica Promota. In 1665 he (‘ wonder- 416 GREGORY GRENADINES went to the university of Padua, where in 1667 he produced Vera Cireuli et Hyperbole Quadra- tura, followed in 1668 by Geometrie Pars Uni- versalis and Exercitationes Geometrice. Shortly after his return home he obtained (1669) the pro- fessorship of Mathematics at St Andrews, a chair which he filled until his removal to a similar one at Edinburgh in 1674. He died in that city in the following year. To him is also attributed a satiri- eal tract, Great and New Art of weighing Vanity (1672). For an account of his works and dis- coveries, see Hutton’s Philosophical and Mathe- matical Dictionary.—DAVID GREGORY, nephew of the above, was born at Aberdeen in 1661, and there received the early part of his education, which was completed at Edinburgh. In his twenty-third year he was appointed professor of Mathematics in the university of the latter city. In 1691, through the friendship of Newton and Flamsteed, he obtained the Savilian professorship of Astronomy at Oxford. He died at Maidenhead in 1708. Among his works may be mentioned Evzercitatio Geometrica de Dimensione Figurarum (1684); Catoptrice et Dioptrice Spherice Elementa (1695); Astronomie Physice et Geometrice Elementa (1702), an illus- tration and defence of Newton’s system; ‘and an edition of Euclid in Greek and Latin (1703). He also wrote a treatise on Practical Geometry (1745) and many memoirs in the Phil. Trans., vols. xviii.- xxv.—JOHN GREGORY, grandson of James, was born at Aberdeen, 3d June 1724, where he received his early education; afterwards he studied medi- cine at Edinburgh and Leyden. After filling the chair of Medicine at Aberdeen from 1755, he was appointed in 1766 professor of the Practice of Medicine in Edinburgh, where he died, 9th Febru- ary 1773. Among his works are Elements of the Practice of Physic (1772) and A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of Man with those of the Animal World (1765). In 1788 his works were collected in four vols. by Tytler (Lord Wood- houselee), who prefaced them by a life of the author.—His son, JAMES GREGORY, born at Aber- deen in 1753, became in 1776 professor of the Practice of Medicine at Edinburgh, and eventually a leading man in his profession. He died 2d April 1821. He was the author of Conspectus Medicine Theoretice and of two vols. of Philo- sophical and Literary Essays (1792).—This James’s son, WILLIAM GREGORY, born 25th December 1803, professor of Chemistry at Glasgow (1837), in King’s College, Aberdeen (1839), and at Edin- burgh University (1844), is noticeable for his advo- - eacy of Liebig’s views in Great Britain. He died 24th April 1858. He wrote Outlines of Chemistry (1845), and translated (1855) Liebig’s Principles of Agricultural Chemistry.—The stomachie and aperient known as Gregory’s mixture was com- pounded by Dr James Gregory, and consists of rhubarb, magnesia, and ginger. Gregory, OLINTHUS, mathematician and mis- cellaneous writer, was born at Yaxley, Hunting- don, 29th January 1774, and became a newspaper editor and then a teacher of mathematics succes- sively at Cambridge and Woolwich. At Woolwich he died 2d February 1841. He wrote several works on mathematics, superintended almanacs, edited entlemen’s diaries, and published lives of Robert all and Mason Good. Greifenberg, a town of Prussia, in the pro- vince of Pomerania, dating from 1262, is situated 55 miles by rail NE. of Stettin. Pop. 5636. Greifenhagen, an agricultural town of Prussia, on the Oder, 13 miles by rail SSW. of Stettin.. Pop. 6603. Greifswald, a town of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, is situated 24 miles from the mouth of the Ryck and 25 miles by rail SE. of Stralsund. The university (founded in 1456) has 83 professors and 750 students, of whom one-half are medicals. The university is well equipped with medical museums, laboratories, &c. ; the library contains about 135,000 volumes. There is a _ consider- able shipping trade. The chief industries in- clude the making of machinery, chains, and rail- way wagons, the curing of herrings, and iron- founding. Pop. (1875) 18,016; (1890) 21,624. Shortly after being made a town (1250) Greifswald joined the Hanseatic League. At the peace of estphalia (1648) it came into the possession of Sweden ; but, together with the whole of Swedish Pomerania, was ceded to Prussia in 1815. See Pyl’s Geschichte Greifswalds (1879). Greisen, a rock composed essentially of quartz and mica, but which almost invariably contains topaz. It is met with in regions where tin ores abound, and is believed to a granite which has been metamorphosed in connection with ex- halations of fluoric acid. Greiz, capital of the German principality of ~ Reuss-Greiz, and seat of the sovereign prince, is situated on the White Elster, 47 miles SSW. of Leipzig. It contains three castles and a 13th-cen- tury church, and manufactures cotton and woollen goods, also cashmere and shawls, and possesses dye- works and linen-printing establishments. Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1890) 20,141. The town was severely ravaged by fire in 1494, and again in 1802. Grenada, an island of volcanic origin in the British West Indies, lying N. by W. from Trinidad, mountainous and Bente os with an area of 133 sq.m. Some of the craters in the central ridge of mountains, rising to 3000 feet, have been trans- formed into large lakes. Streams and mineral springs abound. There are several good natural harbours, that of St George (pop. 4000), the capital of the island and the headquarters of the govern- ment of the Windward Islands, being accounted one of the best in the West Indies, though it is not now much used. The inhabitants, 42,403 in 1881, and 56,413 in 1893, who are almost all negroes, cultivate cocoa, coffee, and oranges. Further, a little rum is manufactured, and spices and fruits are grown. Exports, £280,000 a year; imports, £170,000. Grenada has been a crown-colony since 1885; previous to that date it had a constitu- tional government. Columbus was the discoverer of the island in 1498. In the words of Mr Froude, Grenada was ‘the home for centuries of man-eatin Caribs, French for a century and a half, an finally, after many desperate struggles for it, was edled: to England at the treaty of Versailles’ (1783). Grenade, a small shell exploded by a time-fuse, about 3 inches in diameter, of iron or annealed glass, filled with powder, and thrown from the hand. They are chiefly used against the dense masses of troops prea: in the ditch of a fortress during an assault, and then are often rolled over the parapet through wooden troughs instead of being thrown by hand. Grenadier, originally a soldier who was em- ployed in throwing hand-grenades, and then a member of the first company of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men were placed. This company used to be distinguished by tall bearskin caps, sums held the place of honour— viz. the right when in line, and the front when in column. In the British army the name is now only used as the title of the first three battalions of the foot-guards. Grenadines, a chain of islets in the West Indies, extending between Grenada, on which they who passed GRENELLE GRENVILLE 41} Ry ‘are chiefl dependent, and St Vincent, with a total area of 13 sq. m., and about 7300 inhabitants. The . — is Carriacou, with nearly 11 sq. m. ; pop. Grenelle, a south-western suburb of Paris. Grenoble (Lat. Gratianopolis), since 1839 a fortified city of France, Bs one of the ent of Isére, is finely situated in a beau- ful valley 59 miles SE. of Lyons. It is divided by the Istre into two unequal portions, connected The 15th-century cathedral of * by three brid ; étre Dame, St Laurent, St André (with Bayard’s monument, transferred hither in 1822), and the Gothic palais-de-justice are the most interesting The town has a university of three faculties, with about 275 students, and numerous other educational establishments, including an industrial school and a school of forestry. The library contains 170,000 volumes and 7500 MSS. The staple industry is the manufacture of kid loves (employing 22,000 persons in 115 factories). Hecides this, there are manufactures of liqueurs (Chartreuse), hats, cement, and hardware, and an active trade in hemp, corn, timber, wine, and cheese. Pop. (1872) 35,280; (1886) 49,338. Grenoble, originally a city of the Allobroges, was fortified by the Romans. It was Burgundian in the 5th century, and in the 11th belonged to the empire. Later on it became the capital of Dauphiné, along with which it passed to France in 1349. The town has been frequently inundated, the flood of 1778 being the most memorable. See Pitot’s Histoire de Grénoble (2 vols. 1843-46). erenville, GEORGE, the English statesman the Stamp Act which first drove the American colonies to resistance, was born on 14th October 1712. He was younger brother to Richard Grenville, Earl et (q.v.), and brother-in-law of the Earl of Chatham. He entered parliament in 1741, and from 1744 to 1762 filled several govern- ment offices. In 1757 he introduced a bill for the regulation of the payment of the navy. In 1762 he became Secretary of State, and then First Lord of the Admiralty; and in the following year he succeeded Lord Bute as prime-minister, uniting in himself the offices of Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Treasury. The most promi- nent facts of his administration were the prosecu- tion of Wilkes and the ing of the American Stamp Act. He resi, the premiership in 1765, and died 13th November 1770. Although an honest and honourable man, his overleaping ambition, want of tact, and imperious nature made him a highly unpopular minister. See the Grenville Papers, edited by W. J. Smith (4 vols. 1852-53). Grenville, Str RicHarp, one of England’s un- forgotten worthies, sprang from an ancient Cornish family, and early distinguished himself under Elizabeth by his courage both on land and sea. He was knighted about 1577, and in 1585 commanded the seven ships which carried out Raleigh’s first colony to Virginia, the ill-success of which, accord- ing to Ralph Lane, its leader, was mainly due to the commander's tyranny. Linschoten speaks of the fierceness of his temper, and how at table he would crush the glasses between his teeth till the blood ran out of his mouth. Grenville fought and spoiled the Spaniards like other heroes of his time, and while preparing another fleet for Virginia was stayed by the queen at Bideford to take his share in the glory of the Armada fight. In August 1591 he commanded the Revenge in Lord Thomas Howard’s squadron of six vessels, when they fell in with a Spanish fleet of fifty-three sail off’ Flores, in the Azores. Grenville took off his ninety sick men from the island, and, while the admiral made good ne refused with splendid disobedi- ence ‘to turn from the enemy, alleging that he would rather choose to die than to dishonour him- self, his country, and her majesty’s ship.’ The great San Philip, of 1500 tons, towering in height above the Revenge, soon took the wind from her, and now she found herself in the midst of a ring of enemies, an@ a battle almost unequalled in the history of the world began. From three in the afternoon, and all through the night till morning the battle raged, the stars above blotted out by the sulphurous canopy of smoke, while as many as fifteen several Spanish ships were beaten off in turns, and no less than 800 shot of great artillery endured. Two ships were sunk by her side, two more so disabled that they soon foundered, while as many as 2000 men were slain or drowned. But the Revenge was by this time a helpless wreck, all her powder spent, the pikes broken, forty of her 100 sound men slain, and the most part of the rest hurt, the vice-admiral himself sore wounded, both in the body and in the head. Sir Richard would have had the master-gunner to blow up the ship, but was overborne by his surviving men, and carried on board one of the Spanish ships, where he died of his wounds the second or third day after, with the words on his lips, according to Linschoten’s account : ‘Here die I, Richard Grenville, with a joyful and quiet mind: for that I have ended my life as a true soldier ought to do, that hath fought for his country, queen, religion, and honour. Whereby my soul most joyfully departeth out of this body, and shall always leave behind it an everlasting fame of a valiant and true soldier, that hath done his duty as he was bound to do.’ ‘What became of his body,’ says Raleigh, ‘ whether it were buried in the sea or on the land we know not : the comfort that remaineth to his friends is, that he hath ended his life honourably in respect of the reputation won to his nation and country, and of the fame to his terity ; and that, being dead, he hath not out- ived his own honour.’ A few days after the fight a great storm arose from the west and north-west, in which fourteen Spanish ships, together with the Revenge and in her 200 Spaniards, were cast away upon the Isle of St Michaels, besides fifteen or six- teen more upon the other islands. ‘So it pleased them to honour the burial of that renowned ship the Revenge, not suffering her to perish alone, for the great honour she achieved in her lifetime.’ ‘Hardly,’ says Froude, ‘as it seems to us, if the most pte actions which are set like jewels in the history of mankind are weighed one against the other in the balance, hardly will those 300 Spartans who in the summer morning sat combing their long hair for death in the passes of Thermopylew have earned a more lofty estimate for Snny elves than this one crew of modern Englishmen.’ This great exploit was told in noble English by Sir Walter Raleigh in A Report of the Truth of the Fight about the Iles of Azores, this last Sommer (1591); in good verse by Gervase Markham, in Zhe Most Honorable Tragedie of Sir Richard Grinuile, Knight (1595); by Jan Huygen van Linschoten, in his diary (Dutch, 1596; Eng. 1598), the three reprinted together by Arber (1871); by Froude, in ‘England’s Forgotten Worthies,’ in the Westminster Review for July 1852, since included in the first volume of his Short Studies on Great Subjects ; and by Tennyson in The Revenge, the noblest hervic ballad in the English tongue—set not unworthily to music in Villiers Stan- fords cantata produced at Leeds in 1886, Sir Richard Grenville was grandfather of the English Bayard, Sir Bevill. Grenville (born 1596), the hero of Hawker’s spirited ballad, who was killed at the battle of Lansdown, near Bath, 5th July 1643. Grenville, WILLIAM WynpHAM, Lorp GREN- VILLE, third son of George Grenville, was born 25th October 1759. After studying at Eton and Oxford, 418 GREN VILLE-MURRAY GREUZE he became in 1782 a member of the House of Com- mons and secretary to his eldest brother, Earl Temple (afterwards Marquis of Buckingham ), just appointed Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Soon after he became Paymaster-general of the Army, and in 1789 was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons. But in 1790, on his appointment as Secretary of State for the Home Department, he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Grenville. He became Foreign Secretary in the ensuing year. He resigned office, along with Pitt, in 1801, on the refusal of George III. to give his assent to the Catholic Emancipation Bill, of the aims of which Grenville was one of the principal supporters. In 1806 he formed the government of ‘ All the Talents,’ which, before its dissolution in the following year, passed the act for the abolition of the slave-trade. From 1809 to 1815 he acted along with Earl Grey, and he generally supported Canning. ‘Lord Gren- ville was an able speaker and an excellent scholar, and, though he was not of first-rate abilities, his conscientiousness, industry, and knowledge of affairs gave him much influence among the peers and as a statesman. He died at Dropmore, Buck- inghamshire, 12th January 1834. Grenville-Murray. See MuRRAY. Gresham, Sir THoMAs, founder of the Royal Exchange, was born in 1519, the only son of Sir Richard Gresham, an opulent merchant of Norfolk ancestry, who in 1537 was elected Lord Mayor of London. Apprenticed awhile to his uncle, Sir John Gresham, a wealthy London’ mercer, and then sent to study at Gonville Hall, Cambridge, in 1543 he was admitted a member of the Mercers’ Company, and in 1551 was employed as ‘king’s merchant’ at Antwerp. In two years he paid off a heavy loan, entirely restored the king’s credit, and introduced a new system of finance. As a Protestant, he got his dismissal from Queen Mary, but, on presenting a memorial of his past services, was soon reinstated. By Queen Elizabeth he was in 1559 knighted and appointed for a short time English. ambassador at the court of the regent at Brussels. The troubles in the Netherlands compelled him, in 1567, to with- draw finally from Antwerp, to which city he had made more than forty journeys on state service ; in one, in 1560, he was thrown from his horse and lamed for life. In 1569, by his advice, the state was induced to borrow money from London merchants, instead of from foreigners, to the great advantage of the mercantile body. Having in 1564 lost his only son, Richard, in 1566-71 he devoted a portion of his great wealth to the erection of an Exchange (q.v.), in imitation of that of Antwerp, for the London merchants, who were wont to meet in the open air. Renowned for his hospitality and liber- ality, he frequently entertained foreign personages of distinction, and erected a magnificent mansion at Osterly Park, near Brentford, where he was visited by Queen Elizabeth. For the endowment of a college in London he directed by his will that his town-mansion in Bishopsgate Street should be con- verted into a residence and lecture-rooms for seven professors, to be salaried out of the Royal Exchange revenues. Gresham College gave place to the Excise Office in 1768, and the lectures were delivered in a room in the Exchange till 1843, when the lec- ture-hall in Basinghall Street was built out of the accumulated fund. The subjects of lectures (all of which since 1876 are delivered in English only, not Latin) are divinity, physic, astronomy, geometry, law, rhetoric and music. Gresham also provided for the erection and support of eight almshouses, and made many other charitable bequests. He died suddenly, 21st November 1579. See his Life by Dean Burgon (2 vols. 1839). For Gresham’s Law, see BIMETALLISM. Gretna Green, a village of Dumfriesshire, near the head of the Solway Firth, 10 miles NNW. of Carlisle. After the abolition of Fleet marriages by Lord Hardwicke’s Act (1754), English persons wishing to marry clandestinely had to get out of England, to which alone that act had reference. Thus the practice arose of crossing the Border into Scotland, where Gretna Green, or Springfield, as the first village, had by 1771 become, in Pennant’s words, ‘the resort of all amorous couples whose union the prudence of parents or guardians pro- hibits.’ The ‘priest’ or ‘blacksmith’ might be any one—ferryman, toll-keeper, or indice ; his fee might be anything from half a guinea to £100; and ‘church’ was commonly the toll-house till 1826, and afterwards Gretna Hall. At the toll-house nearly 200 couples were sometimes united in a twelvemonth. Coldstream and Lamberton, in Berwickshire, were chapels-of-ease to Gretna for the eastern Border, as also till 1826 was Portpatrick, in Wigtownshire, for Ireland. One of the earliest Scottish runaway matches on record is Richard Lovell Edgeworth’s (1763); amongst his successors were Lords Brougham, Dundonald, Eldon, and Erskine, besides numerous scions of the noble families of Villiers, Fane, Beauclere, Coventry, Paget, &c. In 1856 all irregular marriages were rendered invalid unless one of the parties had been residing in Scotland, for three weeks previously ; this proviso observed, a Gretna Green marriage is still possible. See P. O. Hutchinson’s Chronicles of Gretna Green (2 vols. 1844). Grétry, ANDRE ERNEST MODESTE, composer, was born at Litge, 8th February 1741, studied at Rome, and settled at Paris, where he became famous as author of more than forty comic operas, — of which Le Huron (1768) and Lucile (1769) were the earliest, and Raoul and Richard Ceeur-de-Lion among the best known. He was made inspector of the Conservatoire, and a member of the Institute ; later a pension from Napoleon enabled him to retire to Ermenonville, where, in Rousseau’s old house, he died, 24th September 1813. His operas are noted for their rich and bright melody, and did much to form the musical taste of the time. He also wrote Mémoires (4 vols. Paris, 1796). See the Lives by Gregoir (1883) and Brenet (1884). Greuze, JEAN-BAPTISTE, genre- and _portrait- painter, was born at Tournus, near Macon, on 2ist August 1725. He received instruction in art from Gromdon, a painter of Lyons, who took him to Paris, where he studied in the life-school of the Academy, and produced a subject-picture of such excellence—‘ A Father explaining the Bible to his Children ’—that much dontk was expressed as to its being the work of so young an artist. His skill, however, was amply proved by productions which followed, and his ‘ Blind Man Cheated’ pro- cured his admission as an Associate of the Academy in 1755. In that year he visited Italy with the Abbé Gougenot, and on his return exhibited in 1757 several Italian subjects, but having failed to comply with the regulations of the Academy he was interdicted from contributing to the salon. Having painted in 1769 his ‘Severus reproachin, Caracalla,’ now in the Louvre, he was readmitte as a genre-painter, instead of to the higher class of historical painters, and upon this he indignantly withdrew. He was the friend of Diderot, who praised his productions in his criticisms of the salon ; but in the days of the Directorate and the classical revival of David his works were little esteemed ; and he died in poverty in Paris, 21st March 1805. His art possesses charming qualities of delicacy and grace, but is marred by its triviality, by the insincerity of its sentiment, and by _ its pursuit of mere prettiness. He is seen at his best GREVILLE GREY 41S in his domestic interiors with figures, and especially » such fancy studies of girls as ‘The Broken “| r’ in the Louvre, the ‘ Innocence’ and ‘ Girl _ with Doves’ in Sir Richard Wallace’s collection, and ‘Girl with Dead Canary’ in Scottish National Gallery. See monograph by Normand (1892). Greville, CuArRLEs CAVENDISH FULKE, writer of memoirs of his time, the eldest son of Charles Greville by his wife, Lady Charlotte Cavendish Bentinck, was born in 1794. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Charo, Oxford. Before he Was twenty he was appointed private secretary to % Parl Bathurst. In 1g. he etbee Clerk of the ~ Council in Ordinary, an office which he discharged wntil 1860, During the last twenty years of his life he oceupied a suite of rooms in the house of Earl Granville, in Bruton Street, and there he died, 18th January 1865. In advocacy of the com- e* pletion of the measure of relief to the Catholics by _ the payment of their clergy he wrote Past and Present Policy of England towards Ireland (1845). His position as Clerk of the Privy-council brought him into intimate relations with the leaders of both political parties, and gave him peculiar facili- ties for studying court life from within—advantages which the shrewd intelligence and cultured ver- satility of Greville turned to the best account b penning miscellaneous memoirs dealing alike with pete and private affairs, and containing many ively, immediate sketches of the distinguished rsonages of his time, political, social, and literary. he first part of the Memoirs, covering the reigns of George IV. and William IV., edited by Mr Paces: appeared in 1875. The second part, embracing the riod 1837-51, was published in 1885; and the ird, 1852-60, in 1887. Greville, Sir FULKE, poet and friend of much ter poets than himself, was born of a good Warwickshire family in 1554. He studied at Cam- bridge, travelled abroad, made a figure at court, was sg in 1597, and created Lord Brooke in 1620. e was murdered in an altercation with his serving-man, 30th September 1628. Several didactic poems, more than a hundred sonnets, and two tee were printed in 1633; his Life of Sir Phi ai Sidney in 1652. Grosart edited his works (4 vols. 1870), and published a selection (The Friend of Sir Philip Sidney) in 1895. Gréville, Henry, the pseudonym of Madame Alice Durand (née Fleury), who was born at Paris, 12th October 1842, accompanied her father when he was called to a chair at St Petersburg in 1857, and there married Emile Durand, a French pro- fessor of law, with whom she returned to France in 1872. Already at St Petersburg she had con- tributed romances to the journals; when at Paris she began to issue with almost too great rapidity a series of novels, often bright, vigorous, and original in their pictures of Russian society, but unequal, occasionally feeble, and sometimes even not free from the one fatal fault of dullness. Dosia (1876) received from the Academy the Montyon rize, and was followed by La Princesse O héroff 1876), Les Koumiassine (1877), Suzanne Normis (1877), La Maison Maureze (1877), Les Bpreuves de Raissa (1877), LD’ Amie (1878), Un Violon Russe (1879), Lucie Rodie (1879), Le Moulin Frappier 1880), La Cité Ménard es Perdue (1881), if adame de Dreux (1881), Rozier (1882), Un Crime (1884), Lowis Breutl (1883), Idylles (1885), and Ciéopdtre (1886). Grévy, Francots Paut Juues, President of the French Republie, was born at Mont-sous- Vaudrey, in the Jura, August 15, 1807. He studied law in Paris, and was admitted an ad- vocate, acquiring distinction as the defender of republican political prisoners. After the Revolu- . foe VE TS ee 0 Po ~~ ty ) aerate a, = tion of 1848 he was commissary of the provisional government in his native department, for which also he was returned to the Constituent Assembly, While preserving an independent attitude, ‘x usually voted with the Left, and his ability as a speaker soon brought him into prominence. He became Vice-president of the Assembly, and took a leading part in the constitutional debates. He opposed the government of Louis Napoleon, and condemned the expedition to Rome. After the coup d’état he retired from politics and confined himself to the bar, but in 1869 he was again returned as deputy for the Jura. He denounced the Second. Empire during its closing days, and in February 1871 was elected President of the National Assembly, being re-elected in 1876, 1877, and 1879. The Monarchists were triumphant from 1873 to 1876, but their schemes were trenchantly attacked by Grévy, who likewise published a *opeead phlet entitled The Necessary Government. pon the resignation of Marshal MacMahon in 1879 Grévy was elected President of the Republic for seven years, securing 563 votes out of a total of 713. Although his presidency was not brilliant, it was frequently marked by much tact, as on the occasion of the hostile demonstration against the king of Spain, on his visit to Paris in 1883. The republic was consolidated and strengthened at home, but the foreign policy of France was in- glorious, and in March 1885 President Grévy closed the Tonkin difficulty by coneluding peace with China upon his own initiative. In December 1885 Grévy was elected president for a further eriod of seven years, but, hampered by ministerial Viffienlties, resigned in December 1887. He died at Mont-sous-Vaudrey, 9th September 1891. Grewia, a genus of Tiliaceous trees yielding rood bast for ropemaking, &c. in the East Indies. Bonnie yield timber, and others their leaves as fodder. Grey, CHARLES, EARL, statesman, was born at Falloden, Northumberland, 15th March 1764, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. On attain- ing his majority he was returned to parliament as member for Northumberland in the Whig interest, and ultimately succeeded to the leader- ship of the party. He was one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and in 1792 helped to found ‘the Society of the Friends of the People, whose object was the reform of the representative system. Taking advantage of the alarm caused by the French Revolution, Pitt sup- pressed the society, and at a later period Grey expressed regret for his share in the movement. Grey introduced the futile motion for the impeach- ment of Pitt, and took a prominent part in the temporary ‘secession’ of the Whigs from a parlia- ment which was hostile to reform, and which he and his friends maintained did not represent the nation. He also strongly denounced the union between England and Ireland. On the advent of the Fox- Grenville administration in 1806, Grey, now Lord Howick, was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, and on the death of Fox he became Foreign Sec- retary and leader of the House of Commons. Grey was compelled by circumstances to continue the war policy of Pitt. To his honour he carried through parliament the act abolishing the African slave-trade introduced by Wilberforce in 1807. The king quarrelled with his ministers on the Catholic relief question, and as Grey declined to give a promise not to press forward a measure for absolving Roman Catholics in the army and navy from the oath, the government was broken up. in 1807 he succeeded his father as second Earl Grey. He ably led the Opposition for a period of 420 GREY He 1815; eighteen years after the death of Perceval. opposed the renewal of the war in denounced the coercive measures of the govern- ment against the people; condemned the bill of pains and penalties against Queen Caroline ; defended the right of public meeting; and sup- orted the enlightened commercial policy of Hus- kisson. He declined to lend any aid to Canning in 1827. -Two years later he had the gratification of seeing the Catholic Emancipation Act carried, On the fall of the Wellington administration in 1830, Grey accepted the commands of William IV. to form a government in which he became prime- minister and First Lord of the Treasury. It was understood that parliamentary reform was to be treated as a cabinet question, and the new premier announced in the House of Lords that the policy of his administration would be one of peace, re- trenchment, and reform. The first reform bill was roduced in March 1831, but its defeat led to a issolution and the return of a House of Commons still more thoroughly devoted to the cause of reform. A second bill was carried, which the Lords threw out in October, and riots ensued in various parts of the country. Early in the session of 1832 a third bill was carried in the Commons by an enormous majority, and it weathered the second reading in the Upper House; but when a motion by Lord Lyndhurst to postpone the disfranchising clauses until the enfranchising clauses had been discussed was adopted, ministers resigned. The Duke of Wellington was charged to form an ad- ministration, but upon his failure Grey returned to office with power to create a sufficient number of peers to carry the measure. Wellington now with- rew his opposition, and on the 4th of June the Reform Bill assed the House of Lords. Grey was the chief of a powerful party in the first reformed parliament, but he was not destined long to remain at the head of affairs. One other great measure, the act for the abolition of slavery in the colonies, he carried, as well as a number of minor reforms ; but dissensions sprang up in the cabinet, and in consequence of his Trish difficulties Grey resigned office in July 1834. He now ceased to take any active part in politics, and spent his closing years chiefly at Howick, where he died, 17th July 1845. Grey was a chivalrous, able, and high- minded man. While not in the first rank of parlia- mentary orators, his speeches on those subjects in which he was deeply interested frequently attained to real eloquence. Though he was the leader of the aristocratic Whigs, his greatest claim to re- membrance in history is the fact that he opened the portals of the Constitution to the people. See George Grey, Life and Opinions of the second Earl Grey (1861). His son HenRY GREY, third Earl, was born December 28, 1802. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1826, as Lord Howick, was returned to the House of Commons for Win- chelsea. He next sat for a brief period for Higham Ferrers, and after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 was elected for North orthumberland. He was appointed Under-secretary for the Colonies in his father’s ministry, but retired in 1833 because the cabinet would not support the immediate emanci- pation of the slaves. He subsequently held for a short time the post of Under-secretary in the Home Department, and in Melbourne’s adminis- tration of 1835 became Secretary for War. In 1841 he was rejected for Northumberland, but returned for Sunderland, and now bi dante Peel’s policy. He succeeded his father in the pan e in 1845, and in the following year entered Lord John Russell’s cabinet as Secretary for the Colonies. After the resignation of the government in 1852, he published his Defence of the Colonial Policy of Lord Russell’s Administration. He now took his seat on the cross-benches, and never afterwards held office. He opposed the Crimean war, and at a later period ocr eenasndl the eastern policy of Lord Beaconsfield. He also frequently adopted a hostile attitude towards Mr Gladstone, to whom he was especially opposed at the general election of 1880. For many years afterwards Lord Gre rarely spoke in the House of Lords, but from his retirement he wrote trenchant letters to the Times upon public affairs, and notably on colonial questions. In 1858 he issued his Essay on Parlia- mentary Government as to Reform; in 1867 he published his father’s Correspondence with William IV.; and on various occasions he printed speeches and letters of his own, including those to the Times on ‘ Free Trade with France,’ which appeared in 1881. He died 9th October 1894. Grey, Str GEORGE, Baronet, English states- man, was the son of the first baronet, and nephew of the great Reform leader, Earl Grey. Born at Gibraltar, May 11, 1799, he was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first-class in classics. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1826, but relinquished the law after succeed- ing to the baronetcy in 1828. In 1832 he was returned to the House of Commons for Devonport, which he continued to represent. for fifteen years. He was appointed Under-secretary for the Colonies in 1834, having already made his mark in patlia- ment, and Lord Melbourne reappointed him to the same office in 1835. For some years his chief speeches were delivered in connection with Cana- dian affairs and the constitutional difficulties in Jamaica. When Lord John Russell brought ina bill for the temporary suspension of the Lower Cana- dian constitution, Grey ably defended the measure against Mr Roebuck, who had been heard at the bar in opposition to the bill. In 1839 Grey became Judge-advocate, an office which he exchanged in 1841 for that of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lan- caster, but the same year he went out of office with his colleagues. When Lord John Russell became remier in 1846, Grey accepted the onerous Bee: of ome Secretary. During the time of the Chartist disturbances he discharged the difficult duties of his office with vigour and discrimination, this bein the culminating point of his career as a practi and administrative statesman. He carried in the teeth of much opposition the Crown and Govern- ment Security Bill, a measure providing for the more effectual repression of seditious and treason- able proceedings. The Alien Bill was also under his charge. Owing to Grey’s measures in view of the Chartist demonstration in London in 1848, when 150,000 special constables were sworn in, a threatened popular rising was averted. In conse- quence of the condition of Ireland, Grey carried a measure in 1849 for the further suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. Three years later the Russell ministry was wrecked on the Militia Bill. At the general election in August 1847 Grey was returned for North Northumberland, but, being defeated at the election in July 1852, he was elected for Morpeth in the following January. In June 1854 he accepted the seals of the Colonial — Office, and on the formation of Lord Palmerston’s first administration in 1855 took his old post of Home Secretary. He carried an important measure on the subject of secondary punishments, in which the ticket-of-leave system was remodelled. On the return of Lord Palmerston to office in 1859, after his defeat in the previous year on the Con- spiracy Bill, Grey was appointed Chancellor of the uchy of Lancaster; but in 1861 he once more returned to the Home Office. carried through several useful measures, includin the Prison Ministers Bill. After the death o He introduced and hs GREY GREYHOUND 421 Palmerston he continued in office under Earl Russell, carrying measures for stamping out the ? cattle plague, * amending the Parliamentary % Oaths het. and for suspending the Habeas Corpus | Act in Ireland at the time of the Fenian activity. On the defeat of the Russell-Gladstone ministry __ in 1866 upon the reform question, Grey’s official career closed ; but he continued to sit in parliament until 1874, when he finally retired from public life. He died at his seat of Falloden, near Alnwick, Sep- tember 9, 1882.—His grandson and successor, SIR EpWARD GREY (born 1862), studied at Oxford, became Radical M.P. for part of Northumberland in 1885, and in 1892-95 was Foreign Under-Secretary. Grey, Sin GrorGe, K.C.B., governor and com- mander-in-chief of New Zealand was born at Lis- bon, in Portugal in 1812. He was educated at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and on attain- = ing his captaincy undertook in 1837 the explora- if tion of the interior of Australia. In September | 1838 he organised another expedition to explore the Swan River district. He returned to England in 1840, and published his Journals of Two e- ditions in North-western and Western ‘Australia. His enterprise and ability obtained for him, un- asked, in 1841, from Lord J. Russell, then Colonial Secretary, the post of governor of South Australia. In 1846 he was made governor of New Zealand. Both here and in Australia his first task was to acquire the language of the natives, with whom he became more popular than any preceding governor. His government appeared to the authorities at home to be so wise and concilia- tory that in 1848 he was made K.C.B. (civil), and in 1854 was appointed governor and commander- in-chief of the tape of Good Hope. The task of allaying the asperities and irritation left by the Kaflir war demanded high powers of statesman- ship 5 Grey was, however, equal to the occasion. Industry revived, and brighter days began to dawn upon the colony. In 1858, however, the Colonial Office interfered with measures which he considered necessary, and he threw up his post and came to England. Public opinion at the Cape was so strongly manifested in his favour that he was requested by the government to resume his governorship. On the breaking out of the Indian mutiny Grey sent every soldier he could spare to the assistance of the Indian government, and received the acknowledgments of the British government anc parliament for his promptitude and energy. In 1861 he was again appointed governor of New Zealand, in the hope that he would bring the war then raging in the colony to a satisfactory conclusion. The natives received him with joy and veneration, and he succeeded in ‘bringing about pacific relations with the Maoris. He resigned his office and came to England in 1867, but afterwards returned to the colonies. Grey accepted the office of Superintendent of Auckland in 1875, with a seat in the Legislature, and he ameney but fruitlessly opposed the Aboli- tion of the Provinces Act. After its passing his office of superintendent ceased; but in 1877 he became premier of New Zealand, and carried various acts of great practical utility. Grey had almost unbounded influence with the Maori chiefs, which he used in cultivating friendly relations ‘between the natives and the white population. He resigned the premiership in 1884, having left an indelible mark upon the history of New Zealand. He published Journals of Discovery in Australia (1841), Polynesian Mythology (1855), and Proverbial sayings of the Ancestors of the New Zealand Race (1858). Died 19th September 1898. Grey, Lapy JANE, the ‘nine days’ queen,’ was horn at Bradgate, Leicestershire, in October 1537. She was the eldest danghter of Henry Grey, Mar- quis of Dorset, who in 1551 became Duke of Suffolk, and of Lady Frances Brandon. The latter was the daughter of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, by Mary, younger sister of Henry VIII., and widow of Louis XII. of France. Lady Jane was brought up rigorously by her parents, she | tty fault punished with ‘pinches, nips, and bobs;’ but Aylmer (q.v.), her tutor, afterwards Bishop of London, endeared himself to her by his gentleness, and under him she made extraordinary progress, especially in languages—Latin, Greek, French, Italian, and Hebrew. Roger Ascham tells how in December 1550 he found her reading Plato’s Phedo in the original, while the rest of the family were hunting. She also sang and played well, and was versed in other feminine accomplishments. In 1553, after Somerset’s fall, the Duke of North- umberland, foreseeing the speedy death of the boy- king Edward VI., determined to change the suc- cession and secure it to his own family. Lad Jane, not sixteen years old, was therefore married, strongly against her wish, to Lord Guildford Dudley, Northumberland’s fourth son, on 2lst May 1553; and on 9th July, three days after Edward’s death, the council informed her that his ‘plan’ had named her as his successor. On the 19th, the brief usurpation over, she found herself a prisoner in the Tower; and four months later, pleading guilty of high-treason, she was sentenced to death. She spurned the idea of forsaking Pro- testantism for love of life, and bitterly condemned Northumberland’s recantation : ‘Woe worth him ! he hath brought me and our stock in most miser- able calamity by his exceeding ambition.’ Queen Mary might have been merciful; but Suffolk’s participation in Wyatt’s rebellion sealed the doom of his daughter, who on 12th February 1554 was beheaded on Tower Hill. She was ‘nothing at all abashed, neither with fear of her own death, which then approached, neither with the sight of the déad carcass of her husband, when it was brought into the chapel—a sight to her no less than death.’ From the scaffold she made a speech : ‘The fact, indeed, against the queen’s highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereto by me; but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency. . . . [die a true Christian woman.’ With Lord Guildford she is buried in the Tower church of St Peter ad Vincula. - See the articles EDWARD VI. and MARY; also The Chronicle of Queen Jane, edited by J. G. Nichols for the Camden Society (1850). Greybeards are big-bellied, narrow-necked stoneware ju or bottles, made in Flanders about the beginning of the 17th century, = and so. called from generally having a_ gro- tesque head, with a large, square-cut beard, modelled on the short neck. The face was a Pro- testant burlesque of Cardinal Bellarmine’s. Grey Friars. See Friar, FRANCISCAN. Greyhound, a breed of great antiquity, the only breed of dog which has retained its origin 422 GREYHOUND GREYWETHERS shape; many Egyptian monuments are decorated witli figures of dogs closely resembling the smooth English greyhound. The greyhound has been known in England since the time of King Canute, who confined its use to the nobility by statute. Until comparatively modern times only land- owners were permitted to use the greyhound. When the game-laws were relaxed, coursing be- came open to all, until now upwards of five thou- sand greyhounds are kept for public Coursing (q.v.). Clubs were formed for the encouragement of the sport, and a scale of points by which competing greyhounds could be tested was arranged. hen it is desired to test two rival greyhounds, they are placed in the hands of the ‘slipper,’ towards whom the hares are driven. After getting the dogs in a straight line behind the hare, he liberates them by means of a mechanical contrivance, allowing the hare from 50 to 80 yards start. The ‘judge,’ who follows on horseback, then notes the points scored by either greyhound, giving his decision, from which there is no appeal, at the end of each course. The scale of points adopted is as follows : ‘the run-up,’ first reaching the hare, one to three points, according to lead gained; ‘ the turn,’ causing the hare to turn at an acute angle, two points; ‘ the wrench,’ turning at an obtuse angle, one point; ‘ the go-by,’ starting behind a competitor and passing him, two points; ‘the trip,’ knocking the hare over but not killing, one point; ‘the kill,’ not more than two points, sometimes none, according to merit. Many greyhounds, after they have hes repeatedly coursed, ‘run cunning’ or ‘lurch’—i.e. A Ae their opponent to do all the work, only waiting for an opportunity to kill; this vice is hereditary, and must be guarded against in breed- ing. The greyhound is a large and graceful dog, conveying an impression of great speed. His | he f it Greyhound. head should be long and narrow, with powerful ‘jaws; shoulders, sloping back, allowing free play for the fore-legs ; fore-legs, strong and muscular ; chest, deep and narrow ; acre very long from hip to hock, and ‘well-bent.’ The points of the greyhound are neatly summed up in the 15th- century rhyme : The head of a snake, The neck of a drake, A back like a beam, A side like a bream, The foot of a cati, And the tail of a rat, which is still a fairly accurate description. .The eyhound is rarely kept as a companion, its intelligence not being of a high order. The Russian and Circassian greyhounds are identical in shape with the English greyhound, but much rougher in coat, and slower. The Italian and Turkish grey- the west coast of South hounds are shaped very much the same way, but on a very reduced scale; they are used entirely as pete, being too delicate for any active work. See . Dalziel, The Greyhound: its History, Points, and Breeding (1886). Greymouth, a rising port of New Zealand, on sland, at the mouth of the Grey River, 190 miles SSW.. of Nelson. Ex- tensive harbour-works, including two breakwaters and the addition of 600 feet of wharf, have been erected since 1885, and railways to Nelson and Christchurch were commenced in 1887. The entire district is auriferous, and 55,036 ounces of gold (value £220,503) were exported during 1887-88. Greymouth, however, is famous chiefly for its coal, of which over 130,000 tons, of the best quality in Australasia, were raised in 1887 in the neighbourhood. Pop. (1891) 3787. Greystone, a rock-term (now disused) for certain light gray lavas intermediate in character between trachytic and basaltic lavas. The grey- stones are probably all varieties of Trachyte (q.v.), but perhaps to some extent of liparite and even of basalt. Greytown (San Juan del Norte), the only Nicaraguan port on the Caribbean Sea, is on the northern delta of the San Juan River, which until 1889 was nearly choked with sand. In that year labourers were despatched from the United States to commence work on the interoceanic canal, of which Greytown is the proposed terminus on the Atlantic side, and to construct a breakwater here. Greytown was neutralised under the Clayton- Bulwer treaty, and has been a free port of Nicar- agua since 1860. Pop. 1500. Greywacke (Ger. Grauwacke), a partially translated German word, used as the name of an indurated sedimentary rock, which oceurs exten- sively among the Paleozoic systems, where it is associated with similarly indurated shales and con- glomerates. It is an aggregate of rounded sub- angular and angular grains and splinters of quartz, felspar, and slate, sometimes with mica and grains of other minerals and rocks, embedded in a hard paste or matrix, which may consist of siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, or felspathic matter. The rock is generally harder than most sandstones, and — is usually gray or dark blue in colour, but green, red, brown, yellow, and even black varieties are met with. It varies in texture from fine-grained and compact up to conglomeratie and brecciiform, and occurs in thick massive beds like liver-rock (see SANDSTONE), and in thinner beds and layers like ordinary sandstones and flagstones. It represents the muddy sediments of the Palaeozoic seas, and often retains ripple-marks, sun-cracks, worm burrows and castings, and other superficial markings. Greywethers, the name given to large blocks of hard sandstone, which are scattered sporadi- cally over the southern and south-eastern parts of England.. The name has probably been suggested by their resemblance in the landscape to sheep lying about. Other names by which they are known are Sarsden Stones, Druid Stones, They are as a rule roughly oblong, and are of all sizes up to 10 or 15 feet in length, and 2 or 4 feet in thickness; and are believed to be the relics of beds of Eocene age which formerly extended over all the region where they occur. These beds probably consisted chiefly of loose sand, &e., the greywethers representing concretionary portions hardened by siliceous cement, which have thus withstood the denudation that has swept away the incoherent deposits of which they once formed a art. The outer ring of monoliths at Stonehenge is formed of greywethers. —_ GRIEG GRIGORIOPOL 423 EDVARD, a Norwegian com r, born r 15th June oe He wae of Scotch ancestors, Greigs, having emigrated descent « Fraserburgh during the Jacobite troubles. oo fhe received instruction in music from his mother, the age of fifteen, on the recommendation of Bull, he was sent to the Conservatorium at . Thence, in 1863, after a severe illness, he went to Copenhagen, and afterwards to Christi- ania, where he was settled as a teacher for about years, and enjoyed the intimate friendship mand Ibsen. He visited Liszt in Rome . For a while a wanderer, he occupied for some years a romantic hut on the Hardan hae and subsequently settled near Bergen. The Nor- —— liament conferred a pension on him to enable him to devote himself to composition. His works are mainly for the pianoforte, and in small but embrace a sonata and a concerto for pianoforte, three violin and pianoforte sonatas, numerous songs, and a few orchestral and small choral pieces. Beyond that of any other com- r, his music is characterised by the strongest national peculiarities, extreme gloom and brilliance alternating like the Norwegian summer and winter; its merriment is often wildly elfish in its freaks, and its pathos sometimes has a ghostly weirdness. He is as far removed from the commonplace as Chopin. He is of course immensely popular with his countrymen, and the great and growing favour with which he is regarded in England was strongly expressed on his visits in 1888, 1889, and 1897. Grierson, Sir Rosert, of Lag, persecutor of the Covenanters, was born about 1655, and succeeded his cousin in the family estates in 1669. He acted for some years as steward of Kirkeud- bright, and carried out the infamous work of harrying the ntry with such zest and vigour as to leave his name after two hundred years a byword in Galloway for ferocious cruelty. And his brutal speech to Kenmure about a martyr’s body which he had denied the decency of burial : *Take him, if you will, and salt him in your beef-barrel,’ shows the popular tradition to be in harmony with fact. He.was brother-in-law to. the Duke of Queensberry, and through his influence was made a Nova Scotia baronet in 1685, and awarded a pension of £200. He was one of the judges of the Wigtown martyrs, and his name survives in infamy upon their tombstone. After the Revolution he was heavily fined and imprisoned for his obstinate epposition, and later was charged with coining false money when experiments in stamping linen alone were in question! He died 3st mber 1733. A rough but really vigorous “een of verse, Lag’s Elegy, was current in Dum- riesshire soon after his time, and was admired in the next century by Carlyle. The popular imagina- tion wove many a gloomy and aw at fancy around Lag’s memory, and all the most effective of these Scott worked with marvellous art into ‘ Wandering Willie’s Tale’—a magnificent phantasy of genius. Old Redgauntlet, with the horseshoe frown upon his brow, and his pre-eminence among the damned in hell, is but a creative realisation of the Laird of Lag traditional in Galloway. See Colonel ee book, The Laird of Lag: a Life Sketch Griesbach, JoHANN JAKoB, author of the first critical edition of the New Testament, was horn at Butzbach, in Hesse-Darmstadt, January 4, 1745. He studied theology at Tiibingen ; at Halle, where Semler influenced his whole after-life ; and at om ae where he became acquainted with Ernesti. He commenced lecturing as privat-docent in Halle, and in 1773 was made extra-ordinary professor; but in 1776 he was called as ordinary professor to Jena, where he continued to teach with reat success till his death on 24th March 1812. ‘he great work with which his name is associated is his critical revision of the New Testament text. Amongst his notable works are the Synopsis Evangeliorum (2 vols, 1774-75; 3d ed. 1809); his edition of the whole New Testament (1775; new ed. 1796-1806) ; Populdre Dogmatik (1779; 4th ed. 1789); Commentarius Criticus in Textum N. Test. (1798-1811); and the Opuscula Academica (1825). The grand feature of Griesbach’s critical system is his threefold division or classification of the New Testament MSS.: (1) The Alexandrine recension ; (2) the Latin or Western recension; (3) the Byzantine or Eastern recension. See BIBLE; and the Lives by Kéthe (1812), Augusti (1812), and Eichstiidt (1815). Griffin (Lat. gryphus ; Gr. gryps), a chimerical creature, first mentioned by Aristeas about 500 B.c. The ss is variously described and represented, but the shape in which it most frequently appears is that of a cross between a lion and an eagle, having the body and legs of the former, with the beak and wings of the latter, and the addition of pointed ears. Sometimes the four legs are all like those of an eagle, and the head is that of a cock. The figure seems to have originated in the East, as it is found in ancient Persian sculptures. Amongst the Greeks it appears on antique coins, and as an ornament in classical architecture. Griffins abound in the legendary tales of the Teutonic nations, and the name (Ger. grei/, Dan. grif, &e.) has passed into most Teutonic dialects. In the bestiaries of the middle ages the appearance and habits of the griffin were discussed with much particularity ; it was the emblem of vigilance, and was under- stood to guard hidden treasures in Bactria; and the griffin (or gry- phon) is still familiarly known to eraldry. As such it appears in the arms of the city of London, griffins being the supporters ; and on the removal of Temple Bar a sculptured griffin was erected on the site (November 1880). For the Griffin Vulture, see VULTURE.—Griflin is a name ees given in India to a newcomer from Eng- and, a greenhorn. Griffin, GERALD, novelist, was born at Limerick, 12th December 1803, and early began to write for the papers and magazines. He came to London in 1823, resolved to ‘revolutionise the dramatic taste.’ Of course he failed to get his tragedies acted, but he was more successful with novels— Holland Tide (1827), Tales of the Munster Festivals (1827), and The Collegians (1828), on which the drama of the Colleen Bawn is founded. These were followed by some dozen more novels and many minor tales. Griffin joined the Society of Christian Brothers, and died in the North Monas- tery, Cork, 12th June 1840. Griffith’s Valuation, the main authority for the adjustment of rents under the Irish Land Act, was calculated by Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard Griffith, crpaiaied commissioner to carry out the scheme resolved on by the government in 1825. The results were first published in 1850, and have been much discussed in recent years; but the valuation may be regarded as a most minute and exact basis for equitable taxation and the fixing of fair rents. Grig, or Giut (Anguilla latirostris), a widely distributed species of eel, found on British and European, Chinese, West Indian, and other coasts, See EEL. Grigoriopol, a town of Kherson, South Russie, on the left bank of the Dniester, 82 miles NW. o Griffin (Heraldry ). 424 GRILLE GRIMM Odessa. Its 7918 inhabitants cultivate tobacco, wine, and fruit, and manufacture leather. Grille, a lattice, or grating, or screen, or open work of metal, sometimes also of wood, generally used to enclose or protect a window, or some shrine, or tomb, or sacred spot. A grille should be all hammered and punched, without filing. The small screen of crossed iron bars inserted in the door of a monastery or prison, for holding con- versation and reconnoitring through, is also called a grille. Grillparzer, FRANz, an Austrian dramatic poet, for some time popularly regarded as the greatest poet of his nation, was born at Vienna, 15th January 1791, and laboured in the imperial civil service from 1813 to 1856. He died 2lst January 1872at Vienna. Grillparzer first attracted notice in 1816 by a ‘fate’ tragedy, Die Ahnfrau. His next tragedies, Sappho (1819) and Das goldene Viies (1821), the latter a trilogy, are beautiful pieces of work, modern in sentiment, classic in style. And the same features, with that of lyric force added, characterise the dramas Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (1840) and Der Trawm ein Leben (1840). Besides these he wrote the historical plays Konig Ottokar’s Gliick und Ende (1825) and in treuer Diener seines Herrn (1830), with others. In lyric poetry he likewise produced a good deal of meritorious work; and he wrote one good prose novel, Der Spielmann. A collected edition of his works, including an autobiography, was published in 10 vols. at Stuttgart in 1872, and another of 16 vols. in 1889. See Lives by Faulhammer (1883) and Laube (1884), and works by Volkelt (1889) and A. Farinelli (1895). Grilse. See SALMON. Grimaldi, See Monaco. Grimaldi, JoserH, the typical representative of ‘the genuine droll, the grimacing, filching, irresistible clown’ of the English pantomime, was born in London on 18th December 1779, the year in which Garrick died. He first appeared on the boards of Drury Lane when one month short of two years old, and in his third year he had his first engagement at Sadler’s Wells Theatre, where he regularly performed (except for one season) down to the date of his retirement from the stage, pre- maturely worn out by sheer hard work, in 1828. He used regularly for some months every year to perform nightly at two theatres, and once he achieved the feat of acting at three different theatres on the same night. He died in London, 3lst May 1837. See Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi, edited by Charles Dickens (1838). Grime’s Dyke. Grimm, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, BARON, aclever German critic, who knew every one worth know- ing at Paris in the later half of the 18th century. He was born at Ratisbon, 25th December 1723, and after completing his studies at Leipzig, and makin an egregious failure with a tragedy, accom anied the young Count de Schénberg to Paris, and soon after became reader to the Crown-prince of Saxe- Gotha. He was still in very straitened cireum- stances when he became acquainted with Rousseau in 1749, and was by him introduced to Diderot, Baron Holbach, and Madame d’Epinay. The in- timacy of his relations with this dy cost him later the friendship of the jealous Rousseau. Grimm quickly became a general favourite, and his con- nection with the Encyclopédistes, added to his own multifarious acquirements and versatility of mind, opened up to him a brilliant career. He became secretary to Count Friesen, next to the Duke of Orleans, and now began to write for several German princes those famous literary bulletins which cover about forty years, and con- See ANTONINUS (WALL OF). tain the most trenchant criticism of all the most important of current French books. In 1776 he was raised by the Duke of Gotha to the rank of baron, and appointed minister-plenipotentiary at the French court. On the breaking out of the Revolution, he withdrew to Gotha, and afterwards to the court of Catharine II. at St Petersburg whence he was sent in 1795 as minister of Russia to Hamburg. He died at Gotha, 19th December 1807. His Correspondance Littéraire, Philosophique et Critique, extending from 1753 to 1790, was published in three divisions (16 vols. 1812-13); a supplementary volume in 1814. Later editions are those by Taschereau (15 vols. 1829-31), and Tourneux (16 vols. 1878-82). The Correspondance inédite de Grimm et Diderot was published in 1829. See Sainte-Beuve, Etudes sur Grimm (1854); and Edmond Scherer’s Melchior Grimm ( Paris, 1887). Grimm, JAKkos Lupwic KARL, the founder of scientific German philology, and one of the noblest of ancient or modern scholars, was-born January 4, 1785, at Hanau; in Hesse-Cassel. He studied law at Marburg, and learnt scientific method from Savigny, at whose invitation he spent the greater part of the year 1805 in study at Paris. On his return he was appointed to a clerkship in the war- office, and in 1808, private librarian to Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, who also made him auditor to the council of state. His brother Wilhelm had also by this time settled at Cassel. The first fruit of his studies was the treatise Ueber den Altdeutschen Meistergesang (1811), which was followed in 1812 by the first volume of the famous Kinder- und Hausmdrchen, collected by the two brothers—a work which has carried their name over the civilised world in the happiest and most enduring kind of immortality, and has formed a foundation for the new science of comparative Folklore (q.v.). Nor has a contribution to stori- ology since been made equal in importance to the earliest. The second volume followed in 1814; the third, containing the notes, in 1822. In 1813 Grimm was secretary to the ambassador of the Elector vf Hesse, whom he attended at Paris, and at the Congress of Vienna. In 1815 he was sent to Paris to claim the books carried off by the French. His brother Wilhelm had already received a post in the Cassel library, and in 1816 Jakob became second librarian under Vélkel, on whose death in 1828, the two brothers being disappointed of the first and second places in the library, removed to Gottingen, where Jakob became professor and librarian, and Wilhelm under-librarian. Here for seven years he studied the language, ancient laws, history, and literature of Germany, but never made an effective lecturer. He was one of the famous seven professors who protested in 1837 against the abolition of the constitution by the king of Han- over, for which act he was dismissed, together with his brother, and obliged to retire to Cassel. In 1840 they were both invited to Berlin, where they received professorships, and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Here Jakob con- tinued his studies with the most single-minded devotion, producing a series of works still unsur- passed for their stupendous erudition. Working up to the last with a devotion undivided by wife or children, he died 20th September 1863. His Deutsche Grammatik (1819; 2d ed. entirely recast, Gétt. 1822-40) is perhaps the greatest philo- logical work of the age, and may be said to have laid the foundation of the historical investigation of language. It traces the German language his- torically through all its dialects. His Deutsche Rechts-Alterthiimer . (1828; 2d ed. 1854) and Deutsche Mythologie (1835; 3d ed. 1854; 4th ed. by Meyer, 1875-78; Eng. trans. by J. 8. Stally- brass, 4 vols. 1879-88) are works of exhaustive : es a - + » a ; t ‘ central GRIMM GRIMMELSHAUSEN 425 erudition upon the society of the middle ages in Europe, and the religious traditions and superstitions of the Teutonic races from the earliest Only less important is his Geschichte der prache (1848; 3d ed. 1868), and his Reinhart Fuchs (1834). In company with his brother Wilhelm he published many editions of old German classics, Deutsche Sagen (1816-18 ; 2d ed. 1865-66) ; and projected and commenced the great and still unfinished Deutsches Wérterbuch (vol. i. ‘ ; three-fourths finished by 1897, with the col- boration of Heyne, Hildebrand, Lexer, and Weigand). The first volume of Grimm’s Kleinere (8 vols. 1867-86) contains an autobio- y which reveals a character entirely free from Salonsy or envy, full of warm human sympathy, and peabening in an almost unexampled degree a noble simplicity of life with lofty elevation of purpose. Many collections of his letters have been nted. See the studies by Scherer (2d ed. 1884), rndt (1884), and those devoted to the two brothers by A. Duncker (1884) and Schénbach (1885). Grimm’s LAW is the name given to the rule which regulates the Lautverschiebung, or permuta- tion of certain primitive consonants, which takes ace in the Teutonic languages. The law, as ly formulated by Jakob Grimm, is that if the same roots or words exist in Sanskrit, Greek, and generally in Latin, Celtic, Lettic, and Sla- vonic, and also in Gothic, English, Dutch, and other Low German dialects on the one hand, and in Old High German on the other, the following correspondences are to be expected: (1) Gothic has a soft mute, and High German a hard mute, in “pre of the corresponding aspirate in Sanskrit and Greek ; (2) Gothic has a hard mute, and High German an era in place of the corresponding soft mute in Sanskrit and Greek; (3) Gothic has an aspirate, and High German a soft mute, in place of the corresponding hard mute in Sanskrit and Greek. Thus, a primitive th becomes d in Low German, and ¢ in High German, as in the words thugatér, daughter, tochter. A primitive d becomes t in Low , and z in High German, as in duo, two, zwei; or dens, tooth, zahn; or decem, ten, zehn. A primitive ¢ becomes th in Low Ger- man, and d in High German, as in f¢res, three, drei ; or tu, thou, du; or tenuis, thin, diinn. Similar changes affect the labials and gutturals, as in pecus, fee, vieh ; pater, father, vater ; fagus, beech, puocha; and in oculus, eghe (‘eye’), auge; quis, who, wer; or khortos, en, korto. The normal changes are set forth in the following table : Labials, Dentals. Gatturals. Greek, &c........... b ph t dth k 6 kh Gothic, &c.......... Pp th t d (h) Old High German... b(v)f p ad zt g(h)ch K The credit of the discovery of the Lautverschie- bung is not wholly due to Jakob Grimm. Ihre and Rask had discovered, as early as 1818, the law of the transmutation of consonants in Greek and Gothic, while Grimm, in the second edition of his Deutsche Grammatik, which appeared in 1822, added the corresponding changes in Old High German, and formulated the Law as it now stands. Grimm’s Law may be interfered with by the action of other laws, especially by the position of the accent, as formulated in Verner’s Law (q.v.). Thus /rdter is accented on the first syllable and ron the second, consequently, though we have her and father in English, we find and vater in High German. The aecent in patér has interfered with the regular action of the Lautver- schiebung, and prevented the normal change of t to d from taking place. Thus Grimm’s Law may be defined as the state- ment of certain phonetic facts which happen in- variably unless they are interfered with oy other facts. The great use of Grimm's Law, in addition to the identification of words in different languages, is in the detection of loan words. Any etymology which violates Grimm’s Law, as qualitied by other phonetic laws, must be rejected unless it can be explained as a loan word. he causes which brought about the changes formulated in Grimm’s Law are obscure. They are probably due to the settlement of Low German conquerors in central and southern Germany. See Douse’s Grimm’s Law: a Study of Lautverschie- bung (1876); Max Miiller’s Lectures on the Study of Language, 2a series, lecture v. (1864); Morris’ Histori- cal Outlines of English Accidence, chap. ii. (1872). Grimm, WILHELM KARL, brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Hanau, February 24, 1786. Great part of his life has already been told in that of his trotine. He was his companion in study at the Lyceum of Cassel, the university of Maiburg, and again at Géttingen, where in 1830 he was appointed under-librarian and supernumerary pro- fessor of Philosophy. He joined his brother in the protest against the king of Hanover, shared his exile, and also his call to Berlin. There they laboured together, and were commonly known as the Brothers Grimm. Under that name also they have a certain immortality in the affections of the children of the civilised world. Wilhelm died 16th December 1859. His earliest independent work was a German translation of the Danish Kampe- Viser (1811-13). He edited many old German texts, and collaborated with his brother Jakob in several of his works. His own most important book is Die deutsche Heldensage (1829; 2d ed, 1867). His Kleinere Schriften, ed. by Hinrichs, fill 4 vols. (1881-86), and convain an autobiography. Grimma, 2 town of Saxony, on the Mulde, 19 miles SE. of Leipzig by rail. It has a town-hall (1442), a former royal castle (now a court-house), a celebrated school (1550, the ‘Moldanum Illustre’), and 8957 inhabitants, who support themselves by manufactures and agriculture. See BorA (K. von). Grimmelshausen, JOHANN JAcos CHRISTOF VON, a German novelist of the 17th century. There is some uncertainty as to the date and place of his birth, but in all probability he was born at Gelnhausen in Hesse-Cassel about the year 1625. In early boyhood he was carried off by a troop of soldiers, and became a soldier himself, serving on the imperial side in the Thirty Years’ War up to its close. For several years after the end of the war he seems to have led a wandering life, but ultimately settled down at Renchen, near Kehl, where he held the post of bailiff for the Bishop of Strasburg, and passed the remainder of his days in peace and prosperity, dying Amtmann of the town in 1676. the leisure of his later life he produced a series of remarkable novels, all the more remark- able for appearing in the sterile period that suc- ceeded the Thirty Years’ War. His first attempt was an imitation of Cyrano de Bergerac, or perhaps of Godwin’s Voyage of Domingo Gonsales to the Moon, but his best works are on the model of the Spanish picaro, or rogue and vagabond romances, and deal with the abundant materials furnished by his own life. The form was all that he borrowed ; the rich humour, dramatic power, and local colour of his tales are all his own. The sufferings of the German peasantry at the hands of the lawless troopers who overran the country have never been more powerfully pictured than in the opening chapters of Simplicissimus (first printed in 1669), which is evidently autobiographical to a great extent. It was followed in 1670 by 7rutz Simplex, the story of an adventuress of the same sort as the Picara Justina of Andres Perez, and Springinsfeld, the history of a soldier of fortune. which was 426 GRIMOIRE GRINSTEAD succeeded in 1672 by the Wonderful Bird’s-nest, a fanciful production somewhat like Guevara’s Dia- bolo Cojuelo. Besides these Grimmelshausen wrote the Erste Bdrenheuter, the Galgenmdnnlein, Sim- plicissimus’s Everlasting Calendar, and three or four other tales or tracts. His writings, especially Simplicissimus, seem to have been very popular in his own time, but to have fallen into neglect in the last century. Their merits, however, have been recognised of late years, and the best of them have been reprinted with introductions and notes—e.g.» in the edition of Von Keller (4 vols. Stutt. 1854-62), that of Heinrich Kurz (4 vols. Leip. 1863), and of Julius Tittman (4 vols. Leip. 1874-77). Grimoire (whence the English gramarye, ‘magic’), the French term for the book of formulas which sorcerers used for invoking demons; hence also gibberish. The older forms of the word (gramaire, gramare) approximate to the Low Latin gramma, ‘a letter;’ the origin of the word being obvious. Grimsby, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a parliamentary, municipal, and county borough and seaport of Lincolnshire, is situated on the right bank of the Humber, 20 miles ESE. of Hull and 41 NE. of Lin- coln. It consists of two portions: the older, com- prising a number of streets irregularly laid out, is at the head of the harbour; and the newer part, called the ‘Marsh,’ extending along the east side of the harbour, is regular and spacious. The parish church, a good cruciform edifice in the Early English style, was restored in 1859. A statue of the Prince Consort was unveiled in 1879, and a public park of 27 acres opened in 1885. In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was a port of considerable importance, which, however, it gradually lost as its harbour became silted up. The town is famous as the largest fishing port in the kingdom, its trawlers and smacks being mostly engaged in the cod, herring, and whelk fisheries. Its importance as a place for the landing of fish dates from 1849-58, when docks began to be constructed under the auspices of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln- shire Railway, which carries the fish to the principal industrial centres of the northern Midlands. The docks cover altogether an area of about 350 acres. The industries of the place include shipbuilding, tanning, brewing, cordage-making, and flax-dress- ing. About 3500 vessels, with an average burden of 675,000 tons, enter every year, and the number and burden of those clearing annually are about the same. The imports of the port reach the annual value of 44 millions sterling, and the exports 7? millions. Grimsby since 1832 has returned only one member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 12,263; (1871) 28,503 ; (1891) 58,603, of whom 51,876 were within the municipal boundary. See works by Oliver (1825) and Davenport (1866). Grindal, EpmuND, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born near St Bees in 1519, and educated at Cambridge, where he was in turn scholar, fellow, and master of Pembroke Hall. Already a_pre- bendary of Westminster under Edward VI., he lived abroad during Mary’s reign, and there imbibed the spirit of Geneva, returning to Eng- land on the accession of Elizabeth. On Bonner’s deprivation in 1559 he was made Bishop of Lon- don, in 1570 Archbishop of York, and in 1575 he succeeded Parker in the see of Canterbury. His Puritanistic sympathies soon estranged him from the court, and his resolute refusal to put down against his own conscience ‘ prophesyings’ or private meetings of the clergy for mutual help in the interpretation of Scripture, led to his being sequestered from his functions by the im- perious queen in 1577. Not for five years was he restored, and a year later he died at Croydon, July 6, 1583. ‘Being really blind,’ says Fuller, ‘ more with grief than age, he was willing to put off his clothes before he went to bed, and in his lifetime to resign his place to Doctor Whitgift, who refused such acceptance thereof. And the queen, com- miserating his condition, was graciously pleased to say that, as she had made him, so he should die an archbishop.’ His few writings, with a Life by the Rev. William Nicholson, were printed by the Parker Society in 1853. ° Grindelwald, one of the most beautiful valleys (3468 feet) of the Bernese Oberland in Switzerland, about 124 miles long and 4 broad, forms the approach to the two Grindelwald glaciers. The chief hotel and part of the village (pop. 3089) were destroyed by fire on 18th August 1892. Grinding. See CUTLERY. Gringore, or GRINGOIRE, PIERRE, a favourite French poet under Louis XII. and Francis L, was born, perhaps at Caen, between 1475 and 1480, and early cure known as a writer of moral and allegorical poems, next of satirical farces abounding in allusions to the social and political cireumstances of the time. For the first twenty years of the 16th century he played the most important réles in the theatrical society of ‘Enfants sans Souci,’ first as Mére-Sotte, next as Prince des Sots; and as such was active in the production and_representa- tion of pantomimic satirical farces. He is an im- portant figure in literary history as one of the creators of the French political comedy. He abused the enemies of Louis XII., and thus found cover for his freedoms against the vices of the nobility, the clergy, and even the sacred person of the pope himself. In later life he entered the service of the Duke of Lorraine as a herald, and confined his muse to religious poetry alone. He died in 1544, The most important among his pieces are Le Jeu du Prince des Sots (1511), directed especially against Pope Julius Il. ; Les folles Enterprises, a series of half allegorical monologues aimed at the chief existing grievances in church and state; Les Hn- trepris de Venise, and La Chasse du Cerf des Cerfs, both political, the title even of the latter being but a dimly-veiled allusion to Pope Julius (Servus servorum Dei); and the famous Mystére de Mon- seigneur Saint Loys, written about 1524. Grin- gore’s works have been edited by Héricault, Mon- taiglon, and Rothschild (4 vols. 1858-77). He is the chief figure in a comedy of Banville’s, but his de- scription in Hugo’s Notre Dame must not be taken as historical. See Picot, Pierre Gringoire (Paris, 1878), and another work by Badel (Nancy, 1893). Grinnell Land, a barren, mountainous Polar tract on the west side of Kennedy Channel (the northern continuation of Smith’s Sound), which separates it from Greenland. It was discovered by Dr Hayes of Kane’s expedition in 1854, and named after Henry Grinnell (1800-74), of New York, who had fitted out the expedition. Greely in 1882 thoreegess) explored it. North and south it is covered with ice-caps; between them lie valleys that get quit of their snow in summer, and support herds of musk oxen and the usual Arctic fauna. In the interior he discovered Lake Hazen, 60 miles long, and two ranges of mountains, one containing a peak (Mount Arthur) 5000 feet high.—Another Grinnell Land, discovered by De Haven in 1850, lies further to the south-west, off the north-west extremity of North Devon Island. Grinstead, East, an old-fashioned town of Sussex, 36 miles 8. by E. of London by rail, which till 1832 returned two members to parliament. Here is Sackville College, of which Dr Neale was warden, and the convent of the sisterhood of St Margaret, with Home and Orphanage. Pop. 5390. —WEST GRINSTEAD is 18 miles to the south-west, a a ‘often attended by more or Griqualand West and East are are a mixed race sprung ae See ae GRIPING GRISI 427 . Gri i or GRIPES, a popular name for all ; fu ailections of the Mreale whether attended 3 : with Constipation (q.v.) or Diarrhoea (q.v.). When s ony of this kind are spasmodic, they are termed q.¥.). The action of putengre medicine is ess of griping pain, which may be averted in certain cases by the -eareful choice of the medicine, or by combination of it with Carminatives (q.v.), or with a little opium. two British districts of South Africa, one a part of Colony (q.v.), the other a dependency of it, named from the Griquas or Bastaards, who rom Dutch settlers and native women.—Griqualand West lies to the north- east of Cape Colony, is bounded on the 8. by the Orange River, on the N. by Bechuana territory, on the E. by Orange Free State, on the W. by the Kalahari country. Portions of the country are suitable for sheep-farming and agriculture, but the chief source of wealth is the diamond-fields. The first diamond was discovered in 1867, and from that time a steady stream of immigration set in ; settle- ments were formed, all nationalities being repre- sented, and digging was vigorously A ese Diamonds to the value of above £12,000,000 were found there between 1871 and 1880, and of about £15,000,000 between 1883 and 1887. The territory of the diamond-fields had been secured to Water- boer, a native chief, but disputes arising as to his boundaries, Griqualand West was annexed in 1871, and incorporated with Cape Colony in 1880. Kim- berley, which has had railway connection with the Cape since 1885, is the chief centre of the diamond industry, and is the seat of government. The chief towns are De Beers, Du Toit’s Pan, Bultfontein, Barkly, and Griqua Town. The area of Griqua- land West is 15,197 sq. m., and the pop. (1891) 83,375, of whom 29,670 were whites.—Grigua- land East is that part of No-Man’s-Land which lies between the Kaftir border and southern Natal. It is allotted to the Griqua chief, Adam Kok, who had removed thither with 15,000 Griquas, and to the Basutos, who had previously migrated to that country. This territory was annexed to the Cape in 1875, and is now under colonial rule, having one chief-magistrate and nine subordinates. Chief village, Kokstadt. The area is given at 7594 .™.; pop. (1891) 152,618; of whites, 4150. See TRANSKEI! TERRITORY. Griselda, or Grisepts, the heroine of one of the most famous medieval tales, which the genius of Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Chaucer has made a permanent literary possession of the world. She was the daughter of a poor Piedmontese peasant, and for her uty was taken to wife by the Marquis Walter of Saluzzo. To prove her truth and humility, he put her to several eruel tests—tore both her children in succession from her, and at last com- manded her to return to her humble hut, as he was about to take to himself another wife. To all her husband’s harsh commands she submitted with such unquestioning submissiveness and humility as to make herself for all time ‘the flour of wyfly pacience.’ The marquis, overjoyed to see her com- plete devotedness and self-renunciation, took her again to his arms, B sir her back the children she had seen carried off to death, and henceforth they lived bes a in uninterrupted happiness. The first literary version of the story occurs as the last tale of io’s Decameron—the tenth tale of the tenth day, written doubtless about 1348. Petrarch wrote a Latin version of it, De Obedientia et Fide uxoria mythologia, written apparently about 1373. It is accompanied by a letter to Boccaccio, in which Petrarch says that the story had always pleased him when he heard it many years before. The stuff of the story is undoubtedly much older than Boccaccio, and certainly we soon find it widely diffused and highly popular. Reinhold Kéhler enumerates as many as sixteen Volksbuch versions in German from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 17th century, all based upon Heinrich Stein- héwel’s translation of Petrarch (1471). As a chap- book the story was almost as common in France in the version Le Miroir de Dames, ou la Patience de Griseldis, &c., to be found in Ch. Nisard’s Histoire de Livres Populaires (2d ed. 1864). In England editions of such were entered on the Stationers’ Registers in the years 1565 and 1568, and another of 1619 is still extant, under the title, The ancient, true, and admirable History of Patient Grisel, &c., reprinted for the Perey Society in 1842. Sub- stantially the same story also appears in Danish, Russian, and Icelandic folk-tales. The chief poetical version of the story of patient Griselda is that in Chaucer’s Clerkes Tale, one of the noblest poems in its series, and recited by perhaps the most attractive figure in the group of ilerims. Chaucer makes the Clerk say that he nad learned the tale at Padua from the lips of Petrarch himself, and in all probability he identifies himself here with the Clerk, and speaks out his own personal experience, as he was absent in Italy on the king’s business from the December of 1372 to the November of 1373. The poem is distinctly founded on Petrarch’s moralised catin version, but the poetical treatment of the story is so individual that it all comes afresh from the mind of Chaucer. We have a ballad of ‘ Pacyent Grissel’ in Bishop Percy’s Folio MS. (vol. iii. 1868); and we find her ‘painted angus Ee celebrated lovers on the walls of the temple in Lydgate’s poem, The Temple of Glass. Indeed the beauty of the story, and its allegorical value as a lesson teaching the duty of submission to the will of God, quickly touched the popular imagination, and the patience of Griselda passed into a proverb, as we see in Shakespeare and Hudi- bras. Perrault’s poem of 932 irregular rhymed verses is the chief poetic elaboration of the theme in French. The earliest dramatic representation was an old French Mystery on the subject, composed about 1395. Of more modern plays, it is enough to mention Dekker, Chettle, and Hauglhton’s Pleasant Comedy of Patient Grissel (1599; ed by J. P. Collier for the Shakespeare Society, 1841); El exemplo de Casadas y prueva de la Paciencia, by ys de Vega; Hans Sachs’ Gedulti und gehorsam Markgrifin Griselda (1546) ; Gol. Tea La Griselda; and Friedrich Halm’s Griseldis }s See Reinhold Kéhler’s article in Ersch and Gruber’s Encyklopidie, and Dr Friedrich von Westenholz, Die Griseldis-Sage in der Literaturyeschichte ( Heidelberg, 1888). Petrarch’s Latin tale of Griseldis, with Boccaccio’s tale from which it was retold, is reprinted in the Chaucer Society’s Originals and Analogues of Chaucer’s Canter- bury Tales, part ii. (1875). Grisi, GIuLIA, a celebrated singer, was born at Milan in 1811, and made her first appearance in 1828, at Bologna, in Rossini’s Zelmira. Her fame spread rapidly over Europe ; in 1832 she appeared in Paris in Semiramis, where the purity, alidions ness, and volume of her voice, as well as her classical beauty of features (Heine wrote of her as ‘the singing flower of beauty’), secured general admiration. Bellini’s Puritani and other operas were written for her, but Norma always remained her greatest Y saul London was the scene of her ndest and most successful performances ; and ere she married in 1836 the Marquis de Meley, after whose death she became in 1856 the wife of the tenor, Mario, with whom she sang in America. She died in Berlin, 28th November 1869. 428 GRIS-NEZ GROLIER Gris-nez, CAPE, a headland (164 feet high) in the French department of Pas-de-Calais, oppo- site Dover, is the point of land nearest to the English shore, the distance being barely 20 miles, About equally distant from Calais on the north- east and Boulogne on the south, the cape marks the dividing line between the North Sea and the English Channel. It has a lighthouse. Grison (also called Huron), a South American weasel ( Galictis vittata), is somewhat larger than the European weasel. Grisons (Ger. Graubiinden), the largest and the most thinly peopled of the Swiss cantons, is bounded E. by Tyrol and S. by: Lombardy. Area, 2773 sq. m.; pop. (1888) 94,810. Nearly half are Germans ; next comes the characteristic Romansch (q.v.) element (37,000), with 13,000 Italians. More . than half of the whole number are Protestants. The whole canton is an assemblage of mountains intersected by narrow valleys. hese last form three groups, of which the first and most im- portant lies along the course of the Rhine, and stretches northward, occupying nearly the whole of the western portion of the canton ; the second, forming the Engadine (q.v.), extends north-east along the course of the Inn; and the third-com- prises several smaller valleys, whose streams run southward, belonging to the basins of the Ticino and the Adige. Pastures and forests occupy a large portion of the canton; cattle and timber are the principal exports. : Numerous mineral springs are found within the canton; also the health-resorts of Davos, the Upper Engadine, Seewis, &c. Iron, lead, copper, zinc, and silver occur. Within the Grisons too are several passes leading to Italy, such as the Spliigen, St Bernardino, Bernina. The canton is democratic in constitution (see SWITZERLAND). The cantonal capital is Chur or Coire (q.v.). he country was anciently inhabited by the Rhetii, who are supposed to have been of Etruscan race (see ETRURIA). It was conquered by the Romans under Augustus, and added by Charle- magne to his empire in 807. During the middle ages the Bishop of Chur was the most powerful of the numerous nobles who sought to oppress the people, till they in self-defence formed themselves into leagues. One of these leagues, formed in 1424, was called the gray league (Ger. der graue bund), from the gray home-spun worn by the unionists, and hence the German and French names of the canton —Graubiinden and Grisons. In 1471 these separate unions entered into a general federation, which then (1497-98) formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons. See works in German by Jecklin (6 vols. Coire, 1874-86). Griswold, Rurus WiLmoT, American editor, was born in Vermont, 15th February 1815. After extensive travels at home and in Europe, he learned printing and newspaper work, next became Baptist preacher, then journalist and compiler of books in turn at Philadelphia, Boston, and New York. The most important paper which he edited during his career, the International Magazine, was afterwards amalgamated with Harper’s Magazine. Griswold died in New York, 27th August 1857. His books are numerous; but, despite his industry, he was but a poor literary critic. ere the following only can be named : Poets and Poetry of America (1842) ; Poets and Poetry of England in the 19th Century (1845); Prose Writers of America (1846); Female Poets of America (1848); and The Republican Court, or American Society in the Days of Washing- ton (1854). He was one of Poe’s executors, and the Life which he furnished to the edition of his works (3 vols. 1850) has occasioned much hostile criticism. Grit, a coarse-grained arenaceous rock. See SANDSTONE, CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. / Grizzly. See BEAR. Groat (Old Low German grote, meaning great), a name given in the middle ages to all thick coins, as distinguished from the ‘ bracteates’ or thin coins of silver or gold-leaf stamped so as to be hollow on ~ one side and raised on the other. _ The silver groat current in England (introduced by Edward III.) was equal to four pence. The coin—not the name —was revived (1836-56) in the modern fourpenny- piece. Groschen, the German equivalent of groats, were till 1873-76 current in the north of Germany, and equal in value to 3th of a thaler, worth 14d. or 24 cents United States currency. ; Grocyn, WILLIAM, the first who publicly taught Greek at Oxford, was born at Colerne, Wilts, about 1446, and educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford. He pursued his studies afterwards in Italy, acquiring a knowledge of Greek from the Greek exile Chalkohdyhis and settled again in 1491 at Oxford, where Sir Thomas More was among his pupils) When Erasmus visited Oxford he lived in Ceokiih's house, and he speaks of him as his ‘patronus et preceptor.’ In 1506 he became master of Allhallows’ College, near Maidstone, and here he died in 1519. Grodek, a town of Austrian Galicia, 20 miles SSW..of Lemberg, in the centre of a flax-growing region. Pop. 10,742, nearly one-third Jews. Grodno, a town of Russia, on the right bank of the Niemen, 148 miles by rail NE. of Warsaw. It has a medical academy and manufactures in cloth and tobacco. The new palace, erected by Augustus III. of Poland, is a handsome edifice. At first a Russian town, Grodno fell to Lithuania in 1241. Here Stephen Bathori died in 1586; here in 1793 the Polish diet, ratified the second partition of Poland; and here, too, Stanislaus Augustus, the last king of Poland, abdicated (1795). Pop. (1895) 50,500. _ In the neighbourhood are the mineral springs of Drusskenik.—The province of Grodno (area, 14,931 sq. m. ; population, 1,556,442) is an extensive plain, largely covered with pine forests, and in parts swampy. But it is crossed by the ridge that forms the watershed between the Baltic and Black Sea basins. Its largest rivers are the Bug, Narew, and Niemen. Rye, wheat, oats, otatoes, and tobacco are grown on the fertile soil. he province is a seat,of the woollen industry. Trade (in timber, grain, flax, hemp, wool, &c.) is exclusively in the hands of Jews. Grog, spirits and cold water, without sugar. The quaint name of grog is said to be derived from a nickname of Admiral Vernon, who in 1745 ordered his sailors to dilute their spirits with water. He was known to his men as ‘Old Grog’ from his wearing grogram breeches, Groining. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Grolier, JEAN, a famous French bibliophile, was born in 1479 at Lyons. He was attached to the court of Francis I., went to Italy as intendant- general of the army, and was long employed in diplomacy at Milan and at Rome. fter his return to France he became Trésorier général, and died at Paris in October 1565. It is his library that has made Grolier famous. He acquired choice copies of the best works then existing, and had them magnificently and tastefully bound, with the generous inscription, Jo. Grolierit et Amicorum. He had no less than 3000 books, and of these about 350 have come to light, bound elegantly in brown calf, both sides ornamented with floral arabesques. The library was dispersed in 1675, and Groliers are now precious prizes to the bibliophile, their prices at auctions varying from 600 to 1200 francs. See GRONINGEN GROSS 429 the study by Le Roux de Liney (1866), and Clément a Ris, Les Amateurs d’ Autrefois (1876). Groningen (ancient Cruoninga), the north- eastern province of Holland, bounded N. by the North Sea and E. by Hanover, with an area of 887 sq. m. The surface lies low; the soil is fertile, particularly in the north; in the south-east there are several marshes, though they are being rapidl drained and cultivated (as the Bourtan “ad Farming and grazing are the chief abe of the peo le. Shipbuilding is extensively followed ; much ther is exported, and some woollen hosiery, cloth, linen, paper, pottery, and potato-meal are manufactured. The people, 285,780 in 1894, are almost entirely of the Frisian race, and belong chiefly to the Reformed Church. Groningen, the capital of the above province, 25 miles by rail SW. of Delfzihl, on Dollart Bay, and 34 E. of Leeuwarden. The university, founded in 1614, with new buildings of 1850, and some 360 students, possesses a library, a botanic garden, an observatory, a collection of Teutonic antiquities, a pant, and a museum of natural history. A celebrated deaf and dumb institution was founded by Guyot in 1790. The chief industries are the manufacture of linen and woollen goods, tobacco, brushes, Dutch tiles, and boat-building. Groningen, already an important place in the 9th century, joined the Hanseatic League in 1282. From the lth century it fought hard to maintain its in- dependence against the bishops of Utrecht, nor did it submit until 1493, and then only to escape being handed over by the emperor to the Duke of Bester During the 16th century it had a very stormy Bistory, being finally won for the United Nether- lands by Maurice of Nassau in 1594. Pop. (1876) 40,165 ; (1893) 57,967. Gronovius, the Latinised form of Gronov, the name of a family of scholars of German extraction, settled in Holland, the principal members of which were: John Frederic Gronovius, born at Hambur, in 1611, studied at Leipzig, Jena, and Altdort, e in 1643 professor at Deventer, and in 1658 at den, where he died in 1671. He edited _ Livy, Statius, Tacitus, Phidrus, Seneca, Sallust, Pliny, and Plautus, and published many works showing a profound knowledge of Roman antiqui- ties, among them his Observationes et Comment- arius de iis.—James Gronovius, son of the preceding, born at Deventer in 1645, studied partly there and partly at Leyden, occupied for two years a chair at Pisa, was ap intel in 1679 to his father’s chair, which he held till his death in 1716. His works were his Thesaurus Antiquita- tum Grecorum (15 vols. 1697-1702), and editions of Ree hen, Herodotus, Cicero, and Ammianus Mareellinus.—Abraham Gronovius, son of the pre- ceding, born at Leyden in 1694, became librarian to the university, and died there in 1775. He showed himself worthy of the traditions of his house by his excellent editions of Justinus Pom- ponius Mela and Tacitus.—John Frederick, an eminent botanist, brother of the preceding, was born at Leyden in 1690, and died there in 1760. His works were Flora Virginica (1743) and Flora Orientalis (1765 ).—Laurence Theodore Gronovius, son of the preceding, born 1730, died at Leyden, 1778, author of Museum ichthyologicum (1754-56) ; Zoophylacium Gronovianum (1763-81); and Bibii- otheea regni animalis (1760). Groot, GERHARD (1340-84), founder of the ‘Brethren of the Common Life.’ See BRoTHER- HOODS. Groote Eylandt (Dutch, ‘great island’), an uninhabited island on the west side of the Gulf of C ntaria, in North Australia. It is surrounded by reefs, and its interior is hilly. In extreme length and breadth it measures about 40 miles each way. Gros, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON, a French his- torical painter, was born at Paris on 16th March 1771, studied in the school of David, and first acquired celebrity by his picture of ‘Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcole.’ His first t achievement, however, was ‘Napoleon visiting the Plague- smitten at Jaffa’ in 1804; and scarcely less suc- cessful were the ‘Battle of Aboukir’ (1806) and the ‘Battle of Eylau’ (1808). Gros also painted several other historical pictures illustrating the achievements of Napoleon; the ‘Meeting of Charles V. and Francis I.’ in 1812; in 1811-24 an immense work for the cupola of the church of Saint Genevitve; the ‘Departure of Louis XVIII. for Ghent’ (1815); and the ‘ Embarka- tion of the Duchess of Angouléme’ (1815). In his later years he returned to the traditionary classic style of painting, and in chagrin at his want of success is believed to have committed suicide. At all events, his body was drawn out of the Seine near Meudon, 27th June 1835. Gros’s aintings are marked by powerful expression and ramatic movement, but are deficient in delicacy and sentiment. See his Life by Delestre (1867) and Tripier le Franc (1878). Grosbeak, a name applied to not a few highly-specialised finches ( Fringillide ), with thick, heavy, seed-crushing bills, ‘so high that their upper contours almost form one continuous curve with that of the head.’ The European Hawfinch (q.v.) ( Coccothraustes vulgaris) and the American Evening Grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina) are good ex- amples. But the name is applied to many other birds—e.g. to the Cardinal Grosbeaks (Cardinalis) and the have-trsestell Grosbeak (Habia ludovici- ana). Groschen. See GROAT. Grose, FRANCcIs, a famous English antiquary, born at Greenford, Middlesex, in 1731, son of a rich Swiss jeweller settled in England. In the College of Heralds in 1755-63, he next became adjutant of the Hampshire and then of the Surrey militia, and, when his easy habits had brought him to the end of his fortune, began to put to profit the favourite studies of his youth and his excellent draughtmanship. His Antiquities of England and Wales (6 vols. 1773- 87) proved a suecess, and in 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland. His splendid soci os, his rich humour and good nature, which fitted well with his Falstaff-like bulk, made him friends everywhere. Burns made his acquaint- ance, and has hit him off admirably in his poem, ‘Hear, Land o’ Cakes, and brither Scots.’ The lines ‘a chield’s among you takin’ notes, and faith he’ll prent it,’ are often quoted by persons ignorant of their original application. Grose crossed over to Ireland to continue the same inquiries, but died suddenly in an apoplectic fit at Dublin, 12th May 1791. Grose’s work on the antiquities of Scotland appeared 1789-91 ; that of Ireland in 1791. Works oF exceptional value are A Classical Dictionary o the Vulgar Tongue (1785; new ed. with Memoir by Pierce Egan, 1823), and A Provincial Glossary (1787). Other works are his 7reatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons (1785-89); Military Antiqui- ties (1786-88) ; The Grumbler (1791), a collection of amusing essays; and Zhe Olio (1793), a strange hotch-potch of jests, verse, and prose essays. Gross, SAMUEL Dayip, American surgeon, was born near Easton, Pennsylvania, 8th July 1805, graduated at Jefferson Medical College, in Philadel- yhia, in 1828, and in 1835 became professor of athological Anatomy at Cincinnati. He was afterwards professor ob Surgery in the universities 430 GROSSENHAIN GROTE of Louisville and New York, and from 1856 to 1882 in Jefferson College. He died in Philadelphia, 6th May 1884. His published works are numerous and: valuable, and include a System of Surgery (2 vols. 1859; 6th ed. 1882). Dr Gross was a member of many medical and surgical societies, both in America and in Europe, was president of the International Medical Congress at Philadelphia in 1876, and received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1872, and of LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. , Grossenhain, a busy town of Saxony, 21 miles by rail NNW. of Dresden. It has manufactures of cloth, buckskin, hosiery, nets, machinery, and cigars. Pop. (1875) 10,686; (1890) 11,938. Grosseteste, Rosert, Bishop of Lincoln, was born about 1175 at Stradbroke in Suffolk, of peas- ant parentage—Grrosseteste (the French for ‘ great- head ;’ Lat. capito) being a mere ‘ to-name.’ Edu- cated at Lincoln, Oxford, and Paris, he had for some years been the first teacher of theology in the Franciscan school at Oxford, and had held eight archdeaconries and other preferments, when in 1235 he was elected Bishop of Lincoln. He forthwith undertook in the most vigorous fashion the refor- mation of abuses, embroiling himself thereby first with his own chapter and next with Pope Inno- cent IV., whom he twice visited at Lyons, in 1244-46 and 1249-50. The pope granted English benefices to ‘rascal Romans,’ who drew indeed the revenues of their office, but never perhaps showed face in the country. This was intolerable to a man like Grosseteste, and he set himself strongly against it, incurring by his boldness a bemporay suspension from the exercise of his episcopal fune- tions, and a continual menace of excommunication. In the last year of Grosseteste’s life, Innocent wrote to him ordering his nephew, a young Italian, to be promoted to the first canonry that should fall vacant at Lincoln, and accompanying his injunction with threats. The bishop was filled with indignation, and at once wrote a letter declaring that he would not obey such precepts even though they should issue from ‘the highent order of angels,’ and liken- ing the pope’s nepotism to the sin of Lucifer and Antichrist. Innocent, transported with fury, ex- communicated him; but Grosseteste quietly ap- pealed to Christ’s own throne, and troubled him- self no more about the matter. The feeling of the English nation sustained him; his clergy went on obeying him as if nothing had happened ; and on his death at Buckden, near Huntingdon, 9th October 1253, Archbishop Boniface himself officiated at his funeral in Lincoln Cathedral. Such is the current account, against which Lingard objects that the mandate came not from the pope but the nuncio ; that Innocent, on receiving Grosse- teste’s reply, not only rescinded the order, but adopted measures for the reform of these abuses ; and that the story of Grosseteste’s dying under sentence of excommunication rests on very ques- tionable authority. Grosseteste often is claimed as a pre-Reformation reformer; but his reforms were in the direction not of doctrine, but discipline. In politics he was a constitutionalist, a friend of Simon de Mont- fort. His learning was prodigious ; Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, mathematics, medicine, astron- omy, mechanics, and music were among his attain- ments ; whilst his knowledge of the Scriptures was profound. Pegge’s catalogue of his works,.of which only a few have been published, fills 25 closely- printed quarto pages, and exhibits ‘treatises on sound, motion, heat, colour, form, angles, atmo- spheric pressure, poison, the rainbow, comets, light, as well as on the astrolabe, necromancy, and witcheraft.’ See Brewer’s Monumenta Franciscana (1858); Luard’s edition of Grosseteste’s Latin letters (Record Soc., 1862); and Perry’s Life and Times of Grosseteste (S.P.C.K., 1871). Grosseto, a little Tuscan town on the Ombrone, near its mouth, 160 miles SE. of Leghorn by rail, with a fine cathedral and old fortifications. Pop. 3962. Much marsh land in the Maremma has been drained and rendered healthy and fertile. Grossglockner, the highest peak, 13,458 feet, of the eastern Alps and the centre of the range Hohe Tauern, is situated near the meeting-point of the frontiers of Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salzburg. Grossulariacex, or RIBESIACEH, a sub-order of Saxifragacese, including about 100 species, mostly all palearctic or nearctic. See CURRANT and GOOSEBERRY. Grosswardein (Magyar .Nagy-Varad), one of the oldest towns of Hungary, in the county of Bihar, is situated in a beautiful plain, on the Sabes (Rapid) Kérés, 152 miles by rail SSE. of Pesth. Formerly a fortress, it is now the seat of a Roman Catholic and of a Greek bishop, has nineteen churches, and manufactures spirits, oil, vinegar, tiles, matches, pottery, and wine. Pop. (1870) 28,698; (1890) 38,219. In the neighbourhood is the Bishop’s Bath, with alkaline sulphur-springs (104°-106° F.). At Grosswardein peace was con- cluded between Ferdinand I. of Austria and John Sa tat hy of Transylvania in 1538. It was taken and pillaged by the Turks in 1660, and remained in their hands until its recapture by the Austrians in 1692. Grote, GEORGE, historian and politician, was born at Clay Hill, Beckenham, Kent, November 17, 1794. He was educated at the Charterhouse, and in 1810 became a clerk in the bank founded by his grandfather (a native of Bremen), Mr George Pres- cott, in Threadneedle Street. He remained in the bank for thirty-two years, devoting all his leisure to literature and political studies. He was an advanced Liberal in politics, and his first literary gies was a repyy to an article by Sir James ackintosh in The Edinburgh Review on parlia- mentary reform. This was succeeded by a small work on The Essentials of Parliamentary Reform. Becoming acquainted with James Mill, Grote ulti- mately accepted his views on democratic govern- ment and church establishments ; and many years before the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 he laboured with a band of other ardent reformers in promulgating the views of Mill and Bentham and opposing both the Whigs and Tories. He further studied James Mill’s system of political economy, and was not a little influenced in philosophy by ites views of Comte. In 1820 he Sep Hersee daughter of Thomas Lewin, of Bexley, a lady of considerable literary gifts, and their house in Threadneedle Street became a distinguished centre of political and philosophical thought. Encouraged by his friends the two Mills, John Austin, and Charles Buller, and strongly urged also by his wife, he conceived in 1823 the idea for his History of Greece. Mitford’s history he mercilessly dissected at this time in the Westminster Review. Grote became head of the bank in 1830, and his position in the city, combined with his well-known talents, naturally pointed him out as a fitting representa- tive of the Metropolis in parliament. In the election of 1832, consequent upon the passing of the Reform Bill, he stood for the City, and was returned at the head of the poll. During his first session in parliament he brought forward a motion for the adoption of the vote by ballot, his speech being remarkably able and incisive. The motion was lost by 211 to 106 votes, but Grote renewed it in the following session, and continued to advocate the measure until his abandonment of parlia € PP ie: . GROTEFEND GROTIUS 431 ag mentary life in 1841. He sat for the City of Lon- don in three successive liaments, but on each occasion by a diminished majority ; and when he relinquished his seat the party of Philosophical Radicals with which he was associated had lost much of its influence. _ Grote retired from the banking-house in 1843, and now devoted himself exclusively to literature, the Hi of Greece becoming the main object of his life. The first two volumes of the work appeared in 1846, and met with the general favour of all i The twelfth volume was issued in 1856, 1 g down the subject to the end of the genera- tion contemporary with Alexander, the period orig- inally designed by the author. The history was translated into German and French, and was con- fessedly deserving of the high position to which it attained in literature. While it throws new light Greek history, and lucidly traces the progress of Hellenic thought, its martial p es are not- able for their vigour, and its geographical details for their accuracy. Grote was appointed a trustee of the British Museum, and in 1864 foreign associate of the French Academy. He was elected president of University College, and vice-chancellor of Lon- don University, which .offices he held until his death. In the latter capacity he rendered signal services to the university. In 1865 he concluded an elaborate work on Plato and the other Com- panions of Socrates, which, with his Aristotle, was supplementary to the History of Greece. The latter work, notwithstanding its lack of imagina- tion, still remains spears for its graver qualities and for its completeness as an historical tgp In dealing with Plato he was less success- 1, failing to grasp the lofty idealism of the Greek philosopher ; and his study of Aristotle, which gave promise of a closer appreciation, unfortunately - remains unfinished. A sketch of Swiss history during the war of the Sonderbund possesses special interest from its comparisons between the small republics of Switzerland and the city states of ancient Hellas. Grote, who declined a peerage offered him by Mr Gladstone, died June 18, 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a bust by Bacon commemorates him. His minor works were published by Professor Bain in 1873, with critical remarks on his intellectual character, writings, and speeches ; and Fragments on Ethical Subjects, being @ selection from his posthumous papers, in 1876. —Mrs Grote (1792-1878) was the authoress of a Memoir of Ary Scheffer (1860), Collected Papers in Prose and Verse (1862), and The Personal Life of George Grote (1873). See, too, Mrs Grote: a Sketch, by Lady Eastlake (1880). Grotefend, Grore Frrepricn, the first who found a key to the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, was born at Miinden in Hanover, June 9, 1775, and had his education at the university of Géttingen. He filled scholastic appointments at Gottingen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Hanover, and died 15th December 1853. He wrote learned books and papers on Latin, Umbrian, and Oscan philology, coins of Bactria, &c., but made for him- self an enduring fame by deciphering the cunei- form alphabet—an intuition of genius—first given forth in 1802. Later works on this subject were Neue Beitriige zur Erléuterung der Persepolitan- ischen Keilschrift (1837), and Neue Beitrdge zur Erliéuterung der Babylonischen Keilschrift (1840). See CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS.—His son, KARL LupWIG GROTEFEND, an eminent antiquary and historian, was born at Franktort-on-the-Main, 22d December 1809, studied at Géttingen University, and filled from 1853 a post in the Royal Archives at Hanover. He died 27th October 1874. His works are of the test value for nnmismatics and Roman epigraphy, the chief being Die Miinzen der Griechischen, Parthischen, und Indoskythischen Kénige von Baktrien (1839), Imperium Komanum tributim Deseriptum (1863), and Chronologische Anordnung der Athenischen Silbermiinzen (1872). His historical papers are mostly contained in the Zeitschrift des historischen Vereins fiir Niedersach- sen (1850-74).—FRIEDRICH AUGUST GROTEFEND, nephew of the great Grotefend, was born at Ilfeld, 12th December 1798, studied at Géttingen Univer- sity, and afterwards became a professor there. He died 28th February 1836. His writings are mostly solid contributions to Latin philology. Grotesque, a style of classical ornament, so called, in the 13th century, from its having been discovered amongst the painted decorations found in the excavations made in the baths of Titus and other ancient Roman buildings, the Italian word otto applying to any subterranean chamber. his light, fantastic style was much in favour during the Renaissance. Groth, KLAvs, a modern writer of Low Ger- man, was born at Heide in Holstein, 24th April 1819. After teaching for some time in his native village, he spent six years (1847-53) of literary activity in the island of Femern. It was at this time that he composed his masterpiece, Quickborn (1852, 15th ed. 1885), a collection of poems written in the Ditmarsh dialect, and dealing with life and nature in Ditmarsh, poems as fresh and simple as the subjects that inspired them. A continuation was published in 1871. Both in Quickborn and in the prose village tales Vertelin (1855-59) Groth used Low German with great skill and ease, and with a fine feeling for its artistic capabilities. His other works in the same dialect are Rothgeter, Meister Lamp un sin Dochder (1862), an idyll ; Voer de Goern (1858), children’s rhymes ; Ut min Jungs- paradies (1876), three stories; and Drei Platt- deutsche Erzdhlungen (1881). He has also written poems in High German, Hundert Blatter (1854), which are not adjudged so successful as his Low German efforts. A warm lover of his native tongue, he claims for it a co-ordinate place with High German in the polity of languages, and has urged his views in Briefe iiber Hochdeutsch und Platt- deutsch (1858) and in Mundarten und Mundartige Dichtung (1873). After five years’ wandering in Germany and Switzerland, Groth began to teach German language and literature at Kiel in 1858, and in 1866 was nominated professor of the same subjects at the university there. See Eggers, Klaus Groth und die platideutsche Dichtung (1885). Grotius, Huco, or Hug VAN Groot, Dutch jurist, was born at Delft, 10th April 1583. An extraordinarily precocious boy, Grotius entered the university of Leyden in his eleventh year, and there he enjoyed the advantage of studying under Joseph Scaliger. When only fifteen years old he entered public life, accompanying Olden Barne- veldt, the grand-pensionary, on an embassy to France, where, notwithstanding his extreme youth, his talents and conduct gained him the favour of Henry IV. On his return next year he began to practise as a lawyer in the Hague; in 1607 he was appointed a provincial fiscal-general, and in 1613 pensionary of Rotterdam. But the religious dis- putes between the Remonstrants and their oppo: nents were now at their height in Holland ; Olden Barneveldt was the protector of the former, and Grotius supported them by his writings and influ- ence. These theological strifes nad, however, a political significance also. In 1618 Barneveldt and Grotius were arrested, tried, and condemned by the dominant party under Prince Maurice (see BARNEVELDT), Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to imprisonment for life in the castle of Lovenstein. He escaped, however, by the contrivance of his 432 GROTTA DEL CANE GROUND-NUT wife, who managed to have him carried out of the castle in a chest used for the conveyance of books and linen, while she remained in prison in his stead. Grotius found refuge at Paris in 1621, and Louis XIII. bestowed upon him a pension of 3000 livres. But ten years later this pension was withdrawn from him. From his youth upwards Grotius had been a diligent student of jurispru- dence; in 1604 he wrote a work entitled De Jure Prede, which, however, he did not publish, but which he seems to have steadily improved year after year, until finally he issued it as his master- piece, De Jure Belli et Pacis, in 1625. This work, a piece of most excellent scholarship, at once established its place as a standard authority on international law, and such it remained for several generations (see INTERNATIONAL LAW). In 1634 Oxenstierna and Queen Christina induced Grotius to enter the Swedish service as ambassador at the French court, a post which he held until 1645. On his retirement he proceeded to Stockholm ; but, finding the court as uncongenial as the climate, he was returning home to Holland when he was shipwrecked, and died at Rostock, on the 29th August 1645. To the talents of an able statesman Grotius united deep and extensive learning. He was a peerseee theologian—perhaps the best exegete of nis day—a distinguished scholar, an acute philo- sopher, a judicious historian, and a splendid jurist. He was one of the best modern writers of Latin verse, and likewise composed poems in the Dutch language. His best historical work is Annales et Historie de Rebus Belgicis (1657), written in a style that recalls Tacitus by its concise and pointed power. His theological productions bear the titles Annotationes in Vetus Testamentum (1644); An- notationes in Novum Testamentum (1641-46); and De Veritate Religionis Christiane (1627), trans- lated even into several oriental languages, and re- markable for its clear arrangement, vigorous logic, and graceful style. It is an elegant treatise on Christian apologetics. Lehmann’s Hugonis Grotit Manes Vindicati (1727) contains a good life and a complete bibliography of his works. See also Hély, Etude sur le Droit de la Guerre et de la Paix de Grotius (1875), and Butler’s Life (1827). The De Jure Belli was translated into English by Whewell in 1853. Grotta del Cane (‘Grotto of the Dog’), a small cave near Naples, in the vicinity of Lake Agnano and of Puzzuoli, contains carbonic acid gas with 77 per cent. of carbonic acid. This cave was known to the ancients, and is described by Pliny. It derives its name from the practice of introducing into it small dogs, which are soon almost deprived of life by the gas that owing to its density clings to the floor of the cave; but they soon recover upon being restored to the open air. Grottaglie, a town in the Italian province of Lecce, 12 miles ENE. of Taranto, with 8880 inhab- itants, who carry on wine-growing, bee-keeping, and ‘silk and cotton weaving. Grotte, LE, a town of Sicily, in the of Girgenti. Pop. 8775, mostly employe sulphur-works of the district. Grouchy, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE, French general, born at Paris, 23d October 1766. Enter- ing the army at fourteen, he threw in his lot with the Revolution, and had his first taste of serious work in helping to suppress the Vendean revolt. After being nominated second to Hoche for the abortive expedition to Ireland, though Grouchy did enter Bantry Bay, he proceeded to join Joubert in Italy in 1798. nder Moreau, he greatly dis- tinguished himself in Piedmont, and at Novi was rovince in the taken prisoner, but subsequently exchanged (1799). Later he fought with conspicuous gallantry at Hohenlinden, Eylau, Friedland, Wagram, and in the Russian campaign of 1812, being appointed during the memorable retreat leader of the ‘sacred’ bodyguard of Napoleon. After the disastrous battle of Leipzig, Grouchy covered the retreat of the Freneh on the west side of the Rhine. Amongst the first to welcome Napoleon after his escape from Elba, Grouchy destroyed the Bourbon opposition in the south of France, and then, hastening north, routed Bliicher at Ligny. After the defeat at Waterloo and the second abdication of Napoleon, Grouchy, appointed by the provisional government com- mander-in-chief of the broken armies of France, led them skilfully back towards the capital; then, resigning, he betook himself to the United States. He returned from exile in 1819, and was reinstated as marshal in 1831. His death occurred at St- Etienne on 29th May 1847. See his Mémoires, edited by his grandson (5 vols, 1873-74). Ground-annual, in the law of Scotland, is an annual payment, sometimes called a rent-charge, made for land. It may be regarded as a substitute for feu-duty, and is little known where the law allows the constitution of a feu-duty. Thus, when a vendor sells his land, and instead of taking a lump sum for the price, prefers a.sum by way of a fore nal annuity or rent, he conveys the land in ee to the disponee or purchaser, subject to this ground-annual, which is a burden on the lands transferable and extinguishable like other real burdens. The vendor is then called the ground- annualer, and if the ground-annual is not paid he is entitled as a manee to poind the ground—i.e. seize all the goods, whether of the owner or his tenants, which are found on the lands, and pay himself, and raise action of maills and duties against the tenant, or he may sue the debtor. Ground-game. See GAME-LAWS. Ground-ice. See ANCHOR-ICE. Ground-ivy (Glechéma hederacea, united with the genus Népeta by some botanists as V. Glechéma), a plant of the natural order Labiatz, a common native of Britain and other parts of Europe, grow- ing in waste places, plantations, hedges, &c., in a dry soil. It has a ripe ¢ stem, kidney-shaped crenate leaves, and axillary blue flowers growing in threes. A tea prepared from the leaves is in great repute among the poor in many places, and the plant is supposed to be stimulant, aromatic, and of use in pectoral complaints. The leaves were formerly used in England for clarifying and flavour- ing ale, which was then called Gill-ale or Gell-ale, from Gill or Gell, an old name of this plant; but this use has been discontinued since the introduc- tion of hops. Groundling ( Coditis tenia), the spinous loach, a little ecyprinoid fish resembling the loach, from which it is distinguished by a forked erectile spine beneath the eye, and by its more compressed form. It is rare and very local in Britain, frequenting the muddy parts of rivers, habitually Koen close to the bottom. The genus is known to include only two other species. Ground-nut, GROUND-BEAN, or PEA-NUT, the fruit of Arachis hypogea, an annual plant belonging to the natural order Leguminose, exten- sively cultivated in southern North America, but supposed to be a native of Africa, The name Arachis, Aracos, or Aracidna, was given by Plin to a plant which was stemless and leafless, being all root. Modern botanists have given the name to a species which ripens its fruit underground. The pods, though first formed in the air, are as they increase in size forced into the earth by a natural GROUND PIGEON GROUSE 433 ———— ‘motion of their stalks, and there come to maturity 3 or 4 inches under the surface, hence the popular mame Ground- or Earth-nut. In the southern ; states of North America the seeds, or nuts, as they are called, are roasted and used as choco- late. ‘ When fresh they have a sweet taste resembling almonds, They are a favourite article of food with the negroes. A fixed ver ¥ sweet oil is extracted from the seeds, < which is con- sidered by some equal to olive- oil, and it does not become Ground-nut ( Arachis hypogea). rancid, . rather: improving with age. Ground-nuts are to be met with occasionally in fruiterers’ shops in Britain, and some attempt has been made to cultivate the plant around Paris; but requiring as it does to be reared in hot-beds, expense and trouble have cireum- _ gseribed its adoption as a commercial production there. It is, however, cultivated in some of the warmer countries of the south of Europe.—The roots of Bunium bulbocastanum and B. Te “ae known as ground-nuts or q.V.). Ground Pigeon, a name widely applied to those numerous pigeons (Columbide) which are terrestrial rather than arboreal. The more meeconatly ground-loving forms have short and rounded wings, and lessened power of prolonged fight, but possess long legs and a rapid pace. See Elliot, Standard Natural History, vol. iv. ( Boston, 1885), for an admirable account. ‘Ground-rent, in the law of England, is the rent which a person, who intends to build upon a piece of ground, pays to the landlord for the use of the ground for a certain Letter-bag of the Great Western ; Yankee Stories, and Traits of American Humour; Nature and Human Nature ; Rule and Misrule of the English in America ; and Wise Saws and Modern Instances. He-died at Isleworth, 27th August 1865. Halibut, or Houisut ( Hippoglossus vulgaris), the largest of all the flat-fish (Pleuronectidze), in form more elongated than the flounder or the tur- bot, the eyes on the right side, the upper surface smooth, and covered with small soft oval scales, Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris). the colour brownish, marbled all over with darker markings, the under surface smooth and white. The halibut, though esteemed for the table, is not to be compared in quality with the turbot; its flesh, though white and firm, is dry and of little flavour. It is found from the coasts of Spitzbergen to Iceland, off Newfoundland, &c., and from Finland and Scandinavia to the British and French coasts, but is rare in the Channel. It is abundant off the Orkneys, especially in eddies where tides meet. It is also found on the coasts of New England, New York, California, and Kamchatka. It is a fish of great value to the Greenlanders, who preserve it for winter use by cutting it into long strips and drying it in theair. Oil is obtained from it in considerable quantity, chiefly from the bones. It attains a great size; specimens have HALICARNASSUS HALIFAX 515 been caught in Europe weighing at least 500 Ib., and one caught in Iceland was little short of 20 feet long. Halicarnassus (originally called Zephyria), a Greek city of Caria in Asia Minor, situated on the Ceramic Gulf. It was founded by Dorian colonists from Trazen, and defended by several citadels, one of which, Salmacis, was deemed eel. Early in its history it became one of the cities of the so-called Dorian Hexapolis, from which confederacy, however, it was eventually excluded. When the Persian power spread west- ward, Halicarnassus readily submitted to the dominion of the conquerors. During this period, however, about 500 B.c., a domestic tyrant, Lyg- damis, rose to supreme power as a vassal of Persia ; and his descendants, without forfeiting the Greek character, or ceasing to cultivate the Greek litera- ture and arts, gradually extended their sway over all Caria. Amongst them was Mausolus, whose wife and sister Artemisia, to commemorate him after his death (353), erected the magnificent Mausoleum (q.v.) which was accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. It was under this king that the city attained its highest degree of “splendour and prosperity. About twenty years later Alexander the Great destroyed the city b fire ; but the inhabitants took refuge in the citadel, which successfully resisted his arms. The city was afterwards rebuilt, but it never recovered its ancient importance or prosperity. In the days of the Roman empire it had sunk into comparative insignificance. Halicarnassus was the birthplace of the Greek historians Herodotus and Dionysius. The site of the city is occupied by the modern Budrun. An account of the excavations conducted there will be found in Newton’s Discoveries at Halicarnassus (1862-63). Halicore. See Ducona. Halicz, a town of Austria, in the crownland of Galicia, is situated on the Dniester, 69 miles SSE. of Lemberg by rail. On a hill in the vicinity are the ruins of the once strongly fortified castle of Halicz, built in the 12th century, and the residence of the rulers of what was formerly the grand prin- cipality and kingdom of Haliez. From this word the name Galicia (q.v.) is derived. Pop. 3464. HMalidon Hill, an eminence in Northumber- land, 2 miles NW. of Berwick, overlooking the Tweed, was the scene of a bloody conflict between the English and Scots, 19th July 1333, in which the latter were defeated, upwards of 10,000 of them (according to some authorities, 14,000) being left on the field. Halifax, a thriving market-town, municipal, oepaapaprpeze! and county borough, in the West iding of Yorkshire, is situated on the river Hebble, a feeder of the Calder, on the slope of an eminence, and is almost wholly surrounded by hills. It is 43 miles SW. of York, and 194 miles NNW. of ee... Dr Mi ay mc —— its name from the our ways trave y pilgrims converging towards the pare church, called Holy Ware: fos (as in Carfax) being Norman-French for ‘ forks’ or ways. A more popular derivation is that it means ‘ Holy Face,’ from a representation of the head or face of Jolin the Baptist having been at a remote period ept in a chapel where now stands the parish church of St John the Baptist. Its situation is pleasing, and its general appearance handsome; while its ample supply of water-power and of coal, its facili- ties for transport both by water and by leading lines of railway, and its position in proximity to many of the great towns of the north of England contribute materially to its manufacturing and commercial importance. Some Flemish artisans had settled here in the reign of Henry VII. The ecclesiastical architecture of Halifax strikes every visitor. The parish church of St John, restored in 1879, is a fine specimen of Perpendicular Gothic ; ‘All Souls,’ built at the expense of Edward Akroyd from designs by Sir G. G. Scott, is one of the best and most elaborate of all the churches of which he is the architect. The ‘Square Church,’ belonging to the Congregational body, was erected in 1855, and there are in all about forty Non- conformist churches. The town-hall, opened by the Prince of Wales in 1863, is a very ornate Renaissance edifice, from designs by Sir Charles Barry; the new post-office was opened in 1887. Another important building is the Piece Hall, erected in 1779 for the reception and sale of manufactured goods ; it was presented to the cor- poration by Sir 8. Ibbetson in 1868, and is now used as a Market Hall. Among the numerous public and private educational institutions of Halifax are the Heath grammar-school, founded in 1585, and the Blue-coat School. The school-board bas the control of fully lene. of the school-children. The Crossley and Porter Orphan Home and School was built by the Crossley brothers at a great cost, and has an endowment of £135,894. In 1887 Mr J. Porter of Manchester (formerly of Halifax) augmented the endowment fund by a gift of £50,000. Halifax has four parks—Savile, Shrogg’s, Akroyd, with free library, museum, and art- gallery, and the People’s Park. The last, the gift of the late Sir F. Crossley (q.v.), is tastefully laid out from designs by Sir Joseph Paxton, and cost about £40,000. There are two theatres (one dating from 1888). The Publie Libraries Act has been adopted ; there are also a Mechanics’ Institute and the Dean Clough Institute erected by the Crossleys for their work-people. There is a strong co-opera- tive society ( Halifax Industrial), with central stores erected in 1861 at a cost of £17,400, and twenty- eight branch stores. he worsted and carpet trades are the staple industries. Crossley’s carpet-works, the largest in the world, employ more than 5000 hands. The manufactured goods, other than carpets, are chiefly worsted coatings, fancy dress goods, damasks, and merinos. Cotton fabrics and wool- cards are manufactured, while dyeing and hosiery trades are on an extensive scale. here is also some trade in corn; iron, chemicals, boots, and mill-machinery are manufactured, and freestone is quarried. The water-works, which are very complete, have cost the corporation about £675,000. Pop. (1851) 33,582; (1871) 65,510; (1881) 73,633 ; (1891) 82,864. The borough since 1832 has re- turned two members to parliament. A strange old local law, relinquished in 1650, known as the Halifax Gibbet Law, was enacted here at an early period of the woollen manufacture, for the protection of the manufacturers against the thievish propensities of persons who stole the cloth when stretched all night on racks or wooden frames, called tenters, to dry. The Gibbet Law provided that all persons within a certain circuit, who had stolen property of or above the value of 134d., were to be tried by the frith-burghers within the liberty ; and, if found guilty, they were handed over to the magistrates for punishment, and were executed on the first market-day following by means of an instrument similar to the guillotine. See Watson’s History of Halifax (1775; ed. by Leyland, 1869). Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia and the principal Atlantic seaport of Canada, is situated on the eastern or Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, in 44° 39’ N. lat. and 63° 37’ W. long. It is the nearest to Great Britain of any city on the American continent, being but 2178 miles from Cape Clear. Previous to the founding of the city, the magnificent sheet of water that constitutes its 516 HALIFAX harbour was called by the Indians Chebucto, signi- fying the greatest of havens—a name not in- appropriate for what is one of the finest harbours in the world. It is easily accessible at all seasons of the year, at all times of the tide, by ships of any tonnage ; and is capable of affording safe anchorage to the whole British navy. The fact that it was selected as the American rendezvous of the ill- starred expedition of D’Anville against the British colonies in America in 1746 led to a demand on the part of those colonies that a place of such strategic importance should no longer be unoccupied by imperial troops. Their demand was ably supported by Lord Halifax, and accordingly an expedition was fitted out in 1749, under command of the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, which founded the city and gave to it the name of its English patron. It at once became the capital of the province, and the pe naval and military station of Great ritain in America, and has remained so ever since. It is garrisoned by imperial troops, and is strongly fortified—its supposed impregnability securing for it the appellation of ‘the Cronstadt of America,’ The dockyard, covering 14-acres, is one of the finest in the British colonies. Down to the close of the Napoleonic wars Halifax was little more than a military and naval entrepét ; but of late years it has assumed more and more the character of a commercial city. It is built on the western side of the harbour, and extends along it about two miles and a half. The streets are well laid out, and are lighted by electricity. The commercial ds of the city is built principally of freestone. Its water- supply is excellent, and statistics show it to be one of the healthiest cities in America. It is the residence of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Halifax (whose archiepiscopal see includes Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland ) and of the Church of England bishop of Nova Scotia. It is also the seat of Dalhousie University and of a large number of other educational institutions, including a school for the blind, and one for the deaf and dumb. In common with the rest of the province, its public schools are free, and attendance at them between certain ages is compulsory. It is the eastern or Atlantic terminus of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada and of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and has lines of steamers connecting it with London, Liverpool, New York, Boston, Bermuda, the West Indies, St Pierre, and both the east and west coasts of Newfoundland. It has also the largest graving-dock (580 by 102 feet) in America, con- structed in 1880-89, at a cost of $1,000,000, and capable of receiving the largest ship afloat. The proximity of Halifax to the coalfields of Pictou and Cape Breton and its extensive wharf accom- modation make it a favourite coaling station for steamers navigating the North Atlantic. Its popula- tion in 1881 was 36,100; its population at the census of 1891 was 38,556. Dartmouth, on the opposite shore of the harbour—practically a suburb of Halifax—has a population of 6200. In an average year the foreign trade of the port amounts to $10,000,000 or $12,000,000. The total number of vessels entering and clearing the harbour is from 2000 to 3000, with a tonnage of 1,500,000 tons. Halifax, CHARLEs Montaau, EARL oF, poet and statesman, who owed his introduction to political power to his facile skill in verse-making, was the nephew of the famous Parliamentary general, the Earl of Manchester, and was born at Horton, in Northamptonshire, 16th April 1661. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he formed a life-long friendship with Newton. His most not- able poetical achievement was a parody on Dry- den’s Hind and Panther, entitled The Town and sag Mouse (1687), of which he was joint author with Matthew Prior; but his poetry would hardly have made his name remembered in the 19th cen- tury. In the following year, through the influence of the Earl of Dorset, he became member for Maldon in the Convention Parliament, and soon developed a decided talent for financial business. Retaining his seat in William III.’s first parliament, he was appointed in 1692 a Commissioner of the Treasury. On the 15th December of the following year he proposed, in the House of Commons, to raise a million sterling by way of loan. William required money for his wars ; the moneyed classes were tired of bubble companies, and knew not where to invest safely ; and the landowners were weary of heay taxation : so the National Debt was established. In the spring of 1694 money was again wanted, and Montague supplied it by originating a national bank, a scheme for which had been laid before veld by William Paterson, three years efore. The capital was to be £1,200,000, and the shareholders were to be called the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. As a reward for this service Montague was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1694. His next work was the recoinage in 1695, which he carried out success- fully, appointing Newton warden of the Mint, and raising a tax on windows to pay the expense, instead of the obnoxious impost called hearth-money. At this crisis too he first introduced exchequer bills. On Godolphin’s resignation in 1697 he became premier, but his arrogance and vanity soon made him unpopular, and on the accession to power of the Tories in 1699 he was obliged to accept the auditorship of the exchequer, and withdraw from the Commons as Baron Halifax. He was impeached before the House of Lords for breach of trust in 1701, and again in 1703, but the proceedings fell to the ground. During the whole of Anne’s reign Halifax remained out of office, but was active in promoting the union with Scotland, and the Hanoverian succession. On the queen’s death he was appointed a member of the council of regency, and on George I.’s arrival became an earl and rime-minister. His rule lasted only nine months, ing terminated by death on 19th May 1715. Halifax, GEORGE SAVILE, MARQUIS OF, states- man, was born in the year 1633. For the share he took in bringing about the Restoration he was created a viscount in 1668. In 1675 he opposed Danby’s Test Bill, and in 1679 by a display of extraordinary oratory procured the rejection of the Exclusion Bill. Three years later he was created a marquis, and made Lord Privy Seal. On the accession of James II. he became president of the council, but was dismissed in 1685 for his opposi- tion to the repeal of the Test Act and the Habeal Corpus Act. He was one of the three commis- sioners eppcies by James II. to treat with William of Orange after he landed in England. After the flight of James, Halifax tendered his allegiance to William ITI., and under hiny resumed the office of Lord Privy Seal; but, subsequently aan the scan ry he resigned his post in 1689. e died 20th April 1695. Shaftesbury was the sole rival as an orator of this Jotham of piercing wit and pregnant thought, Endued by nature and by learning taught To move assemblies.—DRyYDEN’s Absalom and Achitophel. As a minister he was a failure, owing to his frequent changes of side; yet he was not a fickle party-man, but rather a philosophic statesman who, in order to serve his country, was compelled by the excesses of party to adopt this course—such at least is the defence he lays down in his On the — Character of a Trimmer. His Miscellanies were pub- lished in 1700. The poet-musician Henry Carey (q.v.) is believed to have heen his natural son. HALIOTIS HALL 517 Haliotis, a genus of pestetopodoes molluses, of the family Haliotide, order Prosobranchiata ; shell widely open, ear-shaped, pierced on the outer by a series of holes which are closed in the course of growth after ceasing to be of use in con- taining the pallial folds. The shell, on account of its beautifully iridescent Nacre (q.v.), is much used for the purposes of ornament. In some parts of Italy it is called Venus’s ear; it is the ‘mother-of- pearl’ of old English writers, and the ‘ ormer’ (con- tracted from oreille de mer) of the French. The animal itself, in a living state, exhibits great beauty ofcolours. It inhabits the littoral zone, adhering to rocks like the limpet; one Japanese species, how- ever, is found in deep water. Several species are used for food in different parts of the world. The genus has a wide distribution, being found in every part of the ocean from the Channel Islands south- wards. Seventy-five recent and four fossil species, commencing in the Miocene period, are known. Halitherium,. See Ducona. it the lar rincipal apartment of the Pes omg ‘Terk. Brn of the middle es. The hall is of very ancient origin. The earliest Saxon buildings we have any record of are the palaces of the kin , and these seem to have consisted of one large hall, in which the king, his courtiers or *hearth-men,’ and all his retainers dwelt together, eating at the same table, and sitting round the same fire; and one other chamber, in which the king and his hearth-men slept, while his retainers slept in the hall. In the Norman keep the hall occupied the whole of the first floor—the private apartment of the lord of the castle being on the floor above. In the 12th century halls of a more commodious kind came to be erected in the court- yards of the castles, with the eerste apartments at one end and the kitchen offices at the other. The same arrangement prevailed, with slight modi- fications, during the 12th and 13th centuries. In the. 14th and 15th centuries, when England was more settled and prosperous,.and manners more refined, numerous apartments became necessary. The hall, however, still: retained its place as the chief apartment. In it the king or the lord of the manor gave audience, administered justice, received and entertained his retainers and guests, and performed all the public acts of feudal life. At one end of the hall was a raised platform or dais, on which the table of the lord of the manor was pl , and where his more honoured guests sat along with him. This end of the hall was usually lighted with large oriel windows, and com- municated with a buildi if which contained the lord’s solar, or bedroom and parlour, on the upper floor, and the wine-cellar below. The retainers sat at _a table which ran along the lower part of the hall, This part was not always in the cleanest and sweetest condition, and hence it received the name of ‘the marsh.’ The entrance porch was at the lower end of the hall, where also a passage was eut off by a screen. This passage ga the kitchen, pantry, and buttery, and above the a gallery for musicians was frequently con- structed. Survivals of such medieval dining-halls may be found in the Oxford and Cambridge colleges, with their high tables, portraits, stained glass, Re. a as also in the halls of the Inns of Court and of some - of the London guilds. The hall partook of the style of architecture prevailing at the time when it was built, and being a large and important apartment was generally ornamental in its character. The roofs especially were very carefully and elegantly constructed, as many still remaining show. The hall was essenti- ally a part of feudal architecture. When that system gave way, the large common halls were ve access to |- abandoned and private dining-rooms substituted. Many old ones, however, still remain; but their use is changed, The hall of the king’s palace, now called ‘ Westminster Hall,’ built by William Rufus, and restored by Richard IL., is the finest example in England, being 300 feet long and 100 feet broad. See also MUNICIPAL ARCHITECTURE. Hall, or ScHwAsiscu-HALL, a town of Wiir- temberg, is beautifully situated in the deep valle of the Kocher, 33 miles by rail E. by 8S. of Heil- bronn. Like other places in whose names the word Hall or Salz occurs, Hall has considerable salt- works, the brine being obtained from Wilhelms- gliick, 5 miles distant, and producing annually nearly 80,000 cwt. of salt. There are also cotton- spinning and weaving, silk and machine mann- factures, and tanneries. The Gothie church of St Michael (1427-1525) has excellent wood-carvings. In 1276 Hall was made a free imperial town; it had enjoyed since 1228 the right of minting money; here were coined the first silver he/ler (Adiler) or farthings. In 1802 it was added to Wiirtemberg. Pop. 9125. Hall, a town of Austria, in Tyrol, is situated on the Inn, 6 miles by rail E. of Innsbruck. The —— church contains a monument to Speck- acher, the Tyrolese patriot of 1809. About 7 niles north of the town is the Salzberg, from the mines in which salt brine is conveyed to the pans of Hall in wooden pipes. Here 150,000 ewt. of salt are produced annually. Hall received town rights in 1303. It is a health-resort. Pop. 5756. Hall, BASIL, writer of travels and miscellaneous works, was born in Edinburgh, 3lst December 1788. He was the son of Sir James Hall of Dun- glass, baronet (1761-1832), the founder of experi- mental geology (see GEOLOGY), also distinguished as a chemist and as author of a work on Gothic architecture. Basil entered the = in 1802, and became post-captain in 1817. Then Lord Amherst was sent on a mission to the court of Peking in 1816, Hall commanded a sloop in the naval escort, and visited some places along the western coast of the Corea which were little known to Europeans. The chief results of his explorations were published in A Voyage of Discovery to Corea and the Great Loo-Choo Islands (1818), a book which took the popular fancy. After this he wrote Extracts from a Journal written on the Coast of Chili, Peru, and Mexico in 1820-22; Travels in North America in 1827-28 (a work that was vio- lently assailed by the American press); and, also popular, Fra ts of Voyages and Travels (9 vols. 1851-40), ainfeld (1836), a semi-romance, and Patchwork (1841), a collection of tales and sketches, also came from his pen. He was a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and a member of the Astronomical Society of London, and the author of various articles in the scientific journals of the day. He died insane in Haslar ospital, Gosport, 11th September 1844. Hall, CHARLEs FRANCIS, Arctic explorer, born in Rochester, New Hampshire, in 1821, was suc- cessively a blacksmith, Journalist, stationer, and engraver, and, becoming interested in the fate of the Franklin expedition, devoted his leisure to gathering information about Arctic America. He made two search expeditions, in 1860-62 and 1864- 69, living alone among the Eskimo, and bringing back some relics and the bones of one of Franklin’s company; and in 1871 he sailed in command of the government ship Polaris, on an ‘expedition to the North Pole.’ He took his vessel for 250 miles up the channel leading from Smith’s Sound, and on 29th August reached 82° 16’ N.—at that date the highest northern latitude ever reached ; 518 HALL then turning southward, he went into winter- quarters at Thank God Harbour, Greenland (81° 38’ N.). Here, on his return from a sledge expedi- tion to the north, he was taken suddenly ill, and died 8th November 1871; over his grave a grateful epitaph was placed by the British polar pees in 1876. His companions left Thank God Harbour in August 1872. In October, through the ice- anchor slipping, nineteen men were left with stores on a floe, and only after severe sufferings were they rescued by a sealer off the Labrador coast in the ) following April. The leaking Polaris was beached on Littleton’s Island, and in June 1873 the party set out for Upernivik in two boats which they had constructed ; they were ultimately pace up by a Dundee whaler near Cape York. The charts pub- lished by the expedition are often incorrect and misleading, but among the valuable results of Hall’s work were the exploration of the West Greenland channel, and the extension of Greenland and Grinnell Land a degree and a half north. Hall ublished Arctic Researches, and Life among the Mogsritictess (1864); and from his papers largely was compiled the Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition (Washington, 1879). Hall, CHESTER Moor (1703-71), a gentleman of Essex who in 1733 anticipated Dollond in the invention of the achromatic Telescope (q.v.). Hall, CuristopHER NEWMAN, Congregational minister, was the son of John Vine Hall, author of The Sinner’s Friend, and was born at Maidstone on 22d May 1816. Having graduated at London University, he preached in Hull from 1842 to 1854, In _ this latter year he removed to London as minister of Surrey Chapel, Lambeth, which was originally founded by the Rev. Rowland Hill. This chapel is now called Christchureh. He enjoyed wide repute as an eloquent and popular preacher, and is the author of several works of a devo- tional character, some of which, as Come to Jesus, The Cali of the Master, and The Man Christ Jesus, have had an enormous sale. He has also written Antidote to Fear, Meditations on the Lord’s Prayer, Pilgrim Songs in Cloud and Sunshine, &e. Mall, or Halle, Epwarp, English historian, was born in London in 1499, of a family settled in Shropshire, but of German descent. He was educated at Eton, became scholar of King’s College, Cambridge, in 1514, and junior Fellow in due course, next studied at Gray’s Inn, and heard some of the lectures of Wolsey’s foundation at Oxford. He became one of the common serjeants and under- sheriff of the city of London, and afterwards a judge in the sheriff-court, and died in 1547, in the same year with Henry VIII. Next year his history was printed from his manuscript by Richard Grafton, under the title, The Union of the Two Noble Families of Lancaster and Yorke. It was composed mostly in his younger years, but was - only brought down to 1532; the rest, down to 1546, was completed by Grafton. The exceptionally large number of variations in the copies make this thick, black-letter folio something of a bibliographical curiosity. © Hall’s work is one of the finest of our early his- tories, and the stately dignity of its style and reality of its figures had a charm for the dramatic sense of Shakespeare. To the student of the reign of Henry VIII. it is especially valuable as the truth- ful and intelligent evidence of an eye-witness, and if his account of his king is too uniformly enlogistic, we must remember how inestimably valuable to his legal mind was the present blessing of a settled domestic peace after the bloodshed and distraction of the Roses. Hall loves to describe with detail scenes of pomp and pageantry, such as made splen- did the early years of Henry’s reign—a taste that harmonises well with the stately and pompous Latinisms of his English. The best edition is that by Sir Henry Ellis (1809), Hall, James, LL.D., geologist, was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, 12th September 181], and in 1837 was appointed one of the New York state geologists. 1s final report on the western part of the state appeared in 1843. Of his other works the chief is his important Paleontology o New York (vols. i.-v. 1847-79); he also contrib- uted to the geological surveys of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Canada, and published nearly 250 separate pe He is a member of numerous scientific odies in Europe as well as in America. Hall, Josrern, bishop and divine, was born Ist July 1574, at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge, of which he became a Fellow in 1595. Taking orders, he held successively the livings of Halstead and Waltham, in Essex, and the deanery of Worcester. In 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland to help establish Episcopacy, and in this and the next year was one of thie English deputies to the synod of Dort. He was consecrated Bishop of Exeter in 1627, and in 1641 was translated to Norwich. The later years of his life were saddened by persecution. He was | accused of Puritanism, though he zealously defended Episcopacy, and he incurred the enmity of Arch- bishop Laud. In 1641, having joined the prelates who protested against the validity of all laws passed during their enforced absence from parliament, he was committed to the Tower, and threatened with a prosecution for high-treason, but was set at liberty at the end of seven months, on finding bail for £5000. Shortly after his return to Norwich his revenues were sequestrated and his property pil- laged. Thereafter he rented a small farm at Higham, near Norwich, to which he retired in 1647. There he died 8th September 1656. His works, including Contemplations, Christian Meditations, Episcopacy, and Mundus Alter et Idem, a Latin satirical romance of an unknown country in Terra Australis, were edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt (10 vols. 1808), and by Peter Hall, a descendant (12 vols. 1837-39). His poetical Satires: Virgi- demiarum (1597-98) Pope calls ‘the best poetry and the truest satire in the English language.’ Hallam, however, accuses him of being harsh and rugged, obscure, and ungrammatical. See Life by George Lewis (1886). Hall, Marsa, physician and physiologist, the son of Robert Hall, who introduced the prac- tice of bleaching cotton with chlorine, was Son at Basford, in Nottinghamshire, 18th February 1790. After studying medicine at Edinburgh (1809-14), Paris, Gottingen, and Berlin, he settled at Notting- ham in 1817; and Pee in London from 1826 until 1853. He died at Brighton, 11th August 1857. Though not the original observer of the phenomena of the reflex action of the spinal system, Hall claims to have been the first to show their independence of sensation, to work out the laws of their causa- tion, and to apply the knowledge of them to the comprehension of nervous diseases. His investiga- tions on this subject were published in two papers (1833-37). His name is also associated with a well-known method of restoring suspended respira- tion (see RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL). Besides the above-mentioned papers, he wrote several works on diagnosis (1817), the circulation (1831), Zhe Inverse Ratio between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom (1832), and on the nervous system and its diseases. A bibliography will be found in Memoirs of Marshall Hall, by his widow (1861). Hall, Robert, dissenting preacher and writer, was born at Arnsby, near Leicester, May 2, 1764 j HALL HALLAM 519 Feeble in body but precocious in intellect, he learned to read before he could speak. He was educated at a Baptist academy at Bristol (1778- $1), and at King’s College, Aberdeen (1781-85), where he formed an intimate ae pres ger’ with (Sir James) Mackintosh. Immediately after his graduation he was appointed assistant minister and tutor in the academy at Bristol. Here his eloquent preaching attracted overflowing audi- ences. As an orator he was fluent, rapid, and impressive, and was liberal, but not heterodox, in his religious views. In consequence of a disagree- ment with his colleague, he went in 1790 to Cam- bridge, where by his powerful and vivid eloquence he rose to the highest rank of British pulpit orators. His writings, apart from sermons, are few; the more important are an A pology Jor the Freedom of the Press (1793) and On Terms of Communion (1815). In 1806 he settled in Leicester; but re- turned in 1826 to Bristol, where he died February 21, 1831. A complete edition of his works, with a memoir by Dr O. Gregory, and Observations on bis Preaching by John Forster, was persnes at London (6 vols. 1831-33 ; llth ed. 1853). Hall, SAMUEL CARTER, author and editor, fourth son of Colonel Robert Hall, was born at Geneva Barracks, County Waterford, 9th May 1800. Com- ing to London from Ireland in 1822, he studied law, and became a gallery reporter for the New Times. He established fhe Amulet (1825), an annual, which he edited for several years; succeeded the poet Campbell as editor of the New Monthly Magazine ; was sub-editor of the John Bull; and did other journalistic work before he founded and edited the Art Journal (1839-80), which has done so much to ereate a public for art. He was a pertinacious and indefatigable worker and skilful compiler, the joint works written and edited by Mr and Mrs §. C. Hall exceeding 500 volumes. Amongst these were Ireland, its Scenery, &c. (illus. 1841-43); The Book of Gems ; British Ballads, one of the fine-art books of the century; and Baronial Halls. A testimonial of £1600 was presented to him by friends in 1874, and in 1880 he received a civil-list pension of £150 a year. He died 16th March 1889. During his lifetime he had associated with most of the best men and women of his time, and showed a benevo- lent and helpful disposition. See his Retrospect of a Long Life (2 vols. 1883), and Mrs Mayo’s * Recollections of Two Old Friends’ (Leisure Hour, an 1889). rs 8. C. HALL ( Anna Maria Fielding), novelist, and wife of the preceding, was born in Dublin on 6th January 1800. She was brought up by her widowed mother at Graige, on the coast of Wexford, and in her fifteenth year came to London, where her education was completed. In 1824 she married Samuel Carter Hall, who encouraged her to write, and was her guide and counsellor in the composition of her tales and novels, which owed much to his pruning and polishing. She possessed, however, a genuine and spontaneous literary gift. Her first work, Sketches of Irish Character (1828), established ‘her reputation. She wrote nine novels, and hundreds of shorter stories, including The Buccaneer (1832) ; Tales of Woman's Trials (1834); The Outlaw (1835); The French Refugee, a drama, which in 1836 was acted for about fifty nights at the St James’s Theatre, London ; Uncle Horace (1837); Lights and Shadows of Irish Character (1838) ; Marian (1839); Midsummer Eve (1843); The Whiteboy (1845), &c. Her Stories of the Irish Peasantry appeared origin- ally in Chambers’s Journal. Besides assisting her husband in various works, and by contributions to the Art Journal, she furnished numerous articles to periodicals, edited the St James's Magazine for a year, and wrote various books for the young. Of these Uncle Sam’s Money-bor is one of the best. She assisted in the formation of the Governesses’ Benevolent Institution, a hospital for consumptives, and the Nightingale Fund, which resulted in the endowment of a training-school for nurses. Mrs Hall died January 30, 1881. Hallam, Henry (1777-1859), historian, son of John Hallam, Canon of Windsor and Dean of Bristol, was born at the former town, 9th July 1777. He studied at Eton College with zeal and success (his Latin verses in the Muse Etonenses were esteemed by competent judges among the best in the collection). e matriculated at Christ Chureh, Oxford, 20th April 1795, and proceeded B.A. 1799, M.A. 1832. The modern system of prizes was not yet in existence, and if he did nothing tangible at the university, it was because there was nothing to be done. Certainly all through he worked strenuously. He next read law in cham- bers in Lincoln’s Inn, was admitted a member of the Middle Temple, and called to the bar by that society in 1802. His inn elected him a bencher in 1841, a somewhat rare honour for a non-practising barrister, as Hallam from the first gave himself entirely to literary pursuits. He had a small but sufficient fortune of his own, whilst his Whig friends in due time gave him various appointments —a commissionership of stamps among the rest. In 1805 he was engaged to write for the Edinburgh Review (Byron’s famous satire alludes to him as ‘classic Hallam, much renowned for Greek’), but it was not till he was over forty that he published his first great work. This was his View of Europe during the Middle Ages. It at once gave him a foremost place among English historians. He received in full measure such honours as fall to the lot of successful scholars. He was created a D.C.L., and elected a Fellow of the Royal, the Antiquarian, and many other learned societies at home and abroad. He was also a trustee of the British Museum, in which institution he took a great interest. His life was almost without external incident. Its course was narrow and retired, yet within it he was both singularly fortunate and unfortunate. He had no money cares, he chose his own path in litera- ture, and its very drudgery was delightful to him. He was fond of travel and of the society of cultivated men, and he enjoyed both. He was universally respected and admired. He had married a daughter of Sir Abraham Elton of Clevedon Court, Somerset- shire, and the marriage was a happy one. He was devotedly attached to his wife and children ; but there was some strain of physical weakness in the family. Of many children, only four survived early life. One of them died suddenly at Vienna. He was the Arthur Henry Hallam (1811-33) of Jn Memoriam. That work, rather than the fragments he left, full of promise as these were, will preserve his name. Hallam felt the loss keenly. e spoke of himself as one ‘ whose hopes on this side the tomb are broken down for ever;’ but fate had not ex- hausted its malice. His wife died in 1840. The younger son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam (1824-50), was struck down abroad like his brother. A sister had predeceased him. The father lived on for yet nine years. In the pong ie joys of literature he found some consolation for those deep pangs which learned and unlearned feel with equal anguish. One daughter, wife to Colonel Cator of Pickhurst, in Kent, remained to soothe with pions care his last years. He lived with her till his death, 2st January 1859. He was buried with his wife and children in Clevedon Church, ‘in a still and seques- tered situation on a bare hill that overhangs the Bristol Channel.’ A statue by M. Theed was erected to him in St Paul’s Cathedral in 1862. Hallam’s position as an historian rests upon three great works. (1) View of the State of Europe during 520 © HALLAMSHIRE HALLECK the Middle Ages (2 vols. 1818), the object of which is ‘to exhibit in a series of historical disser- tations a comprehensive survey of the chief cireum- stances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during the period usually denominated the middle ages.’ Special attention is accordingly given to the modes of government and constitutional laws. (2) The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII, to the Death of George II. (2 vols. 1827). ‘he starting-point is so fixed, because Hallam had already discussed the ante- cedent portion in the eighth chapter of his View of the State of Europe. He did not go further, ‘ being influenced by unwillingness to excite the prejudices of modern polities.’ This did not save him from a savage attack by Southey in the Quarterly Review. Macaulay made the book the subject of a brilliant panegyric in his well-known Essay. The work has survived both praise and blame. It is still the stan- dard authority for the period over which it extends; the preceding period was treated by Stubbs; the subsequent, by Sir T. E. May. (3) Introduction to the Literatureof Europe inthe Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries (4 vols. 1837-39). This exhibits an even greater range of information than Hallam’s other works ; but its extent prevented it from being so thorough as they are. The sources are not so original, and it is not of such permanent value as the Constitutional History. either ex- tracts nor biographical details are given, but full analyses of the works discussed. Hallam’s scholarship is accurate, his learning is both wide and deep. He is perfectly honest and perfectly disinterested. He is very anxious to find out the truth and impart it to the reader; and his style is clear and correct. He had some defects. He was a Whig of the old school (he was keenly opposed to the first Reform Bill), and disposed to look at everything from a somewhat narrow party point of view. There is a want of colour and animation about his style, and there is little human interest in his work; he dissects the past, but he does not make it live again for his readers. He is an author ‘rather praised than read,’ or atleast his works are rather consulted by the student than popular with the general reader. Possibly this is the fate he would himself have wished for them. There is oddly enough no complete Life of Hallam. The best accounts are the obituary and funeral notices in the Times, 24th and 31st January 1859, and in the Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of London (vol. x. p. 12, 1859- 60). See also Harriet Martineau’s Biographical Sketches. The Remains of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a memoir by his father, appeared in 1834, and a brief notice of Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam was printed soon after his death. Editions, translations, and abridgments of Hal- lam’s works are numerous. Hallamshire, an ancient manor of the West Riding of Yorkshire, with Sheffield for its capital. It now gives name to a parliamentary division. Halle, a city of Prussian Saxony, known as Halle an der Saale, to distinguish it from other places of the same name in Germany, is situated on the right. bank of the Saale and on several small islands of the river, 20 miles by rail NW. of Leipzig. As an important railway centre, Halle has of late years rapidly increased in size, industry, and pros- penity. Its famous university was founded in 1694 y Frederick I. of Prussia; after having been sup- pressed by Napoleon in 1806, and again in 1813, it was re-established in 1815 and incorporated with the university of Wittenberg, which had been dis- solved during the war. At first a chief seat of the eo school of theology, Halle subsequently ecame the headquarters of the rationalistic and critical schools. In 1888 the university was at- tended by 1501 students, and had 116 professors and lecturers. The Francke Institutions rank amongst the most important establishments of the place (see FRANCKE). The noteworthy buildings and in- stitutions embrace St Mary’s church (1529-54); the: Gothic church of St Maurice, dating from the 12th century, with fine wood-carvings and sculptures ; the red tower 276 feet high, in the market-place, with a Roland statue in front of it ; the town-hall ; the remains of the Moritzburg, built in 1484, the ancient residence of the archbishops of Magdeburg ;. a deaconesses’ home; a large penitentiary; the medical institutes and clinical hospitals ; the agri- cultural institute; the university library (220,000: vols.); a provincial museum; an art collection ; and an archeological and other museums. The most important industrial product of Halle is salt, obtained from brine-springs within and near the town, which have been worked from before: ~ the 7th century, and still yield about 114,500 ewt. annually. The men employed at the salt- springs, and known as ‘ Halloren,’ are a distinct. race, supposed by some to be of Wendish and by others of Celtic descent, who have retained numer- ous ancient and characteristic peculiarities. The industries next in importance after the salt-manu- facture are machine-making, sugar-refining, print- ing, brewing, the manufacture of mineral oil, and fruit cultivation. A very active trade is carried on in machines, raw sugar, mineral oil, grain, and flour. Halle is the birthplace of Handel the com- poser. Pop. (1871) 52,639; (1880) 71,484; (1885) 81,949; (1891) 101,401. Halle, originally a border fortress against the Slavs, became in the 10th century an appanage of the Archbishop of Magdeburg, and by the 12th century was famous as a commercial city. In that and the 13th century Halle was a powertul member of the Hanseatic League, and successfully withstood a fierce siege by the Archbishop of Magdeburg in 1435, but finally fell into his hands in 1478. Terribly impoverished during the Thirty Years’ War, it was. incorporated with Brandenburg at the peace of Westphalia. See works by Von Hagen (1866-67), Voss (1874), and Schénermark (1886). Halle, ADAM DELA. See DRAMA. Hallé, Str CHARLES, an eminent pianist, was born at Hagen, in Westphalia, 11th April 1819. He studied first at Darmstadt, and from 1840 at Paris, where his reputation was established by his. concerts of piaaioal music. But the revolution of 1848 drove him to England, and he ultimately settled in Manchester. He and his highly-trained orchestra were ere long familiar to the music lovers. of the kingdom from London to Aberdeen. He did much to raise the popular standard of musical taste by familiarising the British public with the great classical masters. An LL.D. of Edinburgh (1884), and knighted in 1888, he died 25th October 1895.—LADY HALLE (née Wilhelmine Neruda), violinist, was born at Briinn in Moravia, 29th March 1839. An organist’s daughter, she made her début at Vienna in 1846, and three years. later played first in London at the Philharmonic. She married in 1864 the Swedish musician Nor- ty and, after his death in 1885, Sir Charles: Hallé. Halleck, Firz-GrEENE, an American poet, born at Guilford, Connecticut, July 8, 1790. By his mother he was descended from John Eliot,, ‘the apostle of the Indians.’ He became a clerk in a bank in New York in 1811, and in 1832: the private secretary of John Jacob Astor; in 1849 he retired, on an annuity of $200 left him by Astor, to his native town, where he spent the remainder of his days, and died November 19, 1867. From his boyhood Halleck wrote verses, and in 1819 he contributed, with Joseph Rodman Drake,, a series of humorous satirical papers in verse to i F 3 HALLECK HALLEY 521 the New York Evening Post. In the same year he published his longest , Fanny (2d ed., enlarged, 1821), a satire on the literature, fashions, and politics of the time, in the measure of Don Juan, . He visited Europe in 1822, and in 1827 ublished ieee gern | an edition of his ms (a ed., enlarged, 1845). In 1865 he published oung America, a poem of three hundred lines. His complete Poetical Wires have been edited by his biographer (1869). Halleck is a. fair poet. pre spirited, flowing, graceful, and harmoni- ous. Sota display much geniality and tender feeling. Their humour is quaint and ungent, and if not rich, is always refined. See his We and Letters, edited by James Grant Wilson (1869). Halleck, Henry WaceER, an_ American a: was born at Westernville, New York, 6th January 1815, and graduated at West Point in 1839. During the Mexican war he was em- ployed in the operations on the Pacific coast, and or his gallant services was breveted captain in 1847. He took a leading part in organising the state of California, became captain of engineers in 1853, left the service in_ 1854, and for some time practised law in San Francisco. On the outbreak of the civil war he was commissioned major-general in the regular army, and in November 1861 was appointed commander of the department of the issouri, which in a few weeks he reduced to order. In March 1862 the Confederate first line had been carried from end to end, and Halleck’s command was extended so as to embrace, under the name of the department of the Biseeipet the vast stretch of territory between the Rocky Moun- tains and the Alleghanies. His services in the field ended with the capture of Corinth, with its fifteen miles of intrenchments, in May 1862. In July he became general-in-chief of all the armies of the United States ; and henceforth he directed from Washington the movements of the generals in the field, until, in March 1864, he was super- seded by General Grant. Halleck was chief of staff until 1865, commanded the military division of the Pacific until 1869, and that of the South until his death, 9th January 1872. His Elements of Military Art and Science (1846; new ed. 1861) was much used during the civil war; and he also published books on mining laws, &c. Hialleflinta (Swedish), a very hard compact rock, yellow, , brown, green, gray, or black. It is composed of an intimate mixture of siliceous and felspathic matter, with occasionally scales of chlorite or mica. In hand-specimens it might be readily mistaken for a compact felsite, but in good sections in the field it generally occurs in thin and bands. It appears to be a metamorphic rock —in some cases an altered volcanic mud. Hallein, a town of Austria, 10 miles S. of Salz- burg, is noted for its salt-works and saline baths. Salt is made to the amount of 220,000 ewt. annually. Pop. 3927. Hallelujah, or ALLELUIA (Heb., ‘ Praise ye Jehovah’), one of the forms of doxol used in the ancient church, derived from the “Old Testa- ment, and retained, even in the Greek and Latin liturgies, in the original Hebrew. The singing of the doxology in this form dates from the very earliest times ; but considerable diversity has pre- vailed in different churches and at different periods as to the time of using it. In general it may be said that, being in its own nature a canticle of gladness and triumph, it was not used in the penitential seasons, nor in services set apart for oceasions of sorrow or humiliation. In the time of St Augustine the hallelujah was universally used only from the feast of Easter to that of Pentecost ; but a century afterwards it had become the rule in the West to intermit its use only during the season of Lent and Advent, and on the v of the principal festivals. In the Roman Catholic Church this usage is followed. Haller, ALBRECHT VON, anatomist, botanist, payee, and poet, was born at Bern, 16th ctober 1708. He was a sickly but remarkably precocious child. After a severe course of study, at Tiibingen, Leyden (where he graduated in 1727), London, Paris, Oxford, and Basel, he settled down to practise as a physician at Bern in 1729. There, in the course of seven years, his botanical researches, especially on the flora of Switzerland, and- his anatomical investigations, spread his fame through Europe, and led to his being called (1736) to fill the chair of Medicine, Anatomy, Botany, and Surgery at the newly- founded university of Géttingen. Here he organ- ised a botanical garden, an anatomical museum and theatre, and an obstetrical school; helped to found the Géttingen Royal Academy of Sciences ; wrote a great number of anatomical and_physi- ological works ; took an active part in the literary movement which culminated in the golden age of Goethe and Schiller; and interes himself in nearly all the questions of the day. In 1753 this many-sided man resigned his offices and dignities at Giéttingen and returned to his beloved Bern, where the rest of his life was spent, his energies being principally occupied with the duties of ‘amman’ or magistrate. Nevertheless he found time to write three political romances, and to prepare four large works on the bibliography con- nected with botany, anatomy, surgery, and medi- cine. Critics of the standing of Vilmar name him first among the regenerators of German poetry, and sive him the credit of beginning the new epoch. is poems were descriptive, didactic, and (the best of them) lyrical. aller died at Bern, 12th December 1777. His name is particularly con- nected with muscular irritability, the circulation of the blood, and numerous excellent descriptions, of an anatomico-physiological character, of import- ant parts of the human body. Of his volumin- ous writings the chief were Jcones Anatomice (1743-50), Opuseula Anatomica Minora (1762-68), Disputationes Anatomice Selectiores (1746-52), Elementa Physiologe Corporis Humani (1757-66), De ‘ratione (1746-49), De Functionibus Cor- poris Humani Precipuarum Partium (1777-78), uscula Pathologica (1755), Enumeratio Stirpium elveticarum (1742), Opuscula Botanica (1749), and Gedichte (1732; new ed. 1882). See Lives by Blésch and Hirzel (1877) and Frey (1879). Halley, Epmunp, astronomer and mathema- tician, was born at Haggerston, near London, 29th October 1656, educated at St Paul’s School, and afterwards at Queen’s College, Oxford, which he entered in 1673. Before leaving school he be- came an experimenter in physics, and noticed the variation of the compass. In 1676 he published a paper (in Philosophical Transactions) on the orbits of the principal planets, also observations on a spot on the sun, from which he inferred the sun’s rotation on its axis. In November of the same year he went to St Helena, where he applied h self to the formation of a catalogue of the stars in the southern hemisphere, which he published in 1679 (Catalogus Stellarum Australium). Soon after his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was deputed by that body to go to Danzig (1679) to settle a controversy between Hooke an Helvetius respecting the proper glasses for astro- nomical observations. In 1680 he was again on the Continent; with Cassini at Paris he made observations on the great comet which goes by his name (see CoMET), and the return of which 522) HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS HALL-MARKS he predicted. After his return to England he published in 1683 (Phil. Trans.) his theory of the variation of the magnet. The next year he made the acquaintance of Newton—the occa- sion being his desire to find a test of a conjec- ture which he had made, that the centripetal force in the solar system was one varying inversely as the square of the distance. He found that Newton had anticipated him, both in conjecturing and in demonstrating this fact. For an account of Halley’s connection with the publication of the Principia, see NEWTON. In 1686 Halley published an account of the trade-winds and monsoons on seas near and between the tropics. Two years later he undertook a long ocean voyage for the purpose of testing his theory of the magnetic varia- tion of the compass, and embodied the results of his observations in a chart (1701). In the follow- ing year he surveyed the coasts of the English Channel, and made a chart of its tides. In 1703 he was appointed Savilian professor of Geometry at Oxford, and two years later published his researches on the orbits of the comets. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane he became (1713) secretary of the Royal Society, and held that position until 1721. During this period he made valuable experiments with the diving-bell (see DivinG). In 1720, after the death of Flamsteed, he became astronomer-royal, and his last years he spent in ees See moon through a revolution of her nodes. e died at Greenwich, 14th January 1742. His Tabule Astro- nomice did not appear till 1749. Among his prin- cipal astronomical discoveries may be mentioned that of the long inequality of Jupiter and Saturn, and that of the slow acceleration of the moon’s mean motion. He has the honour of having been the first who predicted the return of a comet, and also of having recommended the observation of the transits of Venus with a view to determining the sun’s parallax—a method of ascertaining the parallax first suggested by James Gregory. Halliwell-Phillipps, JAMES ORCHARD, a great Shakespearian scholar and antiquary, was born at Chelsea in 1820, the son of Thomas Halli- well. He studied at’ Jesus College, Cambridge, and, yet an undergraduate, began that long career as an editor which he neue up almost till the close of life. His studies embraced the whole field of our earlier literature, plays, ballads, popular rhymes and folklore, chap-books, and English dialects, and its fruits remain in the publications of the old Shakespeare and Percy societies. As early as 1839 he was elected Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian societies. Gradually he came to con- centrate himself upon Shakespeare alone, and more particularly upon the facts of his life, the successive editions of his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (1848 ; 8th ed. 1889) recording the growing results of his discoveries. For many years he waged a brave warfare with fortune, but in 1872 he took over the management of the property his wife (died 1879) inherited from her father, Thomas Phillipps, and assumed his father-in-law’s name. In his quaint house at Hollingbury Copse near Brighton he accumulated an unrivalled collection of Shakespearian books, MSS., and rarities of every kind, and dispensing hospitalities to scholarly visitors from all parts of England and America, as well as giving princely benefactions of books to Edinburgh University, Stratford, and Birmingham. Here he died, January 3, 1889. The privately printed Calendar (1887) of his collection embraced asmany as 804 different items. | By his will it was first offered, at the price of £7000, to the corporation of Birmingham; but it was not accepted. Apart from Shakespeare, his Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Tales of England (1845) and Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words (1847; 6th ed. 1868) will keep his name from being for- gotten. His magnificent edition in folio of the Works of Shakespeare (16 vols. 1853-65) was pub- lished at a price prohibitive to most students. Hall-marks, or PLATE-MARKS, are authorised legal impressions made on articles of gold and silver at the various assay offices in the United Kingdom for the purpose of indicating to the public the true value and fineness of the metal of which they are composed. The marks are a series of symbols, which are stamped in an embossed style extending in a line of about one-half to three- quarters of an inch in length, the size of the marks varying with that of the articles on which they are impressed. They are usually stamped on every separate piece that is used to compose or make up an article. These symbols have the following re- resentation : (1) The maker’s mark, which is the initials of his Christian and surname, used since 1739. (2) The standard or Her Majesty’s mark— viz. for gold of 22 carats, a crown and 22; for gold of 18 carats, a crown and 18; for gold of 15 carats, 15 and °625 ; for gold of 12 carats, 12 and ‘5; and for gold of 9 carats, 9 and ‘375. These standard intied represent England; they are different for Scotland and Ireland. In the Edinburgh assay office the marks are: for gold of 22 carats, a thistle and 22; for gold of 18 carats, a thistle and 18; for gold of 15 carats, 15; for gold of 12 carats, 12; and for gold of 9 carats, 9. For Glasgow they are: for gold of 22 carats, a lion rampant and 22; for gold of 18 carats, a lion rampant and 18; for gold of 15 carats, a lion rampant and 15; for gold of 12 carats, a lion rampant and 12; and for gold of 9 carats, a lion rampant and 9. For Ireland the standard marks are: for gold of 22 carats, a harp crowned and 22; for gold of 20 carats—extra standard for Ireland only—a plume of feathers and 20; for gold of 18 carats, a unicorn’s head and 18; for gold of 15 carats, 15 and °625; for gold of 12 carats, 12 and ‘5; and for gold of 9 carats, 9 and ‘375. For England the silver standard marks are a lion passant for metal composed of 11 oz. 2 dwt. of fine silver to 18 dwt. of alloy, and Britannia for 11 oz. 10 dwt. fine silver to 10 dwt. alloy. For Scotland, a thistle for 11 oz. 2 dwt., and a thistle and Britannia for 11 oz. 10 dwt. at the Edinburgh assay office; and a lion rampant for 11 oz. 2 dwt., and a lion rampant and Britannia for 11 oz. 10 dwt. at the Glasgow assay office. For Ireland, a crowned harp for 11 oz. 2 dwt. No new standard of 11 oz. 10 dwt. is assayed and marked in Ivre- land. The figures in the gold standards denote the number of carats fine there are in any article bearing them, pure gold being reckoned at 24 carats ; so that if a piece of gold-plate or jewelry is marked with a crown and 18 it indicates that it consists of 18 parts of pure gold and 6 parts of some other and inferior metal. This allo would consist of three-fourths gold and one-fourt alloy. Gold as low in fineness as 9 carats is now legal, and as it is marked by the assay author-_ ities there can be no deception if the public rightly — understand the hall-marks introduced for their benefit. If they do not, then they are likely to be deceived. Nine-carat gold is a little over one- third pure gold. (3) The hall-mark of the assay towns: London, a leopard’s head; Birmingham, an anchor; Chester, a dagger and three wheat sheaves; Sheffield, a crown; Newcastle, three castles ; Exeter, a castle with three towers ; Edin- burgh, a castle; Glasgow, a tree, fish, and bell; Dublin, Hibernia. (4) The duty mark : the Queen’s head, or head of the reigning sovereign, introduced in the year 1784. (5) The ate mark: each assay office has now its letter or date mark, changed every year; 20 to 26 letters of the alphabet i used in rotation, and repeated in different styles o HALLOWEEN HALLUCINATIONS 523 letter. In London the assay year commences on the 30th May, and is indicated by one of twenty letters of the alphabet, A to U, omitting the letter J. The question has been raised whether the hall- marking system ought not to be discontinued, The followin table (made up from Cripps) shows specimens of the different alphabets used by the oldsmiths’ Company of London as date-letters from 1478; variety in the shape of the shields being also used as a further distinction : 1478 to 1498—Lombardic, 1696 to 1716— caps., double cusps. Court hand. 1498 to 1518— 1716 to 1786 — Black letter, small. Roman, capitals. 1518 to 1538 - 1736 to 1756— Lombardic, capitals. Roman, small. 1538 to 1558— 1756 to 1776— ¢ Roman and other caps. Black letter, capitals. 1558 to 1578— a) 1776 to 1796— Black letter, small. : Roman, small. 1578 to 1598— [A 1796 to 1816— Roman, capitals. <*» Roman, capitals, 1598 to 1618—Lombardic, m 1816 to 1836— capitals, external cusps. Roman, small. 1618 to 1638— 2 1836 to 1856 — Italian, small. ww Black letter, capitals. 1638 to 1658 — ‘by 1856 to 1876— Court hand. J) Black letter, small. 1658 to 1678— 1876 to 1896— Black letter, capitals. Roman, capitals. 1678 to 1696— (2) 1896 to 1916— ig Black letter, small. Roman, small. The accompanying figure shows a Birmingham silver plate-mark. 1, the maces Bicone 2, 8 a standard mark; 3, the Ea.Co(%) 3) @®) hall-mark of Birming- ham; 4, the duty-mark ; 5, the date-letter for the year 1889. See Cripps, Old English Plate, its Makers and Marks (1878; new ed. 1889); and Gee, Zhe Hall-marking of Jewellery practically considered (1889). Halloween, the name popularly given to the eve or vigil of All Hallows, or festival of All Saints, which being the 1st of November, Hallow- een is the evening of the 3lst of October. In podiend and Scotland it was long consecrated to harmless fireside revelries, with many cere- monies for divining a future sweetheart. See Burns’s ‘ Halloween’ and Chambers’s Book of Days. The similar Irish customs are illustrated in Maclise’s ‘ Drop-apple Night.’ Hallstatt, an Austrian village near Gmunden, once a great Celtic capital. Bee Thon AGE. Hallucinations. To realise in any proper way what memory is from the physiological point of view, we must assume that every impression on the senses is conducted by molecular move- ments through the nerves to the ultimate cells of the brain, which then undergo a certain molec- ular change that is revealed to consciousness as the qualities of the thing seen or heard or felt. By a process of instinctive reasoning the thing itself is thus instantly realised in the grown man, but not in the child. This molecular change in the cells may be evanescent, or it may be lasting. When lasting, the impression may be said to be ‘registered,’ so that it can come before conscious- ness again, and be ‘remembered.’ Each act of memory of the same impression in a healthy brain adds to the distinctness of the istration, and it is thus more and more ily recalled or suggested, either spontaneously or from without. The millions of brain-cells contain an incon- ceivable number of such registered impressions of things seen, heard, touched, smelt, and tasted, besides the Pe ar of past states of feeling, past trains of thought, and recombinations of them by means of the imagination. It is in no way thought a strange thing that we can recall all these in memory at any time, or that by un- conscious processes of association they project themselves across the field of consciousness irre- spective of our wills. It is not thought so very strange that, when we take a dose of opium or cocaine, the registered images lying in the brain-cells rise up and come across our consciousness 80 vividly that we cannot distinguish between them and real objects seen with the eyes. The same phenome- non often occurs in conditions of half sleep. In dreaming the impressions appear perfectly real to the half-consciousness existing at the time. Now there are certain very sensitive people, who have an element of the morbid in their brain condition or heredity similar to the morbid- ness caused bya dose of cocaine. This being so, what is the difficulty in believing that those regis- tered brain images should stand out, and seem to the consciousness as real as the original impression, and so produce a hallucination, or a subjective impression from an image already in the brain that is practically the same to the consciousness as the impression from a real object? This is in no way more remarkable than memory itself. It is simply more unusual. It is very questionable whether the original acts of memory of the young child are not all of the nature of hallucinations. The after recol- lections of things seen and of things imagined are certainly so real to some children that they confuse them with things seen or experienced. a man can by using tests, and by the use of his reason, be made to know that the thing that appears to be seen and real is not so, and has no objective exist- ence where he sees it, and that it is his brain that is playing him a trick, he has a sane hallucination. If he cannot be made to do so, and thinks it a real object, he is insane to this extent. The condition of hypnotism illustrates the origin of hallucinations better than almost anything else. Hypnotism (q.v.) is a modified, artificially-induced lathe in which the consciousness is changed but not abolished, and the reasoning power much impaired. If a pores hypnotised is told that a piece of ice is red- 10t, he will not touch it, and if he is made to do so, he behaves as if he had touched hot iron. His whole mental condition is one of tempora hallucinations of every sort. Yet in the face of all these scientific facts and reasonable hypotheses and deductions we have persons calling in the aid of imaginary forces, ‘ telepathy,’ ‘spirits,’ ‘ psychic force,’ &c., to explain hallucinations, and associa- tions formed for ‘ psychical research,’ evidently on the theory that there can be a cause for hallucina- tions other than the registered images in the brain itself, together with altered conditions of con- sciousness. Many religious leaders and others in a state of intense brain excitement from religious or other causes have had hallucinations, after they had been sinning against nature’s laws by depriving themselves of sleep and of exer- cise, and by exposing themselves to the contagion of morbid feeling interspersed by reason or com- mon sense. Luther's seeing the devil, and throw- ing his ink-bottle at him, and Swedenborg’s seeing spiritual beings among the ministers at the council board are certainly explicable on the theory of suggestion and a temporary morbidness of brain-working. But, say the telepathists, ‘two people have had the same hallucination at the same moment. How can that be explained on brain-cell prin- ciples?’ If two people had been thinking of the same thing—for example, a dear friend or relative of both who was ill and supposed to be dying— and if both were sensitive persons, and their feelin were very excited at the time, what marvel is it if 524 HALLUIN HALOS through a rare coincidence they had seen the form of the dying friend? And if this impression hap- pened to be near the time when he died, is it remarkable in the unscientific state of most minds that they made out it was the same moment that they both saw their friend’s form appear and walk out at the door? When such duplicate hallucina- tions are probed by hard scientific methods it is always found that the hour of seeing them by the two people was not quite the same, that one had previously made a suggestion to the other forgotten in the excitement of the moment, or that the figures seen by them had on different clothing, or had uite different beards. Without far more evidence than has been brought forward by the pseudo- scientific believers in ghosts and apparitions, an age of science will never admit a hallucination to be anything but a brain phenomenon, obscure per- haps, but no more obscure than many other corre- lated facts of brain and mind. Every advance that is made in our knowledge of the brain and its work- ing in relation to mind renders the rational and scientific explanation of all the hallucinations of the sane recorded by trustworthy, unbiassed observers more easy and probable, and makes less excusable the calling in to explain the facts of new and unknown ‘forces’ or ‘influences’ in nature beyond those we know and can scientifically investigate. Hallucinations may be of all the senses, and may be of every degree of variety and complication, from flashes of’ light to armies of men, from hummings in the ear to strains of ‘celestial music.’ But it has never been proved, as ought certainly to have occurred if there was any reality in those occult forces, that anythin has ever been seen or heard by any one whic the person might not possibly have seen or im- agined previously, so that its image might be lying registered in his brain-cells; and no new knowledge has ever come to humanity from- such sources. Hallucinations were much more common among primitive peoples and in the early ages of the world than they are now. See INSANITY. Halluin, a town in the French department of Nord, 10 miles NNE. of Lille. Weaving of linen and woollen goods, bleaching, brick-making, and the manufacture of oil, chemicals, and chocolate are the principal industries. Pop. 9809. Halmstad, a seaport of Sweden, and capital of the province of Halland, on the Cattegat, 75 miles SE. of Gothenburg, with trade in corn, wood, flour, and coal, and salmon-fisheries. Pop. 11,825. Halogens, or SALT-pRoDUCERS (Gr. hals, ‘salt’), are a well-characterised group of non- metallic elements—chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine—which form with metals compounds analogous to sea-salt. For haloid salts, see SALT. Haloragex, an order of thalamifloral dicoty- ledons, vegetatively reduced from Onagracez (q.v.). There are about seventy known species, herbaceous or half-shrubby ; universally distributed, and almost all aquatic, or growing in wet places. The stems and leaves often have large air-cavities. The plants are insignificant in appearance, and the flowers generally much reduced. None of them have any important uses, except those of the genus Trapa (q.v.). The only British species are the Mare’s Pail (Hippuris vulgaris) and the Water- milfoils (Myriophyllum). Halos and Coronz. Halos are circles of light surrounding the sun or moon, and are due to the presence of ice-crystals in the air. The commonest and usually the brightest has a radius of about 22 degrees—i.e. this is the angular distance from the sun to its inner edge. This size can be computed from the hexagonal shape and known refractive power of ice-crystals. The calculation shows that light passing through the sides of such a crystal is bent at an angle varyin with the direction in which it falls on the erystal, but never less than 214 degrees, which is therefore called the angle of minimum deviation, and in the greater number of cases not greatly exceeding that angle. If, therefore, the air between the observer and the sun or moon be filled with such erystals the light will be thrown outwards beyond the angle of minimum deviation, and will mostly appear at about 22 degrees distance from the sun or moon, forming a circle round it. As blue light is slightly more refrangible than red it is thrown farther out, and the halo appears coloured red inside and blue outside. Some of the crystals may, however, be lying so that the light enters at a side and leaves at one end, or vice versd, in which case the angle of minimum deviation is about 46 degrees, at which distance a_ second fainter halo is frequently seen with colours in the same order as in the first. These colours are generally well seen in solar halos, but not in lunar, as the moon’s light is too faint to give distinct colour to each part. _In addition to the above, a third still larger halo has been seen. There are only four observations of this halo on record, and the radius has been estimated in the different cases at from 81 degrees to 90 degrees. The cause of this halo has not been ascertained. It is not coloured, and may be due either to some more complex form of ice-crystal or to internal reflection from the hexagonal crystals. Another phenomenon sometimes seen with halos is the Parhelic circle, which is a white circle passing through the sun and parallel with the horizon. It is caused by light reflected from the surfaces of ice- crystals falling vertically through the air. When the sun is near the horizon this circle is intensified at distances of 22 degrees and 46 degrees from the sun, and forms parhelia or mock-suns, and another mock-sun is sometimes seen on this circle directly opposite the sun. A similar circle is also formed passing vertically through the sun by reflection from the upper and under surfaces of the ice-crystals. Halos are sometimes accompanied by contact arches, which are ares of circles touching the halos of 22 degrees and 46 degrees ; they are formed by long hexagonal prisms floating horizontally in the air, and are curved away from the sun when it is below 30 degrees altitude, but are concave towards it at greater elevations. Several other more com- plex forms of halo have been seen in the arctice regions, but are of rare occurrence in Britain. alos must not be confused with Corone, which are smaller coloured circles that appear round the sun or moon when they shine through thin cloud or mist. In these the red is the outermost colour, and several successive sets of coloured rings are usually formed. They are due to the diffraction the light undergoes in passing among the drops of which the cloud is composed. The radius of the first red ring of a corona varies from 1 degree to 3 degrees, according to the size of the drops, and the radii of the others are successive multiples of that of the first. When the sun shines on a bank of fog a large bow of about 40 degrees radius, resembling a rain- bow, but not so brightly coloured, is seen. It is often double, like the rainbow. Owing to the smaller size of the water-drops in a fog than in falling rain, the Fogbow is wider and fainter than the rainbow. The law determining the order of the colours—whether red inside or red outside— has not yet been thoroughly worked out. If the observer is standing on an elevated point so that his shadow falls on the fog, coloure Glories or Anthelia are often seen. Five or six sets of colours have been observed, the outermost ee rings called — HALOS HAM 525 having a radius not exceeding 12 degrees. In each ring the red is outside, showing that it is a diffrac- tion effect like a corona, but the exact cause has not been determined. If the fog is very near, the observer's shadow is visible, forming what is known as the Brocken Spectre (see MIRAGE); and if the fog is thin the shadow looks farther away than it really is, and is therefore supposed by the spectator to be of gigantic size. Halos, in religious art. See Numsus. Hals, Frans, the elder, portrait and genre inter, was born, probably at Antwerp, in 1580 or 581, though some authorities give 1584 as the date. His parents, members of an old Haarlem family, returned to that city about 1600, and Hals studied under Karel van Mander and, according to some accounts, under Rubens. Some ten years later he married Anneke Hermanszoon, and in 1615 he was summoned before the magistrates and reprimanded for ill-treating his wife and for his drunken and disorderly life. A few weeks later his wife died, and in 1617 he married a woman of doubtful character, Lysbeth Reynier. In his later years, in spite of his unceasing industry, to which the numerous works from his hand in the conti- nental galleries bear witness, he fell into poverty, and was relieved by the municipality of Haarlem, who in 1664 bestowed on him a pension of 200 florins. He died at Haarlem in 1666, and on the Ist of September was buried in the church of St Bavon. Hals is usually regarded as the founder of the Dutch school of genre-painting. His ate of feasting and carousal are treated with marvellous vivacity and spirit, and as a portrayer of faces con- vulsed with leaguer he is without a rival. His portraits are full of character, and catch with admirable subtlety the lightest shades of passing expression. Technically his work is masterly, his handling being most direct and powerful ; Dat a certain hardness and crudeness of tone is frequently apparent in his rendering of flesh, and his later works have little variety of colouring, and show an unpleasant blackness in the shadows. Of his por- trait groups eight noble examples are preserved in the museum of Haarlem, the finest being that dated 1633, representing the officers of the corps of St Adrian. The ‘Mandoline Player’ (1630), in the ery of Amsterdam, is a typical example of is treatment of single figures. A series of excel- lent etchings after the works of Hals, by Professor William Unger, with text by C. Vosmaer, was published in Leyden in 1873. As a teacher he exercised a marked influence upon the develop- ment of Dutch art, Jan Verspronck, Van der Helst, Adrian van Ostade, Adrian Brouwer, and Wouwerman having been his pupils. An interesting view of the interior of his studio, dated 1652, by Job Berch-Heyde, another of his scholars, is in the Haarlem Museum.—His brother, Dirk HALSs, a pupil of Abraham Bloemaert, was also an excellent genre-painter (b. before 1600, d. 1656); and several of Frans’s sons were artists, the most celebrated being Frans Hals, the younger, who flourished from about 1637 to 1669. Halstead, a market-town of Essex, on the Colne, 56 miles NE. of London. The parish church has a wooden spire and many old monuments ; the free grammar-school dates from 1590. It has manu- factures of crape, silk, and paper; straw-plaiting is also carried on. Pop. 6959. Halyburton, THOMAS, a Scotch divine, was born at Dupplin near Perth in 1674, and was for eleven years minister of Ceres in Fife, and then for two professor of Divinity at St Andrews, where he died in September 1712. He was the author of several works, including Natural Reli- gion insufficient, and Revealed necessary, to Man’s Happiness ; The Great Concern of Salvation ; and Ten Sermons preached before and after the Cele- bration of the Lord’s Supper. The works, especi- ally the autobiographic memoir, of the ‘Holy Halyburton’ were once very popular among the oa of Scotland; and even at the present ay they are still read. They were published, together with an Essay on his Life and Writings, by Dr Robert Burns (London, 1835). Halys. See Asta Minor. Ham, properly the hind part or angle of the knee; but usually applied to the cured thigh of the hog or sheep, more especially the first. Ham- curing, or, What is the same thing, bacon-curing, is performed in a variety of methods, each country or district having its own peculiar treatment; these, however, relate to minor points. The essential operations are ‘as follows: The meat is first well rubbed with salt, and either left on a bench that the brine may drain away, or covered up in a close vessel ; after a few days it is rubbed again, this time with a mixture of salt and saltpetre, to which sugar is sometimes added, or with a mixture of salt and sugaralone. Itis then consigned to the bench or tub for at least a week longer, after which it is generally ready for drying. Wet salting re- quires, on the whole, about three weeks; dry salting, a week longer. Mutton-hams should not be a in pickle longer than about three weeks. Some hams are merely hung up to dry without being smoked; others, after being dried, are remov to the smoking-house, which consists of two and sometimes three stories ; the fire is kindled in the lowest, and the meat is hung up in the second and third stories, to which the smoke ascends. The fire is kept up with supplies of oak or beech chips, though in some districts twigs of juniper, and in many parts of Great cia gar aps are used. Fir, larch, and such kinds of wood, on account of the unpleasant flavour they impart, are on no account to be used. The fire must be kept, night and day, in a smouldering state for three or four days, at the end of which time the ham, if not more than five or six inches deep, is perfectly smoked. As cold weather is preferable for the operation of curing, it is chiefly carried on during winter. Many of the country-people in those parts of England where wood and peat are used for fuel smoke hams by hanging them up inside large wide chimneys, a method common in Westmorland. The curing of beef and mutton hams is carried on chiefly in the north of England and Dumfriesshire in Seotland ; that of pork-hams, on the other hand, is found in various countries, among the best known bein those connected in commerce with the names o Belfast and Westphalia. Harris of Calne, Wilt- shire, introduced an ammonia freezing-process avail- able both summer and winter. Chicago (q.v.) is the chief centre of the enormous American industry of pork-packing.. The imports of bacon and hams into the United eingdoan in 1888 amounted to 3,594,212 ewt., of a value of £8,343,387. Of this quantity the value from the United States was £3,874,170, from Denmark £1,389,047. The import of hams only in 1888 was 730,408 ewt., of the value of £1,929,602. The total value of the imports of bacon and hams in 1886 was £8,402,828 ; in 1894, £10,855,715. The total export of bacon and hams from the United States is valued at upwards of $30,000,000 a year. See Pra. Ham, a town in the French department of Somme, on the river of that name, 12 miles SW. of St Quentin. Its ancient fortress or castle was rebuilt by the Comte de Saint Pol in 1470, and now is used as a state-prison. It is memor- able as the place of confinement of Joan of Are Moncey, and others ; of Polignac, Peyronnet, an 526 HAM HAMBURG Guernon de Ranville from 1831 to 1836; of Louis Napoleon from 1840 till 1846; and after the coup détat, of the republican generals Cavaignac, Lamoriciére, Changarnier, &c. Pop. 2837. See Gomard, Ham, son Chateau, &c. (1864). Ham, WEST, a suburb of East London, and a parliamentary and county borough of Essex, on the north bank of the Thames, opposite Greenwich. In fifty years its population grew from 10,000 to 204,903 (1891), principally owing to the Victoria and Albert docks and the gas-works. It isa bus industrial parish, and has silk-printing, shipbuild- ing, distilling, and chemical manufactures. In 1885 it was made a parliamentary borough, return- ing two members to the House of Commons. Here is Mrs Elizabeth Fry’s house, ‘The Cedars.’—EAstT HAM, situated in the south-west of the same county, 14 miles SW. of Barking, has a population of 9713. See Katharine Fry, History of the Parishes of East and West Ham (1888). Ham, according to the writer of Genesis, was the second son of Noah, and the brother of Shem and Japheth. The name, however, as generall used, is geographical rather than ethnographical. The word Ham in Hebrew signifies ‘to be hot,’ and the descendants of this son of Noah are re- presented as peopling the southern regions of the earth, so far as known at that time—viz. Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, &c. Ham has also been identified with Kemi (‘ black land’), an ancient name of Egypt; but for this identification there exists no satisfactory philo- logical evidence. Philologists and ethnologists recognise as a distinct family of peoples and tongues a group which they call ‘ Hamitic,’ classifying it as co-ordinate with the Aryan and the Semitic. See Arrica, Vol. I. pp. 85, 86. WMamadan, a town of Persia, in the province of Irak Ajemi, is situated at the northern base of Mount Elwend, 160 miles WSW. of Teheran. It contains some notable tombs—e.g.. Avicenna’s (q.v.) and others affirmed to be those of Mordecai and Esther. Being the centre of converging routes from Bagdad, Erivan, Teheran, and Ispahan, it is the seat of a large transit trade; and it carries on exten- sive manufactures of leather, and in a less degree of coarse carpets and woollen and cotton fabrics. Pop. 30,000. Hamadan is generally believed to oceupy the site of the Median Ecbatana (q.v.). Hamadryads. See Nympus.—The name Hamadryas is given to a kind of Baboon (q.v.); and the: Hamadryas or Ophiophagus elaps is the largest poisonous snake of the Old World, larger and more dangerous than any of the cobras, with which it has almost the same geographical range. Hamah (Gr. Epiphania), the HAMATH of the Bible, a very ancient city of Syria, on the Orontes, 110 miles N. by E. of Damascus. The town stands in the midst of gardens, though the streets are narrow and irregular, and the houses are built of sun-dried bricks and wood. The inhabitants, about 45,000, manufacture coarse woollen mantles and yarn, and carry on considerable trade with the Bedouins. Hamath seems to have come very early in conflict with the Assyrians, having been taken by them in 854 B.c. and again in 743, whilst two revolts of the people were crushed by the Assyrians in 740 and 720 B.c. After the Greeco-Macedonian conquest of Syria, Hamah became known as Epi- phania. In 639 it fell into Moslem hands, and, though it was held by Tancred from 1108 to 1115, it was again taken possession of by the Moslems. Abulfeda, the Arab geographer, was prince of Hamah in the 14th century. Four stones were discovered there in 1812 by Burckhardt, bearin inscriptions in an unknown lasisrastes, now believe to be Hittite (q.v.). Hamamelidez. See Witch HAZEL. Mamann, JOHANN GeEoRG, a German writer, born at Kénigsberg in Prussia, 27th August 1730. The incompleteness and aimlessness which charac- terised his education clung to him all his days: he made numerous starts in life, but followed no one calling for long; in turn, student of philosophy, of theology, of law, private tutor, merchant, tutor again, commercial traveller, student of literature and the ancient languages, and clerk, he at length settled down in Konigsberg in 1767 as an official in the excise. Nevertheless he lived but meanly until the present by a patron, in 1784, of a sum of money raised him above want. He died at Miinster, 2ist June 1788. His writings are, like his life, desultory and without system ; but even as such they exer- cised a perceptible influence upon Jacobi, Herder, Goethe, and Jean Paul. For in spite of their symbolical and oracular style, qualities which led to their author being designated the ‘ Magus of the North,’ they contain the results of thoughtful and extensive reading, are rich in suggestive thought, encrusted with paradox and sarcasm, and thorough] bristle with literary allusions. Hamann’s independ- ence and love of honest truth made him, however, unpopular with his contemporaries, except the more thoughtful few. Compare Roth’s edition of his Stimmitliche Schriften (8 vols. 1821-45) or Gildemeister’s (6 vols., including biography, 1857- 73). See Lives by Poel (1874-76) and Claasen (1885). Hambato, or AMBATO, capital of Tunguragua province, Ecuador, in a sheltered amphitheatre on the northern slope of Chimborazo, 8860 feet above the sea. It was twice destroyed—by an eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, and by an earthquake in 1796, but was speedily rebuilt. Pop. 12,000. Hamburg, a constituent state of the German empire, includes the free city of Hamburg, the towns Bergedorf and Cuxhaven, and _ several suburbs and communes, with a total area of 158 sq. m. The free Hanseatic city of Hamburg is situated on the Elbe, about 75 miles from the German Ocean, 112 N. of Hanover, and 177 NW. of Berlin. Ham- burg was founded by Charlemagne in 808, and for three centuries had to struggle hard to maintain itself against the marauding Danes and Slavs. It was made a bishopric in 831, and three years later an archbishopric. This last dignity was trans- ferred to Bremen in 1223. The commercial history of Hamburg began in 1189-90, when the emperor granted it various privileges, amongst others a - separate judicial system and exemption from cus- toms dues. In 1241 it joined with Liibeck in laying the foundation of the Hanseatic League (q.v.), an from 1259 associated itself closely with Bremen also. From that time it increased rapidly in wealth and commercial importance, augmenting its territory by the purchase of the township of Ritzebiittel, at the mouth of the Elbe (where the harbour of Cuxhaven is now situated ), and of several villages and islands in the vicinity of the town. Under the protection of the German emperors Hamburg soon became owerful enough to defend itself and its commerce oth by sea and land, and carried on war for a con- siderable period against sea-rovers and the Danes. In 1510 it was made an imperial town by Maxi- milian I. It early embraced the doctrines of the Reformation. During the stormy period of the Thirty Years’ War it never had an enemy within its walls. All through the years from 1410 to 1712 there were repeated risings of the populace against the governing classes. The disputes with Denmark finally ceased in 1768, that power renouncing all claim to Hamburg territory. The rapid commercial success and steadily increasing prosperity of the city were only momentarily checked by a severe . HAMBURG HAMERLING 527 crisis in 1763. On the other hand, the ch Revolution drove many of the émigrés to burg, and the ranks of its merchants were still further strengthened by refugees from Holland, ~ when that country was overrun by the French in 1795. But eleven years later Hamburg itself occupied by the French, and with that event commenced for the city a period of great tribulation. In 1810 it was annexed to the French empire, but at the same time lost its commerce and _ its shipping trade. For having in 1813 admitted Russians within its walls the city was cruelly treated by Davoiit, Napoleon’s general; and the eup of its misery was filled to the brim by the siege which Bennigsen began in that same year. Between 1806 at) 1814, when the French occu- eaten came to an end by the capitulation of voit to the allies, the population decreased by nearly one-half, namely to 55,000, and had to endure losses of property estimated at £7,000,000. In the following year Hamburg eee the Ger- — Confederation es one of ope our free ane, and its prosperit, n rapidly to revive. An- other alasniie amhaak the town in 1842: in three days one-third of. Hamburg was destroyed by fire, and more than two millions sterling worth of property lost. That part of the town was, however, immediately rebuilt in modern style. The older portion is intersected by canals, which serve as waterways between the river and the ware- houses. The ramparts have been converted into gardens and promenades. In 1843 an agitation was set on foot for a reform in the constitution, a step which it took eighteen years to carry into effect. On Ist October 1888 Hamburg entered the German Customs Union, though still retaining part of its territory as a ‘free port.’ This change has necessitated extensive alterations in the harbour : several quays have been built, warehouses con- structed, steam-cranes erected, and the railway communication with the chief industrial centres of Germany improved. In 1890 new docks were in course of construction at Cuxhaven for the use of the t ocean-going steamers. The finest public buildings are the ‘school house’ (containing the town library of 400,000 volumes and 5500 MSS., and a natural history museum), town-house, picture-gallery, exchange, bank, t-office, and some churches. Of these last four are notice- able—St Nicholas, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, as a memorial of the fire of 1842, a handsome Gothic building, with a spire 482 feet high; St Michael’s, an 18th-century Renaissance church, with a spire 469 feet high ; and St Cather- ine’s and St James’s, both Gothic edifices of the 14th and 15th centuries. In addition to numerous excellent schools and charitable institutions, Ham- burg possesses a school of navigation, with which is connected an observatory, a zoological and a botani- cal garden, and several museums and art-galleries. Hamburg has played an important part in the history of the German stage. Hamburg is the busiest commercial city on the conrinent of Europe, and the principal commercial seaport of Germany. Next to London it has the largest money-exchange transactions in Europe; the bank of Hamburg was founded so long ago as 1619. As a commercial centre its only rivals are London, Liverpool, Antwerp, and New York. Its manu- factures, though a long way inferior in value to its commerce, are not unimportant. The principal are cigar-making, distilling of spirits, sugar-refining, brewing, engineering, iron-founding, manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber wares, furniture, starch, and jute, and shipbuilding. In 1865 the number of vessels that entered the port was 5186, with a gross burden of 1,223,000 tons; these figures rose to 5260 vessels and 2,118,000 tons in 1875, and to 6790 vessels and 3,704,000 tons in 1885, whilst in 1887 they were 7308 vessels and 3,990,000 tons. The number and tonnage of the vessels that cleared were about the same in the corresponding years. Of the vessels entering in 1887 about 36 per cent. were British. The imports have increased at an extraordinarily rapid rate: in 1864 they were valued at £57,976,000, in 1875 at £85,050,000, in 1885 at £102,300,000, and in 1887 at £111,948,800. These returns do not include bullion. The total value of the trade of Hamburg with Great Britain and her possessions amounted to £28,000,000 in 1887. Of the imports about one-half represent the value of goods brought into Hamburg by rail and river (Elbe) from the interior of the country. Next after Great Britain the countries with which Hamburg has commercial transactions of the greatest magnitude are the United States, the countries on the west and east coasts of South America, France, Holland and Belgium, Central America, Russia, the East Indies and China, and the east and west coasts of Africa. Hamburg owes a large part of its trade to its position as a distrib- uting centre for commodities brought from distant , parts of the world, to be afterwards sent to the different countries of Europe. In 1891 the total im- ports (without bullion ) were valued at £138,270,000, and the eeporss at £121,795,000. Hamburg is a great port for emigration. The city was severely visited by cholera in autumn of 1892; there were 17,000 cases and 9000 deaths. In 1880 the popula- tion of the state was 518,468. In 1890 the popula- tion was, in the city, 323,923; suburbs, 245,337; rest of the territory, 53,270; total of the state, 622,530. There were 23,351 Catholics, and 17,877 Jews. See Ménckeberg, Geschichte der Freien und Hanse-Stadts Hamburg (1885); Gaedechens, Historische Topographie Freien und Hanse-Stadt Hamburg (1880); and two historical works by Gallois (1856-57 and 1861-65). Hameln, a town and formerly a fortress of Hanover, occupies a commanding position on the Weser, 25 miles SW. of Hanover. It presents a quite medieval appearance, having many houses and buildings surviving from the Gothic and Renaissance periods of architecture. The chain- bridge which here crosses the Weser was completed in 1839, and is about 840 feet in length. The chief employments of the people are machine-making, iron-founding, wool-spinning, fish-breeding, brew- ing, and the manufacture of eather. paper, artificial manure, and chemicals. In the earliest times Hameln belonged to the Abbey of Fulda, and was a member of the Hanseatic Confederation. It suffered severely during the Thirty Years’ War. Pop. (1885) 11,831. With this town is connected the well-known legend of the Piper (or Ratcatcher ) of Hameln, who in 1284 freed the town from rats through the mystic charm of his pipe; but, when the people refused to pay him the promised reward, he exercised the power of his music upon the children of the place, and drew them away into the heart of an adjoining hill, which opened to receive them, and through which he led them to Transylvania. The story is familiar from Browning's ‘ Pied Piper of Hamelin.’ Hamerling, Rosert, Austrian poet, was born of poor parents at Kirchberg in the Forest, in Lower Austria, on 24th March 1830. Having completed his studies at Vienna, Hamerling became a teacher in the gymnasium at Trieste in 1855. But at the end of eleven years of work, ill-health compelled him to retire. From that time down to the date of his death, on 13th July 1889, he lived at Gratz, almost entirely confined to his bed, but nevertheless leading a busy life as a writer of poetry. He began his career by the publication in 1860 of a volume of lyrics, Sinnen und Minnen (7th ed. 528 HAMERTON HAMILTON 1886 ; each edition enlarged and improved). His lyric talent found expression also in such later works as Das Schwanenlied der Romantik (1862), Amor und Psyche (1882), and Blidtter im Winde (1887). But his best books are three satirical epics —Ahasver in Rom (1866; 17th ed. 1889), Der Kénig von Sion (1869), and Homunculus (1888). In these books his theme is the problems that are knit about the inner nature of man, his mundane existence, and the institutions his mind has con- ceived and his hand has made. The structural conceptions are often grand, and the imagina- tion bold; the emotional and descriptive colour- ing is both rich and truthful, the action vigorous, the philosophy ultra-modern; and there is a firm grasp of details, and a patient and clever use of them, mostly for satirie purposes. Satire is indeed one of the strongest elements in these epics. Hamerling’s remaining works include Venus im Exil (1858); Germanenzug (1864), a translation of Leopardi’s poems (1865); a novel, Aspasia (1875); a tragedy, Danton und Robespierre (1871); two or three other dramatic pieces ; Die sieben Todsiinden .(1873) ; an autobiographical work, Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft (1886); Lehrjahre der Liebe ( Letters, &e. 1889). Sdmmtliche Werke (Hamburg, 1889). See Life by A. Polzer (1889). Hamerton, PxHitie GILBERT, was born, the son of a solicitor, at Laneside near Oldham, on 10th September 1834. According to the auto- biography contained in the Life published by his widow in 1896, his youth was quite exceptionally unhappy. He commenced writing on art for maga- zines and reviews, and soon produced a volume of poems on The Isles of Loch Awe (1855), and A Painter’s Camp in the Highlands, and Thoughts about Art (1862). In 1868 he published LHéching and Etchers and Contemporary French Painters; a continuation of the latter appeared in the following year, Painting in France after the Decline of Classi- cism. From 1869 he edited the Portfolio. The Intellectual Life (1873) is in the form of letters of advice, illustrated by many examples, addressed to literary aspirants and others, of every class and in all circumstances ; Human Intercourse (1884) is a volume of essays on social subjects, many of them dealing with intercourse as affected by nationality; The Graphic Arts (1882), finely illustrated, is ‘a treatise on the varieties of drawing, painting, and engraving, in comparison with each other and with nature,’ the analyses of the technique of the masters of the various arts being remarkable for discrimina- tion and acumen; Landscape (1885), a superbly- illustrated volume, is not so much a treatise on landscape-painting as a work illustrating the influ- ence of natural landscape on man. Other works are Portfolio Papers (1889), French and English (1889), Man in Art (1893), a couple of novels, and his Life of Turner (1879); and to this Encyclopedia he contributed the articles PAINTING, REMBRANDT, and TURNER. He lived many years in France, and died at Boulogne-sur-Seine, 6th November 1894. Hamesucken, in Scots law, the offence of assaulting a man in his own house. Hamilear, next to Hannibal the greatest of the Carthaginians and one of the greatest generals of antiquity. He was surnamed Barea (the Hebrew Barak) or ‘Lightning.’ When a young man he came into prominence in the sixteenth year of the First Punie War (247 B.C.), when all Sicily, save the fortresses of Drepanum and Lilybeum, had been wrested from Carthage by the Romans. After ‘ravaging the Italian coast, he landed in Sicily, near Panormus, and seized the stronghold of Ercte, a hill of 2000 feet high rising sheer from the sea. Here, with a small band of mercenaries, though he received no aid from his unworthy countrymen, he waged almost daily war with the Romans for three years, and defied every effort to dislodge him. By the spell of his genius he preserved discipline among his unpaid followers, whom he taught to banish their old dread of the Roman veterans, while with his few ships he harassed the Italian shores. In 244 B.C. he occupied Mount Eryx, a hill 2 miles from the coast and a less strong position than Erete, but one which lay nearer to the besieged cities of Dre- eae and Lilybeum. | For two years he stood at ay with his handful of men against a Roman army, ‘ fighting,’ says Polybius, ‘like a royal eagle, which, grappling with another eagle as noble as himself, stops only to take breath from sheer exhaustion, or to gather fresh strength for the next attack.’ The battle of the A‘gatian Isles in 241 B.c, ended the First Punic War, and Sicily was yielded to Rome. But Hamilcar marched out from x with all the honours of war. Scarcely had peace been concluded when the Carthaginian mercenaries revolted and were joined by the subject Libyans. Hanno, a personal enemy of Hamilear, was sent against them. e failed, and the task of saving the state was assigned to Hamilear, who crushed out the rebellion after a terrible struggle of three years in 238 B.C. In the same year the Romans, in defiance of treaty engagements, seized on the Carthaginian possessions in Corsica. Despite’ the antagonism of the peace . party, headed by the incompetent Hanno, the patriotic or Barcine party, though a minority, ob- tained the command of an army for Hamilear, with which he resolved to carry out his master-concep- tion. He proposed to throw Spain into the balance to redress the loss of Sicily. Spain was not only rich in mineral and other wealth; she would form an admirable recruiting-ground. The main defect in the Carthaginian armies hitherto had been the want of an infantry capable of coping on at all equal terms with the legionaries. Such a foree Hamilear determined to create in Spain, whence it could be marched or carried over sea to Italy ; in future the war would be waged on Roman soil. In 237 B.c, the general entered Spain, and in nine years built up a new dominion by his military genius, his policy: and the magic of his personality. In 228 B.c. 1e fell fighting against the tribe of the Vettones. The conceptions of the great Hamilcar were carried out by his mightier son. Unfortunately only a dim light is cast on Hamilear’s marvellous career. What is incontestable is that he was a military — genius of the highest order; a statesman as lofty in his conceptions as he was adroit in carrying them out ; a patriot whom neither obloquy, ingratitude, nor treachery could alienate from the ignoble state he strove so hard to save. Two men only, it has been truly said, in the whole course of Roman his- tory, seem to have struck the Romans with real terror. These were Hamilear and his greater son. See Bosworth Smith’s Carthage and the Cartha- gintans (1879). Hamilton, a town of Lanarkshire, on_ the left bank of the Clyde, 10 miles SE. of Glas- gow. The principal edifice is the burgh buildings (1863), with a clock-tower nearly 130 feet high ; and there are also the county buildings, large barracks, and a good racecourse. The former manufactures of lace, tamboured bobinette, and cambric have declined ; and mining is now the chief industry of the district. Hamilton was made a royal burgh in 1548, and one of the five Falkirk parliamentary aa in 1832. Pop. (1841) 8724; (1881) 18,517; (1891) 24,863. In 1886 the parlia- mentary boundary was made coincident with the municipal (extended in 1878).—Hamilton Palace, successor to Cadzow Castle, is the seat of the Duke of Hamilton. Dating partly from 1594, but greatly enlarged in 1705 and 1822, it is a sumptuous classi- cal structure, though its choicest art-collections were es ola in 1882 for nearly £400,000, Within its HAMILTON 529 licies ave a superb mausoleum (1852), the ruins of Cadzow Castle, pees peed of wild white cattle, and some val oaks. ae Hamilton, o city of Canada, the chief town in - county of Wentworth, Ontario, is situated on rlington Bay, at the west end of Lake Ontario, 40 miles Rag SW. of Toronto, and 56 WNW. of N ls. The business portion lies at the foot of ‘The Mountain,’ on’ whose slope many fine residences are embowered among trees and gardens. Trees line the wide, handsome streets ; the houses are mostly substantial stone erections, and the court-house and county buildings are among the finest in Canada. The city is an important rail- way centre, stands in the midst of a populous and Dihly-cultivated district, at the head of the lake navigation, and is said to possess a larger number of manufactories of iron, cotton, and woollen goods, sewing-machines, boots, glass-ware, &c. than any other town in Canada. Hamilton, which was founded in 1813, is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic bishop, and sends two members to the House of Commons and one to the pro- vincial ne oe Pop. (1861) 19,096; (1881) 35,961 ; (1891) 48,980. Hamilton, ek Mae of the western ade of Victoria, on Grange Burn Creek, 224 miles by rail W. of Melbourne. Two pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are held here annually, and two race- meetings. Pop. 3000. ’ Hamilton, (1) capital of Butler county, Ohio, on the Great Miami River, and on the Miami and Erie Canal, 25 miles by rail N. of Cincinnati. It has a number of paper and flour mills, several foundries, manufactories of farming-implements, breweries, &e. Pop. (1900) 23,914.—(2) A post- village of New York, 37 miles SE. of Syracuse, is the seat of Madison Univergity, and of Hamilton Theological Seminary, both Baptist. P, (1900) 1627. : ee capital (pop. 2100) of Bermuda q.¥.). _ Hamilton, a great historical family, is be- lieved to be of English origin. The pedigree of the family, however, cannot be carried beyond Walter Fitz-Gilbert (son of Gilbert), called Hamil- ton, who in 1296 held lands in Lanarkshire, and swore fealty to King Edward I. of England as overlord of Scotland, and in 1314 kept the castle of Bothwell, on the Clyde, for the English. His surrender of this strong fortress, and of the English Sg ha and nobles who had fled to it from the field of Bannockburn, was rewarded by King Robert Bruce by — of the lands and baronies of ‘Cadzow and Machanshire in Clydesdale, Kinneil and Larbert in West Lothian, and other lands for- feited by the Cumyns and other adherents of Eng- land. He attained the rank of knighthood, and married Mary, daughter of Sir Adam of Gordon of Huntly. He left two sons. The elder, Sir David Fitz-Walter, was taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346, founded a chantry in the cathedral of Glasgow in 1361, and appears among the barons in the Scottish parlia- ments of 1368, 1371, and 1373. His eldest son, Sir David of Hamilton of Cadzow, was the first to assume the surname of Hamilton. Dukes or HAMILTON, &c.—The family was only knightly till it was ennobled in its sixth genera- ‘tion, in Sir James of Hamilton of Cadzow, who in 1445 was created Lord Hamilton by a charter which consolidated his whole lands into the lord- ship of Hamilton, with his manor-place of ‘the Orchard,’ in the barony of Cadzow, as his. chief mess In 1460 he founded a college in the university of Glasgow—the first college in Scotland eer by a layman. He also founded and endowed the collegiate church of Hamilton. Allied both by marriage and by descent to the Douglases, he followed their banner in the beginning mg their great struggle with the crown. ut he forsook them at a critical moment in 1454, and his season- able loyalty was rewarded by large grants of their forfeited lands. At a later period, after the death of his first wife, when he must have been well advanced in years, he received in warriage the Princess Mary, the eldest daughter of King James II., formerly the wife of Thomas Boyd, the attainted Earl of Arran. His only son by her, James, second Lord Hamilton, was in 1503 made Earl of Arran, and had a grant of that island, the dowry of his mother on her first marriage. After playing an important part in dea affairs during the minority of ming James V., he died in 1529, being succeeded by the eldest son of his third wife (a miece of Cardinal Beaton), James, second Earl of Arran. The death of King James V. in 1542 left only an infant a few days old between him and the throne. He was at once chosen regent of the kingdom and tutor to the young queen, and declared to be ‘second person in the realm.’ He held his high offices till 1554, when he resigned them in favour of the queen-mother, Mary of Guise. He received in 1548, from King Henry I. of France, a grant of the duchy of Chatelherault. His eldest son, the Earl of Arran, was proposed at one time as the husband of Queen Mary of Scotland, and at another time as the husband of Queen Elizabeth of England. He was afflicted with madness in 1562, and never recovered his reason, although he lived till 1609. His father, the first Duke of Chatelherault, dying in 1575, the second son, Lord John Hamilton, commendator of Arbroath, became virtual head of the house, and as such was in 1599 created Marquis of Hamilton. He died in 1604, being succeeded by his son James, the second marquis, who in 1619 was created Earl of Cam- bridge in England, and died in 1625. His eldest son, James, the third marquis, led an army of 6000 men to the suppert of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1631-32, and later acted a conspicuous part in the great contest between King Charles I. and the Scottish Covenanters. That king in 1643 created him Duke of Hamilton, with remainder to the heirs-female of his body, in the event of the death of himself and his brother with- out male issue. In 1648 he led a Scottish army into England for the king’s relief, but was encountered wat defeated by Cromwell at Preston, in Lanca- shire, and, ultimately forced to surrender to the parliamentary forces, was beheaded at Westminster in March 1649. He was succeeded by his brother William who in 1639 had been created Earl of Lanark, and died in 1651 of the wounds which he had received at the battle of Worcester. The duchy of Hamilton now devolved on the eldest daughter of the first duke, Lady Anne, whose husband, Lord William Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, was in 1660 created Duke of Hamilton for life. He died in 1694, and in 1698 the Duchess Anne, who survived till 1716, resigned her titles in the king’s hands in favour of her eldest son, James, Earl of Arran, who was anew created Duke of Hamilton, with the pre- cedency of 1643. In 1711 he was created Duke of -| Brandon in England, but the House of Lords refused him a seat or vote in parliament, on the geese that the crown was disabled by the Act of nion from ting a peerage of Great Britain to any person who was a peer of Scotland before the Union. The duke was killed in a duel in Hyde Park with Lord Mohun in 1712. His grandson, James, the sixth duke, who married the famous beauty, Elizabeth Gunning, was succeeded in 1758 by his eldest son, James George, an infant of three years old. On the death of the Duke of Douglas 530 HAMILTON in 1761, the male representation of the ‘red’ or Angus branch of the Douglases, with the titles of Marquis of Douglas, Earl of Angus, &c., devolved on the Dukes of Hamilton, as descendants of the Duchess Anne’s husband, William, Earl of Selkirk, third son of the first Marquis of Douglas. Dying in 1769, in his fifteenth year, James George, seventh Duke of Hamilton, was succeeded by his only brother, Douglas, who in 1782 took his seat in arliament as Duke of Brandon, the House of ords being satistied that the Act of Union did not prohibit the crown from making a peer of Scotland a peer of Great Britain. He was sueceeded by his uncle, ancestor of the twelfth duke (1845-95). The thirteenth duke, born 1862, is descendant of a third son of the fourth duke. : DUKES OF ABERCORN, &c.—Lord Claud Hamil- ton, fourth son of the first Duke of Chatelherault, was appointed commendator of the abbey of Paisley in 1553, and created Lord Paisley in 1587. His descendants obtained successively the titles of Lord Abercorn (1603), Earl of Abercorn (1606), Viscount Strabane (1701), Marquis of Abercorn (1790). On the death of the second Duke of Hamilton in 1651, the second Earl of Abercorn claimed the male representation of the House of Hamilton; and in 1861 the second Marquis and tenth Earl of Abercorn (created Duke of Abercorn in 1868) was served heir- male of the first Duke of Chatelherault, in the Sheriff Court of Chancery at Edinburgh, under protest by the Duke of Hamilton, Brandon, and Chatelherault. Dying in 1885, he was succeeded by his son James, the second duke, born in 1838. The Duke of Aber- corn is one of three peers who hold peerages in Scotland, in Ireland, and in Great Britain. A cadet of the House of Abercorn, born in 1646, was Count Anthony Hamilton (q.v.). OTHER PEERAGES.—The third son of Anne, Duchess of Hamilton, was in 1688 created Earl of Selkirk : this title became extinet in 1885 on the death of the sixth earl.—Lord George Hamilton, fifth son of Duchess Anne, was in 1696 created Earl of Orkney. The sixth earl succeeded in 1877.—A fourth son of Duchess Anne was in 1697 created Earl of Ruglen—a title that became extinct in 1810.—The Earls of Haddington are descended from a younger son of the first ascertained ancestor of the Hamiltons, Sir Walter Fitz-Gilbert.—Sir John Hamilton of Biel was created Lord Belhaven and Stenton. The second lord distinguished him- self by his wild but eloquent speeches against the Union. On the death of the fifth lord in 1777 the title and estates became separated ; the title be- came dormant in 1868, but was adjudged in 1875 to the ninth lord.—A descendant of the first Lord Paisley became Viscount Boyne in 1717, and his descendant became in 1866 Baron Brancepeth in the peerage of the United Kingdom.—Another branch of the Hamiltons, settling in Ireland, attained to the dignities of Viscount Claneboy (1622) and Earl of Clanbrassil. The titles became extinct in 1799, but the title of Lord Clanbrassil in the peerage of the United Kingdom was created in 1821. A Briefe Account of the Family of Hamilton, written by Dr James Baillie of Carnbroe during the first half of the 17th century, is preserved among the MSS. in the Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh. ‘See Gilbert Burnet’s Memoirs of the Lives and Actions of James and William, Dukes of Hamilton and Chatelherault (1677); Ander- son’s Historical and Genealogical Memoirs of the House of Hamilton (1825); ‘The Manuscripts of the Duke of Hamilton, K.T.’ in part vi. of Appendix to the Eleventh Report of the Historical MSS. Commissioners (1887) ; and the history of the Earls of Haddington by Sir Wm. Fraser (2 vols. 4to, 1889). Hamilton, ALEXANDER, one of the greatest of American statesmen, was born 11th January 1757 in the West Indian island of Nevis, the son of a Scotch merchant who had married a young French- woman. His father soon failed in business, and Alexander at the age of twelve had to enter the counting-house of a merchant named Cruger at. St Croix. His extraordinary abilities, however, induced some of his friends to procure for him a. better education than could be got at home. He was accordingly sent to a grammar-school at Eliza- bethtown, New Jersey ; and in the spring of 1774 he entered King’s (now Columbia) College, New York. On the first appearance of disagreement between Great Britain and her colonies, Hnzuil tors still a collegian and barely eighteen, wrote a series: of papers in defence of the rights of the latter, which were at first taken for the production of the eminent statesman Jay, and which secured for the writer the notice and consideration of the popular leaders. On the outbreak of the war he obtained a commission as captain of artillery, saw some active service in New York and New Jersey, and gained the confidence of Washington, who made him his aide-de-camp in 1777, and with whom he acquired the greatest influence as his friend and adviser. In 1781, through hasty temper on both sides, the friendship was broken for a brief period, and Hamilton resigned his appointment on the staff ; but he continued with the army and distinguished himself at Yorktown. In 1780 he married a daughter of General Schuyler, who was a member of a powerful New York family. On the termination of the war he left the service with the rank of colonel, and, betaking himself to legal studies, soon became one of the most eminent ‘lawyers in New York. In 1782 he was returned to congress by the state of New York. But there was as yet no national government nor any power higher than that of the several states, which were now nearly bankrupt; and in 1786 Hamiltoy took the leading part in the deliberations of the inter-state commercial con- vention at Annapolis, which prepared the way for the great convention that met at Philadelphia in the following year for the purpose of revising the articles of confederation. here, although his own plan for the formation of an aristocratic republic was set aside, the spirit of his system was to a large extent adopted. But Hamilton’s best work for the constitution was done after the convention was dissolved. He conceived and started the famous series of essays which originally appeared in a New York journal, and which were after- wards collected under the title of The Federalist. Fifty-one out of the eighty-five essays were the work of Hamilton. They constitute the writings by which he is most widely known; they can scarcely be too highly praised for comprehensive- ness, profundity, clearness, and simplicity, and their strength and value have been recognised in Europe as well as in America. On the establishment of the new government in 1789 with Washington as president, Hamilton was sueesnted secretary of the treasury. The disorder of the public credit, and the deficiency of official accounts of the state treasury, rendered this office one of peculiar difficulty. In order to re-establish public credit, he carried, in the face of much Oppaa: tion, a measure for the funding of the domestic debt, founded a national bank, rearranged the system of duties, and altogether showed himself to possess. the genius of the oe financier. Moreover, he practically organised the administration ; and his reports, many of them on subjects outside the immediate scope of his own department, exhibit his profound ability as a statesman. In 1795 he resigned his office, and resumed the practice of law in New York, where he was still constantly consulted by Washington and by his cabinet. He was the : J ~ ie ileal, ha dle eee the nation his indi | i Pe | eS oe oe a - first met her in 1793; an HAMILTON 531 actual leader of the Federal (q.v.) party until his death, and was foremost in the fierce party strife of 1801. His successful efforts to thwart the ambition of his personal rival, Aaron Burr {a.v.), finally involved him in a duel with him. Hamilton had reason to regard the practice of duelling with especial abhorrence, but he appears to have felt nuder an obligation to accept the challenge; and on the morning of llth July 1804 they met on the west bank of the Hudson, on the same spot where Hamilton’s eldest son had received his death- wound in a duel three years before. Hamilton was mortally wounded, and died the next day, leaving ant mourners, and his slayer for the time an exile. Hamilton’s errors, like his strength, arose largely from his strong, master- ful will and passionate nature. The immediate elfects of his brilliant services at a crisis in his country’s fate endure to this day; his influence is stamped on every of the American constitu- tion ; and his writings still impress the reader by their vigour, their sofa and the maturity of intellect they display. His works, exclusive of The Federalist, were edited by his son, John C. Hamilton (7 vols. 1851), who also published a Life it vols. 1834-40). See Riethmiiller’s eulogistic amilton and _his Contemporaries (Lond. 1864), and Lives by Morse (1876), Shea (1879), Henry Cabot Lodge (‘ American Statesmen,’ 1882), and Sumner (1890); Lodge has also edited Hamilton’s Complete Works (9 vols. 1885). Hamilton, ANTHONY, CoUNT, a cadet of the Abercorn branch of the Scottish family of Hamilton, was born in Ireland in 1646. At twenty- one he went to France, and got a captain’s com- mission ; in 1685 he was captain of Limerick, and fought at the Boyne (1690); thereafter he lived at the court of St Germain-en-Laye, and there he died, 6th August 1720. His writings are full of wit and talent, particularly his Contes de Féerie (3 vols. Paris, 1805; Eng. trans. 1849). For his Mémoires du Comte de Gramont, see GRAMONT. Hamilton, EvizAsetu, authoress, was born of a Scottish family at Belfast in 1758, and, after residing in various parts of Scotland and in Lon- don, died at Edinburgh, 23d July 1816. Her works comprise Letters of a Hindoo Rajah (1796) ; Memoirs of Modern Philosophers (1800); Letters on Education (1802); Life of A ippina (1804) ; Letters on the Moral and Religious Principle 1806); and—the work by which she is best nown—The Cottagers of Glenburnie (1808), a singularly vivid and life-like representation of humble rural life in Scotland. Hamilton, Emma, Lapy, was born Amy Lyon or ‘ Hart,’ most likely at Ness, in Cheshire, and on 26th April 1763. er girlhood was passed at Hawarden. She had had three places in London, had borne two children to a navy captain and a baronet, and had as Hygeia in a quack- doctor’s ‘Temple of Health,’ when in 1782 she ake the protection of the Hon. Charles Greville (1749-1809), to exchange it in 1786 for that of his uncle, Sir William Hamilton (1730-1803). After five years at Naples, in 1791 she was married at Marylebone Church to her elderly ambassador, and, returning to Italy, was straightway admitted to the closest intimacy by Maria Caroline, the queen of Ferdinand I. (q.v.). Her ‘ eminent services’ to the British fleet during 1796-98 in furnishing infor- mation and procuring supplies were extolled by Nelson, vaunted by herself, as deserving of pee and pension; but they were much rad ai, where, indeed, not pay imaginary. Nelson had st m: 3 gradually Platonic friend- ship ger to guilty passion, until, four months after the trio’s return to England, she gave birth to a daughter (1801-81), ‘ our loved Horatia,’ so Nelson writes of her in a holk h letter to ‘ my own dear Wife, in my eyes and the face of Heaven.’ Her credulous husband's death, followed four years later by Nelson’s, left Emma mistress of good £2000 a ear; but by 1808 she was owing £18,000, and in 813 was arrested for debt. Next year she escaped to Calais, where she died in penury, 15th January 1815. Her grave is obliterated ; but her loveliness lives still in twenty-four portraits by Romney, to whom she was ever the ‘ divine lady.’ See NELSON ; HAMILTON, Sir W.; Romney; the spite- ful Memoirs of Lady Hamilton (1815; new ed. 1891); Paget’s ‘ vindication’ in Paradoxes and Puzzles (1874); Jeaffreson’s Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson (1888); and Hilda Gamlin’s Emma Lady Hamilton (1891). Hamilton, JAMEs, an English merchant, born at London in 1769, who, having been taught Ger- - man at Hamburg in 1798 by an original method, afterwards exchanged mercantile pursuits for the teaching of languages, and taught with great suc- cess in the United States (from 1815) and in Eng- land (from 1823). He died at Dublin, 16th Septem- ber 1829. Hamilton discarded grammar, using in its stead a literal word for word translation, placed immediately below the original, line for line alter- nately. His own account of it is to be found in The Principles, Practices, and Results of the Hamil- tonian System (Manchester, 1829). Hamilton, PATRICK, ‘the protomartyr of the Scottish Reformation,’ was the son of Sir Patrick Hamilton of Kincavel (Linlithgowshire) and Stanehouse (Lanarkshire) and Catherine Stewart, daughter of Alexander, Duke of Albany, second son of James II. Both his mag were illegiti- mate. The exact date and place of his birth are unknown. Both are approximately settled, how- ever, by the fact that he graduated as Master of Arts in the university of Paris in 1520—the place of his birth being noted as ‘the diocese of Glas- ow.’ As that degree could not be taken at Paris fore the age of twenty-one, we may conjecture that Hamilton was born in the last years of the 15th century. It is also unknown where he received the elements of his education. His university studies seem to have been first conducted at Paris, where, about the time of his residence, the opinions of Luther were ae peaeenings to attract atten- tion. It may be considered the most decisive proof that Hamilton was open to the best lights of the time that on leaving Paris he p ed to the university of Louvain, where in 1517, under the direction of Erasmus, a college was founded for the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The founda- tion of such a college at so early a date in the 16th century was a remarkable innovation in university studies, and the students who availed themselves of it were only such as were in ardent sympathy with the new intellectual and religious ideals of the time. In 1523 we find Hamilton at the uni- versity of St Andrews, where his sympathies with Lutheranism soon brought him under the suspicion of the church authorities. To escape the fate which afterwards overtook him he returned to the Continent (1527). After a brief stay at Witten- berg, where he probably saw Luther and Melanch- thon, he settled for some months in Marburg, the seat of a university lately founded in the interest of the Reformed doctrines. At Marburg Hamilton wrote (in Latin) the only production of his which has come down to us—a series of theological pro- positions known as ‘Patrick’s Places.’ In these propositions the main doctrines of the Lutheran reformers are stated with such boldness and pre- cision that Knox has embodied them in his histo of the Reformation in Scotland. Hamilton return to Scotland in the autumn of 1527, and shortly after- wards married. The next year he was summoned 532 HAMILTON to St Andrews by Archbishop Beaton, uncle of the famous cardinal, and on a renewed charge of heresy was burned at the stake before the gate of St Salvator’s College, 29th February 1528. His death probably did more to extend the Reformation : in Scotland than even his life could have done. ‘The reek of Master Patrick Hamilton,’ said one of Beaton’s own retainers, ‘has infected as many as it did blow upon.’ A peculiar interest has always attached to the, name of Patrick Hamilton. His winning personal character, his eagerness for all the best light of his time, his courage, and his early death make him one of the most interesting figures in the religious revolution of Scotland during the 16th century. His martyrdom also gave a distinct impulse to the doctrines for which he died ; and Knox: himself, in the most emphatic manner, testifies to Hamilton’s importance in the history of the Scottish Reforma- tion. See Professor Lorimer’s Patrick Hamilton, the first Preacher and Martyr of the Scottish Reformation (1857), and Dr David Laing’s edition of Knox’s History of the Reformation in Scotland. Hamilton, WILLIAM, a Scotch poet, was born in 1704, most probably at his father’s estate of Bangour, near Uphall, Linlithgowshire. He con- tributed to Ramsay’s Tea-table Miscellany (1724), and joined in the second Jacobite rising. On its collapse he escaped to France, but was permitted to return in 1749 and to succeed to the famil estate the year after. He died at Lyons, 25t March 1754. The first collection of his poems was issued, without his consent, by Foulis. of Glasgow in 1748; a fuller collection, with a portrait, appeared under the care of his friends in 1760.’ One of his poems alone—‘ The Braes of Yarrow ’— will keep his name from ever being forgotten, by the depth and truth of its unsought pathos. See James Paterson, The Poems and Songs of: William Hamilton (1850). ; Hamilton, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-96), earned the epithet of ‘single-speech Hamilton’ by a speech made in the House of Commons, November 13, 1754, as M.P. for Petersfield in Hants —not quite the only speech he ever made in the House. For twenty years he was Chancellor of the Irish Exchequer, and was by some regarded as the author of the letters of Junius (q.v.) Hamilton, Str WILLIAM, grandson of the third Duke of Hamilton, was born in 1730, and in 1758, after eleven years’ service in the Foot Guards, married a beautiful Pembrokeshire heiress, with £5000 a year, who died in 1782, an only daughter having predeceased her. He was British ambas- sador at the court of Naples from 1764 till 1800, and in 1772 was made a knight of the Bath. Dur- ing his residence in Italy he took an active part in the excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeli, and ‘formed a rare collection of antiquities, which was afterwards purchased for the British Museum. He was author of several sumptuous works—A ntiquités Etrusques, Grecques, et Komaines, tirés du cabinet de M. Hamilton (4 vols. Naples, 1766-67); Observa- tions on Mount Vesuvius (1772); Campi Phlegrai (Naples, 1776-77), &c. He died 6th April 1803. See HAMILTON (EMMA, LADY). Hamilton, Str Wim, of Preston, the most learned and scientific philosopher of the Scottish school, was born March 8, 1788, at Glas- gow, where his father, Dr William Hamilton, and his grandfather, Dr Thomas Hamilton, held the chairs of Anatomy and Botany. Though the Hamiltons of Preston, in Haddingtonshire, who were raised to a baronetcy in 1673, had not assumed their title since the death of Sir William Hamilton in November 1688, when his brother and heir, Sir Robert, the Covenanter, refused to take the oath of allegiance, the philosopher made good his claim to represent them, and therefore to be descended from the leader of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge. After gaining high distinetion, especially in the philosophical classes, at Glasgow, he went in 1809 to Balliol College, Oxford, as a Snell exhibi- tioner. He graduated with first-class honours in 1810; and it was here that he laid the basis of his vast erudition in medieval and modern, as well as in ancient literature. He left Oxford in 1812, and was called to the Scottish bar in 1813; but he seems never to have had any practice in his pro- fession except what became incumbent on him on being appointed crown-solicitor of the Court of Teinds. In 1820, on the death of Dr Brown, he was an unsuccessful competitor for the chair of Moral Philosophy in Edinburgh; in 1821 he was appointed to the professorship of History. amilton had now reached his thirtieth year without giving to the world any indication of those speculations which he had been silently and slowly maturing. But in 1829 there appeared in the Edinburgh Review a critique of Cousin’s Cours de Philosophie of the previous year, in which was developed that philosopher’s doctrine of the In- finite. The critique immediately excited admira- tion both at home ard abroad, and for some years after this Hamilton was a regular contributor to the Edinburgh Review. Besides other philosophical articles, two of which, on the Philosophy of Per- ception and on Recent Publications in Logical Science, are especially celebrated, he contributed several papers on education and university reform. Many of these contributions were translated into German, French, and Italian; and in 1852 the were all edited by Hamilton himself, with notes pea appendices, under the title of Discussions in Philo- sophy and Literature, Education, and University Reform. In 1836 Hamilton was elected to the chair of Logic and Metaphysics in Edinburgh. During his first session he delivered a course of lectures on metaphysics, which was followed in the succeeding session by a course on logic; and these two courses he continued to read each alternate ear till the close of his life. His influence soon egan to show itself in the university among the young men who were attracted thither from differ- ent parts of Scotland, and other countries, in many eases chiefly for the sake of hearing Hamilton. Extensive notes of his lectures were taken by his students, and numerous copies of them, transcribed from shorthand reports, were in circulation during the later years of his life. After his death these were published under the editorship of Professors Mansel and Veitch (Sir William Hamilton's Lee. tures, 4 vols. 1859-61). These lectures, which were mostly written during the currency of the sessions in which they were first delivered, want the exactness of thought and expression which mark the works revised by himself for publica- tion ; and it is to be regretted that the materials embodied in these volumes were not wrought into another work which Hamilton had planned. This was his edition of the works of Reid, with notes and supplementary dissertations. The general aim of Hamilton’s whole philosophy is, in fact, but the special aim of this edition of Reid (1846; ad- ditional notes from Hamilton’s MSS. by Mansel, 1862). His conviction was that the philosophy of Common Sense (q.v.) represents the highest reaches of human speculation ; and he accordingly sought in his annotations of Reid’s writings, as in his independent works, to point out the relation of the Scottish philosophy to the systems of other countries, as well as to translate it into a more scientific expression. His labour on Reid was in- terrupted by ill-health. By the paralysis of his ar Gees, (fu ~ impai explication of the Scottish however, be questioned whether all HAMILTON HAMLET 533 whole right side, though his mind continued un- ; red, his power of work was seriously curtailed during the later years of his life. He nevertheless uced a new edition of Dugald Stewart's works 1854-55; and he was generally able, with an assistant, to perform the duties of his class till the close of session 1855-56, when his health suddenly became worse, and he died 6th May. Hamilton's system professes to be merely an eres S it may, lis exegetical skill has vindicated the position claimed for Reid, whether, therefore, it would not have been better for Hamilton had he struck into a separate path. _ For while his philosophy is distinguished in general from previous Scottish speculations by its more | rously systematic character, it ventures, as in doctrine of the conditioned, into wholly new realms of thought. oe thought to the conditioned sphere between e contradictory poles of the infinite and the absolute, attracted more attention than any of his other doctrines, especially after the publication of Mansel’s Bampton Lectures in 1858 (see CONDI- TION). Hamilton’s contributions to logic may be reduced to the two principles (1) of distinguishing reasoning in the quantity of extension from reason- ing in that of comprehension, from which issues his twofold determination of major, minor, and middle terms, and of major and minor premises ; and (2) of stating explicitly what is pent implicitly ; whence were derived the ‘quantification of the redicate,’ reduction of the modes of conversion one, and simplifications of the syllogism. See Life by Veitch (1869); short monographs by Veitch (1882) and Monck (1881); Seth’s Scottish Philosophy (new ed. 1890); and ScorrisH PHILOSOPHY in Vol. IX. Hamilton, Sir WILLIAM RowAN, one of the few really great mathematicians of the ‘19th century, was born in Dublin on August 3-4, 1805. From his infancy he displayed extraordinary talents, and at thirteen had a good knowledge of thirteen languages. Having at an unusually early age taken to the study of mathematics, in his fifteenth year he had mastered thoroughly all the ordinary university course, and commenced original investigations of so promising a kind that Dr Brinkley, himself a very good mathe- matician, took him under his especial patronage. His earlier essays connected with caustics and contact of curves age! by degrees into an elab- orate treatise on the Theory of Systems of Rays, neers by the Royal Irish Academy in 1828. o this he added various supplements, in the last of which, ublished in 1333, he predicted the existence of the two kinds of conical refraction the experimental verification of which by Lloyd still forms one of the most convincing proofs of the truth of the Undulatory Theory of Light. The great feature of his Systems of Rays is the employ- ment of a single function, upon re. whed differential coefficients (taken on various hypotheses) the whole of any optical problem is made to depend. He seems to have been led by this to his next great work, A General Method in mics, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1834. Here, again, the whole of any dynamical problem is made to depend upon a single function and its differential coefficients. This paper produced a profound sensation, Mg tee Ly among continen mathe- maticians. Jacobi of Kénigsberg took up the purely mathematical side of Hamilton’s method, and considerably extended it; and of late years the dynamical part has been richly commented on and elaborated by mathematicians of all nations, all uniting in their admiration of the genius dis- layed in the original papers. For these researches Hamil ton was elected an honorary member of the This doctrine, which limits | Academy of St Petersburg, a rare and coveted dis- tinction. The principle of varying action, which forms the main feature of the memoirs, is hardly capable, at all events in few words, of popular ex- planation. Among Hamilton’s other works, which are very numerous, we may mention particularly a very general Theorem in the Separation of Symbols in Finite Differences, his great paper on Fluctuating Functions, and his Mxmmingtion of Abel's Argument concerning the Impossibility of solving the General Equation of the Fifth Degree. We may also particularly allude to his memoir on Algebra as the Science of Pure Time, one of the first steps to his grand invention of quaternions. The steps by which he was led to this latter investigation, which will certainly when better known give him even a greater reputation than conical refraction or varying action has done, will be more properly treated under QUATERNIONS. On the latter subject he published in 1853 a large volume of Lectures, which, as the unaided work of one man in a few years, has perhaps hardly been surpassed. Another immense volume on the same subject, containing his more recent improvements and extensions of tite calculus, as well as a some- what modified view of the general theory, was pret after his death, which took place 2d eptember 1865. hile yet an undergraduate of Trinity College, Dublin, he was appointed in 1827 successor to Dr Brinkley in the Andrews chair of Astronomy in the university of Dublin, to which is attached the astronomer-royalship of Ireland. This post he held till his death. In 1835 he was knighted on his delivering the address as secretary to the British Association for its Dublin meeting. He occupied for many years the post of president of the Royal Irish Academy; he was an honorary member of most of the great scientific academies of Europe. He held during his life, not in Dublin alone, but in the world of science, a position as merited as it was distinguished. See his Life by Graves (3 vols. 1883-89). Hamilton Group, a subdivision of the upper Devonian strata of New York. Hamiltonian System. See HAMILTON (JAMES). Hamlet, the hero of Shakespeare’s greatest tragedy, but whether a figure originally historical, mythological, or partly both, still remains un- certain. The legend of Amleth is first found in the third and fourth books of the Latin history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus, written about the end of the 12th century, but first printed at Paris in 1514. According to this version, Gervendill, the governor of Jutland under Rérik, king of Den- mark, leaves two sons, Horvendill and Fengo. Horvendill for a brave exploit is rewarded with the hand of Gerutha, Rérik’s daughter, who bears him a son, Amleth. Fengo murders his brother, and then prevails upon Gerutha to marry him by per- suading her that he had done this crime merely out of love for her. Amleth to save his life feigns madness, and is put to some strange tests by his suspicious uncle. He is finally sent to England with two attendants, bearing a sealed letter in- structing the king to put him to death, but he con- trives to alter the writing so as to procure for them death, and for himself an honourable reception. He next marries the king's daughter, and returns after a year to Denmark, , Hake own the banquet- ing-hall, together with its drunken revellers, and slays rg, with his own sword. He next revisits England, but, as his father-in-law and Fengo had had a secret agreement that the survivor should avenge the other's death if caused by violence, he is sent for his own doom to Scotland to woo the queen 534 HAMLEY HAMMER-PURGSTALL Hermuthruda, who had killed all former suitors. But the terrible queen herself falls in love with the hero, whose final fate is to fall in battle with Vikletus, the successor of Rérik. The interest of the story for students of Shakespeare ends with Saxo’s third book, which brings it down to the death of Fengo. The story of Hamlet was freely translated in the fifth volume of Francois de Belleforest’s Histotres Tragiques (1570), and a rough but literal English translation of this exists in a single copy (once | Edward Capell’s) in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, entitled The Hystorie of Hamblet (London, 1608; reprinted in Collier’s ‘Shake- speare Library,’ 1841). Dr Latham in his Disserta- tions on Hamlet (1872) contends that the hero in Saxo’s third book is a different personage from that in the fourth, the former being identical with Olaf Kyrre, the Anlaf Cwiran of the Saxon Chronicle, and the Amlaf Cuaran of the Jrish Annals ; the latter, with the Hygelac of Beowulf, and the Chocilaicus of Gregory of Tours. Zinzow, Die Hamletsage (1877). For the whole question, see Simrock’s Quellen des Shakespeare (1870), Moltke’s Shakespeares Hamlet-Quellen (1881), and Hansen’s Legend of Hamlet (Chicago, 1887). Hamley, Sir Epwarp Bruce, K.C.B., lien- tenant-general, was born at Bodmin, 27th April 1824, served in the Crimea, was commandant of the staff college in 1870-77, did delimitation work on the Balkan and Armenian frontiers, and com- manded the second division at Tel-el-Kebir in 1882 (where Lord Wolseley and he fell out). In 1885-92 he was Conservative member for Birkenhead ; and he died 14th August 1893. He wrote on the war in the Crimea (3d ed. 1891); Wedlington’s Career (1860) ; The Operations of War (1866; 4th ed. 1878); and Voltaire (1879); besides several clever novels, and other works. See the Life by Innes Shand (1895). Hamlin, HANNIBAL, statesman, was born in Paris, Maine, 27th August 1809, practised law from 1833 to 1848, was speaker of the Maine house of representatives in 1837-40, and was returned to congress in 1842. He sat in the United States senate as a Democrat in 1848-57, when he was elected governor by the Republicans, as opposing the extension of slavery to new territories. He was generally in the senate till his death, 4th July 1891; was vice-president under Lincoln, ambassador to Spain, regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and an LL. D. Hamm, a town in Westphalia, on the Lippe, 25 miles NE. of Dortmund by rail, has large metal industries, including iron-foundries, wire-works, manufactories of machines, iron furniture, &c, Pop. (1875) 18,904; (1890) 24,969. Hammamet, a port of Tunis, on its own gulf, 36 miles SE. of Tunis. Pop. 5000. Hammer, a tool for beating malleable ma- terials into form or for driving nails, wedges, &c. Often hammers are required of greater weight thar a man can wield, and a great variety of power- hammers, masses of iron raised by steam and falling by gravity, are used. The helve or shingling hammer, used for compressing the mass of iron drawn from the puddling furnace, and the (¢i¢- hammer, used in the manufacture of shear-steel, are important examples of such hammers. The first is a heavy bar of cast iron about ten feet long, weighing three or four tons and upwards, to which is attached a head of wrought iron faced with steel, weighing nearly half a ton more. It works upon an axis at the end of the bar farthest from the head, and is raised by cams attached to a heavy wheel set in motion by steam or water power ; these cams strike or ‘lick’ a projection extending beyond the head, and thus raise it about 18 or 20 inches at the rate of from seventy to one hundred times per minute. The tilt-hammer is similar, but much lighter, and is adapted for striking above three handied blows per minute. In order to attain this velocity a short ‘tail’ extends with a downward inclination beyond the axis, and the cams strike this downwards, and thus lift the longer arm of the lever to which the head is attached. These, when worked by steam, are, of course, steam-hammers ; but when the term steam-hammer is used without qualification, it applies to another and more elab- orate machine of very different construction. See STEAM-HAMMER. Hammerfest, the most northern town of Europe, is situated in 70° 40’ N. lat. and 23° 30’ E. long., on the island of Kvalé, in the Norwegian rovince of Finmark. It is the rendezvous of the shing fleets of the Kara Sea and the waters along the Spitzbergen coasts. It imports coal, salt, hemp, flour, &c. in exchange for fish and fish-oil, with some reindeer hides, eider-down, and fox-skins. During the two summer months the sun is con- ‘tically above the horizon. The winter is mild enough to allow of the fisheries being carried on. The town was burnt, 21st July 1890. Pop. 2289. Hammer-head, or HAMMER-HEADED SHARK (Zygena), a genus of fishes of the family of Sharks, having the general form and characters of the family, but distinguished from all other fishes by the un- usual form of the head, which, resembling a double- headed hammer laid flat, extends on both sides to Hammer-head (Zyge@na malleus). a considerable length, carrying the eyes at the ends of the lateral expansions. he crescent-shaped mouth is below the centre of the head, the nostrils are on the front edge of the head, and the eyes ° are covered by an eyelid or nictitating membrane. In young specimens the hammer-headed shape is not so well developed as / EC in adults. The hammer- i Hi heads bring forth their ' in, a ’ "", \ M, . ~4 Under side of the head, young alive. In one female, nearly 11 feet showing mouth. long, thirty-seven em- bryos were found. There are five known species, all of them being most. abundant in the tropics. Z. malleus, by far the most common form, occurs in nearly all tropical and subtropical seas. In the tropics specimens of this species ‘may often be seen ascending from the clear blue depths of the ocean like a great cloud.’ Some large ones, one over 13 feet long, have been taken on the British coasts. Hammer-Puregstall, Josery, FREIHERR VON, orientalist, was born at Gratz, 9th July 1774, studied at Vienna, and lived from 1799 to 1806 eT a ee a a HAMMERSMITH HAMPDEN 535 as interpreter at Constantinople, afterwards be- coming a court councillor at Vienna. He was en- nobled in 1835 on succeeding by inheritance to the Styrian estates of the Countess von Purgstall, the last of her race. He died at Vienna, 23d November 1856. He had a wide but rather superficial know- ledge of Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and other eastern languages, and his industry and zeal did much to mush forward the good work of opening up the Fast to the West. Of his books may be named, in the region of history, Geschichte der Assassinen (1818); Geschichte des Osman. Reichs (2d ed. 1834- 36); Geméildesaal Moslim. Herrscher (1837-39) ; Ge- schichte der Ilchané (1843); Gesch. der Chane der Krim (1856); in that of literary history, Gesch. der schinen Redekiinste Persiens (1818); Gesch. der Osman. Dichtkunst (1836-38); Litteraturgeschichte der Araber (1850-57). See Schlottmann’s Life (1857). Hammersmith, a parliamentary borough since 1885) of Middlesex, is situated on the hames. A suspension bridge was opened here in 1827, and a new one by Prince Albert Victor in June 1887. The borough returns one member to parliament. Formerly: a detached village, Hammer- — is now a large town, and forms part of West ndon. Hammock (Spanish hamaca, a West Indian word ), the apparatus in which a sailor slings his bed. A sailor's hammock consists of a piece of hempen cloth or of strong netting, about 6 feet long and 3 in width, gathered together at each end, and hung to hooks under the deck. Hammocks of netting are often swung from trees in parks and gardens as a pleasant place for idling in fine weather. Hammond, Henry, English divine and con- troversial writer, was born at Chertsey, Surrey, Angust 18, 1605, and educated at Eton, and Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1633 he was pre- sented to the rectory of Penshurst, in Kent, and ten years later was made archdeacon of Chichester. But his loyal adhesion to the cause of Charles I. cost him his living ; yet he officiated as chaplain to the king till his attendants were dismissed in 1647. Hammond then returned to Oxford, and was chosen sub-dean of Christchurch. Deprived by the parliamentary commissioners in 1648, he shortly after retired to Westwood in Worcestershire, where he died April 25, 1660. His celebrated work, the Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Testament, was published in 1653 (new ed. 4 vols. 1845). His collected works with biography were published in 4 vols. 1674-84. His Parwnesis was edited by Manning in 1841. The Sermons were reprinted in 1851, the Minor Theological Works in 1849, both in the Oxford Larne of Anglo-Catholic Theology. Bishop Fell’s Life (1661) is reprinted in Words- worth’s Eecles. Biog., vol. iv. Hamoaze. See PLymMourH. Hamoon. See SEISTAN (LAKE OF). Hampden, Joun, English statesman and — was the eldest son of William Hampden of ampden, in Buckingham, by Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke, Huntingdonshire, and aunt of Oliver Cromwell. He was born, it is believed, in London, in 1594. He received his early education at the gram mar-school of Thame, and proceeded in 1609 to Magdalen College, Oxford. Four years later he became a student of the Inner Temple, London. But his father’s death, when he was only three years of age, had left him the master of a considerable estate, and he does not appear to have practised as a barrister. In 1619 he married Elizabeth Symeon, a lady to whom he was much attached; ‘on a sudden,’ according to Clarendon, ‘from a life of great pleasure and license, he retired to extraordin- ary sobriety and strictness, to a more reserved and melancholy society.’ But, although he became in all essentials a Puritan, he never to be a polished country gentleman. In January 1621 he entered parliament as member for the borough of Grampound, a seat which he subsequently ex- changed for Wendover, and at once entered the ranks of the parliamentary opposition, of which the recognised leaders were Pym, Eliot, Oliver St John, and Coke. Although he was no orator—it is believed that in the first five parliaments in which he sat he never opened his mouth—his judgment, veracity, and high character secured for him a leading position in the ranks of his party. In 1626 he helped to prepare the charges against Bucking- ham ; the following year, having refused to pay the proportion of the general loan which Charles at- tempted to raise on his own authority, he was con- fined in the Gatehouse and subsequently in Hamp- shire, to be released on Charles finding 1t necessary to summon a new parliament. His leading tea associates were Pym, whom he regarded as his leader in the House of Commons, and Sir John Eliot, who was his personal friend, and after the interests of whose children he looked at the time that their father was in prison. When Charles dissolved parliament in 1629, Hampden retired to his seat in Buckinghamshire, and gave himself u to the pleasures and duties of a rural life, althong he neglected neither his friends, his country, nor his favourite political studies. In 1634 his wife, who had borne him nine children, died. The same year Charles resorted to the impost of ship-money, as an evidence of the right which he claimed to tax the country in any way he chose, and although he confined its incidence at first to London and the maritime towns, in 1636 he extended it to inland laces. Hampden refused to pay his share of the impost, and in 1637 he was prosecuted before the Court of Exchequer for non-payment. Seven of the twelve judges sided inst him, but, as Mr S. R. Gardiner has said, ‘the connection between the rights of property and the parliamentary system was firmly established.’ The prosecution also made Hampden the most popular man not only in the ranks of the parliamentary opposition but in Eng- land—a position which he never lost, although he still played a secondary part to Pym in the House of Commons. He was a member both of the Short Parliament, which opposed Charles and Strafford in connection with the war with Scotland, and of the much more memorable Long Parliament, for which he was returned by the electors both of Wendover and of Buckinghamshire, although he elected to sit for the county. He had ind not a little to do with giving this remarkable body its character, as before the election took place he rode from county to county exhorting the electors to give their votes to men worthy of their confidence. Hampden at once took a foremost place in the new House. ‘The eyes of all men were fixed upon him,’ says Clarendon, ‘as their patrie pater, and the pilot that must steer the vessel through the tempests and rocks which threatened it.’ He took art in almost all the leading transactions of the ng Parliament, especially in the action which ended in the death of Strafford, althongh he seems to have been of opinion that proceeding by bill was unnecessary, and that the better course would have been to obtain judgment on the impeachment. Had the abortive negotiations between Charles and the leaders of the opposition come to anything, it is understood that the post of tutor to the Prince of Wales would have been offered to Hampden. Still he had never any faith in the king, and when, through the formation of a party of constitu- tional royalists in the Commons itself with Lord ~ Memorials of Hampden (1831). 536 HAMPDEN Falkland at its head, it seemed not impossible that Charles would be able to crush the liberties of his eountry, Hampden, like his relative Cromwell, meditated self-exile to New England, not for the first time in the course of his public life. In the debate on the address to the king, known as the Grand Remonstrance, it was the calmness of Hampden which prevented the two parties in the House from fighting on its floor. He was one of the five members, Charles’s attempt to seize whom, when engaged in the discharge of their parlia- mentary duties on January 4, 1642, precipitated the Civil War. ' When hostilities broke out, Hampden subscribed £2000 to the public service, took a colonel’s com- mission in the parliamentary army, and raised a regiment of infantry in his own county of Bucking- ham. He attended to his military as to his parlia- mentary duties with energy and promptitude, and on various occasions, as at the battle of Edgehill and the assault and capture of Reading, he exhibited both personal bravery and generalship. He was, however, placed under Essex, and although he pro- tested against his chief’s hesitation, he was powerless to avert its consequences. He heartily approved of, and to a certain extent anticipated, the suggestions made by Cromwell which ultimately resulted in the conversion of the parliamentary forces, under the designation of the ‘new model,’ into an invin- cible army. On the 18th June 1643, while endeay- ouring, on Chalgrove Field, near Thame, to check a marauding force under the command of Prince Rupert, he was struck in the shoulder by two balls. He was able to reach Thame, and there he lingered till the 24th. Hampden has left behind him the reputation of being the most moderate, tactical, urbane, and single-minded of the leaders of the Long Parliament, while inferior to none in resolu- tion or sincerity. He showed before his death such capacity both as a statesman and a soldier as to justify Macaulay in predicting that -if he had lived he would have been the Washington of England. The standard biography of Hampden is Lord Nugent’s Among the numerous works in which he forms a prominent figure are Claren- don’s History of the Rebellion (1702-4); 8. R. Gardiner’s History of Enyland and History of the Great Civil War (1883-89) ; and John Forster’s Arrest of the Five Mem- bers (1860) and Sir John Eliot (2d ed. 1871). See also CHILTERN HILLS; and for reasons for rejecting the com- monly accepted account of his death, see two letters by C. H. Firth in the Academy, November 2-9, 1889. Hampden, RENN Dickson, theologian and bishop, was born in Barbadoes in 1793, studied at Oriel College, Oxford, taking a double first in 1813, and becoming in due course Fellow and tutor of his college. In 1832 his famous Bampton lectures on the Scholastic Philosophy considered in its Rela- tion to Christian Theology were by great part of the church considered grievously heretical, and raised a controversy that threatened to break up the Church of England. His successive appointments to the principalship of St Mary’s Hall (1833), the chairs of Moral Philosophy (1834) and of Divinity (1836), were denounced alike by the Evangelical and High Church parties, and his elevation to the see of Hereford in 1847 was by them regarded as a death-blow to Trinitarian religion. et Bishop Hampden’s works may now be regarded as innocent and edifying. After an episcopate of studious quiet, he died at London, 23d April 1868. Of his books may be named his Work of Christ and the Spirit (1847), Lectures on Moral Philosophy (1856), and Fathers of Greek Philosophy (1862). See H. Hampden’s Some Memorials (1871), and, mes the Hampden controversy, Stanley’s Life of rnold. HAMPSHIRE Hampole, Ricnarp RoE, known as the Hermit of Hampole, was born about 1290 at Thornton in Yorkshire. Sent to Oxford by Neville, archdeacon of Durham, he made great progress in his. studies, and at nineteen assumed a hermit’s dress, and gave his life entirely to the austerities of religion’ and to writing, down to his death in 1349, when he was buried in the Cistercian nunnery of Hampole near Doncaster. He wrote religious books both in Latin and in English, and rendered the Psalms into. English prose. His great work is The Pricke of Conscience (Stimulus Conscientie), a poem written both in English and Latin. The English version contains 9624 lines on the instability of life, death, purgatory, doomsday, the pains of hell, and the joys of heaven. It was edited by Dr Richard Morris in 1863 for the Philological Society. A small collection of Hampole’s prose pieces was edited by the Rev. G. G. Perry for the Early English Text. Society in 1866. See also the papers by J. Ullmann in vol. vii., and G. Kribel in vol. viii., of Englische Studien, and Horstmann’s monograph (1895). Hampshire, HAnTs, or, officially, the sounry: of SOUTHAMPTON, a maritime county in the sout of England, is bounded W. by Dorset and Wilts, N. by Berks, E, by Surrey and Sussex, and 8. by the English Channel. The county, including the Isle of Wight, has an area of 1621 sq. m., or 1,037,764 acres, 700,000 of which are generally under culture. Pop. (1801) 219,290; (1841) 354,682; (1861) 481,815; (1881) 593,465; (1891) 690,086. The surface is diversified by the North and South Downs, the loftiest points being Sidown Hill (940 feet), and, on the Berkshire border, Inkpen Beacon (1011 feet), the highest chalk-down in England. The south-western portion of the county, almost wholly detached from the main portion by the South- ampton Water, is occupied mainly by the New Forest, 92,365 acres in extent, the property of the crown. In the south-east and east there are remains of the forests of Bere, Woolmer, and Waltham Chace. The principal rivers are the Test, the Itchen, and the Avon, all flowing southward ; the last named forms the western boundary of the New Forest. The climate of the county is in general mild, and favourable to vegetation ; indeed, in the south of the Isle of Wight it is believed to be milder than in any other portion of Great Britain. All the usual crops are produced, the wheat being especi- ally good as a rule; hops are cultivated; and the bacon cured here is famous. The Downs afford asturage for an excellent breed of sheep. Honey is a speciality of the county. The manufactures are inconsiderable, except at Portsmouth and Gosport. Southampton and Portsmouth, both termini of important railways, are the chief centres of trade. The county, exclusive of the parlia- mentary boroughs of Portsmouth, Southampton, Winchester, and Christchurch, and the Isle of Wight, returns five members for its five divisions —North or Basingstoke, West or Andover, East or Petersfield, South or Fareham, and New Forest. The county council consists of 100 members. Hampshire is wholly in the diocese of Winchester. Towns other than the four boroughs are Alder- shot, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Bishops Wal- tham, Bournemouth, Fareham, Gosport, Havant, Lymington, Petersfield, Ringwood, Romsey, and Titchfield. The chief edifices in the county possess- ing historical or architectural interest are those at Winchester (q.v.); Porchester Castle, at the head of Portsmouth Harbour; Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight; Calshot and Hurst Castles, now occupied as coastguard stations, erected in the time of Henry VIII; Netley and Beaulieu sarge and the Priory of St Denis, all in the neighbourhood of Southampton. Hampshire is exceedingly rich in Roman remains. Among . ‘summit of the hill ( ~ and now partiall HAMPSHIRE BASIN HAMSTER 537 pshire’s worthies have been Jane Austen, Walter Besant, Charles Dickens, William Gilpin, Keble, Kingsley, Archbishop Warham, Gilbert te, William of Wykeham, and Edward . . See ISLE OF Wicut, New Forest; and the historice by Woodward (1861-69) and Shore (1892), Hampshire Basin. See Eocene System. Hampstead, a parliamentary borough of x, is finely situated on a range of hills 4 miles NW. of London. It was formerly famous for its medicinal springs, and is still a favourite place of residence and of holiday resort among Lon- doners, who are attracted to it by the beauty of its situation and the purity of its air. On the 430 feet), above the village, is the Heath, which affords extensive and pleasant prospects of the ape oaes country. house on the Heath, formerly called the Upper Flask Inn, and now a private residence, was at one time the place of resort of the famous Kit-Cat Club, at which Steele, Addison, Richardson, Walpole, and others used to assemble. Hamp- stead is associated with many names in literature and art, as those of Pope, Gay, Johnson, Akenside, Joanna Baillie, Byron, Constable, Romney, Cole- ridge, Keats, Shelley, Leigh Hunt, and Landseer. The borough returns one member. Pop. 68,425. See Howitt’s Northern Heights of London (1869), and works by Lobley (1889) and Baines (1890). Hampton, a village of Middlesex, on the Thames, 15 miles SW. of London. In the vicinity are many fine mansions and beautiful villas, in- eluding Garrick’s villa. Pop. 4776. HAMPTON CourT PALACE, long a royal residence, occupied by persons of good family in reduced circumstances, stands about a mile from the village in the midst of grounds that extend to the Thames. The original palace was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, and by him presented (1526) to Henry VIII, who enlarged it and formed around it a royal deer-park. Here Edward VI. was born, his mother, Queen Jane Seymour, died, and Charles I. underwent a portion of his confinement. Here too was held in 1604 the famous conference between the bishops and the Presbyterians. It continued to be a royal residence down to the time of peoree Il. A considerable portion of it was rebuilt by William IIL, from designs by Wren, and he also laid out the park and gardens in the formal Dutch style. The picture-gallery contains several Italian works, Lely’s Beauties of the Court of Charles II., and valuable specimens of Holbein, Kneller, West, &c. The cartoons by Raphael have been removed to the South Kensington Museum. The gardens present a series of raised terraces, formal flower-plots, and long and shady arcadés, and have among other attractions a ‘maze’ or Labyrinth (q.v.). Damage, estimated at £20,000, was caused by fire in November 1886. See Ernest Law, Hampton Court in Tudor, Stuart, Orange, and Guelph Times (3 vols. 1885-91). Hampton CourT CONFERENCE, a conference which took place at Hampton Court shortly after the accession of James I. to the throne of England, in order to the settlement of ecclesiastical disputes. Of the divines summoned the representatives of the High Church party were more numerous than the Puritans; the Puritans were among the least extreme of their party. Archbishop Whitgift, with eight bishops, six deans, and an archdeacon, appeared on the High Church side; two Oxford soggl of divinity, two divines from Cam- ridge, and along with them Patrick Galloway, minister of Perth, maintained the Puritan cause. On the anes scree ~ ay args entertain- ing great hopes of release from the rigid enforce- ment of ceremonies which galled thelr Stmmelances. and of the reformation of abuses in the church, had addressed a petition to the king, known as the Millenary Petition, because it was signed by nearly one thousand ministers in all parts of the country. But the king's intention was not to comply with their wishes, and the Hampton Court Conference seems to have been merely a device for making it appear that their demands had been considered and found unreasonable. On the first day of the conference (12th January 1604) the High Church representatives alone were admitted to the presence of the king, who demanded their opinion, which they gave on the third day after, in favour of the existing system in all the parts complained of. On the 16th of January the Puritans were called to the king's presence, but along with them some of their opponents, when James debated keenly against the Puritans, and, according to his own account of the matter, ‘peppered them soundly.’ On the 18th of January both parties were called in, and the royal judgment intimated, which was afterwards apacinend in a roclamation very adverse to the Puritans. See 8. Gardiner’s History of England. Hampton, a town and bathing resort of Virginia, giving name to Hampton Roads, a channel between Chesapeake Bay and the estuary of James River. The town contains a normal institute for coloured pupils. The channel, which is defended by Fortress Monroe, was the scene of several naval actions during the civil war. Pop. (1900) 3441. Hampton, Wave, an American soldier, was born in South Carolina in 1754, served in the revolutionary war under Marion and Sumter, was twice elected to congress, and in 1809 became brigadier-general. In 1813, now a major-general, he made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada. He afterwards became wealthy by land specula- tions, and at his death in 1835 was said to own 3000 slaves.—His grandson, WADE, born in Colum- bia in 1818, was a state senator when the civil war began. He raised a force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, known as ‘Hampton’s Legion,’ and served at Bull Run and in the Peninsular cam- paign. As brigadier-general, he commanded a cavalry force in the Maryland and Pennsylvania campaigns in 1862-63, and was severely wounded at Gettysburg. He received the command of Lee’s cavalry in 1864, with the rank of lieutenant- general; and in 1865 he served in South Carolina against Sherman. He was elected governor of his state in 1876, and United States senator in 1878 and 1884. Hamster ( Cricetus), a genus of rodent mammals of the family Muridz, characterised by a stoutish body, short legs and tail, cheek-pouches reaching back almost to the shoulders, five toes on the hind-foot and four toes and a thumb-wart on the fore-foot. Two incisor teeth are present in each jaw (as usual in rodents), the upper ones yellow and undivided; there are three molar teeth on either side in each jaw, which have true roots, the foremost the largest. The stomach has two divi- sions, and there is a large cecum. There are nine species, of which the most important is the Common amster (Cricetus vulgaris), distributed from the Rhine to the middle of Siberia, and from 60° N. lat. to the Caucasus. It is about 1 foot in length (2 inches being occupied by the tail, which is slightly hairy) ; iy owish- gray above, black below, with seve yellowish-w ite tehes on the side, and with white feet. It breeds twice in the year, and from four to sixteen young are pro- duced each time, which are born blind. The males especially are very pugnacious, and will defend themselves courageously to the last gasp. During 538 HANAPER OFFICE HAND the winter the hamster hibernates, living upon its store of food. Each individual makes a burrow for itself, to which there is a vertical entrance and a sloping passage for exit. The sleeping apartment is always separate from the storehouse, of which young hamsters only make one, older ones several. Hamster (Cricetus vulgaris). It lives upon roots, grain, and fruits, but does not disdain to eat frogs, beetles, or worms. During the summer it lays up a store of grain and pulse, which it carries home during the night in its cheek- pouches. Only the nutritive portions of its booty are stored up, the husks and chaff being rejected ; sometimes the amount of its hoard will reach nearly a hundredweight. Hence it is a great pest to the farmers of the countries in which it abounds, and the object of their unceasing hostility, The skins of hamsters are of some value. Hanaper Office, an office of the Court of Chancery, from which certain writs were formerly issued. The name is derived from the fact that the papers and writs used to be kept in a hamper (in hanaperio). The Comptrollers of the Hanaper were abolished in 1842. Hanan, 2 town in the Prussian province of Hesse- Nassau, is situated at the confluence of the Kinzig and the Main, 13 miles E. by N. of Frank- fort by rail. It is divided into the Old and the New Town; the latter was founded in 1597 by Protestant refugees from Holland and Belgium, who introduced the manufacture of woollen and silk goods, which still flourishes. The town of Hanau stands pre-eminent in Germany for its jewelry and gold and silver wares. Besides these it carries on manufactures of carpets, chocolate, leather, cards, pari hats, tobacco, and gunpowder, and has reweries and an iron-foundry. ere the brothers Grimm were born. In the neighbourhood is the watering-place of Wilhelmsbad. Hanau dates as a town from 1393. It had a very chequered history during the Thirty Years’ War. Near the town was fought one of Napoleon’s last battles in Ger- many, October 30 and 31, 1813, when he defeated the allied Austrians and Bavarians under Wrede. Pop. (1875) 22,269 ; (1890) 25,029. Hancock, WINFIELD Scort, a distinguished American general, was born at Montgomery Square, near Philadelphia, 14th February 1824. His grand- father was a Scotsman, his father an attorney of good position. He graduated at West Point in 1844, served with merit through the war with Mexico, and had reached the rank of captain when the civil war broke out. Commissioned in 1861 brigadier-general of volunteers, he did good service in organising the army of the Potomac, and was prominent in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam ; at Fredericksburg, as major-general of volunteers, he led 5000 men to the desperate assault on Marye’s Heights through a deadly fire from which less than 3000 came back. In June 1863 he was given the command of the 2d corps. At Gettysburg, Hancock was in command until Meade’s arrival ; and on 3d July he was severely wounded, but remained on the field until the enemy’s last determined assault was repulsed by his corps. In 1864 he was conspicuous in the hard-fought battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor ; at Spottsylvania he captured nearly an entire division, and carried a salient of field-works on the Confederate centre, afterwards known as the ‘ bloody angle,’ which, with the help of the 6th corps, he held against Lee’s desperate assaults. For this, and his services afterwards under Grant, he was created brigadier-general in the regular army, 12th August 1864. His wound now broke out again, and thereafter, while the war continued, his energies were directed mainly to the work of organisa- tion. In 1866 he was promoted to major-general, and assigned to the command of the department of the Missouri, where he was for a time employed against the Indians. He was then transferred to the South, and in 1868 to the division of the Atlantic. To this post, after three years’ command in Dakota, he was restored in 1872, and filled it till his death. He was the Democratic candidate for the presidency of the United States in 1880, but was defeated by Garfield (q.v.). He died on Governor’s Island, in New York harbour, 9th Febru- ary 1886. Grant has written, ‘ Hancock stands the most conspicuous figure of all the general officers who did not exercise a separate command.’ McClellan called him ‘superb,’ and the title stuck to him. He was a brave, fearless soldier, prompt in decision, and skilled to command; but one who would rather lead than send his troops forward, and whose presence in the thickest of the fight won him their confidence. See the Lives by Junkin and Norton (1880), Goodrich (1886), Walker (1890), and the Lenuwniscences of him by his widow (1887). Hand, THe. The genus Homo, or Man, was ranked by Cuvier in his classification of mammals as a distinct order, Bimana, in consequence of man being the only animal possessing two hands. Re- cently the tendency has been to revert to the classification of Linnzeus, and to place man with all monkeys, lemurs, and bats in the order Pri. mates (see BIMANA, MAMMALIA). At first sight it might be considered that the so-called Quadru- mana or four-handed animals (monkeys, &c.) were better equipped than those which possess only two hands, but his is far from being the case. None of the four hands are adapted to the variety of actions which the human hand is capable of performing, and they are all, to some degree, required for sup- port and locomotion ; so that, while in the higher 8 CARPAL BONES FORMING - WRIST & METACARPAL BONES 14 PHALANGES FORMING FINGERS Fig. 1.—Front view of the Bones of right hand: a, radius; 0, ulna. forms of the quadrumana the extremities present an approximation in structure to those of man, in the lower they rately tend to resemble the ordina’ quadrupedal type. ‘That,’ says Cuvier, ‘ whic constitutes the hand, properly so called, is the HAND 539 faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers, 80 as to scize upon the most minute objects—a faculty which is carried to its highest degree of tion in man, in whom the whole anterior extremity is free, and can be employed in prehen- sion.’ The peculiar prehensile power of the human hand is chiefly dependent upon the length, power, and mobility of the thumb, which can brought into exact doe to the extremities of all the fi , whether separately or peeved together. he general arrangement of the bones of the hand will be understood by a reference to fig. 1. In fig. 2 we have a diagram showing the way in which the bones of the hand are arranged. The carpal bones (3 to 10 in the © second row of four bones (7, 8,.9, 10); so that, excluding the — bone (6), the carpal and the tarsal bones Fig. 2.—Diagram of Correspondin number. As we the Bones of the commonly term the palm the Hand, with the ‘sae of the hand, the thumb ends of the Radius omes conventionally the and Ulna (after outer, and the little finger the iS « figure) are eight in number, #0 O § Y and are arranged in the wrist ‘ a O g ie in two rows. The first “ upper row consists practically mn» U O L [\e of three bones (3, 7 5), the nd [\ [| [ [le fourth (6) being regarded as ©O woo belonging to the class of Sesa- man moid Bones (q.v.), and the Humphry): 1, end of radius; 2, end of ulna ; 3, scaphoid ; 4, semilunar; 5, cunei- form; 6, pisiform; 7, 5 par a 8, . tra zoid ; 9, magnum ; 10, unciform; 11, 11, metacarpal bones; 12, 12, first row of pha- langes ; 13, 13, second inner digit ; but according to the rules of comparative an- atomy, and in order to com- pare the hand and foot, we pe- ought to reverse these terms. The outer (3) of the carpal bones of the first row sup- ports (through the interven- tion of 7 and 8) the bones of of the forearm and hand, to which there is virtually nothing analogous in the leg, are those of ‘ prona- tion and supination.’ In pronation (derived from pronus, ‘with the face downwards’) we turn the palm of the hand downwards, as in picking u any object from the table; in supination (deriv from supinus, ‘with the face upwards’), we turn the palm upwards, as for the purpose of receiving —t 1ing that may be placed in it. hese movements of pronation and supination are so important to the usefulness of the hand that we must notice the muscles by which they are chiefly effected. One of these muscles passes from a projecting process on the inner side of the arm-bone at its lower end to the outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction causes the radius to roll over, or in front of, the ulna. It thus pronates the hand, and is called a pronator muscle. Another crosses from the front of the lower end of the ulna to the corresponding part of the radius. Its shape and its action are indicated by the name pronator quadratus. Another muscle passes from a projecting process on the outer side of the arm-bone and from the outer aspect of the ulna to the outer surface of the radius near its upper part. It runs therefore in an opposite diree- tion to the former muscle, and produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and the hand back into the position of supination. Hence it is called a supinator muscle (see fig. 3). The fourth is a ve powerful muscle termed the Biceps (q.v.), whic not only bends the elbow, but, from the mode in which its tendon is inserted into the inner side of the radius, ‘also rotates the radius so as to supinate the hand; and it gives great ower to that movement. hen we turn a screw, or drive a gimlet, or draw a cork, we always employ the supinating movement of the row ; 14, 14, third row; 1, thumb; 11, forefinger, &c. ; Vv, little finger. the thumb and forefinger (1 and II), and constitutes with them the outer division of the hand. The inner (5) of the carpal bones bears the little and the next (the ring) finger (Vv and Iv), and constitutes with them the inner division of the hand, while the middle one (4) bears the middle finger (111), and_ belongs to the middle division of the hand. We likewise see from this figure, and also from fig. 1, that the two outer bones (3 and 4) are connected with the radius, while the inner bone (5) is connected (indirectly by a thick ligament) with the ulna. The carpal bones are so arranged that the carpus presents a dorsal convex surface, upon which the tendons of the extensor muscles of the fingers play, and a palmar concave surface on which the tendons of the flexor muscles lie. The several bones are joined to one another—each bone being united to three or more others—by a large extent of surface, and are je _ together by strong ligamentous bands. e wrist is thus as strong as if it had been constructed of one solid piece of bone, while the slight gliding movements which oceur between the several bones give it an elasticity which serves to break the shocks that result from falls upon the hand. The uppermost surface of the first row of earpal bones is convex, and this convex surface is received into a wide cup or socket, formed by the Jower articular surface of the radius and ‘by a ligament passing from that bone to the ulna. Like the great toe, the thumb has only two phalanges, while each of the other digits has three. For the different directions in which the arm and hand collectively can be moved, see the descrip- tion of the construction and movements of the shoulder and elbow joints at ARM. Movements hand for the purpose; and all screws, gimlets, and im- plements of the like kind are made to turn in a manner suited to that movement of the right hand, because mechanicians have observed that we have more power to supinate the hand than to pronate it.’ Supination can only be performed to its full extent by man, and even in man it is not the natural or habitual position; monkeys can partially effect the move- ment, and in most of the lower animals the part corre- sponding anatomically to the hand is constantly in a state of gga: ’ he movements of which the hand itself, without reference to the arm, are capable, are very numerous, and in this respect differ con- siderably from the _ corre- sponding movements of the foot. hus we can bend the fingers down upon the palm, or we can extend them beyond the straight line; we can separate them from one another to a considerable extent, and we can close them 3.— The super- Fig. ficial Muscles of the Forearm : 1, biceps; 2, tendon of biceps; 5, the radial flexor of the wrist; 6, the long palmar muscle, spreading out(at9)into the palmar fascia ; 8, the ulnar flexor of the wrist ; 10, the long supinator muscle, with considerable force. The wrist and hand are bent forwards or flexed upon the forearm by three muscles which pass downwards from the inner 540 HAND HANDCUFFS condyle or expanded, end of the humerus, and are termed the radial flexor, the ulnar flexor, and the long palmar muscles. The first two of these muscles are inserted into wrist-bones on the radial and ulnar sides respectively, while the third ex- pands into a fan-like fascia or membrane in the palm of the hand, and thus serves both to support the skin of the palm and to protect the nerves and vessels which lie belowit. Beneath the palmar fascia lie two sets of flexor muscles of the fingers, and they present so beautiful a mechanical arrange- ment as to merit special notice. The superficial or perforated flexor muscle passes own the front of the forearm, and divides into four cendons, which become apparent after the removal of the palmar fascia, and are inserted into the second phalanges of the fingers, each tendon splitting at its fermination, to give passage to the similar tendons of the deep or perforating flexor muscle, which passes from the upper part of the ulna to be inserted into the last chalets of each finger. This arrangement of the tendons of the superficial and deep flexor 4\.1s_les is shown in fig. 4. To these fexor muscles To show the perforation of one of the tendons of the super- ficial flosor muscle ( which is inserted into the second phalanx), in order to allow the corresponding tendon of the deep flexor to pass cnawards to be inserted in the last phalanx. corres}ond the common extensor muscle of the fingers, which, like the flexors, divides into four tendons, one for each finger. Besides these, there is a special extensor of the index-finger, a series of muscles forming the ball of the thumb, which move that organ in almost every direction, and various small muscles giving lateral and other movements to the fingers. It is sufficient to observe that the hand is very richly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, with- out entering into any anatomical details on these points. There is no part of the body where the sense of touch is so acute as at the tips of the fingers; but we defer to the article ToucH the consideration of the special arrangements which make this part of the hand peculiarly important in relation to our knowledge of external objects. As a measuring standard for the height of horses a hand is a palm breadth, assumed to be four inches. For left-handedaess, &c., see RIGHT- AND LEFT- HANDEDNESS. Our notice of the comparative anatomy of the Foot (q.v.) renders it unnecessary to trace the modifications presented in the lower animals by the bones sorresponding to those of the human hand, as the carpal and metacarpal bones with their halanges undergo adaptations of form to meet the individual wants of the animal, very much in the same manner as the tarsal and metatarsal bones and their phalanges. Thus, the reader will readily see that the so-called knee of the horse, for example, is the carpus, and he will have no difficulty in tracing the metacarpal bones and phalanges. See Sir Charles Bell, Zhe Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments (Bridgewater Treatise, 1836; 9th ed. 1874). Handcuffs, the instruments used for securin prisoners under arrest. In the 15th and 16t centuries they are spoken of as swivels, manacles, and shackbolts. Until within the latter half of the 19th century, those in common use seem to have been only of two kinds—viz. the rigid or figure-8 handcuffs, employed chiefly in prisons for the punishment or restraint of refractory or violent prisoners, and the flexible or chain handeufis used by the police and military when conveying a person in custody from one place to another. With the former the wrists are so confined as to be fixed in one position either in front or behind the body of the prisoner, the latter method being the one generally adopted when they are put on for infraction of prison regulations. This punishment is a much dreaded one, the confinement of the wrists together at. the prisoner’s back even for a short period being exceedingly irksome and uncom- fortable. The chain handcuff, which is in most common use, is made so that, while depriving the prisoner of the free use of his hands and arms, a change in the position of these to some extent is permitted, and the rigidity of the figure-8 hand- cufis is avoided. Of recent years several improve- ments have been made in the construction of the handeuffs. They are much lighter, and many of them are now adjustable (@ in fig.). By means of a ratchet arrangement they are made to fit any size of wrist, and the difficulty which was formerly met by an officer taking two or three pairs of different sizes with him when going a distance to bring a prisoner has thus been overcome. For the removal of gangs of prisoners from one prison to another a long chain is used, running through and connectin the handeuffs by which each prisoner is secured. Gangs of eight or ten men are thus fastened to- gether, the chain passing through a ring fixed on each handcuff, and made fast at both ends by what are known as end-locks. In addition to the handcuffs above described there are several appliances, mostly of recent invention, which are employed by the police in securing prisoners, but which are not known among the officers of the law as handcuffs. They Various forms of Handcuffs. have a variety of names—such as snaps (6 in fig.), nippers (c in fe.) twisters (d in fig.), &e. They are distinguished from the handcuffs by the fact that they are intended only for one wrist, the other part or handle being held by the officer conveying the prisoner. ‘They are mostly of American origin, their chief design being to enable an offender to be instantaneously secured, and thus prevent attempts to resist capture. The snap is the one most in use in Great Britain among detective officers; the smaller loop is slipped on the wrist of the offender, and the fastening is snapped into place and held in the hand of the detective; in an emergency this instrument is very effective when used as a knuckle- duster. In the United States and the colonies the nippers are recognised as the most effectual for _ > _ is occasional] HANDCUFFS HANDEL 541 prompt operation; by an ingenious arrange- ment of the centre-bar, shown in the fig., it can be instantaneously fastened by one hand on the Wrist of an offender. The ¢wister is now generally forbidden in Great Britain, instances having arisen in which its application has been attended with serious injury to the prisoner; but it is still frequently used in some parts of America and in er countries where open resistance to the law is of more frequent occurrence. It is composed of a chain attached to two handles. The chain is put round the wrist, the handles brought together and twisted till the chain grips tight enough. In eases where prisoners have to be removed who are charged with crimes of a desperate kind, the culprit secured by leg-irons (¢ in fig.) in addition to the handcuffs, and these are also used in convict establishments upon prisoners who have shown themselves to be dangerous. The leg-iron is fastened above the ankle and locked by a key. Handel, Georce FREDERICK, born at Halle, in Saxony, at No. 4 of the Grosser Schlamm, Feb- ruary 23, 1685. The German name was Georg Friedrich Hiindel ( eee cnced Hendel); but he himself signed G. F. Handel to the end of his life. His father (then sixty-three) was a sur- geon; his mother the second wife. His passion and ability for music began from the first, but against his father’s will. At seven or eight the boy was placed under Zachau, organist at Halle, and in about a year was writing a regular composi- tion every week, besides playing organ, clavier, violin, and hautboy. In or about 1696 he was sent to the court of Berlin, where he met Ariosti and Buononcini the composers. In 1697 his father died, but his education was carefully continued, and on February 10, 1702, he entered the university of Halle, and in the same year became organist of the church at the Moritzburg there. Before this time he was well known as a musician. In 1703 he went to Hamburg, then one of the most musical towns in Germany. Here he played second violin in the oe orchestra, accompanied on the theatre harpsi- chord, made all the music and enjoyed all the life possible. Among musical houses which he fre- quented was that of Sir Cyril Wich, English repre- sentative. In Holy week, 1704, he produced his first Passion. In December he had a duel with his friend Mattheson, nearly fatal, though the differ- ence was soon adjusted;,and in January 1705, Almira, his first opera, was brought out, and was followed by Nero, Florindo, and Daphne—all in German. e also gave innumerable lessons, and wrote much harpsichord music. In the summer of 1706 he left Hamburg, and in January 1707 we find him at Florence, in April at Rome, and in July back at Florence, R ucing Rodrigo. The first three months of 1708 he spent at Venice, and pro- duced Agrippina; thence he went to Rome for another three months, and thence to Naples, possibly till Christmas 1709—the whole journey one con- tinued triumphal progress, both in playing and composition, He then returned to Florence, and ‘finished his visit at Venice in the middle of 1710. He returned by Halle to Hanover, and was made Kapellmeister, with an income of 1500 crowns, and leave to travel. Thence he went by Diisseldorf to London, where he arrived in November 1710. His first. opera, Rinaldo, was produced at the Queen’s Theatre, Haymarket, February 24, 1711, with pro- digious success. After this he returned to Hanover, and remained in Germany till the autumn of 1712, when he went back to London. That winter he pro- duced Ji Pastor Fido and Teseo. The spring of 1713 saw his first composition to English words, the first Birthday Ode, and the Utrecht Te Deum. During this time he lived chiefly with Lord Burlington at his house in Piccadilly. On August 1, 1714, Queen Anne died, and on papemier 18 George I. arrived. The operas of this year were Silla and Amadigi. The king was naturally displeased at Handel’s long absence from Hanover, and perha at his writing a 7'’e Deum for Utrecht; but Handel made his peace by the Water Music, written for a royal water-party, August 22, 1715. He received a pension of £200, to which were afterwards added two other amounts of £200 each, giving him a permanent income of £600, representing consid- erably more than the same sum at present. In Phar 1716 he accompanied the king to Hanover, and returned with him in the following January. While there he wrote his second German Passion. In 1718-19 no operas were performed, and Handel was engaged by the Duke of Chandos to direct the music at his palace at Cannons, near Edgware. Here he wrote the twelve Chandos Anthems and two Te Deums (in B flat and A), Esther, Acis and Galatea, and the first set of Lessons, containing the ‘Harmonious Blacksmith.’ ; _In 1720 the Royal Academy was founded in the Haymarket, by subscription of £50,000, ‘to secure a constant supply of operas by Handel, to be per- formed under his direction.’ This was the beginnin of the great revolution which for a hundred years an more er English music, once so strong in its native school, under the dominion of foreigners. As director, Handel had been to Dresden early in 1719, and had engaged Senesino and others. h travelled thither to see him, but missed him by one day. The Royal Academy Theatre opened April 2, 1720, and Handel’s Radamisto was produced. Thirteen other operas are spread over the next eight years—Muzio Scevola (Act 3 only pees by him), Floridante, Ottone, Flavio, Giulio re, Tamerlano, Rodelinda, Scipione, Alessandro, Ad- meto, Riccardo, Siroe, Tolomeo. During this time he was naturalised, February 13, 1726. In June 1727 George II. succeeded to the throne, and as court composer Handel composed Zadok the Priest, and three other anthems, for the coronation. On June 1, 1728, the theatre closed, and, the money being all spent, the Royal Academy of Music was at an end. Handel and Heidegger then took the house on their own account, sad shortly after Handel set out to find singers in Italy. On June 29 he was at Halle with his mother, then suffering from paraly- sis, under which she lingered till December 27, 1730. The new venture opened December 2, 1729, with Lotario, followed by Partenope. The next season began November 3, 1730, and contained the new opera Poro; Ezio and Sosarme followed. This spring saw several revivals of Esther, also two of Acis and Galatea. The season of 1732-33 brought forward Orlando. The speculation, however, was not successful, the quarrels with the singers and rival composers were continual, and the result was the opening of the ‘Opera of the Nobility,’ to which the whole company had revolted, in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, December 29, 1733. The struggle was tremendous. On one side was Handel with his partner; on the other a company of rich and powerful noblemen, with all the composers that could be got together—Buononcini, Porpora, Hasse, and all the great singers, Handel’s season began October 30, 1733, and he brought out Arianna. - His contract for the King’s Theatre expired July 6, 1734; then began a series of disasters and worries, The Nobility took the King’s Theatre, and Handel was driven first to Lincoln’s Inn, and then to Covent Garden, where, in partnership with Rich, he produced six new operas, Ariodante, Alcina, Atalanta, Giustino, Arminio, Berenice, besides reviving many of his old ones. On June ll, 1737, the Nobility retired, with a loss of £12,000, while Handel’s losses had been so severe, including £10,000 of funded savings, that he was 542 HANDEL obliged to compound with his creditors, and give bills for a large amount. No wonder that the health of even his massive frame broke down; aralysis disabled his right arm, and his mind was or a time seriously disordered. A visit to Aix-la- Chapelle, and the strongest remedies there, how- ever, restored him, and by November 7 he was back in London. This ended his career as composer- manager. ; Handel’s opera days were now over. True, he wrote afew more for his old partner Heidegger— Faramondo, Serse, Imeneo, and Deidamia; but henceforward he was to tread a nobler path, that of the English oratorio, which has rendered him immortal. Zsther had been composed before 1720, Deborah and Athalia in 1733, Alexander's Feast in 1736, in the very thick of his opera squabbles. Then came the funeral anthem for his friend Queen Caro- line, ‘The ways of Zion’ (1737), itself almost an oratorio, and containing some of his noblest music. Saul was produced early in 1739; Jsrael in Egypt followed in three months; then the Ode for St Cecilia’s Day, November 1739, and L’ Allegro, Feb- ruary 1740. The Messiah, finished September 14, 1741, was produced in Dublin, April 13, 1742. He returned to London shortly after, and produced Samson (which he had begun before leaving for Dublin), as the leading work in an oratorio season of twelve nights, in the course of which the Messiah was first given in London. The new style told, and he enjoyed a short time of prosperity. In 1743 he had a return of paralysis, and in 1751 we find him at Cheltenham drinking its waters. But nothing interferes with his activity. From 1744 to 1750 oratorio follows oratorio, like huge rocks thrown forth from a crater. The Dettingen Te Deum and an anthem, ‘The King shall rejoice,’ in com- memoration of the great victory, were followed by Joseph, Semele, Belshazzar, Hercules, The Occa- sional Oratorio, Judas Maccabeus, Alexander Balus, Joshua, Solomon, Susanna, and Theodora. Of these Judas, written as a hymn of triumph on the campaign of Culloden, has always been the most popular. Handel’s music had now taken wider possession than ever of the public, and had penetrated to a lower stratum. At the Lenten ‘ Oratorios’ nothing else was done. There, too, were his great organ performances, which were very popular. He was SeacorsecA not a great pedalist, but the spirit and re of his playing must have been immense. He has left eighteen organ concertos to testify to it. He composed for all oceasions. The Anthem for the Peace and the Fireworks Music for the public fétes after the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle were both his. The Foundling Hospital acquired much wealth through his music, and he himself made money, so that at his death he had the large sum of £20,000 in the funds. Of this £1000 was left to the Royal Society of Musicians. In the summer of 1750 he went abroad, and again missed Bach, who died July 28. After his return he wrote Jephthah, his last oratorio. His eyes had for some time troubled him, and in May 1752 he was couched, but with no success. Hence- forward, with some slight glimmering, he was virtually blind ; but with the help of his old pupil, John Christopher Smith, he continued his Lenten oratorio-concerts to the end. His last note was probably a pencil quaver, inserted in a quintet in Jephthah. e died in his house (now No. 25) in Brook Street, Bond Street, at 8 A.m., Easter Eve, April 14, 1759, aged seventy-four, and was buried in Poet’s Corner, Westminster Abbey, 8 P.M., April 20. At this time Haydn was twenty-seven, and Mozart three. There is something expressly English in Handel’s characteristics. His size, his hearty appetite, his t vast productiveness, his domineering temper, his humour, his power of business, are all our own. So was his eye to the main chance. When a friend ios out the best pieces in one of his oratorios, e said, ‘True, they are the best ; but you have for- otten the pieces that are to make the money.” n fact he pre-eminently belongs to England. The practical sense of his music, and its close alliance with the Bible, joined to its lofty imaginativeness, suit the English public. Its sacred chanel and its independence of the theatre also fall in with our Puritan spirit. Abroad he is little known, and that mostly as a curiosity. But to the great English public he is even still their meat and drink. And yet on how slender a thread does the connection hang! But for the oratorios of the Messiah and Israel in Egypt Handel’s name could hardly have been what it is to us. His operas scarcely lasted beyond their original produe- tion. When Giulio Cesare was revived in 1787 (the year in which Don Giovanni was brought out in Vienna), it had to be enriched by the most favourite songs from the others, to make it go down. The Messiah, however, took the English people from the first, and has gone on being performed more and more till now. It must have been heard oftener than any play of Shakespeare’s. The revival of Jsrael followed in our own times, though its fame is still incomplete. It is no sh apne to say that these two works have made Handel’s name immortal. In them he fortunately forgot that the house had to be filled; nothing is ad captandum—all is pure music. But for the light reflected from them few of his works would have remained to the present day. The bright light cast from these two masterpieces illumines a number of compositions which otherwise would have forever remained in the dark. More than this, there can be no doubt that the enormous spread of music since his day has been very largely due to the popularity of the Messiah. Cheap editions of that noble work have always led the van. It is unnecessary to describe the characteristics of his compositions, because every Briton knows them, or can know them. His plagiarism must be mentioned, though there is no room to deal with both sides of the subject. His habit of using— almost of preferring—ideas from strangers or from his own earlier works is most remarkable. Perhaps this was his own practical way ; the work had to be done in the time, and he trusted in himself that all would be right. Perhaps, too, the habit came from a deeper source than mere economy. When writing the Hallelujah Chorus, he looked up like Isaiah in the Temple, and had the same vision. ‘I did see,’ said he, ‘all heaven open before me, and the Great God Himself.’ This was the spirit in which he composed ; and to one so near the fount of inspiration themes or passages will always be subordinate to the general result, which in Handel’s case is pure gold. Sometimes he takes movements bodily (‘Egypt was glad’), but he oftener adopts fragments or subjects. His power of transforma- tion is extraordinary. He will take an ordinary theme from some trivial work, and transmute it into an absolutely immortal monument (‘ Hail- stone chorus’). On the other hand his very greatest works are absolutely his own (‘Halle- lujah;’ ‘The people shall hear,’ &c.). And the remarkable thing is that with all this business- like procedure the effect is so high, characteristic, and appropriate. Beethoven’s judgment on him was perfectly sound : ‘Handel is the unapproach- able master of all masters ; go to him and learn to produce great effects with little means.’ Handel’s powers of work were enormous. He rarely sketched his pieces, but began the score they give are HANDFASTING HANG-NESTS 543 at once. ne was’ a light matter in those but even so he was very rapid. Rinaldo was tten in fourteen days, Tamerlano in twenty, the Messiah in twenty-four, and Jsrae/ in fifteen. _ His face was far nobler than is usually supposed. The portraits are mostly poor, and the gross features rt of the inveterate caricature which ued his figure, his features, and his language faire h life. Those who want to see him as he was should have a cast of Roubiliac’s head in Westminster Abbey, itself taken from a mould, and full of tenderness and dignity. His smile is said by those who had seen it to have been heavenly, ‘like the sun breaking through a cloud.’ For tog biographies read his Memoirs by Main- waring (1770), and his Life by Rockstro (1883), with a complete list of works and dates. Chrys- ander’s German biography is invaluable, but un- finished ( vols. i.-iii. 1856-67). Of the works them- selves the best edition is that of Chrysander 1856 et seg.) ; with all coe condensation they ll ninety-eight vols. The majority of the auto- graph MSS. are at Buckingham Palace ; sketches are at Cambridge in the Fitzwilliam. The first Handel Commemoration performance was held in Westminster Abbey in 1784; Handel Festivals have been held since 1859, usually triennially, at the Crystal Palace. Handel societies for the publication of Handel’s works were founded in London in 1843, and aoees in 1856, and a Handel and Haydn Society for performances of their works at Boston, U.S., in 1815. Handfasting (in Old English, macely ‘ be- trothal ;’ A.S. handfestan, ‘ to pledge one’s hand ’) was a custom at one time prevalent in Scotland, by which a man and a woman entered into conjugal relations on the strength simply of a verbal con- tract of marriage. Persons so handfasted were bound to each other for a twelvemonth and a day, after which they could either separate or be formally united in marriage. The custom had its great evils in society, and the clergy, both of the pre-Reformation and the post-Reformation churches, directed many injunctions against it. See MORGANATIC MARRIAGE. Handicapping is the term used in various games and sports to denote the placing of competi- tors, good, bad, and indifferent, on such a footin that all shall have, as nearly as possible, an equa chance of pane Thus, in Horse-racing (q.v.), when the s of one horse-has been ascertained to be greatly superior to that of-another, the swifter of the two, in a handicap race, is made to carry extra weight to an amount that shall be deemed sufficient to reduce its speed to a level with that of its antagonist. In pigeon-shooting from traps, the more skilful the shooter, the farther back has he to stand from the traps. In games such as chess and draughts, certain ‘men’ are allowed to the inferior player; in billiards, the better of two allows his antagonist a certain number of ‘ points ;’ at cricket, an eleven, such as the eleven of All England, will sometimes play against twenty-two others, the competition being at times very close. In swimming and in estrianism, the inferior competitors are allowed a certain ‘law,’ or start; in yachting, the vessel of Be tonnage is handi- capped with lesser ones by allowing them extra time for the performance of the race. Handsel denotes earnest-money, or part-pay- ment, by way of binding a bargain. In some parts of England ‘fasten-penny’ is used with the same signification. In Scotland handsel popularly signifies the first of a series of transactions in trade, as, for example, the first sale effected in the day or week, or the first of a series of presents. It is likewise employed to signify a present given, oy to a servant or child, on the first Monday the year—hence called Handsel Monday. Hand-tree ( Cheirostemon platanoides), a large tree of the natural order Sterculiacew, which re- ceives its name from the peculiar appearance of its flowers. These have no corolla, but a large 5-lobed, angular, coloured calyx—bright red within—from which project the five stamens, united by their filaments into a column, and separating and curving at the summit, where they bear the anthers, so as to have some resemblance to a hand or claw. It is interesting also as being an object of superstitious veneration to the Mexicans, and as being related to the famous Baobab or Monkey-bread ( Adansonia digitata) of Senegal, Guinea, and other countries of that region of the west coast of Africa. Handwriting. See Writinc, EvipENce, EXPERT. Hang-chow. (Hang-chau), the gate of the imperial canal, capital of the Chinese province of Cheh-chiang, and since the Japanese treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) a treaty port, is at the mouth of the Tsien-tang in the Bay of Hang-chow, 110 miles SW. of Shanghai. It was the capital of the Sung empire of southern China previous to its overthrow by the Mongols, and was a splendid city when visited by Marco Polo early in the 14th century. The city, one of the great commercial, religious, and literary centres of China, has clean, well-paved streets and many magnificent temples, is a prin- Hh seat of the silk manufacture, of gold and silver work, and is noted for the beauty of its surroundings. From a remote period, many spots in the environs have been the resort of pilgrims ; and here several thousands of candidates assemble every year for the public examinations. It was formerly a naval port. The river is subject to a dangerous bore or eagre.. Previous to the Taiping rebellion, the city had some 2,000,000 inhabitants ; but it was then (1861) laid in ruins by the rebels, and now contains a-population estimated at from 400,000 to 800,000. Hanging. See EXECUTION, STRANGULATION. Hanging Gardens, The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were anciently reckoned among the wonders of the world. Their construction is vari- ously ascribed to Queen Semiramis and to Nebu- chadnezzar. Diodorus and Strabo have given de- scriptions of them. They are said to have formed a square, with an area of nearly four acres, and rose in terraces, supported on masonry arches, to a height of 75 feet. They were irrigated from a reservoir built at the top, to which water was lifted from the Euphrates by a screw. Fountains and banqueting-rooms were distributed throughout the numerous terraces; groves and avenues of trees, as well as parterres iS towdia. diversified the scene; whilst the view of the city and neighbour- hood was extensive and magnificent. Hang-nests (Jcterid@), a family of finch-like erching birds peculiar to America, and widely Nistributed over both continents, though most largely represented in the tropical parts of South America. They are often known as American Orioles, a name received because of their brilliant black and yellow colour, not from any connection with the orioles of the Old World. The family includes many well-known birds, such as bob-o- links, cow-birds, ckles, &c., but the name hang-nest is not literally applicable to all, and most perfectly to such genera as Cassicus and Ostinops from tropical South America. The curious purse-like nests woven by many of these birds are often about two feet in length, and have a hole for entrance near the bottom, at one side. One of the best-known species of hang-nest is the Baltimore Oriole (q.v.). The hang-nests are related to the starlings and Weaver-birds (q.v.) of the eastern hemisphere. 544 HAN-HAI HANNIBAL Han-hai, an ancient dried-up sea in central Asia, now represented only by Lake Lob-nor (q.v.). See AsrA, Vol. I. p. 486. Hankow (Han-k’aw), a river-port of China, in the province of Hu-pei, at the junction of the Han River with the Yang-tsze, 600 miles W. of Shanghai. Strictly speaking, Hankow is a suburb of the towns of Wu-chang and Han-yang, the three together forming one huge city. Vessels of large size can reach Hankion the river being navigable to the city of Ichang, 420 miles higher up. Since 1862 Hankow has been open to foreign trade. The principal article of export is tea, of which one-fourth to one-third out of a total value of two or three millions of pounds exported an- nually is sent to London. Other articles of export are silk, oil, vegetable tallow, tobacco, hides, nut- galls, coal, musk, and wax. The chief imports are opium, cotton, piece-goods, woollens, metals, sugar, edible seaweed, sapanwood, ‘llama’ braid, dyes, matches, kerosene oil, and needles. The annual imports sometimes reach a value of over £6,000,000, the exports of over £5,000,000. Of its large trade with the provinces of the interior no statistics are Sabena Since 1893 a great cotton mill with 700 ooms works twenty-two hours daily, making yarn and cloth from native cotton. In 1889 a decree of the emperor authorised the construction of a railway from Hankow to Peking, 700 miles in length. Before the Téiping rebellion the three cities had a population of over 5,000,000; it is now about 1,700,000, Hankow having 750,000 of these. Hanley, a town of modern growth, in Stafford- shire, in the district known as the Potteries (q.v.), 18 miles N. of Stafford. It manufactures china, earthenware, and encaustic tiles. In the vicinity are coal and iron mines. Hanley was constituted a municipal borough in 1857, and a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885. Pop. (1851) 25,369; (1871) 39,976 ; (1881) 48,361; (1891) 54,846; of parliamentary borough (ineluding Burslem, q.v.), 86,845. Hanna, WILLIAM, the biographer of Chalmers, was born in 1808, the son of a theological professor at Belfast. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and was ordained in 1835 to the Lanark- shire parish of East Kilbride. He came out at the Disruption, and became in 1850 colleague to Dr Guthrie in Free St John’s Church, Edinburgh. He was made D.D. by Edinburgh in 1864, and resigned his church through ill-health in 1867, but survived until 1882. He edited for some years the North British Review, and published many theological books, of which perhaps the best known is Our Lord’s Life on Earth (1869). Well-known works are his Memoirs of Dr Chalmers, his father-in-law (4 vols. 1849-52 ; a fifth, his correspondence, 1853), and The Letters of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen (1877-78). Hannay, JAMES, critic and novelist, was born at Dumfries, 17th February 1827. A few years of boyhood were spent in the navy, from which he was dismissed at eighteen by a court-martial sentence, afterwards quashed as irregular. He early devoted himself to a busy life of letters, finding a favourite pastime in the study of genealogy, heraldry, the classics, and 18th-centu English literature. In 1860-64 he edited the Edinburgh Courant, and was afterwards British consul at Barcelona, where he died suddenly, 3d January 1873. Of his novels the best are Singleton Fontenoy (1850) and Eustace Conyers (1855). His Lectures on Satire and Satir- ists (1854) and Essays from the Quarterly Review (1861) show wide knowledge and fine literary sense, often expressed in admirably terse and epigram- matie English. Other works were Three Hundred Years of a Norman House—the Gurney family (1866), and Studies on Thackeray (1869). Hannibal, a city of Missouri, on the Mississippi, here crossed by an iron railroad bridge, 120 miles i rail NNW. of St Louis. The centre of an import- ant network of railways, it has an extensive trade in lumber, flour, and cattle, and manufactories of flour, tobacoo, lime, and railroad cars. ‘There are coal-mines close by. Hannibal is the seat of a Methodist college. Pop. (1900) 12,780. Hannibal (‘the grace of Baal;’ cf. the Hanniel of Scripture) was the son of the great Carthaginian ieiirat Hamilear Barca (q.y.), and was born in 247 B.c. It is said that in his ninth year his father led him to an altar and bade him swear eternal enmity to Rome. From the age of nine to eighteen he was trained in war and diplomacy under Hamil- car in Spain ; and from his eighteenth to his twenty- fifth year he was the chief agent in carrying out the plans by which his brother-in-law, Hasdrubal, ex- tended and consolidated the Carthaginian dominion in the Peninsula. On the death of Hasdrubal in 221 B.C., the soldiers with one voice chose Hannibal, then in his twenty-sixth Forthwith he crossed the Tagus, and in two years reduced all Spain up to the Ebro, with the excep- tion of the Greek colony of Saguntum, That town, which claimed the ap cenore of Rome, fell in 218 B.c., and the Secon justly called it, ‘the War of -Hannibal,” began. Garrisoning Libya with Spaniards, and Spain with Libyans (a precaution against treachery), Hannibal set out on his march for Rome. In the summer of 218 B.c. he left New Carthage with 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, and 37 elephants, crossed the Pyrenees, and gained the Rhone, where his passage was barred by a host of Gauls. The general thereupon sent part of his troops two days’ journey up-stream, with orders to cross the Rhone and fall on the rear of the barbarians. His orders were executed by Hanno, and the passage of the river was safely effected. He crossed the Alps in fifteen days, in the face of obstacles which would have proved insuperable to almost any other commander. His troops, reared under African and Spanish suns, perished in thou- sands amid ice and snow. The native tribes threat- ened the annihilation of his force, and were only dispersed by his matchless courage and address. The beasts of burden fell over precipices or stuck fast and were frozen to death. In places, rocks had to be shattered and roads constructed to enable the men to creep round projecting crags. When he oe the valley of Aosta, Hannibal had but 20,000 oot and 6000 horse to attempt the conquest of a power which had lately shown that she could put an army of 170,000 unrivalled soldiers into the field. After allowing his men to recruit in the villages of the friendly Insubres, he overcame the Taurini, besieging and taking Turin, and forced the Ligurian and Celtic tribes on the Upper Po to serve in his army. At the Ticinus, a stream which enters the Po near Pavia, he encountered the Romans under Scipio. Punic war, or as the Romans ear, as their general. - The cavalry of both armies joined battle, — Hannibal’s Numidian horse pee their superiority, — and Scipio fell back beyond the Po. The Cartha- ginians crossed the river, and the first great battle of the campaign was fought in the plain of the Trebia. i Hannibal enticed the Romans across the stream, His light troops retired before the legionaries, and as Scipio was pressing on to fancied victory he was taken in flank by the terrible Numidian horse, M came down in the rear, and the 40,000 men of the consular army were either cut to pieces or scattered — in flight. intering in the valley of the Po, in the early spring Hannibal crossed the Apen- nines and pushed through a region of lakes, flooded by the melting of the snows, to Fesulz. The beasts of burden perished in vast numbers — amid the morasses; the Gauls, disheartened by — Placing Mago in ambush with 2000 men, —— HANNIBAL 545 the perils of the journey, had to be driven forward by Mago’s horsemen, and the general lost an eye. Quitting Fesule, Hannibal wasted Etruria with fire and sword, and marched towards Rome, leaving behind him two consular armies of 60,000 men. He awaited the consul Flaminius by the Lake Trasimene, where the hills, retiring in a semicircle from the shore, enclose a plain entered by two narrow . Concealing the main body his army amid the hills, he placed his Numidians in ambush at the pass by which the Romans must enter; while he stationed part of his infantry in a conspicuous position near the other defile. The Romans pushed into the valley; the pass in their rear was secured by the Carthaginians who had lain in ambush; Hannibal’s men charged from the heights, and the army of Flaminius was annihilated. Six thousand infantry cut their way through the farther , but these were overtaken by the horse — erbal and forced to yield on the following Xtter recruiting his men in the champaign country of Picenum, where the Numidian horses, we are told, were med with old Italian wine, Hanni- bal marched through Apulia and ravaged Campania, dogged by the dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus, whom he vainly endeavoured to entice into an ment. He wintered at Gerontium, and in the spring took up a position at Cann on the Aufidus. A Roman army of 80,000 men, under the consuls L. Amilius Paulus and P. Terentius Varro, marched against him. Hannibal flung his troops (he had but 30,000) into a space enclosed on the rear and wings by a loop of the river. He placed his Spanish infantry in the centre, with the African foot on either flank. His Numidian horse, now reduced to 2000 men, he posted on the right wing ; while Hasdrubal, with 8000 heavy cavalry, was op to the Roman cavalry on the left. The legionaries pressed into the loop, and Hannibal drew back his centre before them. Hasdrubal on the left broke the Roman cavalry, swept round to the left wing of the Romans, drove the second detachment of Roman horse into flight, and then came thundering in the rear of the legionaries. The Libyans, who had by the general’s orders fallen back as the Romans pressed after the retiring Spanish infantry, now closed on the enemy’s flanks. Packed together so closely that they could not use their weapons, assailed in front, flank, and rear, the legionaries were hewn down through eight hours of carnage till 50,000 lay dead on the field. The battle became a butchery. Nearly 20,000 men were taken prisoners. The consul Paulus, the pro- consul Servilius, the master of the horse Minucius, 21 military tribunes, and 60 senators lay amid the slain. On his side Hannibal lost but 5700 men. ‘Send me on with the horse, general,’ said Maher- bal, ‘and in five days thou shalt sup in the Capitol.’ But the general was wiser than the fiery captain of the horse. It has been common to censure Hannibal for neglecting to march on Rome after the battle of Cann. But his dazzling triumph did not for a moment unsettle his clear judgment. He knew that his forces were unequal to the task of storming a walled city garrisoned by a population of fighting men. An attack which he had made on =e etium had proved the inadequacy of the small arthaginian ane to carry a strongly fortified town. Had he followed the advice of Maherbal, he would, in all likelihood, have dashed his army _e against the walls of Rome. His aim was to estroy the common oppressor by raising the Italian allies against her ; and the hope was partly justified by the revolt of Lucania and Bruttium, Samnium and Apulia. The soundness of judgment, the eens and self-control which he evinced in this our oy Eatariceeing success are hardly less mar- vellous than the genius by which the success had been won, After the battle of Cann the character of the war changes. Hitherto Hannibal had swept everything before him. Rivers and mountains and morasses had been powerless to thwart his progress, Army after army, vastly superior in numbers and a of the best fighting men the ancient world ever saw, had come against him to be broken, scattered, and destroyed. His career through Italy had been, in the words of Horace, as the rush of the flames through a forest of pines. But after Canne the tide turned. His niggardly, short-sighted countrymen denied him the support without which success was impossible. As his veterans were lost to him he had no means of filling their places, while the Romans could put army after army into the field. But through the long years during which he maintained a hopeless struggle in Italy he was never defeated. Nor Vid one of his veterans desert him ; never was there a murmur of disaffection in his camp. It has been well said that his victories over his motley followers were hardly less wonderful than his victories over nature and over Rome. Hannibal spent the winter of 216-215 B.c. at Capua, where his men are said to have been demoralised by luxurious living. When he again took the field the Romans wisely avoided a pitched battle, though the Carthaginians overran Italy, capturing Locri, Thurii, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other towns. In 211 B.c. he marched on Rome, rode up to the Colline gate, and, it is said, flung his spear over the walls. But the fall of Capua smote the Italian allies with dismay, and ruined his hopes of recruiting his ever- diminishing forces from their ranks. In 210 B.C. he overcame the preetor Fulvius at Herdonea, and in the following year gained two battles in Apulia. Thereafter, he fell upon the consuls Crispinus and Marcellus, both of whom were slain and their forces routed, while he almost annihilated the Roman army which was besiegin Loecri. In 207 B.c. his brother Hasdrubal | from Spain to his aid, but was surprised, defeated, and slain at the Metaurus by the consul Nero. By the barbarous commands of Nero, Hasdrubal’s head was flung into the camp of Hannibal, who had been till then in ignorance of his brother's doom. The battle of the Metaurus sealed the fate of ‘the lion’s brood’—of the great house of Hamilear. But for four years Hannibal stood at bay in the hill-country of Bruttium, defying with his thinned army every general who was sent ainst him, till in 202 B.c., after an absence of fifteen years, he was recalled to Africa to repel the Roman invasion. In the same year he met Scipio at Zama; his raw levies fled, and in part went over to the enemy; his veterans were cut to pieces where they stood, and Carthage was at the mercy of Rome. So ended the Second Punic war—the war, as Arnold so truly said, of a man with a nation, and the war which is perhaps the most wonderful in all history. Three hundred thousand Italians had fallen, and three hundred towns had been destroyed in the struggle. Peace being made, Hannibal turned his genius to political toils. He amended the constitution, cut down the power of the Sag oligarchy, checked corruption, and placed the city’s finances on a sounder footing. The enemies whom he made by his reforms denounced him to the Romans, and the Romans demanded that he should be sur- rendered into their hands. Setting out as a volun- tary exile, Hannibal visited Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and then betook himself to the court of Antiochus at Ephesus. He was well received by the king, who nevertheless rejected his advice to carry the war with Rome into Italy. On the conclusion of peace, to avoid being given up to the 546 HANNINGTON HANOVER Romans, he repaired to Prusias, king of Bithynia, for whom he gained a naval victory over the king of Pergamus. The Romans again demanding that he should be surrendered, he baffled his enemies by taking poison, which, we are told, he carried about with him in a ring, and died at Libyssa about the year 183 B.C. In judging of the character and achievements of Hannibal, it must never be forgotten that for all that we know of him we are indebted to his im- placable enemies. No Carthaginian record of that astounding career has come down to us. The Romans did all that unscrupulous malignity can to blacken the fame and belittle the deeds of the most terrible of their foes. Yet, though calumny has done its bitterest against him, Hannibal not only dazzles the imagination but takes captive the heart. He stands out as the incarnation of magnanimity and patriotism and _ self-sacrificing heroism, no less than of incomparable military genius. Napoleon, the only general who could pppeed challenge the Carthaginian’s supremacy, ad throughout the greater part of his career an immense superiority to his adversaries in the quality of the forces which he wielded.. He had the enthusiasm of the Revolution behind him, and he was unhampered by authorities at home. Hannibal, on the contrary, saw his plans thwarted and finally wrecked by the sordid merchant-nobles of the city he strove so hard to save. He had not, like Alexander, to lead picked troops against effeminate Asiaties. He had to mould his little army out of raw and barbarous levies. He had no reinforcements to fall back on. With a motley army of Libyans, Gauls, and Spaniards he had to encounter a nation in arms—a nation of the stoutest and most highly-trained warriors of ancient times. There is not in all history so wonderful an example of what a single man of genius may achieve against the most tremendous odds as the story of the Phcenician hero—the greatest captain that the world has seen. See Bosworth Smith’s Carthage and the Carthaginians (1879); Henne- bert’s Histoire @ Annibal (1870-92); Dodge’s Han- nibal (1891); and works cited at CARTHAGE. Hannington, JAMES, first Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, born 3d September 1847, at Hurstpierpoint in Sussex, became a student of St Mary Hall, Oxford, in 1868, and was ordained in 1873. In 1882, after seven years’ earnest labour in his native parish, he volunteered for missiona work in Africa, and was sent out by the Chure Missionary Society to reinforce their missionaries in Uganda. But his health broke down when he reached Kagei, on the south shore of Victoria Nyanza, and he was obliged to return home to England. His health improving, he was, on 24th June 1884, consecrated Bishop of Eastern Equa- torial Africa, and in the following January entered his new diocese, taking up his quarters at Frere Town, near Mombasa. In July 1885 he started ence again for the interior, the object of his journey being to reach the mission-station of ubaga, in Uganda. But, after successfully sur- mounting the difficulties and dangers of the road through the land of the Masai, he was slain by order of Mwanga, king of Uganda, on 29th October 1885, at a place not far from the right bank of the Nile. See his Life by Dawson (1887) and his Last Journals (edited in 1888). Hanno, a name borne by a number of Cartha- ginian admirals and soldiers, one of whom was efeated by the Romans in the sea-fight of Ecno- mus in 256 B.c. Another Hanno, surnamed the Great, was the leader of the peace party who opposed the patriotic poy! Aik seat by Hamilcar Barca, during the interval between the First and the Second Punic war. When the Carthaginian mercenaries revolted in 241 B.c. Hanno was appointed to reduce them to submission. He proved a thoroughly incapable general, and_ the task in which he had failed was discharged by Hamilear Barca. Hanno, a king or magistrate of Carthage who undertook a celebrated voyage of discovery along the west coast of Africa. His expedition is said to have consisted of sixty ships; he founded numer- ous colonies or trading-stations, and proceeded as far south as a point that has been variously identi- fied with places between Cape Nun and the Bight of Benin. On his return to Carthage he inscribed an account of his voyage on a tablet, and placed it in the temple of Moloch. It seems to have been written in the Punic language; the version of it which remains, entitled the Periplus of Hanno, is only a Greek translation, The date of the voyage has been assigned to different periods between 570 B.c. and 470 B.c., and the identification of the author of it has been also a subject for dispute. For a full discussion consult Dodwell’s Dissertations, “ease to Hudson’s Geog. Vet. Scriptores (1698) ; ougainville’s, Vivien de St Martin’s, and Tauxier’s Essays, Falconer’s English translation (1797), and Mer’s Mémoire sur le Périple d Hannon (1885). Ha-noi, the capital of Tong-king, and head- quarters of the French administration, on the left bank of the Song-coi or Red River, 80 miles in « direct line from the sea. The commercial city has a river-front of a mile and a half; the citadel be- hind contains within its walls most of the official buildings. Embroidery and work in mother-of- pearl are the chief local industries. Pop. 100,000. . Hanover (Ger. Hanno'ver), formerly a kingdom of northern Germany, but since 1866 incorporated with Prussia. Area of the Prussian province, 14,833 sq. m., or nearly twice the size of Wales; pop. (1871) 1,963,080 ; (1885) 2,172,702; (1890) 2,278,361, mainly Lutherans, with 280,000 Catholics, and 16,000 Jews. Except in the south, where the Harz Mountains (q.v.) attain a maximum altitude in Hanover of 3037 feet, the surface belongs to the great north German plain, and is diversified by moors and heaths, notably the extensive Liineburg Heath. It is watered by the Elbe, Weser, Ems, and their tributaries. The people carry on peg in the Harz, cattle-breeding on the marshes an heaths, agriculture in the more fertile regions, and seafaring pursuits on the coast. The weaving of linen, cloth, and cotton, the working of iron and other metals, glass, paper, and pottery making, and bleaching, count amongst the more important industries. The mining products are very various, and include iron, silver, zine, lead, copper, coal, salt, petroleum, and turf. Bees are kept in the Liineburg Heath; Norderney and Borkum (islands } are much frequented as seaside resorts. Gottingen is the seat of a university, and the capital is Hanover (q.v.). See also PRUSSIA, GERMANY. The people of the north-eastern and central pro- vinces are mostly Saxons; those on the coast are of Frisian origin; those on the west of the Ems, Dutch ; and those in the southern provinces, Thur: ingians and Franconians. Platt-Deutsch, or Low German, is commonly spoken in the rural districts ; but High German is the language of the educated and higher classes, and is spoken with more purity than in any other part of the empire. History.—Hanover was occupied in remote ages by Saxon tribes, who, after an obstinate resistance, submitted to Charlemagne and embraced Chris- tianity. In the time of Louis the German it was incorporated in the duchy of Saxony. In 951 the Emperor Otho I. bestowed it on Hermann Billing ; on the extinction of his family in 1106 it fell to Oe daughter to Henry the HANOVER 547 Lothaire of Bouplinvery, By the marriage of his roud of Bavaria, the duchy pa to the Guelphs. Henry the Lion, son of enry the Proud, did much to advance the civilisa- tion of his subjects by conferring rights and privi- upon various towns which had advocated his cause; but, when he fell under the ban of the empire, a period of anarchy and confusion succeeded, which at first threatened the ruin of the country. When, however, in 1180 Henry was deprived of the duchy of Saxony, he was allowed to retain his hereditary lands of Brunswick and Liineburg. From this time down to the 16th century the history of Hanover is inseparable from that of Brunswick (q.v.). The history of Hanover as a modern state begins with the foundation of the line of Brunswick-Liine- by William, who, in the partition which he and his elder brother Henry (founder of the Brunswick house, extinct in 1884) made of the dominions of their father, Ernest I., obtained in 1569 the duchies of Liinebury and Celle (Zell). William died in 1592, leaving seven sons, of whom four successively ruled over the land. Of theseven only one (George) mar- ried. His eldest son, Christian Lewis, in accordance with a family compact, took (1648) as his portion of the inheritance Liineburg, Grubenhagen, Diep- holz, and Hoya, with Celle for his residence ; while his next brother, George William, obtained Kalen- berg and Giéttingen, with Hanover for his residence. Thus originated the lines of Celle and Hanover. Christian Lewis set himself the task of raising his country from the miseries it had endured in the Thirty Years’ War. After his death in 1665 his brother eg > William exchanged his own duchy for that of Celle, leaving Hanover to a younger brother, John Frederick. George William, as Duke of Celle, deserves notice for his warlike and active administration: he sent auxiliaries to Venice to aid the republic against the Turks; co-operated with the Duke of Brunswick to reduce his insurgent capital ; entered into an alliance with the emperor Serinst France and Sweden; sent an army into ungary to resist the Turks; and in 1688 lent troops and money to William of Orange against James II. of England. John Frederick of Hanover entertained a great admiration for the French, and aot the magnificence of the court of Versailles. e was succeeded by his brother, Ernest Augustus (another son of George), in 1679. Thus the Han- overian territories were again wnited under one head, in bro Lewis, son of Ernest Augustus, who succeeded to the duchy of Hanover in 1698, and to that of Celle in 1705. The mother of George Lewis was Sophia, daughter of Frederick V. of the Palatinate and of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England. In 1714 George Lewis became king of Eagiend as George I. His father, Ernest Augustus, had in 1692 been invested with the dignity of the newly-created ninth electorate. Under George Lewis as king of England and second elector of Hanover or Brunswick-Liineburg, a brighter epoch opened to the Hanoverians ; they were relieved from the burden of maintaining the ducal court and household, and the revenues of the crown were thenceforth tips tc to the general pu of the state. The government was left in the hands of a viceroy and the confidential council. Bremen and Verden were obtained in this reign by purchase from Sweden (1719). George IL, who succeeded in 1727, like his father spared the revenues of Hanover at the expense of those of England. In his character of elector, he espoused the cause of Maria Theresa in the Austrian war of succession ; but in the Seven Years’ War Hanover sided with Prussia against Austria and France, and suffered severely, especially by the capitulation of Closter-Seven (1757). This king founded the university of Géttingen in 1734-37. The ponee which prevailed during the first thirty years of the reign of George ILL, who succeeded on the death of his grandfather in 1760, and who alone of the four Georges never visited his German dominions, proved a veritable godsend to Hanover, which also profited by the increased English and American trade. In 1793 Hanoverian troops took part in the wars against the French Republic, the expenses of their maintenance being defrayed by England. But in 180] Prussia, refusing to acknowledge the neutrality of Hanover, threw troops into the electorate, and maintained her military occupancy for a year. In 1803, when war was renewed between England and France, an army under Mortier intimidated the Hanoverians to such an extent that, without striking a blow, they pledged themselves to abstain from serving against France, to disband tlieir army, to give up their arms and horses to the enemy, and to submit to receive a French corps of occupation 30,000 strong. In 1807 Napoleon appropriated a portion of the electorate to complete the newly-formed kingdom of Westphalia, which in 1810 received the whole of the Hanoverian territory. On the successful termination of the war of liberation, Hanover was created a kingdom in 1815. In 1819 a new consti- tution was granted, which made provision for the election of two representative chambers; but it only lasted until 1833. Nevertheless, the general dis- affection and distrust had risen to the highest pitch when William IV. ascended the throne ; and in 1831 the prime-minister, Count Miinster, who had long been obnoxious to the mass of the te ai was dismissed, and the Duke of Cam- ridge, son of George III., who had since 1816 acted as governor-general, was invested with the title of viceroy. George IV. was of course also king of Hanover; but on the death of William IV. in 1837 Hanover was separated from England and iven to the next male heir, Ernest Augustus, uke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III. (1771-1851). ‘This prince initiated a policy in all respects reactionary; but in 1848 he did so far yield to the storm as to just save his throne by the un- willing concession of liberal reforms. A famous incident in the struggle was the protest and expul- sion in 1837 of seven Géttingen professors (see GOTTINGEN). His son, the blind George V. (1819- 78), who succeeded in 1851, held very extreme views in regard to the kingly power and the claims of the aristocracy, and for fteen years he struggled against the will of the people in defence of his absolutist ideas. In 1866 Hanover took part with Austria, and at Langensalza (27th June) the army, after a successful defence, was surrounded and capitulated; Hanover was then occupied by Prussia, and finally annexed. George V. until his death, and since then his son, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (b. 1845), still maintaining their claim to the Hanoverian throne, were com- pelled to live in banishment. The incorporation with Prussia was viewed with anything but general favour; Professor Ewald, for instance, to the day of his death, being a staunch adherent of the exiled house. In 1868 the so-called Welfenfonds (‘ Guelph- fund ’)—the private property of the king of Hanover —was sequestrated by Prussia, and has subse- uently been man by a commission. Prince ismarck’s enemies were wont to affirm that this fund—called by them Reptilienfonds (‘ Reptile- fund’)—was largely used for bribing newspapers to support the government policy. See Gemeinde-lexikon fiir die Provinz Hannover ( Berl. 1887); and works by J. Meyer (1886), Grotefend (1857), and Meding (1881-84). Hanover (Ger. Hannover), formerly capital of the kingdom, now chief town of the province of 548 HANOVER HANSEATIC LEAGUE Hanover, is situated on a sub-tributary of the Weser, 78 miles SE. of Bremen, 112 8S. of Ham- burg, and 158 W. of Berlin. It consists of the old town, with narrow streets and medieval houses, and the handsome modern town, lying north, east, and south-east of the older portion. The most interesting buildings are the town-hall, founded in 1439, with antique sculpture and fine frescoes ; the royal library, with 170,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., incunabula, archives, and valuable state papers ; the theatre, one of the largest and dramatically one’ of the most important in Germany ; the palace of King Ernest Augustus, with a library and collec- tions of coins, arms, and engravings; the museum, with good natural history and art collections ; the royal state palace; the Kestner Museum, with Etruscan, Greek, and Roman antiquities and a collection of engravings (120,000) ; the polytechnic school, formerly a ducal castle; the castle church, in which are preserved a collection of medieval church utensils, relics, many of them brought from Palestine by Henry the Lion in 1172, and an altar- piece by L. Cranach; the 14th-century ‘ market’ church, with stained glass and monuments; and the ‘new town’ church, with an elegant tower and the tomb of Leibnitz, who died in Hanover. The magnificent railway station, perhaps the finest in Germany, should also be mentioned. Hanover was the first place in Germany that was lighted with gas (1826). In the immediate vicinity of the town is the royal palace of Herrenhausen, whose beauti- ful grounds and gardens are open to the public. Since Hanover became a centre of the North German railway system, its manufactures have reatly increased in importance. Amongst the oremost industries are railway repair shops, iron- founding, typefounding, the manufacture of piano- fortes, india-rubber goods, tobacco, linen, sugar, chocolate, hardware, brewing, and _ distilling. Pop. (1871) 87,641 ; (1880) 122,843 ; (1890) 163,153. Hanover is the birthplace of the brothers Schlegel ; Iffland the actor and dramatist ; Louisa, queen of Prussia; Sir William Herschel; and the historian Pertz. In the 14th century the town was a member of the Hanseatic League, and in the 15th it had a prosperous trade, which, however, declined con- siderably during the troublous times of the Refor- mation. From about 1640 its importance rested mainly on the fact that it was the residence of the duke and elector. The revival of its industry within recent years has also brought with it a revival of commerce. See works by Hartmann (1880) and Kalbe (1886). Hanover, a post-village of New Hampshire, pleasantly situated near the east bank of the Con- necticut, 55 miles NW. of Concord. It is the seat of Dartmouth College (1770), which is richly en- dowed, and possesses a library of 65,000 volumes. It includes a medical school and the state college of agriculture and mechanic arts. Pop. (1900) 1884. Hansard, a well-known name in connection with the printing of the British parliamentary records. Luke Hansard, born in 1752 at Norwich, came to London in 1770, and worked for some years as compositor in the office of Hughes, printer to the House of Commons, whom in 1798 he succeeded as sole proprietor of the business. He died in 1828 ; but his descendants continued to print the parlia- mentary reports down to the beginning of 1889. In 1837 a bookseller named Stockdale brought an action for libel against the Messrs Hansard, the libel consisting of statements in the parliament- ary reports which the latter had printed, and after more than one trial the judges decided in favour of Stockdale. To obviate any similar case an act of parliament was passed, directing that proceedings against persons for publication of papers printed by order of either House of Parliament are to be stayed by the courts of law, upon delivery of a certificate and affidavit that such publication is by order of either House. Cobbett’s Parliamentary History of England from 1066 to 1800 was con- tinued from 1806 by the son and successors of Luke Hansard ; and the name Hansard has been since then given to the printed reports of the debates in parliament. But the speeches there printed are not taken down by a special staff of shorthand writers; they are extracted in the gross from the London morning newspapers. They are usually sent to the peers or members by whom they were spoken for revision and correction. See Biograph- ical Memoir of Luke Hansard (1829) and Report of Select Committee of House of Commons (1828). Hanseatic League, or HAwnsa, a politico- commercial association or league of cities in the north of Germany and the adjoining states, which flourished all through the middle ages. Neither the circumstances out of which it grew, nor the date of its origin, can be precisely deter- mined, The original germs of the union may un- doubtedly be recognised in those fortuitous or tem- porary combinations of merchants, trading along the same routes or in the same places, which were formed for purposes of mutual protection, whether from pirates at sea or from robbers on land, at any- rate from the thousand and one vexations and dangers to which the isolated trader was in those rude times constantly exposed. In course of time more permanent associations were founded abroad, partly for mutual protection, partly for the purpose of securing from the rulers of the state they were domiciled in more favourable conditions for trade, partly in order to control the market and exclude rom participation in it all who were not members of their own body. The earliest guild of German merchants estab- lished in a foreign country seems to have been founded in London in or before the 12th century. Certain it is that traders from Cologne were at that time settled there in the enjoyment of special trading privileges. This guild was viewed with favour by the English kings, who from time to time conferred upon its members valuable prerogatives and advantages, in return for services which the wealth and connections of the guild allowed it to render to them. Thus it was with money borrowed from them that Edward III. carried on his campaigns in France. This royally- fostered colony of Easterlings (whence ‘sterling,’ from the purity of their coimed money), as they were called by the English, subsequently, about 1474, developed into the powerful association known as the Merchants of the Steelyard. Other guilds existed later at Boston, Hull, York, &c. Another important centre of the Hanseatic cities in the early years of their confederation was Wisby, on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic. Here, although the guild embraced merchants from several towns, the influence of Liibeck reigned supreme, as that of Cologne did in London. his station was the chief depot for the trade with Russia, and with the German colony of Livonia, the name given at that period to all the eastern seaboard of the Baltic as far north as the Gulf of Finland. Wisby was also the mother-city of a no less important Hanseatic settlement at Novgorod, near Lake Ilmen, in Russia. At Witten, in the province of Skane, the southern portion of Sweden, which during the greater part of the middle ages belonged to Den- mark; at Bergen, on the west coast of Norway; and at Bruges in Flanders there were Hanseatic depdts of first-rate importance, besides numerous others of secondary consequence scattered alon the shores of the North and Baltic seas. Most o these trading-colonies were governed by their own HANSEATIC LEAGUE 549 code of laws and customs, different from those of the country in which they were established. In fact each of them was to all intents and pu an independent state within a state. As a general rule the members re the soleny ee, not apowes i marry, were put through rough and trying initia- tion Semonlen, had So sei their way up through the various pace of the guild, and after serving a certain number of years had to give place to new- comers from the mother-cities at home; whilst the regulations governing their domestic life, their style of housing, eating and drinking, and amus- ing themselves, were very similar to those which _ prevailed in the monasteries of the time. But there was another and more important phase of the movement—viz. that which developed itself at home. At first the individual cities seem to have acted almost independently of each other in founding trading-colonies abroad ; at all events the influence of Cologne was for some time supreme in London, and that of Liibeck supreme in Wisby. But gradually merchants from other commercial towns of Germany were admitted to share the pre- rogatives of the guild and colony. This spirit of association in turh upon the mother-cities, and about the middle of the 13th century, under the cementing force of a close community of interests, the large trading-cities of north Germany to co-operate has hig in leagues, more or less officially constituted. Amongst the earliest of supreme moment was that formed, at the period indicated, between Hamburg and Liibeck (1241) for the protection of the highways connecting the two cities. When, however, Liibeck, which had rapidly acquired a leadin ition among the commercial towns of nort rmany, desired to enter the league of towns which had allied them- selves with Cologne, the latter city strove hard to exclude her, but in vain. From this time dates the introduction of a political element into the league. Liibeck soon formed alliances with the Wendish towns on the Baltic, lying to the east— viz. Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, and Greifswald. The Saxon and Westphalian towns, which had already banded themselves together in separate and independent confederations, joined the princi- 1 league, at the head of which Liibeck soon placed herself by common consent of the rest; and the -Prussian towns associated themselves about 1340 with those of Westphalia. The cities of the principal league did not, however, form a demo- cratic confederation of municipal states with a regular, well-conceived constitution, such as we find in confederated states at the present day. The first and principal object of the association was to maintain a are ses of trade, by jealously exclud- ing all rivals, in such countries as Russia, Norway, and the south of Sweden, as well as to preserve in their own hands the special commercial preroga- tives which they had man to acquire in coun- tries like England and Flanders. Thus, in the beginning their interests were mainly concentrated upon their colonies and trading-depéts, and what- ever foreign policy they may have had was shaped by the necessities of protecting or furthering those interests, which were of course of a purely commercial character. Yet, as their wealth in- creased, and therewith their political influence, these Pheenicians of the north began to pursue other than mere ordinary mercantile aims. In Norway, for instance, they insisted that the entire trade of the country, at least of the northern and western portions, should pass through their depét at Bergen, where they ousted the native Nor- wegians from their own wharves and warehouses, seized upon their trade, and refused all obedience to the civic authorities of the town. And in Russia their behaviour was not a whit less arbi- bey § and high-handed. But the first awakening of the league to the consciousness that it was the possessor of real political power came in 1370, when it brought King Waldemar of Denmark, the most powerful and energetic sovereign on the Baltic shores, to his knees, and imposed upon him a humiliating peace. For many, many years rela- tions between the Hanseatic merchants and the Danes had been, and continued to be, those of latent or open hostility, for the Danes were the only serious rivals the Hansa had to encounter, and Denmark had, as now, control of the Sound and the Belts, besides holding possession of the south of Sweden, off whose coasts the great herring fisheries, one of the principal sources of wealth to the Hanse merchants, were in those ages carried on. From the peace of Stralsund (1370) the Hanseatic League claimed the right of controlling the election of each successive sovereign who was crowned king of Denmark. And by the 16th century its officers had advanced so far in statecraft, and the league itself had ee so much political influence, that it was able to depose the king of Denmark (Christian II.), and bestow, not only his crown, but also that of Sweden, upon candidates of its own nomination. Yet its power was then already a cen- tury on the wane. This result was brought about by the co-operation of a variety of causes, chief amongst which were the following. The gprs 3 of America and of the sea-route to India struc the severest blow at the Hansa by diverting the stream of commerce from the Baltic to the Atlantic shores of Europe. Amongst other changes, it caused a falling-off in the demand for furs, a staple commodity of Novgorod ; while towards the middle of the 15th century the herrings ceased to enter the Baltic in such large quantities, but began to direct their course ins to the coasts of Holland. The Dutch members of the league broke away from it early in the 15th century, and by adapting themselves to the altered con- ditions of the age, soon rose to be formidable rivals of their former associates. The English too were laying the foundations of their subsequent commercial supremacy, and in 1598 Elizabeth de- rived the incre merchants of all their privi- eges, and banished them from the country. The discovery by Sir Richard Chancellor of the sea- route to the White Sea struck a fatal blow at the monopoly hitherto enjoyed by the Hanse merchants in the trade with Russia. The conversion of so many European nations to Protestantism greatly lessened the demand for dried and salted herrin in Lent, as well as for wax for candles, which the Hanse merchants imported in large quantities from Novgorod. In the middle of the 16th century the ‘contor’ or depét of Bruges was removed to Ant- werp, where, however, the old-fashioned methods of doing business still practised by the Hanse merchants were unable to compete successfully ainst the more modern and enterprising methods of the Dutch and the Flemings. And unity no longer prevailed within the league itself, for, whilst Liibeck clung with jealous tenacity to the anti- quated conservative policy of the past, Hamburg insisted upon conforming itself to the newer con- ditions of the age; and several of the other towns, finding that the advantages which had formerly accrued: to them from their participation in the league were no longer ~—— Ww them, fell off from it one after the other. t the decay must also be attributed in large measure to the advances made by the states of Europe in knowledge and application of the principles of government; whilst the more perfect preservation of public order, and the removal of many of the vexatious impedi- ments to the free circulation of commerce, deprived 550 HANSI HAPSBURG the league of its most efficient raison d’étre. Finally the Thirty Years’ War occasioned an entire derange- ment, and even at times cessation, of all trade relations, a state of things from the evils of which the members of the league never were able to recover. From 1628 onwards the only cities which made any real endeavours to revive the once owerful association were Liibeck, Hamburg, and remen. But the resuscitated league, even after its confirmation by the treaty of was more a thing of name than of reality; and ' in the 19th century Hanseatic cities was not so much the collective title of a combination of towns for trading purposes, as a common name for the independent republican municipal states of Ham- burg, Bremen, and Liibeck. In 1870 each of these was made an integral part of the German empire, and by 1889 all had joined the German imperial customs union. The administration of the affairs of the league was in the hands of deputies representing the constituent towns of the confederation, who met together at least once in every three years, though as a general rule every year, at one of the towns of the league, usually at Liibeck, at which town the archives of the Hansa were always preserved. These assemblies represented the political corpora- tion of the Hanseatic cities ; they determined the amount of the duties to be levied on imported and exported goods, fixed the amount of the periodical contributions to be paid by the several towns to the common treasury of the league, decided all questions of peace and war, settled all internal quarrels between the members of the league, and punished disobedient or offending towns by fine, or, in the last instance, by exclusion from the Hansa, called ‘unhansing.’ As it was always the practice for towns to join the confederation and withdraw from it at their own will, it is not possible to state the precise number of towns which con- stituted the league. The war against Waldemar of Denmark, which took place when the Hansa was at the summit of its power, was waged by at least seventy-seven cities, though probably the league embraced more than these. See histories of the league by Sartorius (1802-8), Lappenberg (1851), Barthold (1862), and Helen Zimmern (in English, 1889); also the Hanse-Recesse, or official proceedings of the assemblies (1873 e¢ seq.). Hansi, a town of the district of Hissar, in the rovince of the Punjab, about 80 miles NW. of elhi, was a British cantonment from 1802 down to the Mutiny (1857). Pop. 12,656. Hansom. See Cass. Hansteen, CuristorH, a Norwegian astrono- mer, was born at Christiania, 26th September 1784. In 1814 he was appointed to the chair of Mathe- matics in the university of Christiania, and there, in 1819, published his famous work, Investigations ‘into Terrestrial Magnetism, the methods of observa- tion described in which have been generally fol- lowed since, and which he himself applied in the course of a journey to the east of Siberia in 1828-30. The scientific results of this journey were published in 1863. In 1821 he discovered the ‘law of magnetic force’ (see MAGNETISM). It was chiefly by his initiative that the astronomical and magnetic observatories at Christiania were founded. e was also professor of Mathematics in the School of Artillery, superintendent of the triangulation of Norway, and reorganiser of the national system of weights and measures. He died at Christiania, 1lth April 1873, He published lectures on astron- omy, a work on mechanics, another on geometry, several on terrestrial magnetism, and numerous memoirs, of which the greater part are inserted in the Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne. ienna in 1815,. — Hanuman is the name of a fabulous monkey, who plays a great réle in the legendary history of the second or classical period of Hindu mythology. He is represented there as the strenuous friend and ally of Vishnu, when the latter, in his incarnation as Rama, made his expedition to Ceylon, in order to recover his wife Sita, carried off by the giant Ravana. In the war between Rima and Ravana, Hanuman, on one occasion, is related to have bridged over the ocean between the continent of India and Ceylon with rocks of a prodigious size, which he and his friends threw into the sea. See ENTELLUS MONKEY, VISHNU. Hanway, JonAS, an eccentric English traveller and philanthropist, born at Portsmouth in 1712. Apprenticed at seventeen to a Lisbon merchant, he afterwards traded at St Petersburg, and in the September of 1743 left that city on an adventurous journey through Russia and Persia, returning in the July of 1750. He published an account of his travels in 1753, and spent the rest of his life mostly in London as one of the commissioners for victual- ling the navy from 1762 to 1783. He was an un- wearying friend to chimney-sweeps, parish infants, and unfortunates, and advocated with earnestness solitary confinement for prisoners, and a milder system of punishment generally. Further, he deserves grateful remembrance for having written down the giving of vails, and as the first English- man to carry an umbrella at home in spite of the interested insolence of the hackney-coachmen. His attack on tea-drinking was less successful, but here he had the honour to be opposed by Dr John- son, who for once replied to an attack by answering Hanway’s angry answer to his review of his Hssay on Tea. Elsewhere Johnson said that ‘Jonas acquired some reputation by travelling abroad, but lost it all by travelling at home.’ He died Sep- tember 5, 1786. See Pugh’s Remarkable Occur- rences in the Life of Jonas Hanway (1787). Hanwell Asylum, the lunatic asylum for the county of Middlesex, is situated, not in the parish of Hanwell, but in the adjoining parish of Nor- wood, 74 miles W. of Paddington Station, London. It was originally founded in 1831, and now gives shelter to about 1800 patients. Han-yang. See HANKow. Haparanda, a town in the Swedish province of Norrbotten, 14 mile from the mouth of the river Tornea, and opposite the Finnish town of Torned (q.v.). It is the commercial outlet for the northern- most province of Sweden, and possesses a meteoro- logical station. Pop. 1150. Hap’lodon (lit. ‘simple toothed’), a terrestrial rodent peculiar enough to be formed into a family by iteelf, and regarded as a connecting-link be- tween beavers and squirrels, It is represented by a single species (H. rufus), restricted to ‘a small area on the west coast of North America, in Wash- ington and Oregon territories, and a portion of California.’ The aborigines called it ‘Showt’l’ or ‘Sewellel,’ the trappers the ‘Boomer’ or ‘Moun- tain Beaver.’ The animal is plump, with broad head, short limbs, and hardly any tail; measures about a foot in length ; and has a brownish colour. It lives socially in colonies, burrows underground, and lives on vegetable matter. As a connecting- link Haplodon is of much interest to naturalists, while the Indians use its skin and probably also its flesh. Hapsburg, or Hasssurc, House or, of which the imperial family of Austria are the repre- sentatives, derived its name from the castle of Habsburg, or Habichtsburg (Hawk’s Castle), on the Aar, in the Swiss canton of Aargau. The castle was built by Werner, Bishop of Strasburg \ HARAR HARBOUR 551 1001-29). The real founder of the family was, wever, Albert, who is mentioned in the annals as Count of Hapsburg in 1153. He was appointed Jandgrave of Upper Alsace, lord of the Zurich hundred, and suzerain of various abbeys by the Emperor Frederick I. Under him and his son, Rudolf L., the family became one of the most cele in Swabia, including under their rule the tories of the bishops of Constance, Strasburg, Basel, Coire, Lausanne, and those of the abbot of St Gall, with some temporal fiefs. After Rudolf’s death in 1232, his sons, Albert IV. and Rudolf IL, divided their father’s essions—Rudolf becom- the founder of the Hapsburg-Lauffenburg line. This line in divided into two branches, which became extinct in 1408 and 1415 respectively. Albert IV. laid the foundation of the future great- ness of the House of Hapsburg. His eldest son, Rudolf III. (Rudolf L. of Austria), who succeeded him, and who was subsequently (1273) elected emperor, by appropriating the provinces which he wrested from Ottocar of Bohemia—viz. Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, and Carniola—greatly increased the power of his family. To the family’s territories were added in 1336 Carinthia, and in 1364 the Tyrol. On the death of Rudolf IV. (1365) the house divided into the Austrian and Styrian branches; but the former became extinct in 1457, whilst the latter have worn the imperial crown almost uninterruptedly down to the present time _ epi wr aoe ca and SPAIN). snares while the original family possessions were gradu. absorbed by the Swiss confederated cantons (1386. 1474). In 1881 the Austrians proposed to purchase the castle of Hapsburg and give it as a wedding gift to the Crown-prince of Austria; but the people of Aargau refused to hear of the sale.—Compare Prince Lichnowski, Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg 41837); also Coxe’s House of Austria (1807). Harar, a city of Africa, in the country of the Gallas, about 200 miles WSW. of Berbera, stands on the slopes of the mountains which surround it, Mount Hakim on the west rising to 8400 feet. It is fenced with a low wall and _ forts, the wall being pierced by five gates. The streets are ‘simply water-channels crossing the uneven sur- face; the houses are partly stone edifices, partly huts. In the neighbourhood are fine banana groves and coffee gardens. Formerly the place ‘was a commercial centre of considerable import- ance, but it has now lost a good deal of its trade to Tadjura and Berbera. Coffee, hides, cattle, and a dyestuff called wars, are the principal objects of commerce, The population saison about 37,000, of whom two-thirds are females. The include native Harari (nearly one-half), Gallas, Somali, and Abyssinians. he Harari, though physically resembling the Abyssinians differ both in their dress and manners’ from all their neighbours, but are rapidly becoming assimi- lated in these respects tothe Arabs. Their language would seem to belong to the Hamitic division, and is probably a Wtesenilant of the ancient Ge‘ez, though Arabie is replacing it for commercial purposes. Harar, which was converted to Islam in 1521, was formerly the capital of an independent state. In 1875 it was conquered by the Egyptians, who gave it back to its native emir; Italian in 1890-97, it is now British. Burton’s First Footsteps in Bast Africa (new ed. 1894). Harbour, an inlet of the sea, so protected from the winds and waves, whether by natural conformation of the land, or by artificial means, as to form a secure roads for ships. It is with harbours which are wholly or in part artificial that ‘this article deals. Harbours may be divided into harbours of refuge and those for commercial purposes. The latter are often merely tidal—i.e. capable of being entered by vessels only at certain states of the tide, and where the vessels rise and fall with the tide. The former are roadsteads of good depth, protected by breakwaters, and accessible at all times of tide, where ships may take refuge during storms, The two kinds are sometimes combined, there being the harbour proper, and a capacious protested mong outside of it, as at Cherbourg and else- where. With the birth of commerce and naval warfare, in the earliest ages of civilisation, arose the neces- sity for artificial harbours. The Pheenicians, the fathers of navigation, soon set to work to protect their scanty strip of Levantine coast. At Tyre two harbours were formed, to the north and to the south of the peninsula on which the city was laced. At Sidon similar but less extensive works ong testified to the wealth and engineering genius of the Pheenicians. The breakwaters were princi- pally constructed of loose rubble. Carthage, in another part of the Mediterranean, also possessed a harbour, in two divisions, formed by moles, and connected with one another by a canal 70 feet wide. On the inner harbour stood the arsenals, with room around them for 220 war- ships. Still keeping to the great inland sea, we come to Greece; but here nature had provided so many navigable inlets that little remained to be done by man. Nevertheless, some minor works were executed at the Pirzeus and elsewhere, chiefly, of course, for warlike purposes. The Romans, find- ing ships necessary to the dominion of the world, set. about constructing harbours for them, in their usual solid and workmanlike manner. The coasts of Italy still show how well they under- stood both the principles and the practice of this branch of marine engineering. elow is given a plan of the ancient port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber (now more than two miles inland), one of their finest and most complete under- takings of this nature. A distinguishing feature ————————SSSJ'“ = SS SS Sy — ==) = —— f | = ——_ a ——| = = > ¢@ = fos = Sg —— Ce Se oD =: TRAJAN'S GANAL ) \ \ eff q 400 200 eee 6co ace ‘eee SCALC OF FEET Fig. 1.—Ancient Harbour of Ostia. of their harbour-making is the open or arched mole. Built with open arches, resting upon stone piers, it gives full play to the tidal and littoral currents, thus preventing the deposit of sand or mud ; but in proportion as this advan is increased (by increasing the span of the arches), so also is the itation, and consequent insecurity, of the water within. The decay of commerce and civilisation, consequent dr the fall of the Roman empire, put a stop to harbour-making; nor could any want of the art be felt until the revival of commerce by the Italian republics of the middle ages. But the rich traffic of Venice and Genoa soon led to the construction of suitable ports at those places; and 552 HARBOUR the moles of the latter city and the works in the lagoons of Venice remain to this day. France was next in the field, embanking, protecting, and deepening the mouths of the rivers along her north-western shores, as at Havre, Dieppe, Dun- kirk, &e. In 1627, during the siege of Rochelle, Metezeau constructed jetties of loose rubble-stone, to prevent access to the city. Meanwhile, Britain, whose ocean-commerce is of comparatively recent date, lagged far behind her continental rivals. With few exceptions her ports, were absolutely unprotected, or rather uncreated ; and this state of things continued until late in the 18th century. Two of the few exceptions were Hartlepool, where a harbour was formed about 1250, and Arbroath in 1394. In the 17th century, at Whitby and Scarborough rough piers were thrown out, protecting the mouth of the port; while at Yarmouth a north jetty and subsequently a south one were formed. An ancient mole existed at Lyme Regis, a section of which, from Smiles’s Lives of the Engineers, is given below (see fig. 3). But the chief efforts of the early English engineers were directed against the shoals and waves of Fig. 2.—Dover Harbour in the time of Henry VIII. Dover. When, however, Smeaton rose to vindicate the engineering talent of England, things took a different turn; and now few countries surpass Great Britain in the number of artificially improved: Uy SOS IN iF Zz SA Ce eS Ne DA a EEK : Ae ae Sere ee Ne | RS RN Fig. 3. a, ancient pier at Lyme Regis; 6, wooden-framed pier, filled with rubble; c, pier at Havre, with apron; d, masonry pier, on rubble foundation. commercial harbours, or in the just appreciation of their importance. In the construction of harbours the great desiderata are sufficient depth of water and perfect security for the vessels likely to frequent them, together with the greatest possible facilities for ingress during any weather; while the chief obstacles to be surmounted are the action of the waves upon the protecting piers and breakwaters, and the formation of sandbanks and bars, which diminish the depth of water at the entrance and also within. The designs of harbours, as has been already indicated, may be classified under the following heads: (1) harbours of refuge and anchorage breakwaters; (2) deep-water and tidal harbours for commercial purposes ; (3) piers, either straight, or kanted, or curved; (4) quays or wharves, ‘These different works are obviously suited for different localities, and for contending with different exposures. Quays are clearly suited for the most sheltered situations only, and the engineer must. consider, when designing a harbour, which type of harbour will be most economical and effective. In coming to a decision the nature of the traffic, the exposure, and the geological features of the coast must be carefully considered. A good chart or marine survey furnishes valuable evidence as to the force to which harbour-works will be exposed. Among the points to be noted is the line of maximum exposure, or the greatest fetch or reach of open sea, as well as the depth of water, in front of the har- bour. Thomas Stevenson proved by observations. that the waves increase in the ratio of the square root of their distance from the windward shore as. measured along the line of exposure, and he gives the following simple formula : Where / = height of wave in feet during a strong gale, and d = ve be of exposure in miles for distances of, say, 10 miles: and upwards, then 4 =1°5Vd. The heights so obtained will be increased when they pass into con- verging channels, and decreased when they pass. into expanding channels. The greatest measured height of the waves was by Scoresby in the Atlantic Ocean, where he found billows of 43 feet in height from hollow to crest, and 36 feet was not an uncom- mon height. At Wick, Caithness-shire, waves of about 40 feet have struck the breakwater. Amongst the greatest recorded forces exerted by the waves. may be mentioned the breaking or quarrying out of its position im situ of a mass of 13 tons on the Skerries of Whalsay, in Shetland, at a level of 74 feet above the sea—this height, of course, being reached by sliding. But the most astonishing feat, of which we have any knowledge was at Wick breakwater, where in the winter of 1872 a mass of masonry, concreted together as a monolith, and bound with iron bars 44 inches in diameter, and weighing no less than 1350 tons, was torn from its seat in the work, and thrown to leeward. Thomas Stevenson devised an instrument called the Marine Dynamometer for ascertaining nwmeri- cally the force which is exerted by the waves in the Atlantic and German oceans. He found that the mean of his observations during winter was. more than three times that exerted during summer, the maximum force recorded being 34 tons per square foot. Various local causes materially affect the height, and therefore the force of the waves. In some cases, where a strong current runs past the coast, as at Sumburgh roost in Shetland, it causes a dangerous breaking sea in the current, and while this roost or race continues to rage the coast under lee is comparatively sheltered ; but when the force of the tide is exhausted and the roost disappears, a heavy sea rolls in upon the shore. It is this encounter between the ground-swell waves of the ocean and the current of tide or land water which causes miniature races at the mouths of rivers. Another most material element in the question of exposure is the depth of water in front of the harbour; for, if that depth be insufficient to admit of the transmission of the waves, they break or spend themselves before they reach the piers. Thus, Leslie found at Arbroath harbour that the works were not so severely tried by the heaviest waves as by others of lesser size which were not tripped up and broken by the outlying rocks. In the same way, at the river Alne the harbour within the bar is more disturbed by ordinary waves tham during great storms. It thus appears that the Ae 20-feet water. Rankine has shown that the crest and trough of the length of the wave, H its height from trough to crest, HARBOUR 553 largest waves are not always so destructive as smaller ones. Scott Russell has stated the law that waves break whenever they come to water as deep as their own height; so that 10-feet waves should break in 10-feet water, and 20-feet waves in There seem, however, to be some waves which break on reaching water whose depth is equal to twice their own height. Proofs of the depth to which the surface undulations extend have been given by Sir George Airy, Sir John Coode, Captain Calver, and Mr John Murray, C.E. sea are not, as was generally believed, equidistant from the level of still water. When 7 is the 2 Crest above still water = = + 7854 H H? Trough below still water = 3- 1854-7-" It has been held by some engineers that in deep water waves are purely oscillatory, having no power of translation, and therefore incapable of exerting any force against a vertical face of masonry. is, however, is incorrect. Were there no wind propelling the In tidal harbours, or those in shoal-water, it is admitted by all that the waves break, and therefore exert an impulsive force. Such works have to withstand (1) the direct horizontal force which tends to remove the masonry; (2) the vertical force acting upwards on projecting stones or protuberances, and inst the lying beds of the stones; (3) the vertical force acting downwards upon the talus wall, or passing over the parapet and falling upon the roadway; (4) the back- draught, which is apt to remove the soft bottom in front of the work; and (5) the blowing action of waves on the air or water which fills the inter- stices of open-work piers. In designing the ground-plan of harbours, some rules should kept in view: (1) the entrance should be always kept seawards of the works of masonry, care being taken that the direction of the piers does not throw the sea across the en- trance ; (2) there should be a good ‘loose,’ or point of departure free of rocks or a lee-shore; (3) pati beaches inside should be provided to allow the waves that pass in to break and spend themselves. A harbour basin surrounded with vertical quay walls becomes a ‘ boiling pot;’ this is a point frequently overlooked by engineers ; (4) waves, no current to in- WS terfere with their char- acter, and no interference with one another, such as the reflected wave from a vertical face meeting the next opposing wave, such a theory might be true. True, however, it is not; and all sea-works, in what- ever depth of water they may be placed, will as- suredly have to withstand impulsive action. Be- sides, it must be. kept in view that in order to re- duce the expense of con- |,2 struction it is essential, F where the bottom is soft, - to make the foundation a pile of loose rubble or concrete blocks. It fol- lows from what has al- et been said that the rubble, by shealing the water in front of the work, will cause the waves to become waves of transla- tion before they reach the PARADISE pock CALAIS Ri CANAL i CALAIS HARBOUR {SECTION OF EASTERN JETTY. be tr ag vertical superstructure, bag eh a kd which, assuming the 10 “Scale of Section 5° 10 20 2 Feet waves to have been simply oscillatory, would have reflected them without . breaking, and therefore without their having exerted an impulsive force further than statical pressure upon the masonry. There is no fixed rule as to the best profile of any sea-work, which must necessarily pee upon a variety of local peculiarities, such as the nature of the bottom, and the size and quality of the materials obtainable. While a long, sloping break- water does not offer the same amount of resistance to the waves, neither is it in itself so strong, for the weight = on the face-stones is decreased in proportion to the sine of the angle of the slope. On the other hand, the tendency of the waves to produce horizontal displacement, supposing the direction of the impinging particles to be horizontal, is proportional to the cube of the sine of the angle of adnate Fig. 4.—Calais Harbour. the relation of the width of entrance to the area of a harbour should be a matter of careful study, as upon this depends the tranquillity of the interior, or what has n called the reductive power of the harbour. Stevenson’s formula for the reductive power is given below: H = height of wave at entrance ; 6 = breadth of entrance ; B = breadth of harbour at place of observation ; D = distance from mouth of harbour to place of observation; 2 = reduced height of wave at place of observation. Hyp (H+ Bg )D — VB ; Fig. 4 represents the harbour of Calais, which was constructed by the French government, and opened on 3d June 1889. Great difficulty was x 554 HARBOUR GRACE HARDENBERG experienced in keeping the entrance free from sand, the old sluicing basin being found quite inadequate for the purpose on account of its dis- tance from the entrance. The large basin con- structed has proved more effective, enabling much larger steamers now to be put upon the passage. endel’s plan of depositing rubble from open stages of pile-work is frequently used in the construction of deep-water piers. The cross-sectional form of breakwaters depends naturally on the depth of water, exposure, and the materials that can be most easily obtained. The system of bringing up arubble mound to within 12 or 18 feet of low-water level, and then forming a masonry wall on this base, was adopted at Portland, Alderney, Wick, Holyhead, and other places; while at Dover and Aberdeen, the wall with a slight batter has been brought up from the bottom. The introduction of Portland cement concrete in com- aratively recent times, as described in the article REAKWATER (Vol. II. p. 415), has greatly facili- tated the work of the harbour engineer, The commercial value’ of a harbour increases, according to Stevenson, not simply as the depth of the water is increased, but as the cube of the depth. Hence the great expense which is willingly incurred for securing even a foot or two of additional depth. The greatest achievement in deepening is at the Tyne, where Ure dredged out the channel to 20 feet at low-water all the way up to New- castle. In 1889-95 Messrs Stevenson of Se dinburgh deepened the lower reaches of the Clyde to 23 feet at low-water spring tides. Scouring is also employed for increasing the depth, as by Sir W Cubitt at Carditf, where 2500 tons of water a minute are let off. Rendel’s scheme for Birken- head was based simply on the quantity liberated and the sectional area of the channel, and was therefore operative for any distance, and did not depend on the propelling head, or on the direc- tion in which the water left the sluices, which con- ditions regulate ordinary scouring on the small scale, and which is efficacious for only short distances from the outlet. —Docks (q.v.) of various kinds are connected with harbours. Pine timber is admirably adapted for soft soils, when the exposure is not great, but, owing to the ravages of the Teredo navalis and Limnoria terebrans in localities where there is no admixture of fresh water, it is soon destroyed. Greenheart, African oak, and bullet-tree are little affected by the worm, as shown by experiments made in 1814 at the Bell Rock by Robert Stevenson. Even limestone and sandstone are perforated by the Pholades and Saxicave. Metals also suffer from chemical action when immersed in salt water. George Rennie’s experiments showed that wrought iron resists this action better than cast in the ratio of 8 to 1; while Mallet’s experiments show that from 7th to 4,ths of an inch in depth of castings 1 inch thick, and about ,%ths of wrought iron, will be destroyed in a century in clean salt water. A cannon-ball 44 inches in diameter became oxidised to the extent of #ths of an inch in the century. See BREAKWATER, Docks, COALING STATIONS, and the articles on CALAIS, CHERBOURG, DovER, Havre, Houy- HEAD, PETERHEAD, PLYMOUTH, PORTLAND, &c.; also Sir John Rennie’s book on Harbours (4 vols. 1851- 54); Thomas Stevenson, Desiyn and Construction. of Harbours (3d ed. 1886); L. F. Vernon Harcourt, Harbours and Docks (2 vols. 1885); and the Minutes of Institution of Civil Engineers, passim. Harbour Grace, a port of entry and the second town of Newloundlend. on the west side of Conception Bay, 84 miles by rail WNW. of St John’s, has a large but somewhat exposed harbour, with a revolving light, and carries on a consider- able trade. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic .of ‘ Historicus.’ bishop, and contains a Catholic cathedral and convent. Pop. 7054. Harburg, @ seaport of Prussia, in the province of Liineburg, is situated 5 miles S. of Hamburg, on the Elbe. Its industries include gutta-percha goods, palm-oil, cotton-seed oil, saltpetre and. other chemicals, artificial manure, walking-sticks, leather, mineral water, machines, beer, and jute. Since the deepening of the Elbe the commerce of Harburg has greatly increased. It is a place of holiday resort for the Hamburgers. Pop. (1875) 17,131; (1885) 22,344. Harcourt, Sir WILLIAM VERNON, the second son of the late Rev. William Vernon Harcourt of Nuneham Park, Oxfordshire, and grandson of a former Archbishop of York, was born October 14, 1827, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated with high honours in 1851. ie was called to the bar in 1854, went the Home Circuit, and was made a Queen’s Counsel in 1866. It was during this period that he acquired distine- tion by his contributions to the Saturday Review, and his letters in the Zimes under the signature After unsuccessfully contesting the Kirkcaldy burghs, he was returned to parlia- ment for the city of Oxford as a Liberal in 1868. The following year he was elected professor of Inter- national Law in the university of Canibridge. He took an independent tone in the House of Com- mons, sometimes attacking both friends and foes. But the undoubted mark which he made by his abilities and oratory caused him to be appointed solicitor-general in November 1873, when he re- ceived the honour of knighthood. He held office until Mr Gladstone’s retirement in February 1874, and when that statesman returned to power in 1880 he was appointed Home Secretary. On seeking re-election at Oxford, however, he was defeated, but was almost immediately returned for Derby upon the opportune retirement of Mr Plimsoll. During the session of 1880 Sir William piloted the Ground Game Bill through the House of Commons, and in 1881 he introduced the Arms Bill (Ireland) in a speech which was strongly resented by the Irish members. He brought in the Prevention of Crimes Bill (1882) and the Explosives Bill of 1883, which dealt summarily with dynamite outrages. He next made an abortive attempt to grapple with the municipality of London. The ministerial policy in the Soudan he defended with much skill on various occasions. In 1885 Sir William went out of office with his chief, but returned with him on the advent of the Liberals to power for six months in 1886, when he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer—an office he resumed in Mr Gladstone’s Home Rule cabinet of 1892. The letters of ‘ Historicus’ were prblished in volume form in 1863. A vigorous debater, Sir William Harcourt was a strong supporter of Irish Home Rule. Hardanger Fjord. See Norway, p. 529. Hardenberg, HErmnricH von. See NovALis. Hardenberg, Kari AvuGusT, PRINCE VON, a Prussian statesman, was born at Essenroda, in Hanover, May 31, 1750. After labouring for twelve years (1770-82) in the service of Hanover and eight in the service of Brunswick, Hardenberg chanced to attract the attention of Frederick- William II. of Prussia. On his recommendation he was nominated administrator of the principality of Ansbach and Baireuth, and after the union of this latter to Prussia in 1791 was appointed a Prussian minister of state and a member of the cabinet ministry. In this capacity his chief work was the negotiation of peace between Prussia and the French Republic at Basel in 1795. On the accession of Frederick-William III. in 1797, . important ‘Prussia was coerced b HARDERWILK HARDWAR 555 Hardenberg was entrusted with the management of Sranslies of internal atlairs, and in 1803 became first Prussian minister. The principal aim of his policy was to preserve neutrality in the war between France and England; but in 1806, when y Napoleon into becoming hhis ally, Hardenberg was dismissed. In 1810, how- ever, he was appointed chancellor of state in suc- * m to Stein (q.v.); and although Prussia was at this period in a deplorable condition, humbled in the very dust before France, Hardenberg ad- dressed himself to the task of completing the internal reforms be by his predecessor. In the war of liberation he took a prominent part, and saw his efforts crowned by the treaty of Paris, June 18l4. Soon after he was raised to the rank of ce. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to ndon, took part in the proceedings of the con- at Vienna, and in the treaties of Paris (1815). n 1817 he reorganised the council of state, of which he was appointed president. He was also resent at the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Carls- , Vienna, Laubach, and Verona; and drew up the new Prussian system of imposts. seed a tour through the north of Italy he was taken ill at Pavia, and died at Genoa, 26th November 1822. To Hardenberg Prussia is mainly indebted for the improvements in her army system, the abolition of serfdom, of the privileges of the nobles, and of a multitude of trade corporations, the encourage- ment of municipal institutions, and the reform of her educational system. Yet in his later years he was unable to overcome the reactionary tend- encies of the king; all he could do was to moderate them and prevent them running to excess. See Ranke’s Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fiursten von Harden- berg (5 vols. 1877), which includes Hardenberg’s own memoirs. arderwijk, a fishing-town of the Nether- lands, on the Pe aib cast dots of the Zuider Zee, 31 miles NE. of Utrecht by rail. From 1648 to 1811 it was the seat of a university. It is now a dept for recruits for the Dutch East Indian army. Pop. 7339. Hardhead. See MENHADEN. Hardicanute, king of England, son of Canute the Great by Emma of Normandy, the widow of Ethelred Il. At the time of his father’s death (1035) Hardicanute was in Denmark, and the throne of England was given by the witenagemot to Harold, his younger brother ; Wessex, however, was reserved for the absent prince, whose claims to the kingdom were upheld by Godwin and Emma. On the death of Harold in 1040 Hardicanute was elected king in his place ; but he only reigned two years, dying of Be A ep in 1042. Yet in that short time he provoked the discontent of his subjects by the imposition of a very heavy danegeld. Harding, STEPHEN, the third abbot of the celebrated monastery of Citeaux, an Englishman by birth, who endeavoured to restore the Benedic- tine rule to its original simplicity. He died in 1134. See CISTERCIANS. Tardinge, Henry HARDINGE, VIscoUNT, British general and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham, in Kent, 30th March 1785. Gazetted an ensign in 1798, he served all through the Peninsular war, fighting in most of its battles, being wounded at Vimiera and Vittoria, and taking a decisive part in the sanguinary contest at Albuera. From 1 to 1813 he was also attached to the Portuguese army as a deputy- uartermaster-general. On the renewal of hostilities after Napoleon’s escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened to join Wellington, who appointed him commissioner at the Prussian headquarters. In consequence of a severe wound received at Ligny he was unable to take part in filled the the battle of Waterloo. From 1820 to 1844 he took an active share in parliamentary life, holding the office of Secretary of War under Wellington in 1828, and afterwards the chief secretaryship of Ireland under the same duke first and then under Peel. In 1844 he was appointed governor-general of India. It was during his tenure of office that the first Sikh war broke out. Governor-general Hardinge was present at the battles of Mudki, Firozshah, and Sobraon as second in command to Lord Gough. After the peace of Lahore (1845) he was created a viscount, and granted a pension of £5000 by the East India Company as well as one of £ for three lives by parliament. Four ears after his return to England he succeeded (1852) Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British army. In 1855 he was made field-marshal. In July of the following year he resigned the office of commander-in-chief, and on the 24th of September 1856 died at South Park, near Tunbridge. See the monograph by his son (1891). Hard Labour. See Prisons. Hardness, SCALE oF. The hardness of a sub- stance may be measured by many methods, and the order in which given substances would be classed as to hardness depends altogether upon the particular method used. Mineralogists classify substances according to their power of scratch- ing others. By carrying a selected set of small specimens of certain minerals, they can at once find out the relative hardness of two unknown specimens which resemble each other so closely as to be otherwise undistinguishable at the time unless more elaborate chemical tests be resorted to. See MINERALOGY. Hardouin, JEAN, an eccentric classical scholar, was born in 1646, at Quimper, in Brittany, entered the Jesuit order at the age of twenty, and from 1683 t of librarian of the college of Louis le Grand in Paris. In a spirit of eccentric scepticism, Hardouin maintained that the entire body of classi- cal literature, with the exception of Cicero's writings, Pliny’s Natural History, Virgil's Georgics, Horace’s Satires and Epistles, Homer’s /liad, and Herodotus’s History, was spurious, and had been written by the monks of the 13th century. He also rejected all the reputed remains of ancient art, together with the inscriptions and coins which are attributed to classical times ; nay, he even extended his scepti- cism to the Septuagint version of the Old Testa- ment, and to the Greek text of the New, the original language of which he held to have been Latin! Besides this, he condemned as apocryphal all councils of the church anterior to the Council of Trent. Yet, with all this extravagance, Hardouin was a scholar of real attainments, and most of his works ess historical and critical value, par- ticularly his edition of Pliny (5 vols. 4to, Paris, 1689). Of his remaining works, the most valuable is the Collectio Conciliorum (12 vols. folio, Paris, 1715); a commentary on the New Testament, in folio; and several volumes on numismatics and chronology. He died at Paris, September 3, 1729. Hardwar ( Hari-dwara, ‘ Vishnu’s gate’), per- haps the most famous a on the Ganges, stands on the right or west bank of the river, at the point where it eme from the sub-Himalaya into the ear of Hindustan, 39 miles NE. of Saharunpur, orth-west Provinces. From its position on the sacred stream, it attracts immense numbers of pilgrims for the pu of ablution. The orthodox season comprises the end of March and the begin- ning of April—a great fair at the same time engraft- ing commerce on religion. In ordinary years the attendance is about 100,000; but every twelfth year (as in 1882, 1894, &c.) a peculiarly sacred feast takes place, attended by perhaps 300,000 556 HARDWOOD TREES HARE (formerly by as many as 2,000,000). Hardwar is 1024 feet above the sea, and has a pop. of 4520, See GANGES. Hardwood Trees are forest-trees of com- paratively slow growth, producing compact, hard timber, as oak, ash, elm, chestnut, walnut, beech, birch, &c. From these willows, elders, poplars, &c. are distinguished as soft-wooded trees. either term is extended to firs, pines, cedars, or other coniferous trees. Hardy, ALEXANDRE, a prolific French drama- tist, born about 1570, in Paris, and from 1600 attached as playwright to the newly-started ThéAtre du Marais, for which he wrote from five to seven hundred pieces, of which but forty-one are ex- tant. He died about 1630. His plays were closely modelled on the Spanish -examples before him, from their merits down to their bombast and over- entanglement of plot, but still preserved something of classical form. The best is Mariamne. A late edition is Stengel’s (5 vols. Marburg, 1883-84). Hardy, Sir THomas DUFFUS, a distinguished palzeographer, was born in 1804, in Jamaica, the son of a major of artillery. At fifteen he became a nies clerk in the Record Office in the Tower, and nere, under Mr Petrie’s instructions, he quickly became an expert in reading ancient MSS. His earliest writings—illustrating the reign of King John—appeared in Archeologia and the Excerpta Historica. In 1861 he succeeded Sir Francis Palgrave as deputy-keeper of the Public Records, in which capacity his learning was equalled only by his courtesy. He was knighted in 1870, and died in London 15th June 1878. His most import- ant works were two folio volumes of the early Close Rolls (1833-44), one of the Patent Rolls (1835), and others of the Norman Rolls (1835) and Charter Rolls (1837) for the Record Commission ; William of Malmesbury (1840); Catalogue of Lord Chancel- lors, Keepers of Great Seal, Masters of Rolls, &c. (1843); Modus tenendi Parliamentum (1846); a Descriptive Catalogue of MSS. relating to the history of Great Britain and Ireland (3 vols. 1862- 71); Syllabus, in English, of Rymer’s Fadera (3 vols. 1869-85); Registrum Palatinum Dunelmense ; and The Register of Richard de Kellawe, 1311-16 (4 vols. 1873-78 ).—His brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY, was born 6th July 1807, became a clerk at the Record Office in the Tower in 1830, was transferred to the Duchy of Lancaster Office in 1838, thence, on the removal, to the Public Record Office in 1868 as assistant-keeper. On his brother’s death in 1878 he succeeded as deputy-keeper, was knighted in 1883, and died 17th March 1887. He edited Waurin’s Receueil des Chroniques (4 vols. 1864-84). Hardy, Sir THOMAS MASTERTON (1769-1839), born at Portisham in Dorsetshire, was closely associated in his naval career with Nelson (q.v. ). Hardy, THOMAS, novelist, the son of a builder at Upper Boghampton, near Dorchester, was born June 2, 1840. He was brought up in that county as an architect, and practised some time at Dor- chester, next prosecuted his studies in design at London, gaining such professional distinctions as the prize and medal of the Institute of British Architects, and Sir W. Tite’s prize for architectural design, both in 1863. His intention was now to become an art-critic, but the experiment of a not wholly unsuccessful work of fiction, Desperate Remedies (1871; new ed. 1889), finally shaped his destiny otherwise. His next novels, Under the Greenwood Tree (1872) and A Pair of Blue Eyes (1873), prepared the way for his first great work, far from the Madding Crowd, which was published in the Cornhill Magazine in 1874. As a novel it is unequal, and lacks refinement in style, but possesses remarkable vigour and undeniable z humour in the portrayal of Dorsetshire peasant- life. Its immediate success secured its author an audience for a series of succeeding novels: The Hand of Ethelberta (1876), The Return of the Native (1878), The Trumpet-major (1880), A Laodicean (1881), Two on a Tower (1882), The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), The Woodlanders (1887), Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891), a strong story, Jude the Obscure (1895), a story even more sur- charged by painful and pessimistic realism, and The Well-beloved(1897). His Wessex Tales appeared in 1888, A Group of Noble Dames in 1891, and Life's Little Ironies in 1894. The Three Wayfarers (1893) was a play based on one of the Wessex Tales. Hardyng, or Harding, JouN, a 15th-century English rhyming chronicler, was born in 1378, and was iss up in the household of Harry Perey, the famous Hotspur, whom he saw fall on Shrews- bury field in 1402. Pardoned for his treason, he served under Sir Robert Umfraville, became con- stable of Warkworth Castle, fought at Agincourt, and served the crown in confidential and critical missions to Scotland. His chronicle, composed in limping stanzas, and treating the history of Eng- Taha from the earliest times down to the flight of Henry VI. into Scotland, he rewrote and presented to Bdward IV. just after his accession. It is poor history and poorer poetry, but the account of the Agincourt epg te has the interest of the eye- witness. For his hostility to the Scots he had appsrenitly See grounds in his own experience. ardyng’s Chronicle was continued by the printer Richard Grafton down to the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Henry VIII., but Grafton’s work was little more than a recast of Hall. The best edition of Hardyng’s Chronicle and its continuation is that by Sir Henry Ellis (1812). Mare, a term including all members of the rodent family Leporide, with the exception of the rabbit. Its chief distinctive characters are as follows: four incisor teeth in the upper jaw (instead of two as in most Rodentia), two small square teeth standing immediately behind the well- known front teeth ; five or six molars in the upper and five in the lower jaw, which are composed of two flat plates disposed transversely ; lips thick, with a deep median incision and very mobile, with long bristles; eyes large; ears more or less long ; head and body long and compressed; hind-legs long (except in Lagomys), five toes on the fore, four on the hind legs; tail short. The body is covered by a thick, almost woolly coat, which is in some demand for making hats. Two recent genera only are included, Lepus and Lagomys. The Com- mon Hare (Lepus timidus) is about 27 inches in length—of which only 3 inches belong to the tail— 1 foot high, and weighs 13-20 lb. The fur con- sists of two kinds of hairs, one short, thick, and HARE 557 woolly, the other longer and stouter. The colour, owing to the varying tints of these two sets of hairs, is a dull reddish-brown, paler on the sides and white below, which from its resemblance to the we is admirably adapted to conceal the The hare is in the main of nocturnal habits, and the day sleeping in its ‘form,’ a slight ression among the grass and other herbage, sheltered from the sun in summer and the wind in winter. In the evening it creeps out to feed, nearly all vegetable substances being palatable to it; green vegetables and teot-crope are, however, its special delicacies, though it will gnaw the bark off trees when hard pressed. In places where it is protected by game-laws it does great damage on account of its voracity and fertility. In addition to its protective eg oooh caution and speed are the hare’s security. Crouched in its form, on any sign of danger it at once sits up on its haunches and looks around ; its next action is to crouch down and try to conceal itself; should this fail and the enemy approach too near, it betakes itself to flight, in which its long hind-legs give it a t advantage in running either on a level or uphill ; in descending it proceeds diagonally, other- wise its springs would overturn it. Its course is chosen with great cunning so as to place all possible obstacles in the way of its pursuer, and though it does not take naturally to water it has n known to swim a considerable distance when closely pressed. It has many enemies; nearly all beasts and birds of prey wiil attack it, not to mention man, whose pursuit is treated in special articles (see COURSING ; also GAME LAws). The time of pairing is in February or March, and at this period the pugnacity, which is even more a characteristic of this cautious animal than its proverbial timidity, comes into evidence, for the males fight ferociously for the females. The — of gestation is thirty days; there are three five young (known as ‘leverets’) in each litter, and four (rarely five) litters are produced yearly ; the first in March, the last in August. The youn can see when born, and are only indifferently tie by their mother for about a month. The Common Hare is distributed over the greater part of Europe and a small portion of western Asia, as far north as Scotland, south Sweden, and Persia, and’‘as far south as France and north Italy. Three different local varieties have been recognised: (1) the South Euro (L. medi- terraneus, L. meridionalis), small, short, with looser hair of a reddish tinge ; (2) the Mid-European (L. timidus s. str., L. campicola), stouter, with longer hair and negidiiccwcd cy, (3) the Eastern form (ZL. caspicus), very thick-haired, and gray or whitish-gray in colour.—The Irish Hare, formerly known as L. hi icus, is not re ed as a dis- tinct species by the best authorities, but as a variety of the Alpine hare. The Alpine Hare (LZ. variabilis) is distinguished by its smaller size, the shortness of the ears, which are not so long as the head, the white tail about half the length of the head, and the form of the first upper molar. It occurs in the cireum- lar regions as far south as 55° N. lat., and also in elevated positions in more temperate regions, such as the Alpe, renees, pei probably the Caucasus. As a British form it is confined to the north of Scotland and Cumberland. Three differ- ent varieties have been described: (1) the Polar, white both in summer and winter, with the ex- ception of the tips of the ears; (2) alpine form or ‘Blue Hare,’ grayish-brown in summer; (3) temperate form, grayish-brown both summer and winter, but somewhat whitish in the latter season. The Irish hare is probably this form. Two species of hare have been recorded from India and central Asia, and one from the Cape. The American continent yields some dozen different forms, only one of which, however, occurs in the southern portion. Among these are the Polar Hare (L. glacialis), the Northern Hare (L. ameri- canus), and L. aquaticus and L, palustris, the Swamp and Marsh Hares; these last are excellent swimmers and divers. Fossil hares have been found in the Pliocene formations of France, the Post-Pliocene of North America, and the caves of Brazil. The Pikas belong to the genus cr bs (some- times made the type of a distinct family, Lago- myide), which is distinguished from Lepus by its short hind-legs, very short tail, and rounded ears, as well as by the presence of complete collar-bones. The type species L. alpinus somewhat resembles a Guinea-pig in shape and size; the colour is reddish-yellow sprinkled with black above, redder on the sides and front of the neck, paler below. It continually emits a penetrating whistle, repeated two or three times in succession, which has been compared to the note of a woodpecker. It inhabits burrows in the ground which it excavates for itself, and in which it stores up food for the winter. Its habits are nocturnal. There are eleven different species, which extend from Kamchatka along the chain of mountains in the centre of Asia, just entering Europe in the neighbourhood of the Volga. In America they are confined to certain parts of the Rocky Mountains. See Furs; and The Hare, by Macpherson, Lascelles, &c. (‘ Fur and Feather ’ series, 1896), Hare, JuLius CHARLES, one of the chief early leaders of the Broad Church party, was born near Vicenza, in Italy, September 13, 1795. He spent part of his boyhood in Germany, and after his return was sent to the Charterhouse, from which in 1812 he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he was elected to a fellowship in 1818, and afterwards became classical lecturer. He tried the study of law, but soon abandoned it, took orders in 1826, and succeeded his uncle in the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux, Sussex, in 1832. He gathered round him a fine library of 12,000 volumes, and numbered among his friends Landor, Maurice, Bunsen, and others of the greatest spiritual teachers of his time. He had John Sterling as his curate (1834-35), and married in 1844 Esther Maurice, sister of Frederick Maurice. He became Arch- deacon of Lewes in 1840, in 1853 chaplain to the Queen, and died January 23, 1855. is annual charges are among the most important sources for a study of the ecclesiastical controversies of his time. Another great service that he did was to awaken Englishmen to the fact that they had much to learn in rp tig okie Germany. is style is cumbrous, and his ks gain nothing from their orthographical peculiarities. Already in 1820 he had translated Fouqué’s Sintram, when in 1827 he published anonymously Guesses at Truth, written in conjunction with his brother Augustus. His next work was the translation of Niebuhr’s History o Rome (1828-32) in collaboration with Thirlwall, and his own Vindication of Niebuhr’s History (1829). His most important contributions to theology are The Victory of Faith (1840) and The Mission of the Comforter (1846), two series of elaborate sermons preached at Cambridge. In 1848 he edited the Remains of John Sterling, with a life, a strong sense of the inadequacy of which inspired Carlyle’s masterpiece. Other books are Parish Sermons (2 vols. 1841-49) and a Vindica- tion of Luther against his Recent English Assail- ants (1854). See his nephew’s Memorials of a wiet Life.—His elder but less important brother, uGustus WILLIAM HARE, was born in 1792, 558 HARE HAREM and educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he became a Fellow in due course. He was appointed in 1829 to the retired living of Alton Barnes, in Wiltshire, married in 1829 the gifted Maria Leycester (1798-1870), and died prematurely at Rome in 1834. Besides his share in the Guesses at Truth, he left fifty-six sermons to be published in two volumes in 1837.—AUGUS- TUS JOHN CUTHBERT HARE, nephew of the two preceding, was born at Rome in 1834, and was educated at.Harrow and at University College, Ox- ford. He has written a series of good descriptive books revealing fine artistic taste and wide know- ledge of history and antiquities. Amongst these are Walks in Rome (1871), Wanderings in Spain (1873), Days near Rome (1875), Cities of Northern and Central Italy (1876), Walks in London (1878 ; new ed. 1894), Cities of Southern Italy and Sicily (1883), Holland and Scandinavia (1885), Studies in Russia (1885), Parts and Days near Paris (1887), South-Eastern France and South-Western France (1890), Sussex (1894), &e. Other works are his delightful biography of Maria Hare, Memorials of a Quiet Life (1872-76); the Life and Letters of Baroness Bunsen (1879), Two Noble Lives (1893), and The Gurneys of Earlham (1895). See his autobiography (1896). Hare, RoBErT, scientist, was born in Phila- delphia, 17th January 1781, and filled the chair of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania there from 1818 to 1847. He died 15th May 1858. In 1801 Hare described his discovery of the oxy- hydrogen blowpipe (see BLOWPIPE). In 1816 he invented the galvanic calorimotor. He also devised improved forms of the voltaic pile. In his later years he lectured on spiritualism and published Spiritualism scientifically demonstrated (New York, 1855). Hare and Hounds. See ATHLETIC Sports. HMarebell, or BLUEBELL (Campanula. rotundi- folia), the most common of the British species of Bellflower (see CAMPANULA), growing in dr and hilly pastures, on waysides, &c., is found in most arts of Europe. t is a perennial plant, with a slender stem 6 to 14 inches high, bearing a_ loose raceme of a few drooping flowers, ——> E> ee. SZ KEN on very slender PN stalks; the Ais \ I flowers, generelly SA— AR bright blue, but ‘ : sometimes white, FY a bell-shaped, and about half an inch Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia): — 4 ae ts ore nd a, lower stem-leaves, autumn. The juice of the flowers yields a fine blue colour, and may be used as ink. Hareld (Harelda), a genus of the duck famil (Anatide, see Duck), having a short thick bill, and two feathers of the middle of the tail, in the males, greatly elongated. Two species are known; the best known, the Lose tellan Duck or Hareld (H. glacialis), inhabits the arctic regions both of the Old and New Worlds, its winter migrations in America extending as far south as the Carolinas. Harelip is the name applied (from its re- semblance to the lip of the hare) to a congenital notch or cleft in the upper human lip, due to imper- fect union at an early stage of development of the processes whose formation and fusion separate the mouth from the cavity of the nose. The cleft is not in the middle line, however, as in the hare; but a little to one side (single harelip), or there are two clefts, one on each side (double harelip ). REbis deformity, especially when double, is often associ- ated with a similar defect in the roof of the mouth (cleft palate). The cause of these arrests of development is quite unknown. Harelip is not at. all dangerous, but very unsightly. Tt can be remedied by a surgical operation, which most surgeons prefer to perform during infancy. Harem (Arab. £/-Harim, ‘the inviolable’) is. that part of a polygamist’s house which is set apart for the use of his wives and their attendants; it also denotes this collective body of women. In all Mohammedan countries it is customary for wealthy men to keep a harem; for, though four is the number of wives to which the faithful are restricted by the Koran, there is no limit to the number of concubines a man may have re 3: his ability to maintain them. The mention of a harem naturally suggests to most people the female portion of the: royal households of Turkey and Persia and Egypt. In the sultan’s harem each wife—he alone may have seven—has a separate suite of apartments and a separate troop of female slaves to wait upon her and do her bidding. All the female slaves or odalisques throughout the harem are, however, at. the disposal of their royal master. She who first gives birth to an heir, whether wife or slaye, is instantly promoted to the rank of chief wife. The title plea is borne, not by the sultan’s wives, but by his mother, sisters, and daughters. The real ruler of the harem is the sultan’s mother, but. under her is the lady-superintendent of the harem, usually an old and trusted favourite of the sultan. The duties of guarding the harem or seraglio (Ital. from Latin sera, ‘a bar;’ ef. Turkish and Persian serai or saray), as it is sometimes called, are entrusted to a small army of eunuchs, the chief officer of whom generally enjoys considerable polit- ical influence. The inmates of the harem lead a. very secluded life. They are not allowed to be seen by men, except their nearest relatives, as. father and brother. Their rincipal occupations are: needlework, spinning, and embroidery, which are: relieved by the ‘cult’ of the toilette, and such amusements as dancing, singing, and games. On the death of the sultan those women who have — borne daughters to him are at liberty to leave the — harem and marry again ; the mothers of princes are transferred to the ‘old seraglio,’ and kept there until they die. In the harems of the great men of Turkey and Egypt a good deal of modern Euro- pean luxury has te introduced of late years, and the ladies now dress themselves in accordance with fashions derived from Paris or London. The institution is not, however, confined to Mohammedan countries, but flourishes also, or did flourish, in some form or other, amongst the Jews, — Babylonians, ancient Persians, Siamese, &c. Im Bangkok, the capital of Siam, the harem of the king forms a walled city within the larger city, so extensive is it. : The holy cities of Mecca and Medina are to- gether called the harems or the sacred places, and the sacred mosque at Mecca is designated the mesjid el-harim or ‘ the inviolable mosque.’ : During the 18th and 19th centuries the interiors of oriental harems have been entered and the lives: of their inmates studied by several European and American ladies, as those of Constantinople by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in 1716; those of — ; A 4 p Ve HARE’S-EAR HARIRI 559 Cairo and Damascus by Harriet Martineau in 1847 ; that of the Khedive at Cairo by two ladies of Mr W. H. Seward’s American party in 1871: some in Turkey by another American lady, Mrs Caroline Paine; and the royal harem at gkok by yet another lady from the United States, Mrs Leon- owens. For harems in India, see ZENANA. Hare’s-ear (Bupleurum), a genus of plants of the order Umbellifere, having compound umbels of yellow flowers, and generally simple leaves, The leaves of the most common British species, B. rotundifolium, are pertoliate. This plant, which grows in cornfields in the chalk districts, is the 7horough-wax of the old herbalists. The species of hare’s-ear are numerous, and are natives temperate climates in most parts of the world. Marfleur (called in the middle ages Hareflot), a town in the French department of Seine- Inférieure, is situated on the estuary of the Seine, 4 miles E. of Havre. Formerly Harfleur was an important seaport and maritime fortress, but the rise of Havre, coupled with the sanding a of its harbour, led to its decay. Pop. 2317. It was taken after a six weeks’ gy by the English under Henry V. in 1415, and during the next twenty-five years changed hands three times. It was pillaged by the Huguenots in 1562. Hargraves, EpMUND HAMMOND, the dis- coverer of the Ie of Australia, was born at Gosport, in England, in 1815. When eighteen ears of age he settled in Australia. Attracted to alifornia in 1849, he there tried his luck as a gold- digger, and whilst so engaged was greatly struck by the similarity in the geological formation of California and Australia, and suspected that gold would be found in the latter. On his return home he proved the correctness of his surmise by dis- covering gold on the western slopes of the Blue Hills in New South Wales in 1851. He was appointed commissioner of crown-lands, and _ re- ceived from the government of New South Wales a reward of £10,000. In 1855, one year after his return to sy he published Australia and its Goldfields. He died in October 1891. Margreaves, JAmEs, the inventor of the spinning-jenny, used in the manufacture of cotton, was an illiterate weaver and carpenter of Stand- hill, near Blackburn, in Lancashire, where he was born. In 1760 he helped Robert Peel (the founder of that family) in the construction of a carding- machine ; and half-a-dozen P heyy later he invented the aeaing JNSy the idea of which is said to have been suggested to him by seeing a spinning- wheel, which one of his children h upset, con- tinue to revolve horizontally, whilst the spindle revolved vertically. But his fellow-spinners, im- bued with strong prejudices against machinery, broke into his house and destroyed his frame. He then removed to Nottingham (1767), where he erected a spinning-mill. Three years later he took out a patent for his invention; but, as it was roved that he had sold some of his machines fore the patent was obtained, it was thereby declared to have been invalidated. Hargreaves eontinued to on business as a yarn manu- facturer till his death on 22d April ‘1778, when his share in the mill was bought by his partner for £400. See Francis Espinasse’s Lancashire Worthies (1874). Haricot. See BEAN. Hari-Kari (rather hara-kiri, ‘belly-cut,’ also called ‘happy despatch’), a term applied to the curious Japanese system of official suicide, obsolete Since 1868 (see JAPAN). The Japanese estimated the number of such suicides at 500 per annum. All military men, and persons holding civil offices under the government, were held bound, when they had committed an offence, to disembowel themselves. This they performed in a solemn and dignified manner, in presence of officials and other witnesses, by one or two gashes with a short sharp sword or dagger 94 inches long. Personal honour having been saved by the self-inflicted wound, the execution was completed by a superior executioner tr rather the victim’s second, often a kinsman or riend of “grew paely rank), who gave the coup de dice by beheading the victim with one swinging low from a long sword. Japanese gentlemen were trained to regard the hara-kiri as an honour- able expiation of crime or blotting out of disgrace. See articles by an eye-witness in Cornhill (1869). Hiiring, Georc WILHELM HeErnricnu, better known under the name of WILIBALD ALEXIS, a German novelist, was born at Breslau, 23d June 1797. He at first studied law at Berlin and Breslau, but abandoned this pursuit for a literary career. His first success as a writer was the histor1- cal romance Walladmor (1823-24), published as a work by Sir Walter Scott, a fraud that found belief and led to the book being translated into several languages (into English, very freely, by De Quincey, 1824). This was followed by Die Gedchteten (1825) and Schloss Avalon (1827). Hiiring’s subsequent historical romances, the clever character-drawing, historical verisimilitude, and vigorous description of which entitle them to a high rank, are Cabanis (6 vols. 1832), Roland von Berlin (3 vols. 1840), Der Jalsche Woldemar (3 vols. 1842), Hans Jiirgen und Hans Jochem (2 vols, 1846), Der Warwolf (3 vols. 1848), Ruhe ist die erste Biirgerpflicht (5 vols. 1854), Isegrimm (3 vols. 1854), and Dorothe (3 vols. 1856). Besides these, he wrote books of travel, sketches, dramas, and other works. His Gesammelte Werke were published at Berlin in 20 vols. in 1874, the historical romances as Vater- lindische Romane in 8 vols. in 1884. He died 16th December 1871. Harington. See HARRINGTON. Mariri. Asu MoHAMMED AL KASIM IBN ALI, surnamed AL-HARrRI (‘the Silk-merchant’), an Arabic writer, was born at Basra, on the Tigris, in 446 A.H. (1054 A.D.), spent his life in study and devotion to literary work, and died at Basra about 1121. He wrote valuable works on Arabic gram- mar, as Molhat el. Irab, a work on syntax, and Durrat el-Ghawwus, on common faults in current language. But the most famous of his writings, indeed one of the most famous compositions of all times and countries, is his Makamat (Literary Gatherings). This is a collection of rhymed tales, the central character in which is a certain Abu Seid from Seruj, a witty, clever, amiable rogue, well read in sacred and profane lore, but cunning and unscrupulous, who turns up under all ible dis- guises and in all possible places. The brilliancy of imagination and wit displayed in these adventures, their striking changes, and dramatic situations, have hardly ever been equalled ; but more wonder- ful still is the poet’s power of language. The whole force of the proverbial fullness of expression, spirit, elegance, and grandeur of the Arabic idiom has. been brought to bear on the subject. Indeed, as far as language is concerned, the Makamat is looked upon in the t as the highest source of authorit next to the Koran. The book has been translated, either entirely or partially, into nearly every Eastern and European tongue, and has been the prototype of innumerable imitations, the most sue- cessful tiding one in Hebrew, Machberoth Ithiel, by Yehudah ben Shelomoh al-Kharizi. The best edition of the Makamat is that by Silvestre de Sacy, which appeared in Paris, 1822 (re-edited 1847-53). Of translations, the palm is due to Riickert, who 560 HARI-RUD HARLEY has completely reproduced the spirit and form of the work in his Verwandlungen des Abu Seid von Serug, first published in 1826. English translations (partial) have been made by Preston (1850) and by Chenery (1867). Hari-Rud, or HeRI-RvD, a river of Asia, which rises in the Hindu Kush about 150 miles W. from Kabul, pursues a western course through Afghani- stan for nearly 250 miles ; then, bending suddenly to the northward, it forms the boundary between Persia and Turkestan, and, after a further course of about 250 miles, loses itself in several arms in tne Tekke Turkoman oasis. Harivansa, a Sanskrit epos, which to be part of the Mahabharata, but may properly classed with the Puranas (q.v.). Harlamoff, ALExiIs, a Russian artist, born at Saratoff in 1844, studied at St Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts, gained several medals, became a member of the Academy in 1869, and soon after- wards settled in Paris. A regular contributor to the Salon, his portraits and pe of children and young girls, executed with feeling and painstaking care, have rendered him famous. See R Walker’s article in Good Words (1889). Harlaw’, 18 miles NW. of Aberdeen, the site of a battle fought on 24th July 1411, between the Highlanders led by Donald, Lord of the Isles, and the Lowlanders of Mar, Garioch, Buchan, Angus, and Mearns, under Alexander Stewart, Earl of Mar. The battle was op and bloody, but the High- landers were at last driven back, leaving more than 900 dead upon the field. For long after ‘ the red Harlaw’ was a favourite theme of legend and song. Harlech, an ancient town of Merionethshire, North Wales, stands on the coast, 10 miles N. of Barmouth. On a steep hill overlooking the sea is its massive castle, which held out for the Lancas- trians in the Wars of the Roses, and later for Charles I. The ‘March of the Men of Harlech’ commemorates its capture by the Yorkists in 1468. For the Harlech series, see CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. Harlequin. See PANTOMINE. The etymology of the word is curious. The Fr. is arlequin, from which apparently is derived the Ital. arlecchino. The Old Fr. phrase was li maisnie hierlekin (Low Lat. harlequni familias), ‘a troop of demons that haunted lonely places.’ This Skeat derives from Old_ Fries. helle cyn, Icel. heljar kyn—i.e. the kindred of hell, host of hell, troop of demons. The change from hellequin to harlequin was due to a mistaken analogy with Charles Quint. See Max Miiller’s Lectures, ii. p. 581. Harlequin Duck (Anas [or Clangula] his- trionica), a species of Garrot which receives its name from its variegated markings, white, gray, black, and brown. It inhabits the seashore and its inlets and river mouths, being seldom seen inland. It is found in Kamchatka and Green- land, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, Sea of Aral, and Lake Baikal. In America it is found in Labrador, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Bay of Fundy, and advances in winter southwards to the United States. Its whole length is about 17 inches. See WILD-DUCK. Harless, GoTTLoB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON, a German Lutheran theologian, was born at Nurem- berg in 1806, and was professor of Theology at Erlangen from 1836, and at Leipzig from 1845. In 1850 he became chief court preacher at Dresden, and exercised great influence on ecclesiastical affairs in Saxony. In 1852 he was appointed president of the Protestant consistory at Riecian and suc- ceeded in making the Lutheran Church in Bavaria strongly orthodox. He died 5th September 1879. His most important works were his Theologische rofesses @ more Encyklopidie und Methodologie (1837) and Die christliche Ethik (1842; Eng. trans. 1868). His autobiography appeared as Bruchstiicke aus dem Leben eines Stiddeutschen Theologen (1873-75). Harley, Rosrert, EARL oF OXFORD AND MORTIMER, the son of Sir Edward Harley, an active ~ partisan of the Parliament during the civil wars, was born in London, 5th Dacetite 1661. The olitics of the family were Whig, and as such obert Harley entered parliament for the Cornish borough of Tregony. But at the end of his first parliament he was elected for New Radnor, and this constituency he continued to represent until 1711. He soon acquired a great reputation for his knowledge of parliamentary law and practice, and in the parliament which met under the chieftain- ship of Rochester and i in February 1701, he was elected speaker. his post he retained until 1705, though in April 1704 he became also Secretary of State. But shortly after this time Harley began to influence the queen’s mind against the party of Marlborough and Godolphin; for, apparently from motives of personal ambition, he now began to intrigue with and for the Tories, and he found a most useful ally in his cousin, Abigail Hill (Mrs Masham). Godolphin failed not to detect what was going forward, and in February 1708 the conviction of Harley's seeretary for trea- sonable correspondence with France caused his master to resign office. The discarded minister then set to work, aided by_his cousin, to undermine the power of the Whigs, and in August 1710 Godolphin was dismissed, Harley being appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer and made head of the government. In 1711 occurred an event which raised Harley to the acme of bg ae A French pee and spy, who assumed the title of Marquis e Guiscard, being brought before the council on the 8th of March on the charge of treasonable cor- respondence with France, suddenly stabbed Harley in the breast with a penknife. His life was said to have been in danger, but he recovered, and was created Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, made a knight of the Garter, and in May appointed Lord High Treasurer of Great Britain. He was the last to bear this title ; henceforth the chief adviser of the sovereign was known as the first minister to the crown, or the prime-minister. The principal act of Harley’s administration was the treaty of Utrecht, the opposition of the Whig majority in the Upper House being overcome by the creation of twelve new peers. But Oxford’s popularity was already on the wane; the friendship between — him and Bolingbroke had degenerated into bitter jealousy, and was fast turning to hatred, and Mrs asham sided with Bolingbroke. Moreover, Ox- ford estranged the Jacobites by his irresolution and want of a decided policy. On 27th July 1714 he was dismissed from office, his successor being bo broke. Five days later, however, the queen died, and George I. was proclaimed king. In July of the following year Oxford was impeached and sent to the Tower, but after two years’ imprisonment was acquitted by the Peers, and released. Hespent the remainder of his life in retirement, the friend of scholars and men of letters, especially of Swift, and the founder of the Harleian collection of books and MSS. in the British Museum (q.v.). _The Harleian Society, named from him, was founded in 1869 for the publication of heraldic visitations, &c. He died May 21, 1724. Harley was not a great statesman ; the fault that marred his career was indecision of urpose, a desire to stand well with all parties. e followed no decided policy, but intrigued all round, not only with Whigs and with Tories, but also with the enemies of his country. Conse- uently he was distrusted by all parties and loved oe none. See the Harley Papers (1897). HARLINGEN HARMONICS 561 Harlingen (Frisian Harns), a seaport of the Netherlands, in the province of Friesland, on the Zuider Zee, 14 miles W. by 8. from Leeuwarden. It has a good harbour (1875), protected from the sea by dykes, The manufacture of linen sacks and machines and shipbuilding are the chief indus- tries. Butter and cattle are exported to England. Pop. 10,274. Harmalin is a vegetable base, and Harmin another, both of which occur in the husk of the seeds of Peganum harmala, or Syrian rue, a zygo- phyllaceous, shrubby plant that grows abundantly in the steppes of southern Russia. The seeds have been used in dyeing silk, to which they impart various shades of red. Harmattan, a hot desiccating wind, prevalent on the Guinea coast during December, January, and February, which blows from the interior to the Atlantic Ocean. It is peer preceded by clouds of extremely fine sand, called ‘smokes’ or ‘fog,’ which penetrates everywhere and covers every- thing. It has a hurtful effect on vegetation, and on the human body, drying up the eyes, nostrils, and mouth, and even causing the skin to peel off. The negroes protect themselves against it by mebning the body with fat or grease. It has, how- ever, the good effect of checking epidemics, and euring dysentery, fevers, and cutaneous diseases. hae rmattan is similar to the Sirocco (q.v.) of taly. Harmodius and Aristogeiton, two Athe- nians strongly attached to each other, who in 514 B.c. murdered Hipparchus, the younger brother of the ‘tyrant’ Hippias, pees. on account of an insult offered by him to the sister of Harmodius, and partly with a view to the overthrow of the Pisistratide. They meant to kill Hippias also, but Harmodius was cut down by the bodyguard of Hipparchus, whilst Aristogeiton fled, but was afterwards taken and executed. Subsequently they came to be regarded as patriotic martyrs, and received divine honours from the Athenians, and had statues raised to their memory. ) a | ere eh \ SSS SS SS SS SS SS SS SS s ; - . 0. - . € ee D:—3—- EE [—} —_-}—»—__|—_# > # oe A { i 1 i = a 1 i il 1 [ lg it 1 i ; ie be | Os ial =. { 1 y c i] { } LEP 4 | oe r I u rt : a a V>. I. The first period is closed at A by a ‘half’ or* ‘imperfect’ cadence—i.e. the order V.—I. is re- versed; the second at B by a ‘false’ or ‘ deceptive’ cadence—i.e. the dominant chord, instead of pro- ceeding to the tonic, ‘deceives’ the ear by pore. ing to another chord; the third period is brought to a close by the authentic cadence at C. The dominant chord can also bear the more elaborate dissonances of the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth, as well as the seventh. Key F. Gounod’s Faust. hs ; eee : aan, ERE ; a | : —— | | ] iS | llth 7th 13th 7th 7th 3d llth 5th 5th 9th 8d : 7th RROOG+G (Vii) 33 sa cwsies dp day tacos oehar Perea Root F (I.) It is impossible here to enter into the varieties of discord—‘ suspensions,’ ‘double-root chords,’ &c., into the analogous diseords which may be built on the tonic as a ground-note, or the chords be- longing to the minor scale. Suffice it to say the effects which can be evolved from the almost innumerable inversions and involutions of single chords and combinations of chords are subject to natural laws as stringent as those governing the growth of flowers and trees, and the possibilities of variety in this unity are as infinite. Modulation.—One branch of the subject can Authentic. hardly be left without mention—i.e. modulation or change from one key (or ‘ mode’) to another. Our modern scales have had the relation of their intervals so modified (see TEMPERAMENT) as to be approximately alike. By the addition of a single m or flat any melody can proceed from the key of C to G (with Fg), F (with BD), or A minor (with Gg). These—the dominant, subdominant (next below the dominant), and the minor of the sixth degree—are the keys of the first relation, as out of the seven notes which constitute each scale six are present in the scale of C, thus provid- ing as it were six more or less convenient brid es by which to pass from one key to the other. The conventionality of these modulations makes them inadequate to convey the more passionate colouring of modern music, and more striking changes to remoter keys are necessary. ) OE ARES, ; ras 0 T —_——7 | Baa Meeps i: RT PRA AE WE AB | i ey oe Sere? = 1 | aa EES J AN i>, Pata 5 —_ ht — +o oo o_o} — ry, { hes eo | | : ° 5, ty | u : 51% 2 aD. PRR. See iat rary = | ae ib See» TS ee f [ i | TH 1 2 i i | u t 7 H + L HARMONY HAROLD 565 The chords at * present the same discord—the eleventh and seventh on A, the dominant of D. The first is carefully prepared, and so has a smooth effect ; the second is quite ‘free’ in its entry, and has a sudden and startling effect. Only one who understands counterpoint and harmony can appreciate the full importance of the new departure. It meant that discords were no longer mere variations of concords, but individual creations with an individual's rights and duties. The discord most easily used was the dominant seventh, the first discord produced by nature’s onics; and so the relation of dominant to tonic—the central idea of all harmony—developed from an increasingly general tendency into a recognised rule. Le Pg = the 17th century many experiments were made by Monteverde’s followers, until at the end of the century Rameau’s famous treatise called attention to the fact that all chords are derived from some note which is the generator or root, and the relationships of these roots govern the progressions of the harmonies. The less known, but hardly less important, researches of Tartini formed a good supplement to Ramean’s theory ; and the basis of scientific harmony established be these two works has not been seriously disturbed even by the thorongh investigation and the astonish- ing discoveries of Helmholtz, who has extended the foundation and built a complete superstructure thereon. In the meantime, while theorists fought each other with great fierceness just as their suc- cessors do to-day, the science made extraordinary cer under such practical harmonists as Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. Bach’s daring but unerr- ing feeling for harmony, his p of the mysteries of chord-relationship, and his unequalled skill in part-writing enabled him as early as the beginning of last century to transform an ordinary progression of simple chords into such a passage as rm oa A ct —-| Gee Hl ev _ The accented dissonances (*), so smoothly introduced and yet so striking, are extremely effective. Haydn’s work, and Mozart’s also, is considerably softer; their use of discord proved insufficient for the expression of the great passion which is the feature of Beethoven’s later work. The romanticism of Schumann required still freer scope, and Wagner, who handles any number of parts as easily as did Bach himself, has enlarged the possibilities of harmony so far that it is difficult to conceive of any further advance. Theoretical harmonists have followed fast in the train of these t composers, and, as system after system proved inadequate for the analysis of new abatats or new uses of old harmonies, the revered names of each generation have been pushed aside more or less contemptuously by sueceeding schools, mony. Sir George Macfarren’s six the Royal Institution, give an exhaustive and popular account of the p of harmony; and more technical readers will find much that is instructive in Dr Parry’s brilliant article in Grove’s Dictionary of Music. Harmony of Gospels. See Gosre.s. Harms, CLAvus, German divine (1778-1855), whose memorial work, Das sind die 95 Theses oder Streitsdtze Luthers (1817), in celebration of the ter- centenary of the Reformation, produced a sensation in Germany. Harnack, THEoposivs, a Lutheran theologian, was born at St Petersburg in 1817, and studied at Dorpat, where he was professor of Theology from 1848 to 1853, next till 1866 at Erlangen, and again at Dorpat till his retirement in 1873. He died in 1889. is principal works are his Praktische Theo- logie (3 vols. 1877-82) and Katechetik und Erkla- rung des kleinen Katechismus Luthers (2 vols. 1882). —Of his sons, all of whom have attained to some distinction; the most famous is ADOLF, who was born 7th May 1851 at Dorpat, where he studied from 1869 to 1872. He was appointed privat-docent for church history at Leipzig (1874), extra-ordinary professor there (1876), atl ordinary professor suc- cessively at Giessen (1879), Marburg (1886), and Berlin (1888), His chief writings are Zur Quellen- kritik der Geschichte des Gnostizismus ( Leip. 1873) ; Die Zeit des Ignatius und die chronologie der antioch- enischen Bischéfe (Leip. 1878); Das Moénchtum, seine Ideale und Geschichte (2d ed. Giessen, 1882); Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (3 vols. 1886-90 ; Eng. trans. 1894-97); Die Geschichte der altchrist- lichen Litteratur (vol. i. 1893). The Outlines of the History of Dogma (trans. 1893) is a translation of the Grundriss (2d ed. 1893). Prussian orthodoxy was reatly scandalised by his treatment of the Apostles’ Creed in Das Apostolische Glaubensbekenntniss (1892), and agitated for his removal from his post. In conjunction with Von Gebhardt and Zahn he edited the, Patrwm apostolicorum opera (3 parts, Leip. 1876-78); and with Von Gebhardt alone the Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der alt- christlichen litteratur (12 vols. 1882-94). He was also joint-editor of the Theologische Litteratur- zeitung established by Schiirer (1876). — AXEL, Adolf’s twin- brother, who died in 1888, was a distinguished mathematician, and wrote on the ealeulus; ERICH, another brother, became a pro- fessor of Physiology at Halle; and a fourth, OTTO, wrote on Goethe. Haro, a town of Spain, 31 miles by rail NW. of Logrono, is prettily situated on the right bank of the Ebro. Good red wine is grown in the neigh- bourhood. Pop. 7600. Haro, THE Cry oF, an old form of a eee in Normandy and the Channel Islands. The word was anciently understood to be an appeal to Rolf, Rollo, or Rou, the first Duke of erry 8 a better derivation seems to be from the Old High German hera or hara, ‘here,’ making haro simply a ery for aid. Haroéris, the elder Horus, son of Seb, the Egyptian Saturn, and Nu, or Rhea. He was the brother, and not the son, of Osiris; and he was ruler over the heaven. He was identified with the sun and Apollo. See Ecypt (Vol. IV. p. 235). Harold I., surnamed Hareroor, king of Eng- land, was the younger of Canute’s two sons by his first wife, Alfgiva. On the death of Canute in 1035, the witan bestowed upon Harold all the provinces north of the Thames ; while the posses- sion of Wessex in the south was given up to Canute’s second wife, Emma, for her son Hardi- canute. But in 1037 Wessex also submitted to Harold. Beyond a futile invasion of the country by Alfred, son of Ethelred, and raiding incursions by the Welsh and Scots, Harold’s reign was 566 HAROLD marked by no events of importance. Oxford in March 1040. Harold II., the last of the native English kings, was the second son of Earl Godwin by his Danish wife Gytha, the sister of Earl Ulf, and was born about 1022. At an early age he was made Earl of the East Angles, and he shared his father’s outlawry in 1051, finding a refuge in Ireland. Next year, together with his brother Leofwin, he crossed the Channel with nine ships, defeated the men of Somerset and Devon at Porlock, and ravaged the country, next joined his father at Portland, and shared the triumph of his return. Harold was at once restored to his earldom, and next year (1053) succeeded to his father’s earldom of the West Saxons. Henceforward he was the right hand of King Edward, and still more after the deaths of the old Earls Leofric and Siward, he directed the whole affairs of the kingdom, with an unusual union of gentleness and vigour. His brother Tostig succeeded Siward as Earl of the North- umbrians in 1055, and two years later two other brothers were raised to earldoms : Gurth to that of the East Anglians, Leofwin to one formed out of Essex, Kent, and the other shires round about London. Meantime Harold drove back the Welsh marauders of King Griffith out of Herefordshire, and added that post of danger to his earldom. The death. in 1057 of the Aitheling Edward, the son of Edmund Ironside, who had been brought back from Hungary as heir to the throne, opened up the path for Harold’s ambition, and from this time men’s eyes rested on him as their future king. And nature had equalled fortune in her kindness, for his handsome and stalwart figure and his gentle and conciliatory temper were kingly qualities that sat well upon his sagacity, his military skill, and his personal courage. Harold’s policy throughout was thoroughly English, contrary to the pre- dominant French influences that had governed the early part of Edward’s reign. He was English in everything, even to his preference for secular riests to monks. He made his pilgrimage to ome in 1058, and after his return completed his church at Waltham, known later as altham Abbey. In 1063, provoked by the fresh incursions of Griffith, he marched against him, and by making his men put off their heavy armour and weapons, and adopt the Welshmen’s own tactics, he was able to traverse the whole country, and beat the enemy at every point. Griffith was killed by his own people, whereupon Harold gave the government to the dead king’s brothers, Bleddyn and Rhiwallon, who swore oaths of fealty both to King Edward and to himself. It is impossible to say exactly at what date occurred that famous visit of Harold to the court of Duke William in Normandy, of the results of which the Norman writers make so much, although with many contradictions, while the English writers with the most marked and careful unanimity say nothing at all. It seems most likely that Harold did make some kind of oath to William, most prob- ably. under compulsion, when he had fallen into his hands after being shipwrecked on the coast of Ponthieu, and imprisoned by its Count Guy. Mr Freeman thinks the most probable date to be 1064. It is at least certain that Harold helped William in a war with the Bretons, and in the Bayeux tapestry we see his stalwart form lifting up two Normans at once when they were in danger of being swept away by the river Coesnon which divides Normandy from Brittany. The Norman writers make Harold formally swear fealty to William, promising to marry one of his daughters, and we are told that additional sanctity was given to this oath by its pepe made upon a chest full of the most sacred relics. He died at In 1065 the Northumbrians rebelled against the rule of Tostig, and Harold found himself compelled between tere and a sense of justice to side with them, and to acquiesce in their choice of Morcar and the banishment of Tostig. At the beginning of 1066 King Edward died, his last breath being to recommend that Harold should be chosen king. He was crowned on January 6, and at once set himself with steadfast energy to consolidate his kingdom. At York he won over the reluctant men of Northumbria, and he next married Ealdgyth, Griffith’s widow, in order to secure the alliance of her brothers, Morear and Edwin. His short reign of forty weeks and one day was occupied with incessant vigilance against the attacks of two formidable enemies at once. Duke William lost no time in beginning his preparations for the in- vasion of England, and Tostig, after trying the Normans and the Scots, and fili ustering along the coasts on his own account, succeeded in drawin to his side the famous Harold Hardrada, king o Boeey: In the month of September the two reached the Humber, and Harold marched to meet them, resting neither day nor night. The Icelandic historian Snorro in his dramatic narrative of the fight tells how Harold rode out accompanied with twenty of his housecarls to have speech with Earl Tostig and offer him peace, and when asked what amends King Harold should have for his trouble in coming, replied, ‘Seven feet of the ground of Eng- land, or more perchance, seeing he is taller than other men.’ At Stamford-bridge Harold overtook his enemy, and after a bloody struggle won a complete victory (September 25, 1066), both Tostig and Harold Hardrada being among the slain. But four days later Duke William landed at Pevensey. Harold marched southwards with the utmost haste, bringing with him the men of Wessex and East Anglia and the earldoms of his brothers; but the two earls Edwin and Morcar held aloof and kept back the men of the north, although some of the men of Mercia, in the earldom of Edwin, followed their king to the fatal struggle which was fought out from nine in the morning till ast nightfall on the 14th October 1066. The Eng- fish fought with the most stubborn courage, and the battle was only lost by their allowing the pretended flight of the Subiices to draw them from their impregnable position on the crest of the hill, ringed with an unbroken shield wall. On its slope right in front of the Norman army waved the golden dragon of Wessex, as well as the king’s own stand- ard, a fighting man wrought upon it in gold. Here Harold stood with his mighty two-handed axe, and hewed down the Normans as they came. Before nightfall he fell pierced through the eye with an arrow. His housecarls fought where they stood till they fell one by one; his brothers Gurth and Leofwin died beside him. The king’s body was found upon the field, recognised only by a former mis- tress, the fair Eadgyth Swanneshals (‘ Edith of the swan’s neck’). At first William ordered it to be buried on the rocks at Hastings, but seems after to have permitted it to be removed to Harold’s own church at Waltham. Than Harold no braver or more heroic figure ever filled a throne ; no king ever fought more heroically for his crown. If he failed, it was because he had to bow his head to fate, and in his death he saved all the honour of his family and his race. His tragic story has given a subject for a romance to Lytton, and for a stately drama to Tennyson. For the history, see vols. ii. and iii. of Freeman’s History of the Norman Conquest. Harold I., surnamed HAARFAGER (‘ Fair- haired’), the first king of all Norway, was the son of Halfdan the Black, the most powerful of the jarls or petty kings of south-eastern Norway. According to the popular story, he loved a high- a od HAROLD HARP 567 born maiden named Gyda, but she declared she would not be his wife until he was sole king of Norway ; he in his turn thereupon took an oath that he would neither cut nor comb his hair until he had accomplished her bidding. After a severe struggle of some years’ duration (863-872) he sub- Sued first the chiefs between Throndhjem and the Sogne Fjord, and finally the kings of the south- west, whom he defea in a naval battle near Stavanger. The conquered’ districts he placed under the rule of his own jarls, or such as were devoted to his service, This led many of the old nobles to emigrate to the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and to Iceland, whence they conducted a series of piratical expeditions against Norway, until at length Harold was constrained to sail westwards and chastise them in their own seas. In his old age Harold divided his territories amongst his sons, and died at Throndhjem, which he had made his capital, in 930, leaving the supreme power to his son Eric, surnamed Bloody-Axe. Harold III., surnamed HAARDRAADE or HARDRADA (‘stern in council’), king of Norway, and one of the most famous of the old Viking chiefs, was a descendant of Harold I. Whilst still a boy he was rage at the battle of Stikklestad (1030), in which his brother, St Olaf, king of Norway, was slain. Harold himself sought an asylum at the court of his relative, Yaroslaff, prince of Nov- ark Thence, going on to Constantinople, he me captain of the Varangians or Scandinavian bodygu of the Greek emperors, and in com- mand of them defeated the Saracens in several battles in Sicily and Italy. On his return to Con- stantinople, he drew upon himself the vengeance of the Empress Zoe, whose proffered love he rejected, and with difficulty made good his esca’ to Russia, where he married the daughter of Duke Yaroslaff. But he did not remain in Russia. He returned about 1045 to Norway, where his nephew, Magnus (the.son of St Olaf), agreed to divide the Segre power with him, in exchange for a share of his treasures. The death of Magnus in 1047 left Harold sole king of Norway, and Svend king of Denmark ; but with Svend Harold waged unrelent- pd until 1064. This king changed the capital of orway from Throndhjem to Opslo, now a suburb of Christiania. Two years later he landed in Eng- land, to aid Tostig against his brother Harold, kin of England, but was slain in battle at Stamford: bridge, where also the flower of his warriors fell. Haroun, surnamed AL-RAscHID (more _pro- perly Hartin er Rashid, ‘the orthodox’), the most renowned of the Abbaside califs, was born in 763, and succeeded his elder brother, El Hadi, in the califate, in the year 786. He owed his peaceful accession to the sagacity of the Barmecide Yahya, whom he at once made his grand-vizier. To him and his four sons he left the entire administration of his extensive kingdom ; and the energy of their administration, the enforcement of order, and the general prosperity of the country proved that his confidence was not misplaced. Meantime Haroun gave himself up to the pleasures of life, and his own taste and hospitality quickly made his court at Bagdad a brilliant centre of all the wit, learn- ing, and art of the Moslem world. Himself an accomplished scholar and poet, he gathered round him the best scholars, poets, and musicians of his age, and hea rewards upon them with lavish prodigality. Towards the end of his reign a strange and deeply-rooted hatred towards the Barmecides (q.v.) filled his mind, and in 803 he caused the vizier, his four sons, and all their descendants save one, to be executed, not even excepting his favourite Jaafer (Giafar), who had been his constant companion in his famous but apocryphal nocturnal rambles through the streets of Bagdad. But the retribution of heaven quickly followed ; his affairs fell into irretrievable confusion ; treason and rebellion, no longer dreading the far-reaching arm of the able vizier, showed themselves in every corner of the empire; and, when it was too late, Haroun repented bitterly his ferocious cruelty. To quell a formidable rising in Khorassan, in the north-east of the em ire, Hadaka marched in per- son against the rebels, but an attack of apoplexy obliged him to remain behind in Ts, where he soon afterwards died, in the month of March 809. Haroun the gr Seyret is the hero of many of the stories in the Arabian Nights, which have thrown a false halo round his memory ; for with all his enlightenment, there was room in his heart for the most merciless and blood-thirsty ferocity. See Gibbon’s History, Weil’s Gesch. der Chalifen, and Professor E. H. Palmer's sketch in the ‘ New Plutarch’ series (1880). Harp, 2 musical stringed instrument, much esteemed by the ancients. In Egypt it attained an early and unequalled maturity, and is deline- ated in the sculptures from the earliest ages in many different forms. The great Egyptian harp 8 nearly 7 feet in height, and carried 18 sonorous bass and tenor strings. Its immense frame shimmered with all the colours of the rain- bow, and was further ornamented with massive seats gold, and precious stones. The Assyrian and biblical harp was a small instrument, easily carried in the hand, and resembling more a Lyre (q.v.) than a true harp. The harp was not in use among the Greeks and Romans; but the kanteda, to which the Finns chanted the Kalevala, was a sort of primitive harp. The Celtic bards held the instrument in the greatest honour. The old Scottish harp was about 3 feet high, a foot and a half broad, and carried about thirty strings. Seven harps earlier than the 18th century are in existence, and are described in Hipkins’ Musical Instruments, Historic, Rare, and Unique (1889). The Welsh triple harp is a large instrument, furnished with three rows of strings. Of these, two rows are tuned in unison and in the diatonic scale, the remaining one in the sharps and flats of the chromatic. In Ireland the harp was so celebrated an instrument in the remotest times that the Italians of the middle ages believed their harp to be derived from Ireland. The most familiar forms of harp are the Italian, the medieval, and the pedal harp. The first is strung with two rows of wire-strings, separated by a double sound-board ; this kind is now little used, being very imperfect. The second is in the form of a triangle, with a sound-board and gut-strings ; it is always tuned in the principal key of the music, while the strings are altered to suit any modulations out of the key, by pressure of the finger, or turning the tuning-pins of certain notes. The adaptation of the harp to the modern chromatic scales led to the invention of the pedal harp, which has seven pedals, by which each note of the diatonic scale, in all the different octaves, can be made a semitone higher. The compass of the pedal harp is from contra F to D of the sixth octave above. In order to have the B flat, it must be tuned in the key of E flat. The music for the harp is written in the bass and treble clef, the same as pianoforte music. A celebrated harpist, Hochbrucker, in Donauwérth, invented the ice in 1720; others say they were invented by . Paul Verter, in Nuremberg, in 1730, who at least added the piano and forte pedal. The facility of playing chromatic intervals, and in different keys, was still more completely attained by the inven- tion of the double-action pedal harp by Erard in Paris, in 1810. By means of Erard’s invention, each string can be sharpened twice, each time a 568 HARPE HARPY semitone, so that the C string may be C flat its full length, C natural by the first movement of the pedal, and C sharp by the next movement. The double-action harp is tuned in the key of C flat. Harpe, JEAN FRANCOIS DE LA. See LA HARPE. Harper and Brothers, a well-known firm of New York publishers, consisted originally of James (1795-1869), John (1797-1875), Joseph Wesley (1801-70), and Fletcher (1806-77). James and John commenced to publish in 1818, as J. & J. Harper, and issued about 200 works. The firm of Harper and Brothers, established in 1833, is now carried on by the descendants of the founders, em- loying several hundred persons in its large estab- ishment in New York city. The firm issues books, Harper’s Magazine (monthly, since 1850), Harper's Weekly (since 1857), Harper’s Bazar (fashions, social life, &c. ; since 1867), and Harper’s Round Table (started in 1881 as Harper's Young People). Re- organisation succeeded financial difficulties in 1899. Harpers Ferry, a post-town of West Virginia, situated among beautiful scenery at the confluence of the Shenandoah with the Potomac, where the latter is crossed by a bridge, 81 miles W. of Balti- more by rail. It was the scene of John Brown’s abolition raid in 1859; and here a Union army of over 11,500 men, under General D. H. Miles, sur- rendered to Stonewall Jackson in 1862. Thearsenal and armoury were burned in 1861, to prevent their falling into the hands of the Confederates. Pop. 896. Harpocrates, the name given by Greek writers to the younger Horus, the hieroglyphical inscriptions calling him Har pa khrut, ‘Horus the child,’ the son of Osiris and Isis. See Osrris, Ecypt (Vol. IV. p. 235), Isis. Harpoon. See WHALE. Harp-shell (Harpa), a genus of gasteropodous molluses of the whelk family (Buccinide ), hav- ing the last whorl of the shell large, and covered with numerous sharp smooth ribs, resembling the strings of a harp. The foot is large, and there is no operculum, These shells are elegantly marked, and much prized for their beauty. Nine ‘pee are known, all of them tropical, and living in deep water, on soft, sandy, or muddy bot- toms. Harpsichord, a keyed musical instrument, formerly in extensive use, but now little known. There were three shapes: the ‘grand’ form, resembling a grand piano; the oblong, often called spinet or virginal ; and the upright, this type very rare. The sound from the strings was produced by a small piece of crow-quill, or a piece of hard leather, which projected out of a slip of wood, called the jack, that stood upright between the strings, and was pushed upwards by the key, till the quill or leather twitched the string, causing a brilliant, but some- what harsh sound, entirely deficient of any means of modification in respect to loudness or softness. Specimens of the harpsichord, although now becom- ing more rare, are still to be found in good preserva- tion, but are regarded rather as articles of vertu or curiosity than as useful musical instruments. Many Italian and Dutch harpsichords were highly orna- mented by the most eminent artists with valuable SS Harp-shell (Harpa imperialis). panel paintings on the inside of the lid. The date of the invention of the harpsichord is uncertain. It is first mentioned in the rules of the Minnesingers. by Eberhard Cersne, in 1404, which places its in- vention in the preceding century. It was known in England in the 15th century, as mention occurs of it in a MS. dated 1502, where it is alluded to as no novelty. The Ruckers family were the great: makers-in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century Kirkman, and later Broadwood ‘and Shudi, were the famous makers in London. The harpsichord will be remembered in history as the instrument on which Bach and Handel played. After the invention of the pianoforte, the harpsi- chord in all its varieties was gradually superseded by the new instrument. See PIANOFORTE. Harpy, a fabulous creature in Greek myth- ology, considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods. Various accounts are given of the numbers and parentage of the Harpies. Homer mentions but one, Podarge; Hesiod enumerates: two, Aéllo and Okypete, daughters of Thaumas. by the Oceanid Electra, fair-haired and winged maidens, very swift of flight. Three are sometimes. recognised by later writers, who call them variously daughters of Poseidon or of Typhon, and describe them as hideous monsters with wings, of fierce and loathsome aspect, with their faces pale with hunger, living in an atmosphere of filth and stench, and contaminating everything that they approached. The most celebrated tradition regarding the Harpies. is connected with the blind Phineus, whose meals. they carried off as soon as une were spread for him, a plague from which he was delivered by the Argo- nauts, on his engaging to join in their quest. The Boreads Zetes and Calais attacked the Harpies, but spared their lives on their promises to cease from molesting Phineus. Virgil locates them in the Strophades.—A harpy in heraldry is represented as a vulture, with the head and breast of a woman. Pf Bae, Harpy Eagle ( Thrasaétus harpyia). The name harpy is also applied to a raptorial bird of the family Faleonide (Zhrasaétus harpyia), an inhabitant of the great tropical forests, where it reys upon all quadrupeds, except the most power- Pal chiefly, however, on monkeys and sloths ; even children are said to have been carried off by it. It EE HARQUEBUS HARRIS 569 is somewhat larger than the golden eagle (measur- 38 inches in length as against 32), and its beak talons are exceptionally large, giving it a ferocious aspect; but its wings are comparatively short, and its flight, for a hawk, is slow and heavy. Its colour on the back and sides of the neck, on the back and on the wings, is black; the head gray ; the front of the neck, breast, and belly white; the tail black and gray above, black and white in transverse bands below. Around the eyes the feathers are disposed in a radiating fashion, and form a crest on the back of its head, increasing the ferocity of its aspect. It inhabits the tropical regions of South America. Harquebus, See ArQueBus. Marrar. See Harar. Harrier, a breed of dog used to hunt the hare by scent. The harrier probably owes its origin to the foxhound, though in some packs the strain has been kept pure for many generations. In appearance the harrier closely resembles the foxhound both in shape and colour, but is on a considerably smaller re Ad The harrier, though deficient in speed, is able to hunt a much colder scent than the fox- hound. They hunt in packs; and the sport forms an element in English country life similar to fox- hunting. Harrier (Circus), a genus of non-arboreal Falconide, of slender build, with a somewhat weak, unnotched bill, with soft plumage and a slightly owl-like ruff on the face, with long legs and wings, and a characteristic gliding flight along the ground. Hen-harrier (Circus cyaneus). They live in the open country, are fond of marshy districts, and dexterously catch frogs, birds, and small mammals. The females are usually larger and darker than the males; the young are like the mother-birds; the nest is almost always on the und, and the eggs (3 to 5) are white or blotched. The British species of harrier are (1) the Hen-harrier (C. cyaneus), almost exterminated in England, but still not uncommon in some of Scotland ; (2) the Marsh-harrier or Moor-buzzard C. eruginosus), all but exterminated throughout ritain ; and (3) Montagu’s Harrier ( C. cinerascens), never more than an occasional visitor. The marsh-harrier is abundant in many parts of North America. Harriers. See ATHLETIC Sports. Harrington, JAmes, author of the Oceana, a celebrated work, half romance, half treatise on political philosophy, written for the purpose of set- ting forth the best form of government for a com- monwealth. The son of Sir S. Harrington of Exton, in Rutlandshire, he was born in January 1611, studied at Oxford under Chillingworth, and then spent some years on the Continent. In 1646, although a republican by conviction, Harrington was appointed one of the personal attendants of Charles I., and on the king’s execution accom- panied him to the scaffold, It was after this event that the Oceana was written; it was published in 1656. The salient points of the political doctrines therein expounded are these: the real basis of power is property, especially landed property ; accordingly landed property should be distributed and held in such a way that no one person should derive from it more than a fixed amount of rev- enue; the rulers of the commonwealth should be changed every three years, their places being taken by others, elected by ballot. After the Restora- tion Harrington was arrested for alleged con- spiracy, and during a severe imprisonment lost his reason. He died at Westminster, 11th September 1677.' His writings, consisting, besides the Oceana, principally of essays, &c. in defence of his magnum opus, were first edited by Toland in 1700. The ceana was reprinted by Henry Morley in 1887. Harrington, Sir Joun, born in 1561 at his father’s seat of Kelston, near Bath, studied at Eton and Christ’s College, Cambridge, and afterwards was attached to the court of Queen Elizabeth, who had been his god-mother. His wit brought him into much favour, which he endangered by the freedom and the political allusions of his satires. In 1599 he served under Essex in Ireland, and was knighted by him on the field, much to the queen’s displeasure. To fortify his Kapoho ¢ akekue by 5 ) ‘a + cook M > n Ye mee English Miles r) apis 60 80 190 South C. 160 155 Hawaii is the southernmost of the group; it is in shape a rough triangle, with the apex pointing north-west. Geography, Mountains, Rivers, &c.—The Ha- waiian Islands are situated on the course of ships passing from San Francisco and Vancouver Island to China and Janey, as well as to New Zealand and Australia. They lie in mid-ocean, between the coasts of Asia and America, but are nearer to the American coast, from which they are about 2100 miles distant; they consequently form a con- venient station for the coaling pee repairing of vessels on their way across the Pacific. he islands are of volcanic origin, with coral-reefs partly lining most of. them, but entirely encircling none. They suffer from want of good harbours, the best being the harbour of Honolulu, situated on the island of Oahu, with 224 feet of water in its shallowest parts. This harbour, which is entered through a narrow channel in the reef, is the only really wat pore harbour in the group ; pe the time of the trade-winds, however, which blow from north-east to south-west for about nine months in the year, the roadsteads on the south shores of the islands afford safe anchorage almost anywhere. The larger islands are mountainous, and contain some of the weed op voleanoes, both active and extinct, in the world. The two highest mountains, Mauna-Kea and Mauna-Loa, are in the island of Hawaii, and are 13,805 and 13,675 feet high respectively. This island is also traversed by other mountains, which Eire it a rugged and icturesque appearance, and in places bold cliffs rom 1000 to 3000 feet high front the sea. Speak- ing generally, however, the high ground in each of the islands is in the centre, and the mountains are divided by rich valleys leading down to a sandy shore. On the eastern slope of Mauna-Loa, in Hawaii, is the far-famed Kilauea, the largest active voleano in the world. It is over 4000 feet above sea-level. Its crater is of oval shape, 9 miles in circumference, bounded by a range of cliffs, and containing within it a fiery lake of molten lava rising and falling like the waves of the sea. Mauna-Loa itself is an active voleano, the scene of various eruptions, notably of one in February 1877, when the glare is said to have been plainly visible on Maui, 80 miles distant; the latest eruption occurred so lately as 1899. On Maui is the crater of Haleakala (‘house of the sun’), by far the largest known in the world. It is from 25 to 30 miles in circumference, from 2000 to 3000 feet deep, and is 10,032 feet above sea- level. Within this huge gulf are about sixteen basins of old voleanoes, whose ridges form con- centric circles. Several of the islands, especially Hawaii and Kauai, are well supplied with rivers. NATIVE GRASS HOUSE, HAWAII. Gare tat — a a” 2 — “- , f sot, (ieee ae occas pied ——————— LL ery hs ¢ ad HAWAII 589 These afford great facilities for irrigation, but ah to the small size and the conformation of the islands they are in no case navigable. Climate, Soil, &c.—Lying as they do in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, the Hawaiian Islands, though within the tropics, enjoy a fairly temperate climate. In the hot season the temperature seldom rises above 90° F., while in the cool season it seldom falls below 52° F., the ave temperature for the year being 74°3° F. Rains, brought by the north-east trade-wind, are frequent on the side of the mountains which faces that quarter, but on the other parts of the islands little rain falls, and the sky is generally cloudless. The yearly rainfall at Honolulu, being on the leeward side of Oahu, is under 40 inches; that of the islands generally about 54 inches. The soil, whose constituent parts are mainly scoriz, eg, 2a lava, and sand, is generally thin and pors, ut at the bases of the mountains and in the valleys there are extensive tracts as fertile as they are beautiful. In Hawaii alone, on the Waimea plains, thousands of sheep of the merino breed find grazing ground ; and on most of the islands, while the upland slopes of the mountains are clothed with dense forests, the lower levels spread into grassy plains rich with sugar and rice plantations. atural History, Products, &c.—The islands are separated from other lands by a broad expanse and great depth of sea, consequently their natural history has many special features of its own. In the high mountains there are some species of lants akin to those of the American continent. he forest-trees are mainly to be found on the windward, being the rainy side of the mountain- ranges. Tropical fruits are numerous. There are now, as has been stated, numerous sugar and rice plantations on the islands. The staple food of the natives consists of poi, a kind of thick paste made from the root of the taro plant ( Arum esculen- tum) and raw or dried fish. The only indigenous animals are rats, mice, bats, dogs, and hogs, but others have been added since white men came to the islands ; cattle, sheep, &c. having been introduced by Vancouver and other navigators. There are > numbers of semi-wild horses in the kingdom, and in some parts of the mountains wild dogs are also to be found. Reptiles are few, including on ' land one species of lizard and a few of the gecko; and the native birds, of which there were nineteen species, are rapidly disappearing, though foreign importations more than supply their place. The archipelago has unfortunately no mineral resources. Coral rock is the material chiefly used for building urposes, and to a less extent basalt, compact ava, and sandstone. There is a large variety of sea-shells, some of which are of exquisite beauty. Trade, Finance, &c.—The commerce of the is- lands is gradually increasing. Up to the year 1876 the most important trade was that of the vessels engaged in the whale-fisheries of the Pacific, which now are almost extinct. In 1876 a Reciprocity Treaty was concluded with the United States, and since that date there has been an enormous develop- ment of the sugar export trade. Over 200,000,000 lb. of sugar, being eight-ninths of the total value of the exports, were grown and exported in some years, the other chief articles of export being rice, wool, molasses, coffee, hides, tallow, and bananas. The total value of the exports was$17,346,000in 1898, = which practically all went to the wher States ; e imports—groceries, provisions, clothing, grain, timber, hardware, &c.—amounted to $11,630,000, of which the United States supplied about one-half. In the foreign carrying traffic some 300 vessels were employed in 1895, while about 60 Hawaiian ships ply between the different islands. On the larger ands there are good roads, and in the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu there are about 100 miles of railway. The telegraph encircles these islands, and Oahuand Hawaii are connected by telegraphic cable. Telephones have been introduced throughout Oahu, Kauai, and Hawaii, and ly in Maui, and are al- most universally in usein Honolulu. Therevenue was $2,568,489 in 1898, and the expenditure, $2,186,278 ; the total debt was $4,457,605. In accordance with the act of congress organising the Territory of Hawaii (1900), the group forms an internal revenue district, and a customs district, with ports of entry at Honolulu, Hilo, Mahukona, and Kahului. History, Constitution, &c.—The islands are said to have been discovered by Gaetano in 1542, and rediscovered by Captain Cook in the year 1778. . Cook met his death at the hands of the natives in Kealakekua (Karakakoa) Bay in the year 1779. In early times each island had a king, but under Kamehameha I. the islands were formed into one kingdom. He died in 1819, and was succeeded by Liholiho, who adopted on his accession the name of Kamehameha II., and whose reign was famous for the abolition of idolatry simultane- ously throughout all the islands. Vancouver, who arrived with Cook in 1778, and returned in 1792 and 7 in 1794, had made sincere attempts to enlighten the islanders, and succeeded so far that he was requested by the king and his chiefs to send out religious teachers to them from England. The first missionaries, however, who visited the islands came from the nearer shores of America. On their arrival in 1820 they witnessed the singular phenomenon of a nation without a religion. The instructions of Vancouver had, it would seem, not been forgotten, and had opened the eyes of the idol-worshipping natives to the grotesque absurdities of their system. But the spontaneous movement of 1819-20 ‘ was no triumph of Christianity—for Christianity had not yet claimed or even ps {a one the Hawaiian Islands.’ The nation had voluntarily cast off the religion of their ancestors, and had not yet adopted—were not even acquainted with—any other system. The mission- aries were well received, and the work of instruc- tion was at once begun. In less than forty years they taught the whole Hawaiian people to read and write, to cipher and sew. Kamehameha II. and his queen visited England, and both died_in London in July 1824. In 1840 Kamehameha III. substituted for the simple despotism a constitution consisting of king, assembly of nobles, and _repre- sentative council. In 1843 the French and English governments formally guaranteed the independence of the Hawaiian rer mg The death of Kameha- meha V. in 1873 extinguished the line, and the va- cant throne was filled by Lunalilo, a high chief, on whose death in 1874, Kalakaua, another high chief, was elected. His reign is marked by the anting (1887) of another constitution, which still Gurther limited the power of the crown, the house of nobles now being elected by popular vote. On his death in 1891, Liliuokalani, is sister, succeeded to the throne. But she was op to the new constitution and repeatedly evaded some of its essential provisions, and after a reign of two years she was dethroned by a revolution (January 17, 1893), a provisional government being proclaimed by & committee of public safety. Annexation to the United States failed, owing to the o ition of President Cleveland, and in 1894 the Republie of Hawaii was organised. In 1898, however, as an indirect result of the war with Spain, the archi- pelago was formally annexed to the United States ; and in 1900 the Territory of Hawaii was organised. Population and Condition of the People.—The total population of all the islands amounted in 1897 to 109,020, of whom 72,517 were males and 36,503 females. Of this total 31,019 were natives 590 HAWARDEN HAWKE of Hawaii; the Japanese, Chinese, and Portuguese formed over 78 per cent. of the foreign element, and Americans, British, and Germans less than 9 percent. Thecensus of 1900 gave the following fig- ures:—Hawaii, 46,843; Kauai, 20,562; Niihan, 172; Maui, 25,416; Molokai and Lanai, 2504; Oahu, 58,504. The natives belong to the brown Polynesian stock, and are akin to the New Zea- land Maoris in race and language. They were once far more numerous than at present, having, it is said, at the time of Captain Cook’s visit’ numbered probably some 200,000. There is no doubt that they hice rapidly decreased, while the number of foreigners in the islands is con- tinually increasing. Physically the Hawaiians are a remarkably fine and handsome race. In char- acter they are indolent, joyous, and contented. The dress of the native men, where they have not adopted ‘civilised’ attire, consists merely of a wide strip of cloth round the loins, while the native women dress in a long ungirdled gown (‘holoku’) reaching from the neck to the ankles. Excellent day-schools have been established all over the islands, and there are very few natives who cannot read and write in their own language. The decrease of the population is probably due in part at anyrate to the introduction of foreign diseases. At the present time, however, the disease most rife among the people is leprosy. It was not till the year [865 that the Hawaiian govern- ment set aside the island of Molokai for the segrega- tion of lepers in order to prevent to some extent the further spread of this terrible malady. Here they lived in a state of abject misery until the arrival of Father Damien (q.v.), whose work was taken up by others after his death in 1889. The prevention of leprosy is now attracting the serious attention of the Hawaiian government and their board of health; large numbers of lepers have been removed to the Molokai settlement, where over 1000 live. See Mrs Bishop, Six Months in the Sandwich Islands (1875); Miss Gordon Cumming, Fire Mountains (1883) ; J. D. Dana, Hawaiian Volcanoes (1890); Sauvin, Un Royaume Polynesien (1893); Guillemard, Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes (in Stanford’s ‘Compendium,’ 2d ed. 1895); Staley, Five Years’ Church Work in Hawaii; Manley Hopkins, Hawaiian Islands ; Thrum, Hawaiian Almanac and Annual ; the Narrative of the Cruise of the Challenger ; the Statesman’s Year-book, &e. Hawarden (pronounced Harden), a small market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 7 miles W. of Chester. There are some manufactures of tiles, pottery, &c. Lady Hamilton passed her irlhood here. The church, almost destroyed by re in 1857, was restored from designs by Sir G. G. Scott. Hawarden Castle, Mr Gladstone’s seat, dates from 1752. The park contains the ruined keep of a 13th-century castle commanding a fine view of the Dee. Pop. of parish, 7057. Hawash, «a river of Abyssinia (q.v.). Hawes, STEPHEN, born probably in Suffolk, was groom of the chamber to Henry VII., and wrote, besides some half-dozen other works in prose and verse (now bibliographical rarities), The Passetyme of Pleasure (first printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1509), a prolix poem not without fine stanzas, which doubtless helped to inspire Spenser. There have been reprints in 1831, 1845, &. Hawes died probably in 1523. Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris), a bird of the Grosbeak (q.v.) genus and the Finch family (Fringillide). It is considerably larger than the chaffinch ; the adult male has the crown and back chestnut-brown, the neck and breast pale brown, the neck crossed at the back by a broad band of ash colour, wings partly black, greater wing-coverts rayish-white, lesser wing-coverts black or blackish- frowe: The hawlinch is a very shy bird, perching on the topmost branches of trees, or on open boughs where it can command a good lookout, and avoid- ing man unless subdued by the effects of hunger or cold. It is gregarious. It feeds on the fruit of the hornbeam, plum, pine, cherry, laurel, holly, haw- thorn, &c. It is not uncommon in some parts of England, but is rare in Scotland. It is widely distributed over Europe and the temperate parts of Asia, and is said to be found in Egypt. - Hawick, a manufacturing town of Roxburgh- shire, at the confluence of the Slitrig with the Teviot, 52 miles by rail SSE. of Edinburgh and 45 NNE. of Carlisle. Built in and round a hollow, with villas and mansions above, it is a place of hoar antiquity, but bears few traces thereof beyond the Moat, an artificial earthen mound 30 feet high and 312 in circumference, and part of the Tower Hotel, which, once the peel-tower of the Drumlanrig¢ Douglases, and later a residence of Monmouth’s widowed duchess, was the only building not burned by the Earl of Sussex in 1570. - In the neighbour- hood are Branxholm and Harden, old homes of the Scotts ; and, older than. either, there is the refrain of the June Common-riding song, ‘ Teribus ye Teri Odin,’ which carries us back to days of heathendom. Else, all is modern—the handsome municipal building (1885); the churches, more than a dozen in number, and the oldest (1214) rebuilt in 1763; the splendid water-supply (1865-82); and the hosiery and tweed mills, to which, with dye-works, tanneries, &c., Hawick owes its prosperity. The hosiery manufacture dates from 1771, and that of shepherds’ plaids, tweeds, blankets, &c. from 1830. The ancient municipal constitution of the burgh, based on a charter granted by Sir James Douglas. of Drumlanrig in 1537, and confirmed by Queen Mary in 1545, was reformed by special act of par- liament in 1861; and since 1867 Hawick, Selkirk, and Galashiels (the Border burghs) have returned one member. Pop. (1861) 10,401; (1881) 16,184; (1891) 19,204. See two works by James Wilson (1850-58), and Mrs. Oliver’s Upper Teviotdale and the Scotts of Buccleuch (1887). Hawk, a name often given to almost all the Fal- conide, except the largest eagles, but also used in a more restricted sense to designate the Accipitrine section of the family, and for the most part refer- able either to the goshawks (Astur) or the sparrow- hawks (Accipiter). Unlike the true falcons, they have an untoothed bill. The wings are short, somewhat rounded, and very concave beneath, and while the flight is rapid it is without much power - of soaring or gliding. See FALCONIDZ, GOSHAWK, SPARROW-HAWK. Hawkbit (Zcontodon), a genus of plants of weedy aspect belonging to the natural order Com- positee, closely related to and formerly united with Dandelion (q.v.), from which it has been separated on account of the feathery pappus. The name is due to the deep tooth-like lacerations of the leaves. Several species are natives of Britain, and these, along with a few others comprised in the genus, are widely distributed in Europe and Russian Asia. Hawke, Sir Epwarp, Lorp HAWKE OF TowToNn (1705-81), was the son of a lawyer of good middle-class stock. He was born in 1705 in London, and entered the navy while very young. The long quiet which followed the peace of Utrecht gave him no opportunity of seeing active service. He, however, attained the rank of commander in 1733. In 1744 he commanded the: Berwick (70 guns) in the fleet under Admiral- Mathews wiiah: was lying at Hyéres Bay to watch the combined French and Spanish fleets in Toulon. a) ey ee Longitude West trom Greenwich. ; H AWAII =a : ScALE of STATUTE MILES, ie 0510 © % 4 «50 60 Po Copyright, 1890, by Rand, McNally & Co. L ” aI 2) 2, 5) z =n we 8 ' Ae ‘ 3 3 - Relies ib. bi a. Pet 2S oan A. MON. & co.| cows, om. | | — 7. y * —— follow . who had anchored at Torbay, HAWKE HAWKER 591 In the disgracefully-conducted battle of the 11th February of that year the Berwick was one of the few ships which were handled with spirit. Hawke his admiral in bearing down out of the line of battle to attack the Spanish ships which formed the rear of the allied fleet. This movement was considered irregular according to the pedantic tactical rules of the time, and, conjoined with his own violent conduct to his subordinate Lestock, proved ruinous to Admiral Mathews, But Hawke established his reputation as a daring officer. The Spanish line-of-battle ship, the Poder, the only vessel captured, surrendered to the Berwick ; it was not Hawke’s fault that she was re- taken by the enemy. In 1747 he was made rear- admiral of the white squadron, and the same year was despatched with a fleet of fourteen sail to intercept a French convoy of 252 merchant shi known to be leaving for the West Indies. On the 14th October Hawke caught the convoy off Cape Finisterre. It was guarded by a squadron of nine ships of war under M. L’Etenduére. The French admiral formed line of battle, and fought heroically to save his charge. The odds were great—fourteen English: ships with 784 guns to nine French with 556—and after desperate fightin six of L’Etenduére’s ships struck. But he save his convoy, which fled during the battle. In the same year Hawke became member of parliament for Bristol. By 1755 he had attained the rank of full admiral. In the following year he was sent out to supersede the unhappy Byng, who had just di himself and his country at Minorca. There was, however, nothing to do in the Mediter- ranean. During 1757 and 1758 he was in command in the Channel directing the naval half of the combined operations on the French coast sent out by the elder Pitt. His great feat—one of the greatest ever performed by a British admiral— came in 1759. During that year the French were preparing fleets at Brest and Rochefort to cover an invasion of England. The Brest fleet, the more werful of the two, under the command of M. de nflans, consisted of twenty ships carrying 1412 guns. It was watched by Hawke with a fleet of twenty-three ships carrying 1666 guns. On the 14th November the English fleet was driven off its station by a succession of furious gales, and M. de Conflans seized the chance to slip to sea. Hawke, ad, however, left lookout frigates, by whom he was informed of the sailing of the French admiral. Concluding at once that M. de Conflans would make for Rochefort, Hawke steered to cut him off at Quiberon. His calculation proved accurate. On the 20th November he caught the French, and, although it was blowing a fresh gale, attacked at once. The battle was one of the most heroic ever fought on sea. In a gale of wind, on the afternoon of a November day, and with one of the most terrible coasts in the world under his lee, Hawke forced on a close action, A famous story tells how his sailing-master expostu- lated at the order to take the flagship, the Royal George of 100 , into the dangerous Bay of Quiberon in such a gale and in the dark, and how Hawke replied : ‘Mr Robinson, you have done your duty in pointing out the danger; you are now to obey my orders, and lay me alongside the French admiral.’ The result was the destruction of the French fleet, and the colla of the invasion scheme. It is curious that Hawke, who had been made a knight for the capture of L’ Etenduére’s squadron, did not receive the peerage this victory so well deserved till 1776, when he was made Baron Hawke of Towton. It is just possible that the freedom with which he rebuked the Admiralty for its management of the fleet may have had some- thing to do with the delay. He was First Lord himself in the administration of 1765, but had no further chance of distinguished sea service. He died at ping baa Middlesex, 17th October 1781. See the excellent Life by Professor Captain Mon- tagu Burrows (1883), Hawker, Rovert STEPHEN, the Cornish poet, was born at Plymouth, December 3, 1803. His father, then a physician, afterwards took orders ; his grandfather, the Rev. Robert Hawker, D.D. (1753-1827), the author of the well-known Morn- ing and Evening Portions, was for fifty years a vicar in Plymouth. He was a bright boy, notable especially for high spirits and an inveterate love for practical inbeh He had his education at Liskeard and Cheltenham grammar-school, and entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1823; but his father, now a curate, soon found himself unable to keep him at Oxford. Fortunately this diffi- culty was obviated by the lad’s own marriage (November 1824) to a lady of some fortune. e was not yet twenty-one, while his wife, Miss Charlotte Ans, who had been his godmother, was forty-one. With her he returned to Oxford, migrating to Magdalen Hall. He carried off the Newdigate in 1827, took his B.A. in the follow- ing year, was ordained priest in 1831, and was presented by Bishop Phillpotts in 1834 to the viear- age of Morwenstow, a small village on the wild north Cornish coast, 6 miles N. of Bude Haven. Here he laboured with devotedness for forty years, lavish- ing charity from his slender means upon shipwrecked mariners and his own poor alike. There had been no resident vicar for a hundred years, the quaint old church and the vicarage were in ruins, and the par- ishioners were demoralised by generations of wreck- ing, smuggling, and spiritual ignorance. Hawker rebuilt his vicarage, restored his church, roofing it anew with shingles in spite of all advice and oppo- sition ; built and maintained a school; introduced the strange innovations of a weekly offertory and a harvest-thanksgiving, as well as a striking cere- monial largely of his own devising, and more often suggesting the usages of the Eastern than the Western Church. Yet he never felt any affinity with the modern Ritualists, but indeed hs was in every sense a man difficult to class. His zeal was hot against Wesleyanism and every form of dissent, for his sympathies did not range wider than his knowledge. He himself shared many of the super- stitions of his people, believing in the manifesta- tions of spirits and in the influence of the evil eye. The spiritual world was very near and real to him : St Morwenna was no mere member of the choir invisible, but an influence that could still affect his everyday life. All his eccentricities were redeemed by his humanity, his humour, and his tender love for children and for animals. His manner in reaching is described as rapt and awe-inspiring ; ut his theology sadly lacked logic and consistency. The theologian cannot afford to allow his judgment to be dominated by fancy, but in poetry the case is altogether different. Here Hawker is absolutely delightful, with simple unsought pathos and ex- uisite imagery moulded into faultlessly graceful orm. He has both the gifts of sweetness and sonority, and withal manly strength and vigorous. phrase at will. His Zendrils by Reuben, published at seventeen, he had the good sense not to reprint ; but by his Cornish ballads in Records of the Western Shore (1832; a second series in 1836) he stamped himself unmistakably a poet. These were repub- lished in Ecclesia (1840); with some additions, as Reeds shaken by the Wind (1843; a second cluster in 1844); and yet again, along with Genoveva, in Echoes of Old Cornwall (1846). In 1869 he repub- lished his earlier poems in Cornish Ballads, and the Quest of the Sangreal—the latter had already appeared in 1863. His Footprints of Former Men 592 HAWKERS HAWKINS in Cornwall (1870) was a collection of miscellaneous papers on local traditions. None of Hawker’s poems is better known than his spirited ballad based on the old Cornish refrain ‘And shall Trelawney die?’ which both Sir Walter Scott and Lord Mac- aulay took at first for a genuine antique. Hawker’s wife died in February 1863—a blow which drove him to melancholy and opium, from which he was saved only by his marriage (Decem- ber 1864) to Miss Pauline aemnset aughter of a Polish refugee by an English mother, and then a overness in a clerical friend’s house. She bore hima three daughters, and nursed his declining years with rare devotion. Hawker died at Ply- mouth, 15th August 1875, having been admitted less than twelve hours before to the Roman Cath- olic communion. The biography by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, The Vicar of Morwenstow (1876), was severely attacked by some critics, and certainly contains irrelevances enough ; much less satisfactory, however, is the Memorials of the late Rev. R. S. Hawker, by the Rev. F. G. Lee (1876). A complete edition of Hawker’s poems was edited, with a sensible short life, by his friend J. G. Godwin in 1879. Hawkers, also called PEDLARS, or PETTY CHAPMEN, persons who go from town to town, or door to door, selling goods, wares, or merchandise, or exercising their skill in handicraft. A consider- able change has been made by recent legislation in regard to this class. Those pedlars exercising their calling entirely on foot have been separately dealt with , De hawkers who employ one or more beasts of burden in their business. The foot-pedlars are placed under the surveillance of the police, and are exempt from excise duty. Under the Pedlars Act, 1871, any person whatever who can satisfy the chief officer of police of the police district in which he resides that he is of good character, is above seventeen years of age, and has resided during the previous month in the district, will receive, on due application, a certificate valid for a year, on payment of five shillings. The Pedlars Act, 1881, provides that such a certificate shall entitle the holder to exercise his calling in any part of the United Kingdom. The police have power at any time to open and search the packs, &ec. of any certificated pedlar, with a view to pre- vent dishonesty and smuggling, &c., for which they have much opportunity. They have an appeal to the local Justice of Peace and other courts against oppression by the police. Hawkers who use beasts of burden, and hawkers who go from place to place, hiring rooms or booths for the exhibition of their wares, are in a different category. The Hawkers Act, 1888, requires them to take out an annual or half-yearly license from the excise, which is valid all over the kingdom. These licenses are at the rate of £2 per annum ; new licenses are granted only on a certificate of good character. A hawker is in no case entitled to sell spirits, but he may sell tea and coffee. He must not sell plated goods without taking out a plate license, nor must he sell by auction without an auctioneer’s license. Any person hawking un- provided with a license, or who refuses to roduce the license to any person who calls for it, is liable to penalties under the Act of 1888. Commercial travellers, book-agents, sellers of fruit, fish, victuals, or coal, also sellers in fairs or markets legally established, do not require either licenses or certi- ficates, though it must be sometimes difficult to define whether a seller comes within the category of a pedlar or hawker. In the United States hawkers are generally required to take out licenses, under the local laws of the several states, the charges of course varying. Moreover, in some states and territories, as Florida and Arizona, and in the District of Columbia, ‘drummers’ or commercial travellers must pay a license of from $25 to $200; while in Pennsylvania it is a misdemeanour to sell goods unless either the agent or his principal be a taxpayer of the state. But in many states no such law has ever been enacted, and in others, as in Montana and Nevada, similar acts, although on the statute-book, are held to be unconstitutional and are not enforced. Hawke's Bay, 2a provincial district of New Zealand, on the east coast, between Auckland and Wellington. Area, 4765 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 28,506. It presents rich alluvial plains and undulat- ing hills, with enormous forests. The bay known as Hawke’s Bay was first entered. by Captain Cook on 8th October 1769, and was so named after Sir Edward Hawke, then First Lord of the Admiralty. It is almost all suitable for farming, and the forests are of enormous extent. Napier (q.v.) is the port and chief city. Hawkesbury, a river of New South Wales, rises in the Cullarin Range, and under the names of Wollondilly and Nepean flows NE., then turns as the Hawkesbury SE., and enters the Pacific at Broken Bay, about 20 miles NE. of Sydney. It has a total length of 330 miles, and is navigable for vessels of 100 tons as high as Windsor. The Hawkesbury is crossed by a steel girder bridge (1886-89) on the railway between Sydney and Neweastle. It carries a double line of rails, and is one of the largest structures of its kind in the world, having seven spans of from 410 to 416 feet, and a total length between abutments of 2900 feet. The bridge completes the system of railway com- munication between Brisbane and Adelaide. Hawkesworth, JoHN, miscellaneous writer, was born in London, probably in 1715, but accord- ing to another account in 1719. Little is known of his early life, but he is said to have been apprenticed successively to a clockmaker and to an attorney ; and for his education he was mainly indebted to his own perseverance. In 1744 he succeeded Dr John- son on the Gentleman’s Magazine ; and in 1752 he started, with Johnson and others, a_ successful periodical called The Adventurer, half of whose 140 numbers were from Hawkesworth’s own pen. Asa reward for its services in the cause of morality he received from the Archbishop of Canterbury the degree of LL.D. He afterwards published a volume of fairy tales (1761), and an edition of Swift’s works and letters, with a Life that Johnson praised highly ; and he was chosen by Captain Cook to prepare the account of his first voyage, which formed vols. ii. and iii. of Hawkesworth’s Voyages (3 vols. 1773), for which work the editor received £6000 from government. He died on 17th November 1773. Hawkesworth was too ardent an admirer of John- son to attempt consciously to imitate him or to avoid doing so unconsciously. Yet his chief service to literature was that he introduced ‘into the popular oriental fictions of last century the ease of familiar writing, and so put an end to the long succession of dreary and bombastic narratives that strutted far behind in the track of Rasselas. Hawking. See FALconry. Hawkins, Sir Joun, an English navigator, was born at Plymouth about 1520. He has the unhappy distinction of being the first Englishman that trafficked in slaves (1562). His ‘commercial’ career closed with his disastrous third voyage (1567), after which we find him more honourably employed. He was appointed treasurer of the navy in 1573, knighted for his services against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and for the rest of his life was engaged in making havoc of the Spanish West Indian trade. In 1595, along with his kinsman Drake, he commanded an_ expedition directed against the settlements in the Spanish Main, but — HAWKINS HAWKSBEE 593 died at Porto Rico, November 21, in the same year. See Hakluyt’s Voyages (iii.) and Purchas’s Pil- grimes (iv.). Hawkins, Sir Joun, author of the History of Music, was born at London, 30th March 1719, the son of a surveyor, and a descendant of the famous admiral. Bred an attorney, he acquired a fortune through his wife, and withdrew from professional work; and, becoming an active magistrate, was knighted for his services in connection with riots in 1768 and 1769. He collected a most valuable musi- eal library, and after sixteen years of laborious research produced in 1776 his General History of the Science and Practice of Music, in 5 vols. quarto —a work of admittedly great and accurate scholar- ship, somewhat unsystematic and tedious, and as a literary performance decidedly inferior to Burney’s History (which began to appear at the same time). It was much abused and ridiculed, but is a work of permanent value, and was reprinted in 2 vols. in 1876. In 1760 Hawkins issued an edition of Walton’s Angler. An original member of Dr John- son’s Ivy-lane Club, Hawkins became on John- son's death his literary executor, and published in 1787 a Life of Dr Johnson and an edition of his works. He died 21st May 1789.—His son, John Sidney, published a history of Gothie architecture ; his dhaohter: Leetitia, her own Memoirs, with many anecdotes of Dr Johnson. Hawk-moth (Sphingide), a family of lepidop- terous insects, forming along with the clear-winged moths (A®geriidz) and the burnets and foresters (Zygeenide) the tribe Sphinges. They have stout bodies, large heads with prominent eyes, and stout short antenne. The wings are long, narrow, more or less pointed, and have always a retinaculum. They are insects gener- ally of rapid flight, and fly about in the twi- light; some species also during the day. Their caterpillars are sixteen- legged, flat, smooth, often green, with trans- verse stripes on the sides and nearly always a horn on the back of the second last seg- ment. They change to pup either on the surface of the ground or in a cell under- ground which they form for the pu . The common species of the Humming-bird i wk-moth (Macroglossa stellatarum) in Britain has brown fore wings and reddish tawny hind wings, and, unlike all other hawk-moths except the Bee Hawk- moths (Hemaris or Sesia fuciformis and bombyli- Jormis), has a spreading tuft of hairs at the end of the body. Most of the foreign species are similarly coloured ; and some of the South American species resemble hamming-birds so closely that they cannot on the wing be distinguished from them, the natives there and even educated whites firmly believing that the one is transmutable into the other. Smerinthus is the only genus of the British hawk-moth with dentated wings. One of the most remarkable hawk- moths is the Death’s-head (q.v.) (Acherontia atropos), the largest moth found in Britain. It sometimes measures nearly six inches across the wings; the fore wings are brown, the hind wings pale brown with black bands; and on the back of the thorax is a pattern in gray and black having a certain resemblance to a skull. The Privet Hawk-moth (Sphinx ligustri), the type of the family, measures about four inches across the fore wings, which are of a pale brown colour Caterpillar of Humming-bird Hawk-moth (Maercglossa stellatarum ). with darker markings; the hind wings are pale pink crossed by three black bands. Its green caterpillar, with white and lilac streaks on the sides and a black horn on the back, feeds on Humming-bird and Humming-bird Hawk-moth (Macroglossa eillatarun} (after Bates). privet and lilac, and the position it assumes when resting suggested that of the mythological Sphinx to the old naturalists, who applied this name to the insect. Hawks, Francis Lister, an American clergy- man, born at Newbern, North Carolina, 10th of June 1798, practised law for a time with success, but in 1827 was ordained to the Episcopal ministry. He was professor of Divinity at Washington (now Trinity ) College, Hartford, in 1830-31, and after- wards rector of churches in New York, New Orleans, and Baltimore. He died in New York, September 26, 1866. In 1836 he went to England, and there obtained 18 folio vols. of MSS. relating to the Epis- copal Church in America, of which he had been appointed historiographer. In 1836-39 he published 2 vols. of Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States, dealing with Virginia and Maryland. Among his other works are a Com- mentary on the Constitution and Canons (1841), and, with Bishop Perry, Documentary History of the Protestant Episcopal Church (vols, i. and ii. 1863-64 ); and he edited Alexander Hamilton’s state-papers (1842), Commodore Perry’s Eapedition to Japan (1852-54), and Appleton’s Cyclopedia of Biography (1856). . Hawksbeard (Crepis), a genus of annual and biennial plants belonging to the natural order Composite, so closely related to Hawkweed (Hieracium) that some of the species are referred to the one genus or the other according to the peculiar views of individual botanists. The species are widely distributed through Europe and Asia. Doubtful medicinal properties have been ascribed to several species, and C. lacera, a native of the Apennines, is said to be poisonous. Hawksbee, or HAUKSBEE, FRANCIS, English natural philosopher, was born in the later half of the 17th century, and died about 1730. He was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1705, and appointed curator of experiments to the society, and in 1723 was elected assistant-secretary. He carried further the tentative observations by Dr Gilbert and Boyle on the subject of electricity, and by his experiments laid the scientific foundations of that branch of knowledge. He contributed forty- three memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions, chiefly on chemistry and electricity, between 1704 and 1713. His chiet independent work, published in 1709, was entitled Physico-Mechanical Experiments on various Subjects ; touching Light and Electricity producible on the Attrition of Bodies. He is also well known as the improver of the earlier air-pumps 594 HAWKWEED HAWTHORNE of Boyle, Papin, and Hooke, and as the first who used glass in the electrical machine. Hawkweed (Hieracium), a genus of plants of the natural order Composite, sub-order Cichoracez. The species are perennial herbs of no popular interest with the exception of the Orange Hawkweed (H. aurantiacum), a native of the south of En- rope, which on account of its handsome orange flowers is _ frequently cultivated in gardens. The opular name is founded on an ancient be- lief that birds of prey used the juice of the species Orange Hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum). to stren gthen their vision. The English name Hawkweed, the German Habichts-kraut, and the French Eperviere all testify to this curious belief having been formerly universally entertained. Hawkwood, Sir Joun, Italianised L’AcuTo or L’AGuTO, an English captain who won great renown and much riches as a condottiere in Italy in the wars of the 14th century, was the son of a well-to- do tanner of Sible Hedingham, in Essex. Havin embraced the calling of arms, he distinguished himself at the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, thereby winning the favour of the Black Prince; he was knighted by Edward III. After peace was signed at Bretigny (1360) he gathered a band of mercenary soldiers and led them to Italy, where he at first took service with Pisa against Florence. Then, after fighting in most of the petty Italian wars of the period, notably for the Visconti and for Pope Gregory XI., he agreed to fight the battles of labeans in return for an annual pension. His last years were spent in the neighbourhood of Florence, and there he died in 1394, and was honoured with a magnificent public funeral. See Nichol’s Bibl. Topog. Brit., vol. vi. ; Temple Leader and Marcotti’s Tie (Eng. trans. by Mrs Leader Scott, 1889); and Quarterly Review (Jan. 1890). Haworth, a moorland village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 4 miles SSW. of Keighley by a branch-line. ‘The old church has been ruthlessly demolished, but in the churchyard are the graves of Charlotte and Emily Bronté. Pop. 3816. See Haworth, Past and Present (Bradford, 1889). Hawse (akin to Icel. Aals, ‘the neck’), part of a vessel’s bow, in which the Aawse-holes are cut. Through the hawse-holes the cables pass which hold a vessel when she is moored with two anchors out forward—one on the starboard, the other on the port bow.—Hawser is a small cable or a large rope. Hawthorn (Crategus oxyacantha; see CRA- T&GUS), a shrub or small tree, a native of Europe, Siberia, and the north of Africa, common in Britain, and much planted both for hedges and for ornament. It\varies in height from 6 or 8 to 20 or 25 feet. It has roundish obovate three- to five-lobed deciduous leaves, and corymbs, gener- ally of white, rose-coloured or sometimes deep crimson flowers, succeeded by a small red fruit (haws) with yellow pulp, the central stony part bearing a very large proportion to the pulp. There are many varieties of hawthorn, and, curiously enough, some have only one style, whilst some have several. The variety called Glastonbury Thorn—because supposed to have originated at Glastonbury (q.v.)—is remarkable for its early flowering, whieh often takes place in the middle of winter, whilst the common kind is not in flower till May or June. The winter flowers of the .Glastonbury variety are, however, not generally followed by fruit, and a second flowering often takes place in the same year. The common haw- thorn is often popularly called May, from the season of its flowering in England. It is also called Whitethorn, in contradistinction to the Sloe or Blackthorn. The perfume of the blossoms is strong but delicious. The use of the hawthorn for hedges is almost universal in Britain. It has also sometimes been employed as a stock on which to ee apples and other Pomaceze. Several double- owered and select single-flowered varieties are propagated by budding and grafting for the adorn- ment of lawns and pleasure-grounds. A fermented liquor, which is very intoxicating, is made from the fruit in many parts of France. For the Cock- spur Thorn of North America, and the Pyracanth horn, see CRATAGUS. : The hawthorn is particularly valuable as a hedge-plant, in consequence of its strong and plentiful spines, its long life, and its ready adapta- tion to very various soils. For this Bed ws it is propagated by seed ; the haws are laid in a hea to rot, with a mixture of sand or fine mould, and, in a year or sixteen months after, the seeds are sown in ground carefully prepared. The young plants are kept clear of weeds, and often grow to the height of a foot or two feet in the first season (see HEDGE). Hawthorn hedges bear trimmin very well. Young hawthorn plants are call quicks or quicksets, because used to make living (quick) fences. An old English tradition regards Christ’s crown of thorns as made of hawthorn ; for the same reason the French call it ‘l’épine noble.’ In south Ger- many the tradition pointed to blackthorn, as else- where to some kind of buckthorn. Whitethorn was much favoured by fairies as trysting-places. Hawthorne, NATHANIEL, one of the most dis- eo Seema of American romancers of the present century, born July 4, 1804, at), Galas: kkaas. He was descended | 1900 i the 0-8. vB. from English Separatist stock, | Mppincet* Company. and the character of his ancestry seems to have made an early and enduring impression on his thoughts. This impression did not lead him to follow out and exemplify in his own career their modes of © action, but rather caused him to turn and reflect upon the nature of his predecessors and the conditions amid which they lived. Probably we owe to this inclination the singular interest and enetrating quality of vividness with which he im- bast his scenes from early New England life; and the intensity of concentration which he applied in dealing with moral problems in his romances reveals in him the character of the modernised Puritan. © The first American Hawthorne (or, as the name was then spelled, Hathorne) was William, who migrated from England ( Wiltshire?), in 1630, to Salem in New England, where he became a leader of the colonial soldiery and a magistrate, distinguished for both bravery and eloquence. ‘The figure of that first ancestor,’ wrote Hawthorne, in his sketch of The Custom- house, ‘invested by family tradition with a dim and dusky grandeur, was present to my boyish a as far back as I ean remem er.” William Hawthorne took part in the persecution — | HAWTHORNE 595 of the Quakers. His son John, also a military officer and magistrate, presided at the famous trials of the Salem witcheraft cases. Daniel, the author's grandfather, was a member of an Ameri- can regiment, and also commanded a privateer, in the war of the Revolution against Great Britain. Daniel’s son Nathaniel, ‘a silent, reserved, severe man, of an athletic and rather slender build, and habitually of a rather melancholy cast of thought,’ became a captain in the merchant marine; the family having suffered a decline of fortune, and the male members mostly following the sea. He died when his son Nathaniel, the subject of this article, was but four years old. His widow, a woman of great refinement and religious sensibility, lived always afterwards in close retire- ment and straitened circumstances, with her two oo lena and her son Nathaniel, who, from his ninth to his thirteenth year, was somewhat con- fined by an accidental lameness. His intense love of reading was doubtless fostered by these condi- tions. At fourteen he went with his mother to a lonely farm in the woods of Raymond, Maine; forming there, as he thought, that habit of soli- tude which became one of his permanent traits, but was probably inherited in part from his father. He was, however, a healthy, happy lad, given to outdoor sports and exercise, and quite free from morbidness in spite of his fondness for solitude. In Raymond he Faken to keep note-books, record- ing his observations ; a practice which he resumed and continued through the greater part of his career. He took rank at Bowdoin College, where he raduated with Longfellow in 1825, just one year ater than Franklin Pierce, with whom he formed a friendship. Here he first displayed a tendency to authorship, having begun his frst novel during his wilicaredaate course. But the conditions then were unfavourable to authorship as a profession, and his progress was slow. After his return to Salem he’shut himself up for twelve years ‘in a heavy seclusion,’ writing tales and verses. Of the latter few have survived. In 1828 he pub- lished anonymously his first novel, Fanshawe, which was unsuccessful. | Continuing to contribute to annuals and magazines, under various pseu- donyms that made it still more difficult for him to become known, he edited in 1836 a short-lived periodical for 8. G. Goodrich, for whom also he . wrote Peter Parley’s Universal History, an enor- Fes profitable publication, of which Goodrich fi as the author and took the proceeds, while awthorne received only one hundred dollars. Meanwhile some of his short fictions had gained such favourable notice from the London Athenewm that in 1837 a group of them, to which he gave the name 7'wice-told Tales, was issued in one volume, the risk of which was assumed, without the know- ledge of Hawthorne, by his friend and classmate, H. N. Bridge. This book, which an impartial and competent critic has said ‘marked a distinet epoch in American literature,’ was reviewed with high — by Longfellow, and substantially made the ginning of Hawthorne’s fame. Yet he still had long to wait for its fulfilment. The full force of the new author’s genius was by no means appre- ciated in his own country ; and diligent though he was with his pen, he was still anabl te live by it. In January 1839 the historian Bancroft, then col- lector of the port of Boston, appointed him weigher and gauger in the custom-house, which post he held until early in 1841. In April he allied him- self with an industrial association at Brook Farm (q.v.), near Boston, founded by Dr George Ripley (afterwards a distinguished critic), with a number of highly cultivated men and women, among whom were George William Curtis, Charles A. Dana, and Margaret Fuller. The object was to establish an idyllic, semi-socialistic community, in which every member should do manual labour and share profite in common, while carrying on his or her chosen intellectual work, and maintaining in the commu- nity a separate single or family life. Hawthorne, who was about to ert had some hope of making his home here, but finding the experiment unsatis- factory he withdrew. eanwhile he wrote and ublished in three parts a series of simple stories or children, from New~ England history—viz. Grandfather's Chair, Famous Old People, and Liberty Tree (1841). In July 1842 he wedded Sophia Amelia Peabody, of Salem, his union with whom became one of the rarest and most beauti- ful chapters in the annals of happy marriages. No account of Hawthorne would complete which failed to lay stress upon his marriage to this lady, who, as their son Julian has written, ‘ was a bless- ing and an illumination wherever she went; and no one ever knew her without receiving from her far more than could be given in return.’ Removing to Concord, Massachusetts, he issued Biographical Stories (1842) for children, brought out an enlarged two-volume edition of the 7wice- told Tales (1842), and lived for four years in the old colonial manse, previously occupied by the ancestors of Ralph Waldo Emerson, and by Emer- son himself, overlooking the field of the first battle of the Revolution. Here he dwelt happily, preserv- ing his old custom of comparative isolation, and, seeing but little of his famous neighbours Emer- son and Thoreau. He wrote many sketches and studies for the Democratic Review. These formed the Mosses from an Old Manse (1846). But he was rly paid, or not at all. The Review failed ; and, as he had lost all his previous savings invested at Brook Farm, he was forced to leave this home, and accept a place in the custom-house again—this time as surveyor, in his native town, Salem. The age was uncongenial, and for nearly four years e remained silent as an author. ut by the expiration of his term he had completed ( February 1850) The Scarlet Letter, which at once gained great renown, and still remains perhaps the best known of his works. It did not, however, bring him uniary ease. Hiring a small house at Lenox, assachusetts, he entered upon a phase of remark- able productivity, showing that he had needed only encouragement and recognition to bring his wers into full play. At Lenox he wrote The ouse of the Seven Cables (1851), which added to his celebrity and popularity; also The Wonder Book, a recast * i classic legends for children (1851); and prepared The Snow Image, which was not published until 1852. In the winter he wrote at West Newton The Blithedale Romance, which incidentally drew colouring from the Brook Farm episode, though in no way attempting to depict it as a fact. aving bought at Concord a small house, which he christened ‘The Wayside,’ he settled there in the summer of 1852, and wrote a Life of General Franklin Pierce, his old college friend, who had been nominated for the presidency of the United States. Immediately afterwards he com- leted Tanglewood Tales, a continuation of The onder Book ; but this appeared first in 1853. Pierce, on his inauguration as president in March 1853, named Hawthorne to be consul at Liverpool, a lucrative office which his experience in the custom-house qualified him to fill. The appoint- ment was confirmed by the senate; and although Hawthorne had resolved to accept nothing from the president, and much persuasion had to be used to change his mind, he finally took the appoint- ment, and sailed for Live 4 midsummer, 1853. He held the consulate until near the close of 1857, attending closely to his duties, but spending part of the time in London, and visiting various portions 596 HAWTHORNE HAY of England and Scotland. A sojourn of a year and a half in Rome and Florence, beginning January 1858, supplied him with the materials for a new romance, Zhe Marble Faun, better known in England as Transformation, which he wrote at Redcar, Yorkshire, in the autumn of 1859, and pub- lished in 1860. In June of this year he returned to Concord, where approaching ill-health, and the mental depression caused by the outbreak of civil war in the United States, impeded his efforts at literary composition. He wrote, however, a number of brilliant papers embodying observations and experiences in Ropleatl which were printed in the Atlantic Monthly, and then issued in the volume Our Old Home (1863). He also began a new romance, founded on the idea of an _ elixir of immortality. It remained unfinished at his death, which occurred in the night of May 18, 1864, at Plymouth, New Hampshire, whither he had gone on a journey in search of health, with his friend ex-president Pierce. He was buried at Concord, Massachusetts, May 24, in a spot near which are the graves of Emerson and Thoreau. In his style he early developed that maturity of dignified composure, free from constraint or affecta- tion, and that lucid expression, which are among its most characteristic traits. With little faculty for the harmonies of verse, he had a singular com- mand over the musical qualities of prose, enabling him to produce periods remarkable for their sonorous richness and delicate cadences; that sometimes raise them almost to the plane of poetry, yet never destroy their character as prose by interjecting the actual rhythms of verse. Although exceptionally fitted for conveying subtleties of thought and fantasy, his style is equally adapted to the comprehension of children, being invariably clear, and strongly marked by common sense. Another noticeable peculiarity is that, in the entire range of his writings, quotation is almost never resorted to; the author’s mind being apparently so self-centred that its originality felt no need of aid or illustra- tion from other writers. The superlative merits of Hawthorne’s style were but slowly recognised in his own country; but his fame has rapidly and steadily increased since his death. Several of his works have been translated into foreign languages ; and he is now generally esteemed as one of the greatest imaginative minds of the century, holding a place in the first rank among masters of modern English prose. The personal appearance of Hawthorne was tall, vigorous, and commanding. Powerful physically, and in every way a strong specimen of manhood, he yet in his manner and presence showed the gentleness of a woman. His intimates were few, but with them he was a genial comrade, as he was also a delightful companion in his household. The union in him of strength and sensitiveness has been well described by James Russell Lowell : First, he from sympathy still held apart By shrinking, over-eagerness of heart— New England’s poet, soul reserved and deep, November nature with a name of May. The best extant portraits of Hawthorne are the photographs taken by Mayall of London in May 1860. One of these was engraved in Harpers’ Magazine for July 1886; iaotoes in the Century Magazine for May 1887. A preliminary version of the unfinished romance was edited by his daughter Una, his eldest child, with the aid of Robert Browning, and was published under the title of Septimius Felton (1872). Another version, edited by his son Julian, appeared as Dr Grimshaw’s Secret (1883). Both these forms had been abandoned by the author, who left in MS. portions of the work as he meant to complete it, Zhe Dolliver Romance (1876). His widow (who died in London, February 26, 1871) edited and published his American Note-books (1868), English Note- books (1870), and French and Italian Note-books (1871); besides bringing out a volume of her own Wotesin England and Italy (1868). George Parsons Lathrop, who married Hawthorne’s younger daughter Rose, published A Study of Hawthorne (1876), containing many biographical details, and edited the Riverside edition of the complete works, with notes and a sketch of the author’s life (11 vols. 1883). Rose, the second daughter and youngest child (born in 1851, married 1871), has also made numer- ous contributions to periodicals in prose and verse, and .published in 1888 a volume of poems entitled Along the Shore. Una, the eldest child, born in 1844, died in London in. 1877. Julian Hawthorne issued a complete memoir of his father, Nathaniel Hawthorne his Wife (2 vols. 1883). Henry James, junior, published a brilliant but unsympathetic monograph on Hawthorne (1879); James Russell Lowell a short life (1890); and Moncure Conway one in 1890. See also the Personal Re- collections of Horatio Bridge (1893). JULIAN HAWTHORNE, his son, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, June 22, 1846. After his studies at Harvard he devoted himself to engineer- ing at Dresden; next worked under General M‘Clellan in the New York Docks, returning to Dresden to pursue a life of letters, continued later in London (1875-82) and in New York. He sub- sequently settled on a Jamaica farm. His first novels, Bressant (1873) and Idolatry (1874), were well followed by Garth (1875), Sebastian Strome (1880), Fortune’s Fool (1883), and Dust (1884); and, not so well, by an innumerable series of shorter stories, some—not over good—of the detective class, such as David Poindexter’s Disappearance (1888) and Section 558 ; or The Fatal Letter (1888). Hay (from the same root as hew, hoe), the stems and leaves of grasses or other plants dried for Fodder (q.v.) of cattle. Throughout the grazing and dairy districts of Ireland and England a large breadth of old pasture is annually cut. In Scot- land, however, little of this old natural grass is converted into hay, and the crop consists mainly of clover and sown grasses in which ryegrass bulks largely. This requires less turning and labour than the closer succulent natural grasses, and with twice turning, and a week or ten days’ drying, will generally be fit for the rick, into which the English farmer at once places it. In Scotland the weather is seldom sufficiently fine to fit the hay, within a moderate time, for a large rick, and the practice here, as in the moister parts of England and in Ireland, is to put it, after a few days, into cocks, containing one or two hundredweight, and thence, after another week, into what are techni- cally called tramp-ricks, containing from one to two tons. From these it is transferred at any convenient time to the rick-yard. This practice, although very prevalent in the north, is attended with loss of time and labour, and, moreover, bleaches and dries up the hay, giving it the appear- ance of straw, and preventing that gentle heating which English farmers desire both in their clover and grass hay. In the United States timothy is the best haymaking grass; next come redtop, orchard-grass, and blue-grass or June-grass. The management of the natural grasses of which most English hay consists is somewhat different, and ‘the process is seen in perfection in Middlesex and various of the counties about London. The eat matter—too generally overlooked in Scot- and—is to preserve the colour and flavour of the grass. This may be done by frequent arkath. so as to have it rapidly dried, and if possible without the deteriorating washing of repeated rains. Arti- ficial drying best attains this end, but is of course impracticable on the large scale. In the best style of English haymaking the grass, after being cut with the scythe or machine, and as soon as the dew is off, is shaken and spread out by means of forks or of a tedding-machine drawn by a horse. HAY HAYDN 597 Tt is not allowed to lie long exposed to the sun, but before evening is drawn together by rakes into wind-rows, which, if there is any prospect of rain, are made up into small heaps or cocks. It is again aoeees out next morning, or on the return of favourable weather ; and when the operations are expedited by wind and sun, the hay will be ready for the rick by the second or third day. There is, however, much difference in the time during which the hay requires to lie out; the bulk of the crop and the quality of the land must be especially con- sidered. When the vo are cut in bloom, as they should be, and before their seed ripens and their stems get tough and hard, they contain the ] t amount of moisture, and require careful making, but produce then the most nutritive and palatable hay. As soon as it is thoroughly dry it should be put at once into the stack or rick, and well trodden down. A certain amount of heating improves the flavour, and renders the hay more atable to every kind of stock. When, as is sometimes the case, it is imperfectly made, or icked up too soon, it gets overheated, and mes dark brown or black, while its nutritive pene are diminished ; it is, moreover, apt to i with both horses and cattle, and can be profitably used only when mixed with straw and eut into chaff. Indeed it has been proved by experiments that hay may be so damaged by bad weather in the process of making as to be unable to maintain, not to speak of increasing, the con- dition of animals fed upon it. Hay put together when damp from rain or dew does not heat, as it does when it contains an undue amount of natural moisture, but s ily moulds, When hay has been weathered and injured by repeated rains, it may be rendered more palatable by scattering a little common salt or specially prepared spice over the rick whilst it is being built. In Scotland, eight or ten pounds of salt to the ton is used alike for the clover and grass hay. In mid and southern England the best hay is generally got up in June, in Scotland not until the middle of July. The crop averages from one to two tons per acre. Hay that has stood for seed is tougher and less nutritive than that cut earlier, for the sugar, gum, and luten of the matured seed have been abstracted m the stems. See also SILAGE. Hay, Joun, American author and diplomat, was born at Salem, Indiana, October 8, 1838, graduated from Brown University in 1858, and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1861. He became assistant hdabed secretary to President Lincoln, and served or some months in the field during the war, receiving the brevet of colonel. He was first secretary of lega- tion at Paris in 1865-67 and Madrid in 1868-70, and chargé @affaires at Vienna in 1867-68. From 1870 to 1875 he was on the staff of the New York Tribune, and gees his Pike County Ballads, including ‘Little Breeches’ and ‘ Jim Bludsoe,’ and Castilian Days, in 1871; with J. G. Nicolay, he wrote a Life of Lincoln (Century Magazine, 1887-89; in book form, 1891). He was first assistant secretary of state in 1879-81, ambassador to Great Britain te and became secretary of state in Hayden, FERDINAND VANDEVEER, LL.D., geologist, was born at Westfield, Massachusetts, 7th September 1829, studied at the Albany medical college, and during the greater part of 1853-62 was employed in xy s in the ai -west. He served as surgeon in the Union army during the war, and filled the chair of Mineral and Geol in the University of Pennsylvania from 1865 to 1872. In 1867-69 he carried out the geological survey of Nebraska, and afterwards was iveaee of the geological survey of the territories of the United States, until in 1879 the various national eae were combined in the geological survey of the United States. Till 1886 Dr Hayden remained at the head of the Montana division. He died 22d December 1887. He — many papers, besides numerous and valuable government reports. Haydn, Joseru, a German composer, was born at the village of Rohrau, on the confines of Hun- gary and Austria, Ist April 1732. He was the son of a poor wheelwright; and manifesting great musical talent, he was received at the age of eight into the choir of the cathedral of St Stephen's, at Vienna. Here he remained till his eighteenth year, acquiring a practical rather than a theoreti- eal knowledge of his art, by singing the music of the best Italian and German religious composers. In that year, however, his voice broke, and he lost his place as a chorister. He wandered about the streets of Vienna, and earned a precarious liveli- hood by playing the violin in serenading parties and at dances. A charitable singer offered him a lodging, which for a short while he availed himself of. Ultimately, by the exercise of great thrift, he was enabled to hire an attic and a piano; then he devoted all his leisure time to study. He bought by accident the six sonatas of C. P. E. Bach at a cheap bookstall, and the indefatigable study of them revealed to him the possibility of new form in music—form which should. be the reaction against the old contrapuntal style of J. 8. Bach and Handel, and which it became thenceforward his mission to inaugurate. The main essentials of this reaction were the abandonment of the fugue form as the basis of musical composition, and the substitution in its room of two free melodies as themes for treatment, not necessarily constructed in double counterpoint to one another. During this period of assiduous study Haydn still kept up his connection with the serenaders and dance- players of Vienna, for whom he often now wrote the music. One evening when playing a serenade of his composition, along with other instru- mentalists, under the window of Frau Kurz, the wife of the theatrical manager of that name, her husband was very much struck by the music, and calling Haydn up, commissioned him to write an opera as melodious as the serenade. This was the beginning of his fortunes. His opera made him acquainted with the poet Metastasio, at that time a tutor in Vienna, by whom he was introduced to the com r Porpora, and enabled to remedy the deficiencies of an education principally obtained hitherto through private study. In the later part of 1750 he ye ge his first ey for stringed instruments. In 1759 Count orzin engaged him as capellmeister. For Count Morzin’s orchestra Haydn wrote his First Sym- phony in D. The once obscure musician was now a popular music-master in Vienna. He married at this time Maria Anna Keller, the daughter of a wig-maker, who had been kind to him in his days of penury. This union did not prove a happy one. The circumstances of it were singular; he had designed to marry the younger sister, but she had determined to retire into a convent, and Haydn was persuaded by the father to take the elder one instead, for whom he had always entertained an objection. ‘It is nothing to her,’ said Haydn near the close of his life, ‘ whether her husband be a cob- bler or an artist.’ Her sole ambition was to squan- der Haydn’s earnings. In 1760 Prince Esterhazy offered him the post of vice-capellmeister. His duties in this new situation were to conduct two operas a week, for which he sometimes had to com- pose the music, to conduct and com for an orchestral concert every afternoon, to have a fresh composition for the prince’s ‘reception’ every morning, besides supplying the music for incidental 598 HAYDON HAYES water-parties, dances, &e. Many of Haydn’s most beautifal symphonies were written here, and the greater number of his magnificent quartets. The excessive demands on his invention do not seem to have impaired its fertility in the slightest. After the doth of Prince Esterhazy in 1790 Haydn accom- panied Salomon the violinist to England, where, in 1791-92, he produced six of his Twelve Grand Sym- phonies. His reception was brilliant in the highest degree. On his return to Vienna he had Beethoven for a pupil. In 1794 he made a second engagement with Salomon for England, and during this period brought out the remaining six symphonies. In England he first obtained that recognition which afterwards fell to his share in his own country. On his return to Austria he purchased a small house with a garden in one of the suburbs of Vienna. Here he composed his oratorios the Creation and the Seasons. The former work, the harmonies of which are pervaded with the fire of youth, was written in his sixty-fifth year; the Seasons (com- thse in eleven months) was almost his last work. e died at Vienna, 3lst May 1809. In person Haydn was below the middle stature. His features were regular, and the general cast of his countenance a stern one. He had the peculi- arity of never laughing aloud. He was very neat and methodical in his habits—composing a certain number of hours daily, and wearing full court dress when so engaged. His musical style is marked by the predominance of melody—melody in its tender- ness, melody in its power, melody incessant. His works have therefore more spontaneousness and charm than the elder school of Bach and Handel, but less massiveness, sublimity, and majesty. He clearly realised and pursued his aim, laying down the principle that ‘melody is the charm of music, and the invention of a fine air is a work of genius.’ He is the father of the symphony, and conduced more than any other man to that separation of instrumental music from vocal, unknown or little practised before his day, which has-given an inde- pendent life to instrumental music up to the present time. Haydn’s works are exceedingly numerous, com- prising 125 symphonies, 83 quartets, 38 trios, 14 operas, 8 oratorios, 175 pieces for the baritone, 24 concertos for different instruments, 14 masses, 1 Stabat Mater, 10 smaller church pieces, 44 sonatas for the pianoforte, with and without accompani- ments ; 12 German and Italian songs, 39 canzonets, 13 hymns in three and four parts, the harmony and accompaniment to 364 old Scottish songs, besides a prodigious number of divertissements and pieces for various instruments. Compare Carpani’s Le Haydine (2d ed. Padua, 1823) ; Hayidn’s autobiographical sketch, first published in the Wiener Zeitschrift fiir Kunst (1836); Karajan’s Joseph Haydn in London (Vienna, 1861); Pohl, Joseph Haydn (3 vols. 1875-90); Miss Townsend’s Life of Haydn (Lond. 1884). Haydon, BENJAMIN. RoBeRT, _ historical painter, whose biography forms one of the saddest sade in the record of British art, was born at lymouth on 25th January 1786. He attended the grammar-school of Plympton, where Sir Joshua Reynolds had been educated; and his father, a bookseller, being desirous that his son should follow his own trade, placed him in his shop. But, in spite of delicate eyesight, the boy was resolved to become a painter, and in May 1804 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where he was befriended and influenced by Fuseli, the keeper. Three years later he exhibited his first picture, ‘Joseph and Mary resting on the Road to Egypt,’ and after studying assiduously for three months the Elgin marbles, whose purchase by the nation he afterwards enthusiastically advo- cated, he produced his ‘ Dentatus,’ a commission from Lord Mulgrave. The work was coldly re- ceived by the Academy in 1809, and hung in the anteroom; and this treatment was the beginnin of the painter's rupture with that body, whic embittered his life and damaged his prospects. In- the following year he began a large subject from Macbeth, which had been commissioned by Sir George Beaumont, but was afterwards declined. He was more successful with his ‘Judgment of Solomon,’ probably his finest production, now in the collection of Lord Ashburton, which he sold for 700 guineas. It gained a per of 100 guineas from the Royal Institution, which had awarded a like sum for the ‘Dentatus.’ Having visited the Con- tinent with Wilkie in 1814, and studied the old masters in the Louvre, Haydon began his ‘ Christ's Entry into Jerusalem,’ which was completed in 1820, and realised £1700 by exhibition in the Seypian Hall, London. It is now in the art- gallery of Philadelphia. Another immense reli- gious subject, ‘The Raising of Lazarus,’ was com- leted in 1823, in the midst of great difficulties. he artist had been arrested for debt during its progress, and during the rest of his life he was never able to free himself from financial embarrass- ments, though it was proved that during six years, from 1831 to 1836, he had earned £4617 by his art. His ‘Mock Election,’ purchased by George IV. for 500 guineas, was founded upon a scene witnessed by the painter while a prisoner in King’s Bench. He resorted to every kind of expedient to meet the needs of the moment. Greatly against his will he took to portrait-painting ; a public sub- scription was raised on his behalf: he raffled his ‘Eucles’ and ‘ Xenophon’s First Sight of the Sea ;’ he delivered a popular series of lectures on painting and design in 1836, published in two volumes in 1844, In 1832 Lord Gray commissioned the well- known picture of ‘The Reform Banquet,’ and in 1834 the Duke of Sutherland gave 400 guineas for a ‘Cassandra.’ Haydon had never wearied of urging upon government and persons of influence the necessity for the national encouragement of art, and it was a bitter disappointment when he failed to obtain employment by the commissioners for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. He was further crushed by the entire want of success which attended his exhibition of two completed’ ictures from the designs which he had prepared or the cartoon competition; his mind gave way, and on 20th June 1846 he shot himself in his studio before his unfinished painting of ‘ Alfred’s First Parliament.’ The works of Haydon are elevated in aim and subject, and Mr G. F. Watts, R.A., has pronounced that ‘his expression of anatomy and general perception of form are the best by far that can be found in the English school, and I feel even a direction towards something that is only to be found in Phidias.’ His works, how- ever, are very unequal in their several parts; his execution was seldom equal throughout to his con- ception ; and most of his productions bear only too evident traces of the haste and the untoward cir- cumstances amid which they were executed. See the Life of Haydon, from his Autobiography and Journals, edited by Tom Taylor (3 vols. 1853); and his Correspondence and Table Talk, with a Memoir by his son (1876). Haye, LA. See HAGUE. Hayes, AucusTus ALLEN, chemist, was born at Windsor, Vermont, in 1806, studied chemistry under Professor Dana, and settled in Boston in 1828. He discovered the organic alkaloid sanguin- aria, carried through experiments which led to the construction in 1838 of improved furnaces and boilers, suggested the process of reducing pig to HAYES HAYNAU 599 malleable iron without loss by the use of the oxides of iron, as well as new processes in copper-smelt- , the decomposition of alcohol, and the forma- tion of chloroform, and made important investi- gations into the properties of guano. He also examined the constitution of sea-water and fresh water at various depths, prepared a report for the navy department on the copper-sheathing of vessels, supplied a novel process for the manufacture of saltpetre. Hayes was for many years state assayer of Massachusetts, and died in Brookline there, 21st June 1882. Mayes, IsAAC ISRAEL, Arctic explorer, was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, 5th March 1832, graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1853, and sailed as surgeon in the Kane expedition in search of Franklin. The story of his attempt to reach Upernivik in 1854 is told in An Arctic Boat-journey (1860). In 1860-61 he conducted a second expedition to the Arctic on gern and in 1869 he again visited Greenland. His third voyage is described in Zhe Land of Desolation (1871). He was surgeon of volunteers from 1862 to 1865, retiring with the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel; and he served in the New York assembly for five years. His Arctic work was recognised by medals from the London and ‘Saal ; phical societies. He died 17th Decem- r : Hayes, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD, nineteenth president of the United States, was born at Dela- ware, Ohio, 4th October 1822. He graduated at Kenyon College, Ohio, in 1842; and, having studied law at Harvard, he practised as a lawyer at Cincinnati, 1849-61. In the civil war Hayes served with distinction as an officer of volunteers, being once severely wounded, and ultimately attained the rank of brevet major-general. He was returned to congress from Ohio in 1865 and 1866, chosen governor of his state in 1867, and re-elected in 1869 and again in 1875. In 1876 he was selected as the Republican candidate for the presidency of the United States, the Democratic candidate being Samuel J. Tilden (q.v.). The election which fol- lowed was notable for the exciting complications and the period of tension and suspicion that en- sued, In Louisiana two electoral boards were com- missioned by rival claimants to the governorship, _ and in some of the other states questions arose touching the legality of the return of the Repub- lican presidential elettors. Finally, an electoral commission was created by act of congress, consist- ing of five judges of the supreme court, five senators, and five representatives. This body, made up of eight Republicans and seven Demo- crats, gave the disputed votes to Hayes, by a majority of eight to seven. The electoral vote was thus returned at 185 for Hayes against 184 for Tilden; the popular vote, as counted, stood 4,284,265 for Tilden and 4,033,295 for Hayes. This decision was generally acquiesced in, although the conviction of the Democratic party that their candi- date had been unjustly deprived of office remained unshaken; and as late as 1878 the Democratic majority of a congressional committee of investiga- tion issued a report declaring the action of the returning boards in Louisiana and Florida to have been fraudulent. Under the Hayes administration the country recovered much of its commercial pros- perity, which had suffered severely in the financial crash of 1873. Two features in Hayes’s policy were reform of the civil service (in pursuance of which he removed from the collectorship of customs at New York Chester Alan Arthur, q.v.) and the conciliation of the southern states. He was also active in pressing forward the resumption of specie payments ; but the bill for the monetisation of silver was carried in 1878 against his veto. Died January 17, 1893. See Life by Stoddard (1889). Hayesine, also called Borate or Lime and ULEXITE, is a boronatrocalcite, a double salt of sodium and calcium, found in Peru, Chili, &c., and is a source of Boracic Acid (q.v.). Hay-fever, also called HAY-ASTHMA and SUMMER-CATARRH, a@ disease mostly met with in early summer, has as symptoms those of a common catarrh—viz. redness and swelling of the nasal mucous membrane, with a copious watery dis- charge and repeated paroxysms of sneezing, irri- tation of the eyes, and intense headache. There are also present general malaise, loss of appetite, and more or less feverishness; and difficulty of breathing is added when the bronchial mucous membrane is affected. Hay-fever is most com- monly a disease of adult life, but it may occur at all ages. It usually returns annually when the patient is subjected to the exciting cause, which is oftenest in the form of floating pollen of different asses, although other things such as dust or right sunlight may set up an attack. Three factors essential to the production of hay-fever are a nervous constitution or idiosyncrasy, a local irritability, and an external exciting cause. The treatment to be successful must be directed to these : (1) improve the health by quinine, arsenic, or other tonics, and soothe the nervous state b bromide of potassium or anti yrin ; (2) act locally by pungent inhalations, as iodine, or by the thermo- cautery ; (3) finally remove the patient from the cause by sending him to the seaside or for a voyage. See Hay Fever, by Sir Morell Mackenzie (4th ed. 1887). Hayley, WILLIAM, Cowper’s biographer, was ben! ak Chichester, "Osh Movember 1745" bus abandoned legal studies for a life of lettered leisure, living in Lonink. at Eartham in Sussex, and lastly at Feltham, where he died 20th November 1820. Among his works are didactic Essays in verse on painting, on history, on epic poetry, The Triumphs of Temper: a Poem, some plays, a Life of Milton, a Life of Romney, and his most memorable monu- ment, The Life of Cowper (1803; see COWPER). Memoirs of and by himself were published in 1823. Haym, RvupoLrFr, philosopher and writer, was born at Griinberg in Silesia on 5th October 1821. In 1848 he sat in the national assembly at Frank- fort ; but in 1851 he began to lecture on philosophy and German literature at Halle, and was eventu- ally appointed professor there in 1868. He has written biographies of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1856), Hegel (1857), Schopenhauer (1864), and Herder (1877-85), as well as a useful monograph, Die Romantische Schule (1870). Haynau, JuLivus JAKoB, BARON VON, an Austrian general, was born at Cassel, in Germany, 14th October 1786. Entering the Austrian service in 1801, he signalised himself during the Italian campaigns of 1848-49 by his ruthless severity, especially at the capture of Brescia, where his flogging of women and other atrocities gained him the name of the ‘Hywna of Brescia.’ Haynau was engaged in the siege of Venice, when he was summoned by the emperor to Hungary, in May 1849, to take the supreme command of the forces in that country. The storming of Raab, his victory at Komorn, his occupation of Szegedin, and his victories on the rT heiss contributed materially to the final success of the imperialists. But Haynau’s atrocious severity towards the defeated Hungarians excited the detestation of Europe. Although = Arete dictator of Hungary after its pacification, he was nevertheless dismissed in 1850 on account of the intractability of his character. In the same year, when visiting the 600 HAYNE HAYTI brewery of Messrs Barclay & Perkins, in London, he was assaulted by the draymen, on account of his cruelty, and escaped with his life, but the loss of his moustache. Baron Schénhals, in a bio- graphy of his friend Haynau (Gratz, 1853), tries to exonerate his character, and asserts that he only acted in obedience to the orders of his masters. Haynau died at Vienna, March 14, 1853. Hayne, Rosert YOUNG, an American states- man, born in South Carolina in 1791, was admitted to the bar in 1812, served in the war with Great Britain, and at its close returned to his practice in Charleston. He was a member of the state legislature in 1814-18, and became speaker, was attorney-general of the state in 1818-22, and sat in the United States senate from 1823 to 1832. He was a vigorous opponent of protection, and in 1832 boldly supported in congress the doctrine of Nullification (q.v.). Daniel Webster's re ly ranks among his ablest speeches. In November 1832 South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullifica- tion, in December Hayne was elected governor, and the state prepared to resist the federal power by force of arms. A compromise, however, was agreed to (see JACKSON), and the ordinance. was repealed. Hayne died 24th September 1839. Way River, a feeder of Great Slave Lake in the Canadian North-west. In its course, north- east to the southern shore of the lake, it descends the two Alexandra Falls, about 250 feet high and 300 yards wide. Hayti, or HAiri (‘mountainous country,’ other- wise HISPANIOLA, or SANTO DOMINGO), is, after Cuba, the largest of the West Indian Islands, now divided into the Annepenoene states of Hayti and the Dominican Republic (q.v.). For the map, see West INprEes. It is nearly equidistant from Porto Rico on the E., and from Cuba and Jamaica on the W., with the Caribbean Sea on the §&., and with the Bahamas and the open ocean ‘on the N. Hayti lies between 17° 37’ and 20° N. lat., and between 68° 20’ and 74° 28’ W. long. It belongs to the group of the Greater Antilles, and, like all the principal members of its series, its greatest length (about 400 miles) is in the direction—from west to east—of the chain of which it forms a part ; its greatest breadth is 160 miles. Area, including the islands of Tortuga, Gonaive, &c., about 28,820 sq. m., or nearly that of Scotland. The country is mountainous, being traversed longitudinally by northern, central, and southern ridges, terminating in headlands on either coast; but between these ranges are wide and fertile plains. There are no active volcanoes in the island, but earthquakes are frequent. The highest peak is Loma Tina (10,300 feet), and in the middle section of the Sierra del Cibao the average height is 7000 feet. The climate is hot and moist in the lowlands, the temperature at Port-au-Prince ranging from 67° to 104° F.; the mean range in the highlands is from 60° to 76° F. The heaviest rains are in May and June, and occa- sional hurricanes visit the island. Agriculture is very backward, although Hayti is one of the most fertile spots in the West Indies ; while its excellent harbours, more especially those in the Gulf of Gonaive on the west, offer considerable facilities to foreign trade. The mountains are clothed with forests of pine and oak, and the island is rich in mahogany, satinwood, rosewood, and other valuable timbers. Cotton, rice, maize, cocoa, ginger, arrow- root, yams, tobacco, and numerous fruits are indi- genous; and the mango, bread-fruit, sugar, coffee, and indigo are also produced. The minerals are now little worked, though some gold-washing is still carried on in the streams descending the northern slope of the Cibao. The rivers are inconsider- able, and useless for navigation. The largest lake, besides several bodies of fresh water, is the salt lake of Enriquillo, 25 miles inland from the south shore. Both rivers and Jakes abound in caymans as well as fish. Birds are few, but reptiles and insects are numerous ; the agouti is the largest wild mammal. Hayti was discovered in 1492 by Columbus, who landed here on 6th December; and within little more than one generation the aborigines had been swept away by the remorseless cruelties of the Spaniards. Their place was filled with negro slaves, ‘who were introduced as early as 1505. Next came the Buccaneers (q.v.), who settled in the island of Tortuga, and ultimately gained a footing on the mainland; and, as those marauders were chiefly French, the western portion of Hayti, which was their favourite haunt, was in 1697 ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick, thus presenting the first important break in the unity of Spanish America. For nearly a hundred years the intruders imported vast reinforcements of Africans; while the mulat- toes, who were a natural incident of the concomi- tant license, rapidly grew, both socially and politi- cally, into an intermediate caste, being at once deflonly excluded from citizenship and generally exempted from bondage. In 1791, under the influ- ence of the French Revolution, the mutual an- tipathies of the three classes—white, black, and. mixed—burst forth into what may-well be charac- terised as the most vindictive struggle on record— a struggle which, before the close of the 18th cen- tury, led to the extermination of the once dominant. Europeans, and the independence of the coloured insurgents. Thus, as the emancipated bondmen mostly belonged, at least in form, to the Church of Rome, Hayti now exhibited the only Christian community of negro blood on either side of the Atlantic. In 1801 France sent out a powerful armament to recover her revolted dependency, treacherously seizing and deporting the deliverer of his brethren, Toussaint Poaveniie (q.v.). In 1803, however, she was constrained to relinquish her attempt; and in 1804 Dessalines, aping the example of Napoleon, proclaimed himself Emperor of Hayti, thus reviving the indigenous name of the island, which had been in disuse for upwards of three hundred years. This great change was fatal to the commercial prosperity of French Hayti, decidedly the more valuable section of the island. In its progress it had destroyed capital in every shape; and in its issue it could not fail to paralyse labour under cir- cumstances where continuous exertion of any kind was equally irksome and superfluous. Nor was the political experience of the lately servile population more satisfactory than its economical condition. Sometimes consolidated into one state, and some- times divided into two, the country alternated, © through the instrumentality of one revolution after another, between despotism and anarchy, between monarchy (more or less constitutional or imperial ) and republicanism. Its only tranquil period of any duration coincided with the rule of President Boyer (q.v.), which subsisted from 1820 to 1843—its last twenty-one years se! tain not merely the whole of French or Western Hayti, but likewise the Span- ish or eastern portion of the island, whose inhabit- ants in 1843 formed themselves into the Dominican Republic (q.v.). Hayti, thus united, was in 1825 recognised even by France, on condition of paying 150 million franes, or £6,000,000, as a compensation to the former planters—a sum reduced in 1838 to sixty millions. The western portion of the island remained republican in its form of government until 1849, when its former president, the negro General Soulonque, proclaimed an empire, and assumed the title of Emperor Faustin I. In 1859, however, a republic was again proclaimed and a new constitu- tion adopted, which was modified in 1867. Few - —— ve ae a ae ee ill ¥ «comme ——————— OO LS ee | Oe el rll HAYWARD HAZEL 601 idents have since been permitted to complete their term of office (seven years), which has usuall been cut short by revolutions. In 1889 Genera Hippolyte succeeded in the chief-magistracy General time, whom he had driven out of the country. Sir Spenser St John’s Hayti, or the Black “sy deel ves a truthful picture, at once melancholy and udicrous, of the utter saveue that is domi- nant in the western state. Official peculation, judicial murder, and utter corruption of every kind underlie the forms and titles of civilised Ne ment; the religion, nominally Christian, is largely vaudoux or serpent-worship, in which actual and horrible cannibalism is even now a most important element. Instead of progressing, the negro repub- licans have gone back to the lowest type of African barbarism. : The area of the western portion of the island, the negro republic of Hayti, is about 9200 sq. m. ; the population was stated in 1888, somewhat extrava- fantly, at 960,000; it is probably under 600,000. he capital, Port-au-Prince, is reported to have 30,000 inhabitants, and perhaps has 20,000. Under the president are a senate and house of representa- tives, and four heads of departments. The returns of income and expenditure are merely estimates, and the disorders of civil war have in recent years rendered these more than usually valueless. There is a large floating debt, chiefly resulting from the issue of paper money by successive governments. The total debt amounts to between £3,000,000 and £4,000,000. The annual revenue is, since 1894, stated at £1,250,000, a sum generally exceeded by the expenditure. The army consists nominally of 6828 men, mostly infantry ; some half-dozen small vessels constitute the navy. The dialect of the people is a debased French. The exports of Hayti may have a value of about £1,000,000 a year; the chief articles are coffee, cacao, logwood, mahogany, and cotton. Of the imports, valued at about £700,000 annually, over two-thirds come from the United States, the rest mainly from Germany, France, and Britain. See St John, Hayti, or the Black Republic (1884; 2d ed. 1889); works by Maidou (1847), Ardouin (Paris, 1853-61), Linslant- ine (Paris, 1851-65), Janvier ihael, 1883-85-86), La Selve (1876-81), Nau (Paris, 886), Fortunat (1888), Rouzier (1892), Marcelin (1893), Justin (1894), and Tippenhauer (Leipz. 1893). Hayward, ABRAHAM, essayist and talker, was born at Wishford, in Wiltshire, 31st October 1802. He had neither public school nor university educa- tion, but after keeping terms at the Inner Temple was called to the in 1832. His leanings were, however, more to letters than to law, yet he founded and edited the Law Magazine, and to every one’s surprise was made Q.C. by Lord Lyndhurst in 1845. He published in 1833 his excellent prose translation of the first part of Faust, and soon became.a busy contributor to the newspapers and magazines, especially the Quarterly Review, in which readers soon learned to ise his personality in an un- usual combination of vivacity, epigrammatic verve, and critical acumen. By his brilliant conversation, his wealth of anecdotes, his whist-playing, and his artistic interest in ‘ the art of dining’ he delighted society almost down to his death, at London, Feb- ruary 2, 1884. Many.of his best articles were re- printed in his Biographical and Critical Essays (2 vols. 1858), the second series (2 vols. 1873), and the third (1 vol. 1873); and in Sketches of Eminent Statesmen and Writers (2 vols. 1880). Other books were mL nye A and Remains of Mrs Piozzi (2 vols. 1861), Selections from the Diary of a Lady of Quality—Sir Watkin Wynne’s daughter (1864), and a somewhat perfunctory book on Goethe, in ‘Foreign Classics for English Readers’ (1877). His little books—The Art of Dining (1852), Lord Chesterfield and George Selwyn (both in 1856), and Short Rules of Modern Whist (1878)—were widely circulated. In 1878 he published in two volumes his Selected Essays. is Select Correspondence was given to the work in two volumes in 1886. Hazard, a game with twodice. The caster calls 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 for the main. He then throws. If he throws the number called, or if he throws 12 when 6 or 8 is the main, or 11 when 7 is the main, he nicks, and wins of his opponent (named the setter). If he throws 2, 3, 11, or 12 when 5 or 9 is the main, or 2, 3, or 11 when 6 or 8 is the main, or 2, 3, or 12 when 7 is the main, he loses. If he throws any other number—thus, when 7 is the main, if he throws 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10—it is called his chance. He then continues to throw until either the main or the chance is thrown. If the main is first thrown, the setter wins ; if the chance is first thrown, the caster wins. ‘Hazaribagh, chief town of the district of the same name in the division of Chota Nagpore, Bengal. It is really a cluster of hamlets, which sprung up round the former military bazaar, with tilled fields between; the European troops have now for some years been withdrawn. Pop. 15,306. —Hazaribagh district has an area of 7021 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 1,164,321, mainly Hindus. Hazebrouck, a town in the French depart- ment of Nord, 28 miles WNW. of Lille by rail. The parish church (1493-1520) is surmounted by a spire of open work, 260 feet high. There are some linen and tobacco manufactures. Pop. 7680. Hazel (Corylus), a genus of trees of the natural order Cupuliferze, of which the fruit is a nut ina leafy and laciniated cup, the enlarged involucre of the female flower. The male flowers are in cylin- drical catkins ; the female flowers appear as mere clusters of coloured styles at the extremities of buds.—The Common Hazel (C. Avel/ana) is a low Common Hazel ( Corylus Avellana) : a, male and b, female flowers ; ¢, fruit. tree, a native of Britain, and of all the temperate rts of Europe and Asia; it is common also in North America. There are ten ortwelve improved varieties cultivated extensively in Kent, especially around Maidstone and in some other parts of Eng- land. Of these there are two types—one wit round nuts, named cobs ; the other with elongated nuts, named filberts. The cup or involucre of the former is shorter, more open, and not so much lacer- ated as that of the latter. Of either type there is a variety in which the pellicle enclosing the kernel 602 HAZLETON HAZLITT is deep red ; and both of these are highly esteemed. These particular varieties are propagated by suckers which are more or less freely produced, by layers, and by budding and grafting. The tree is exten- sively grown in some parts of England for coppice- wood, being reared for this purpose from seed. The young straight stems and branches are employed for making crates, baskets, hurdles, hoops, stakes, &c.; and the larger wood for charcoal, which is in great request for forges, for the manufacture of gun- owder and artists’ crayons. in Italy sometimes put in turbid wine for the pur- pose of fining it; and the roots are used by cabinet- makers for veneering. Magical properties have been ascribed to hazel-rods by the credulous, as it was of them the Divining-rod (q.v.) was formed for the purpose of discovering water, minerals, or buried treasure. From the wood an empyreumatic oil is extracted, which is a vermifuge, and alleged to bea cure for toothache. Hazel-nuts yield, on pressure, about half their weight of a bland fixed oil, often called nut-oil in Britain, the hazel-nut being popu- larly known by the term vu¢ alone ; but in German it is walnut-oil which is usually called nut-oil. Hazel-nut oil has drying properties, and is much used by painters; it is also used by perfumers as a basis with which to mix expensive fragrant oils ; and it has been employed medicinally in coughs. The larva of a weevil (Balaninus nucum) feeds on the kernels of hazel-nuts. The parent female makes a hole into the nut .by means of her long snout, and there deposits an egg. Great numbers of nuts are thus destroyed. The Beaked Hazel (C. rostrata), a species having a very hairy fruit-cup prolonged into a long beak, is a native of the northern parts of America. Its kernel is sweet.—The Constantinople Hazel (C. colurna), the nuts of which are considerably larger than those of the common hazel, is a native of the Levant, from which the fruit is imported into Britain. It is much used for expressing oil, but is a less pleasant fruit than many kinds of cob-nut and filbert. A Himalayan species of hazel (C. Jferoc) has a spiny fruit-cup, and an excessively hard nut.—Barcelona nuts are the nuts of a variety of the common hazel, kiln-dried before their expor- tation from Spain. Hazel-nuts not subjected to this process cannot be kept long without losing in part their agreeable flavour, and contracting a sensible rancidity, except in air-tight vessels, in which they are said to remain fresh even for years. Hazleton, a city of Pennsylvania, 80 miles NNW. of Philadelphia, has ironworks, lumber- mills, and railway-car shops, but is of importance mainly as the chief business centre of the rich Lehigh coalfield. Pop.. (1880) 6935 ; (1900) 14,230. Hazlitt, WILLIAM, was born at Maidstone on April 10, 1778. His father was a Unitarian clergy- man who belonged to the county of Antrim. In his fifteenth year he began to study in the Unitarian College at Hackney, with the view of becoming a dissenting minister, a design which he early aban- doned.. In 1798 he formed the acquaintance of Coleridge, who encouraged him to compose his Essay on the Principles of Human Action (‘the only thing,’ he said, ‘which I ever piqued myself upon writing’), which was not published, however, until 1805. For some time he endeavoured to earn a living as a portrait-painter; and, according to Northcote, would have become a great artist had he not forsaken his easel for his desk. In 1806 he published his Free Thoughts on Public Affairs, and in 1807 his Reply to the Essay on Population by the fev. T. R. Malthus. After his marriage with Miss Stoddart in 1808 he lived at the village of Winters- low, in Wiltshire, until 1812, when he removed to York Street, Westminster, and found employment Chips of the wood are * as a writer on the Morning Chronicle and Examiner. From 1814 to 1830 he contributed to the Edinburgh Review. His Round Table: a Collection of Essays on Literature, Men, and Manners, and the most opular of his works, his Characters of Shakespeare’s lays, appeared in 1817. Between 1818 and 1821 he delivered lectures at the Surrey Institute, which were afterwards published under the titles Lectures on the English Poets, on the English Comic Writers, and on the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Eliza- beth. His marriage proved an unhappy one, and, after living for some time apart, Hazlitt and his wife were divorced in 1822. He was fond of retir- ing to Winterslow Hut, a coaching-house on the high-road from London to Salisbury. At this lonely inn, which stands amid bleak wolds on the verge of Salisbury Plain, he wrote most of the essays which he contributed to the London Magazine, and which were afterwards republished in his Table Talk (1821) and Plain Speaker (1826). An unfortunate penne for the daughter of a tailor with whom e lodged found expression in the Liber Amoris, or the New Pygmalion (1823), a book of a strong though painful interest. In 1824 he married a lady of some means, who travelled with him to Italy, but left him, for causes which can only be conjec- tured, during the return journey, and never joined him again. His Selections from the English Poets and Sketches of the Principal Picture Galleries in England appeared in 1824; his Spirit of the Age, or Contemporary Portraits, which some critics consider the ripest in thought and most felicitous in style of all his works, in 1825; and his Life of Napoleon Bonaparte in_ 1828-30. His last years were darkened by ill-health and money difficulties. He died on September 18, 1830. Wayward and irascible, a prey to melancholy, and too often the victim of a rash and haughty self- confidence, Hazlitt was at bottom generous, ardent, and sincere. But his defects were sharpened by unsuccess, and above all by the scurrilous malignity with which his character and his writings were traduced by hired libellers of adverse politics. The scope of -his powers was never recognised by his contemporaries, though, as Thackeray has said, there were probably not in all England twelve men with powers so varied. His genius had many facets. He excelled in description and in narra- tive, in reflection and in critical analysis. He wrote of nature and of art and the characters of men; as a critic of the drama he has never been equalled. He was one of the deadliest contro- versialists, a master of epigram and burning in- vective and withering irony. His letter to William Gifford stands unsurpassed as an example of polished vituperation. His judgment was at times clouded by prejudice and disterted by his love of para- dox. But of all the Georgian critics he was the most eloquent, the most catholic, the most thoroughly equipped. He never wrote in cold blood ; he weleomed excellence everywhere. He did justice alike to the Lakers and to the Queen Anne men. He was not less discriminating than en- thusiastic. His style ranges from lively gossip to glowing rhapsody ; at its best it touches one of the igh-water marks of English, it is at once so vigor- ous and so graceful, so lucid and so rich, so ex- uisitely apt are the epithets, so firmly built are the sentences, so noble is the rhythm of the periods. His autobiographic essays are perhaps of all his works the most delightful—stamped with the seal of truth, tremulous with pathos, and bathed in the light of poetic imagination. His writings have never gained the recognition they merit; yet, with ,all his defects, it woul be hard to point to Hazlitt’s master in all the ranks of English critics. See G. Saintsbury’s article in Macmillan’s Magazine for 1887; Leslie Stephen’s Hours in a Library (2d — HEAD HEALTH-RESORTS 603 1877); and Bulwer Lytton’s Guertety Essays A collection of Hazlitt’s works in 7 vols.— exclusive of the Life of Napoleon—edited a his dson, W. C. Hazlitt, has been agreed by Messrs Bell & Daldy. Alexander lreland has issued an anno- tated List of his writings (1868), and an admirable selection from his writings, with a brief essay on his life, &c, ( 1889). Head. See Brarn (ConcussION OF), EAR, Eye, SkuL1, TeeTH, &c. H Str EpMUND WALKER, Bart., governor- eral of Canada, was the son of the Rev. Sir John Tread. and was born in 1805, near Maidstone, Kent. From Winchester he passed to Oriel College, Ox- ford, where he took a first in classics in 1827, and became a Fellow of Merton; in 1838 he succeeded his father, the seventh baronet. After serving as poor-law commissioner, he became in 1847 lieu- tenant-governor of New Brunswick, and held this t until September 1854, when he succeeded the Parl of Elgin as governor-general of Canada. He retired in 1861, was made a civil-service commis- sioner in 1863, and privy-councillor in 1867. He wrote a Handbook of Spanish Painting, and other popular books on art, and published Ballads and ot Poems, original and translated (1868). He died 28th January 1868. Head, Srr Francis Bonn, Bart., author, and governor of Upper Canada, was born at Hermitage, near Rochester, Ist January 1793. He entered the corps of Royal Engineers, served at Waterloo and elsewhere, and had attained the rank of major when he retired from the service. In 1825 he accepted an en ment from a private company to work some gold and silver mines on the river Plate ; and his spirited Rough Notes of his travels across the pam and over the Andes gained for him the name of ‘Galloping Head.’ In 1835 he became governor of Upper Canada, where, at the head of the militia, he succeeded in suppressing an insur- rection, which had its origin, as it was said, in his injudicious measures ; but this charge he may fairly be held to have refuted in his Narrative (1839) of these events. In 1837 he resigned his post, and was created a baronet in 1838. After his retire- ment he devoted himself to literary pursuits, and for some years enjoyed a pension of £100 ‘for his services to literature.’ His books include Bubbles from the Brunnen of Nassau, A Faggot of French Sticks, Stokers and Pokers, A Visit to Ireland, The Emigrant, The Horse and his Rider, The Royal Engineer, and Lives of Bruce, the traveller, and Sir John Burgoyne. He died 20th July 1875. Headache can scarcely ever be called a disease, but it is a common symptom of many ailments. It is sometimes caused by serious mischief within the cranium, but far more frequently it depends upon an alteration in the quality of the blood, or in a deficient or excessive supply of it to the head. The deterioration in quality may be caused by fevers, by inflammations of various organs—e.g. the kid- neys, or even by breathing the air of a crowded room. The congestive form of headache is often produced by mere mechanical obstruction to the return of blood from the head. A tight collar or an awkward position of the neck during rest may cause it. This form of headache is aggravated by stooping. On the other hand the anemic variety is often relieved by lying down. The neuralgic headache is one of the commonest of all, and is especially associated with the hysterical tendency. Another variety which is on the increase in this hurried and hard-driven generation is that caused by excessive brain-work. Lastly, there is the sick ache, megrim or migraine, which comes on res in paroxysms, often associated with ilious vomiting. series, (1875). The great rule for the treatment of headache is first of all to correct the general morbid condition on which it depends, Without this, local treatment is usually of little avail, and at best is only of tem- porary benefit. Except in anawmic cases the patient should have the head and shoulders well raised during sleep. Aperients give relief in nearly every form except the neuralgic. If the blood is deterio- rated it must be improved by iron, 15 to 20 drops of the tincture of the perchloride, three times a day. Quinine is of use in periodic headaches in doses of 2 or 3 grains, three or four timesa day. In neu- ralgic pain about the forehead menthol rubbed on often gives s y relief. Gelsemium and Indian hemp are useful internal remedies, but opium is of doubtful value. Bromide of potassium in 30-grain doses may be given with the Indian hemp, if there is much restlessness. Of local applications chloro- form and mustard are perhaps the most rape serviceable. In all cases the diet and habits of life should be carefully regulated. Head Borough, an old term for the head of a borough, or high constable. See CONSTABLE. Head-hunting. See DyAks. Head-money. See PoLi-TAx. Headon Beds. See OLIGOCENE SYSTEM. Health. See HYGIENE. Health, Brit or, in Shipping, is a document carried by every British ship, unless en in the coasting trade, or specially exempted. It is granted at home by the customs, and abroad by the British consular agent, or, if there is no such person, by a British merchant or foreign consul. hen no con- tagious or infectious disease is known to exist at the place of departure, the bill is ‘clean;’ when there is reason to fear the appearance of such dis- ease, the bill is ‘suspected ;* when such disease actually exists, the bill is ‘foul.’ The practice of other countries is identical. See QUARANTINE. Health, Boarp or. See Privy-couNCcIL. Health-resorts, frequented for combating disease or invigorating the comparatively healthy, fall into several well-marked groups. (1) Sea- bathing quarters have long been in vogue amongst civilised nations, though the periodical exodus from cities is of modern origin. (2) The remedial and invigorating agency of mountain air has been more recently recognised, but is now fully estab- lished. Hence the popularity of many inland highland districts in Scotland, Switzerland, and Norway. (3) Curative wells—thermal, muriated, alkaline, sulphated, chalybeate, sulphureous, cal- careous—have been frequented from the earliest times, and are found in many countries. The various kinds of water and their beneficial qualities are dealt with in the article MINERAL WATERS. (4) Climatic health-resorts at a high altitude, such as Davos Platz, Andermatt, Meran, &c., have of late come into favour because of their value for persons recovering from acute illness, and who are able to take active outdoor exercise ; and specially for those in the early stages of phthisis, or in chronic phthisis unaccompanied by fever or blood- spitting. When there is hemoptysis, such a climate is disadvantageous or dangerous—as it is also in cases of heart-disease, chronic bronchitis, and chronic rheumatism. (5) Residence for longer or shorter times in exceptionally temperate, mild, or warm climates is recommended for pulmonary diseases, particularly phthisis. Such favoured regions are Bournemouth, Torquay, and other places on the south coast of England and the Isle of Wight, the Riviera (Mentone, Nice, &c.), Hyéres, Pozzuoli and other sheltered places in south Italy, Palermo, Madeira, Algiers, and Upper Egypt. lorida, southern California, and the 604 HEALTHS HEART pine-woods of Georgia are in favour with Ameri- cans. The climate of Colorado, ee though not altogether mild, is also beneficial to bronchial and pulmonary weakness. In hot countries the sanitariums are usually cool hill-stations—thus, in India, Simla, Darjiling, Naini Tal, Utakamand, Pachmarhi. (6) Climatie resorts where additional help is obtained for special treatment—such as the grape cure in phthisis (Meran), whey cure (Gais in canton Appenzell), and the goat’s-milk, ewe- milk, or cow’s-milk cure. The influence of the pine-woods at Arcachon is supposed to be favour- able to consumptive patients. Also such special devices as warm mud-baths, or the sun-bath cure (exposure of the uncovered person to the sun’s heat and light), as practised at Veldes in Car- inthia. (7) Hudeapathie establishments generally. (8) Sea-voyages may also be here noted, as suit- able for persons in the early stages of phthisis, and in cases of nervous exhaustion. See BATH, HyDRO- PATHY, MINERAL WATERS; the articles on the most notable health-resorts ; and Charteris, Health Resorts at Home and Abroad (1885); J. Bumey Yeo, Climate and Health Resorts (1885); Upeot Gill’s Dictionary of Watering Places (1885); and Fraser Rae’s Austrian Health-resorts (1888). Healths, Drinkine or. See Toast. Hearing. See EAR. Hearne, THOMAS, an eminent English anti- quary, was born in 1678 in the parish of White altham, Berkshire, and had his education at St Edmund Hall, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1699. Two years later he was appointed to a ae in the Bodleian Library, of which in 1712 he ecame second keeper. ‘This office he was obliged to resign in 1716 from his inability to take the oaths to the government, but he continued to live at Oxford occupied entirely with his studies. He died 10th June 1735. Hearne compiled and edited no less than forty-one works, all stamped by pain- ful and laborious learning, although poor in style and somewhat rambling in method. They are usually marred by the intrusion of irrelevant matter —even his Jacobitism crept into his prefaces; yet | they remain solid contributions to bibliogra hy, and their author deserved better than to be gibbeted in the Dunciad as a dull and dusty pedant. His most important books were Reliquie Bodleiane (1703), Leland’s Itinerary (9 vols. 1710-12), Leland’s Collectanea (6 vols. 1715), A Collection of Curious Dis- courses upon English Antiquities (1720); and the editions. of Camden’s Annals (3 vols. 1717), Alured of Beverley (1716 ), William of Newburgh (1719), Fordun’s Scotichronicon (1722), Robert of Gloucester’s Chronicle (1724), and that of Peter Langtoft (1725). The Bzblio- theca Hearniana was published in 1848 ; Reliquiwe Hear- nian, by Philip Bliss, in 1857. The third volume of Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne appeared in 1889, edited by ©. E. Doble for the Oxford Historical Society. See Impartial Memorials of his life by several hands (1736), and the Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood (Oxford, 1772). Hearsay. See EVIDENCE. Hearse, or Herse (through Fr. from Lat. hirpex, ‘a harrow’), the carriage in which the dead are conveyed to the grave, but originally the term applied to a triangular bar or ramework with upright spikes for holding candles at a church service, and especially at funeral services. It was originally very simple in form, but in the 15th and 16th centuries hearses of great splendour came into use, and were erected in the churches over the bodies of distinguished personages. The frame- work was of iron or brass, sometimes of beautiful workmanship, square, octagonal, &c. in plan, with pillars at the angles, and arched framework above forming a canopy. The whole was hung over with rich cloths and embroidery, and lighted up with hundreds of wax candles, and decorated with wax images. From this the transition to the modern funeral hearse can be easily traced. In Catholic churches the old hearse still exists as a triangle with spikes, on which candles are placed. Heart, the central organ of the circulatory system, acting as a force and suction pump in rela- tion to the blood-vessels. It always lies dorsally in Invertebrates, ventrally in Vertebrates, and arises from the strong development of one or more blood-vessels. In Vertebrates, the resulting cylin- der, lying in the throat region of the embryo, is divided into receiving and expelling portions, auricle and ventricle respectively, and the whole is enclosed in a more or less marked cavity or ensheathing double bag, the pericardium. By curvature and folding, by formation of parti- tions and ingrowth of valves, the three or four chambered hearts of the higher vertebrates arise. It will be enough to describe the general structure and function of the heart in man. The human heart lies ventrally in the chest, between the two lungs; it has a broad end or ‘base’ directed upwards and backwards, and a pointed end or ‘apex,’ turned downwards, for- wards, and to the left; it is kept in position by the attachment of the enswathing pericardium to the upper surface of the Diaphragm (q.v.), and by the large blood-vessels which enter or oe its four chambers; its total size is approximately equal to that of its owner’s closed fist. There are two receiving chambers or auricles, of which the right receives all the impure blood brought by the vence cave from head and body and by the coron- ary vein from the substance of the heart itself, while the left is filled with urified blood rought by the pelponsry veins rom the lungs. The auricles pass their contents to the two driving chambers or ven- tricles, of which the right pumps the impure blood to the lungs, and the left sends the ure blood to the » ead and body. The ventricles are larger than the auricles, and Fig. 1.—Section of the Human aie Pe Heart (after His) : muscular Walls A, right auricle; B, right ventricle: proportionate to 6, left ventricle; D, left auricle; E,. their harder partition Leeebrer ty ome veneer Between the auricles and ventricles on. work. ‘ The left right and left, the tricuspid and mitral. ventricle 18 valves with their cords and associated stronger than, muscles are shown. and partially sur- rounded by, the thinner right chamber. The right auricle opens into the right ventricle by an aperture guarded by a triple (tricuspid) valve, whose three membranous lappets are attached to*tendinous cords (chorde tendinee) arising from muscular processes (musculi papil- lares) on the walls of the ventricle. The open- ing from the left auricle into the left ventricle is similarly guarded by a double (mitral or bicuspid) valve. These valves on each side pre- vent the passage of blood from ventricle to auricle. At the base of the pulmonary artery on the right and of the aorta on the left, there are three pocket- Pie ry —— 1 HEART 605 like (semilunar) valves, which prevent backflow from vessels to ventricles. When the heart is at work, the simultaneous con- traction of the two auricles (i.e. of the muscle fibres on their walls) is followed by a similar contraction of the ventricles, and this by a pause or passive interval of re-expansion, after which the rhythm of contraction recommences. In the contraction of the auricles, the mass of blood in the large veins will not permit of a backflow in a peripheral direc- tion, so that virtually all the contents of the auricles pass into the respective ventricles, which at that moment are flaccid and uncontracted. As the ventricles fill, the valves between them and the auricles are partly closed, and this is perfectly accomplished when the contraction of the ventricle then pass back from ventricle to auricle, the energy of ven- tricular con- traction is directed to overcoming the resistance of the semi- lunar valves guarding the entrance to the pulmon- ary artery and the aorta, which are ig. 2.—Diagram of Heart halved and ™ OTC OV eT 7 laid open’ (after Debierre) : elastic vessels A, B, ©, D,as in fig. 1. a, part of tricuspid full of blood. valve; b, part of mitral; c, semilunars at The state of base of pulmonary artery. a’,a’, inferior contraction in and superior venz cave entering A; b’,b’, auricle or ven- pulmonary arteries proceeding from B; ° : ¢,¢, aorta proceeding from ©; d’,d’, pul. tricle is called monary veins entering D. the systole ; . the state of passive relaxation and expansion the diastole, and it is evident that by the systole of the auricles the ventricles are filled, and that by the systole of the ventricles their contents are for the most part forced into the arterial systems of lungs and y. As the heart usually beats about seventy-two times a minute, the cycle of events just noted lasts about ,%;ths of a second, of which the systole of the ventricle lasts about ,ths, that of the auricle pcp qoth and the passive interval about ;ths of a secon _ The activity of the heart has several external indices, such as the beating, seen and felt between the fifth and sixth rib on the left side, due to con- traction of the ventricles, which makes the ‘apex’ of the heart strike against the pericardium, and through this on the wall of the chest. There are also sounds produced by the heart : (@) the longish dull sound probably caused by the contraction of the muscular fibres of the ventricles and the ten- sion of the valves between these chambers and the auricle ; (6) the sharp sound due to the sudden closure of the semilunar valves when the contrac- tion of the ventricles ceases. The heart sounds are of ee importance in the diagnosis of disease of the heart. They may undergo various chan and may in some cases disappear or be replaced by or accompanied by murmurs. These murmurs are caused by the blood flowing through the orifices of the heart which have become changed by disease. At a distance from the heart, the pulse or regular dilatation of an elastic artery is a familiar index. The heart is under the control of three sets of nerves: (@) from ganglia in its own substance, apparently essential to the regular rhythm of con- traction ; (+) from the sympathetic system, appar- ently affecting rapidity of action; (c) from the neumogastric or vagus nerve, coming directly om the brain, apparently with arresting power. See AorTA, ARTERIES, BLOOD, CIRCULATION ; text-books of Anatomy by Quain, Turner, Mivart, Macalister, &c. ; of Physiology by Foster, Huxley, Landois and Stirling, &c. DISEASES OF THE HEART are either those affect- ing the various tissues composing the heart, or the nervous arrangements governing the heart. (1) Diseases of Structures composing Heart may be primary or secondary. (a) Primary Diseases.—All the various tissues of the heart may be primarily affected. The Peri- cardium (sac surrounding heart) may be affected with inflammation (pericarditis). This is by no means an uncommon condition in rheumatic fever, while it also occurs in connection with some of the acute exanthemata. Fluid tends to be effused into the sac, and this produces great impairment of the heart’s action. The condition frequently leads to a fatal termination. Various tumours may occur in connection with the pericardium. The Myocardium (muscular wall of heart) may also be affected with inflammation leading to very irregular and impaired action of the heart, and often to death. This is known as myocarditis, and if the fatal termination does not ensue in the acute stage of the disease, the wall of the heart is apt to be left in a weakened condition due to the patho- logical changes set up in the course of the inflam- mation. The myocardium may occasionally be the seat of tumours. The muscular substance of the heart may undergo a fatty degeneration, which may produce death either from failure of the heart, or more rarely by rupture of the wall. The Endocardium (lining membrane of heart; also forms the valves of the heart) is the most common seat of inflammation in rheumatic sub- ject8 and in individuals suffering from scarlet fever or from some other of the exanthemata. This endocarditis is specially apt to attack the valves of the left side of the heart, and to lead to deformity and the imperfect action of these important struc- tures. When this occurs the well-known train of symptoms commonly associated with heart disease are apt to appear—breathlessness, palpitations, irregular heart's action, dropsy, albuminuria, &e. ; while the various signs of valvular disease, among the most important of which is the alteration in the sounds of the heart, and the development of mur- murs may also be determined. In many cases, however, in spite of disease of the valves, the heart may continue to act satisfactorily. But there is always a great danger of its proving inadequate to the additional work thus put upon it, and of its suddenly failing under any extra strain. There is one peculiar form of inflammation of the endocardium known as acute ulcerative endocarditis which is exceedingly fatal, and which is due to the development of micro-organisms in the heart. Certain slow degenerative changes may also affect the endocardium, more especially where it com. poses the aortic valves ( Atheroma). In all inflammatory affections of the heart there is a tendency for all the structures to be involved at one and the same time. (b) Secondary Diseases.—As the result of various morbid states of other parts of the body, the heart, and more especially its muscular wall, may become secondarily affected. Thus in fever the muscular substance of the heart manifests the con- dition of cloudy swelling, and thus becoming weak- ened tends to yield to the pressure of bl inside the heart, and to undergo dilatation. This state of the organ is frequently accompanied by the develop- 606 HEART HEAT ment of murmurs due to the imperfect action of the valves between the auricles and ventricles allowing the blood to flow backwards through the orifices. At the same time the various symptoms of dis- turbed circulation are developed. in the various forms of anemia (bloodlessness), whether primary or secondary to other diseases, the muscle of the heart becomes debilitated, and a similar series of signs and symptoms to those just described make their appearance. In certain diseases in which the blood pressure is raised (Bright’s Disease), or when any condition throws extra work on the heart for a considerable period, the organ becomes hypertrophied—i.e. in- creased in size and strength. This is well seen when the valves are diseased, and the muscular substance is well nourished. (2) Derangements of Nervous Mechanism of Heart.—As a result of many totally different con- ditions the sensory nervous mechanism of the heart may be affected, and give rise to pain or to various sensations in the region of the heart. These sensa- tions are not, however, always indicative of organic disease of the organ. A peculiar set of symptoms, known as angina ectoris, are treated more fully under a separate ead. The patient suffers from attacks, the chief symptom of which is a dreadful feeling of im- pending death, usually with cardiac pain. When occurring as the result of organic heart disease these symptoms are most commonly connected with disease of the aortic valves. The various nervous arrangements presiding over the movements of the heart may also become deranged, and lead to increased or diminished heart’s action or to irregular action. The last is the most frequent, and is a very common accompani- ment of organic disease, though it frequently occurs in individuals entirely free of any such condition. Nervous and gouty individuals and those addicted to the excessive use of tobacco are common sufferers from such palpitations. The words ‘ broken heart’ seem to suggest a form of heart disease. But of course the expression arose out of the long prevalent and now wholly obsolete view that the heart is in some way the seat of the affections—a view inevitably suggested by the quickening of the pulse under emotion, or its temporary stoppage from a sudden shock. Heart, SAcRED. See SACRED HEART. Heart-burial, or the burial of the heart ina place separate from that in which the body is laid, seems to have been once practised by the ancient Egyptians. In European countries it was most common in the 12th and 13th centuries, though instances have occurred in all centuries down to and including the 19th. The practice undoubtedly arose out of the special veneration in which the heart was held as the seat of the affections and of certain of the higher virtues, as courage, piety. Besides the heart, other parts of the body, such as the viscera, were sometimes honoured with separate burial. . It has been suggested that this distribu- tion of the body for sepulture was prompted by a wish to secure the prayers of more than one congre- gation for the soul of the deceased. In other instances, where the deceased has died abroad and his heart has been carried home for burial, the motive is simpler to understand. The persons who have been honotired with separate burial for the heart have been for the most part men and women of royal birth and ecclesiastics of high rank. Amongst royal personages may be enumerated Henry I. an Richard I. of England, whose hearts were interred at Rouen; Henry III., whose heart was buried at Fontevraud in Normandy; Eleanor, wife of Edward I., at Lincoln; Edward I. himself, whose heart was sent to Jerusalem for burial, as was that of Robert Bruce (q.v.); the French kings, Louis XII., XIII., and XTV., Francis I. and IT., and Henry Il. and III. ; the Emperor Leopold of Austria ; and James II. of England, whose heart was entombed in St Mary of Chaillot near Paris. The heart of Anne de Montmorency, constable of France, was interred at Les Célestins; that of Lord Edward Bruce at Culross Abbey in Perthshire, his body in Bergen-op-Zoom in Holland; and that of Sir William Temple at Moor Park near Farnham. The viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) on- wards were fasted: in SS. Vincenzo and Anastasio, the parish church of the Quirinal. In the 19th century the best-known cases are those of Daniel O’Connell, the poet Shelley (‘cor cordium’), and Kellermann, the French marshal. The hearts of the first two were buried in Rome, that of the last on the battlefield of Valmy. The practice was pro- hibited by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) under sentence of excommunication ; but the prohibition was removed by his successor Benedict XI., at all events so far as the French royal family was con- cerned. See Pettigrew, Chronicles of the Tombs (1857), pp. 249 et seq. Heart-burn. See INDIGESTION. Hearth-money, an pore tax of two shil- lings levied on every heartly in all houses ‘ payin to church and poor;’ first imposed in 1663, an abolished in 1689. Heart’s Content, a port of Newfoundland, on the east side of Trinity Bay, with 900 inhabit- ants. Two Atlantic.cables land here, Heart’s-ease. See VIOLET. Heat, the cause of the sensation of warmth, and of a multitude of common phenomena in nature and art. it is necessary from the outset to discard the ideas conveyed by the popular use of such words as hot and cold. A number of bodies, however different, left for a long enough time in the same room, must, as we shall see further on, acquire the same tempera- ture, or become in reality equally warm. Yet in popular language some, as metals, stones, &c., are pronounced to be cold, and others, as flannel and fur, warm. The touch, then, is not a means by which we can acquire any definite idea of the temperature of a body. . Nature of Heat.—A heated body is no heavier than it was before it was heated ; if, therefore, heat be a material substance, as it was long considered, it must be imponderable. And, in fact, under the name of caloric, it is classed in almost all but modern treatises as one of the family of imponder- ables. But if it were matter, in any sense of the word, its quantity would be unchangeable by human agency. ow we find that there are cases in which heat is produced in any quantity without flame, combustion, &c., as in melting two pieces of ice by rubbing them together, and also cases in which a quantity of heat totally disappears. This is utterly inconsistent with the idea of the mate- riality of heat. The only hypothesis that at all accords with the phenomena is that heat depends upon motion of the particles of a body, being in fact Energy (q.v.), not matter; and with this idea we shall start. Temperature.—When two bodies are placed in contact, heat will in general pass from one to the other, with the effect of cooling the first and warm- ing the second. This process goes on until the two acquire the same temperature. Thus temperature is a condition of a body, determining, as it were, the head of the heat which the body contains—to take the obvious analogy of water in a cistern or a mill-pond. In this sense it is analogous also to the pressure of gas in a receiver, or to the potential in In considering this subject scientifically — a / -- . _— - HEAT 607 an electrified conductor. By the help of the ‘ specific heat’ of bodies (which will be treated later) we can determine from their nec of temperature how much heat they gain or lose. The scientific or absolute measurement of temperature can only be alluded to here. It depends upon theoretical con- siderations, for which see THERMO-DYNAMICS. Measure of Heat.—Whether it be a vibration, such as light and sound (as in some cases it cer- tainly is), or consist in independent motions of the ticles of a body, leading to a succession of ¢s on each other and on the walls of the con- taining vessel (as is almost certainly the case in gases), it is none the less certain that the amount of heat in a body is to be measured by the energy of moving particles. But as we cannot observe those particles so as to ascertain their vis-viva, we must have as a preliminary some artificial unit in terms of which to measure heat. This will be described later. But in order that this process may be applied we must have some means of measuring the temperature of a body, depending upon an effect of heat. Whatever that effect may be, it is obvious that, as the laws of nature are uniform, it will afford us a reproducible standard, by which we can estimate at any time and at any place an amount of heat, and compare that amount with another observed somewhere else ; just as the French Métre (av) is reproducible at any time, being (at least y its original definition) the ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the meridian. latation or Expansion.—Now, one of the most general and notable effects which heat produces on matter is to expand it. The length of a metallic bar varies with every change of temperature, and is ever the same at the same temperature. The fixing of the tire of a cart-wheel is a very good instance. No hammering could fit an iron hoop so tightly on the wood-work of the wheel as does the simple enlarging of the tire by heat, and its subse- uent contraction by cold. It is thus possible to slip it on, and an enormous force is secured to bind the pieces together. In almost every kind of struc- ture the expansion and contraction from changes of temperature Pe to be guarded against. In the huge iron tubes of the Britannia Bridge the mere change of the seasons would have produced sufficient changes of length to tear the piers asunder, each end of a tube been fixed to masonry. Watches and clocks, when not compensated (see ‘PENDULUM), go faster in cold weather, and slower in hot, an immediate consequence of the expansion or contraction of their balance-wheels and pendu- ums. : If a flask full of water or of alcohol be dipped into hot water or held over a lamp, the flask is heated first, and for a moment a not quite full, but as heat reaches the liquid it expands in turn, and toa ter degree than the flask, so that a portion of the liquid runs over; a glass shell which just floats in a vessel of water, sinks to the bottom when the water is heated; and as water is gradually heated from below, the hotter water con- tinually rises to the surface. Indeed, if this were not the case, it would be impossible to prevent explosions every time we attempted to boil water or any other fluid. If a bladder, partly filled with air, and tightly tied at the neck, be heated before a fire, the contained air will expand, and the bladder will be distended. As it cools it becomes flaccid again by degrees. These and like instances are sufficient to show us that in general all bodies expand by heat. In order, then, to prepare a reproducible means of measuring temperature, all we have to do is to fix upon a sub- stance (mercury is that most commonly used) by whose changes of volume it is to be measured, and a reproducible temperature, or rather two reproducible temperatures, at which to measure the volume. Those usually selected are—that at which water freezes, or ice melts, and that at which water boils. In both of these cases the water must be pure, as any addition of foreign matter in general changes the temperature at which freezing or boiling takes lace. Another important circumstance is the ight of the barometer (see BOILING). The second reproducible temperature is therefore defined as that of water boiling in an open vessel when the barometer stands at 30 inches. In absolute strict- ness, this should also be said of the freezing-point, but the effect on the latter of a change of baro- metric gone is practically insensible. The practical construction of a heat-measurer or ther- mometer on these principles, the various ways of graduating it, and how to convert the readings of one thermometer into those of another, are described in the article THERMOMETER. In the present article we suppose the Centigrade thermo- meter to be the one used. If we make a number of thermometer tubes, fill them with different liquids, and graduate as in the Centigrade, we shall find that, though they all give 0° in freezing and 100° in boiling water, no two in general agree when placed in water between those states. ence the rate of expansion is not generally uniform for equal increments of temperature. It has been found, however, by very delicate experi- ments, which cannot be more than alluded to here, that mercury expands nearly uniformly for equal increments of temperature. However, what we sought was not an absolute standard, but a re- producible one; and mercury, in addition to fur- nishing this, may be assumed also to give us os aac the ratios of different increments of temperature. We must next look a little more closely into the nature of dilatation by heat. And first, of its measure. A metallic rod of length / at 0° increases at ¢° by a quantity which is proportional to ¢ and to/. Hence, & being some numerical quantity, the expanded length /’ = 1(1+t). Here k is called the coefficient of linear dilatation. For instance, a brass rod of length 1 foot at 0° becomes at ¢ (1 + *0000187¢) feet ; and here x, or the coefficient of linear dilatation for one degree (Centigrade), is 0000187 ; or a brass rod has its length increased by about one fifty-three thousandth part for eac de of temperature. f we consider a bar (of brass, for instance) whose length, breadth, and depth are 7, 6, d—then, when heated, these increase proportionally. Hence Uv = 1(1 + kt), b = W(1 + kt), d' = d(1 + kt), and therefore the volume of, or space occupied by, the bar increases from V or /bd to V’ or l’b’d’. Hence V’ = V(1 + £t)’, - = V(1+ 3kt) nearly, since & is very small. Therefore we may write V’ = V(1 + Kt), where we shall have as before K, the coefficient of cubical dilatation for 1° of temperature. And, as K = 3k, we see that, for the same substance, the coefficient of cubical dilatation ts three times that of linear tlatation. In the following table these coefficients are increased a hundredfold, as it gives the propor- tional increase of length for a rise of temperature from 0° to 100° Centigrade. It must also be remarked that, while the /inear dilatation of solids is given, it is the cubical dilatation of liquids and which is necessarily given. Moreover, as the fatter are always measured in glass, which itself dilates, the results are only oy hey ; they are too small, and require correction for the cubical dilata- tion of glass. This, however, is comparatively very 608 HEAT small, and a rough approximation to its value is usually sufficient. GARES Wisse cs dcauns ays 00086 | Waters; .3..50s. ckice 0432 FTO alive s ube states pianist 00122 | Alcohol ......csccccecs 116 PS Kits Suadinaea teak DO204 | Ait. caves cieetnleaieceee *B665 MORONEY ec eisiess oot “01803 | Hydrogen ............ “3668 There is one specially remarkable exception to the law that bodies expand by heat—viz, that of water under certain circumstances. From 0° (Centi- grade), at which it melts, it contracts as the tempera- ture is raised, up to about 4° C., after which it. begins to expand like other bodies. We cannot here enter into speculations as to the cause of this very singular phenomenon, but we will say a few words about its practical utility. Water, then, is densest or heaviest at 4° C. Hence, in cold weather, as the surface water of a lake cools to near 4°, it becomes heavier than the hotter water below, and sinks to the bottom. This goes on till the whole Jake has the temperature 4°. As the surface-cooling proceeds further, the water becomes lighter, and therefore remains on the surface till it is frozen, Did water not possess this property, a severe winter might freeze a lake to the bottom, and the heat of summer might be insufficient to remelt it all. Specific Heat.—The thermometer indicates the temperature of a body, but gives us no direct infor- mation as to the amount of heat it contains. Yet this is measurable, forwe may take as our UNIT the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water from 0° to 1°, which is of course a definite standard. As an instance of the question now raised—Is more heat (and if so, how much more) required to heat a pound of water from zero to 10° than to heat a pound of mercury between the same limits? We find by experiment that bodies differ extensively in the amount of heat (measured in the units before mentioned ) required to produce equal changes of temperature in them. It is a result of experiment (sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes) that, if equal weights of water at different temperatures be mixed, the tem- perature of the mixture will be the arithmetic mean of the original temperatures. From this it follows, with the same degree of approximation, that equal successive amounts of heat are required to raise the same mass of water through successive degrees of temperature. As an instance, suppose one pound of water at 50° to be mixed with two pounds at 20°, the resulting temperature of the mixture is 30°; for the pons at 50° has lost 20 heat units, while each of the other two pounds has gained 10 such units, transferred of course from the hotter water. Gener- ally, if m pounds of water at ¢ degrees be mixed with M pounds at T degrees (the latter being the colder), and if 6 be the temperature of the mixture —the number of units lost by the first is m(¢ - @), since one is lost for each pound which cools by one degree ; and that gained by the second is M(@ — T), and these must be equal. Hence m(¢-6)=M(0-T); whence, at once, g — mt + MT m+M~ But if we mix water and mercury at different tem- peratures, the resulting temperature is found not to agree with the above law. Hence it appears that to raise equal weights of different bodies through the same number of degrees of temperature ie eh different amounts of heat. And we may then define the specific heat of a substance as the number of units of heat (as above defined) required to raise the temperature of one pound of it by one degree. From the definition of a unit of heat it is at once seen that our numerical system is such that the specific heat of water is unity ; and, in general, the specific heats of other bodies are less, and are therefore to be expressed as proper fractions. For example, if equal weights of water and mereury be mixed, the first at 0°, the second at 100°, the resulting temperature will not be 50° (as it would have been had both bodies been water), but 3°-23 nearly ; in other words, the amount of heat which raises the temperature of one pound of water 3°'23 is that which would raise that of one pound of mereury 96°°77, or the specific heat of ie is syth of that of water. The following may be given as instances of the great differences which experiment has shown to exist among bodies in respect of spe- cific heat : Water, 1000; turpentine, 426; sulphur, 203 ; iron, ‘114; mercury, ‘035. It is mainly to the great specific heat of water that we are indebted for the comparatively small amount of it required to cool a hot body dropped into it; for its comparatively small loss of tempera- ture when it is poured into a cold vessel; and for the enormous efiects of the water of the ocean in modifying climate, as by the Gulf Stream. It has been found generally that the specific heats of elementary solids are nearly inversely as their Atomic Weights (q.v.). sence their atoms require the same amount of heat to produce the same change in their temperature. Thus, forsimple bodies, we have atomic weight of mereury, 100; its specific heat, ‘033; product, 3°3; atomic weight of iron, 28; its specific heat, 114; product, 3:2, A similar remark may be made, it appears, with reference to compound bodies of any one type; but, in general, the product of the specific heat and the atomic weight differs from one type to another. Latent Heat, Fusion, Solution, and Vaporisation. —We are now prepared to consider the somewhat complex effects produced by heat on the molecular constitution of bodies; and, conversely, the rela- tions of solidity, fluidity, &e. to heat. All solid bodies (except carbon, which has been softened — only) have been melted by exposure to a sufficiently high temperature. The laws of this fusion are : (1) Every body has a definite melting-point, assign- able on the thermometric scale, if the pressure to which it is subjected be the same. (2) When a body is melting, it retains that fixed temperature, however much heat may be supplied, until the last particle is melted. The last result is most remarkable. The heat supplied does not raise the temperature, but produces the change of state. Hence it seemed to disappear, as far as the thermometer is concerned, and was therefore called latent heat. i A pound of water at 79° C. added to a pound of water at 0° C. produces, of course, two pounds of water at 39°°5. But a pound of water at 79° C. added to a pound of ice at 0° C. produces two pounds of water at 0°. Heat, then, has disappeared in the production of a change from solidity to fluidity. And this we might expect from the conservation of Energy (q.v.), for energy in the shape of heat must be consumed in producing the potential — energy of the molecular actions of the separate particles in the fluid. For every pound of ice melted, without change of temperature, 79 units of heat are thus converted into potential energy of molecular separation. We give a few instances of latent heat of fusion : Water (as above), 79°0; zinc, 28°1; sulphur, 9°43 - lead, 5°4; mercury, 2°8. In law 1 it is mentioned that constancy of pres- — sure is necessary. In fact, the freezing (or melt- ing) point of water is lowered by increase of pres- sure, while those of sulphur or wax are raised ; but these effects, though extremely remarkable, are very small. Most bodies contract on solidify- ing; but some, as water, cast-iron, certain alloys, — &c., expand. Thus a severe frost, setting in after d ee HEAT 609 copious rain, splits rocks, &e., by the expansion of vorbis and thus also we obtain i iron the most delicate and faithful copy of a mould, and in the fusible alloy a clear-ent copy of a type. The modern dynamical theory of heat (thermo-dynamics ) enables us to see that a perpetual motion would be rable if bodies which contract on seis not their melting-point raised by pressure, an wice versa. Analogous to the fusion of a solid is its solution in a liquid, or the mutual conversion into liquids of two solids which are intimately mixed in powder. Here, also, we should expect kinetic energy, in the shape of heat, to be used up in producing t st panes tial energy of the liquid state; and, indeed, such is always the case. Such changes of arrangement destroy heat or produce cold; but this in many cases is not the effect observed, as there is gener- ally heat developed by the Joss of potential ener, if there be chemical action between the two su stances. Hence, in general, the observed effect will be due to the difference of the heat generated —e action and that absorbed in change of ite. _ If a quantity of pou nitrate of ammonia (a very scluble salt) laced in a vessel, an equal weight of water added, and the whole stirred for a minute or two with a test-tube containing water, the heat required for the solution of the salt will be abstracted from all bodies in contact with the solution, and the water in the test-tube will be frozen. In this sense the arrangement is called a khang mixture. For additional illustrations of eat becoming latent, see FREEZING MIXTURES. Of course the converse of this may be expected to hold, and latent heat to become sensible when a liquid becomes solid. As an example, when a supersaturated solution of sulphate of soda begins to deposit erystals of the salt with one rapidity the temperature rises very considerably ; and it is the disengagement of latent heat that renders the freezing of a pond a slow process, even after the whole of the water has been reduced nearly to the freezing-point. Vaporisation.—Almost all that has been said on the subject of fusion is true of vaporisation, with the change of a word or two. Thus, however much heat we supply to a liquid, the temperature does not rise above the boiling-point. Heat, then, hecomes /atent in the act of vaporisation, or rather ‘is converted into the potential energy involved in the change of state. It is found by experi- ment that 540 units of heat (each sufficient to heat a pound of water 1° C.) disappear in the con- version of a pound of water into steam. Hence a pound of steam at 100° C. is sufficient to oot pounds of water from zero to the boiling- int. P COMMUNICATION or Heat.—There are at least three distinct ways in which this occurs, and these we will take in order. Conduction.—Why is it that, if one end of a poker and of a glass or wooden rod be put into a fire, we can keep hold of the other end of the latter much longer than we can of the former? The reason is that heat is more readily transmitted in: the iron from particle to particle than it is in glass or wood. This is conduction. It is to be noticed, however, that in this experiment a great portion of the heat which along each rod is given off into the air by the surface. The mathe- matical theory of conduction has been most ex- quisitely investigated by Fourier, but on the supposition that the rate at which heat passes from a warmer to a colder portion of a body is propor- tional to the difference of temperature. As most of the experiments which have been made with the sbigcs of ascertaining the conductivity (not 47 conductibility, the erroneous word too common! in use) of different bodies have been made in th way, it is not surprising that our knowledge on this point is very m indeed. We know that silver and copper conduct better than most other metals, and that the metals in general conduct better than other solids; but our further informa- tion is neither very extensive nor very definite. The first determinations of conductivity which are at all trustworthy are those of Forbes. His method was immensely superior to those of his redecessors. Before we give one or two numer- ical data, we must explain what the numbers mean. The following definition is virtually that of Fourier : The thermal conductivity of a substance is the number of units of heat which pass per unit of surface per unit of time, through a slab of unit thickness, whose sides are kept at temperatures differing by 1° C. Taking the unit of heat as above described, a foot as unit of length and a minute as unit of time, the conductivity of iron is about 0°8, while that of copper varies from 4 to little more than 2. (Very slight impurities affect to a great extent both the thermal and the electric conductivity of copper.) Contrasted with these we find that the conductivity of rocks is very small, ranging from 0°015 to 0°04. In conjunction with their radiating power (see next section), the conductivity of bodies is most important as regards their suitableness as articles of clothing for hot or cold climates, or as materials for building or furnishing dwelling-houses. We need but refer to the difference between linen and woollen clothing, or to the difference (in cold weather) of sensation between a carpet and a bare floor, in order to show how essential the greater or less conducting power of bodies is to our everyday comfort. Radiation.—By this is understood the passage of heat, not from particle to particle of one body, but through air or vacuum, and even through solid bodies (in a manner and with a velocity quite different from those of conduction) from one y to another. There can be no doubt whatever as to radiant heat being identical with light, differ- ing from red light, for instance, as red light differs from blue—i.e. having (see LIGHT) longer waves than those corresponding to red light. This idea might easily have arisen during the contemplation of a body gradually heated. At first it remains dark, giving off only rays of heat; as its tempera- ture increases it gives us, along with the heat, a low red light, which, by the increase of the temperature, is ually accompanied by yellow, blue, &c. rays, and the incandescent body (a lime-ball, for in- stance) finally gives off a light as white as that of the sun, and which therefore contains all the colours of sunlight in their usual proportions. In fact there is great reason to believe that the sun is merely a mass of incandescent matter, probably in the main gaseous, and that the radiations it emits, whether called heat or light, merely differ in quality, not in kind. Taking this view of the subject at the outset, it will instructive to compare the properties of radiant heat with those of light throughout. It must be understood when we make this comparison that the term heat is improperly used in this connection. Radiant heat is not heat in the ordinary sense of the word. It is a form of energy, a transformation of the heat of a hot body, and can be transformed into heat again when it is absorbed, but on its ager it is a what we ordinarily understand by the word eat. Light, then, moves (generally) in straight lines. This is easily verified in the case of heat by the use of the thermo-electric pile and its galvano- 610 HEAT meter. Placing the pile out of the line from a source of heat to an aperture in a screen, no effect is observed ; but deflection of the needle at once occurs when the pile is placed in the line which gee would have followed if substituted for the eat. A coneave mirror, which would bring rays of light proceeding from a given point to a focus at another given point, does the same with heat, the hot body being substituted for the luminous one, and the pile placed at the focus. Heat, then, is reflected pie: to the same laws as light. A burning lens gives a capital proof of the sun’s heat and light being subject to the same laws of refrac- tion. When the solar Spectrum (q.v.) is formed by means of. a prism of rock-salt (the reasons for the choice of this material will afterwards appear), the thermo-electric pile proves the existence of ~ heat in all the coloured spaces, increasing, how- ever, down to the red end of the spectrum, and attaining its maximum beyond the visible light, just as if radiant heat were (as it must be) light with longer waves. Some bodies, as glass, water, &c., transmit, when in thin plates, most of the light which falls on them; others, as wood, metal, coloured glass, &ec., transmit none or little. A plate of rock-salt, half an inch thick, transmits 96 per cent. of the rays of heat which fall on it; while glass, even of a thickness of one-tenth of an inch, transmits very little. In this sense, rock-salt is said to be diather- manous, While glass is said to be adiathermanous, or only partially diathermanous. Most of the simple gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen, &c., and mixtures of these, such as air, oppose very little resistance to the passage of radiant heat; but the reverse is in general the case with compound gases. It has recently been asserted that water-vapour in particular is exceedingly adiathermanous. The question is one of very considerable difficulty, owing to the fact that it is almost impossible to experiment upon vapour alone. The presence of dust particles always produces deposition of water, which is a very good absorber of radiant heat. But there are other remarkable phenomena. of radiant heat which are easily observed, and which have their analogy in the case of light. (1) Un- stained glass seems equally transparent to all kinds of light. Such is the case with rock-salt and heat. (2) Light which has passed through a blue glass (for instance) loses far less per cent. when it passes through a second plate of blue glass. Similarly heat loses (say) 75 per cent. in passing through one plate of crown-glass, and only 10 per cent. of the remainder (say) in passing through a second. (3) Blue light passes easily through a b/we glass, which almost entirely arrests red light. So dark heat pape far less easily through glass than bright heat oes. These analogies, mostly due to Melloni, are very remarkable. Again, light can be doubly refracted, plane polarised, circularly polarised. All these _pro- perties have been found in radiant heat by Prin- cipal Forbes. The beautiful investigations of Stokes, Balfour Stewart, and Kirchhoff have shown us that bodies which most easily absorb light of a particular colour give off most freely, when heated, light of that colour; and it is cane shown by experiment that those surfaces which absorb heat most readily also radiate it most readily. Thus, it was found by Leslie that when a tinned-iron eube full of boil- ing water had one side polished, another rough- ened, a third covered with lampblack, &c., the polished side radiated little heat, the roughened more, while the blackened side radiated a very great quantity indeed. And again, that if we ave (say) three similar thermometers, and if the bulbs be (1) gilded, (2) covered with roughened metal, (3) smoked, and all be exposed to the same: radiation of heat, their sensibility will be in the order 3, 2, 1. A practical illustration of this is: seen in the fact that a blackened kettle is that in which water is most speedily made to boil, while a. polished one keeps the water longest warm when removed from the fire. Again, if a willow-pattern plate be heated white-hot in the fire, and then ‘examined in a dark room, the pattern will be reversed—a white pattern being seen on a dark ground. It is this law of equality of radiating and absorbing powers that mainly gives rise to the superior comfort of white clothing to black in winter as well as in summer; radiating less in winter, it absorbs less in summer. Much has been argued about the separate exist- ence of cold, from such facts as these: A piece of ice held before the thermo-electric pile produces an opposite deflection of the galvanometer to that pro- duced by a hot ball. tt a freezing mixture be placed at one focus of a spheroidal mirror, and a thermometer with a blackened bulb at the conju- gate focus, the latter will fall speedily, though very far off from the mixture. Now, the true explanation of such observations is to be found in what is called the ‘Theory of Exchanges,’ first enunciated by Prévost, and since greatly extended and carefully verified by Stewart, which is to this effect : ‘Every body is continually radiating heat in all directions, the amount radiated being greater as the temperature is higher.’ Thus the radiation from a body depends on itself alone, the amount absorbed depends on the radiation which reaches it. Hence the apparent radiation of cold in the experi- ments above mentioned is due to the fact of the pile or thermometer radiating oo more heat than tt receives, as its temperature is higher than that of the freezing mixture to which it is opposed. From this it is evident that any number of bodies left near each other tend gradually to assume a com- mon temperature. By this theory of exchanges we explain the cold felt in ern opposite an open window in a frosty day, even when there is no draught. Convection.—A hot body cools faster in a current of air than in a still atmosphere of the same temperature, evidently be- cause fresh supplies of the colder air are continu- ally brought into contact with it. This carrying off of its heat by a stream of air is an example of convection. It is by con- vection mainly that heat is conveyed throughout liquids and gases. Thus, sa a lamp is applied to the bottom of a vessel of water the heat does not diffuse itself in the water as it would (by conduc- tion) in a mass of metal, but the expansion of the heated water at the bot- tom rendering it lighter, bulk for bulk, than the superincumbent fluid, causes it to rise to the surface; and thus, by con- vection, the heat is diffused through the mass. Conduction, pbs deed so called, can scarcely be shown, though it really exist, in liquids or gases, on this account. object as seen by light which’ passes near a hob surface, as that of a boiler or a red-hot poker, is due to the convection of heat in the air, the warm The tremulous appearance of any HEATH HEAVEN 611 current refracting light less than does the cold air. See VENTILATION. For the mechanical applications of heat, see AIR-ENGINE, STEAM-ENGINE, &c., and for their theory, see THERMO-DYNAMICS, Sources of Heat.—They may be, so far as we know, ultimately reduced to two—chemical com- bination and mechanical energy ; and, indeed, in all probability the former is only a variety of the immensely different forms in which the latter is manifested. A more full examination of this point, and a general statement of the ultimate nature of the various sources of heat, will be found in the article ENERGY above referred to. See also ComBusTION, FUEL; and for heating apparatus, see WARMING. Heath (Zrica), a genus of small shrubs of the natural order Ericew, distinguished by a calyx of four leaves, a bell-sha or ovate—often ventricose — corolla, and a 4-celled, 4-8-valved capsule. The leaves are small, linear, and ever- green. The genus consists of about 400 species, i 32 es iat ( &) o rar f At. OS & hon iw. > xe ; a2 me Noo i) Ae} Ae oe we 4 WS = Us Sie “AR 7 Oe» * aS t ¥ ce 4} , S79 a\\ WS Rees S Sw ee iN 24). \} i :) ee SY) = \ iy ' EN Y_. 3s JY) N } Fi y Ge 3 we a s 4 ee sy i Lm FZ Heaths. besides innumerable hybrids and varieties raised in gardens. The home of the genus is in the western = of South Africa, but a few species are dis- ributed over western and northern Europe. Z£. vulgaris—now genlly named by botanists Cal- luna vulgaris (fig. 1)—is the most widely distrib- uted of all heaths, extending as it does over central and northern Europe to the Arctic Circle. It is the ling, heath, or heather of British moors and mountains. The genus is not found in Asia, America—except in Labrador, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and apie of New England, where the common heath occurs—nor in Australia. Six “agg including the ling, are found in the British sles. Cross-leaved Heather (2. tetralix) (fig. 2) and Fine-leaved Heather (2. cinerea) (fig. 3) are com- mon plants in most parts of Britain, and, like most of the genus, are very beautiful when in flower. The heather-bells of Scottish song are the flowers of one or both of these species. A sprig of £. cinerea was the badge of the Macdonalds at the time when they existed as a distinct clan. JZ. carnea, common in the southern parts of Europe, is a very frequent ornament of British flower- borders. Many species, remarkable for the size and beauty of their flowers, are much cultivated in greenhouses. Some of the south African or Cape heaths attain in their native region a much greater size than any European heath except Z. arborea, which in the Pyrenees sometimes grows to the height of 20 feet. The so-called Briar-root (q.v.) of which tobacco-pipes are made is a heath. In deg: re of Scotland the ger eae heath served in former times a t variety of purposes. The poorer folks formed walle for their cottages with alternate layers of heath and a kind of mortar made of earth and straw, and they made comfort- able if not luxurious beds of it, placing the roots downwards, and laying the plants in a = direction. With heath cottages are also thatched, besoms are made, and faggots are formed to burn in ovens. In the island of Islay ale was made by brewing one part of malt with two of the youn tops of the common heath, and this liquor, accord- ing to Boece, was used by the Picts. Sheep and goats sometimes browse on the tender shoots, but they do not like them. The young tops form almost exclusively the food of grouse. From the flowers bees extract a great quantity of honey, which is of a very deep colour. Heathfield, Georce Aucustus Exrort, Lorn, the heroic defender of Gibraltar, was the seventh son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, and was born at his father’s seat of Stobs in Roxburghshire, on Christ- mas-day 1717. Having been educated at the uni- versity of Leyden, and at the French milita college of La Fere and at Woolwich, he had his first experience of actual warfare in the war of the Austrian succession, in which he was wounded at Dettingen and fought at Fontenoy. Having been gazetted colonel of a regiment of light horse in 1759, he served at its head with the English con- tingent that assisted Frederick the Great against Austria in the years 1759 to 1761. In the follow- ing year he went out to Cuba as second in com- mand under the Earl of Albemarle, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. When, after the outbreak of the war with the American colonies, Great Britain became involved in hostili- ties with Spain as well, Eliott was sent out to put Gibraltar in a state of defence. His obstinate and heroic defence of this stronghold, from June 1779 to February 1783, against all the power of Spain, ranks as one of the most memorable achievements of British arms (see GIBRALTAR). On his return home he was in 1787 raised to the peer as Lord Heathfield, Baron of Gibraltar— eathfield being a Sussex estate which he had purchased in 1763. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, 6th July 1790. Drink- water’s History of the Siege of Gibraltar is one of the best accounts of military heroism ever written. Heaven, in its theological sense, is that por- tion of the infinite space in which the Lord of all things, though present throughout all, is supposed to give more immediate manifestations of his glory. It is also the place, or the state or condition, of the blessed spirits, and of the souls of just men made perfect who are admitted into the participation or the contemplation of the divine beatitude. It is the special seat of the glory of the Most ee in which his angels minister to him, and the blessed spirits abide in perpetual praise and adoration. In the Scriptures the word is used in various senses : (1) for the region of the atmosphere ; (2) sometimes or the region of the stars—the hosts of heaven ; (3) as a state of blessedness attainable even here as in Eph. ii. 6, where it is said ‘God hath rais us up together (with Christ), and made us sit to- gether in heavenly places ;’ and also in Phil. iii. 20, where the conversation of the saints while yet on earth is said to be ‘in heaven ;’ (4) as the place where God dwells, where the angels and the spirits of the saints are congregated, whence hrist came and whither he has returned (John, xiv. 2, &c.). Many of the saints of Christendom in moments of ecstatic elevation of spirit have 612 HEBBEL HEBERT believed that glimpses into heaven have been vouchsafed to them, but their accounts of these visions have usually been but incongruous and contradictory. The figurative language in which its unseen glories are described in Scripture has made such an excitation of fancy the more easy for devout souls rapt in profound meditation about what it has not been given to the eye of man to see nor the heart to conceive. Aristotle declares that all men have a conception of gods, and that all agree in placing their habita- tion in the most elevated region of the universe. The Egyptian, the Scandinavian, the Assyrian, and all primitive religions maintain the existence of a heaven as the place of reward after death for virtu- ous lives lived on earth; and indeed it may be taken as the universal corollary to the universally held belief in the immortality of the soul, even though it may be only under the form of the final stage in a cycle of purificatory transmigrations. But among primitive peoples it is little more than a dim cad shadowy continuation of this present world, the pale ghosts that inhabit it wearing the form and fashion that they wore in life. The idea of future retribution enters early into the moral consciousness of man, but it would hardly be true to say that it is everywhere present. The Teutonic warrior had his war-horse and his armour laid in his barrow that he might continue into the spirit- world the joys of life, his Valhalla being but a lorified extension of the warrior’s life, just as the ed Indian’s paradise is but a richer and move extensive hunting-ground. Yet the unseen life is often but poor and cheerless compared with the warm and actual world—even in the Elysian fields the shade of Achilles would gladly change places with the meanest soldier in the Grecian host. The Koran adopts the Cabbalistic notion of seven heavens, which rise above each other like the stages of a building ; and it places the chief happiness of heaven in the unrestricted and inexhaustible joys of sense. The Cabbalistic writers divide these seven heavens according to the successive degrees of glory which they imply. The seventh is the abode of God and of the highest order of angels ; the sixth, fifth, fourth, and third are the succes- sive abodes of the various grades of angels, arranged according to the degrees of dignity. The second is the region of the clouds, and the first the space between the clouds and the earth. For the development cf Jewish and Christian Escha- tology, and the significance of the conception of heaven, see the article HmLL, under which the subject of future rewards and punishments is discussed with some fullness. Hebbel, Frieprics, lyrical and dramatic poet, was born at Wesselburen, in Ditmarsh, 18th March 1813. After travelling in Germany, France, and Italy, he settled at Vienna in 1846, where he mar- ried the actress Christine Enghaus. He died at Vienna, 13th December 1863. is principal works are his Gedichte (2 vols. 1841-48), and ‘several dramas, the best among them being Judith (1840), Maria Magdalena (1844), Agnes Bernauer (1855), Gyges und sein Ring (1856), and his master- piece, Die Nibelungen (1862). Hebbel had stron dramatic talent, skill in drawing character, an command of vigorous language, but no feelin for beauty. His dramas are destitute of love an joyousness ; they depict the revolt of passionate natures, the frenzied riot of evil desires, and are characterised by an almost demonic vigour of action. (Hamburg) in 1866-68, (1877) and frank] (1884), and Hebbel’s (2 vols. 1887). He'be, the goddess of youth, the daughter of Zeus and Hera, was the wife of Hercules after he See Biographies by Kuh ‘bel Tagebiicher His collected works appeared in 12 vols.. had been deified. She was the eupbearer in Olym- pus, before Zeus conferred that office upon Gany- mede; but she always retained the power of restoring the aged to the bloom of youth and beauty. According to Apollodorus, she became the mother of two sons by Hereules—Alexiares and Aniketos. In Homer she always appears as a virgin. In Athens altars were erected to her con- jointly. with Hercules. In Rome she was wor- shipped under the name of Juventas, and a temple in her honour existed on the Capitoline Hill at the time of Servius Tullius. Statues of Hebe are ex- tremely rare; she is to be recognised only by the nectar-cup. All the world knows the masterpiece of Canova. Heber, REGINALD, an English poet, and second Bishop of Calcutta, was born at Malpas, Cheshire, 2ist April 1783. It was as a student of Brasenose College, Oxford, that he produced his prize poem Palestine (1803), the only prize poem perhaps which holds a mace in English literature. In 1807 he was inducted into the family-living at Hodnet, in Shrop- shire. He was a frequent contributor to the Quarterly Review, his political views being those of a Tory and High Churchman, and in 1812 he pub- lished a volume of Hymns. He was appointed Bampton lecturer in 1815, a prebendary of St Asaph in 1817, and in 1822 was elected preacher of Lin- coln’s Inn. In the following January he accepted the see of Calcutta. The apostolic zeal with which he conducted his episcopacy was suddenly ter- minated by his death, of apoplexy, at Trichinopoly, on 3d April 1826. He was a voluminous writer, and published sermons, A Journey through India, &e., and he edited Jerenty Taylor’s Works (1822). As a poet, his rests upon Palestine and his Hymns (new ed. 1878), which include such well-known favourites as ‘Lord of Merey and of Might,’ ‘From Greenland’s Icy Mountains,’ ‘Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty!’ ‘The Son of God goes forth to War,’ &e. See Lives by his widow (1830) and G. Smith (1895).—RICHARD HEBER, his half-brother, was born in Westminster in 1774, and died in 1833. He was a famous biblio- maniac. Dibdin estimated his collection in England at 105,000 vols., in addition to which he possessed many thousands of books on the Continent, the whole having cost him £180,000. Hébert, Jacques RENE, commonly known as Pére Duchesne, one of the most despicable char- acters of the French Revolution, was born at Alencon, in 1755. At an early age he went to Paris as a servant, but was dismissed from more than one situation for embezzling money. Soon after the commencement of the Revolution he became one of the most prominent members of the extreme Jacobins; and when this group established Le Pére Duchesne newspaper, for the purpose of crushing the constitutional paper edited by Lemaire and bearing the same title, Hébert was made editor of it. And he conducted his paper with such reckless ribaldry as to make himself a darling of the mob. In consequence of the events of the 10th August he became a member of the revolutionary council, and played a con- spicuous part in the massacres of September. He was one of the commission appointed to examine Marie Antoinette, and his name will survive in unending infamy for one foul and baseless charge he brought against her. He and his associates, called Hébertists or Lnragés, were mainly instru- mental in converting the church of Notre Dame into a temple of Reason. But he went too fast for Robespierre, who got rid of him through the guillotine, 24th March 1794. His whining coward- ice on the scaffold earned him the jeers and insults of the fickle mob. a, *Hebrew’ is first used of the lan ‘name Hebrew was thus HEBREW LANGUAGE 613 Hebrew Language. The word Hebrew oy is an adjenives keel, according to the ld Testament, from Heber (‘éber), a descendant of Shem (Gen. x. 22-24), who was the ancestor of Abraham (Gen. xi. 12-26), The Septuagint, how- ever, already renders Gen, xiv. 13, ‘ Abraham the erosser’ (i.e. of ‘ the river,’ though Origen explains the name from ‘crossing’ Mesopotamia towards Canaan), and Aquila translates ‘the dweller on the other side,’ probably of the Euphrates, though it might be the Jordan. The word ‘ Hebrew’ is used both of individuals and the people when antithesis to other nationalities is expressed (Jon. i. 9; Phil. iii. 5; Gen. xxxix. 14; xl. 15; Exod. i. 16; ii. 6, &c.), ‘Israel’ being more a domestic name, often having religious significance. As a national name, Israel belonged specially to the northern king- dom, of which it is used freely in the Moabite Inscription (e. —— 5, 11, 14). The phrase ‘ Hebrew language’ does not oecur in the Old Testament. In the earliest reference to the speech (Isa, xix. 18) it is called the ‘language of Canaan,’ and in another passage, ‘referring to events of the same period, ‘Judean’ or Jewish (2 Kings, xviii. 26, 28; Isa. xxxvi. 11,13; ef. Neh. xiii. 24). This is interesting as showing the linguistic attainments of the Assyrian officials and others of this age. The Rabshakeh could speak Hebrew, and Hezekiah’s officers understood ramaic, which appears to have been the language of diplomacy and commerce at this time, a position to which it would naturally attain, from the fact that the Aramean peoples lay along the great trade routes between east and west. The name e of the Old Testament in the prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.c.), and then in the New Testament (Rev. ix. 11). After the dissolution of the Jewish state Aramaic more and more made encroachment in Palestine, Dan. ii. 4-vii. 28, Ezra, iv. 8—vi. 18, and Jer. x. 11 being written in that dialect, to which also belong the words Jegar-Sahadutha, ‘heap of witness’ (Gen. xxxi. 47). Gradually it superseded Hebrew as the spoken language, and, though mixed with elements of Hebrew, was the dialect in use in the time of our Lord, as it had been for a long time previously. All the words reported as spoken by him (such as talitha koumi or koum, lema shebaktadni) are Aramaic. The iven to two languages, the ancient Hebrew, and the more modern Aramaic in actual use, though chiefly to the latter (John vy. 2): ‘their proper tongue,’ to which Akeldama belongs (Acts, i. 19), is Aramaic. Which of the two languages is meant, Acts, xxi. 40, xxii. 2, xxvi. 14, may be doubtful. The Hebrew language is one of the family of speeches since Eichhorn’s time usually called Shem- itie or Semitic, the peoples speaking them being in the main descendants of Bhem. The family has four great divisions: (1) the Northern or Aramaic (Syriac or Eastern, and so-called Chaldee or Western Aramaic and Samaritan); (2) Middle or Hebrew (including Pheenician and Moabite); (3) Southern or Arabic (embracing Sabean or South Arabic, and Ethiopic); (4) To these must now be added an tern or Assyro-Babylonian division (see SeEMITIC LANGUAGES). ebrew shares with its sister-languages these and other hd Spm! : roots with three consonants ; vowels aving no significance as stem-letters; two verbal forms for the expression of tense; two genders ; the attachment of the oblique cases of personal pronouns to nouns and verbs in the form of suffixes; an inability, except in proper names, to form compounds, whether verbal or nominal ; and a syntax distinguished by simple co-ordina- tion of clauses by means of and, where other languages subordinate with a multiplicity of eon- junctions. At a remote period we must suppose primitive Semitic spoken by a united, homo- yeneous people, which afterwards separated in various directions, each section retaining and cereoring some of the originally common ele- ments of the tongue, until gradually, under many influences of climate and conditions of life, the great dialects acquired distinctness from one another. In this way some primitive elements would be retained by one family and others by another, while each would move along new lines of development, due to its idiosyneracies and cireum- stances, as Hebrew, for example, expresses ‘ west’ by ‘sea.’ Even in the earliest form in which we observe Hebrew it shows marks of linguistic decad- ence. It has almost entirely renounced nominal- case-endings ; given up the use of the dual, except in a few nouns; is in process of substituting the reflexive for the passive (a process completed in Aramaic and Ethiopic); and has lost the conscious- ness of the strict sense of its elementary moods. In short, literary Hebrew is already nearly at the same level as vulgar Arabic, as distinguished from inflected Arabic, or as modern English is compared with Anglo-Saxon. On the other hand it has some peculiar excellences, as the ter freedom in regard to the place of words in the sentence, and the singular tense usage known as vav conversive, of which, however, it is now known to have no monopoly, but to share it with the language of oab, ve ei differences of pronunciation and —o eculiar to separate localities, ‘dialects’ can hardly ave existed in Hebrew. In the north a shorter form of the relative appears, she or sha (Ass. sha)—e.g. Judges, v. 7. This is common in the Canticles (of disputed date), and in later books, as Ecclesiastes, and usual in post-biblical Hebrew. The Ephraimites appear to have shared the usual Shemitic tendency to confuse sh and s (Judges, xii. 6); and in the south Amos (vi. 8; viii. 8) shows another common failing, that of confusing the tturals, a thing said to have gone to an extreme in Galilee in the age of Christ, and abundantly exemplified in Assyrian. So far as the literature of the language is concerned, only two periods can be distinguished ; (1) from the earliest times to the restoration from exile (538), and (2) from the restoration to our era (see BIBLE). It is true that writers on the borders of the exile, such as Jeremiah and Ezekiel, show a tendency to employ Aramaic words and forms; but, on the other hand, writings of the exile period, as Isa. xl.-Ixvi. and much else, are splendid examples of Hebrew composition, The restored community in Judah would of course still speak and write Hebrew. In the north of the country, however, the policy of Assyria had long ago settled a number of colonists, speaking mainly Aramaic. When Palestine came under the influ- ence of the Syro-Greek kingdom the Aramaic pressure would me greater. And thus gradu- ally Hebrew receded before the Aramaic, until by the time of the Maccabees, or considerably earlier, the latter had become the spoken language. Among the learned, however, the ancient tongue was still cultivated and written, though naturally not in its ancient purity, nor without many new developments. These new elements are of several kinds: first, nominal and verbal forms, partly absolutely novel, but mostly a great extension of forms occurring rarely in the classical language ; and secondly, a considerably altered vocabulary, drawn partly perhaps from a lower stratum of popular speech than that touched by the biblical writers, but tly from the Aramaic. Examples of this new literary, though degenerate, Hebrew may be seen in its earliest form in Ecclesiastes, 614 HEBREW LANGUAGE and in a much more advanced condition in the Mishna (c. 200 A.D.). The character in which Hebrew was written was the ancient Semitic alphabet, common over much of the East, the origin of which is traced by some to Egyptian hieroglyphs, and by others to other sources (see ALPHABET). The oldest and most beautiful example of this character is the Moabite Inscription (c. 900 B.c. ; see MOABITES) ; a somewhat ruder form appears in the inscription from the Siloam tunnel, probabiy of theage of Ahaz or Hezekiah (740-700 B.c.; found in 1880; see Proc. Soc. Bib. Archeol. 1882). ‘The latter was executed at their own hand by the workmen who cut the tunnel, and is naturally less artistic, though extremely interesting, as showing how extended the art of writing was at so early a time (Isa. x. 19). In the Moabite monument the same letter appears in several forms, which suggests either great’ practice on the part of the sculptor, or else that he faithfully copied a model sapalied him by the pen, in this case a facile one. The character appears in a bigger, more robust form in the Pheeni- cian inscriptions—e.g. of Eshmunazar. Somewhat modified it is Samaritan; in south Arabia it is Himyaritie or Sabean ; and from there it passed to Abyssinia, and is Ethiopic. The Syriac and Arabic are the same letter in cursive forms. The Aramean influence on southern Palestine introduced not only its dialect but also its script. The present Hebrew square character is in a somewhat orna- mental shape—a cursive form of the ancient alphabet adopted by the Arameans; the article ALPHABET A Sir both the Phoenician and the later square Hebrew character. The monuments show this Aramean cursive in various forms of development. Jewish tradition ascribes its in- troduction to Ezra, a tradition which expresses merely the facts that a change took place in the letter employed, and that this change was posterior to the return from exile. The use of the letter no doubt crept in gradually, just as the use of the Aramaic dialect did. The ancient letter is still seen on coins of the later Maccabean princes. Some deviations of the Septuagint from our present Hebrew text seem explainable from the supposition, that their MSS. were written in the ancient char- acter; while, on the other hand, some discrepancies rather suggest MSS. in the square letter. The words of Christ, ‘one jot or tittle,’ have been thought to show that the square character, in which y (% or yod) is much the smallest letter of the alphabet, had long been in use. he history of the language would not be com- lete without one or two additional facts. (1) n Semitic languages the consonants alone are usually written. Of course, no language could be spoken, and no writing read without vowel-sounds, but no signs for these sounds existed. Certain weak consonants, however—viz. h, w, y, were early ‘used to indicate the place of long vowels, particu- larly at the end of words, and also of diphthongal sounds (ai = é, aw=6) in the middle of words. Already in the Moabite stone final vowels are so marked, and occasionally diphthongs within words. Phenician, on the contrary, uses such signs very little. Ancient Hebrew agreed with Moabite in its Cuan as appears from the Siloam inscription. he use of these so-called vowel-letters was prob- ably scanty and fluctuating in early times, but became more regular afterwards. Unfortunately, we have no guarantee that transcribers were careful to preserve the antique spelling, Our present text is too uniform to be supposed to have preserved the varieties of different ages, and it is evident that the MSS. of the Septuagint translators in a multitude of cases were without the medial vowels, and in some cases without the final vowels, now present in the Hebrew text. in the 2d century a standard text was adopted, and modernising of the spelling in the main ceased. Peculiarities were henceforth registered, not effaced. This period during which the consonantal text was treated extends to the era of the Talmud (c. 500A. D.). During its course a multitude of works were pro- duced—e.g. Midrashim, or homiletical expositions, ee, of the books of the Pentateuch; the ishna (200 A.D.), a code of traditional law ; and the tracts composing the Talmud, which are com- mentaries on the Mishnic law, but containing much haggadic or edifying matter. (2) Neither Jerome (d. 420) nor the Talmud knows anything but the consonantal text. The example of Syrian scholars and necessity led, however, to the invention of a very complete system of external signs for the vowel-sounds of the language. This is the Mas- soretic system of points, now printed in our Bibles. Its authors are unknown, and also the age at which it was completed. Minute as it is, it can make little pretension to represent the pronunciation of the ancient living language. The pronunciation of a asneage during a period of nearly a thousand years in disuse must have undergone changes ; the Septuagint pronounces in many cases differently from the present text; and, in point of fact, the vocalisation represents not the pronunciation of a spoken language, but that of the solemn intoned reading in the service of the synagogue. About the 10th century a new impulse was given to the study of Hebrew by the example of the Arabic grammarians. The interest of the latter was to bagi with a purely religious one—i.e. to explain the Koran. Even the earliest collections of poetry had this religious object. The poetry of the desert was mooantedl as the purest Arabic, and it was collected and studied with the view of illus- trating the syntax of the Koran. By-and-by gram- mar came to be cultivated for its own sake, and the ancient poetry studied for the sake of its intrinsic charms. In emulation of their Arabic confréres, a school of Hebrew grammarians arose, to which be- long such names as Sa’dia of the Fayyum, Chayyuj (1000), Abu’l-Walid Merwan ibn Janach, Abenezra (d. 1167), Dav. Kimehi (d. 1235). Where Arabic was not used a neo-Hebraic language was employed by these scholars, greatly a return to biblical ebrew, and in this many commentaries were composed, as by Abenezra, Kimchi, and Rashi of Troyes (d. 1105). At the revival of letters Chris- tian scholars became apt pupils of the Jews—e.g. John Reuchlin (d. 1522). In the next century the chief seat of Hebrew learning was Switzerland, where flourished Buxtorf the Elder (d. 1629); and in the century following Holland, the most famous representative of the Dutch school being Alb. Schultens. In the 19th century the most distin- ished promoters of Hebrew learning have been esenius of Halle and Ewald of Gottingen. The following is Gen. i. 1-3 in Hebrew : ANT MN) DOT ON DvON Na MND mm inn sp-by qwim andy anh Ann pINM Sinn DS TON: OMT YBroy NANI ovN . PN See Gesenius, Gesch. der Heb. Sprache (1815); Renan, Hist. Gén. des Langues Sémitiques (4th ed. 1863). MopEeRN HEBREW.—A few observations may — be added, in conclusion, on the use of Hebrew as a spoken and written eee among modern Jews. Hebrew has continued down to the present day as the language of the synagogue. xcept in the Reform communities of egies = and America, public and even private worship 18 In the end of the Ist or early HEBREW LANGUAGE almost entirely conducted in ‘the sacred tongue, Although the majority of western Jews, particu- Jarly among the upper and middle classes, possess but an On gag acquaintance with it, the author- ities manifest a sea disinclination to cease pray- ing in a langu which, it is urged, constitutes a powerful link between Israel’s present and past, and serves as a bond of union between Jews all the world over. Outside the synagogue, Hebrew can searcely be said to have survived as a spoken lan- guage, except that in Jerusalem and other eastern cities it forms a sort of Lingua Franca among the Jews of various nationalities settled there. As a written and printed language, however, the employ- ment of Hebrew is far more general. It serves as a universal medium of correspondence, both private and official, among Jews in various parts of the world, and particularly between the East and the West. Various weekly journals are also written in it, in Europe as well as in Palestine. Added to this, numerous Hebrew works on all subjects con- tinue to be composed by learned Jews. The Hebrew thus used for modern og eg is usually not the pure Hebrew of the Bible and synagogue, but the rabbinical dialect in which Jewish doctors of the law have studied and commented, written and dis- uted since the age of the Mishna, and which has n developed and amplified by Jewish philo- sophers, poets, and mmarians throughout the middle ages. Both kinds of Hebrew—biblical and rabbinical—must be carefully distinguished from the patois dialects affected by Jews in countries where they have not yet been fully emancipated or modernised. In Russia and the adjacent parts of Germany and Austria they speak a jargon composed of Hebrew and corrupt German, called Jiidisch- Deutsch, while in parts of the East a Judzeo-Spanish dialect flourishes by its side. The pronunciation of Hebrew differs among the two geographical sections into which Jews are divided, and which are known as Ashkenazim or ‘ Germans,’ and Sephardim or ‘ Portuguese,’ the former being of German and Polish origin, and the latter having migrated from the south of Europe or being still distributed there. The origin of this difference is not exactly known, but it may be assumed that the ‘ Portuguese’ mode of reading originally came from Palestine, where the vocalisation and pronunciation of Hebrew were fixed by the Massorites of Tiberias, and that ' the German Hebrew originated in the academies of Babylon under the influence of the Eastern-Syrian grammarians. The Sephardic system is hence sup- posed to be purer than the Ashkenazic. Hebrews, EpistLe To Tue. The title of the ee the earliest MSS. prep’ ‘ To Hebrews.’ his title is probably not from the hand of the writer, but due to some copyist who embodied the writing among others. The term ‘ Hebrews’ is a national title given to all those descended from Abraham, in opposition to Gentiles or Greeks (2 Cor, xi. 22; Phil. iii. 5; ef. Heb. ii. 16); or ina narrower sense it is plied to Jews still speaking a Semitic language, } ppposttien to Hellenists or Greek-speaking Jews (Acts, vi. 1). It is prob- ably used in the more general sense here, and the title merely suggests, what is evident, that the epistle was addressed to persons of Jewish descent. he opinion that the letter was addressed to Hebrews in general, wherever they might be, can- not well be maintained, owing to the many local and personal references, and the details of history given by the author. He hoped to see the Hebrews soon, as he had been with them before (xiii. 19, 23). In their earlier history they had suffered persecu- tion and the spoiling of their goods (x. 32), some of them had been or were in bonds (xiii. 3, x. 34), although their afflictions had not yet gone so far as Martyrdom (xii. 4), unless it may be that some of HEBREWS 615 those having the rule over them had so suffered (xiii. 7). “Their circumstances and the lapse of time, and probably also the disappointment of their hopes of the coming again of Christ (x. 37), had not been without a wearing effect upon them; their Christian enthusiasm had grown cold (x, 25), and they had not advanced, or rather had fallen back, in their Christian ee and experience (v, 11- 14); and though distinguished by liberality to their poorer brethren, as they had always been (vi. 10), they were wavering in their faith, and in danger of falling away from it (ii. 1-3, iii. 12, vi. 4, x. 25-29); they had need of patient endurance (x. 36, xii. 1 et seg.) and fear lest any of them should seem to come short of the rest of God (iv. 1, xii. 15). Terrible warnings are uttered by the author in regard to the sin of apostasy and the impossibility of recovering to the faith those who fall away after bein enlightened (vi. 4-8, x. 26-31, xii. 15-17), although that for which they were in danger of renouncin their Christian faith is nowhere distinctly stated From the general drift of the epistle, however, it may be inferred that what the author feared was a relapse into Judaism, and hence he exhorts them to break conclusively with the old dispensation and go forth without the camp (xiii. 9-14). The question of the locality where persons having such a history and living in such circumstances must be sought has been very differently answered. The traditional view has been, under the assumption of the Pauline authorship of the epistle, that the church in Jerusalem was addressed. And perhaps this is still the erevalling eee There are, how- ever, serious obstacles in the way of this opinion. The church in Jerusalem must have still contained many who had seen and heard the Lord, while those here addressed had only been evangelised by those who heard him (ii: 3). Such facts as these: that the epistle is in Greek, and by a writer who knows the Scriptures only in Greek, and who, though hardly a native of Palestine, stands in such relations to the Hebrews as he does; that they are interested in Timothy, the devoted minister of St Paul (xiii. 23); that the church, so far from being poor, is able to minister to the necessities of the saints (vi. 10); and that the author seems to count upon the sympathy of his readers with his advanced views—these facts are rather against Jerusalem. On the other hand, the idea that the Hebrews must have been exposed to the seductions of an imposing ritual, which could only be the Temple service, has little support in the epistle. The author's refer- ences to the Old Testament ritual are purely theoretical, and have no bearing on the existing practices ; he reasons entirely on the written scrip- ture, on Judaism as founded by Moses, and his arguments would be ahdemtood by Jews every- where, as the system of thought and the feelings against which he directs them were common to them in all places. Others have thought of Alex- andria. The author is certainly a man of Alex- andrian culture, and the line of thought he pursues would be very natural if addressed to Alexandrian Jews. It is almost a fatal objection to this view, however, that, though the epistle was early known and highly valued in the church of Alexandria, not a trace of a tradition appears that they were the recipients of it. Clement believed that the epistle was written in Hebrew, and addressed to Jerusalem by St Paul. In modern times some have advocated the claims of Rome. The first references to the epistle are found in the letter of the Roman Clement to the Corinthians (c. 96 A.D.). The consistent tradition in Rome, too, is that the epistle is not by St Paul; and the reference to Timothy, and to those of Italy (xiii. 24) would, on this view, find a natyral explanation, and also, perches some re- markable coincidences between the epistle and that 616 HEBREWS HEBRIDES to the Romans. The Church of Rome, however, must have always been greatly Gentile, and refer- ences like xiii. 7, 17 preclude the idea that a Jewish section of a church was addressed. The authorship of the epistle is involved in equal obscurity. In the earliest times opinion was divided. In Rome and the West the consistent tradition is that the epistle is not Pauline. In Africa Tertullian refers to it as by Barnabas (De Pudic., ec. 20). In Alexandria and the East, on the other hand, it is regarded as Pauline, either’ immediately, or mediately through a translator (Clement), or some one who had given the Pauline thoughts form and expression (Origen). Augustine gave in to the Alexandrian view, and since his time the Pauline authorship was accepted in the West. At the Reformation Luther suggested Apollos as the author; and Calvin either Luke or Clement of Rome. Modern scholarship is virtually unanimous in the opinion that the epistle is not from the hand of St Paul. This view is based on many things, as upon the language, which is purer Greek than any other New Testament writ- ing; upon the rhetorical, rhythmical, and flowing style, and the carefully planned and systematic form of the treatise, which has none of the abrupt- ness and sudden transitions characteristic of the Pauline writings; upon the fact that the author appears to be ignorant of Hebrew, quoting always the Septuagint, and basing his reasoning on its renderings, even when it deviates from the Hebrew; upon the different formulas employed in citing Scripture; and particularly upon the author's system of thought, which reflects Alexandrian ewish philosophy in some places, and which, though reaching the same conclusion with St Paul that Christianity has fulfilled and superseded the old economy, reaches it by a different road. The lace of St Paul’s circle of legal ideas—guilt, satis- action, imputation, justification by faith—is taken by a circle of ideas having reference to worship of God : sin is uncleanness hindering the sinner from drawing nigh to God; the blood of Christ purifies the conscience so as to serve the living God (ix. 14); hence redemption is conceived as the work of a perfect High-priest. Faith is generalised into a realising of the unseen (chap. xi.) ; and the Spirit does not appear to occupy the place he has in the Pauline writings as the source of the new Christian life. Modern scholarship has not succeeded in suggesting any new name as author of the epistle, opinions being divided in favour of Apollos, Barna- bas, Clement, Luke, and Silas. It has been thought that if Jerusalem had fallen before the author wrote he would certainly have used this fact to support his teaching that Judaism had been transfigured into Christianity, and con- sequently that the epistle dates before 70 A.D., probably about the beginning of the Jewish war (67 A.D.). It must be acknowledged that owing to the author’s theoretical method of reasoning on Judaism, which would apply to it whether the temple and ritual remained or not, this argument is not-very strong, and others prefer a later date. The epistle is largely used in Clement’s Epistle, which is usually assigned to about 96 A.D. The persons to whom the epistle is addressed being such as above described, its theme is, the finality of Christianity as a religion. This finality is shown by a continuous contrast with Judaism. The contrast has three main steps, which move, so to speak, backwards or inwards, accompanied always by earnest exhortation. (1) Chap. i.-1i., Christ, the Son, exalted because of death to be head of the new world of redemption. Contrast with angels. (2) Chap. iii.-iv. 13, Christ, the Son, the faithful leader into the rest of God. Contrast with Moses and Joshua. (3) Chap. iv. 14—x. 18, Jesus, the Son of God, the heavenly High-priest, and true sacrifice. Contrast with Aaron, with the earthly tabernacle, and with the sacrifices of bulls and goats. On this. follows a splendid passage of exhortation (chap. x. 19—xii, 29) on the application and personal appro- priation of the truths just taught. And finally (chap. xiii.), a more personal conclusion. See the commentaries by Bleek (3 vols. 1828-40), the: same, Commentary (1 vol. 1868) ;' Tholuck (3d ed. 1850) ; Delitzsch (1857, trans. Clark); M. Stuart (new ed. 1876) ; Biesenthal (1878); Angus (1883); Lowrie (N.Y. 1884); A. B. Davidson, (Clark, Handbooks); Keil (1885); Liine-- mann (in Meyer, Eng. trans.) ; Weiss (in Meyer, 1888) ; Rendall (1888); Edwards (1888, Expositor’s Bible) ; Westcott (1889); Lange (Eng. trans.); also Riehm, Lehr- begriff des Hebrderbriefs (1859). Full literature in Lange’s. Commentary (Clark). Hebrews, GosPEL OF THE. See APOCRYPHA, Hebrides, or WESTERN ISLANDS, the name applied in a general sense to all the islands. on the west coast of Scotland. To the Outer Hebrides, the geological substratum of which is almost exclusively gneiss, belong Lewis with Harris (Long Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, and the remote group of St Kilda, 60 miles to the west. The principal of the Inner Islands, composed ssc Fos, trap and slate, are Skye, Eigg, Coll, Tiree, Mull, Iona, Staffa, Ulva, Lismore, Kerrera, Colonsay, Oronsay, Jura, and Islay. Bute, the Cumbraes, and Arran, are: usually counted amongst the Hebrides; and to the same group were anciently assigned the peninsula. of Kintyre, the island of Rathlin, and the Isle of Man. ‘The total number of islands of any size is about 500, but of these only one-fifth are inhabited. The pop. of all in 1891 was 159,899. Of the whole surface only about 200,000 acres. are arable; the rest is pasture-land of little value, morasses, peat-mosses, lakes, and barren sands and rocks. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, the Hebrides have a mild though humid climate. Politically the Hebridean isles. are distributed among the Scottish counties of Ross, Inverness, Argyll, and Bute. The humbler class of natives for the most part speak Gaelic. The people are much occupied in fishing and fowling (see: CROFTER). A large proportion of the area has. been converted into sheep-walks, whilst extensive: tracts are let to sportsmen. The Hebrides are the Ebide of Ptolemy and Pliny’s Hebdides (of which ‘ Hebrides’ is a corrup- tion, due originally to a misprint), and iis (Southern Islands) of the Norwegians. This last name was Latinised as Sodorenses, which survives. in the title ‘Bishop of Sodor and Man.’ The early Celtic inhabitants were converted to Christi- anity by St Columba in the 6th century. Some three centuries later several of the islands were colonised by Norwegians, who came hither to escape the iron rule of Harold Haarfager (q.v.). But in consequence of the severe depredations. which these sea-rovers afterwards committed on the coast of Norway, Harold sent an expedition westwards, which subdued all the Western Islands. as far south as Man. To Norway they remained subject till 1266, when they were transferred to- Scotland. From that time the islands were governed by native chiefs, until in 1346 the head of the Macdonalds reduced the whole under his- authority, and took the title of Lord of the Isles. (q.v.). But from the beginning of the 16th century they were gradually annexed to the Scottish crown. In the 19th century the Hebrides have become widely known through Scott’s poem The Lord of the Isles and Mr William Black’s charming novels. The more important works on the Hebrides are Martin’s Description (1703) ; Pennant’s Jour (1774); Dr \y HEBRIDES HECK MONDWIKE 617 Johnson’s Journey (1775); Gre 8 History 1836) ; och’s jon dB. ion yi 1819 FR tae 3 Tae tia 1888); and Gordon-Cumming’s Jn the Hebrides Hebrides, New. See New Hesripes. Hebron, one of the oldest cities in Palestine, belonging to the tribe of Judah, 21 miles SSW. of Jerusalem. It was anciently called Kirjatharba, and at a later period was the seven years’ residence of King David before he conquered Jerusalem. The modern town, El Khalil (*‘ the friend ’—of God, Abraham ), is a poor place, inhabited by some 10,000 people. It lies low down in a narrow and pictur- esque valley—the Valley of Eshcol, famous now, as of old, for its thick clustering grapes, its olives, and other fruits. The church erected by the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, on the spot where Abraham is said to have been buried, has been converted into a mosque called E/-Haram (‘sanctuary’), built to enclose the cave which is the traditional burial-place of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and their wives. See an article by Conder - oes Palestine Exploration Quarterly, October mocaticus of a ey reek roan an er, usually sty ‘the logographer,’ Soattahel 1 ie robably about 500 B.c. . He me to have visited Greece, Thrace, the countries bordering on the Euxine, and many of the pro- vinces of the Persian empire, with parts of Italy, Spain, and Africa, and the results of his observa- tions were given in two great works—his Jour of the World, and his Histories or Genealogies ; the latter, however, is little more than a prose version of the poetical legends of the Greeks. Only frag- ments now remain, which have been edited by Creuzer, Klausen, and Miiller. At the revolt of the Ionians against Persia he dissuaded its ring- leader, Aristagoras, from an attempt so far above the means of. his countrymen; and when that counsel was despised, urged the formation of a fleet, but in vain. Hecatzeus afterwards went as ambassador to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, and induced him to treat the Ionians with Gaigne, Hec‘até, a mysterious goddess who was appar- ently unknown to the Greeks of Homeric times and may be of oriental origin. She makes her first appearance in Hesiod as a goddess having . power over earth, heaven, and sea. This triple power may perhaps pre the clue to the fact that in art she is occasionally represented as a triple figure. It also explains the fact that ultimately, and especially in Orphie literature, she came to be identified with many other desses, such as Ar- temis, Eileithyia, Selene, Iris, Persephone, Aphro- dite, Gaia, Hestia, Isis, Physis, and the Bona Dea. Owing to the extent of her domain she was especi- ally able to grant the wishes of her votaries and to give them the fulfilment of their desire in battle, in athletic and other contests, in the popular assembly, and in the law-courts. But her power was above all displayed in the matter of ghosts and bogeys ; she was able not only to ward off the visits of such hags but also to send them. Indeed, besides sending an Empusa or an Antzea, she also herself appeared as a bogey, with torch and sword, and snakes for hair; or she might appear as a dog, a mare, a lioness, or a cow. As her appearance was the sign for dogs to bark, so she was sup to be accompanied by a train of Stygian dogs. The origin of this figure is uncertain; she is claimed a& ® moon goddess, and her name is interpreted in accordance with this view as indicating the action of light at adistance. It makes against this theory, however, that the lunar functions of Hecate are not mentioned by any author earlier than Sophocles, and that they do not me prominent in her worship until post-classical times, and then =p ‘in the systems of the later mythologists’ (see Class fev. June 1888). Her intimate connection with the spirits of the dead would rather point to her the nether having originally been a goddess o world, for the earth is tn Jae as the abode of the spirits of the Eee: This would explain her connection with the mysteries, and the propitiatory offerings made to her in atonement for sin. Finally, the unsatisfactory explanation of her name just sere may be safely set aside, as too abstract, in avour of the interpretation of the name as mean- ing ‘dog’ (Hecate : Ger. hund : Eng. hound :: Gr. hekaton: Hund-red. See Class. Rev. Nov. 1889). This harmonises with various points in the ritual of Hecate ; dogs were offered to her at cross-ways (which are favourite haunts for ghosts), she herself is termed fond of dogs, and sometimes appeared leading Cerberus. Hecatomb, in the worship of the Greeks, and in other ancient religions, a sacrifice of a large number of victims, properly, although by no means necessarily, one hundred. As early as the time of Homer it-was usual only to burn the legs wrapped 5s in the fat and certain parts of the intestines, the rest of the victim being eaten at the festive meal after the sacrifice. In Athens the hecatomb was a most popular form of sacrifice; while the thrifty Spartans on the contrary limited the num- ber both of the victims and of the sacrifices. In the hecatomb, strictly so called, the sacrifice was supposed to consist of one hundred bulls ; but other animals were frequently substituted. Hecker, Friepricu Karu FRANZ, a leader of the democratic party in the German revolution of 1848, was born at Eichtersheim, Baden, September 28, 1811. After studying law in Heidel rg, he became in 1838 advocate of the supreme court in Mannheim. But in 1842 he abandoned his pro- fession for political life, joining the democratic and socialistic party, of which he s ily became one of the recognised heads. On the outbreak of the revolution in 1848 he endeavoured to convert the prelinfinary convention (Das Vorparlament) into a permanent republican assembly. But, frustrated in this attempt, he put himself at the head of a band of revolutionists, and invaded Baden from the south; he was, however, defeated at Kandern (20th April), and fled to Switzerland. In the follow- ing year he settled in America as a farmer near Belleville, in Illinois. On the outbreak of the civil war he raised a regiment of Germans, and afterwards for a time commanded a brigade. He died at St Louis, 24th March 188}. Hecker, Justus Frireprich Kart, medical author, was born 5th January 1795, and became rofessor of Medicine at Berlin. He died 11th May 1850. Among his writings are a history of medicine (1829), books on the Black Death, &e., and the great work, the escent of the Middle Ages (trans, for Sydenham Society, 1846). Heckles (Mid. Eng. hekele, from the Dutch hekel, haak, ‘a hook; ef. Ger. haken; another English form is hackle) are very important parts of various machines employed in the preparation of animal and vegetable fibres for spinning. They con- sist of a series of long metallic teeth, Srouwh which the material is drawn, so that the fibres may be combed out straight and so fitted for the subse- quent operations. Gills are heckles with finer teeth (see SPINNING ).—Heckling is also now the received term (first used in Scotland) for the rough and trying process of catechisation to which parlia- mentary candidates and members are subjected by their constituencies. Heckmondwike, a market-town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 8 miles NE. of Huddersfield. 618 HECLA HEDGEBOTE It is the chief seat of the carpet and blanket manu- factures in the West Riding, and also makes rugs, pilot-cloth, and flushings. There are ironworks, machine-shops, and coal-mines in the neighbour- hood. Here was born John Curwen, the inventor of the Tonic Solfa system. Pop. (1851) 4540; {1881 ) 9282; (1891) 9709. Hecla, or HEKLA, a voleanic mountain in Iceland, stands isolated about 20 miles from the south-west coast and 68 miles E. from Reykjavik. , Its snow-clad summit is 5102 feet high, and has five craters. The sides of the mountain are seamed by numerous deep ravines. The principal rocks are lava and tuff. ‘ Fantastic groups of hills, craters, and lava, leading the eye to distant snow- covered jékuls ; the mist rising from a waterfall ; lakes embosomed amid bare bleak mountains ; an . awful and profound slumber; lowering clouds ; marks all around of the furious action of the most destructive of the elements, give to the region a character of desolation scarcely to be paralleled.’ A record of the eruptions has been kept since the 9th century, during which time there have been eighteen outbreaks. These have generally been very violent, and have often continued for a con- siderable time. In September 1845 a terrific out- break occurred and lasted for more than a year. A fine dust from this eruption was scattered over the Orkney Islands, a distance of 500 miles from Hecla. Indeed, the great quantities of fine dust ejected, and the immense distances to which it has been carried, have generally been noted as character- istic of the Icelandic eruptions. Hectare. See ARE. Hectic Fever (Gr. /ektikos, ‘habitual ;’ see FEVER) is the name given to the fever which occurs in connection with certain wasting diseases of long duration. It is one of the most serious and constant symptoms of Consumption (q.v.), and seems to be directly related to the progressive emaciation which marks the course of that malady. In the morning the patient’s temperature may be normal. He may even feel chilly. But towards evening or after eating he grows hot and fiished ; and there is a preternatural vividness of expression, which, with the heightened colour, sometimes gives a very fallacious impression of health. The patient retires to bed, has tossing and uneasy sleep, and wakens in the middle of the night, or towards early morning, bathed in cold perspiration, and in a state of extreme languor. The same exhausting cycle repeats itself day after day. The only radical wa of treating the fever is to cure the disease on whic it depends. When the symptom itself must be combated, a pill containing a grain of sulphate of uinine, with half a grain of digitalis and as much of over’s powder, taken three times a day, is often serviceable. Hector, the eldest son of King Priam and Hecuba, husband of Andromache, and father of Astyanax (Scamandrius), appears in Homer's Iliad as the ideal of a warlike hero, brave to the last degree, yet faithful and tender alike as hus- band, father, and son. One of the noblest passages in the Iliad describes his parting with Andromache. He holds the same rank among the Trojans as Achilles among the Greeks, and, after bearing the main burden of the war, falls at length by the hand of Achilles enraged at the death of his beloved companion Patroclus. His body was dragged in triumph by the conqueror round the tomb of Patroclus, but was afterwards ransomed by Priam, who caused it to be burned with great pomp. Hee'uba (Gr. Hekdbe), the second wifeof Priam, king of Troy. During the Trojan war she witnessed the destruction of all her sons, with the exception of Helenus, and at last saw her husband murdered before her eyes by the savage Pyrrhus. After the destruction of Troy she fell into the hands of the Greeks as a slave, and, according to one form of the legend, threw herself in despair into the sea. Euripides (in his tragedy of Hecabe) and other ancient tragedians describe her as a tender mother, a noble princess, and a virtuous wife, exposed by fate to the most cruel sufferings. Heddles. See WEAVING. Hedge (A.S. hege, another form of haga, whence modern haw; ef. Ger. hag. The Fr. hate is of Teutonic origin), a living or growing fence, in contradistinction to wall, paling, &c., used for the purposes of enclosure, shelter, and orna- ment in connection with agriculture, forestry, and gardening. Hedges are very much used in some parts of the world, whilst others, equally cultivated, are almost destitute of them. Thus, whilst they are very common in many arts of Britain, they are comparatively rare in France and Germany, as well as in America. They are formed of many kinds of trees and shrubs according to the purpose in view, the nature of the exposure, the elevation of the site, and the soil in which they are to be planted. It is essential, whatever plant may be used, that it should bear without injury the degree of annual Eeming necessary to keep it trim and within the proper limits of a fence. or the purposes of agriculture and forestry Hawthorn (q.v.) is almost universally employed in Britain wherever the conditions of soil and situation are favourable to its growth. When_ properly attended to, especially in respect of annual pruning, it is the most effectual fence for domestic animals, and also an excellent shelter. On elevated sites, those exceeding 1000 feet above sea-level, it does ‘not succeed well. In such positions elder, mountain ash, &c. are planted for shelter in the form of hedges, but are deficient in the other qualities of a fence. Beech-hedges are familiar in some districts. Substitutes for hawthorn in providing shelter by the seaside are found in sea-buckthorn, snowberry, scarlet dogwood, sloe, wild-pear, &c., but none of them are of value in re sear cattle. Orna- mental hedges are fone of holly, yew—the latter is regarded as poisonous when eaten by cattle, horses especially, and should therefore be selected only for positions which they cannot approach—arbor vitze, laurel, privet, barberry, both evergreen and deciduous; beech, hornbeam, &e. In some parts of the west of Scotland and Wales, and in the south of England and many parts of the coast of Ireland, permanent hedges of fuchsia, arbutus, and other beautiful evergreen or flowering shrubs are to be found, though they will not endure the cold of inland and east coast districts in the same latitudes. In the United States the English hawthorn is useless as a hedge-plant, as the foliage is late, is destroyed by the heat, and is much infested by insects; the native thorns are little better. In various parts of the states where liedges are em- ployed serviceable plants are bodock (see Bois pD’ARC), honey locust, pyracanth, the Macartney rose, buckthorn, barberry, &e. Hedges were in use among the ancient Romans, chiefly for the enclosure of vineyards and gardens. It is probable that they have existed in England since the times of the Romans, although not very common till the end of the 17th century ; but they are supposed to have been first introduced into Scotland and Ireland by the officers of Cromwell’s armies. Hedgebote, an old word for the right of a tenant to cut wood on the farm or land for repair: ing the hedges or fences. HEDGEHOG HEFELE 619 Hedgehog, the European representative of the us Erinaceus, the type of the family Erinaceide, order Insectivora (q.v.). The chief characteristics of the genus are: body capable of being rolled up into a ball by the action of a powerful muscle arising from the head and neck on either side, and forming a loop around the posterior extremity ; ears distinct ; teeth, three incisors on each side in either jaw, the central pair long and prominent, molars, seven on each side above, five below, with rounded tubercles; zygomatic arch of the skull complete ; legs short, with five toes on each foot ; the two leg bones ankylosed; tail short; back covered with spines, the remainder of the body with hairs and bristles. ; There are fourteen species, none of which occur in the New World or Australia. The Common Hedgehog (Hrinaceus europeus) has a sharp- ly pointed muzzle and ears less than half the length of the head. The eyes are small and black. The animal at most Common Hedgehog ( Erinaceus europeeus ). is about a foot long, and some six inches high. The spines which cover its back attain a maximum length of about an inch; they are sharply pointed and remarkably firm and elastic, so much so that they constitute a cushion upon which the animal will allow him- self to fall from a considerable height with im- punity. They are finely grooved along the sides, and have a pin-head-like root so attached to the muscle of the back that when the latter contracts they radiate outwards im all directions. he animal eats small vertebrates, such as mice, young birds, and frogs, insects, worms, and some- times vegetable matters. It is very useful in a om or in a house infested by cockroaches. It as even been known to attack and devour snakes, seeming to have some special power of resisting not only the poison of the viper, but also other noxious substances. It is nocturnal in its habits, and hibernates throughout the winter, and, according to the Gypsies, with whom it is a special delicacy, it does store up birds, mice, crab-apples, Wc. ti inhabits hollows of trees or crevices in the rocks, but in default of these will excavate itself a burrow. The pairing season is from the end of March to the beginning of June; and the period of gestation is seven weeks. Three to six (rarely eight) youn are born at once; they have both the eyes saa ears closed. The spines are at first quite white and soft, and since they point backwards and the young are born head first there is no risk of injury to the mother during parturition. Its area of distribution extends over the whole of ae. Europe and the greater part of Asia north of the Himalayas. Fossil hedgehogs have been found in the Tertiary formations. Hedgehog Plant, a name given to those species of medick (Medicago) which have the pods spirally twisted and rolled up into a ball beset with spines. They are particularly plentiful on sandy grounds near the sea in England, and in some parts of South America ; and their pods are too plentiful in the South American wool imported into Britain. They afford excellent food for sheep and cattle. Hedge-mustard (Sisymbrium), a genus of plants of the natural order Crucifere, annual or poor perennial herbs, with very various foliage, small yellow or white flowers, and a long roundish or six-angled pod (silique). Several species are natives of Britain, of which one, the Common Hedge-mustard (S. officinale), was once employed in medicine for catarrhs and other ailments. It is an annual plant, plentiful in waste places and b waysides, sometimes two feet high, branched, with runcinate or deeply-lobed leaves, stem,and leaves hairy. Hedge-nettle, See Stacuys. Hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis) is really a small European Warbler (q.v.) resembling a sparrow in colouring. Hedjaz. See ARABIA. Hedjrah. See Hecrra. Hedley, WILLIAM (1779-1843), born at New- burn near Newcastle, the improver of Trevithick’s locomotive. See RAILWAYs. Hedonism. See Eruics. Heem, JAN DAvipsz VAN, the greatest Dutch ainter of ‘still life,’ was born at Utrecht in 1606. n 1635 he enrolled himself in the Antwerp guild of pene and in that city he died in 1683 or 1684. eem’s pictures represent for the most part fruits and flowers, insects and creeping things, and drink- ing cups, bottles, &e. Masterpieces by his hand are hung in the galleries of Amsterdam, Vienna, Berlin, Munich, St Petersburg, and other places. His drawing and colouring are exquisite, and his use of chiaroscuro unsurpassable. Heeren, ARNOLD HERMANN Lupwie, German historian, was born 25th October 1760, at Arbergen, near Bremen. He first made himself known by an edition of Menander’s De Encomiis (1785), and in 1787 was appointed Sara of Philosophy, and in 1801 professor of History, at Géttingen. He married in 1797 a daughter of Heyne, and died 7th March 1842. The striking feature about his teach- ing and writing was that he studied the peoples of classic antiquity from the modern standpoint, as the title of his principal work shows—Jdeen tiber Politik,den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Vélker der alten Welt (1793-96; 4th ed. 1824-26; Eng. trans. 1833). Besides this he wrote Geschichte des Studiums der classischen Literatur seit dem Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften (2 vols. 1797- 1802), Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums (1799 ; 5th ed, 1828; Eng. trans. 1840), and Geschichte des europdischen Staatensystems und seiner Colonien (1800; 5th ed. 1830; Eng. trans. 1834), which abounded in new views and acute expositions. His Untersuchungen iiber die Kreuzziige won a prize offered by the National Institute of France. His Kleine historische Schriften (3 vols. 1803-8) contain some very interesting treatises and a biography of Heyne. In 1821-26 he published an edition of all his historical works in 15 vols. Hefele, KARL JosePH VON, an eminent Cath- olic church historian, was born at Unterkochen in Wiirtemberg, 15th March 1809. He studied at Tiibingen, and became in 1836 privat-docent, and in 1840 professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, in the Catholic theological faculty of that university. He showed himself a danger- ous enemy to the dogma of ] infallibility even after his consecration as Bis op of Rottenburg in 1869, by his weighty contributions to the Honorius controversy : Honorius und das sechste allgemeine Konzil ( Tiib. 1870), and Causa Honortt ee (Naples, 1870). But after his return from me, in a pastoral epistle in 1871 he gave in his adhesion to the dogma, with the explanation that the infallibility of the pope, as well as that of the 620 HEFELE HEGEL church, referred only to doctrine given forth ex cathedrd, and therein to the definitions proper only, but not to its proofs or applications. Of Hefele’s writings may be named an edition of the Apostolic Fathers (1839; 4th ed. 1855); Chrysostomus-Postille, a translation (1845; 3d ed. 1857); Die Einfiihrung des Christentums im siidwestlichen Deutschland (1837); Der Kardinal Ximenes und die kirchlichen Zustinde Spaniens im 15ten Jahrhundert (1844; 2d ed. 1851; Eng. trans. by Canon Dalton, 1860); Beitrdge zur Kurchengeschichte, Archdologie und Liturgik (1864-65); and especially his magistral Konziliengeschichte (7 vols. 1855-74 ; 2d ed. 1873 et seg.)—of which an English translation, comin down to the Council of Nicsea (325), was publishe in 1871. Died June 5, 1893. : Hegel, GEorG WILHELM FRIEDRICH, was the last in a succession of four great writers, who during the later part of the 18th and the first quarter of the 19th century developed the idealistic philosophy of Germany; the other three being Kant, Fichte, and Schelling. He was born at Stuttgart on the 27th August 1770, and educated at the university of Tiitbingen, where he formed an intimate friendship with Schelling, his philosophi- cal predecessor. Schelling was five years younger than Hegel, but very precocious. His rapid intuitive genius urged him to express his thou ae almost before they were ripe for expression, and he had begun to publish important contributions to philosophy even before his student-life had come to an end. Hegel, on the other hand, was slow in his intellectual development, and from a desire for systematic completeness and consistency he was unwilling to utter his thoughts till he had made all their relations clear to himself. Consequently he passed through the university without any special distinction, and it was not till six years after he left it—years during which he maintained himself by acting as a private tutor—that he began to seek academic work and to bring his views upon philo- sophical questions before the public. n 1801, however, he entered upon his scholastic career at the university of Jena, publishing at the same time an essay on the difference be- tween the philosophies of Fichte and Schelling, in which he on the whole placed himself on the side of the latter, though not without indicating some divergences of view. From 1801 to 1806 he continued to teach in the university of Jena, first as a privat-docent (or licensed lecturer), and then as a professor extra-ordinary, and in the early part of that period he joined with Schelling in writing a Lc Sipe rae periodical called the Critical Journal of Philosophy. At this time the two philosophers were so closely identified in their views that there has been considerable dispute as to the authorship of some of the articles. In one of Hegel’s latest contributions, however, the reasons for his subsequent separation from Schel- ling are clearly indicated. It was not till 1807 tuat Hegel published the Phenomenology of the Spirit, the first work in which he fully exhibited the depth and independence of his philosophic enius. By this time, mainly in consequence of apoleon’s victory over the Prussians, the uni- versity of Jena was for a time broken up, and Hegel was forced to find employment as the editor of a newspaper at Bamberg. In the following year he was appointed director of the gymnasium or ae school of Nuremberg, where he remained uring the next nine years. In 1811 he married, and in the following year he published the first volume of his greatest work, the Logic, a treatise which treats of what is ordinarily called Logie in connection with Metaphysic. It was not till 1816 that his growing fame as a writer secured his nomination to a professorship in Heidelberg ; this, + two years after, he exchanged for the chair of Philosophy at Berlin formerly occupied by Fichte. There he continued to teach till the 14th 1831, when he was carried off by a sudden attack of cholera. During these years he published several works, of which the most important is the Philo- sophy of Right, and contributed several articles to the Philosophical Year-book, a journal which was mainly, though not exclusively, the organ of his disciples. His influence during this period was so great that he might also be said to have been the philosophical dictator of Germany. At his death a number of his friends combined to prepare a com- plete edition of his works, in which they included not only the books he had published during his lifetime, but also reports of courses of lectures delivered by him upon many departments of philo- sophy. Among these may be mentioned specially his lectures upon the Philosophy of Religion, the Philosophy of Art, the History of Philosophy, and the Philosophy of History. It is impossible within our limits to characterise adequately the work of such an encyclopzedic mind as Hegel's, but it is possible in a few words te indicate the main tendencies of his philosophy. In the first place, Hegel was an Idealist. By this it is meant, however, not that he reduced the facts of the outward world to ideas, or held that there are no facts but the ideas of the individual mind. It is meant only that he held that we must ultimately explain the world as the manifestation of a rational principle. Kant had shown that all known or knowable objects are relative to a conscious subject, and that therefore we cannot legitimately treat them as things in themselves— i.e. as things that might exist by themselves even if there were no intelligent principle in existence to know them. He had shown, in other words, that existence means nothing unless it means existence for a self. Hegel carried the argument a step further, and maintained that the world of objects is not only related to an intelligence, but that it can be nothing but the revelation or manifestation of intelligence. In this way he sought not onl with Kant to show the impossibility of a material- istic explanation of things, but to prove the necessity of an idealistic explanation of them. He did not therefore deny the reality of the material world, but maintained it to be an imperfect or incomplete reality which could not exist by itself without something else to supplement it. He attempted to prove that matter is the necessar object and counterpart of spirit, in which spirit reveals, and “renetal which it realises, itself; and that indeed the material world only shows its ultimate meaning, when we regard it as the natural environment and basis for the life of spiritual beings. In the second place, Hegel connected this idealistic or spiritualistic view of things with the great modern idea of Evolution or Development. Thatidea is often supposed to involve that the highest and most complex existences may be traced back to the lowest and simplest—that, for example, we may hope ultimately to explain the phenomena of life by mechanics and chemistry, and the phenomena of thought and will by the powers of nutrition and sensation which are manifested in the lowest forms of animal life. And in a similar way the idea of evolution is yf ae to imply that we can explain the highest forms of religion as nothing more than refined reproductions of the crude superstitions of savages. Hegel, on the other hand, maintains that, as it is the developed form that first tells us what was in the germ, as it is only the life of the man that shows what was latent in the child, so under the idea of evolution we must take the man as explaining the animal, and the ovember — ay | HEGEL HEGESIPPUS 621 what is latent and obscure in the inorganic. Not, indeed, as if the special sciences of mechanics, chemistry, biology, &c. were not right in keeping to their own special principles. But, in the last resort, when we attempt, as it is the business of philosophy to attempt, to see all these spheres of existence in their relation to each other, as well as to the intelligence that knows them, we must regard nature as becoming self- conscious—i.e. as revealing its secret meaning only to and in man; and we must find the key to the secret of man’s nature in the highest energies of his moral and intellectual life. Finally, in attempting to work out this idea of evolution Hegel teaches us to regard it as a progress by antagonism. While, therefore, there is a unity of principle in all things that exist, yet, in order to develop, this principle must differentiate itself, must manifest itself in different forms, and these forms must inevitably come into conflict with each other. In truth, however, the forms which have thus come to be opposed are really complementary or necessary to each other, and therefore their con- flict is limited by the unity which they express, and which ultimately nrust subordinate them all to itself. This idea may be most easily illustrated b reference to the unity of the social organism, whic manifests itself in a division of faboas between its members. In developing their powers these members are brought into antagonism with each other ; but if their conflict and competition is not to destroy the pee it must be subordinated to their co-operation. That the organic unity of the society should maintain itself means, therefore, that there should be such community between its members that all their conflict and competition should only lead to a better distribution of functions between them, and should thus contribute to direct and improve the life of the society as a whole. This illustration may give some clue to the principle which Hegel works out in application to all spheres of the life of nature and of man. On it is based Hegel’s ultimate division of philosophy into the three departments—logic, or the science of ee in its pure unity with itself ; the philo- sophy of nature, in which the ideal principle, which is supposed to exist in all things, is shown to under- lie even the externality of the material world ; and the philosophy of spirit—i.e. of the life of man as a self-conscious being, standing in relation to a material world, which seems to be altogether external to him, and yet subordinating it to his own life. But these words are the indication of ideas which it would take many pages fully to explain. organic as exhibitin and disciples, Be crevign after his death in 18 vols. (1832- e and philosophy, see Rosenkranz, Hegels ment from Kant to Hegel (1882) ; Hegel's Aisthetic, by b . T. Harris, Hegel's Philo- finery, be Siees CORSET of te Pee ae eA of History, by Sibree of the Philosophy of Ri by Dyde, of the Philosophy of Art, by Hastie oo ca nas quet, of ee y of rag tte by Speirs and nderson, and of the History o ilosophy (3 vols. 1892-96), by Miss Haldane. ah At the time of Hegel’s death his philosophy was dominant in Germany; and at that time there seemed to be a consensus among his pupils as to its interpretation. But division soon arose between those who, following the a t tendency of their master, interpreted the posts of Hegelian philosophy in an orthodox and conservative spirit, and those who emphasised its nega- tive dialectic, and used it as a weapon of attack against the existing order of church and state. After the appear- ance of Strauss’s Leben Jesu (1835) the school may be age as having broken up into ‘Old Hegelians,’ or ‘the Right’—Hotho, Gabler, Erdmann, Daub, Marhein- eke, Gischel; ‘the Centre’—Kosenkranz, Gans, Vatke, Conradi; and ‘the Left,’ the ‘Young Hegelians’—~ Strauss, Michelet, Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Ruge, Karl Marx—of whom some even maintained that the legiti- mate development of the philosophy was found in atheism, materialism, and communism. The result of these controversies was that the Hegelians almost ceased to exist as a definite school ; but the ideas of Hegel still retain their power, and form one of the most important elements in modern culture. Many who cannot be regarded as in any strict sense Hegelians have owed their main philosophic stimulus to Hegel—such as F. C. Baur, Schwegler, Zeller, Kuno Fischer; and the so- called ‘pseudo-Hegelians’—I. H, Fichte, Weisse, Chaly- biius, Ulrici, Carriére. Hegelianism is the most import- ant element in the philosophy of the popular pessimist Von Hartmann. Out of Germany, tloccttanions is re- resented more or less directly by Heiberg and Martensen in Denmark ; in France, by Leroux, Prévost, and others ; in Italy, by Vera and Mariano; in Britain, by Hutchison Stirling, J. Caird, E. Caird, Wallace, Green, and Bradley ; in America, by W. T. Harris and others.—Hegel’s eldest son, Karl (born 1813), became distinguished as an his- torian, and was professor of History successively at Rostock and Erlangen.—Another son, Inmanuel (hom 1814), held high administrative offices under the Prussian government, and was leader of the Conservative and High Church party. Hegesippus, the earliest of the Christian church historians; of his life we know nothing save that he was almost certainly a Jewish convert and that he flourished about the middle of the 2d century. From a statement of his oe ere in Eusebius (iv. 22), we learn that he made a jour- ney to Rome, Seo Corinth upon the way, and when at Rome compiled a list of the bishops of the Roman see down to Anicetus (156-67 A.D.). Further, he is represented as adding ‘to Anicetus succeeds Soter; and to Soter, Eleutherus’ (175— 89). Hegesippus must thus have written most of his history previous to 167 A.D., and he most prob- ably published it early in the episcopate of Eleu- therus. This agrees well with the statement of St Jerome that Hegesippus had bordered on the apostolic age (vicinus apostolicorum temporum), for if born so early as 120 he came very near the age of St John. His work was entitled Five emorials of Ecclesiastical Affairs, and appears not to have been a complete and continuous his- tory, although extending from the death of Christ to the writer’s own age. Unhappily it survives only in a few fragments which Eusebius had em- bodied in his own history, the most important of which are his account of the martyrdom of St James and also of St Simeon of Jerusalem. Euse- bius commends his doctrinal fidelity, and St Jerome the simplicity and unpretentiousness of his style. The question has been much discussed whether Hegesippus belonged to the Judaising Christian arty or not. Baur went so far as to pronounce im a declared enemy to St Paul, relying main] upon a passage preserved in Photius, in which egesippus declares that an opinion of many, corresponding exactly to what is said in 1 Cor. ii. 9, is contradictory to the express word of the Lord himself in Matt. xiii. 16. But it is much more likely that Hegesippus is here aiming at the Gnostic misconception of these words rather than that of St Paul, for the reference is obviously to their claims to special spiritual insight; while a further reserved, used by the Tiibingen school to fortify their inference—viz. that those who were _ taneousl 622 HEGIRA HEILSBRONN trying to destroy the sound rule of saving doctrine as yet hid themselves in holes of darkness—can by no possibility be understood as a reference to the fearless and vehement apostle of the Gentiles. The fragments of Hegesippus will be found in vol. i. of Routh’s Reliquiew Sacre (1847), and in vol. ii. of Grabe’s Spicileyium. Hegira, HrsrA, or H1JRA (an Arab word which means ‘ going away’), the term commonly used to indicate Mohammed’s flight from Mecca, 13th Sep- tember 622 A.D. In 639 or 640 the Calif Omar instituted a new Moslem calendar, to begin with the first day of the first month of the year in which the flight took place. The Mohammedan year, as a lunar year, is shorter than ours by 10 days, 21 hours, and 142 seconds. A rough and ready method for finding the year in our calendar corre- sponding to a given year in the Mohammedan is to subtract from the latter 4 of itself and add 622 to the remainder. To find the precise year and day, multiply the year of the Hegira by 970224, strike off from the product six decimal figures, and add 621°5774; this will give the year of the Christian era; and the day of the year is got by multiplying the decimal figures by 365. Heiberg, the name of two Danish authors. See DENMARK, Vol. III. p. 759. Heide, the chief town of northern Ditmarsh, in the Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, 58 miles by rail WSW. of Kiel. Chief industries are shoemaking, paper-making,' and brewing. Heide is the birthplace of Klaus Groth, Pop. 7355. pinion oF oe an ancient city of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, extends for about 3 miles along the left bank of the river Neckar, in one of the most beautiful districts in the country, 13 miles by rail SE. of Mannheim and 54 8. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It lies 380 feet above sea- level, at the base of the Kénigsstuhl (1863 feet). Among its most important buildings are the church of the Holy Ghost, a splendid example of Late Gothic architecture, in which service accord- ing to the Catholic and Protestant rituals is simul- carried on; the church of St Peter’s, on the door of which Jerome of Prague nailed his celebrated theses ; and the magnificent ruins of the castle, which stand on a hill 330 feet above the town. Begun at the close of the 13th century, and added to in 1410, 1559, and 1607, it was formerly the residence of the Electors Palatine, and was in great part destroyed by the French in 1689 and 1693, and further injured by lightning in 1764. In the cellar under castle is the famous Heidelberg Tun, once capable of containing 50,000 gallons of wine. Heidelberg is celebrated for its university, which was founded by the Elector Rupert I. in 1386, and continued to flourish until the period of the Thirty Years’ War, when it began to decline. In 1802, however, when the town with the surround- ing territory was assigned to the Grand-duke of Baden, a new era commenced for the university, and it rapidly became famous. It comprises faculties of theology, law, medicine, and _ philo- sophy, has about 110 professors and lecturers, and is attended by about 800 students. Its librar consists of some 500,000 volumes and 4700 MSS. Many of the most famous German scholars have been professors here—Reuchlin, C&colampadius, Spanheim, Puffendorf, Voss, Schliésser, Creuzer, Gervinus, Paulus, Kuno Fischer, Helmholtz, Bunsen, Bliintschli, &c. The quincentenary of the university was celebrated with elaborate ceremonial in 1886. Heidelberg, originally an appanage of the bishopric of Worms, became in the end of the 12th century the seat of the Counts Palatine, and continued to be so for nearly six centuries. After the Reformation Heidelberg was long the headquarters of German Calvinism, and gave its name to a famous Calvinistic Catechism (q.v.). The trade is chiefly in books, tobacco, beer, and wine. The town suffered much during the Thirty Years’ War, was savagely treated by the French in 1689, and was in 1693 almost totally destroyed by them. Pop. (1871) 19,988; (1885) 24,417; in 1890, 31,737, of whom two-fifths are Catholics and about 800 Jews. See works by Oncken (3d ed. 1885), Drum (1884), and Thorbecke (1886) ; also The Century Magazine, August 1886. Heights may be determined by four methods : by Trigonometry (q.v.), by Levelling (q.v.), by ascertaining and comparing» the atmospheric pres- sure at top and bottom of the height by the Baro- meter (q.v.), or by ascertaining and comparing the boiling-point of water at the top and bottom by the Thermometer (q.v.). See also SURVEYING. Heijn, or Heyn, Pier, a famous Dutch admiral, was born in 1570 at Delftshaven, near Rotterdam. After an adventurous career, he became vice-admiral under the Dutch East India Company. In 1624 he sailed to South America and defeated the Spaniards near San Salvador (Brazil), and again in 1626 in All Saints’ Bay (Bahia), when he took above twenty of their ships, returning to Holland with an immense booty. Two years later he captured the Spanish silver flotilla, the value of which was estimated at 16,000,000 Dutch guilders... As a reward for this suecess he was in 1629 named Admiral of Holland. On 20th August of the same year he met his death in a sea-fight against the privateers of Dunkirk off that town. A marble monument is erected to his memory in the old church at Delft. Heilbronn, a town of Wiirtemberg, situated on the right bank of the Neckar, in a beautiful and fertile region, 28 miles by rail N. of Stuttgart. The streets of the old medieval town are narrow, and the houses have quaintly ornamented gable- ends and tapering pinnacles. The church of St Kilian, partly Gothic and partly Renaissance ; the old town-hall; the Diebsthurm (‘ Thief’s Tower ’), in which Gotz von Berlichingen was confined; and the house of the Teutonic Knights, now a barrack, are the principal buildings. The chief industries include the manufacture of silver-plate, paper, sugar, salt, chicory, and chemicals, and there are iron and other metal foundries and mache ae Fruit and wine are largely grown. Commercially the importance of Heilbronn depends upon its trade in groceries, corn, and wood, and upon its fairs for cattle, leather, wool, and fruit. In the vicinity psum and sandstone are quarried. Heilbronn is first mentioned in 741; in 1360 it became an imperial town; it suffered during the Peasants’ War and the Thirty Years’ War, and in. 1802 it fell into the hands of Wiirtemberg. Pop. (1875) 21,208 ; (1885) 28,038; (1890) 29,939, Heiligenstadt, a Catholic town of Prussian Saxony, situated on the Leine, 32 miles ENE. of Cassel by rail, has manufactures of cotton, cigars, paper, and pins. Pop. 5861, Heilsberg, a town of Prussia, 40 miles S. of Kénigsberg. It was originally the chief town of Ermeland, one of the old divisions of Poland, and received town rights in 1308. Here the allied. Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen defeated the French under Soult and Murat on 10th June 1807. Pop. 5705. Heilsbronn, a Bavarian village of middle Franconia, 16 miles SW. of Nuremberg by rail, was the seat of a celebrated Cistercian monastery, which owed its origin to Bishop Otho of Bamberg in 1132. Nearly all the burgraves of Nuremberg were buried here till the end of the 15th century, ae X¥ HEIMSKRINGLA HEINE 623 when it became the burial-place of the Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns. Although the mon- astery was suppressed in 1555, the church still retains a large number of highly-interesting sepul- chral monuments and other examples of medieval an art. See works by Stillfried (1877) and Muck (3 vols. 1879-80). Heimskringla. See SNorri STURLASON. Heine, Hernricnu, the most prominent figure in German literature since Goethe and Schiller, was born of Jewish parents on 13th December 1799, in Diisseldorf-on-Rhine. His boyish heroes were Napoleon and Napoleon’s stalwart grenadiers and drummers. At a Roman Catholic school in Diisseldorf he learned what it was to be jeered at and ill-treated on account of his race and creed. At sixteen he was sent to Frankfort to learn bank- ing, but he soon gave it upi routine work was wholly repugnant to him. Next he tried tradin on his own account in Hamburg, but soon failed. About. the same time he fell in love with a daughter of his rich uncle, Solomon Heine of Hamburg; and his grief at her non-requital of his passion, jealously nursed as it was, formed a stimulus to poetic crea- tion. At length in 1819 his uncle gratified the desire of his heart by sending him to the university of Bonn. There, and subsequently at Berlin and Géttingen, he studied law, ry his doctor’s de- gree at Gottingen in 1825. But his thoughts were more given to poetry and kindred subjects than to legal studies. At Bonn A. W. Schlegel helped him to master the technique of his art. At Berlin, in the circle over which Rahel, the wife of Varnhagen von Ense, presided, he found himself for the first time in a wholly congenial atmosphere ; and the close friendship formed between them lasted till Rahel’s death. In the efforts then being made in Berlin by Ganz and others to inspire the Jews with a sense of the value of European culture Heine also took an active share. In 1821 he pub- lished his first volume of Gedichte, which at once arrested the attention of the observant. After unsuccessful essays in tragedy-writing, a second collection of geome, entitled Lyrisches Intermezzo, his Sapphic love-plaint, appeared in 1823. But the general public only became aware that a new writer of the first magnitude had risen in the heavens of literature when in 1826-27 the first and second volumes of the Rezsebilder came into their hands. In the latter year Heine likewise celebrated his triumph as conqueror of a new poetic province in Das Buch der Lieder, which, though consistin almost entirely of poems already published, creat throughout Germany such excitement as had not been since Schiller’s Rauber came out. Many of Heine’s best songs are as much loved for the beautiful melodies to which they were set by Schumann and Mendelssohn as for their own in- trinsic merit. ' These two works are Heine’s masterpieces ; he never wrote anything to excel them. Nearly all his writings are of an occasional nature, either lyrical, or autobiographical, or journalistic, or polemical. But the genius in them is permanent, and in many ee of the highest quality. The eat charm of his work is due to the fact that e@ was a ran a literary artist, a consummate master of style in both verse and prose. He was essentially a lyrist; his song has the spontaneity and melody of a skylark’s burst, or the quaint naiveté, the pathos, the simple sweetness of the best Volkslieder, His was a very complex and paradoxical nature: he united in himself the passionate energy of a Hebrew prophet, the sensu- ous feeling of a pagan Greek, and the dreamy sentimentalism of a medieval German. The sim- plicity of a pure child of nature is blended with the keenest wit, with an irony that is apt to grow bitterest when his lyric mood is sweetest, and a power of mocking sarcasm that cuts sharp and deep. His mastery in the art of self-torture taught him how to lash the follies and absurdities of the conventional world with the roughest raw- hide of Mephistophelean scorn. His writing is full of surprises, as capricious as the sea he loved so passionately. His intellect has the suppleness and and sinewy strength of a highly-trained athlete, but it neither walks nor glides; it leaps, and turns and doubles with the glancing swiftness of a swallow on wing. He passes from exquisite tenderness to sardonic cynicism, from melancholy sadness to sly insidious humour, in the twinkling of an eye. Nor is sweet dreamy sentiment in him any hindrance to remarkable precision of thought. But perhaps his strangest quality is an audacity of intellect that hesitates at no utterance, that recoils from no jest on things even the most sacred. His language 1s terse, clear, and rich in word- pictures, mostly original, seldom glittering with the tinsel of mere conventional imagery. One of his favourite devices is to mingle the images of dream- land, unearthly and weird, with images of true poetic beauty forged from the raw ore of commonest reality. But, notwithstanding his delicate poetic sensibility, and the depth and sincerity of his feeling, his poetry had its origin in dissonance of soul; the Weltschmerz had eaten deeply into his heart. The prophet of poetic pain, he scruples not to lay bare his soul to us without reserve ; we see the man just as he is, with all his beauties, with all his faults. And these last are neither few nor venial. His sensuousness often degenerates into obscenity and coarseness, his wit into vulgarity and affectation, his irony into malice and persiflage. He becomes cynical, frivolous, a mocker. Not only does he show no sense of rever- ence himself, he wantonly outrages the reverent feelings of his readers. And he has just ‘feminity’ enou ah in his constitution to find pleasure in spiteful personalities. In June 1825 he had himself baptised a Christian, oohenging his original name Harry for Christian Johann Heinrich, though he used only the last of the three. This step, which proved to be one of the most unfortunate of his life, was not taken from conviction, but simply to secure for himself the common rights of German Pepa ae and to ive himself a respectable standing in the world. eine, however, by this act only alienated from him the esteem of the orthodox among his own people. His revolutionary opinions, and his tren- chant and outspoken criticism of the governments of the day, always remained insuperable hindrances to his appointment to any official employment in Prussia, and even in Germany. During the years of early manhood, from 1823 onwards, he was racked by rer goat | headaches, which reacted upon his temper and his mood. Then again, he lived on a strained footing with his Hambu relatives; they were shrewd business folk, an could see no virtue in poetship, and nothing ‘divine’ in the poet himself—and Heine was in- clined to presume upon his success. He was always greatly harassed by the unscrupulous tyranny. of the public censor: his works came from the press grievously maltreated, and inst this injustice he could get no remedy. ore- over, he felt himself coming perilously near to the doors of a German fortress-prison. No wonder then that, when his enthusiasm was roused by the July revolution in Paris, he turned his back upon Germany and hastened thither, going into a voluntary exile from which he never returned. But he had not been altogether idle during the six unhappy years since 1825. He had travelled 624 HEINE to England and Italy; he had worked on the editorial staff of Cotta’s newspapers in Bavaria; and, besides Das Buch der Lieder, he wrote four. volumes in all of Die Reisebilder, the last two (1830-31), however, inferior to the others. ~ In Paris Heine, whose intellectual character and intellectual sympathies were always more French than German, soon made himself at home. He secured a patron in the minister Thiers, and consorted with the greatest writers and chief celebrities then living in Paris; and yet he often , longed to return to the Philistines of Germany. For, in spite of the fact that he railed at his Jewish descent and poured scorn upon his German com- eecipra he was always a German at heart and iad a secret admiration for the persecuted people from whom he was sprung. Nar was this by any means the only inconsistency in his nature. Though he scoffed at religion, yet was there a deeply religious vein in his composition—the Bible was always a favourite book with him; though he was deplorably lax in his ideas and practices of morality, he was not insensible to the beauty of purity ; and though he ridiculed the vagaries of the romantic school, Ke cherished a lingering fond- ness for its ideals. The July revolution seems to have awakened in Heine the first stirrings of manly seriousness. He turned from poetry to polities, with which he had always coquetted ever since he began to write. He entered Paris glowing with the inspiration of the revolution. He assumed the réle of a tribune of the people, a leader of the cosmopolitan demo- cratic movement, the object of which was to effect the union of the peoples of all nations in a brotherhood of liberty and progress. It was under the inspiration of this ideal that he greeted with acclamation the socialistic doctrines of the St Simonists, at all events in so far as economics and religion were concerned. One of the chief aims of his life was to make the French and the Germans acquainted with one another’s intellectual + and artistic achievements. This was the ground out of which sprang the Franzdsische Zustdnde (1833), a collection of papers on affairs in France, first printed in the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung ; De U Allemagne (1835), the French version of Die Romantische Schule (1836)—of Germany, that is; and Philosophie und Literatur in Deutschland, forming part of the second of the four volumes of miscellaneous writings entitled Der Salon (1835- 40). Heine was always an Ishmael, not only of literature but also of politics—he would fight under nobody’s flag but his own; and hence, with his aristocratic instincts and refined taste, he refused to make common cause with the revolu- tionary fugitives from Germany who found an asylum in Paris. Yet he seems not to have been altogether above the suspicion, if not of insincerity, at least of desiring to win the crown of the political martyr without undergoing the pains of political martyrdom. At all events, his ambigu- ous attitude brought down upon him the spiteful enmity of his revolutionary compatriots ; and their hostility was greatly embittered by the publica- tion of Heine’s ungenerous attack upon his former friend and political associate Borne (1840). Nor did he enjoy any better savour of grace from the governments of Germany because of his personal aversion to their dreaded enemies. In 1835 his writings, past and prospective together, had been condemned, along with those of the Young Germany school, by the Confederation parliament at Frank- aE: and this measure was not repealed until 2. Although Heine loved liberty with his whole soul, and lived and suffered for it, it seems never to have been anything more to him than a romantic ideal. The truth is he stood on the con- tinental watershed of two wholly different Weltan- schauungen (‘ world-conceptions ’), the old world of romantic feudalism and the new world of scientific inquiry and individual freedom. He had nothin but scorn for the tyrannous era of priestcraft an aristocracy, and nothing but sarcasm .and ridicule for the inert mass of commonplace Philistines, with their intellectual apathy and self-satisfied somno- lence. Respecting the future he cherished the most sanguine hopes. He foresaw in imagination the glorious regeneration of the peoples ; and Germany was, he believed, the agent of promise destined to effect this great change. Nor must it be imputed to him for blame that he never grasped the problem of the practical realisation of his ideal, that he never thought of the means and forms by and in which this romanticism of the revolution of pro- gress was to be converted into the concrete realism of accomplished fact. For, though he criticised the past and projected his hopes into the future, his heart was knit. to the past with the tenderest associations of feeling, and his sceptical intellect would not allow him to remain blind to the imper- fections of his prospicient dreams. It need not therefore excite surprise to find traces of the senti- mental declaimer in Heine’s war-song of liberty, despite his evident earnestness in the cause. For, after all, his love for humanity was beyond all suspicion warm and deep, and his zeal for intel- lectual freedom unquestionably sincere. His last years, from 1844 onwards, were years of great pain and suffering. His book on Bérne pro- voked a kind of hornet’s nest about his ears. On the eve of a duel, which it ultimately cost him, he married in due legal form Mathilde Mirat, a Paris isette, with whom he had been living some years in free love. Then came his uncle Solomon’s death, and a quarrel with the family, because of their refusal to continue the annuity he had re- ceived from his uncle from the year he settled in Paris. A compromise was effected early in 1847: the payment of the annuity was resumed, Heine pledging himself not to publish anything pegs on the family. For this reason his Wemozren, whic he anticipated would be his greatest work, was withheld from publication. The fate of the manu- script is a mystery. Heine speaks of havin destroyed it. Yet it is both asserted and denie that it passed into the possession of his brother Gustav. At all events the fragmentary Memozren published in 1884 can nesenes be part of the original work ; it is in all probability a portion of the new version begun by Heine. The revolution of 1848, unlike that of 1830, failed to awaken any enthusiasm in him. Since 1837 his eyes had caused him much pain, and since 1844 he had been con- fined to his bed by spinal paralysis. He lingered on in excruciating pain, borne with heroic patience and endurance, until 17th February 1856. But no amount or intensity of bodily suffering could break his spirit or impair his creative power; he — and wrote to the last. During these years ne published Neue Gedichte and Deutschland, a satirical political poem, in 1844; Atta Troll, the ‘swan-song of romanticism,’ in 1847; a collection of poems, Romancero, in 1851; and three volumes of Vermischte Schriften, in 1854. Complete editions of Heine’s works have been edited by Strodtmann (21 vols. 1861-66), Karpeles (12 vols. 1885 and 9 vols. 1886-87), and Elster (5 vols. 1887), and in French by himself, assisted by Gérard de Nerval and others (14 vols. 1852 e seq.). The best biographies of Heine are those by Proelss (1886) and Strodtmann (3d ed. 2 vols. 1884). See also Heines Autobiographie (a mosaic) by Karpeles (1888), and Lives by W. Sharp (1888) and Stigand (1875). Heine’s poetry has a fatal fascina- tion for translators. Versions have been essayed by = . HEINECCIUS HEIR 625 Ackerlos (1854), Wallis (1856), Bowring (1859), Lord Lytton, Sir Theodore Martin (1879), J. Geikie (1887), and others, There are translations of parts of the prose ° works by Leland (1855), Stern (1873), Sa (1882), Storr gel Sect Ellis (1888), R. M‘Clintock (1890), ke. irable Wit, Wisdom, and Pathos, extracts from Heine’s prose, translated by Snodgrass (1879 ; 2d ed. 1888), may also be consulted. Heineccius, Jouann Gorries, a jurist of Germany, born 11th September 1681 at Eisenberg, was professor of Philosophy at Halle from 1713, and from 1720 professor of Law. In the latter capacity he went in 1723 to Franeker, and in 1727 to Frank- fort-on-the-Oder ; but in 1733 returned, as professor of Law and Philosophy, to Halle, where he died 31st August 1741. Heineccius belon to the school of those who treat law in dependence upon philo- sophical principles. His chief works were Antiqui- tatum Romanorum Jurisprudentiam Illustrantium Syntagma (1718); Historia Juris Civilis Romani 1733); Elementa Juris Germanici (1735); and lementa Juris Nature et Gentium (1737; Eng. trans. 1763). His Opera Omnia (9 vols.) were edited by his son in 1771.—Heineccius’s brother, JOHANN MICHAELIS HEINECCIUS (1674-1722), was a celebrated pulpit orator in Halle, and the first who studied seals scientifically. On this latter subject he wrote De Veteribus Germanorum alia- rumque Nationum Sigillis (1709). Heinsius, ANTHONY, Dutch statesman, born at Delft, 22d December 1641, studied law at Leyden, in 1688 became Grand Pensionary of Holland, and as the close friend of William III. (of England) oe Dutch polities till his death, 30th August Heinsius, DANIEL, a Dutch classical scholar, was born at Ghent, 9th June 1580; was educated at Franeker and Leyden (becoming the favourite upil of Sealiger), and became professor at Leyden. e died 25th February 1655. He edited many Latin classics, and published Latin poems and orations of his own.—His son, Nicolaus (1620-81), obtained distinction both as a diplomatic agent and as a classical scholar. Heir. In primitive systems of law the heir is the aatan who performs the sacred rites on the death of his ancestor, and to whom, as repre- ‘senting his ancestor, the property of the deceased is transferred. There are traces of this primi- tive conception in the history of Roman law. The later Roman law regards the heir as an universal successor, on whom all the rights and liabilities of the ancestor devolve. An heir might be named by will; in case of intestacy, the law pointed out the line of succession; in some ‘eases equity gave ion to a person who was permitted by a fiction to call himself heir, though not legally entitled to inherit. The liabilities of an heir were restricted by rules which enabled him to sone’ his own estate from that of the de- ce ; after Justinian’s time this was done by ‘making an inventory ;’ and this ‘ benefit of in- ventory’ is a feature of modern codes founded on the civil law. It is to be observed that the Roman heir united in himself the rights of the heir, executor, and devisee of English law. In English law the heir is not the universal suc- cessor, but the person who succeeds to the real property of a deceased person not disposed of by will. He is bound by covenants, &c. which have been made binding on the land ; the property which descends to him has been made assets for payment of debt generally ; but if the personal estate be suffi- cient, the executor is the person by whom debts should be paid. The heir is ascertained at the moment of death ; thus it is not technically correct ‘to speak of the eldest son of a living person as his 248 heir; the son is heir-apparent—i.e. it is evident that he will be the heir if he survives. If a father or brother is nearest in succession to a living person, we call him heir-presumptive ; he will be the heir if he survives, and if no nearer heir is born. An heir must be sought among persons related by consan- guinity to the deceased, males being preferred. Of males in the same degree, the eldest is sole heir ; females in the same degree succeed as co-heiresses or coparceners. By the Inheritance Act of 1833 it is directed that descent is to be traced from the last urchaser—i.e. the last person who acquired the and otherwise than by descent. Formerly an estate could not ascend from son to father; but the act places the father next in succession after chil- dren and other descendants. For a tabular view of the order of succession, see Williams, On Real Property, or Paterson’s Compendium of English pik Scotch Law. The heirs-general are the heirs ascertained according to the foregoing rules, as distinguished from the restricted class (heirs of the body, heirs-male, heirs-female, &c.) pointed out by the terms of an entail. Where no heir can be found, the land is escheated to the feudal superior to whom it is held—i.e. usually to the crown. When a person dies intestate, his real estate vests at once in the heir; the heir becomes seised in law without entry on the estate or other formality. The rule which permits an heir to shift the liability for debts to the personal estate was formerly applied even to mortgages ; but Locke King’s Act, passed in 1854, makes a mortgage debt a charge on the land, unless a contrary intention is expressed. The law of succession in Ireland is the same as in England. In Scotch law the term heir is less strictly defined than in English law. It is used to include persons who succeed to movables. It also includes persons who take, not by descent, but by gift; thus, for example, ‘heirs of destination’ or ‘heirs of pro- vision’ would be described as devisees or donees in Englishlaw. ‘ Heir-apparent,’ in Scots law, means an heir who has not made up his titles, the heir- apparent of English law being included under the name of heir-presumptive ; but since the Convey- ancing (Scotland) Act of 1874 the inheritance vests on the death of the owner, and the heir is not re- quired to make up titles. By the same act it is ae that an heir shall not be liable for the ebts of his ancestor beyond the value of the estate. When heritable property has not been settled or disposed of by the owner, the heir of line is sought among the legitimate kin of the deceased. As in England, males are preferred ; of males in the same degree, the eldest is sole heir ; females inherit together as ‘ heirs-portioners.’ But in Scotch, as compared with English law, certain points of differ- ence are to be observed. (1) After descendants are exhausted, it is not the father, but the next younger brother who is next in succession ; then the next younger again, and so on to the youngest brother, after whom and his descendants comes the next elder brother, and so on up to the eldest brother. Formerly * fee of conquest ’—1.e. land purchased by the deceased—went to the next elder brother, and so on, in preference to the next younger; bunt the distinction between conquest and heritage was abolished in 1874. (2) The mother never succeeds in Scotland, nor any relatives who trace through her, except brothers and sisters german. (3) Per- sons born illegitimate, but rendered legitimate by the subsequent marriage of their parents, are per- mitted to succeed. See the comparative tabular view in Paterson’s Compendium. In England the term ‘ hereditaments’ is used to denote those parts of a man’s property which will, if not dis of, descend to the heir. In Scotland heritable property includes leaseholds, which in 626 HEIRLOOM HELEN England are treated .as personal property ; certain classes of annuities are aise heriteble: which would in England be personal. HEIRS-PORTIONERS, in Scotch law, mean either two or more females, being sisters, or sisters and the children, male and female, of deceased sisters, who are entitled to succeed to heritable estate when their ancestor dies without leaving male issue. Thus, if A dies leaving three daughters, all three succeed equally if alive; or if some have already died leaving children, then the children represent the parent, and succeed to the arent’s share along with the surviving sisters, all heing called heirs-portioners. In such cases the eldest heir-portioner is entitled to the mansion- house of an estate in the country over and above her equal share of the rest. But she has no such right to a house in town, or to a country villa. She ~ alone also takes a peerage or dignity, if there is any in the family. In England coparceners, though re- sembling heirs-portioners, have not identical rights. Heirloom (compounded of heir and loom, originally a ‘piece of property,’ ‘furniture’), in English law, means a chattel, or movable thing, which goes to the heir-at-law by special custom. But the right is obscure. The word is more fre- quently used now to designate chattels bequeathed or settled so as to be enjoyed by the person for the time being in possession of a family estate or man- sion. In Scotland a somewhat similar but by no means identical phrase is used—viz. heirship movables, which is a wider right, and includes the best articles of furniture in the house of a person who left* heritable property. The extent of this right is also not clearly settled. Hejra. See Hrcira. Hel, in Northern Mythology, the goddess of the dead, the sister of the wolf Fenrir, and daughter of the evil-hearted Loki (q.v.), by the giantess Angurboda. The All-father hurled her down into Niflheim, and gave her authority over the lower world, where she received all who died of sickness and old age. She was of fierce aspect, and had a half black, half flesh-coloured skin. To her were assigned the characteristics of insatiable greed and pitilessness. After the introduction and diffusion of Christianity the ideas personified in Hel gradu- ally merged, among all the races of Scandinavian and German descent, in the local conception of a Hell (q.v.), or dark abode of the dead. Helder, THE, a thriving seaport and strongly- fortified town in the Dutch province of North Holland, 51 miles by rail NNW. of Amsterdam. It stands on the Marsdiep, which connects the Zuider Zee and the German Ocean, and at the northern extremity of the North Holland Canal, by which, too, it has connection with Amsterdam. It is one of the strongest fortresses in Holland, having been first fortified by Napoleon in 1811, and has several naval establishments, including an arsenal and a college, and an excellent harbour. Pop. (1895) 25,254. Nieuwe Diep, half a mile east, is the port at the main outlet of the North Holland Canal. Helderberg Formation. In North America a division of the Silurian strata is called (after the Helderberg Range, in the east of New York state) the Lower Helderberg formation. It appears to be on the horizon of the English Ludlow beds. The Upper Helderberg formation of North America is a member of the Lower Devonian strata. Helen, the most romantic figure of antiquity, famous for her beauty and the misfortunes that followed in her train. She was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, wife of the Spartan king Tyn- dareus, and owed her more than mortal loveliness to her divine origin. At the age of ten she was carried off by Theseus and Pirithous, but was soon recovered by her brothers Castor and Pollux, of whom the latter was half an immortal like herself. She was sought in marriage by all the noblest Greek princes, whom her father bound by an oath to respect the choice which Helen herself should make. She chose Menelaus; and bore to him the fair Hermione. When she was carried off by Paris, son of Priam of Troy, through the con- nivance of Aphrodite, Menelaus mustered all the .Greek princes to revenge the wrong, and thus the famous ten years’ Trojan war began. After the death of Paris, not long before the fall of the city, Helen was married to his brother Deiphobus, and she is said to have betrayed him to Menelaus and so regained her husband’s love. With him she returned to Sparta, and there lived the rest of her life in quiet happiness. The pair were at last. buried together at Therapne in Laconia, although, according to the prophecy of Proteus in the Odyssey, they were not to die, but to be translated to Ely- sium. Another story makes Helen survive Mene- laus, and be driven out of the Peloponnesus by his. sons. She fled to Rhodes, and was there tied to a tree and strangled by Polyxo—a crime expiated only by the Rhodians building a temple to her, under the name of .Helena Dendritis, et another tradition makes her marry Achilles on the island of Leuce, and bear him a son, Euphorion. In the Homeric poems Helen survives as the personification of all grace and loveliness. She is. the daughter of Zeus, although there is no mention as yet of the swan story of her mother’s wooing by the god. Into the conception of her character in the Iliad there enters but little sense of moral responsibility, perhaps because she is a personage that has come into history from the world of mythology, which is ever innocent of morals. In the Odyssey, again, we find an incipient sense of moral responsibility, the burden of which is, how- ever, shifted from the shoulders of Helen on to those of some god (Od. xxiii. 222). It is true, however, that Jad ii. 356 and 590 may fairly be interpreted to convey the meaning that Helen was carried away by force, an unwilling victim of Aphro- dite. Still the fact remains that there exists a notable difference of tone about this question, and this is not unfairly advanced as one of their strongest arguments by those who claim a later date for the Odyssey than the Ziad. Others, again, contend that in the Jad there is a no less distinct sense of moral responsibility, pointing out that in iii. 164 and vi. 357 there is aes istinetly im- puted to the gods, and that in iii. 173-176 and vi. 344 Helen takes the burden of the guilt upon her- self. Among her warmest apologists are Mr Glad- stone and Mr Andrew Lang. Indeed the former makes bold to say that ‘her self-abasing and self- renouncing humility come nearer, perhaps, than any other heathen example to the type of Christian penitence.’ Pausanias tells us that on the chest of Cypselus, a work of the 7th century B.c., Menelaus was represented as rushing on to kill Helen; and, according to a statement attributed to Stesichorus, the Achzean host were about to kill her when their hands were stayed: by the power of her beauty. In his Troades Euripides makes Helen plead her cause to Menelaus with sophistical rhetoric; in the Helena he makes her remain in Egypt, the Greeks and Trojans fighting merely for a shadow formed by the gods out of cloud and wind. Again, in his Cyclops the giant speaks of Helen in a manner ber removed from t tenderness of Priam and of Hector. In the 4neid we are invited to behold the hero about to slay Helen crouching in terror in the temple of Vesta, and only saved from this infamy by the inter- e high chivalry and — a —————————— Tie alain HELENA HELIGOLAND 627 tion of Venus. ‘ Hundreds of years later,’ says Lang, ‘ Helen found a worthier poet in Quintus Smyrneus, who in a later age sang the swan-song of Greek epic minstrelsy.’ As the personification of all feminine loveliness, she was conjured up to play a part in the dream of Faust, whose words of wonder at the vision of her beauty in Marlowe’s tragedy are almost worthy of their theme : Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, And burnt the topless towers of ium! . . . Oh, thou art fairer than the evening air Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars. The loves of Faustus and Helen in the second part of Goethe's Faust typify the union of the classical and romantic spirit. She is its spiritual heroine throughout, and by his union with her in. the fourth act Faust is raised infinitely rather than degraded in character. Last among the greater poets who have felt across the centuries the spell of Helen’s loveli- ness are Walter Savage Landor and Tennyson ; the former in some of the finest lines in his Hellenics commemorates the power of her beauty to disarm the anger of Menelaus; the latter has painted for us this ‘daughter of the gods, divinely tall and most divinely fair,’ in his splendid poem, A Dream of Fair Women. Poets and poetasters since have touched the theme, but deserve not even to be named together with these. Helen will remain to posterity what she is in the Iliad, one of the most splendid creations in the whole world of art—a queen of beauty supreme over the human imagination, as she was when she went at the summons of Iris, all draped in silvery white, with her three maidens, to the walls of Troy. There above the gate sat the venerable Kin Priam among his counsellors, and all marvell gey at her beauty. ‘No marvel is it that rojans and Achzeans suffer long and weary toils for such a woman, so wondrous like to the im- mortal desses’ (Iliad, iii. 156-158). See the delightful essay appended to Andrew Lang’s fine poem, Helen of Troy (1882). Helena (usually pronounced in the United States with the accent on the first syllable, thus, Hel’e-nah), the capital of Montana, is situated among foot-hills in the Prickly Pear Valley, about 14 miles from the Missouri River, with the Rocky Mountains rising behind the city to the south. It is the commercial and railway centre of the state, con- nected with the Manitoba and Northern Pacific railways, and by branch-lines with several mining camps. Many of the streets are wide and straight, shaded with rows of cottonwood-trees, and faced with handsome residences and business premises ; and the city has now electric lights and _horse- tramways. The most prominent building is the county court-house, containing the Montana govern- ment offices; there are also a government assay oflice, several churches, schools, and libraries, and a Catholic academy and convent, hospital, and asylum for the insane, besides quartz, flour, and lumber mills. A board of trade was organised in 1887. Gold was found here in July 1864, the first log-cabins were erected in September, and the camp was known as Last Chance Gulch until December, when it received its present name. Pop. (1880) 3624; (1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770.— There is another Helena, in Arkansas ; pop. 5550. Helena, the name of several female saints of the Catholic Church, the most celebrated of whorn is the Empress Helena, wife of Constantius Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. Whether born in Bithynia, Britain, or at Treves, she became a Christian during the youth of Constantine, but it was not till after the defeat of Maxentius that she ScSeaape received baptism. The few remaining years of her life she gave to works of benevolence. In 326, according to almost contemporary tradi- tion, she visited Jerusalem, and there, with Bishop Macarius, discovered the Holy Sepulchre and the cross of Our Lord. Along with it were the crosses of the two thieves, but which was the true cross was shown by its touch restoring a sick lady to health. St Helena died, it is said, a nun, at the age of eighty. Her festival falls on 18th Angust. See Cross, and works cited there.—T'wo other women of the same name are honoured as saints. The first, whose cult is confined to the Russian Church, was the wife of the Grand-duke Igor, and at her baptism in Constantinople (955) changed her original name, Olga, into Helena; the other was a native of West Gothland, and lived in the 12th century. Helensburgh, a favourite watering-place of Scotland, in the county of Dumbarton, is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Firth of Clyde, at the entrance to the Gareloch, 4 miles N. of Greenock by water, and 23 miles NW. of Glasgow by a railway opened in 1858. It was founded in 1777 by Sir James Colquhoun, and named after his wife Helen. There is an obelisk to Henry Bell (q.v.). Pop. (1871) 5975 ; (1881) 7693; (1891) 8405 : but in summer the numbers are nearly double. Heliac, Heliacal (from Gr. Adios, ‘the sun’), emerging from the light of the sun or passing into it. The heliacal rising of a star is when it rises just before the sun. Hleliand, the name of an Old Saxon poem, dating from the 9th century. Its subject is the life and work of Christ, constructed as a harmon of the four gospels. The poem is written in alli- — verse, in st 8 a of ae old Low German ular poetry. ides being the most important Phe of The ‘dia Saxon dialect, it is not vithout intrinsic literary merit. Of two extant MSS. one is in the British Museum; the other is at Munich. Heyne has issued a critical edition of the text (3d ed. 1883), and there is a translation into modern High German by Simrock (3d ed. 1882). Helianthus. See JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, and SUNFLOWER. Helicidz (Gr. helix, ‘a spiral’), a large family of terrestrial air-breathing (pulmonate) gastero- pods, of which Snails (q.v.) are familiar examples. Helicon, a mountain-range (5736 feet) in the south-west of Bceotia, in ancient Greece, was cele- brated as the favourite seat of the Muses. At the foot of the range stood the village of Ascra, the residence of Hesiod, and the seat of the earliest school of poetry in Greece. On the slopes were the famous fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene, whose waters were reputed to give poetic inspira- tion. Heligoland (Ger. Helgoland; native name, det Lunn, ‘the Land’), a small island in the North Sea, formerly belonging to Great Britain, but ac- quired by Germany in 1890, is situated about 36 miles NW. of the mouth of the Elbe. It is about a mile long from north to south, and one-third of a mile from east to west, and three-fourths of a square mile in superticial area. The Oberland is a rock 206 feet in height, on which stands a town of 400 houses, and access to which is obtained by 192 steps or by a@ steam-lift; while the Unterland is a patch of shore with 70 houses south-east of the cliff. The resident population was in 1860 2172, and in 1890 2086; though in the bathing season Heligoland is visited by upwards of 12,000 summer visitors— attracted by the admirable bathing facilities offered, not by Heligoland itself, but by the ‘Sandy Island,’ or Diine, a small sandbank with scrubby vegetation, separated from the main island by a channel about a mile wide. Sandy Island was 628 HELIGOLAND HELIOGRAPHY formerly connected by land, but the inroads of the sea have gradually isolated it. The same agent, together with the heavy rainfall, the variations in the weather, and the disintegrating power of the frost, are still reducing the size of Heligoland itself. The western cliff has, according to ‘Linde- mann, receded 7 feet in the forty years preceding 1888. The soil on the flat top of the rock of Heligoland. Heligoland suffices for a little pasture-land, and for growing potatoes and eabbages. There are some sheep on the island, and a few cows. _Wheel- barrows are the only wheeled vehicles. The spit of the Unterland gives partial shelter to two har- bours, one to the north, the other to the south. The inhabitants are supported chiefly by the lobster and other fisheries, seat by the summer visitors, pilotage having almost ceased, and the public gaming-tables, established in 1830, having been suppressed in 1871. There is practically no poverty, disease, or crime, and the people are very long lived. A lighthouse stands on the cliff near the village. The island, which was taken by the Brit- ish from the Danes in 1807, was formally ceded to England in 1814, by whom it was held till 1890. Heligolandish, a dialectic variety of North Frisian, is the native tongue, but German is currently spoken, and English is also taught in the school. here is no garrison. Steamboats run to and from the North Frisian islands of Sylt and Féhr, and Hamburg.—Heligoland was anciently sacred to the goddess Hertha. According to tradition, the island was once vastly larger, great tracts of country having been swallowed up by the sea between 700 A.D. and the end of the 17th century. Christianity was first preached here by St Willi- brod in the 7th century, after whose time the island received its present name of Holy Land. The inhabitants of Heligoland are divided into two classes, differing both in race and occupation— the one being fishers, the other tradespeople, small shopkeepers, &c. The first are Frisians, a tall and muscular race of hardy seamen, simple and primi- tive in their habits, and holding land-labour and soldiers in contempt. The merchant class consists of immigrants from Hamburg and other places on the mainland, or their descendants. There is a curious and picturesque church, on the roof of which is still the Hannetan painted by the Danish authorities when the island belonged to Denmark. The eople, though they had been very loyal to Great Britain, accepted without opposition the annexa- tion to Germany; and after a visit from the Emperor, Heligoland was formally incorporated with the kingdom of- Prussia and the province of Sleswick-Holstein. See Black’s Heligoland (1888); German books by Lindemann (1889) and Lipsius (1892); and H. Gitke, Heligoland as en Ornithological Observatory (trans. 1895).—Under the early kings of Norway (10th century onwards) the name Helgeland was given to a district north of Throndhjem, extending from about 65° N. lat. to the neighbourhood of Svartisen glacier. Heliocentric, in Astronomy, having the sun (Gr. hélios) as centre of reference ; the heliocentric place of a planet being opposed to its geocentric (Gr. gé, ‘ earth’), its place as seen from the earth. Heliodorus, the earliest and best of the Greek romance writers, was born at Emesa, in Syria. He was a sophist of the second half of the 3d century A.D., but has sometimes been confounded with a bishop of Trikka, in Thessaly (circa 390). The work by which he is known is entitled Athiopica, in ten books, narrating in poet prose, at times with almost epic eauty and simplicity, the loves of Thea- genes and Chariclea. The work is distin- guished from the later Greek romances by its vigour and its pure: morality. See Rohde, Der Griechische Roman (1876). There are editions by Bekker (1855) and Hirschig in Seriptores Erotici (1856). Helioga’balus, or ELAGABALUS, em- eror of Rome, was born at Emesa in 204 A.D. His real name was Varius Avitus Bassianus, but having, when a mere child, been appointed high-priest of the Syro-Pheenician sun-god Elaga- bal, he assumed the name of that deity. Soon after the death of his cousin Caracalla, Helioga- balus was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, in opposition to the legitimate sovereign, Macrinus, who had become obnoxious to the troops from his parsimony and the severity of his discipline. The rivals met in battle on the borders of Syria and Phoenicia in 218 A.D. Macrinus was defeated, and Heliogabalus, proceeding to Rome, quietly assumed the purple. His reign, which lasted rather more than three years and nine months, was infamous for the ghutten and the near! unparalleled debaucheries of every kind in whic he indulged. He was murdered in an insurrec- tion of the preetorians in 222-A.D., and was suc- ceeded by his cousin and adopted son, Alexander Severus. Heliography, a method of communicating swiftly between distant points by means of the sun’s rays reflected from mirrors. Either successive flashes or obscurations of a continuous reflection of the sun’s light may be combined so as to read like Morse’s telegraphic system (see TELEGRAPH). Heliography ey be used for geodetic measure- ment, or for military and other signalling. The instruments which contain the mirrors are’ vari- ously called heliograph and heliostat. The instru- ments have been so perfectly contrived as to be available at a distance of over 190 miles (in California); French engineers in Algeria have found the signals serviceable at a distance of 170 miles. As early as the llth century A.D. Algeria possessed a system of heliographs : ‘ At the summit of this tower was an apparatus of mirrors; corre- sponding to similar ones established in different directions, by aid of which one could communicate rapidly with all the towns from one end of the empire to the other’ (Atheneum, 28th January 1882). Recently there has been a hig cre ment in heliography, or sun-telegraphy, for signal- ling messages between the sections of an army in the HELIOGRA VURE HELIOTROPISM 629 field, as during the British campaign in Afghan- istan in 1880. Drummond’s and Begbie’s heliostats, and the heliographs (differing in details) of Mance and Anderson, are favourably known. The name heliostat was originally used of an Equatorial (q.¥.) revolving on its polar axis.—Heliotrope was the name given to a mirror placed at the distant station, and adjusted by clockwork, so that at a rticular hour of the day (arranged beforehand ) he light of the sun shall be reflected from the mirror directly to the surveyor’s station. See SIGNALLING. Heliogravure, See PHoToGRAVURE. Heliometer (‘sun-measurer’) is an instru- ment invented by Savery and Bouguer in 1743-48, by means of which the diameters of the heavenly bodies can be measured with great accuracy. As improved by Dollond, the object-lens of the instru- ment is in two halves, each of which will form a perfect image in the focus of the eyepiece ; and the images may be made to diverge, coincide, or over- lap each other, by varying the distance between the half-lenses. If the diameter of the sun is to be measured, the two lenses are adjusted so that the images may touch each other; then the distance between the centres of the two object-glasses measured in seconds gives the diameter of the sun. Fraunhofer made many remarkable improve- ments on the heliometer. Heliopolis (‘city of the sun’), the Greek name of the city called by the Egyptians On, An, stood on the east side of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, near the apex of the Delta, and was one of the most ancient and important of Egyptian cities. It was the chief seat of the wisdom of the Egyptians, and Thales, Plato, and Solon are cbinttes | to have learnt from its priests. Manetho, the historio- pher of Egypt, was chief-priest here, an office lled centuries earlier by the father-in-law of the Hebrew Joseph. One of the red granite obelisks long famous as Pharaoh’s Needles is still standing near the hamlet of Matareieh, 8 miles N. of Cairo. It is 70 feet high, and bears the name of Usurtesen I., the second king of the twelfth dynasty. The obelisk called ‘Cleopatra’s needle,’ brought in 1878 to England, and that taken to New York in 1880, were originally brought to Alexandria from this city. For the Syrian Heliopolis, see BAALBEK. Helios, the Greek name of the sun (the Roman Sol), who was worshipped as a god. According to Homer, he was a son of the Titan Hyperion and of Theia, and a brother of Selene or Hos. He is described by the same poet as giving light both to gods and men. He rises in the east, from the marshy borders of Oceanus, into whose dark abysses he also sinks at evening. The later poets, how- ever, gave him a splendid palace in the east, some- where below Colchis, or deseribe him as being conveyed, after the termination of the burning labours of the day, in a winged boat of gold, along the northern coasts of the sea back to Colchis. After the time of Aischylus, he began to be identi- fied with Apollo or Phebus, but the identification was never complete. His worship was widely spread. He had temples in Corinth, Argos, Tro- zene, Elis, and eany other cities, but his principal seat was Rhodes, where a four-team was Sauslly sacrificed to him. The island of Trinacria (Sicily) was also sacred to Helios, and here his daughters, Pheetusa and Lampetia, kept his flocks o sheep and oxen. It was customary to offer up white lambs or boars on his altars. The animals sacred to him were horses, wolves, cocks, and eagles, Helioscope, a telescope for observing the sun without injury to the eyes, by means of blackened on or mirrors that reflect only a part of the ght. . Heliotrope (Heliotropium), a genus of plants of the natural order Boraginew (q.v.); of the section, sometimes made a distinct order, Ehret- iacew, the fruit separating only when ripe into four carpels. Many of the species have fragrant flowers. The Peruvian Heliotrope (H. Peruvi- anum), a shrub with oblong-lanceolate wrinkled Common Heliotrope ( Helivtropium Europeum). leaves and small lilac-blue flowers, is in almost universal cultivation for its fragrance, which re- sembles that of vanilla or cherry-pie. Many seminal varieties of this species are cultivated in gardens. They delight in rich light soil, and are propagated by cuttings of the young growing shoots in a moist warm atmosphere. The European or Common Heliotrope (H. Europeum), a native of the south and west of Europe, is an annual with small white, or rarely pale red, flowers. Large quantities of the flowers are used by perfumers for making scents.—Classical fable accounts for the name heliotrope (Gr. Aélios, ‘the sun,’ and ftrepd, ‘I turn’) by representing Clytia as turned into this flower through gazing at Apollo. Heliotrope, or BLoopsToNE, a variety of chalcedony or of jasper, of a green colour with red spots. The finest heliotropes consist of chalcedony, and are translucent, at least at the edges; the jasper bloodstones are opaque. Heliotrope is found in many parts of the world, as in Scotland, but the finest specimens of this mineral are brought from the southern parts of Asia. It was well known to the ancients, who obtained it chiefly from Ethiopia and Cyprus. It is much used for boxes, seals, &c.; and those specimens are most valued which possess most translucency, and in which the red spots are bright and well distributed. It was much used in the early ages of the Christian church for the engraving of sacred subjects, the figures being so managed that the red = should represent drops of blood. The name heliotrope (Gr. hélios, ‘the sun ;’ ¢ropé, ‘a turning’) seems to have been given to this mineral because when immersed in water in the face of the sun it was said to make the image of that luminary in it appear of a blood-red colour. The heliotrope, thus described by Pliny, must have shown very large spots or veins of red. Heliotrope, an_ instrument. GRAPHY. Meliotrepism (‘turning towards the sun’). When a seedling plant is placed in a transparent vessel of water within reach of the light of a window, the stem and leaves gradually bend towards, and the See HELIO- 630 HELIOTY PE HELL * roots from, the light. The former phenomenon is termed positive, and the latter negative, heliotrop- ism, The shoots and leaves of nearly all plants turn towards the light, and the turning of the sun- flower towards the sun is familiar to every one. In the case of organs which are positively heliotropic the growth of the side next the light is retarded, and that of the opposite side increased ; the result of these sombined actions is a concavity on the former, and a convexity on the latter, thus causing a curvature towards the light. these actions are reversed. That these results are brought about by the action of light is evident ; the cells on the concave side become less, while those on the convex side become more, turgid, thus forcing the organ to bend; but the cause of turgescence is unknown. Heliotype. See PHorocrapny. Heliozoa, or ‘sun-animalcules,’ a class of Protozoa of the Rhizopod type—i.e. provided with protruding processes of living matter. These processes are unlike those of the Amoeba (q.v.) in being slender and radiant, unlike those of Foraminifera (q.v.) in being stable and rarely interlaced. The unit-mass or cell of which the Heliozoon consists is globular and stable, with one nucleus or with many, and usually with vacuoles both contractile and non-contractile. There is enerally a ‘skeleton,’ gelatinous or siliceous, and in the latter case either continuous or composed of loose spicules. Multiplication is effected by division of the cell into two, or by budding, or by that internal fission known as spore-formation. In some cases the spores or young Heliozoa are flagel- late, and thus very unlike the comparatively slow and passive adults. In a few instances Heliozoa have been seen united in colonies. The majority live in fresh water, but some are marine. Common examples are Actinosphwerium, Actinophrys, Ra- hidiophrys, and Clathrulina. See PROTOZOA; Biitsclli’s Protozoa in Bronn’s Thierreich. Helium, See ARGON, SUN. Helix (Gr., ‘a snail’), a term used for a genus of molluses, including the land-snails; for part of the human ear (see EAR); and for a small volute or twist in the capital of a Corinthian column. ell, the place of torment, and the condition to which the finally impenitent are consigned after death, located by all the Fathers in the centre of the earth, although St Thomas says no one, without a special revelation on the point, can say where it is. nfortunately for clearness of ideas on the subject the word has been from the beginning employed in the most various senses, and the confusion has been only deepened by the fact that in our Authorised Version it has been employed to render three wholly different words, Sheol or Hades, Gehenna, and once Tartarus (2 Peter, ii. 4). The word Sheol occurs in the Old Testament sixty-five times, and is rendered ‘hell’ thirty-one times, ‘grave’ thirty-one times, and ‘pit’ three times. Its original meaning seems strictly to have implied merely the shadowy under-world, a deep and gloomy cavern considered as the abode of the souls of the dead, the common receptacle for all man- kind, not yet definitely differentiated into two dis- tinct classes with the more rigorous logic of a later age and a fuller revelation. The Hebrew concep- tion of Sheol was merely a kind of vague shadow of vast life, in which the soul was shut off from any communion with the living, although we see in its loftier expressions of religious aspiration the impas- sioned desire for an unbroken continuity of union with God rising into a vision so vivid that it almost realises itself (Job, xiv. 13-15; ef. also Ps. xvi. 10, xlix. 15, Ixxiii. 24). In these passages the Psalmists, in the heights of spiritual elevation and conscious- In the case of roots * ness of living communion with God, leap in vision across the separating grave into a real conviction of living continuity of fellowship that rises into the region of true immortality ; Job, in the perplexity of despair between his present calamities and the immediate expectation of death before God’s favour is renewed to him, yet absorbed with the idea that God cannot belie himself by finally for- getting his righteous servant and his former fellow- ship, grasps the notion of immortality as a neces- sity of God’s inherent righteousness, and thus reaches the loftiest spiritual conception of Chris- tianity—a living union possible between man and God, by a ‘process of pure religious abstraction. The ors of a future life, in Old Testament pro- phecy, hardly extended beyond the perfected glo of the Israelitic theocracy under conditions whic were essentially earthly, but yet already partly elevated into the supernatural. The condition of the dead continued to be represented as a shado existence in Sheol—an existence without special religious significance and value. In post-exilic Judaism, on the contrary, the faith in the resurrection of the pious dead (in connection with the Messianic time of salvation) developed itself out of these two elements : (a) from the more individual conception of the covenant-relation and from the postulate of retribution in the kingdom of the Messiah, and (6) from the influences of the Persian faith in the resurrection, which co-operated with the former and furnished to them a definite form. While this faith, through the Pharisees, became a popular element of the Messianic hope, the Sadducees held fast to the old Hebrew con- ception of Sheol, and the Zssenes assumed the Hellenistic doctrine of the incorporeal immortalit of souls in a higher state of being, a doctrine whic fitted in with the Essene spiritualism. In consequence of this developed eschatology, there then entered also into the conception of Sheol the distinction of different moral retributive states : (a) for the righteous in Paradise or Abra- ham’s bosom ; (6) for the godless in Gehenna. The Septuagint equivalent for Sheol is Hades, a word which occurs in the New Testament eleven times, and in ten of these is rendered ‘hell,’ the sole exception being 1 Cor. xv. 55. Again, ‘hell’ is used as the rendering for Gehenna twelve times. Originally as in the Old Testament usage the latter word simply signified the Valley of Hinnom near the city, a hich had been defiled by the abomina- tions of human sacrifice in the Moloch worship of Ahaz and Manasseh. It became later a kind of re- ceptacle for filth, the combustible portions of which, according to some authorities, were consumed with fire. Hence in later times it became an image of the place of punishment, ‘where their worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched.’ The word Tophet occurs in the Old Testament nine times, and apparently meant originally a grove or garden in Hinnom; afterwards defiled and polluted by idolatries, it became to the’ Rabbis a fit symbol for all abominations, the very gate or pit of hell. Almost all the passages in which the term Gehenna oceurs are hopelessly metaphorical in character, on which it seems unsafe to build too rigorous dog: matic definitions: in such investigations should never be forgotten the saving caution, ‘Theologia arabolica non est demonstrativa.’ No less difficult is the Greek word aidnios (aidn, Hebrew olam), variously rendered by ‘everlasting’ and ‘ eternal.’ It occurs seventy-one times in the New Testament, ‘and in some of these cases it is certainly employed of periods limited in duration, The word ain does not necessarily connote what is understood by ‘eternity’ either in classical or Hellenistic Greek, and in the Oxford Library of the Fathers we find its adjective rendered very properly by ‘secular ——————=—<— rr tt SC rn Bae , Nears HELL 631 So that St Augustine’s famous argument (De Civ, Dei, xxi. 23), besides its unworthiness, is strictly a non itur—that because aidnios zoé is. assumed to mean ‘endless life,’ therefore aidnios kolasis must mean ‘endless punishment.’ As Haupt says, ‘eternal life’ is not to St John a mere term for un- broken continuance in being, as though it were simply equivalent to the indissoluble life (zoé akata- lutos) of Heb. v. 6; it does not define the form of this life so much as the nature and meaning of it; 208 aidnios is, in other words, a description of divine life, of the life which is in God, and which by God is communicated. At the same time the plain exegesis of the ter number-of relevant in the New Testament points rather to everlasting than to merely wonian rewards and punishments, and indeed it is difficult to resist the conviction that such phrases as the olethros aidnios (‘destruction’) of 1 Thess. v. 3, and 2 Thess. i. 9, and the tedos of Philippians, iii. 19, refer to endless, hopeless, irremediable doom. The same pernayree | is reproduced in the Authorised Version in the words used to express the fact of judgment passed upon the souls of men, The words kriné, krisis, and krima occur in the New Testament some 190 times; the words kata- kriné, katakrisis, katakrima, 24 times. In all but fifteen places these words are properly enough rende by ‘judge’ and ‘condemn,’ and their derivatives; in the rest ‘damn’ and ‘damnation’ have been employed, sometimes as incongruously as in 1 Cor. xi. 29; 1 Tim. v. 12; and Rom. xiv. 23. Enough has been said to show the difficulties in the exegesis of the passages on which the dogmas of the church about the future punishment of the impenitent are based, and it only remains to state here the chief views of eschatology now prevalent, and to sketch briefly the development of these in the history of dogma. It does not belong to us to discuss the abstract theory of future retribution—a postulate of all religions whether rudimentary or advanced—nor to attempt to justify anew the ways of God to man by distinguishing ex cathedra what is of faith and what is mere human speculation. I. The orthodox theory, both in the Eastern and Western churches, is that at death there is upon every impenitent sinner an irreversible sentence to torture of both his moral and physical nature, endless in duration, and inconceivably dreadful in intensity, yet proportioned in degree to the a of the iniquity of the individual, whose sufferings include within them both the * pain of loss’ and the ‘ pain of sense.’ The former implies the remorseful consciousness of the loss of all good ; the latter embraces all forms of physical torment, as by material fire, utter abandonment and alienation from God, and the perpetual society of lost men and devils. The pains of hell for ever without any mitigation or hope of escape are the fate of all whose faith during their life on earth has not come up to the minimum required by the rigorous justice of God. Such has been the orthodox belief of almost the entire Christian church until now, and its fathers and theologians, from St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas down to Jeremy Taylor, Thomas Boston, and Jonathan Edwards, have lavished all the wealth of impassioned rhetoric upon the description of its horrors. Medieval painters like Oreagna devoted all the riches of a grotesque imagination to the portrayal of its material torments infinite in variety as well as awful in intensity, and the famous fresco in the Campo Santo at Pisa shows what a reall great artist could make of such a theme. Indeed, the words which Dante saw in his vision above the gloomy portals of hell, ‘All hope abandon e who enter here,’ merely describe with literal ruth the traditional belief of the Christian church. St Augustine even found himself, in accordance with his views of predestination, compelled to tulate the eternal damnation of unbaptised nfants. Although he is disposed to look upon this condemnation as mitissima and tolerabilior, he opposed the doctrine condemned by the synod of Carthage (419 A.D.) of an intermediate state in which unbaptised infants were said to be ( Limbus infantum). Dante sees these hapless victims of fate in the first circle of the lafene, and indeed this belief was held by the entire medieval church ; while the eternal damnation of non-elect infants still stands implied in the famous Confession of Faith of the Westminster Divines. St Thomas Aquinas supposes that the bliss of the saved will be heightened by their witnessing the punishment of the wicked; and Jonathan Edwards thus ex- presses the same monstrous notion, ‘the view of the misery of the damned will double the ardour of the love and gratitude of the saints in heaven.’ . To the Catholic the horrors of hell are enormously mitigated by the notion of an intermediate state of punitive probation, in which the souls of such as have not died in mortal sin are purged from the ect of earthly sin, and made fit for translation to 1eaven to the companionship of God and his elect saints. See PURGATORY. II. The second belief in importance is that associ- ated with the great name of Origen, and variously termed Universalism, Restoration, or the Larger Hope—viz. that all men ultimately will be saved. Origen believed that the punishment of hell itself was but purgatorial in its character, that, its purify- ing effect once attained, the punishment raat cease for all, most probably even for the devils them- selves, and that the duration in each case would be proportioned to the guilt of the individual. This doctrine of the final restoration of all to the en- joyment of happiness is the theory of the Apoca- tastasis to which so many of the early Christian writers allude. It was taught definitely by Gregory of Nyssa, who foretells in stowinks words a time when ‘there shall no longer be a sinner in the universe, and the war between good and evil shall be ended, and the nature of evil shall pass into nothingness, and the divine and unmingled goodness shall embrace all intelligent existence.’ Theodore of Mopsuestia teaches that in the world to come ‘those who have done evil all their life long will be made worthy of the sweetness of the divine bounty. For never would Christ have said ‘‘ until thou hast paid the uttermost farthing” unless it were possible for us to be cleansed when we have paid the penalty. Nor would he have spoken of the many stripes and few unless after men had borne the punishment of their sins they might afterwards ks for pardon.’ Gregory of Nazianzus seems to have freld the same opinion ; and St Jerome, who does not accept it, at least treats it with respect, and adds ‘human frailty cannot know the judgment of God, nor venture to form an opinion of the greatness and the measure of his punish- ment.’ The Reformers followed Augustine ved in so far as they rejected Purgatory, first taught distinctly in his treatise De Doctrina Christiana. Of theologians inclined to the wider hope it is enough to name Bengel, Henry More, Rothe, Neander, Tholuck, and Martensen; and among ourselves Manrice, Milman, Kingsley, Alford, Erskine of Linlathen, Thirlwall, Plumptre, and Farrar. The last has argued for the cause with equal learning and eloquence. In close connection with the theory of univer- salism, as su ting inferences all tending to the possibility of purification and educational disci- pline being mingled with the penalty for sin beyond the grave, is the much-debated question of the descent of Christ into hell to preach to the spirits 632 HELL in prison. The earliest account of this as a his- torical fact is given by Eusebius, but it soon appears with fantastic elaboration in the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus, and a statement of belief in it was inserted in the Apostles’ Creed, in the earlier forms of which, however, it does not appear, any more than it does in the creeds of Irenzeus, Origen, Ter- tullian, Cyprian, nor in that of the Council of Nice. Yet we find it distinctly taught by Ignatius, Hermas, Justin Martyr, Irenzus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian, Cyril, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Chrysostom. _ It was maintained in answer to Arian and Apollin- arian heresies, as proving the true humanity and the real death of Christ. Besides 1 Peter, ili. 19, the other passages in Scripture considered to support this belief are Eph. iv. 9, and Acts, ii. 27-31. Tertullian asserts that heaven is not open till the end of the world, and that all men are in Hades, either comforted or tormented, and that the purpose of our Lord’s descent was that the sielesens should be made partakers of him. The elief soon came to be widely held that the patri- archs and prophets were in Hades, but passed with Christ into Paradise—the germ of the medieval doctrine of the Limbus patrum. Augustine seems to have believed that Christ’s preaching was effec- tive in saving some souls which were in torment. Cyril of Alexandria describes Christ as having by his descent ‘spoiled Hades utterly, and thrown open to the spirits of those that slept the gates that none may escape from, and leaving the devil there in his solitude and desolation, having risen again.’ To him it was the supremest proof of Christ’s love to man that the Cross, the symbol of deliverance, had been raised in Hades itself. The theme early became a subject of Christian art, as the ‘Harrowing of Hell’ was a favourite subject of our own medieval writers of mysteries, and takes its place in the great Divina Commedia of Dante. The Reformers felt that the doctrine lent support to the dogma of Purgatory, and some, as Calvin, taught that the descent into Hades meant only the terrible anguish with which the soul of Christ was tried, equalling in its intensity for the time the sufferings of the damned, while others merely admitted the fact without allowing themselves to define anything as to its purpose or result. Hammond, Pearson, and Barrow main- tain the only meaning of St Peter’s words to be that our Lord by his Holy Spirit, inspiring Noah, preached to the disobedient antediluvians, who are now for their disobedience imprisoned in hell—an explanation that had already occurred to Jerome and Augustine. . Bishop Harold Browne observes that on this subject Pearson has written less logi- cally than is his wont, and says well that the real difficulty consists in the fact that the proclamation of the finishing of the great work of salvation is represented by St Peter as having been addressed to these antediluvian penitents, while no mention is made of the penitents of later ages, who are equally interested in the tidings. It can hardly be denied that the patristic interpretation is most in har- mony with an honest exegesis of the passage in St Peter’s epistle, but here it may be enough to summarise the opinions of two great Protestant theologians, Martensen and Dorner. The former says that departed souls live a deep spiritual life, for the kingdom of the dead is a kingdom of subjectivity, of remembrance in the full sense of the word. At death the soul finds itself in a world of pure realities ; the manifold voices of the world, which during this earthly life sounded together with the voices of eternity, grow dumb, and the holy voice now sounds alone, no longer deadened by the tumult of the world; and hence the realm of the dead becomes a realm of judg- ment. Departed spirits thus not only live and move in the elements of bliss or woe which they have formed and prepared for themselves in time, but they continue to receive and work out a new state of consciousness, because they continue spiritually to mould and govern themselves in rela- tion to the new manifestation of the divine will now first presented to their view. Of the famous passage of St Peter, Dorner says: that Peter really contemplates Christ after his. death, probably before his resurrection, as active in the region of the dead, and therefore not in the lace of torment, but in the intermediate region. here is an Intermediate state before the decision of the Judgment. The Reformation, occupied chiefly with opposition to the Romish Purgatory, leaped over, as it were, the middle state—i.e. left at rest. the questions presenting themselves here, gazing with unblenched eye only at the antithesis between the saved and the damned, on the supposition (retained without inquiry), in opposition to more ancient tradition, that every one’s eternal lot is. definitely decided with his departure from this. present life. This is in keeping with the high estimation put on the moral worth of the earthly life. Nevertheless, the view is untenable, and that even on moral grounds. Not merely would nothing of essential importance remain for the Judgment if every one entered the place of his eternal destiny directly after death, but in that case also no space would be left for Mi Spegin growth of believers, who yet are not sinless at the moment of death. If they are conceived as holy directly after death, sanctification would be effected by separation from the body ; the seat, therefore, of evil must be found in the body, and sanctifica- tion would be realised through a mere suffering of death as a physical process instead of through the will. Add to this that the absoluteness of Christi- anity demands that no one be judged before Christi- anity has been made accessible and brought home to him. But this is not the case in this life with millions of human beings, as the heathen in central Africa. Nay, even within the church there are periods and circles where the gospel does not really approach men as that which it is. Moreover, those dying in childhood have not been able to decide personally for Christianity. The pamoger which make the pious enter at once a better place exclude a Purgatory as a place of punishment or penance, but by no means exclude a srowtn in perfection and blessedness. Even the eparted righteous are not quite perfect before the resurrection. Their souls must still long for the dominion of Christ and the consummation of God’s kingdom. There is, therefore, a status intermedius even for believers, not an instantaneous passage into perfect blessedness. How closely this touches the question of the admissibility of Prayers for the Dead will be at once BURSEVES, although that subject hardly falls to be discussed here. It was an ancient pre- Christian custom to offer up prayers for the dead, and we early find traces of it in the Christian Church. These St Augustine thought might at least secure for the lost a tolerabilior damnatio. III. Another view, not without its adherents, is that of Conditional Immortality or Annihilation- alism, according to which final destruction and not endless suffering is the doom of the finally impeni- tent. It of course traverses the belief in the in- herent immortality of the soul, the instinctive hope and belief of all mankind everywhere; and, if it saves the mind from the horror of endless torment, necessitates the belief that God will raise up the impenitent from the dead only to be tormented and at last destroyed. Its adherents depend for proof on the literal and assumed interpretation of a - eance of New Testament eschatolo HELL 633 a few passages of Scripture, and count among its — supporters Watts, Isaac Taylor, and The aietyal theories of future retribution hav- ing thus been briefly sketched, it only remains to say a few words more generally upon the signifi- , and the mode of its development; and here we shall follow closely in the track of Pfileiderer. The whole of the Primitive-Christian community lived in the expectation of the speedy return of Christ and the advent of his visible kingdom of glory upon earth. Further, the Apocalypse of John (following the Jewish apocalyptic—e.g. the Book of Enoch) dis- tinguished between (1) the earthly kingdom of Christ (of limited duration—1000 years, hence Chiliasm), beginning with the Parousia and First Resurrection, and (2) the definitive end of the world (Rev. xx. 2-7) following thereupon, which, through a second general resurrection and judg- ment of the world, together with the annihilation of the kingdom of Satan, will introduce the eternal completion of the kingdom of God: which com- pletion, moreover, the Apocalypse also still repre- sents in accordance with the analogy of the Israel- itish theocracy—descent of the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. xxi.). In the Pauline eschatology two essentially differ- ent views cross each other: (@) On the one hand, the oeseage mgt? Jewish-Christian expectation (handed own in the Christian community) of the follow- ing miraculous catastrophes: Parousia, Earthly Reign of Christ, Resurrection of Christians, General Judgment (1 Cor. xv. 23-26; 1 Thess. iv. 13-18)— under the assumption of which the state of souls between death and resurrection appears as a middle state, like sleep; on the other hand (4) a result of the specifically Pauline doctrine of the Spirit of Christ—viz. the expectation of a glorified state of individual Christians in fellowship with Christ—a state already prepared in the life of the Christian on this side the grave, and therefore beginning immediately after death to unfold its fullness in the manifestation of a body-of-light (Rom. viii. 10 e¢ seq., and 17-23; 1 Cor. v. 1 e¢ seg.; Phil. iii. 20 et seq.). The latter mode of conception appeared first in the later Pauline epistles, without however being made to harmonise with the first. The definitive end of the world Paul conceives as intro- duced by the subjugation of all the enemies of God, which is carried out under the earthly rule of Christ as king (whether through their conversion or even through their ourete annihilation ), and finally of even death itself. On this follows the surrender of the kingdom by Christ to God and the dominion of God alone in all creation, even to out- ward nature—glorified and serving God in freedom (1 Cor. xv. 27 et seg. ; Rom. viii. 31 ). The ideal tendency of the Pauline eschatolo, was strengthened from the side of Hellenism, under whose influence already the Epistle to the Hebrews had combined the future Messianic world of Jewish- Christianity with the higher, heavenly, or ideal world, and had immediately attached the perfect state to the death of the individual (Heb. xii. 23; iv. 9 et seg. ; ix. 27). In John the idealising spiritualisation of the traditional eschatology goes still further by trans- forming the external perfection (in the future) into the internal perfecting of the religious Christian life of the present church, As already the ‘coming again’ of Christ, in the valedictory discourses, wavers between future Parousia and present Com- ing-in-the-Spirit (John, xiv. 16), so also the ‘ eternal life’ of believers has now already become realised in the present in their corporate unity with God and Christ, which is above death and judgment, and which receives no essential addition even through the future resurrection to life (which, withal, is here firmly adhered to). In like manner, also, Judgment realises itself already in the historical life of the community, continuously, in the process of separation betwixt faith and unbelief, sonship to God and to the Devil—which separation will find only its full outward manifestation in the future two-sided resurrection (John, xvii. 3; xi. 25 et seq. ; vi. 40; v. 24 et seq. ; iii. 17-21, 36; xvi. 8 et seq.). In the spiritualisation of eschatology Origen only went further on the line pursued by the Gospel of John. The other Church Fathers in opposition to Gnostic spiritualism laid stress all the more decisively on the sensuous reality of the last things, even to the Pharisaic fleshly identity of the resur- rection body with the pam die one, Only it must be noted that Chiliasm, as an apocalyptic hope for the future, was from the 3d century all the more decisively rejected by the church, the more its idea realised itself in the church’s own dominion over the world, and the Parousia of Christ was pushed forward from the near future to the far- off distance. The conception of the Ignis Purgatorius, derived from the Platonic doctrine of the purifying pen- ances of souls in the world beyond the grave, was early adopted by individuals, but from the time of Gregory id became a part of the Catholic Church’s faith, closely connected with the Mass and with the church’s penitential discipline, for which reasons it was rejected by Protestant orthodoxy, which makes the unchangeable and endless retri- butive states of salvation and damnation ensue immediately on the death of the individual, between which states there is no third, though different degrees within both are admitted. In no other respect does the Protestant eschatology differ from the Catholic. Chiliasm is rejected as a Jewish error; but the Parousia of Christ with general resurrection, judgment, and transformation of the world stands as the solemn close of time and entrance on eternity. In the further course of Protestant theology some more mystical thinkers have sought to vivify the abstract monotony of the world beyond the grave as conceived by the church (a) by adopting once more the biblical Chiliasm, now termed Millenarianism, or (4) by finding a compensation for purgatory in assuming the capa- bility of conversion beyond the grave, or assumin a growing perfectibility, or assuming a gene restoration of all men ( Apocatastasis ). On the contrary the more rational theologians tended rather to set aside the last remajs of the primitive Christian dogmas—Parousia and Resur- rection, and to reduce this whole section of doctrine to the Alexandrine form of the incorporeal con- tinuance of souls. Philosophie thinkers found the essential idea of Christian eschatology in the im- manent eternity or infinity of the religious spirit ; along with which the individual continuance of souls was denied by some (as in Schleiermacher’s Reden ; it is otherwise in his Glaubenslehre ; and by the Hegelian Left), but asserted by others (as by Leibnitz, Wolff, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, the Hegelian Right, -Krause, Herbart, Lotze, Reich. miiller, &c.). Theology holds almost exclusively to the latter side. The Christian faith has from the beginning combined the two fundamental forms of hope for the future : (a) the Hebrew, of hope for the earthly future perfection of the people of God, and (6) the Hellenistic, directed to the supra-mundane perfec- tion of the individual sonl. Each of the two represents an essential side of the Christian hope, and is conceivable without self-contradiction ; it is only from the mixture of both sides, as it over from the Jewish theology into primitive Christianity, that obscurities and contradictions 634 HELL HELLEBORE arose. To set aside these and bring each of the two sides, the mundane and the supramundane, or the social and individual, hope of perfection to the clearest possible view appears to be the eschatological task of the theology of the present. The primitive Christian faith in the return of Christ and the earthly erection’ of his kingdom includes the ideal of the earthly realisation of the kingdom of God, or of the extensive and intensive ermeation of the Christian spirit throughout hamanity, as the goal and task of the history, of the world. It is in the union of all mankind in the family of the children of God and in the moralising of the whole life of society through the power of the Christian spirit that the victori- ous Coming and Royal Rule of Christ in the earthly world is constantly realizing itself. But, because realising itself upon the foundation of the historical life of nations, it remains constantly bound to those conditions and limits which are historically human. Christian faith hopes to find in the supra- mundane or heavenly future of the individual per- sons the completion of what is on earth but frag- mentary, and the harmony of what is on earth discordant. This hope rests partly (a) on the consciousness of the independent super-sensuous reality of the personal life distinct from its sensuous organism; partly and especially (6) on the conviction of our faith that we are destined to perfect likeness to God and fellowship with God, and that this our destination is eternally founded in God, and therefore not to be set aside by any temporal contingency whatever. Since the capacity for development which is in- herent in the nature of the human soul cannot be removed with the death of the body, and since the eternity of the pains of hell may be considered neither psychologically thinkable nor consistent with the all-wise love of God, nor yet corre- spondent to the thought of 1 Cor. xv. 28, there- fore the Protestant doctrine of the-stability of the twofold state of departed souls must be trans- formed into the thought of an infinite variety of forms and _ stages of development beyond the rave in which there remains room for the infinite ove to exercise endlessly its educative wisdom. Further, the unbiblical conception of a resurrec- tion of the body of flesh is to be explained accord- ing to the spiritualised (1 Cor. xv. 44, also 50th verse) Pauline theory of resurrection bodies, in doing which the speculative theory of the body as the totality of ministering forces organised by the soul itself may be called to our aid. For the rest, the true evangelical treatment of the ‘last things’ must follow the principle of biblical caution ; and, instead of arbitrarily pictur- ing to ourselves that which is unsearchable, we can content ourselves with the promise that we will be resent with the Lord, and that the eternal blessed ife, which is begun indeed*already here below, but, under the endless suffering of the world, remains constantly incomplete, will at last reach perfection in the knowledge and love of God. See the articles ConDITIONAL IMMORTALITY, DEVIL, HEAVEN, IMMORTALITY, MOHAMMED, PRAYER, PuRGA- TORY, RESURRECTION; also the Histories of Dogma of Neander and Hagenbach; E. White’s Life in Christ (1846); Andrew Jukes’s Restitution of All Things (2d ed. 1869); J. Baldwin Brown’s Doctrine of Annihilation in the Light of the Gospel of Love (1875); F. N. Oxenham’s Catholic Eschatology and Universalism (2d ed. 1878), and his answer to Pusey, What is the Truth as to Everlasting Punishment ? (2 parts, 1882); H. M. Luckock’s After Death (1879) ; W. R. Alger’s Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life (10th ed., with a complete bibliography of the subject, comprising 4977 books relating to the Nature, Origin, and Destiny of the Soul, by Ezra Abbot, Boston, 1880); E. H. Plumptre’s article ‘Eschatology’ in Smith and Wace’s Dictionary of Christian Biography, kc. (vol. ii. 1880), and his Spirits in Prison, and other Studies on the Life after Death (1885); F. W. Farrar’s Eternal Hope (1878), and Mercy and Judgment (1881); 3. Davidson's Doctrine of Last Uhings contained in the New Testament (1882); Th. Kliefoth’s Christl. Eschatologie (Leip. 1886); and Professor J. Agar Beet’s series of papers in the Hxpositor for 1890. Hellas. See GREECE. Hellebore, a name applied to two distinct genera of plants. The genus to which it more properly belongs, and to which it has belonged since very ancient times, Hellebérus, is of the natural order Ranunculacez, and is characterised by a calyx of five persistent sepals, often resem- ‘ling petals; a corolla of eight or ten very short, tubular, honey-secreting petals ; numerous stamens and three to ten pistils; a leathery capsule, and seeds arranged in two rows. The species are per- ennial herbaceous plants, mostly European, gener- ally with a short root-stock ; the stem mostly leaf- less, or nearly so, but sometimes very leafy ; the leaves more or less evergreen, lobed, the flowers terminal. A familiar example of this genus is the Black Hellebore—so called from the colour of its roots—or Christmas Rose (H. niger), a favourite in flower-gardens, because its large white flowers —which have in recent years been greatly im- proved by florists in point of size and purity of colour—are produced in winter. The leaves are all radical ; the stalks generally one-flowered ; the flowers white or tinged with red. Black hellebore formerly enjoyed a higher reputation as a medicinal agent than it now possesses. Melampus is repre- sented as employing it in the treatment of madness centuries before the Christian era. The root is the part used in medicine, and it is imported into Christmas Rose (Helleborus niger). Britain from Hamburg, and sometimes from Mar- seilles. It consists of two parts—the rhizome or root-stock, and the fibres descending from it. The former is nearly half an inch thick, several inches long, and knotty, with transverse ridges and slight longitudinal strie. The taste is slight at first, then bitter and acrid. It is not much employed at the present day, but it has been found of service (1) in mania, melancholia, and epilepsy ; (2) as an emmenagogue ; (3) in dropsy —its action as a drastic purgative, and its stimu- lating effect on the vessels of the liver, rendering it useful ; (4) in chronic skin diseases; and (5) as. an anthelmintic. Ten or fifteen grains of the powdered root act as a sharp purgative. The ———— _—_—s | —- —- \v — Se HELLENIST HELMHOLTZ 635 tincture, which is obtained by maceration in spirit, is usually given when its action as.an emmena- gogue is required. In an excessive dose it acts as a narcotic acrid poison, and causes vomiting, purg- ing, burning pain in the stomach and intestines, tness, paralysis, and death.—Stinking Helle- bore (1. fetidus) grows on hills and mountains in the south and west of Europe, in some of the chalk districts of England, and in several places in Scot- land. It has a very disagreeable smell, and green flowers somewhat tinged with purple. The stem is many-flowered and Meaty. tireen Hellebore (H. viridis), also found in the chalk districts of Eng- land, has a leafy stem, with a few large greenish- yellow flowers. The celebrated hellebore of the ancients was probably a species peculiar to Greece and the Levant, H. orientalis or H. officinalis ; all the species, however, have similar medicinal quali- ties. From the abundance of the plant around the city of Anticyra, ot eigenen persons were said to need a visit to Anticyra. ; White Hellebore (Veratrum album) belongs to the natural order Melanthacewe. The genus has polygamous flowers, with six-leaved perianth, six stamens, three pistils cohering at the base, a three- horned capsule separating into three many-seeded follicles, and compressed seeds winged at the apex. White hellebore has a leafy stem, sometimes 4 feet high, ovate-oblong leaves, a long terminal compound panicle, and yellowish-white flowers. It abounds in the mountains of the centre and south of Europe, but is not found in Britain. The root was once much used in medicine, but now rarely, although it seems to act powerfully in some diseases. It is a very acrid and active poison. Its “ayes is used to destroy lice, and by gardeners or killing caterpillars. decoction and ointment of it are sometimes used in itch and ringworm. Caution is necessary even in handling the powder of white hellebore, and very unpleasant effects ensue from .its getting into the eyes or nose. —American Hellebore, or Swamp Hellebore (V. viride), known also as Indian Poke or Itch Weed, is frequent in damp grounds from Canada to Carolina. Its root. has properties similar to those of white hellebore. ese properties seem to depend auety on an alkaloid called Veratria, which is derived from plants of the genus Veratrum. Hellenist (Gr. Hellénistés), one who adopts Greek customs and language ; a name given especi- ally to those among the Jews, and afterwards in the Christian church of Judea, who, either by birth or by residence, and by the adoption of the Greek language, manners, and usages, were regarded as Greeks—in opposition to the Hebrews roperly so called, whether of Palestine or of the Bis rsion, and to the Hellenes, or Greeks proper. ey are called Grecians in the Authorised Version, Grecian Jews in the Revised Version, of the New Testa- ment. They inevitably stood in a relation of rivalry, if not of antagonism to the Hebrews (see Acts, vi. 1, and ix. 29). It was among the Jews settled in Alexandria that the Hellenising tendency found its freest development ; and it is to that city that we must refer the formation as well of that uliar dialect of the Greek lan- guage which is known as the Hellenistic, as of that speculative philosophy which exercised so large an influence on those early Christian schools, _ of which Origen is the most famous exponent (see ALEXANDRIA). The really characteristic element of the Hellen- istic Greek consists in its foreign, and especially its Hebrew and Aramaic words and idioms. Although it was in its origin a purely popular form of the language, yet its being employed in the Alexandrian or Septuagint version of the Old Testament has given to it all the fixedness and definite character of a written language. The Hellenisms of the Septuagint differ in many respects from those of the New Testament, which again present some ints of discrepancy with those of the Alexandrian athers ; but ape are certain leading character- istics common to them all. The influence of the Hellenistic modes of thought on the Alexandrian philosophy are traced under PHILO JUDAUS, NEOPLATONISM, PLoTINUS, &e. See Winer, Grammatik des N. 7. Sprachidioms (1822 ; 7th ed. 1867); Alex. Buttmann, Gramm. des N. 7. Velcon peter (1859); 8S. A. Green, Handbook to the rammar of the Greek New Testament (1885); W. H. Simcox, On the Language of the New Testament (1889) ; Dr Hatch, Lssays in Biblical Greek (1889). There are dictionaries of New Testament Greek by Schleusner 1792), Robinson (Boston, 1836; New York, 1850), mer (1866; Eng. ed. by Urwick), D. Harting (2d ed. Utrecht, 1888); also Grimm’s ed. of Wilke’s Clavis 1868, and 1877-79; Eng. ed. by Professor Thayer). mcordances of the Greek New Testament are those by -R. Ser 1884), and Hastings and Hudson, as revised by E. Abbot ( Boston, 1885). Heller, SreruHeEN, pianist and musical com poser, was born on 15th May 1814 at Pesth, and made a brilliant début as a pianist when only nine years of age. Before he was sixteen he had played in most of the principal cities of Europe. From 1830, when he settled in Augsburg, he began to study composition. In 1838 he removed to Paris, where he occupied himself with composing and teaching until This death, on 14th January 1888. In the matter of technique he must be ranked beside Chopin. He wrote almost exclusively for the pianoforte ; his works, which number about 150, consist of sonatas, études, &c., and are distin- ished by originality and refinement. See his ife by Barbedette (Paris, 1876). Hellespont, See DARDANELLES. Hell Gate, or Hurt GATE, named by the Dutch settlers of New York Helle Gat, is a pass in the East River, between New York city and Long Island, formerly very dangerous to vessels from its numerous rocks and rapid current. As early as 1851 attempts were made to blast away the obstruce- tions ; the operations which in 1885 finally freed the navigation are described, with an illustration, in the article BLASTING. Hellin, a town of Spain, 69 miles by rail NNW. of Murcia. In the vicinity are productive sulphur- mines and sulphur-springs. Pop. 13,700. Helm. See STEERING. Helmet. See Armour, HERALDRY. Helmet-shell (Cassis), a genus of gasteropods, type of a family (Casside), the members of which are somewhat whelk-like, and have thick, heavy shells, with bold ridges, a short spire and a long aperture, the outer lip toothed, the canal recurved. umerous species, amounting to about fifty if we inelude closely allied genera such as Cassidaria, occur in the warmer seas. As the shells are made up of differently-coloured layers, they are much used for the manufacture of Cameos (q.v.). The species most used is the large Black Helmet (C. madagascarensis), sometimes almost a foot long, with a whitish outer and black inner layer. Helmholtz, HERMANN VON, a very dis- tinguished scientist, was born at Potsdam, 31st August 1821; he was ennobled by the Emperor of Germany in 1883. He was at first a surgeon in the army, then assistant in the Berlin Ana- tomical Museum, and was a professor of Phy- siology from 1849 at Kénigsberg, from 1855 at Bonn, and from 1858 at Heidelberg. In 1871 he became professor of Physics in Berlin. Helmholtz was equally distinguished in physiology, in mathe- matics, and in experimental and mathematical 636 HELMINTHOLOGY HELPS physics. His physiological works are principally connected with the eye, the ear, and the nervous system. Thus, we have his exhaustive treatise on Physiological Optics, his Speculum for the exam- ination of the Retina, his Discourse on Human Vision, and various papers on the means of measuring small periods of time, and their appli- cation to find the rate of propagation of nerve- disturbances. Of a semi-physical nature we have his Analysis of the Spectrum, his explanation of Vowel Sounds (Klangfarbe der Vocalen; see SOUND), and his papers on the Conservation of Energy with reference to Muscular Action. In physical science he is known by his paper on Con- servation of Energy ( Ueber d. Erhaltung d. Kraft, 1847, translated [badly] in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, new series); by a popular lecture on the same subject (1854); by two memoirs in Crelle’s Journal, on Vortex-motion in fluids, and on the Vibrations of Air in open pipes, &c., and by several researches into the development of electric current within a galvanic battery. His Populdre wissenschaftliche Vortrdge appeared in 1865-76 (Eng. trans. by Atkinson, with Introduction by Tyndall, 1881); his great work on Die Lehre der Tonempfindungen (Eng. trans. by Alex. J. Ellis, The Sensations of Tone) in 1862; his Wissenschaft- liche Abhandlungen in 1881-83; and his Reden und Vortrdge in 1884. He died 8th September 1894, See Clerk-Maxwell in Nature, vol. xv.; Riicker in Nature, vol. li.; and Bezold’s German monograph (1895). Helminthology, that branch of Zoology which treats of worms, especially parasites. Helmond, a town in the Netherlands, province of North Brabant, lies 23 miles NW. of Venlo by rail. There are manufactures of textiles, machinery, and iron. Pop. (1893) 9328. Helmont, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN, Belgian chemist, was born at Brussels in 1577. At Louvain he studied medicine and its cognate sciences, but soon turned aside from them to.throw himself into the movement known as mysticism, to study the works and practise the precepts of Thomas A Kempis and Johann Tauler. Then, falling in with the writings of Paracelsus, he came back to his first love, and began to study chemistry and natural philosophy. After spending several years in France, Switzerland, and England, in 1605 he returned to Amsterdam, married Mar- garet van Ranst, a noble lady of Brabant, and in 1609 settled down at his estate near Vilvorde, where he spent the remainder of his life in chemical investigations of various kinds. He died 30th December 1644. In spite of much theosophical mistiness and much alchemical error, Van Helmont is regarded by some historians of chemistry as the greatest chemist who preceded Lavoisier. He was the first to point out the impera- tive necessity for employing the balance in chemis- try, and by its means showed, in many instances, the indestructibility of matter in chemical changes. He paid much attention to the study of gases, and is supposed to have been the first to apply the term gases to elastic aeriform fluids. Of these gases he distinguished several kinds. He was also the first to take the melting-point of ice and the boiling- point of water as standards for the measurement of temperature. It is in his works that the term saturation is first employed, to signify the com- bination of an acid with a base; and he was one of the earliest investigators of the chemistry of the fluids of the human body. Along with other phy- siologists of his day, he speculated much on the seat of the soul, which he placed in the stomach. An account of his contributions to the knowledge of chemistry will be found in the Histories of Chemistry by Kopp and Héfer. His works, en- titled Ortus Medicine, were published by his son four years after his death, and frequently since then. See Rommelaere, Etudes sur Van Helmont (Brussels, 1868 ). Helmstedt, a town of Germany, 24 miles by rail ESE. of Brunswick, was formerly famous for its Protestant university, founded by Julius, Duke of Brunswick, in 1574, and suppressed by Jerome Bonaparte in 1809. The university building (the Juleum), which still remains, the 12th-centur church of St Stephen, and the Marienberg cer are the most noteworthy edifices. Helmstedt grew ot originally round the monastery (now in ruins) of St Ludger in the 9th century. Pop, (1890) 10,955. Helmund, or HELMAND, a river of Afghani- stan, rises on the south slopes of the Hindu Kush, flows south-west, west, and north-west, and after a course of about 680 miles empties itself into the lake of Hamun or Seistan. See map at AFGHANI- STAN. ‘ Helobize, or Marsu LILIkEs, form one of the chief groups of Monocotyledons, and comprise the four orders Butomaceze, Alismacese, Juncaginee, and Hydrocharidez. Heloderm. See GiILA MONSTER. Héloise. See ABELARD. Helots were the lowest of the four classes into which the population of ancient Sparta was divided. They are generally ere to have been the aboriginal population of the country, and to have been reduced to bondage by their Dorian con- querors, their numbers being swelled from time to time by the addition of peoples conquered in war. They belonged to the state, which alone had the power to set them at liberty; but they toiled for individual proprietors, and were bound to the soil— i.e. they could not be sold away from the place of their labour. They were the tillers of the land, for which they paid a rent to their masters; they served at the public meals, and were occupied on the public works. In war they fought as light troops, each freeborn Spartan (who bore heavy armour) being accompanied to battle by a number of them, sometimes as many as seven. On rare oceasions they were equipped as heavy-armed soldiers. It is a matter of doubt whether after emancipation they could ever enjoy all the privi- leges of Spartan citizenship. They were treated with much severity by their masters, especially in the later ages of Sparta, and were su jaca to degradation and indignities. They were whipped every year, to keep them in mind of their servile state ; they were obliged to wear a distinctive dress (clothes of sheepskin and a cap of dog’s-skin), and to intoxicate themselves as a warning to the Spar- tan youth ; and when they multiplied to an alarm- ing extent, they were often massacred with the most barbarous cruelty. On one occasion 2000 of them, who had behaved bravely in war, were encouraged to come forward for emancipation, and were then treacherously put to death. The Spar- tans organised, as often as necessity required, secret service companies (Gr. erypteia) of young men, who went abroad over the country armed with daggers, and both by night and day assassinated the Helots, selecting as their special victims the strongest and most vigorous of the race. Helps, Str ARTHUR, essayist and historian, was born at Streatham, Surrey, 10th July 1813. From Eton he passed to Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he was thirty-first wrangler in 1835 ; but, what meant more, was admitted a member of the famous Society of the Apostles, among whom were Charles Buller, Maurice, Trench, Monckton Milnes, and Tennyson. On leaving the university he ‘fo 2» 13+ —— — —— —<— HELSINGBORG HELVETII 637 became private secretary to Spring-Rice, then Chan- cellor of the Exchequer, and next to Lord Morpeth, the Irish secretary. On the fall of the Melbourne ministry he retired to enjoy twenty years of lettered leisure. In 1860 he was appointed Clerk to the Privy-conncil, and was in consequence much thrown into contact with the Queen, who, it is understood, set a high value upon his character and talents. He was employed to edit the Principal Speeches and Addresses of the late Prince Consort (1862), and the Queen’s own Leaves froma Journal of Our Life in the Highlands (1868). He received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1864, was made C.B. in 1871, and K.C.B. in 1872. He died in London, after a few days’ illness, 7th March 1875. His first: work was a series of aphorisms entitled Thoughts in the Cloister and the Crowd, published as early as 1835. The next, a work of more real consequence, was Essays written in the Intervals of Business (1841). Two worthless plays followed, then The Claims of Labour (1844), and Friends in Council (two series, 1847-59), an admirable series of discussions on social questions, thrown into a conversational form. The same familiar speakers (Milverton, Ellesmere, and Dunsford) mop ecene in Realmah (1869), Conversations on ar a General Culture (1871), and Talk about Animals and their Masters (1873). His strong interest in the question of slavery prompted his Con- querors of the New World and their Bondsmen (1848-52), and the greater work, The Spanish Conquest in America (4 vols. 1855-61), — Out of his studies for this work grew his admirable biographies of Las Casas (1868), Columbus (1869), Pizarro (1869), and Cortes (1871). Other works are Companions of my Solitude (1850), Casimir Maremma (1870), Brevia (1871), Thoughts upon Government (1872), Life and Labours of Thomas Brassey (1872), and Social Pressure (1875). Helps is one of the most suggestive and delight- ful of our later essayists, revealing pratiss i acuteness, humour, a satire which gives no pain, and a quiet depth of moral feeling and sense of man’s social responsibilities ; while his style pos- sesses in a rare degree the qualities of grace, clear- ness, and distinction. Helsingborg, an ancient seaport of southern Sweden, miles NW. of Malmé, on the Sound, opposite Elsinore (Dan. Helsingér}. It is con- nected by branch-lines with the railway from Stockholm to Malmé. There are a good harbour, some fishing, and some trade (6500 vessels annu- ally in and out). It figures several times in the wars between Sweden and Denmark. Pop. (1875) 9471; (1888) 17,465 ; (1893) 21,214. molsingters, © fortified agai capital of the grand-duchy of Finland, and after Cronstadt the most a naval station on the Baltic, is beautifully situated on a peninsula, surrounded by islands and rocky cliffs, in the Gulf of Finland, 191 miles W. from St Petersburg by sea and 256 by rail. A series of formidable batteries, called the fortifications of Svedborg, and consisting of seven strongly-fortified islands and numerous islets belonging to Russia, protect the entrance to the harbour, and are of such strength, and so well appointed, as to warrant the ap- — to them of the name of the Northern sibraltar. The whole front presented by the sue- cessive works is more than a mile in length, and, besides the casemates for small-arms, the united fortresses mount about 300 guns or mortars, and are garrisoned by 12,000 men in war-time, there being only about 2000 men in time of peace. The harbour itself is further defended by two forts. Helsingfors is the largest and handsomest town of Finland ; the broad streets intersect at right angles, and there are several fine parks and public squares. Of the public buildin ihe.neas striking are the house in which the diet meets, the senate-house, and the university buildings. There are also three very handsome churches. The university, re- moved hither from Abo in 1828, where it had been founded in 1640, comprises four faculties, and in 1888 had 45 professors, and 1703 students inscribed on the lists, of whom 12 were ladies, but of whom only 1002 were actually in residence. In con- nection with it are a library of 200,000 volumes, a hospital, a botanic garden, and a valuable observatory. Helsingfors is a favourite bathing- lace, and attracts many visitors during summer rom St Petersburg. The town carries on a considerable trade in Baltic produce; it exports chiefly timber, paper, and butter, and imports iron and steel goods, with machinery, fancy articles, colonial wares, &c. Pop. (1870) 32,113; (1889) 64,817 ; (1895) 73,820, with the garrison. Helsingfors was founded by Gustavus I. of Sweden in the 16th century, but the site of the town was removed nearer the shore in 1639. In 1819 it became the capital of Finland. In Angust 1855, during the Crimean war, Sveaborg was bom- barded for two days and nights by a section of the allied fleet, without any material impression being made upon the forts. Helsingfors has still many Swedish characteristics, the majority of the popu- lation being of Scandinavian origin, hence Swed. ish is the tongue generally spoken. The Finnish language, however, is beginning to assert itself. Helst, BARTHOLOMZUS VAN DER, a Dutch ainter, was born (according to tradition) at Haar- em in 1613. He was joint-founder in 1654 of the ainters’ guild of St Luke at Amsterdam, where ce lived, and where he died in 1670. He attained great celebrity as a portrait-painter. Some of his pictures seem to bear traces of Franz Hals’s influ- ence. One of his works at Amsterdam, a ‘ Muster of the Burgher Guard,’ with thirty full-length figures, was pronounced by Sir Joshua Reynolds to be ‘the first picture of portraits in the world.’ His later creations are inferior in merit to the ieces painted before 1650. Numerous paintings y him exist in European galleries. Helston, an old market-town and municipal borough of Cornwall, 10 miles WSW. of Falmouth. It was made a borough by King John in 1201; and from the reign of Edward I. to 1832 it sent two members to parliament, and one till 1885. It has long been noted for its Furry or Flora Dance, held on the 8th May. A branch-line from Gwinear Road was opened in 1887. Pop. (1891) 3198. Helvella, a genus of fungi, of the class Ascomy- cetes (see FUNGI), having the pileus turned down- wards, lobed and folded, and the surface of the hymenium even. Some of the Helvellz are edible, and much used in Germany. Helvellyn, one of the highest mountains of England, in the west of Cumberland, between Keswick and Ambleside. It is 3118 feet high, is easy of ascent, and commands magnificent views. Helvetia, a Swiss colony (founded 1856) in the Argentine Republic, in the Gran Chaco, 80 miles N. of Santa Fe. Pop. 2500,—For ancient Helvetia, see HELVETII, SWITZBRLAND. For the Helvetic Confessions, see CONFESSIONS OF FAITH; and for the Helvetic Republic, see SWITZERLAND. Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting, accordin to Cesar, the region between the mountains o Jura on the west, the Rhone on the south, and the Rhine on the east and north, the region correspond- ing pretty wen. with the western part of modern Switzerland. Their chief town was A venticum, and they were divided into four pagi or cantons, of 638 HELVETIUS HEMIPTERA which the most important was the pagus Tigurinus. They are first mentioned in the war with the Cimbri, but the chief event in their history is their attempted irruption into and conquest of southern Gaul, in which they were repulsed by Ceesar with frightful slaughter, 58 B.c. Fortunately we have the story in the terse but vivid narrative of Cesar. They collected three months’ provisions, burned down their twelve towns and 400 villages, and made a general rendezvous by Lake Leman in the sprin of the year. Czesar hastened to Geneva, destroye the bridge, raised two legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and when the Helvetians sent delegates to demand a passage, delayed them until he ‘had built a wall along the Rhone, 16 feet high and about 19 Roman miles in length, flanked with redoubts. After vainly attempting to pass this barrier, the Helvetii took another route, but were followed and defeated with terrible slaughter at Bibracte (Awtun), and the remnant obliged to return to their own country, where they became subject to the Romans, who overawed all disaffection by the fortresses which they built, Noviodunum, Vindonissa, Aventicum. Of 368,000 who left their homes, including 92,000 fighting-men, only 110,000 are said to have returned. See SWITZERLAND. Helvétius, CLAUDE ADRIEN, one of the French Encyclopeedists, was of Swiss origin, and was born at Paris in 1715. He was trained for a financial career, and in 1738 was appointed to the lucra- tive office of farmer-general. But this post he quickly resigned for the situation of chamberlain to the queen’s household. At this time he asso- ciated much with the French philosophers of the day, Diderot, D’Alembert, Holbach, and others. In 1751 he withdrew to a small estate at Voré (Le Perche), where he spent the most of his life in the education of his family, the improvement of his peasantry, and in literary labours. In 1758 ap- peared his celebrated work, De l’ Esprit, in which, carrying out, as he thought, the work of Locke, he endeavoured to prove that sensation is the source of all intellectual activity, and that the grand lever of all human conduct is self-gratification. The book created an immense sensation. It was denounced by the doctors of the Sorbonne, and condemned by the parliament of Paris to be publicly burned. Everybody read it, and it was translated into the principal European tongues. Helvétius died at Paris, 26th December 1771, leaving behind him a work, De l’Homme, de ses Facultés, et de son Education (2 vols. Lond. 1772). His collected works were published in 14 vols. at Paris in 1796, and again in 3 vols. in 1818. See Morley’s Diderot and the Encyclopedists (1878). Helvoetsluys, or HELLEVOETSLUIS, a forti- fied seaport of South Holland, on the Haring- Vliet, an arm of the Maas, 17 miles SW. of Rotterdam. It has an excellent harbour, and is to Rotterdam and vhe mouth of the Maas what the Helder is to Amsterdam and the Zuider Zee. There is a school of navigation. Here William III. embarked for England, November 11, 1688. Pop. 4362. Hemans, FELiciA DoroTHEA, poetess, was born at Liverpool, 25th September 1793. Her father, George Browne, was a Liverpool merchant, of Irish extraction; her mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was of mixed Italian and German descent. Felicia was distinguished for her beauty and precocity, and at an early age she manifested a taste for poetry, in which she was encouraged by her mother. Family reverses led to the removal of the Brownes to Wales, where the young poetess imbibed a strong passion for nature, read books of chronicle and romance, and gained a working knowledge of the German, Italian, Span- ish, and Portuguese languages. She also cultivated . her excellent musical taste. Her first volume was published in 1808, when she was only fifteen years of age, and contained a few pieces written about four years earlier; her second, entitled Zhe Domestic Affections, appeared in 1812. In the same year she married Captain Hemans of the 4th Regiment, whose health had suffered in the retreat on Corunna, and afterwards in the Wal: cheren expedition, and who settled in Italy in 1818. After this time they never met again; their marriage was understood not to have been happy. Mrs Hemans, though in poor health, now devoted herself’ to the education of her children, to reading and writing, and spent the rest of her life in North Wales, Lancashire, and latterly at Dublin, where she died, 16th May 1835. Her principal works are: The Vespers of Palermo, a tragedy (1823), which proved a failure when acted at Covent Garden; Zhe Siege of Valencia, The Last Constantine, and other oems (1823); The Forest Sanctuary (1827); Records of Women (1828); The Songs of the Affections (1830); and Hymns for Childhood, National Lyries and Songs for Music (1834); and Scenes and Hymns of Life (1834). A volume of Poetical Remains was published after her death, and subsequently a complete edition of her works, with a memoir by her sister, was issued in 7 vols. (1839). During a visit that she paid to Abbotsford, Scott complimented her on her musical talents : ‘I should say you had too many gifts, Mrs Hemans, were they not all made to give pleasure to those around you.’ And on parting he said ; ‘ There are some whom we meet and should like ever after te claim as kith and kin; and you are one of these.’ Mrs Hemans, without great originality or force, is a sweet, natural, and pleasing. But she was too uent, and wrote much and hastily ; her lyries are her best productions; her more ambitious poems, especially her tragedies, being, in fact, quite in- sipid. Still, she was a woman of true genius, though her range was circumscribed, and some of her little lyrics, The Voice of Spring, The Better Land, The Graves of a Household, The Treasures of the Deep, and The Homes of Eng- land, are perfect in pathos and sentiment, and will live as long as the English language. These are found in almost every school collection, and this early familiarity with her sweet and simple lyrics has helped to keep her memory green. Besides her sister’s memoir, there are Memorials by H. F. Chorley (1836); Recollections by Mrs Lawrence (1836); Poetical Remains, with memoir by Delta (1836); and Poetical Works, with memoir by W. M. Rossetti (1873). See also Espinasse’s Lancashire Worthies (1874). Hematite. See HaMATITE. Hemel Hempstead, a market-town of Hert- fordshire, 23 miles NW. of London, a centre of the straw-plaiting industry. It has also paper-mills, iron-foundries, tanneries, and breweries. Pop. of parish (1851) 7073 ; (1881) 9064; (1891) 9678. Hemerocallis. See DAy-LiLy. Hemianopia (Gr. hemi, ‘one-half,’ an, ‘not; and ops, ‘the eye’), vision limited to one-half of — an object—a peculiar and rare form of disease, generally due to disease within the brain. Hemicrania. See HEADACHE. Hemidesmus. See SARSAPARILLA. Hemiplegia (Gr. hemi, ‘one-half,’ and pléssd, ‘I strike’), Paralysis (q.v.) limited to one side of the face and body, ane usually depending upon disease of the brain. Opposed in signification to Paraplegia. Hemipode. See Qua. Hemiptera (Gr., ‘ half-winged’), a large order of insects, to which the general term ‘ bugs’ is often Te HEMLOCK 639 HEMIPTERA lied, or the more modern title Rhynchota, in ali usion to the characteristic suctori roboscis, ‘The order includes (1) forms with similar wings (Homoptera )—e.g. coccus insects, aphides, Cicadas (q.¥.); (2) others with dissimilar wings esi tera)—e.g. water-bugs, water-scorpions; and (3) parasites or Lice (q.v.). Hemlock (Conium), a genus of plants of the natural order Umbellifere, having compound um- dels of small white flowers, small general and partial involucres, the limb of ‘the calyx merel rudimentary, and a compressed ovate fruit with five prominent wavy ridges and no vitte. The best- known and only important species. is the Common ‘® Flowers and Root of Common Hemlock (Conium maculatum): ¢, a flower; d, a seed, — or Spotted Hemlock (C. maculatum), which grows waysides, on heaps of rubbish, and in other similar situations in Britain and on the continent of Europe, in some parts of Asia, and now also as a naturalised plant in North America and in Chili. It has a root somewhat resembling a small parsnip ; a round, branched, hollow, bright-green stem, 2 to 7 feet high, generally spotted with dark purple; the leaves large, tripinnate, of a dark shining green colour; the leaflets lanceolate, pinnatifi All parts of the plant are perfectly destitute of hairs, and it is the only British species of the order Um- belliferse which has the stem smooth and spotted with purple. Both the general and ial umbels have many rays. The general involucres consist of several small leaflets, the partial involucres of three small leaflets, all on one side. The whole plant has a nauseous smell, icularly if rubbed or bruised. The leaves and fruit are the parts of the _ employed in medicine. The former should be gathered just before the time or at the commencement of flowering, and after the remeval of the larger stalks they should be quickly dried by a heat not exceeding 120°. They should then be preserved in perfectly closed tin canisters. The fruit is gathered when fully developed, but still green, and should be carefully dried. The most important ingredient in hemlock is the alkaloid conine, a volatile, colourless, oily, strongly alkaline substance, C,H,,N, but it also contains two other alkaloids—methyleonine and conhydrine. The fruit contains about one-fifth _ per cent. of it, the other parts of the plant merely traces. It is obtained by distilling the seeds with water which contains a little potash in solution ; the conine passes over with the water in the form of a yellowish oil, and is purified by redis- tillation. Conine has lately been pre artifici- ally 2 oreo Conhydrine, C,H,,NO, is a solid vola- tile alkaloid, and is much less poisonous than conine. Conine and methylconine are extremely poisonous, and cause death by their action on the nervous system. The action of conium depends of course on the combined effects of the active principles contained in the plant. The symptoms of conium poisoning are weakness and s ering gait, pass- ing on to paralysis, which gradually passes up the cord until it reaches the respiratory centre, when death ensues, Dilatation of the pupil, ptosis, and asphyxial convulsions are symptoms also seen. n medicine, it is given internally as a sedative to the nervous system in chorea, incontinence of urine, paralysis agitans, and other affections. It is also employed as a vapour to relieve cough. It may be administered internally in the form of powder (of the leaves), succus, tincture, or extract, while externally it may be eopled as a soothing application to ulcers, painful piles, &c., in the form of ointment or poultice. The succus is considered the best preparation, the others often containing no active principle. In cases of poisoning by hemlock, the evacuation of the stomach is the first thing to be attended to. Among the ancient Greeks, poisoning by hemlock was a common mode of death for condemned criminals, and thus it was that Socrates died.— -| Water Hemlock, or Cowbane (Ciciita virosa), is also an umbelliferous plant, of a genus havin much-vaulted umbels, a five-toothed calyx, an almost globose fruit, each carpel with five broad flattened ribs and evident single vitte. Water hemlock grows in ditches, on the margins of ponds, and wet grounds in Europe and the north of Asia. It is more common in Scotland than in England. It has a large fleshy white root, covered externally with fibres ; an erect much-branched stem, 2 to 5 feet high ; tripinnate leaves, with linear-lanceolate regularly and sharply serrated leaflets; no general involucre, or only a single small leaflet, i Water Hemlock (Ciciita virosa). involucres of many short narrow leaflets ; and white flowers. It contains an active principle, Cicut- oxine, and an essential oil. It causes tetanic spasms, insensibility, vomiting, and diarrhcea. atal results have occurred from eating the root. Another species, C. maculata, is common in North America, growing in marshy places. It has a spotted stem, like that of true hemlock, the name of which it very generally receives in North America. The leaves are triternate, the leaflets ternate. It is a very poisonous plant, and is the cause of many deaths.—The Cicuta of the Romans was the Conium of modern botanists (Gr. oneton), as water hemlock does not grow in Italy or Greece. 640 HEMLOCK SPRUCE HEMP The ornamental plant, the so-called Giant Hemlock, which in good rich soil reaches a height of 12 to 15 feet in three months, is not really a hemlock at all, but a giant Cow-parsnip (q.v.). Hemlock Spruce. See Fir. Hemorrhage. See BLEEDING. Hemp (Cannabis), a genus of plants of the natural order Cannabinacez (q.v.), having the male and female flowers on different plants; the male flowers with five-partite calyx and five stamens ; the female flowers with a spathe-like calyx of one leaf; rolled round the ovary and partially split along one side, and two threadlike stigmas. There is only one known species ( C. sativa), varying considerably, however, from soil, climate, and cultivation. It is an annual plant, a native of the warmer parts of Asia, but has been cultivated in Europe from the earliest historic times, and is now naturalised in many parts of Europe and America. Like flax, it adapts itself wonderfully to diversities of climate, and is cultivated equally under the burning sun of the tropics and in the northern parts of Russia. Common Hemp (Cannabis sativa), male plant. It is, however, readily injured by frost, particularly when young; and in many countries where it is cultivated it succeeds only because the warmth of the summer, though of short duration, is suffi- ciént for its whole life. Hemp varies very much in height, according to the soil and climate, being sometimes only 3 or 4 feet, and sometimes 15 or 20 feet, or even more. Notwithstanding the coarse- ness of its leaves, it is an elegant plant, and is some- times sown on this account in shrubberies and large flower-borders. The stem is erect, more or less branched ; the leaves are five to nine fingered. The flowers are yellowish-green, small, and numerous ; the male flowers in axillary racemes on the upper parts of the plant; the female flowers in short axillary and rather crowded spikes. The female lants are higher and stronger than the male. he stem of hemp is hollow, or only filled with a soft pith. This pith is surrounded by a tender, brittle substance, consisting chiefly of cellular tissue, with some woody fibre, which is called the reed, boon, or shove of hemp. Over this is the thin bark, composed chiefly of fibres extending in a parallel direction along the stalk, with an outer membrane or cuticle. Hemp is cultivated for its fibre in almost all countries of Europe, and in many other temperate parts of the world, most extensively in Poland, and in the centre and south of European Russia, which are the chief hemp-exporting countries. French hemp is much esteemed in the market, as is also that of England and Ireland, of which, how- ever, the quantity is comparatively inconsiderable. Bolognese Hemp and Rhenish Hemp are varieties remarkable for their height; and a fibre of very fine quality, 8 or 9 feet long, is known in commerce by the name of Italian Garden Hemp. In the United States most of the hemp is grown in Kentucky. In England the cultivation of hemp is almost confined to Lin- colnshire, Hold- erness in York- shire, and a few other districts, of which the moist alluvial soil is particu- larly suited to it. In cultivat- ing hemp it is very necessar to have the soil so rich, and to sow the seed at such a season, that the plants shall grow rapidly at first, as they thus form long fibres. A crop of short ake hemp is almost worth- less. The finer kinds of hemp are used for making cloth, the coarser for sail- cloth and ropes. emp sown thin produces a coarser fibre than hemp sown thick. Something also depends on the time of pulling, for the crop is pulled by the hand. When a rather fine fibre is wanted, and the seed is not regarded, the whole Common Hemp, female plant. crop is pulled at once, soon after flowering ; other-- wise, it is usual to pull the male plants as soon as they have shed their pollen, and to leave the female plants to ripen their seed, in which case the fibre of the female plants is much coarser. The treatment of hemp by retting, &e. is similar to that of Flax (q.v.). The fibre of hemp is generally used for coarser purposes than that of flax, par- ticularly for sailcloth, pack-sheet, ropes, and the caulking of ships. The seed of hemp is produced. in great abund ance. It is commonly sold as food for cage and birds are so fond of it that not only the ripen- ing fields, but the newly-sown fields, must be care- fully guarded against their depredations. oil, ovt of hempseed, is obtained from it by expres- sion, which is at first greenish-yellow and aftérwards ellow, and has an acrid odour, but a mild taste. his oil is used in Russia for burning in lamps, | although the wick is apt to get clogged, also for — making paints, varnish, and a kind of soft soap. mgs 3 i much fo which has narcotic or intoxicating qualities (see HAsuHIsH). Hemp is also used as a therapeutic agent under the name of Indian Hemp, or Bhang, and may be administered in the form of resinous — extract or of tincture; and it is usually prescribed — (like opium) for its hypnotic, anodyne, and anti- — spasmodic properties. Although less certain in its — action than opium, it possesses these advant over that drug—that it does not constipate t A fixed — is cultivated in warm countries not so r its fibre as for a resinous secretion, f { { : HEMP PALM HENDERSON 641 bowels, create nausea, or check the secretions, and that it is less likely to occasion headache. The name Hemp (Ger, Han/) is from the Greek and Latin cannabis, and that from Sanskrit gana. The name hemp is often extended with some dis- tinetive prefix to many of the fibres used for ropes and coarse fabrics—Sunn Hemp, Manilla Hemp, Deccan Hemp, Sisal Hemp, &c. See Apocyn- AcE&, BowstTrinGc Hemp, Frprous SUBSTANCEs. Hemp Palm (Chamerops excelsa; see CHA- Mensore, a palm of China and Japan, the fibre of the leaves of which is much employed in those countries for making cordage. Hats are also made of its leaves, and even cloaks and other garments for wet weather. Hems, Hoos, or Hums (Lat. Zmesa), a city of Syria, is situated near the right bank of the Orontes, 63 miles NE. of Tripoli. It is surrounded by ancient walls, now greatly ruined, and is entered by six gates. Its streets are narrow and dirty, and its houses mean. In ancient times it was chiefly celebrated for its temple of the Sun, now cap hy bare though Papen its site is occupied by the dilapidated castle or fortress, ruined by Ibrahim Pasha in 1831. One of the priests of this temple, Heliogabalus, was raised to the imperial throne of Rome in 218. Under the walls of Hems (Emesa) Zenobia was defeated by the Emperor Aurelian in 272. In 636 the city was taken by the Saracens, when its old Semitic name ems was revived; and in 1098 it fell into the hands of the Crusaders. It has a considerable trade in oil, cotton, and sesame; and produces, besides these commodities, silk goods and gold wares. Pop. about 20,000. Hemsterhuis, Trserius, Dutch philologist, was born at Groningen, Ist February 1685. He became professor of Greek at Franeker in 1720, and of Greek history at Leyden in 1740, where he died 7th April 1766. One of the greatest Greek scholars of his time, Hemsterhuis may be said to have created a new school of Greek philology, to which belong his distinguished pupils Ruhnken and Valckenaer. His editions of the Onomasticon of Pollux (1706), of the Select Dialogues of Lucian (1708 and 1732), and of the Plutus of Aristophanes (1744, by Schiifer 1811) are his principal literary works. 9 2x S ‘ ‘ 49. ‘ Maunch. Cushion. Clarion. Chessrook.Millrind, 43. 44, Castle. Tower. 45. Lymphad. Fig. VII.—Common Charges, as the arms of the Earls of Chester, of the Gros- venors, and of the Scottish family of Cumyn. Leaves, as of the laurel, are often borne, like many other charges, in threes (28). A trefoil, with three leaflets and a stalk, is said to be slipped (29); in the quatrefoil and cinguefoil (30) the syllable foil means a petal. The rose (31) has obtained a pro- minence in English heraldry from having been the badge of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, and in the conventional representations of it, it has five petals, barbs between them to represent the calyx, and seeds in the centre. It is generally without a stalk, its tincture being either gules or argent, and it is usually barbed and seeded proper —i.e. the barbs are green, and stamina yellow or gold. But of the floral devices of heraldry the most amous is the fleur-de-lis, generally identified with the iris, oo eee as a badge by Louis VII. of France in 1150, and borne by his son in the form of semé of fleurs-de-lis (9, fig. V.), which became the royal coat of France, till the flowers were reduced to three in number in the reign of Charles VI. (32). Such charges as swords, scimitars, bows, arrows, helmets, battle-axes, horseshoes, mitres, crosiers, &e. explain themselves. The swn surrounded by rays is said to be in his splendour, and gener- alti has a human face (33). , as above for te: these four groups expressing Pater) Nochte, or Noster; and so forth. Some of the missionaries complained of their difficulties when overwhelmed by converted Mexicans giving their confessions written in this —— manner. Some have absurdly affirmed, indeed, that all the Mexican manuscripts are monkish fore ene The most important—religious, administrative, his- torical—are on parchment or on maguey paper. The Toltecan symbols of Central America were different in their method from those of Mexico. —The term hieroglyphic was also used by the writers of emblemata or devices, symbolising Gnomic sentences taken from the Greek and Latin poets, and having no relation to Egyptian hiero- glyphs.—In recent times, too, the astrological al- manacs have had their symbolical representations -and sup 1 prognostics of future events, which ated hie they c roglyphs. Zoega, De Origine Obeliscorum (fo. Rome, 1797); Young, Archeologia (1817, vol, xvii. p. 60); Encyclop, Britannica (8th ed.); Champollion, Précis du Systéme Hiéroglyphique (1824), Grammaire Egyptienne (1841- 61), Dictionnaire (1841); Lepsius, in the Ann. del’ Instituto Arch. (1828); Birch, Introduction to the Study- of the Hieroglyphics (1857); Brugsch, Grammaire Démo- tique (Berlin, 1855), Wdérterbueh (1867-68), Grammutik (1872); De Rougé, Etude d’une Stéle Egyptienne (1858) ; Cha Papyrus Magique d’ Harris (1861); Zeitschrift f. dgypt. Sprache (1863-74); Bunsen, Eyypt’s Place (vol. v. 1867); Wallis Budge, First Steps in Eyyptian (1895). For the age works relating to hieroglyphic literature, see Ibrahim Hilmy, Bibliography of Egypt and the Soudan (2 vols. Lond, 1886-87 ).—For American picture-writing and Mexican hierdglyphics, see Schoolcraft’s works; Kingsborough, Mexican Antiquities (1831-48); E. B. Tylor, Anahuac (1861); Im Thurn, Amony the Indians of Guiana (1883). See also the articles ALPHABET, INA, EGypt, WRITING. Hieronymites, one of the many hermit orders established in the course of the 13th and 14th cen- turies. The Hieronymites grew out of the Tertiaries or third order of Franciscans (q.v.). Some of the followers of Thomas of Sienna, one of the Fran- ciscan rigorists, having established themselves in various places among the wild districts which skirt the Sierra Morena in Spain, by degrees formed into a community, and obtained in 1374 the approval of Pope Gregory XI., who confirmed their rule, which was founded on that of St Augustine. The institute extended into other provinces of Spain, into Portugal, later into Italy, Tyrol, and Bavaria. Hieronymus. See JEROME. Hierophant, the priest who presided over the mysteries at Eleusis. MYSTERIES. Hierosolyma. See JERUSALEM. Migden, or Hiapon, RALPH, author of the Polychronicon, a general chronicle, in 7 books, detailing events from the beginning of the world to the death of Edward III. Higden’s own share in the work is believed to extend down to 1326 or 1327 only, the rest having been written by two continuators. Higden himself was a monk of St Werburgh’s monastery in Chester; he is said te have lived there sixty-four years, and to have died in 1364. An English translation of the Poly- chronicon by John Trevisa was printed by Caxton in 1482. 1is and another early translation, with the text, have been edited for the Rolls series (9 vols. 1865-86) by C. Babington (vols. i. ii.) and Professor Lumby (vols. iii.-ix.). Higgins, MATTHEW JAMES, English essayist, better known by his principal nom de plume of ‘Jacob Omnium,’ was born at Benown, County Meath, Ireland, on 4th December 1810; was edu- cated at Eton and New College, Oxford ; and died at Kingston House, near Abingdon, on 14th August 1868. His intellectual force, his humour gud treaiy were enlisted in the warfare against the abuses and backslidings and minor evils of social and public life, such as the heaping up of legal costs as sung by Thackeray. He wrote no great book, but was a steady contributor to a series of journals, such as the New Monthly Magazine, Moraing Chronicle, Times, Cornhill, Edinburgh Review, Pali Mali Gazette, ce. He particu- 710 HIGGINSON HIGHLANDS larly ‘excelled in the implication of the most pungent meaning in a demure simplicity of state- ment.’ He was a man of gigantic stature—6 feet 8 inches high. A few of his sketches were collected by their author, and printed for private circulation in 1857. They appeared again, with others, as Essays on Social Subjects, with a Memoir by Sir W. Stirling Maxwell (1875). Higginson, THOMAS WENTWORTH, an Ameri- can author, was born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 22d December 1823, graduated at Harvard in 1841 and at the divinity school in 1847, and was ordained in the same year. He retired from the ministry in 1858. Meanwhile he had been active in the anti- slavery agitation, and, with Theodore Parker, Wendell Phillips, and others, had been indicted for the murder of a man killed during an attempt to rescue a fugitive slave, but escaped through a flaw in the Splictinen In the struggle to make Kansas a free state he took a conspicuous part. In the civil war he rose to the command of the first regiment that was raised from among the former slaves. He afterwards returned to literature, and in 1880-81 was a member of the Massachusetts legislature. His books include,, besides histories of the United States, a volume of Harvard Memorial Biographies, and a translation of Epic- tetus, Out-door Papers (1863); Malbone, an Old- port Romance (1869), and Oldport Days (1873); Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870); Atlantic Essuys (1871); Common-Sense about Women (1881); a Life of Margaret Fuller (1884); Zhe Monarch of Dreams (1886); On Writing and Speech-making (1887); and New World and the New Book (1891), High Commission Court, a court or judicial committee established in 1559 by Queen Elizabeth to investigate ecclesiastical cases, the members being nominated by the crown. In the reign of James I. dispytes arose between the common-law courts and the High Commission as to the powers of the latter. In 1611 Coke decided that it had no right to fine or imprison, save in cases of heresy and schism. Laud employed it freely to enforce uniformity and prevent immorality; but the number of clergy punished by it was never great. In two years of its greatest activity only three were deprived and seven suspended, Complaints were made against this extraordinary tribunal, the counterpart for ecclesiastical persons to the Star Chamber for lay offenders, that it exceeded its powers, and was in itself illegal; and it was abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641. A new court of commission for ecclesiastical cases was established by James II. in 1686, only to be abolished by the Bill of Rights (1689). The High Commission Court established in Scotland in 1608 was abolished in 1638. High Court of Justice. See APPEAL, CHANCERY, COMMON LAW, JUDICATURE ACTS. Highgate, a northern suburb of London, in -the county of Middlesex, 4} miles NNW. of King’s Cross Station by rail. Here Bacon and Coleridge died ; Whittington’s Stone at the foot of signgete Hill marks the spot where Dick heard Bow Bells, and turned again ; Coleridge’s remains, buried in the old churchyard, are now covered by the chavel of the Highgate grammar-school; and in the great cemetery (consecrated 1839) have been buried Faraday, Lord Lyndhurst, ‘George Eliot,’ and many other famous persons. Highlands, a term applied to the higher parts of a country, as, for example, Highlands of the Hudson, in the state of New York; but commonly used of a particular district in Scotland. This district has no political or civil boundary. Separated by only a vague line of demarcation from the division called the Lowlands, the Scottish High- lands may be briefly described as that portion of the north and north-west of Scotland in which the Celtic language and manners have less or more lingered until modern times. The Highland line, as it is usually called, extends diagonally across the country from Nairn on the Moray Firth to Dumbarton on the Clyde; but the mountainous art of the counties of Banff, Moray, Aberdeen, incardine, and Perth are also understood to be included in the designation Highlands. Caithness might be excluded as being a generally level country ; but throughout the ‘Hichlands there are rith level tracts, none being more so than the eastern division of Ross-shire. The Hebrides (q.v.) or Western Isles are included in the Highland hae the isles of Orkney and Shetland, though to the north, are distinctly excluded, by reason of the Norwegian origin of the inhabitants. The Highlands are full of lofty hills, some green and pastoral with tracts of heath, and others rugged and bare; seven reach a height of 4000 feet and upwards, and nearly fifty are between 3500 and 4000 feet. Besides the grander features, there are impetuous mountain-torrents, pictur- esque ravines, and valleys or glens, lakes of singular beauty, and fiords, or narrow arms of the sea (like the lakes, called /ochs). Perhaps the most remarkable feature in the country is the line of valleys from Inverness to Fort-William, in which lies a series of navigable lochs, united b artificial channels to form the Caledonian Canal. Growing up under a system of clanship, the state of society in the Highlands was antiquated and alien, from a national point of view; while the country was almost impenetrable to travellers or to any species of traffic. The first great attempt to reform this state of affairs was the opening up of the country by roads in different directions, under the superintendence of General Wade, about 1725-26. The next great act of melioration was the abolition of Heritable Jurisdictions (q.v.), including the ancient privileges of the heads of clans, about 1748. And lastly, not to speak of the planting of schools and churches, much was done by the establishment of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1784. Since these events the ancient patriarchal system has given place to improvements as regards communication, agri- culture, dwellings, education, and other modern conditions, including a gradual substitution of English for the Gaelic language. Great numbers of the Celtic inhabitants emigrated in the last quarter of the 18th century. An enormous increase of population had arisen with no corresponding in- crease of food. The mountains were practically waste ; the discovery that sheep throve upon those natural pastures led of necessity to the letting of them to such tenants as could supply stock. The half- starving people were at various times dispossessed, and their place taken by stock-farmers with capital from the i owlaide ; the ‘Sutherland clearances,’ which have been the subject of so much controversy, took place between 1810 and 1820. While a new character was thus given to extensive Highland pasturages, the value of estates has been ve remarkably advanced by being let for the pursuit of game to sportsmen, chiefly persons of rank and opulence from England. improved farming and shootings, Highland estates have in the 19th century risen immensely in value. Inverness is usually mvt Rds of as the capital of the Highlands. The physical geography of the Highlands is discussed under GREAT BRITAIN; see also SCOTLAND. The clan system is treated at CLAN, and the language of the Highlands at GanLic; see also CeLts. The condition of the CrorrTErs and the measures taken for ameliorating it form the subject of a separate article ; and DEER-FORESTS are treated under that head. See also AGRICULTURE, for What, therefore, with SL CO eee HIGHLANDS 711 the Highland and Agricultural Society; Hesripes and articles on the several Highland counties and islands; A. Geikie’s Scenery of S nd (2d ed. 1887); Dr James Browne’s History of the Highlands and the Highland Clans (4 vols. 1838; re-edited by J. 8. Keltie, 2 vols, 1875); the owes by Anderson, Black, Baddeley, Murray; the e of Argyll’s Scotland as it was and as it is (1887). HIGHLAND CostuME.—There is little doubt about the antiquity of the ‘garb of old Gaul,’ although several writers have adopted the theory that the kilt was introduced by an_ Englishman early in the 18th century. The idea that the kilt is modern seems to have originated with a writer in the Scots Magazine in 1798. The original dress of the Highlander was the Celtic Feile-breacan (or belted plaid). This was a piece of tartan cloth, 2 yards broad and 4 ong, which was drawn round the waist in nicely adjusted folds, and tightly buckled with a belt. The lower part came down to the knees in much the same manner as the modern kilt, while the upper art was drawn up and adjusted to the left shoulder, so that the right arm might be perfectly free. This upper pert was the plaid, which was used as a covering for the shoulders and body in wet weather; and when the use of both arms was required it was fastened across the breast with a brooch, often curiously enriched. A brooch was also used to fasten the plaid on the left shoulder. To attire himself in the belted plaid required on the part of the Highlander no small amount of dexterity. The usual way was to lay it on the floor, and after carefully arranging the folds, to lie down upon it, and then buckle it on. The late J. F. Campbell of Islay, who had a kilt and plaid in one made for a fancy-ball at Bucking- ham Palace, had to jee this plan—lying down on the outstretched cloth, gathering the folds up and round his waist, and then securing them in position by a belt. The lower end was fastened at the right hip. The same arrangement may be seen in a figure by George Jameson of the Earl of Moray engraved in Lord Archibald Campbell's Records of Argyll. The utility of such a dress in the Highlands is obvious, for the plaid rendered the man indifferent to storms, and prepared to pass a night in the open air in the most inclement weather, while the loose undergarment enabled him to wade rivers or ascend mountains with equal ease. It was thus peculiarly adapted to the warrior, the hunter, and the shepherd. If 2 «BL the Highlander of old would dip his plaid in water, and then wrap it round him, the woollen cloth swollen with moisture being supposed to resist the wind, while the exhalations from the body during sleep surrounded him with a warm vapour. Heron’s History of Scotland says that ‘in Argyle and the Hebridee, before the middle of the fifteenth century, tartan was manufactured of one or two colours for the poor; more varied for the rich.’ The author of Certayne Matters concerning Scotland, who wrote prior to 1597, said of the Highlanders that ‘ they delight in marbled cloths especially that have long stripes of sundrie colours; they love chiefly purple and blue.’ The particular setts, or patterns of tartans which distinguish each clan, must have been fixed before 1645, probably before 1600. Martin says that every tribe and every island differed from the rest in the fancy of making pind, as to the stripes in breadth and colours. artans may generally be divided into green and red ee as these colours predominate. The word is held by Skeat to be derived from the Fr. téretaine, a kind of linsey-woolsey cloth, Lord Lorne in 1889 discovered at Inveraray old records of the clan Campbell which make frequent mention of tartans; and tartans worn at the battle of Kilsyth (1645)*have been seen by living wit- nesses. The Feile-breacan is now abandoned for the Feile- ( philabeg or filibeg) as more convenient. The difference is simply this, that, whereas formerly the lower and upper parts of the dress were attached, they are now separated, The lower part has the folds fixed by sewing, and is known as the kilt, which is probably akin to the Danish /i/te, ‘ to tuck up,’ ae the Gaelic cealt means apparel in general, The shoulder-plaid, however, is now worn more for ornament than use. The original garb of the Highlanders, then, was the Feile-breacan, and both in its materials and arrangement it was peculiarly the invention of the Gael. Other articles of the costume were Celtic, and are now peculiar to Scotland, but were not distinctively Highland. The trwis or ‘ trews’ were worn by gentlemen when on horseback, and ocea- sionally by others, especially old men. They were breeches and stockings in one piece, always of | tartan, and made to fit very close to the limbs. General Stewart (1822) said that his grandfather always wore the trews on horseback, and the kilt at home. Then there was worn a waistcoat and short-coat, each adorned with silver buttons, and, in the case of gentlemen, with lace and embroidery. A vay urse of goats’ or badgers’ skin was sus- pend om the belt, and answered the purpose of a pocket. This was the sporran, usually ornamented with silver or brass work and tassels. Brogues and tartan stockings, fastened with broad garters in rich colours; a dirk, with a knife and fork, and sometimes a spoon, stuck in the side of the sheath, and a pair of pistols completed the attire. That of the common people differed only in the deficiency of colours and of silver ornaments. The Highland garb was pro- scribed in 1747, when it was enacted that any person who should wear the plaid, filibeg, trews, or shoulder-belts, tartans or parti-coloured stuffs, should be imprisoned six months for the first offence, and on second conviction be transported for seven years. This harsh law was repealed in 1782 at the instance of the Duke of Montrose. In this act occurs the first formal record of the ‘ kilt.’ Gentlemen, says Stewart, wore one or more feathers in the bonnet, and the common people a tuft of heather, pine, holly, or oak. All, however, had the right to a solitary eagle’s plume, whereas only the son of .a chief could wear two plumes, and a chief of a clan, three. This was the old clan rule. The plumed bonnet of the Highland regiments, according to Lord Archibald Campbell, who headed the successful opposition to its proposed abolition (1884), is an adaptation from the knights of medi- eval Europe. On the island of Inishail, Loch Awe, there is on a tombstone (of 16th century) a figure, with long sweeping ostrich plumes sueh as those worn by German knights in Diirer’s draw- ings. Similar plumes were also worn by the Earl of Moray in Charles II.’s time, and there are also examples of it in The Black Book of Taymouth. Logan says that the Highland soldiers wore short plumes at the side of the bonnet. The head-dress of the first Highland infantry regiment raised was a simple black cap, with a tuft of feathers added in token of gentility and the right to bear arms. From this the feather-bonnet seems to have gradually developed, and is now one of the most cherished distinctions of the Highland regiments. When in 1884 the War Office proposed to abolish it there was quite a storm of indignation aroused, and testimony was produced in abundance that as a military headgear it is light, cool, durable, more serviceable, more economical, and more picturesque than the ‘ bearskin’ of the Guards. 712 HIGHNESS HILARY The ‘modern’ fashion of the kilt (filibeg) is found in armorial bearings of the Burnetts of Leys (1626) and the Mackenzies of Coul (1693). Tartan, as a distinguishing clan-mark, seems to be a survival of totemism. It was so composed that a man could tell to what district, as well as to what clan, the wearer belonged. See Sketches of the Character, Manners, and Present State of the Highlanders, by Major-general David Stewart. For details of the costume, &c. of the Highlanders, see The Scottish Gael, by James Logan; Campbell of Islay’s Tales of the West Highlands; The Highlanders of Scot- land, by W. F. Skene; History of the Highlands, High- land Clans, &c., edited by J. 8. Keltie; The Black Book of Taymouth ; Clan Tartans, by James Grant (1886), &c. In The Records of Argyll and Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition Lord Archibald Campbell has collected an immense amount of interesting and valuable information bearing upon the whole subject. HIGHLAND REGIMENTS.—The origin of the first of these regiments, the 42d, has been given under the head BLAck WartcH. The valuable services of this regiment encouraged the government to augment the force; and accordingly seven other Highland regiments were soon raised—viz. the 71st in 1777; the 72d, or Duke of Albany’s Own, in the same year; the 74th in 1787; the 78th, or Ross-shire Buffs, in 1793; the 79th, or Cameron Highlanders, in 1805; the 92d, or Gordon High- landers, in 1796 ; and the 93d, or Sutherland High- landers, in 1800. In connection with the terri- torial reorganisation of regiments, the old numer- ical designations have been dropped, and the battalions linked. Thus the new Black Watch (Royal Highlanders) comprises the former 42d and 73d regiments; the Highland Light Infantry, 71st and 74th ; the Seaforth Highlanders, 72d and 78th ; the Gordon Highlanders, 75th and 92d; Princess Louise’s (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders), 91st and 93d. The Queen’s Own Cameron High- landers (79th) remain a single battalion regiment. The uniform is the Highland dress, with feather- bonnet. A large proportion of the officers are Scotch ; of the men about 79 per cent. are Scotch, 11 English, and 10 Irish. Highness, a title of honour given to princes, grand-dukes, and minor reigning potentates. The title ‘ Highness’ and sometimes ‘ Kingly Highness’ were both used in England for the sovereign until the reign of Henry VIII., when they were super- seded by ‘Majesty.’ The children of emperors are usually addressed as ‘ Your Imperial Highness,’ of kings as ‘ Your Royal Highness,’ whilst members of princely families have the titles of ‘Serene High- ness’ and ‘ Highness.’ . High-priest, the chief of the Jewish hood, the dignity being hereditary in the line of Eleazar, the son of Aaron. The high-priest was only allowed to marry a virgin, and one who was of his own tribe. Contact with anything unclean, even the dead bodies of his own parents, was strictly forbidden to him. His functions consisted principally in the general administration of the sanctuary and of all that belonged to the sacred service. He alone was allowed to enter the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement, and to consult by the Urim and Thummim (q.v.). His costume was of surpassing splendour, purple-red, purple-blue, searlet, golden, and white being the predominating colours of the ephod, girdle, an breastplate, which he wore above robes of pure whiteness. His revenues were in the main the same as those of the other Siew but, according to the Talmud, he was to e richer than these in virtue of his exalted position, and, if his own means were insufficient, he was to be provided with means by his brethren. This points, however, to post-exilic times, when the high- priest had exchanged his character of primus inter riest- ares for that of priestly head of the nation, thereby ecoming invested, in so far as the political sub- jection of the Jews to a foreign power would admit of it, with the prerogatives of ancient kingly ower. Nevertheless, in the eyes of the law, the igh-priest was only the equal of other Israelites. It is doubtful at what time the office of Sagan, or vice-high-priest, was created. See PRIEST. High Seas, the open sea, including the whole extent of sea so far as it is not the exclusive property of any particular country. The rule of international law is that every country bordering on the sea has the exclusive sovereignty over such sea to the extent of three miles from its shores; but all beyond, not within three miles of some other country, is open or common to all countries. The part of sea within three miles’ distance is generally called the territorial sea of the particular country, or mare clausum. The distinction has little effect. on the right of navigation, but as regards fishing it. is otherwise. Thus, foreign fishermen have no right: to fish within three miles of the British coast with- out a license from the crown, or unless some special treaty has laid down other arrangements. See FISHERIES, COOPERAGE. High Steward, a title given to several im- portant officers. The peer appointed by the crown to preside at the trial of a peer or peeress for treason or felony is called the Lord High Steward; and there is a permanent officer of the royal household who bears the same designation. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge have each a high steward, whose duty it is to assert and protect the privileges. of the university courts. High-treason. See TREASON. Highway, in Law. See RoAps. Highwaymen, robbers who attack passengers on the public road; those who rob on foot bein further Hahinigrinhed as footpads. Famous English highwaymen were Claude Duval (1643-70), Swift Nick Nevison (hanged at York in 1684), Dick Tur- pin (1705-39) and his comrade Tom King, and Jerry Abershaw (1773-95). Turpin’s famous ride to York is a myth, based on a story told of Nevi- son, whose fame has even gained him a place in Macaulay’s History of England. The best-known romances of the road are W. H. Ainsworth’s Rook- wood and Lord Lytton’s Paul Clifford. There are lists of books bearing on highwaymen in Notes and Queries, 5th series, vol. viii.; and biographical notices of most knights of the road ultimately came to appear in the pages of the Newgate Calendar. High Wycombe. See Wycomse. Hilarion, founder of the monastic system in Palestine, was born, according to the account of Jerome (which is adjudged by modern criticism to be no longer historical), at Tabatha, about 290, educated at Alexandria, and converted to the mon- astic system by St Anthony. He then lived as a hermit in the desert between Gaza and Egypt for many years, and finally died in Cyprus in 372. His. memory is celebrated on 21st October. Hilary, St, Bishop of Poitiers, although by no means among the most voluminous of the Latin Fathers, yet, from the nature of the subjects on which he wrote, chiefly connected with the Arian controversy, occupies an important place in the patristic literature of the Western Church. He was born of pagan parents at Limonum ( Poitiers) in the early part of the 4th century. His con- version to Christianity was mainly the result of his own study of the prophecies, and did not take place till he was advanced in life. About the year 350 he was elected bishop of his native city, and immediately rose to the first place in the animated contest of parties in the Arian controversy. Having ea nT ne ee a i — ase HILARY HILL 713 + provoked the displeasure of the court y, he was imprisoned, End sent into exile in yt ng but he appears again in the Council of Seleucia in 359, and soon afterwards was permitted to resume possession of his see, where he died in 367, The church holds his day on the 13th January. His most important work is that on the Trinity, but his three addresses to the Emperor Constantius, by their vehemence, and by the boldness of their language, have most attracted the notice of critics. Hilary's theological writings are especially valuable for the history of the Arian party, and particularly for the doctrinal variations of that sect, and the successive phases through which it passed between the Council of Nice and the first Council of Con- stantinople. He is often styled ‘Malleus Arian- orum,’ and the ‘ Athanasius of the West,’ and was formally recognised as ‘universe ecclesize doctor’ by Pius LX. in 1851. The most celebrated of the hymns attributed to him is the ‘ Beata nobis gaudia Anni reduxit orbita,’ which was early inse in western liturgies. The English Hilary term begins on the 11th and ends on 31st January. See two German Lives by Reinkens (1864) and Baltzer (1881); also J. G. Cazenove’s Saint Hilary of Poitiers and Saint Martin of Tours in the series of ‘ Fathers for lish Readers’ (1883), The best edition of the works of St Hilary is that of the Benedictine Dom. Coutant (Paris, 1693; new ed. 1844-45). Hilary of Arles, St, was born about 403, educated at the celebrated monastic school of Lerins, and made bishop of his native city in 429. As metropolitan of Arles (Are/ate) he presided at several synods, and ricer at Orange in 441, the proceedings of which involved him in a serious controversy with the pope, Leo the Great. A deposed bishop, named Chelidonius, having carried an appeal to Rome, a council was summoned by Pope , at which Hilary was present, and in which the condemnation of Chelidonius, as well as that of another bishop, Projectus, was reversed. Hilary, however, refused to submit to the decision, and soon afterwards quitted Rome—a proceedin which drew upon himself a very severe antihad: version. He did not question the authority in itself, but he maintained that-it was uncanonically exercised. In the end, however, he sought a re- conciliation with Pope Leo, and the dispute was brought to an amicable termination. Hilary died at Arles in 449, and was canonised, his day being the 5th May. Hilda, Sr, the patroness of Whitby, was daugh- ter of Hereric, a nephew of Edwin of Northumbria, and was baptised at fourteen by Paulinus. Re- called by Bishop Aidan from her retreat in a French monastery, she me abbess of Heorta or Hartle- Sey in 649. In the year 657 she founded the amous monastery at Streoneshalh or Whitby, a double house for nuns and monks, over which she ruled with remarkable wisdom for twenty-two years, dying in 680. Scott’s Marmion commem- orates the belief that the fossil ammonites found here were snakes ‘changed into a coil of stone’ by Hilda’s get be Her effigy still stands on the ancient seal of Hartlepool, and churches preserve her name both there and at South Shields. Hildb ausen, a territory of Saxe-Meinin- gen, one of the Saxon Duchies ( ue Hildebrand, See Grecory VIL. Hilden, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 8 miles SE. from Diisseldorf, has woollen, silk, velvet,.and carpet manufactures, calico-printing, &e. Pop. 8591. Hildesheim, « town in the Prussian province of Hanover, stands on a feeder of the Weser, 24 miles by rail SSE. of Hanover. It is to a large extent an antique town, with narrow streets, high-gabled houses (ornamented with bay-win- dows and carved woodwork), and many towers. The churches are the most notable buildings, and first amongst them stands the cathedral, dating from the llth century. It is especially interesting for its antiquarian and artistic treasures, as the bronze gates (1015) with bas-reliefs, the church utensils, the so-called Irmin (q.v.) pillar, a rose-tree said to be a thousand _— old, the brazen Christ illar (1022), the carillon, &e. The St Godehard Jhureh (1133-72) and St Michael’s are splendid examples of Romanesque architecture. The so- called Templar House, the town-house (circa 1440), the lunatic asylum, and certain antique private houses are the most interesting among the secular buildings. Previous to the middle ages Hildesheim was noted for its goldsmiths’ work and its cathedral school. The industries of the modern town em- brace sugar-refining, iron-foundries, brick-making, machine-shops, and the manufacture of tobacco, stoves, church-bells, &c. Pop. (1875) 22,581; (1890) 33,481. In 822 the Pisho ric founded by Charlemagne (812) at the neighbouring Elze was removed here, and around this nucleus the town grew up. In the beginning of the 16th cen- baer g the bishop fell under the ban of the empire, and for nearly a century the territories of the see were alienated to other princes. Hildesheim first came to Prussia in 1803, and finally in 1866. In 1868 a most valuable discovery of old Roman table metal-ware was made in the Galgenberg near Hildesheim. See works by Liintzel (1858), Wachs- muth (1863), Lachner (1882), and Cuno (1886 ). Hill, OcTAvia, a lady whose name is inseparabl associated with the improvement of working-men’s homes in London, was the granddaughter of Dr Southwood Smith, a zealous promoter of creer A reform, and was born about 1838. Whilst still young she began work amongst the London poor under Frederick D. Maurice; and in 1864, supported by Mr Ruskin, she commenced her great work of improving the homes of working-men in the slums and dismal alleys of the metropolis. The plans she adopted were based upon the P in- ciple of teaching the people to help themselves, by inculeating in them proper notions of cleanli- ness, order, and self-respect. Her efforts have been crowned with singular success; the houses which have been improved yield a good percentage on the money spent in effecting the improvements ; and hundreds of people raccry ben helped to lead more comfortable and better lives. Miss Hill has written Homes of the London Poor (1875), Our Common Land and other Essays (1878), and papers in the magazines. Hill, Rev. RowLanp, a popular but eccentric preacher, was born 12th August 1744, at Hawke- ston, the sixth son of a Shropshire baronet. Whilst a student of St John’s College, Cam- bridge, he fell under the influence of Whitefield, the Methodist preacher, and at once began to tread in his footsteps. All his life through Hill retained his passion for open-air preaching; and the first ten years after his ordination were spent in itinerant preaching throughout England. But having built for himself Surrey Chapel in Black- friars Road, London, in 1783, he regularly preached there to his life’s end; and, although a Dissenter, he used the services, and regarded himself as a member of the Church of England, of which he had indeed been ordained a deacon. It is said that the ‘first Sunday-school in the metropolis was established by Rowland Hill soon after the opening of Surrey Chapel.’ He died on llth April 1833. Rowland Hill was undoubtedly eloquent and a rich fund of genuine humour, but at times his manner ve upon buffoonery. His Village Dialogues (1801; 34th 714 HILL HILLER ed. 1839; latest ed. 1871) has been sold in large numbers. Besides this he wrote several eg Weta as Imposture Detected (1777), Aphoristic Observa- tions (1790), Spiritual Characteristics (1803; 3d ed. 1860), some volumes of Sermons, Hymns, and other works. See Lives by Sidney (1834), W. Jones (1834), Sherman (1857), Broome’ (1881), and Charlesworth (1876; 2d ed. 1886). Hill, RowLanp, Viscount HILL, was son of Sir John Hill of Hawkeston and sae aah of the pre- ceding, and was born at Prees Hall, in Shropshire, August 11, 1772. Entering the army at fifteen, he became captain at twenty, commanded the 90th regiment in Sir Ralph Abercromby’s Egyptian expedition, and was gazetted brigadier-general in 1803. He accompanied Sir Arthur Wellesley to Spain in 1808, and was his right arm throughout the whole Peninsular war. His conduct and cour- “age earned him a C.B. in 1811, and three years later he was made Baron Hill of Almarez for his capture of the forts of Almarez. At Waterloo he led the brigade which swept the Old Guard from the field, and he remained with the army of occu- pation as second in command until it evacuated the French territory. He succeeded Wellington as commander-in-chief of the army in 1828, but resigned in 1842, when he was made Viscount Hill. He died unmarried at Hardwicke Grange, Shrop- shire, December 10, 1842, and was succeeded in his titles and estates by his nephew Sir Rowland Hill, Bart. See his Life by the Rev. Edwin Sidney (1845). Hill, Str Row.anp, K.C.B., originator of the uniform penny postage system and reformer of the post-office, was born at Kidderminster on 3d December 1795. From a very early age down to 1833 he taught in his father’s school—from 1819 in Hazlewood, near Birmingham, a school-house built by himself, and afterwards at Bruce Castle, Totten- ham. Rowland was always of an inquiring and ambitious turn of mind, with a decided talent for initiating reforms. At first he busied himself with mechanical and other inventions, later in life with questions of public concern. In 1826 he was one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. After he had ceased to teach, he took an interest in the socialistic schemes that were being discussed and experimented with about that. time, especially by Robert Owen. Then his restless mind led him to take an active share in the colonisation of South Australia, under Wake- field’s system of colonising. Amongst other ee his attention had been drawn at different periods to postal questions; and he became sensible that there existed an urgent need for a diminution in the high rates of postage, which. practically excluded all but the wealthy from postal inter- course. His views on the subject, advocating a low and uniform rate of postage, to be prepaid by stamps, between all places in the British Isles irrespective of distance, were published in the form of a pamphlet, Post-ofice Reform, in 1837. — His ae was eagerly taken up by Mr Robert Wallace, .P. for Greenock, who gave essential help in Sighting the case through parliament. Two years tater Hill was attached to the Treasury for the purpose of putting his projected reforms into execution ; and on 10th January 1840 the present uniform penny rate came into force. n 6th May following stamped envelopes and adhesive stamps were issued to the public, but the pre- ference for the latter was soon made mani- fest. In 1841 the Conservative government, which had consistently opposed the reduction of postage, came into office, and in the following year, through the influence of certain government officials who strongly resented all innovations, Rowland Hill was dismissed from his position, Four years later a sum of £13,000, raised by public subscription, was presented to him as a token of public esteem to a national benefactor. In the same year the Liberals returned to power, and Hill was appointed secretary to the Post- master-general. ‘This office was exchanged in 1854 for that of secretary to the post-office. In 1864 he was compelled to resign owing to ill-health, and was then awarded a pension of £2000 for life, together with a parliamentary grant of £20,000. The effect of his reforms in the United Kingdom has been to raise the number of inland letters from about 77 millions annually to about 1900 millions, or about twenty-five fold, and it may be stated generally that the main principles of his plan ave now been adopted in every civilised country throughout the world. made a Knight Commander of the Bath in 1860. He died at Hampstead on 27th August 1879, and was buried in Weetmineter Abbey. Amongst the other improvements and reforms he effected in the post-office system must be mentioned the establish- ment of the book-post (1848), the reform of the- money-order office (1848), and of the packet ser- vice, and a multitude of minor improvements affect- ing the administration of the postal service. See the article PosT-oFFICE ; Sir Rowland Hill’s book, The State and Prospects of Penny Postage (1844); and the Life (1880), by his nephew G. B. Hill, which includes Sir Rowland Hill’s History of the Penny Postage.—His eldest brother, MATTHEW DAVENPORT HILL (1792-1872), recorder of Bir- mingham from 1839 to 1866, distinguished himself by his labours for education and the reformation of criminals. See Memoir by his daughters (1878). Hillah, or HiILuA, a town of Turkey in Asia, on the river Euphrates, 60 miles S. of Bagdad, on the site of Babylon, out of the ruins of which it was built about 1100 A.D. Tanning and the manu- facture of silk, cottons, and woollens are carried on. The population fluctuates between 7000 and 15,000. Hillel, called HABABLI (‘the Babylonian’) and HAZAKEN (‘the Elder’), one of the greatest and most influential doctors of the Jewish law, was born about 60 B.c. in Babylonia, of r arents, but in the female line of royal (Davidian) escent. When forty years old—so runs the Tal- mudic account—he migrated into Palestine for the purpose of studying the law under Shemaia and Abtalion, the great masters of the period. Five or six years after Herod had mounted the throne Hillel was elected president of the sanhedrim. The range of his acquirements is said to have been immense, embracing not only Scripture and tradition, but nearly all branches of human and superhuman knowledge. Yet he was one of the meekest, most modest, kind, and simple-hearted men. Hillel was the first who collected the numberless traditions of the oral law, and arranged them under six heads (see MISHNA). Between him and his contemporary Shammai and their respective followers there arose a spirit of keen rivalry, the latter being advocates of greater strict- — ness and rigour in the interpretation of the law. Hillel died about 10 A.D. His doctrine has often been compared with the early teaching of Jesus. See Delitzsch’s Jesus und Hillel (3d ed. 1879). Hiller, FERDINAND, pianist, musical composer, and writer on music, was born at Frankfort-on- Main on 24th October 1811. Having been a pupil of Hummel, he began to teach in his native town; but from 1829 to 1836 he laboured in Paris, The next nine years he spent partly in Italy, partly in Germany ; it was during this period that he pro- duced his best work, the oratorio Die Zerstérung von Jerusalem (1839). Then, after three years’ Sir Rowland Hill was HILLERN HIMALAYA 715 service as municipal music-director in Diisseldorf (1847-50), he proceeded to Cologne, where he filled a similar post until his death, 10th May 1885. Amongst nearly 200 musical works which he pub- lished only a small number have retained their footing. ut as a writer on musical subjects Hiller claims a higher place. His Vebungen zum Studium der Harmonie und des Kontrapunktes (12th ed. 1886) is extensively used; and there is much valuable criticism in Aus dem Tonleben wnserer Zeit (1868-71), monographs on Beethoven 1871) and Mendelssohn (1874; 2d ed. 1878), usikalisches und Persinliches (1876), Briefe an eine Ungenannte (1877), Kiinstlerleben (1880), and Erinnerungsblitter (1884). Hillern, WiLHELMINE. See BIRCH-PFEIFFER. Hill-forts, the refuges and strongholds of the early inhabitants, exist in every country of Europe. Their range in time extends from the early pre- historic through the early historic periods of the racial areas in which they are found. They have no more definite form than that of a prevailing but aapoler circularity. The site selected is usuall enclosed and fortified with due regard to its special- ties of situation and defensibility. Sometimes the fort instead of eg ag the whole hill-top may occupy only the most defensible part of it. In other cases the whole eminence may be surrounded by defensive constructions completely encircling and protecting its upper portion. Occasionally these forts, though situated among the hills, are planted in the lower ground, commanding an ex- tent of meadow-land or pasture. With regard to their construction, the hill-forts are usually either earthworks or stoneworks, rarely a mixture of both. In France the Gaulish forts of the pre-Roman period were often such extensive works as to be termed oppida by the invading Romans. Though built of dry-stone masonry, the parts of the walls most exposed to attack were bound together by gros logs of wood, placed both longitudinally and ransversely within the thickness of the rampart, so as to resist as much as possible the assaults of the battering-ram. The great dry-built stone rampart of the prehistoric fort at Burghead, in Elginshire, is similarly righ ps roy by logs of oak, but it is the only example of this method of construc- tion yet known in Scotland, where hill-forts are perhaps more numerous than in any other European country. They are generally called ‘duns’ (see Dun) in the northern and ‘camps’ in the southern districts, where the older term survives in connec- tion with a number of the principal forts, as Dum- barton (Dun Bhreatan), ndonald in Ayrshire, and Dunpelder in Lothian, not to mention Dun Edin as the old name of Edinburgh. Among the most remarkable of the hill-forts of Scotland may be mentioned those of the two Caterthuns in For- farshire—one a good example of the fort with earthen rampart, and the other with walls of dry stone—the Tap o’ Noth, and the twin-summits of Benachie, each with its massive fortifications of stone, in Aberdeenshire, the remarkable stone fort of Dun Tuathal on Drummond Hill, overlooking the junction of the waters of the Lyon and the Tay, and one equally remarkable, called Dun-da- lamh, in a similar situation in Laggan on the Spey, Inverness-shire. Many of the dry-stone forts in Seotland present the peculiar feature of a partial vitrifaction of the materials of their walls. The same thing has been observed in connection with similar forts in Ireland, France, and Hungary: The attempt to account for the existence of this peculiarity has given rise to much speculation and controversy. But it seems to he clearly established that the so-called vitrified forts do not differ from the other dry-stone forts, if the vitrifaction be not regarded as a process of construction. No relevant and conclusive evidence on this point has been obtained from examination of the structures themselves; and against the argu- ments in support of the view that the vitrifaction was intended as a cementing process we have to ut the facts (1) that no fort is wholly vitrified ; to) that where vitrifaction exists it occurs in patches, affecting sometimes a portion only of the thickness of the wall; and (3) that when it occurs on the exterior surface of the wall the epee parts are sometimes found partially vitrified, but with no trace of vitrifaction on the portions underneath. Among the best known of the so-called vitrified forts in Scotland are the Tap o’ Noth in Aberdeen- shire, Craig Phadric and Dunbhairdgall in Inver- ness-shire, Knockfarril in Ross-shire, Dun Mae Uisneachan in Argyllshire, and Finhaven in For- farshire. In Wales stone forts are most numerous, while in England earthworks predominate. The earthen forts of Sussex explored by Colonel Lane Fox are sometimes of considerable magnitude, that of Cissbury, for instance, enclosing a space of 60 acres. They are, as a rule, of prehistoric origin. Some of the stone forts of Ireland, especially those of the Aran Isles, are of great magnitude and well preserved, Photographic views of them are given in Lord Dunraven’s book on Early Irish Archi- tecture. Consult also Dr Christison’s ‘Prehistoric Forts of Peebles- shire,’ and ‘The Duns and Forts of Lorne’ in the Pro- ceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (vols. xxi. and xxiii.); ‘Mémoires sur les Ouvrages de Fortifi- cations Gauloises,” &c. in the Compte Rendu du Congrés Ar ique de France, at Toulouse in 1874 (p. 427); ‘Les Camps Barbares fortifiés en Hongrie,’ by F. F. Romer, in the Compte Rendu of the Congress of Pre- historic Archeology held at Budapest in 1876 (vol. ii. p. 68) ; and ‘ Helvetische Denkmiler,’ by Dr F. Keller, in Mittheilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Ziirich (vol. xvi.). Hill Mustard. See BuNIAs. Hilo, the chief town of Hawaii island, on a spa- cious and secure bay of the east coast. It exports sugar, molasses, &c., and is second in importance to Honolulualone. Pop. of the district (1900), 19,785. Hilversum, a village in North Holland, 18 miles by rail SE. from Amsterdam, manufactures woollens and carpets. Pop. (1890) 12,978. Himalaya (properly Hima'laya; from two Sanskrit words meaning ‘snow-above’ ) is, wa it 2 speaking, the southern escarpment of the Central- sian plateau in so faras it falls between the Indus and the Brahmaputra, i.c., between 73° and 95° E. long., a distance of some 1500 miles. The Hima- layas are not asingle range, but a system of ranges (mostly parallel ) lying obliquely to the qr direction of the system. They front the plain of the Ganges in northern India like a stupendous mountain wall, bending back in the west like a scimitar, the sharp edge turned next India. On the east the system is connected with the mountain- ranges of south-west China and northern Burma and Siam. Onthe north it is backed by the lofty lateau of Tibet, which ranges in elevation from 0,000 to 17,000 feet. The north-western extremity runs up into the Pamir plateau, whence the Hindu- Kush and Kuen-Lun Mountains also radiate. The southern part of the system rests upon the plain of the Ganges, which nowhere rises over 1000 feet above sea-level. The Tarai, a belt of swampy grass-land, from 10 to 15 miles wide, skirts the edge of the outermost hills, extending west to where the Ganges breaks through from the mountains ; it is traversed by numerous a streams, which in many places overflow and form standing swamps, fringed with gigantic reeds. The quantities of stagnant water and of rank vegetation render these districts extremely unhealthy; many parts reek with 716 HIMALAYA fevers of a very malignant type. Next above the Tarai lies a helt of forest of about the same width, called the Bhabar. Its soil consists of sand, liberally strewn with shingle beds and boulders. The waters of the minor streams that come down from the higher mountains are gener- ally absorbed by this spongy talus-slope, and, passing through it underneath the surface, accu- mulate again on the upper edge of the lower-lying Tarai. Above the Bhabar rise the foot-hills of the Himalayan system, generally designated the Siwa- lik Hills, or sub-Himalayan ranges. They vary in height from a few hundred feet up to 4000, and present steep faces to the plains; on the northern side the slope is gentler, being mostly met at short distances from the summit by the southern flanks of the inner ranges. Geologically the’ Siwalik Hills belong to the Tertiary formation, and to the Pliocene rather than to the Miocene period. From the ranges near the Jumna great quantities of fossils, mostly mammals and reptiles, all land and fresh-water animals, have been obtained. It is on the north side of the Siwalik foot-hills that the first mountains appear. They rise up abruptly to elevations ranging for the most part from 7000 to 10,000 feet, and cover a surface zone of 50 miles in breadth. This division embraces a large number of irregular ridges, characterised by great com- lexity of geological structure. They yield marine ossils. On these ranges stand the sanatoriums, such as Simla, Darjiling, Almora, &c., which are so essential to Europeans during the hot months. The space between the outer members of these ranges and the Siwalik foot-hills is occupied by narrow, shallow, longitudinal valleys, called Dun in the west and Mari in Nepal. They are partly covered with loose shingle and boulders, partly worn into terrace-like steps, partly broken by low, obliquely lying, watershed ridges, which throw off numerous small streams. . In the Himalayas proper two main. axes can be determined with tolerable distinctness. One, the southern, contains the line of the great snowy peaks; the other, the northern, forms the water- shed between the rivers of India and the rivers of Tibet. The mountains in the southern chain are amongst the loftiest in the world; a very great number of them exceed 20,000 feet (32 miles) in height. One of these, Mount Everest (29,002 feet), is the highest measured mountain in the world. Other lofty peaks in this division of the Himalayan system are Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250), the second highest in the range ; Kinchinjinga (28,156) ; Dhwalagiri (26,826); Nanda-Devi (25,700) ; Trisul (23,400), and several others more than 22,000 feet in altitude. The chain of great snowy peaks is, strictly speaking, a series of mountain-groups, each of which is connected with the watershed chain to the north by a transverse ridge, covered with snow and frequently bearing on its shoulders peaks that tower up to the height of 25,000 feet. Graham, who in 1883 ascended Kabru to a height of 23,700 feet, believed that there are other peaks which will be found to exceed Mount Everest in altitude, for the central parts of the system next Tibet have not yet been surveyed or even explored with any- thing approaching to thoroughness, mainly because of the jealousy and exclusiveness of the Tibetan authorities, within whose territory much of the loftiest region of the Himalayas falls. These transverse spurs from the northern chain, termin- ating in stupendous mountain knots, form deep valleys on either side in the space between the two chains. These deep valleys, fringed with over- hanging glaciers, are the cradles of the great rivers of northern India. Here are the sources of the Ganges and the Indus and the Brahmaputra, and of hundreds of rivers and streams whose waters eventually reach the ocean through the mouths of these three great channels. The rivers of the Himalayas mostly make their way through the mountains at the bottom of wild and narrow gorges, often several thousands of feet deep, the path through the various chains being mostly at right angles to the strike of the ridge. The in- clination of the rivers is, however, nowhere very steep, except along one line: about ten miles south of the chain of great peaks the rivers descend about 5000 feet in the course of a few miles. This indicates that the whole region must at one time have been bodily upheaved, and before the period of upheaval there existed here a natural ridge or fold of the earth. Geologists indeed believe that. the entire site of the Himalayan system, taken in its widest extent, in which it embraces the whole of the Tibetan plateau as far as the outer Kuen- Lun Mountains, was in distant geologic ages the bed of a vast sea or ocean. The mountains are believed to be the result of the action of mechanical forces, such as horizontal compression and tension, combined with lateral stress and strain, operating upon the cooling crust of the earth in a region where, owing to the recent evaporation of the ocean, it was softest and most pliable, and there- fore offered least resistance. he. rocks of this part of the system are principally crystalline gneiss and mica schist, with veins and zones of granite intruding. The snowy region of the Himalayas is plentifully studded with glaciers, some of them of great extent: one has been surveyed in the western part of the system 36 miles in length. In the same region they descend to 11,000 and 12,000 feet, in the eastern part of the system not lower than 13,000 and 14,000 feet; and on the Tibetan side they are seldom found to come lower than 15,000 and 16,000 feet. This difference is partly due to the difference between the angles of de- clivity on the north and on the south sides of the chief ranges, partly also to differences in climatic conditions, the principal being the heavier snowfall and the greater rainfall which take place on the south, and the greater dryness of the atmosphere on the Tibetan plateau. Conformably with these facts, the snow-line ranges higher on the Tibetan side than on the Indian: whereas, on the water- shed chain, it seldom descends lower than 18,000 feet, and on the tableland remains at 20,000, on the southern faces of the mountains it runs at 15,000 or 16,000 feet. The watershed chain has been little explored ; it lies chiefly within Tibetan territory. The only exception to the former state- ment occurs on the west, where the Mustagh range, which is crossed by the pass of Karakoram (18,350), towers above the mountain valley of Kashmir, forming its northern wall, as the Pir- panjal, a range of the outer Himalaya division rising to 14,000 or 15,000 feet, shuts it in on the south. This watershed chain forms an almost continuous line of peaks, its crest being probably over 18,000 feet in elevation. So far as is known, it is only broken by one pass of less altitude than 16,000 feet, pase the Dras pass leading from Kashmir, which is 11,300 feet above sea-level. The Niti Pass (16,676), south-east of Ladak, connects the best roads from India and from East Turkestan. The Himalayas possess few lakes. In the east, north of Sikkim, are Yamdok-cho or Palti, 45 miles in circumference, with an island, 2000 to 3000 feet high, in the centre; and Chomto-dong, 20 miles long by 16 broad, at an altitude of 14,700 feet. More to the west lie the holy Tibetan lakes of Manasarowar and Rakas Tal, which give birth to the river Sutlej. Besides these there are Naini- tal in Kumaon and the Lake of Kashmir. In nearly all parts of the Himalayas metallic ores HIMERA HIND 717 have been ascertained to exist. But gold, iron, , and lead are the only minerals extracted. Gaul is largely mined in Tibet ; copper and iron ore are Eo in Kumaon and Garwhal. In the lower, hotter, and moister parts of the Himalayas, chiefly towards the east, the flora is closely related to that of the Malay Peninsula and i eae Farther west, as the drier, colder parts are approached, it approximates to the European flora. On the lower ranges the chief vegetative forms are sals, sissus, bamboos, palms, acacias, rhododendrons, ferns, orchids, &c. in the east, and oaks, pines, spruces, firs, cedars, deodars, and others in the west. On the highest ranges the principal trees are conifers and poplars, with a sen variety of alpine plants. e European h does not grow on the Himalayas. Cultiva- tion does not ascend higher than 7000 feet, except in a few of the warmer valleys. The plants of test commercial importance cultivated on the imalayan slopes are tea and cinchona, In respect of its fauna this region is one of the richest in the world, particularly in birds. Among the more remarkable animals may be mentioned bears, wild cats, leopards, tigers, sun-bears, cat-bears, yaks, musk-deer, wild goats, wild sheep, wild dogs, fly- ing squirrels, the bamboo-rat, and water-shrews, Insects are almost as numerous as birds. Within Indian territory most of the inhabitants of these mountains are Hindus. The Tibetan rtions are occupied by peoples of Turanian stock. o statement can be given of the total number of these mountaineers ; many of them live in remote valleys, and are almost unknown, whilst man others dwell outside the limits of the Britis dominions. In Hindu mythology these majestic mountains are invested with t sanctity. Thousands of pilgrims travel year after digg! to the holy sources of the Ganges. The temples they visit stand beside the glaciers from which the river emerges, at Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badri- nath. Other-temples, scarcely less sacred, stand beside the source of the Jumna at Jamnotri. See Medlicott and Blanford, Manual of the Geology of India (3 vols. Calcutta, 1879); J. D. Hooker, Hima- layan Journals (2 vols. Lond. 1854); the works of B. Hi. tes ack Godwin-Austen, in Journ. As. Soc. Bengal (1867-75) and Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1883 and 1884); W. W. Graham, in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1884); Clements Markham, Bogle in Thibet and Manning in Lhasa (1876); T. Saunders, in Geog. Mag. (1877); Sir H. Strachey, in Roy. Geog. Soc. Journ. (vol. xxiii.) ; Memoirs of Geological Su of India ; A. Wilson, Abode of Snow (1875) ; Strachey, Himalaya (1890); and Sir W. M. Conway, Climbing in the Karakorum Himalayas (1894). Him/’‘era, an ancient city on the north coast of Sicily, east of Panormus (Palermo), and near the mouth of the river Himera, was a Greek colony established 649 A.D., and destroyed in 409 by the Carthaginians, who afterwards built Therm (mod. Termint) across the river. Stesichorus was a native of Himera, Agathocles of Thermee. Himileco. See CARTHAGE. Himyaritic, a name formerly in use for the language of the ancient Saban inscriptions in the south-west of Arabia. See ARABIAN LANGUAGE, SABA ANS, and(underSemites) SEMITIC LANGUAGES. Hinckley, an ancient town of Leicestershire, and partly also of Warwickshire, 13 miles SSW. of Leicester. Its parish church, with a beautiful oak roof, is sup to have been erected dur- ing the reign of Edward III. Hinckley has manu- factures of cotton hosiery and of boots and shoes. It stands on the old Watling Street. Pop. (1851) 6111 ; (1881) 7673; (1891) 9638. Hinemar, a celebrated churchman of the 9th century, of the family of the Counts of Toulouse, was born in 806. He was educated in the monas- tery of St Denis; was named abbot of the abbeys of Compitgne and St Germain; and in 845 was elected Archbishop of Rheims. Rothadius, Bishop of Soissons, and suffragan of Hincmar, de a priest of his diocese, who appealed to Hincmar, as metropolitan, and was ordered by him to be restored to office. Rothadius, resisting this order, and ‘psi been in consequence excommunicated by the archbishop, appealed to the pope, Nicholas I., in 862, who at once ordered Hinemar to restore Rothadius, or to appear at Rome to vindicate the sentence. Ultimately Nicholas annulled the sen- tence. Hinecmar, after some demur, was forced to acquiesce, and Rothadius was restored to his see. Hinemar wrote much against the strong predes- tinarian views of the monk Gottschalk, whom he united with others in degrading and imprisoning. Gottschalk died in prison after eighteen years’ con- finement. The conduct of Hincmar is also historically in- teresting in relation to the temporal power of the medieval papacy. Under Adrian II. a question arose as to the succession to the sovereignty of Lorraine on the death of King Lothaire, the pope favouring the pretensions of the Emperor ewis in opposition to those of Charles the Bold of France. To the mandate which Adrian addressed to the subjects of Charles and to the nobles of Lorraine, accompanied by a menace of the censures of the church, Hinemar offered a firm and persistent opposition. He was equally firm in resisting the undue extension of the royal paneer in ecclesiastical affairs. When the mperor Lewis III. sought to obtrude an unworthy favourite upon the see of Beauvais, Hincmar boldly remonstrated, and fearlessly denounced the un- ola usurpation. Hincemar died in the year 2. His works were collected by the Jesuit Sirmond (1645), and are to be found in Migne’s Cursus Patr. Compl. His Annales Bertiniani, from 861 to 882, are in vol. i. of Pertz’s Monumenta. See Prichard, Life and Times of Hinemar (1849), and German works by Noorden (1862), Sdralek (1881), and Schrérs (1884), Hind, the female of the pie (q-v-) or Red Deer. The term is also sometimes applied to the female of some other deer—though never to any other British or European species—and is sometimes even ex- tended to female antelopes. Hind, JoHN RUSSELL, astronomer, was born at Nottingham, May 12, 1823. At an early period he became an enthusiast in the study of astronomy, and in 1840 obtained, through the influence of Pro- fessor Wheatstone, a situation in the Royal Obser- vatory at Greenwich, where he remained till June 1844. Hind was then sent as one of the commission appointed to determine the exact longitude of Ve entia, and on his return became the observer in Mr Bishop’s Observatory, Regent’s Park, London. Here he calculated the orbits and declination of more than seventy planets and comets, noted a number of new movable stars, and between 1847 and 1854 discovered ten minor planets (see PLAN- ETOIDS). In 1851 Hind obtained from the Academy of Sciences at Paris their Lalande medal, and was elected a corresponding member; in 1852 he ob- tained the Astronomical Society of London’s gold medal, and a pension of £200 a year from the British government; in 1853 he undertook the editing of the Nautical Almanac. Hind’s scientific pa were generally published in the 7ransactions of the Astronomical Society, in the Comptes Rendus of Paris, and the Astronomische Nachrichten of Altona. Amongst his works are Astronomical Vocabulary (1852), Zhe Comets (1852), The Solar System 1852), Illustrated London Astronomy (1853), lements of Algebra (1855), and Descriptive Treatise 718 HINDI HIP-JOINT on Comets (1857). For a time president of the Royal Astronomical Society, he died 23d December 1895. Hindi, HinpusTAnt, Hinpuism. See INDIA. Hindley, a town of Lancashire, 3 miles SE. of Wigan by rail. There are numerous coal-works in the vicinity ; and the cotton manufacture is largely carried on. Pop. (1851) 5285 ; (1891) 18,973. Hindu Kush (the ‘Indian Caucasus’ of Alex- ander the Great’s historians) forms the westward continuation of the Himalayan system, of which it is sometimes reckoned a part, and from which it is separated by the chasm through which the Indus breaks its way to the plains. It strikes off from the south-west angle of the Pamir plateau, and extends westwards for 365 miles to the Bamian valley in Afghanistan, separating that country on the south from Turkestan on the north. Near its point of origin several rivers take their birth ; the Oxus goes off north-west through Turkestan, and the Heiman south-west through Afghanistan. The main range breaks into four subsidiary ridges, and has a total width of about 200 miles. Unlike the Himalayas, it sinks suddenly to the plains of Turkestan on the north. It is crossed by several asses, at an average elevation of 12,000 or 13,000 eet. From the Bamian valley the range is con- tinued westwards as a low watershed elevation, known as Koh-i-Baba. (Koh-i-Baba is also the name of a peak in the Hindu Kush.) The peak of Hindu Koh, about 80 miles to the north of the city of Kabul, is estimated to be more than 20,000 feet above the sea. The highest point in the range that has been yet measured exceeds 23,000 feet. The flanks of the mountains are mostly barren and destitute of cultivation; but minerals, especially iron, occur in great abundance. The inhabitants consist principally of Dards (see DARDISTAN) and Shins, the latter the descendants of the original colonists of the country. A loose kind of Moham- medanism is the prevalent form of religion. See J. Biddulph, Tribes of Hindu Kush (Calcutta, 1880). Conway ascended Pioneer Peak, 23,000 feet, and saw others higher than Everest. See HIMALAYAS. Hindustan. See INDIA. Hinnom, VALLEY oF. See GEHENNA. Hinny, the hybrid produced between a horse and a female ass. It is smaller than a mule, but the ‘body is more bulky in proportion to the legs, and its strength is inferior. It is less valuable than the mule, although it is more docile. The hinny is rare. It was described by some of the earlier naturalists as a hybrid between the ox and the ass. Hinojosa-del-Duque, a town of Spain, 45 miles NNW. of Cordova, with some linen and woollen manufactures. Pop. 9500. Hinton, JAmeEs, aurist and metaphysician, was born in 1822, son of a Baptist minister, studied medicine at St Bartholomew's Hospital, and, after much travel, settled about 1850 to a London prac- tice, ultimately becoming a specialist in aural surgery. From 1862 till 1874 he was a lecturer on this department at Guy’s Hospital. He died 16th December 1875. In his lifetime he published Man and his Dwelling-place (1859), Life mm Nature (1862), and the Mystery of Pain (1865) ; and after his death appeared, with other works, Philosophy and Religion (1881) and The Law-breaker and Coming of the Law (1884). These books contain striking and suggestive things- enough, but their author evidently took himself too seriously as a metaphysician, as has also been done by a hand- ful of disciples. See his Life and Letters, by Ellice Hopkins (1878). : Hiogo. See Hyogo. Hip. See Ross. Hip-joint is a ball-and-socket joint formed by the reception of the globular head of the thigh- bone (or femur) into the deep pit or cup in the os innominatum, which is known as the acetabulum. If the variety of the movements of this joint—viz. flexion, extension, abdnction, adduction, and rota- tion inwards and outwards, and at the same time its. great strength are considered, it may well claim to be regarded as the most perfect joint in the whole body. The reader will form a tolerably clear conception of the relative forms of the acetabulum and the head of the thigh-bone from a glance at the figure, in which the surrounding parts are cut away, and Hip-joint : 1, 2, 8, pelvic ligaments; 4, 5, the greater and lesser sacro- ischiatic foramina; 6, the cotyloid ligament; 7, the round ligament; 8, the cut edge of the lower part of the capsular ligament. the thigh-bone is drawn out of its socket. The ligaments are usually described as five in number— the capsular (consisting of circular and longitudinal fibres, of which the most important are the #io- Jemoral or y-shaped band ), teres or round, cotyloid, and transverse ligaments. Of these the capsular ligament, supposed to be removed in the figure, is the most important, and extends from the edge of the eup to the circumference of the neck upon which the ball is carried, enclosing the bony parts in a strong sheath. The great use of the capsular ligament is to limit the extension of the hip-joint, and thus to give steadiness to the erect posture. The teres or round ligament is in reality triangular rather than round, and has its apex attached to the head of the thigh-bone. The joint is much paongenensd by a igs number of surrounding muscles, some of which are of considerable power. The experiments of Weber show that atmospheric pressure is the real power by which the head of the femur is retained in the acetabulum when the muscles are at rest. DISEASE OF THE H1p-JOINT.—Hip-disease differs in many points of importance from other joint- diseases. Its connection with scrofula is more distinctly marked than that of most other joint- diseases, and it almost always occurs before the age of puberty. It comes on, in children or young persons of a scrofulous constitution, from very slight causes; thus, it is often traced to over- exertion in a long walk, a sprain in jumping, or a fall; and in many cases no apparent cause can be assigned. In the early stage of the disease the whole of the structures of the joint are inflamed, and by proper treatment at this period the morbid action may be sometimes subdued without any worse consequences than a more or less rigid joint. Usually, however, abscesses form around the Joint, and often communicate with its interior; and the HIPPARCHUS HIPPOCRATES 719 acetabulum and the head and neck of the thigh- bone become disintegrated, softened, and gritty. In a still more advanced stage dislocation of the head of the thigh-bone commonly occurs, either from the capsular ligament becoming more or less destroyed, and the head of the bone being drawn out of its cavity by the action of the surrounding muscles, or from a fungous mass sprouting up from the bottom of the cavity, and pushing the head of the bone before it. It is of extreme importance that the symptoms should be detected in an early Hane of the disease. s the disease advances abscesses occur around the joint. True shortening of the limb now takes place, which at the same time becomes adducted and inverted. From this stage, if the health is pretty good, and the lungs are sound, the patient may be so fortunate as to recover with an anchy- losed (or immovable) hip-joint; but the proba- bility is that exhaustion and hectic will come on, and that death will supervene, from the wasting influence of the purulent discharges occasioned by the diseased bone. The duration of the disease may vary from two or three months to ten or more years. ‘ As the treatment must be left entirely in the hands of the surgeon it is unnecessary to say more than that the most important points are fafa rest to the affected part, which may be effected in various ways, the internal administration of cod- liver oil and tonics, and the application of counter- irritation by means of an issue behind the great trochanter. Hipparchus, the first systematic astronomer on record, was born at Nica, in Bithynia, and flourished between 160 and 125 B.c. Of his per- sonal history nothing is known except that he observed at Rhodes. The only authority we have regarding his researches is the Syntaxis of Ptolemy ; from it we learn that Hipparchus discovered the sees iga of the equinoxes and the eccentricity of he sun’s path, determined the length of the solar year and the distances of the sun and moon re- spectively from the earth, invented the planisphere, w up a catalogue of. 1080 stars, and fixed the geographical position of places on the earth by iving their longitude and latitude. All that we ave of his works is a commentary to the poetical description of the stars by Aratus, published in Patavius’s Uranologia (1630). See Delambre’s Histoire de ? Astronomie Ancienne (Paris, 1817). Hipparion, a fossil genus of Equide. See ORSE, Hippias and Hipparechus. See Pisis- TRATUS. ¥ ) 3) |. Hippo Regius. See Bona. Hippocampus Gr.; a sea-monster on which the gods rode), commonly called SEA-HORSE, a genus of curiously modified marine fishes, which, with the Pipe-fish (q.v.), compose the family Syngnathide, belong- ing to the order Lo- phobranchii, whose gills are disposed in tufts. They derive their generic name from the remarkable likeness which the head and neck bear to those of a horse, or perhaps even more strikingly to those of the, knight in a set of chessmen. They are floatin all characterised by the prehensile tail devoid of a fin, by which they cling to the stems of sea- weeds or corals, or even to each other; the body is compressed and more or less elevated ; the shields have more or less prominent tubercles or spines; the hinder part of the head forms a flattened crest, terminating above in a pro- minent knob (coronet); pectoral fins and a dorsal fin are eee The males have a pouch beneath the tail, in which they carry the eggs until they are hatched. As in all other fishes of the order, there is a long snout, and at its extremity a small toothless mouth. The fins vibrate with great repatity, and hore the appearance of a rotating wheel or a delicate waving web, but the animals move only slowly and for a short distance at a time, usually in a half upright posture. There are about twenty species, mostly inhabiting tropical seas ; some have a wide area of distribution, as they are not unfrequently carried to great distances by materials to which they have attached themselves. H. antiquorum of Australia, the Atlantic, and Mediterranean, is occasionally found Phyllopteryx eques. on British shores. The allied genus Phyllopteryx, of which three species are known from Australia, is remarkable for its long streaming filaments, which very closely mimic the fronds of the Fucus among which it lives. Hippocampus. See BRAIN. Hippocras (vinum Hippocraticum, ‘wine of Hippocrates’), an aromatic medicated wine, for- merly much used as a cordial. It was prepared from white wine, flavoured with cinnamon and other spices, lemon peel, almonds, &e., and sweet- ened with honey or sugar. Hippoc’rates, the most celebrated physician of antiquity, was the son of Heracleides, who was also a physician, and belonged to the family of the katte iad, Hippocrates himself being either nineteenth or seventeenth in descent from A‘scu- lapius. His mother, whose name was Phzenarete, was said to be descended from Hereules. He was born in the island of Cos, probably about 460 B.c. He is said to have been fustenclan in medicine by his father and by Herodicus, and in philosophy by Gorgias of Leontini, the celebrated sophist, and Democritus of Abdera, whose cure, when he was mentally deranged, he afterwards effected. After visiting some parts of Greece, particularly Athens, then at its intellectual zenith, he settled in practice at Cos. Hedied at Larissa, in Thessaly, but at what age is uncertain, different ancient authors stating it to have been at 85, 90, 104, and 109 years. Clinton (Fasti Hell.) places his death 357 B.c., at the age of 104. We know little more of his personal history than that he was greatly esteemed as a physician and an author, and that he raised the medical school of Cos to a very high reputation. 720 HIPPOCRENE HIPPOLYTUS His works were quoted by Plato, who compared him to Polycletus and Phidias, and by Aristotle, who called him ‘the great.’ Various stories are recorded of him by Greek writers, to which, being undoubtedly fabulous, it is unnecessary to advert ; and we mf legends regarding him in the works of Arabic writers, who term him ‘ Bokrat,’ while the European story-tellers of the middle ages celebrate him under the name of ‘ Ypocras,’ and, in defiance of chronology, make him professor of medicine at Rome, with a nephew of wondrous medical skill, whom he despatched in his own stead to the king of Hungary. The a bearing the name of Hippocrates, and termed the Hippocratic Collection, are more than sixty in number, and were divided by Dr Green- hill into eight classes. The first class comprises works certainly written by Hippocrates, including Prognostica ; Aphorismi ; De Morbis Popularibus ; De Ratione Victus in Morbis Acutis; De Aére, Aquis, et Locis ; and De Capitis Vulneribus. Some eminent critics doubt the genuineness of some por- tions of the Aphorismi, the work by which Hippo- crates is most popularly known. The second class is composed of works perhaps written by Hippocrates. They are eleven in number, and one of them is the well-known Jusjurandum, or ‘ Hippocratic Oath.’ The others consist of works written before Hippo- crates, works whose author is conjectured, works by quite unknown authors, wilful forgeries, &c. For anything like a full account of his views we must refer to the various writers who have treated of the history of medicine. We can here only mention that he divides the causes of disease into two principal classes: the first consisting of the influence of seasons, climates, water, situation, &c. ; and the second of more personal causes, such as the food and exercise of the individual patient. To the influence which different climates exert on the human constitution he confidently ascribes both the conformation of the body and the dis- osition of the mind, and hence accounts for the ifferences between the Greek and the less hardy Asiatic. The four fluids or humours of the body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) were regarded by him as the primary seats of disease ; health was the result of the due combination (or crasis) of these, the disturbance of which produced illness. When a disease was proceeding favour- ably these humours underwent a certain oneaee (or coction), which was the sign of returning health, as preparing for the expulsion of morbid matter, or crisis, these crises having a tendency to occur at definite periods, which were thence called ‘ critical days.’ His treatment of diseases was cautious, and what we now term expectant; it consisted chiefly and often solely in attention to diet and regimen ; and he was sometimes reproached with letting his patients die by doing nothing to keep them alive. The works of Hippocrates were translated at an early period into Arabic. They were first pe. in a Latin translation in 1525 at Rome. he first Greek edition (the Aldine) appeared the following year at Venice; an edition by Mercuriali appeared in 1588, one by Foes in 1595, and one by an der Linden in 1665. Others have appeared under the editorship of Chartier, Kiihn, &c. The best edition, with an admirable French translation, is that of Littré (10 vols. 1839-61). A scholarly edition by Ermerius, with a Latin rendering, was published in 1859-65 at Utrecht, at the expense of the university of Amsterdam. An excellent Eng- lish translation of the Genuine Works of Hippo- crates was published in 1849, in 2 vols., by Dr Adams of Banchory, Aberdeenshire. Hippocrene (derived from hippos, ‘a horse,’ and kréné, ‘a fountain’), a fountain on the northern slope of Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses and Apollo, which, according to the mythical account, was produced by a stroke from the hoof of the horse Pegasus (q.v.). It is identified with a spring at the modern Makariotissa. Hippodami'a, the beautiful daughter of Gino- maus, king of Pisa, in Elis. It had been predicted to her father that he should be slain by his future son-in-law; he therefore stipulated that every suitor of his daughter should run a chariot-race with him, and that death should be the consequence of defeat. At length Pelops bribed the king’s | charioteer, and thus succeeded in reaching the goal before Ginomaus, who, in despair, killed himself. pees ya became by Pelops the mother of Atreus and Thyestes. Hippodrome (Gr. /Aippos, ‘a horse,’ and dromos, ‘a racecourse’), the Greek name for the place set apart for horse and chariot races. Its dimensions were, according to the common opinion, half a mile in length, and one-eighth of a mile in breadth. In construction and all the most impor- tant points of arrangement it was the counterpart of the Roman Circus (see Crrcus). See also OLYMPIC GAMES (under Olympia) and CONSTANTINOPLE. Hippo iff, or HippoGRypH (Gr. hippos, ‘a horse,’ and the word gryph, ‘ griffin’), a fabulous animal, unknown to the ancients, which is repre- sented by modern writers as a winged horse with the head of a griffin. The hippogriff figures as the horse of the Muses, and plays a conspicuous réle in the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto. Hippolytus, a Christian writer who enjoyed Beene celebrity in the first half of the 3d contantys ut of whose personal history we know but little with certainty. He was born most likely about 155-160 A.D., and died about 235 or 236. The first to mention him is Eusebius, who says he was a bishop somewhere, and some writers have placed his diocese in Arabia, while almost all the eastern writers style him Bishop of Rome. He is usually described by modern writers as Bishop of Portus, near Rome, but for this title there is no evidence earlier than the middle of the 7th century. He may have been a native of the East, and he is said to have been a disciple of Irenzeus; but this may have been either in Asia Minor, in Gaul, or in Rome itself, which Eusebius tells us that Irenzeus visited about 178. An entry in the Liberian Cata- logue of bishops of Rome tells that Pontianus the bishop and Hippolytus the presbyter were transported as exiles to the mines of Sardinia, where ere long they perished, their bodies being carried back to Rome. Prudentius (5th century ) gives a different but much less credible account of the martyrdom of Hippolytus, according to which he was torn in re by wild horses like the Hippolytus of mythology. He tells us that he was infected with the Novatian heresy, but recanted on the way to martyrdom. Such was the un- satisfactory state of knowledge when the recovery at Mount Athos by Minoides Mynas in 1842 of the treatise against heresies cast fresh light upon Hippolytus as its presumptive author. It was contained in a 14th-century MS., and when pub- lished by Miller in 1851 was recognised as formin part of the fragment ascribed to Origen and entitle the Philosophumena. Its appearance opened up a grave discussion. The Origenistic authorship was soon abandoned, and attempts were made by Baur to ascribe it to Gaius, by De Rossi to Tertullian, by Armellini to Novatian. Jacobi advanced the claims of Hippolytus, and this theory was sup- ported by Bunsen and Wordsworth, and so conelu- sively proved by Déllinger as to persuade almost every scholar save Lipsius, who still continued to describe the author as Pseudo-Origenes. From the treatise itself we learn that the author HIPPOLYTUS HIPPOPOTAMUS 721 fived at Rome, and took an active part in church affairs under the bishops Zephyrinus and Callistus. Dillinger points out that throughout Hippolytus never recognises Callistus as _— and treats him only as the founder of a school. Besides he assails his moral character and his antecedents, charging him with eetoassty with criminal laxity of dis- cipline, and with the Patripassian heresy; while Callistus again retorted upon his opponent with a counter-charge of Ditheism. Déllinger held that Hippolytus claimed to be the real Bishop of Rome himself, and that he was thus the first antipope in the history of the Roman Church. This would explain the circumstance that a writer so learned oa outstanding as Hippolytus could be taken by the Eastern Church for the actual Bishop of Rome, while to western writers who did not receive him as such he seemed guilty not only of schism but of heresy. But the grave difficulty remains of peaniy obli to believe that a schism so serious, head by the most illustrious theologian of the time, and lasting at the very lowest five or six years, could have occurred without its being known outside of Rome, and still further could be utterly for- otten for fifteen centuries. Again, if Hippolytus fiad headed a party so inimical to the authority of the bishop, how comes it that his name has descended without a stain as that of a saint and a martyr? Dr Salmon suggests the explanation that Hippolytus may have been the head of the Greek Christians at Rome, and that as such he may have been specially entrusted with some episcopal functions—an anomalous state of matters which would come to an end with the necessity for it. His attacks on Callistus were written in ‘Greek for Greek-speaking people, hence the faint- ness of the impression they made upon the Latin world ; while at the same time most of the recollec- tions of the earlier part of the century were lost in the severity of persecution under Decius and Vale- rian. At anyrate the state of the controversy shows that in the 3d century Christians elsewhere than at Rome itself were not much interested in the question who was Bishop of Rome at all. Hippo- lytus seems to have championed the severe and ultra-orthodox party in the Roman Church, and at the least to have been bitter and prejudiced as a controversialist. The coslenioaiion! charges brought against Callistus in this famous treatise are his giving easy absolution to sinners excom- municated by Hippolytus and others, admitting po aarreyg and trigamists to the ranks of the clergy, allowing the clergy to marry, and permittin Christian ladies to contract illegal marriages with men of inferior social rank. The date of Hippolytus and his importance among his contemporaries are proved further b the statue of him discovered at Rome, on whic is engraved the sixteen eo eycle which he invented to find the time of Easter. This cycle is an erroneous one, the error being of such a nature as could not fail to be discovered after a dozen years, hence it follows that the statue in his honour must have been inscribed before that discovery occurred, about 240 A.D. The extant writings of Hippolytus were first collected by Fabricius (2 vols. Hamburg, 1716-18), and have since been printed in vol. ii. of Galland, Bibl. Vet. Pat., and ‘vol. x. of Migne’s Patr. Gr. The most accessible edition is that of e (1858). English translations of the Refutation, as well as the other extant works and frag- ments, may be found in Clark’s ‘ Ante-Nicene Christian Library.’ Bishop Lightfoot thought it more than prob- able Hinpolrtae was the author of the famous Mura- torian Canon, as there was no other man at that time at Rome capable of writing it. See Bunsen, Hippolytus and his Age (1852; 2d ed. 1854); Christopher Wordsworth, St Hippolytus and the Seu Be Rages: (1853 ; 2d ed. 1880); Déllinger, Hippo- lytus and Kallistus (1853; Eng. trans. by Plummer, 1876); Volkmar, Hippolytus u. die Rimiache Zeitgenossen 1855); Lipsius, Zur Quellen-kritik des Epiphanios 1865), also Die Quellen der dltesten Ketzergeachichte 1875); and Harnack, Zur Quellen-kritik der Geschichte des Gnostizismus (1873-74). Hippophagy. Hippophagi (Gr., ‘eaters of horse-flesh’) was a name given br the Greeks to a Scythian people, living north-east of the Caspian Sea, and to a Sarmatian tribe north of the Euxine. In some parts of modern Europe horse-flesh is a regular and wholesome article of diet. In France a society of hippophagists was formed under the auspices of Geoffroy St Hilaire; in 1866 the sale of horse-flesh in the Paris markets as an article of food was officially recognised and regulated ; and during the siege of Paris horse-flesh was gladly eaten by all who could get it. In 1872 about 5000, in 1895 over 30,000, horses were eaten in Paris alone. In Britain an act was passed in 1889 regulating the sale of horse-flesh, requiring that all lorse-flesh (or -flesh of asses and mules) exposed for sale shall be expressly so described in legible and conspicuous characters, and imposing a penalty of £20 on any one breaking this rule, or giving any one horse-flesh who has asked for meat other than horse-flesh. Hippopotamus (Gr., ‘river-horse’), a genus of artiodactyle ungulate mammals, constituting a family by itself. Till of late only one species was known as now existing, although the fossil remains of others indicate the greater abundance and wider distribution of the form in other periods of the earth’s history. The largest and best-known species, H. amphibius, is—or, within historie periods, has been—found in almost all parts of Africa, to which n *) a wsee —) = ———————KSS Hippopotamus amphuibius. quarter of the globe it is entirely confined. A smaller species, H. liberiensis (distinguished by some as a distinct genus, Cheeropsis), was described in 1844 as an inhabitant of the rivers of western Africa within the tropics, and differs from the common species, and from all the fossil species, in having only two incisors, instead of four, in the lower jaw. But as the missing teeth occasionally exist there seems no valid reason for separating this form generically. The common hippopotamus is one of the largest of existing quadrupeds, the bulk of its body being little inferior to that of the elephant, although its legs are so short that its belly almost touches the ground, and its height is not much above five feet. It is extremely aquatic in its habits, living mostly in lakes or rivers, often in tidal estuaries (where the saltness of the water compels it to resort to springs for the purpose of drinking), and sometimes even in the sea, although it never proceeds to any considerable distance from the shore. Its skin is very thick—on the back and sides more than two inches: it is dark brown 722 HIPPOPOTAMUS HIPPURITES (albino and piebald individuals have been seen), destitute of hair, and exudes a reddish fluid, which has been said to have given rise to the legends of sweating blood. The tailis short. The feet have each four toes, nearly equal in size, and hoofed. The neck is short and thick. The head is very large, with small ears, and small eyes placed high, so that they are easily raised above water, without much of the animal being exposed to view. The muzzle is very large, rounded, and tumid, with large nostrils and great lips concealing the large front teeth. The hippopotamus euts grass or corn as if it were done with a scythe, or bites with its strong teeth a stem of considerable thickness neatly through. The skull, while it is distinguished by remarkable peculiarities, corresponds in the most important characters with that of the hog. The respiration of the hippopotamus is slow, and thus it is enabled to 1 oom much of its time under water, only coming to the surface at intervals to breathe. It swims and dives with great ease, and often walks along the bottom, semper under water. Its food consists chiefly of the plants which grow in shallow waters and about the margins of lakes and rivers; and it probably renders no unimportant service in preventing slow streams from being choked up by the luxuriance of tropical vegetation, the effect of which would, of course, be an increase of the extent of swampy land. It often, however, leaves the water, chiefly by night, to feed on the banks, and makes inroads on cultivated fields, devouring and trampling the crops. It is a gregarious animal; and the havoe wrought by a herd of twenty or thirty is very great, so that wherever cultivation extends war is waged against the hippopotamus, and it disappears from regions where it formerly abounded. Thus it is no longer found in Lower Egypt, although still abundant farther up the Nile. It is taken in pits, which are digged in its usual tracks; it is killed by poisoned spears, is pursued by means of canoes, is harpooned, and is shot. The flesh is highly esteemed; the fat, of which there is a thick layer immediately under the skin, is a favourite African delicacy, and when salted is known at the Cape of Good Hope as Zee-koe speck (‘Lake-cow bacon’), The tongue and the jelly made from the feet are aiso much prized. The hide is used for a variety of purposes ; and the great canine teeth, which sometimes weigh 8 or even 12 lb., are particularly valuable as ivory, and are a very considerable article of African commerce. The hippopotamus is lively and playful in its native waters; it soon learns to avoid man; and, when it cannot retire among reeds for concealment, it dives and remains long under water, raising onl its nose to the surface when another breat becomes necessary. The female may sometimes be seen swimming with her young one on her back. The hippopotamus is generally inoffensive, but is occasionally roused to fits of rage, in which it becomes extremely dangerous, particularly to those who pursue it in boats. The voice is loud and harsh, and is likened by Burckhardt to the creaking and groaning of a large wooden door. That the animal is capable of being tamed, and of becomin much attached to man, has been sufficiently prove by the instances of living specimens in London and Paris. The first specimen brought to Europe in modern times, a young one from the Nile, arrived in London in 1850. The hippopotamus, however, sometimes appeared in the spectacles of the ancient Romans. It is very generally supposed to be the Behemoth of the book of Job. Fossil Species.—A number of species of hippo- otamus have been described from the later ertiary strata; but in those times the distribution was not, as it is now, limited to the African con- tinent. Their remains have been found in India. and Madagascar as well as Europe. They occur in fresh-water marls, and in the bone-caves, into which they had been carried for fcod by the carnivorous animals that used the caves as dens, One species found in England and in considerable: abundance in the southern countries of Europe was of a size as much greater than the living species as its companion, the mammoth, was. greater than the living elephant. Hippuric Acid, C,H,NO,, is a compound of great interest both to the chemist and to the hi ech It derives its name from its havin een first discovered in the urine of the horse, an that fluid, or the renal secretion of the cow, affords us the best and readiest means of obtaining it. The crystals of hippuric acid are moderately large, colourless, but subsequently becoming milk-white, four-sided prisms, which are devoid of odour, but have a faintly bitter taste. They dissolve readily in boiling water and in spirit, but are onl sparingly soluble in cold water and in ether. It is an abundant normal constituent of the urine of the horse, cow, sheep, goat, hare, elephant, &c., and most probably is to be found in the urine of all vegetable feeders. In the human urine of healthy persons living on an ordinary mixed diet it occurs in very small quantity, but it is increased by an exclusively vegetable diet, and in the well- known disease diabetes. The hippuric acid occurring in the animal] organ- ism exists in combination with bases, and chiefly as: hippurate of soda and hippurate of lime. The last- named salt can be obtained by the mere evapora- tion of the urine of the horse. The chief interest of the substance is that it was one of the first to be discovered of a long series of complex bodies, which we now know are formed synthetically in the animal body. Hippuric acid readily splits into benzoic acid and glycocoll. If benzoic acid is administered it is excreted as hippurie acid, com- bining with glycocoll in the body. In herbivorous animals the benzoic acid is largely derived from the food; in animal feeders even in starvation it occurs in small amount in the urine, and we must therefore conclude that its forerunners: may be derived from the metabolism of the tissues. That certain bodies sony allied to benzoic acid may be so formed has now been experi- mentally demonstrated, while Blycovoll can also be proved to be so produced. t one time the belief was entertained that these bodies were com- bined in the liver; but more recent research has shown that the synthesis chiefly takes place in the kidneys. Hippurites, a very remarkable genus of fossil bivalves, peculiar to the Cretaceous strata, and so abundant in some of the Lower Chalk beds of the Pyrenees and other places that the series has received from some con- tinental geologists the name of Hip- urite Limestone. The externa] form of the shell is so anomalous that the genus has been tossed about by naturalists in an extraordinary man- ner; some having called it a coral, others an annelid, others a barnacle, and so on, though the majority held it to be at least a molluse. The investigations of S. P. Woodward showed that the Hippurites were diver- gent bivalves. The right valve is very large, and elongated into a cone, while . : the left valve is inconspicuous, often A Hippurite. like a lid, and perforated by radiat- ing canals. Including allied genera or sub-genera - —e.g. Radiolites and Caprinella—there are over a HIRING HIT 723 hundred acies, all restricted to the Chalk and Chalk-marl. . The contract of hiring, called in the law of England bailment for hire, and in that of Scotland location, is of two kinds—the hiring of things, as where household furniture is let to be used in the ordinary way ; and the hiring of work, as where a tailor’s labour is hired to make a suit of clothes. In hiring of the first kind, hiring of things, it is the duty of the person letting out the thing to deliver it to the hirer, to refrain from in- terfering with the hirer’s use of the thing during the subsistence of the contract, to do nothing to deprive the hirer of the use, to warrant that the thing hired is fit for the use for which it is let, and to keep the thing free from faults and defects inconsistent with the proper use of it, and in suitable order and repair. The hirer acquires no right of property in the thing hired, but acquires its ion and the exclusive right to its use for the period of the ment. He has to use the thing well and with care, not to put it to any other use than that for which it is let, to restore it at the my of the time on, and to pay the stipulated hire. The contract of hiring is‘a different agreement from those made under what is known to traders as the ‘hire-purchase * system, as where a piano is handed over by its owners to a purchaser under the condi- tions that a certain sum shall be paid periodical] as hire, and that after a certain number of suc riodical payments have been made the piano shall become the property of the person making the payment. No such contract as one of ‘hire-pur- chase’ is recognised by law ; and in the cases which have come before the courts under this system the on always is whether the contract, whatever may be called by the parties, is legally a contract of hiring or a contract of sale. The answer will depend upon the particular terms of each ment. These, however, are usually so framed as to make the contract, not one of hiring, but one of sale with a suspensive condition that the thing de- livered shall not become the property of the person to whom it is sold until he has paid the full number of periodical payments bargained for. These pay- ments, though they may called hire by the parties to such an agreement, are legally only so many instalments of the price of a os 4 sold. A piano or other article delivered under such an agree- ment does not become the property of the holder until all these instalments are paid; and it cannot be attached by the creditors of the holder as an asset in his estate. Nor can it be lawfully sold by the holder. It remains the property of the person letting it out, and he can recover it even from one who has purchased it in faith from the person by whom it was hired. Hiring of the aioe kind above mentioned, hiring of work, may be subdivided into (a) the hire of services, as where a shoemaker is employed to mend shoes; () the hiring of care in custody, as where warehousemen or wh gers are employed to store things; and (c) the hirin of the carriage of goods, In cases of the first kin the workman is bound to do the work agreed on, to do it at the time on, to do it well, and to use an appropriate degree of care in performing the particular task, Employees in the last two classes are bound to take ordinary care of the entrusted to them, and are responsible for damage done by their negligence. also LANDLORD AND TENANT, INN, MASTER AND SERVANT, CARRIERS, &e. Hirschberg, 2 manufacturing town of Prussian Silesia, is romantically situated at the influx of the Zacken to the Bober, 1116 feet above sea-level, and 78 miles WSW. of Breslau be rail. It is the centre of the extensive textile, lace, paper, and other manufactures of the district. 12,970; (1885) 15,622; (1890) 16,214. Hispania. See SPAIN. Hispaniola (‘Little Spain’). See Dominican REPUBLIC and HAYTI. Hissar, a province of Bokhara, from which it is separated by a southern offset of the western prolongation of the Thian-Shan Mountains. This range forms its northern boundary. The country consists of a series of valleys, radlatioig from this mountainous background, and lying open on the south, traversed by streams which ow in general south or south-west to join the Oxus or Amu-Daria. The soil is fertile, and yields wheat, flax, cotton, rice, and garden fruits. Copper and rock-salt abound, The inhabitants (number not exactly known) are chiefly Usbegs and Ta They export corn, salt, flax, and sheep to Bokhara. The main route from India to Bokhara passes through the province ; and Hissar has its chief access with Bokhara, 230 miles to the north-west, through a celebrated pass called Kohluga or the Iron Gate. The province was annexed by the emir of Bokhara in 1869. The capital is the town of Hissar, with 15,000 inhabit- ants, on the Kafirnihan River. Its people are noted sword-makers. Hissar, the capital of a district of that name in the Punjab, on the Western Jumna Canal, 102 miles W. of Delhi. Pop. 14,167. The district of Hissar, lying on the western verge of the Bikanir desert, has an area of 5163 sq. m., and its soil, when watered, is fertile and produces rice, millet, barley, grain, wheat, &c. ; but it is mainly a sandy plain, very liable to suffer from drought in dry years. Pop. (1891) 776,006. Hissarlik. See Troy. Histology (derived from the Greek words histos, ‘a web or texture,’ and logos, ‘a discourse *) is the science which classifies and describes the structural or morphological elements which exist in the solids and fluids of organised bodies. It is identical or nearly so with general minute anatomy and with microscopic anatomy. Although its origin may be traced to the times of Malpighi(1628-94), who discovered the blood-corpuscles, and of Leeuwen- hoek (1632-1723), who, with comparatively imper- fect optical means, added much to our knowledge of the minute structure of the tissues, it never made any definite progress till the second decennium of the 19th century, when the compound microscope began to assume its present improved form. It was by means of this microscopico-chemical examination that the structure of the different horny tissues was first clearly exhibited, and it was thus proved that nails, cow’s horn, and whalebone are aggregations of individual cells. Portions of the subject are dealt with in our articles on BoNE, BRAIN, CIR- CULATION, DIGESTION, GLAND, MUSCLE, NERVOUS System, &e.; and see ANATOMY. For Vegetable Histology, see VEGETABLE PuysIoLoGy, Bast, Lear, Tissues, Woop, &ec. In Germany animal histology has been cultivated by Schwann, Henle, Valentin, Remak, Kdlliker, irchow, Leydig, Frey, and a host of others scarcely less distinguished; in Holland _ it has been actively prosecuted by Donders, Harting, and others; Lebert, Mandl, Robin, and others have contributed to the French literature of the subject ; while in Britain the names of Todd and Bowman, of Goodsir, Quekett, Bennett, Sharpey, Clarke, Wharton Jones, Beale, and Huxley deserve honour- able notice. Hit (anc. Js), a town of Turkey in Asia, on the Euphrates, 85 miles WNW. of ad, has pits of bitumen, which have been worked from time im memorial, and naphtha-springs. Pop. about 2500. Pop. (1875) 724 HITCHCOCK HITTITES Hitchcock, Epwarp, geologist, born at Deer- field, Massachusetts, May 24, 1793, was succes- sively Congregational pastor in Conway, Massa- chusetts (1821-25), professor of Chemistry and Natural History (1825-45) and of Natural Theo- logy and Geology (1845-64) in Amherst College, of which he was also president from 1845 to 1854. He died on 27th February 1864. He was state geologist of Massachusetts in 1830-44, and of Ver- mont in 1857-61, and published very full reports, as well as a volume (and supplement) on the Ichnology of New England (1858-65). In 1850 he was commissioned by the state to visit and examine the chief agricultural schools of Europe (Report, 1851). But he chiefly distinguished himself in the eological department of natural theology, writing he "Religion of Geology and its connected Sciences (1851), which had a very wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic. His Elementary Geology (1840) was also popular both in America and in England. Hitchcock took an active part in found- ing the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists, and was its first president in 1840. He was also one of the foundation members of the National Academy of Sciences (1863). Hitchin, a thriving market-town of Hertford- shire, on the Hiz, through the Ivel a feeder of the Ouse, 32 miles NNW. of London. An important railway junction, it has a fine old parish church, a modern town-hall, a free school (1622), a Friends’ school, &e. The principal trade is in corn, malt, and flour; there are several large breweries ; and many females are employed in straw-plaiting. Lavender has been grown here since 1568, and com- mercially, for lavender-water, since 1823. Hitchin was a place of some consequence in the days of King Alfred. It was the original seat of Girton College (q.v.). Pop. (1851) 5258 ; (1891) 8860. Hitopade’sa (lit. ‘salutary counsel ’); a famous collection of fables and stories in Sanskrit litera- ture, usually ascribed to the compilation of the Brahman Vishnusarman. It is a popular summary in four books of the larger work, the famous Pan- chatantra, which directly and indirectly has been the source whence a rich stream of folk-tales has flowed westwards over Europe. An edition of the text, with an English translation, was echagie by F. Johnson in 1864; a French translation by . Lancereau in 1882. Hitteren, an island off the west coast of Nor- way; area, 203 sq.m. Pop. 2700. Hittites, the English name of a people who waged war with Egypt and Assyria for a thousand years, and who moved on parallel lines with the Se of Israel from the call of Abraham to the aptivity. The Hittites have scarcely any record in classical history, but in late years we have much information respecting them from various sources. _ First in order and importance are the narratives of the Old Testament. When the Semitic tribe with Abraham at their head moved from Haran to Canaan the Hittites inhabited the land (Gen. xv. 20), and fifty years later Abraham, a wandering sheikh, purchased a grave for his wife from the Hittites, who were then in possession and power at Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 4). he patriarch’s family continued to live side by side with the Hittites ; and Esau, the bedawi, the grandson of Abraham, married two Hittite wives, who ‘were a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah’ (Gen. xxvi. 35). During the sojourn in Egypt the Israelites had the promise of occupying the land of the Hittites oft repeated, and from the bush on Horeb the promise was again renewed to bring them ‘into the place of the Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites’ (Exod. iii. 8). We now see that these peoples are mentioned in their topographical order as viewed from the Egyptian standpoint. The traveller northward from Egypt first came to Canaan, then he reached the Hittite colony in the neighbourhood of Hebron, and finally arrived at the Jebusites, who then in- habited sae afterwards known as Jerusalem. After the exodus the spies found ‘the Hittites, and the Jebusites, and the Amorites’ dwelling in the mountains whither they had been driven by successive Egyptian invasions. The Hittites were conspicuous among those who opposed Joshua’s entrance into the promised land, and the serried lines of Hittite chariots were scattered in con- fusion by Joshua’s army in the decisive battle by Lake Merom. Hittite captains marshalled and led the hosts of David and Solomon, and Hittite ladies were conspicuous in the harems of the same renowned monarchs (1 Kings, xi. 1). King David pushed his conquests and extended his border in ‘the land of the Hittites’ (the correct reading in 2 Sam. xxiv. 6 being not Tahtim-hodshi but ‘ Kedesh of the Hittites’); and, in the time of Jehoram, Benhadad of Damascus fled headlong from Samaria with his Syrian horde when an alarm was raised that the Hittites were coming (2 Kings, vii.). The geographical Basse te, generally of the Hittites in the time of Joshua was ‘from the wilderness and this Lebanon, even unto the great river, the river Euphrates . . . and unto the goin down of the sun’ (Josh. i. 1-4). This summary o the most important references to the Hittites in the Old Testament covers a period of a thousand years. Next in importance is the testimony of the Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions. In the Egyp- tian inscriptions the Hittites stand out as rivals of the Pharaohs in peace and war from the 12th to the 20th dynasty. As soon as the key was found to the long silent records of Egypt and Assyria the veil began to lift off dark continents of history, and the forgotten but mighty Hittite people began to emerge; and now in the increasing light from Egypt and Assyria they stand before us in broad outline and in incidental detail. The two capitals of the Hittites were Kadesh on the Orontes and Car- chemish on the Euphrates. The centre of their empire was in the north, but as an enterprising people they pushed a wedge-like colony down through Syria as far as Hebron and Egypt. According to Brugsch, the Hittites appeared on the Egyptian border as early as the 12th dynasty. The capital of the Hyksos dynasty was Zoan or Tanais, and Mariette declares that one of the Hyk- sos dynasties was Hittite. In the Old Testament there is a curious statement that ‘ Hebron was built seven years before Zoan.’ This casual statement now seems to indicate the order in which the Hittites consolidated their advance southward. The wave of invasion reached Hebron and made a lodgment there nine years before it swept over the border and made a lodgment in the land of Goshen, The discoveries at Tel-el-Amarna in 1887 throw additional light on the Hittites in Syria and Pales- tine, and a despatch written on a clay tablet, now at Berlin, contains an urgent request from Egyp- tian officers in Palestine for Egyptian assistance against the Hittites, then marching southwards. Thothmes III. came to the throne about 1600 B.c. The monuments of his reign, one of which stands on the banks of the Thames, are very numerous. In the hieroglyphies of Karnak there is a detailed account of thirteen campaigns waged by this Pharaoh against the Hittites. Great battles were fought at Megiddo, at Carchemish, at Kadesh, and elsewhere, and the Egyptian records boast of victories over the Hittites ; but the Hittite resist- ance was not broken, and succeeding years saw - ceeded his father, Seti I., and carri HITTITES HO 725 ptian armies marching through the length foe. On the death ittites became more new of Syria against the heredita of the reat Thothmes the formidable, and after about fifty years of constant wars a treaty of was concluded between Rameses I, and Saplel the Hittite king. Seti I. came to the throne two hundred years after the death of Thothmes III., and he at once marched against the Hittites as the ‘avenger of broken treaties.’ The details of this sanguinary campaign are depicted in the battle scene on the orth elie of the great temple of Karnak. At this period the Hittites were dominant in Syria, for one of the inscriptions declares that Syria was brought into subjection through Pharaoh’s victory over the Hittites. Rameses II., the Pharaoh of the oppression, suc- on the war in many campaigns. Many temples are adorned with the records of his achievements, the chief of which was his famous battle with the Hittites at Kadesh. Pentaur was present with the Pharaoh as war- correspondent, and he has recorded the events of the day in the world’s most ancient epic. A copy of the epic adorns many temples in. eypt, and is written on a papyrus ‘roll now in the British Museum. Kheta-sira had assembled his con- federates and allies from.many lands, even from Troy, and the battle ended in a draw, followed by an offensive and defensive treaty, and a dynastic alliance. Kheta-sira treats with the Pharaoh on ual terms, and his name stands first in the world’s oldest treaty, which was written in Hittite on a silver plate, Egyptian translations of which have come down to us. Kheta-sira went down into Egypt with his eldest daughter, who became Pharaoh’s queen, and thus inaugurated an era of peace. Mineptah, the Pharaoh of the Exodus, loyally maintained the treaty, and ‘sent wheat in ships to reserve the lives of the Hittites.’ More than a undred years later Rameses IIT. waged a cruel war in the land of the Hittites, and it is recorded on the temple of Medinet Abou that he brought back into captivity the king of the Hittites. We thus learn from the Egyptian inscriptions that the Hittites were rivals of the Egyptians from the 12th to the 20th dynasty. The shock of Egyptian invasion exhausted itself at Kadesh and Carchemish, but the centre of Hittite power lay beyond in the broad 09 and highlands of Asia Minor, and so they ad fresh armies and abundant wealth to enable them to withstand the might of Egypt for a thou- sand years. é The Hittites occupy an important place in the Assyrian inscriptions. The reign of Sargon of Agade has been placed about the 19th century B.c.; and one date has been deciphered, which if correct would fix that reign about 3800 B.c. Even as early as the reign of Sargon L. the Hittites were a for- midable power, and it has been supposed that in the time of the 19th dynasty in Egypt the Hittites occupied Mesopotamia. en we come to the era of Tiglath-pileser I., about 1130 B.c., the Hittites were paramount from the Euphrates to the Lebanon. Tiglath-pileser I. drove back the Hittites from his borders, and for a time made them tributaries, but they soon threw off the Assyrian yoke, and a des- rate struggle for supremacy was waged for four vundred years between the empire of Assyria and that of the Hittites. The reign of Assur-nasir-pal (883-858 B.C.) is ere a record of wars with the Hittites. His son, Shalmaneser, undertook thirty campaigns chiefly ‘in the land of the Hittites.’ The war continued to the close of the king’s reign, and was carried pa by the kings who su him; and one hundred years later the Assyrians were still in deadly conflict with the Hittites. The Hittites, who first appear in the Assyrian inscriptions in the reign of Sargon L., were destined to disappear from history in the reign of his name- sake. Sargon Il. came to the throne in 721 B.c., and his first year was distinguished by the capture of Samaria and the captivity of the Israelites, and four vet later (717 B.C.) he brought the empire of the Hittites to a close by the defeat of Pisiri and the capture of Carchemish. Thus ended the mighty empire of the Hittites, having maintained its existence, defying all enemies, longer than the empires of Babylon, or Assyria, or Greece, or Rome. he fact that the frontier towns of the Hittites had continued their resistance to the Assyrian arms, in almost yearly campaigns, throughout successive centuries, suggests that the Hittite empire must have been strong in resources beyond the frontier; and the mention of over 300 geographies! Hittite names, in the inscriptions, shows how extended that dominion must have been. In November 1872 the writer of this article sue- ceeded in making casts of the famous Hamah (q.v.) inscriptions, which he declared to be Hittite remains. The trees at first received with incredulity, is now admitted, and sculptures of the same character are now found to exist throughout the length and breadth of Asia Minor and northern Syria, from Hamah on the Orontes to Eyuk by the Halys, and from Carchemish on the Euphrates to the Euxine and the Aégean. A beginning has been made in decipherment, hut the first steps, though sure, are slow. There is no room for doubt as to their Hittite origin, The cuneiform inscriptions were called Assyrian before Grotefend made the happy guess that led to their decipherment. The hieroglyphies were called Egyptian before Champollion and Birch began to unravel the mysteries of the Rosetta Stone; and it does not seem a violent supposition that the remarkable inscriptions ‘in the land of the Hittites’ may have been produced by the warlike but cultured people who once inhabited the land. A set of Hittite inscriptions and sculptures may be seen in Zhe Empire of the Hittites, by the present writer (1884; 2d ed. 1886), as well as chapters on Hittite geog- raphy, art, and learning, religion and nationality. See also Sayce, The Hittites ; or, the Story of a Forgotten People (R. T. S., 1888); Léon de Lantsheere, Les Hittites (Brussels, 1892); Conder, Zhe Hittites and their Lan- guage (1898). Hitzig, FERDINAND, a German biblical scholar, was born 23d June 1807, at Hauingen, in Baden, and educated at Heidelberg, Halle (where the influence of Gesenius determined him in favour of Old Testa- ment studies), and Géttingen. In 1833 he was called to Zurich as professor of Theology, and in 1861 returned to fill the similar chair at Heidelberg. The first work which established his fame was his commentary on Isaiah (1833). Besides a transla- tion of the Psalms, with a commentary (1835-36), he furnished for the Lxegetisches Handbuch zum A. T. the commentaries on the twelve minor prophets (1838 ; 4th ed. 1881), on Jeremiah (1841), Ezekiel (1847), Ecelesiastes (1847), Daniel (1850), the Song of Solomon (1855), Proverbs (1858), and Job (1875). This able and combative rationalistic critic is also known by Die Erfindung des Alphabets (1840), Urgeschichte und Mythologie der Philistder (1845), Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1869-70), &e., and by numerous contributions to the learned journals. He died at Heidelberg, 22d January 1875. Hivites (‘ villagers’ or ‘midlanders’), a Canaan- itish people, the main body of which lived in the region from Lebanon and Hermon to Hamath, but who had colonies, apparently isolated, in southern Palestine, as at Gibeon. : H’Lassa. See LHAssa. Ho. See HOANG-HO. 726 HOADLY HOBART PASHA Hoadly, BenJAmIn, English prelate, was born at Westerham, in Kent, November 14, 1676, and educated at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became tutor after taking his degree of M.A. Two years after that event he was chosen lecturer of St Mildred in the Poultry, London, and with this office two years later still combined that of rector of St Peter-le-Poer. Hoadly figures amongst the principal controversial writers of the 18th century, ranking amongst the ‘rationalists,’ and defending the cause of civil and religious liberty against both the crown and the clergy. He carried on a controversy with Dr Atterbury on the extent of the obedience due to the civil power by ecclesiastics in such a way as to secure the applause of the House of Commons. His Low Church prin- ciples made him an opponent of Sacheverell, whom he contended against in the pulpit. As a reward for his attitude in this matter, and for his zeal against the doctrine of non-resistance, he was made a hero of by the Whigs. Through their instrumentality he was in 1710 presented to the rectory of Streatham in Surrey ; and in 1715, when the accession of George I. bad secured the triumph of Whig principles, Hoadly was made Bishop of Bangor. In 1717 he preached before the king a sermon on the text ty kingdom is not of this world,’ in which he endeavoured to show that Christ had not delegated his powers to any ecclesi- astical authorities. Out of this. originated the famous Bangorian Controversy, regarding which Hallam says that it was ‘managed, perhaps on botk sides, with all the chicanery of polemical writers, and is disgusting both from its tediousness and from the manifest unwillingness of the dis- utants to speak ingenuously what they meant.’ Ihe controversy branched off into such a multi- plicity of side-issues, and produced such an extra- ordinary number of pamphlets (in July 1717 alone no less than seventy-four appeared), that the main question became almost irrecoverably lost in a tangle of extraneous matter. The public excite- ment it created is said to have been so great that business in London was virtually at a standstill for some days. The dispute had, however, one important consequence—the indefinite prorogation of Convocation (q.v.). In 1721 Hoadly was trans- ferred to the see of Hereford, in 1723 to that of Salisbury, and in 1734 to that of Winchester. He died at Chelsea, April 17, 1761. His Collected Works were published by his son in 1773, with Life prefixed. Hoang-ho (‘ Yellow River’), or simply Ho, one of the principal rivers of China, more than 3000 miles in length, rises in the plain of Odontala, south of the Kuen-Lun Mountains, and has a tortuous course, described in the article CHINA, Vol. III. pp. 184, 185. From’ the southernmost corner of the province of Chih-li, which it crosses, the Yellow River flowed until recently eastward to the ocean, 650 miles distant, in 34° lat.; but in 1851-53 this way- ward and turbulent stream, which is said to have shifted its course nine times in 2500 years, turned off near Kaifung-foo in a north-easterly direction. Since then it discharges its waters into the Gulf of Pechili, some 500 miles north of its former mouth, the mountainous province of Shan-tung lying between the two. The river is little used for navigation, Chinese vessels being unable to stem its impetuous current. In some parts of its eastern course, as in the case of the Po, the river-bed is above the great plain through which it passes. The embankments requisite for averting inunda- tions are a source of never-ending expense to the government, and their yielding to floods a frequent cause of desolation to extensive districts of country. In 1887, by a dreadful inundation in Ho-nan, ‘China’s sorrow’ destroyed millions of a. lives. The measures subsequently taken by the Chinese government to regulate the course of the river proved:futile. About 170 miles of the upper course of the Hoang-ho were explored for the first time by Prejevalsky in 1880. The vast quantity of sediment conveyed to the sea by this river, givin it its colour rite g name, is taken up in that part o its course which lies between the Shan-hsi and Shen-hst; beyond whic are remarkably clear. .Hoar-frost. See Dew. Hoarseness. See THROAT. Hoatzin. See TourRAco. Hobart, Garret A., vice-president of the United States, was born in Long Branch, New Jersey, in 1844, was educated at Rutgers College, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1869. He settled in Paterson, New Jersey, and was chosen successively city attorney of that city, poe attorney for Passaic county, member of the house of assembly of New Jersey, and member of the state senate, of the last of which he was president in 1881-82. An ardent Republican, he was elected to the vice-presidency on the ticket with M‘Kinley in 1896. Died in office, November 21, 1899. Hobart (till 1881 known as Hobart Town), the capital of Tasmania, stands on the estuary of the Derwent, about 12 miles from its mouth, in the south of the island. The city forms nearly a square, built on several hills, covering an area of shout 1300 acres. A fine marine: view may be obtained from Mount Pleasant. Besides Govern- ment House, the houses of parliament, and the overnment official buildings, Hobart has a museum, itbrar , two cathedrals, thirty-five churches, and is well supplied with schools, hospitals, and hotels. The hospital for the insane is at Cascade, 2 miles distant. The water-supply is derived from springs on Mount Wellington. The town is lighted with as, and tramways have been laid. The park nown as the Queen’s Domain has fine drives, and covers 1000 acres. In Franklin Gardens, in the centre of the town, are statues to Sir J. Franklin, a former governor of Tasmania, and Dr Crowther. The fine natural harbour and quay accommodate ships of the largest size; and there are three first-class patent slips. The cooler and more invigorating air of Hobart attracts large numbers of summer visitors from Australia. The chief industries are the manufacture of flour and jam, tanning, and iron-founding. Hobart has railway communication with Launceston, 133 miles distant, and frequent steam communication with Melbourne (443 miles NW.) and Sydney, and ports in New Zealand. Founded in 1804, the town was incorporated in 1857. The suburbs include New Town, Queenborough, Wellington, Glen- orchy, Risdon, and Bellerive. About half-a-dozen daily and weekly newspapers are published. Pop. (1871) 19,092 ; (1891) 24,905. Hobart Pasha, the Hon. AuGusTUS CHARLES HoBART-HAMPDEN, third son of the Earl of Buck- inghamshire, was born at Waltham-on-the- Wolds, in Leicestershire, on Ist April 1822, and in 1836 entered the. British navy. He first served against the slavers in Brazilian waters, then in the Baltic during the Crimean war, and there materiall assisted in the capture of Bomarsund, in the attac on Abo, and in the bombardment of Svedborg. Shortly after the conclusion of the war he retired on half-pay. On the outbreak of the civil war in America he, as ‘Captain Roberts,’ took command of a blockade-runner, and several times got through the naval cordon that the North had established along the coasts of the Southern States, his adventures being most exciting and his escapes marvellous, rovinces of its waters HOBBEMA HOBBES 727 Lastly, he entered the service of ‘Turkey (1867), and for his great services in checking the Greek blockade- runners to Crete in that year was raised to the rank of pasha and made admiral of the Ottoman fleet. On the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war (1878) he took command of the Turkish Black Sea fleet. After each of these last pieces of active service his name was struck off the British Admiralty list, but on each occasion subsequently restored. He died on 19th June 1886 at Milan. He wrote Sketches from My Life (edited by his widow, 1887), and a book entitled Never Caught (1867), giving an account of his exploits during the civil war in America. Hob’bema, MEINDERT, landscape-painter, born in 1638, probably at Amsterdam. Few particulars of his life are known. He is believed to have studied art under Jacob Ruysdael, whose name oon as a witness to his marriage at Amsterdam, October 1668, to Eeltije Vinck, who predeceased him in 1704. He died in poverty, and was buried in the Westerkerkhof, Amsterdam, 14th December 1709. His art usually deals with quiet subjects of Dutch cottage and woodland scenery, and these are treated with a skill which entitles the artist to rank along with Ruysdael at the very head of the landscape-painters of Holland. His works are subdued in tone, and finished with extreme care, yet with a singularly free and spirited touch, and are excellent in re A meg and lighting. Their figures were executed by Berchem, Adrian Vande- velde, and Lingelbach. Smith has catalogued 142 of his works, which now command very large prices, small landscapes from his hand having fetched from £5000 to £10,000. Seven of his works are in the National Gallery, London, and of these ‘The Avenue, Middelharnis, Holland,’ formerly in the Peel and Vander Pot collections, is an exquisite example. See E. Michel, Hobbema et les Paysagistes de son Temps (1890). Hobbes, THoMAS, was born at Malmesbury on the 5th April 1588, and was the son of the vicar of Charlton and bh ae, Yoh adjoining that town. About the of fifteen he was sateted at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he was put through the usual course of Aristotelian logic and physics. His intellectual interests remained entirely unawakened, and long afterwards he attacked the universities in no measured terms for their failure to keep pace with the time. At the age of twenty, having taken his degree and quitted Oxford, he was recommended to Lord Hardwick, afterwards Earl of Devonshire, as tutor to his eldest son. This was the beginning of an intimate connection with that t family, which lasted through his lon life. In 1610 he went abroad with his pupil, an made the tour of France and Italy. After his return he still continued to live with the Cavendish family, and his residence in London afforded him opportunities of becoming acquainted with Bacon, erbert of Cherbury, Ben Jonson, and other dis- tinguished men of the time. The first ambition to awake in him was that of the scholar, and he devoted his abundant leisure to a critical reading of the classical poets and historians. The outcome of these studies was his translation of Thucydides, which appeared in 1628, when he had already reached the mature of forty. The Civil War was already looming in the distance, and in the choice of subject we may discern Hobbes’s strong interest in polities—an interest which ultimately dominated his whole philosophy. The Earl of Devonshire died in 1626, ind to Hobbes's great grief the second earl, his pupil, followed his father to the grave in 1628, Next year Hobbes accepted an engagement as travelling tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, and in this capacity paid a second visit to the Continent; but in 1631 his connection with the Devonshire family was re- sumed, By the desire of the dowager-countess he undertook the education of the young earl, the son of his former pupil, then only thirteen. From 1634 to 1637 they travelled abroad, and on this occasion Hobbes came into contact with Galileo in Italy, while in Paris he was admitted to the scientific and philosophical circle of which Pere Mersenne was the centre. Since 1629, when chance introduced him to a copy of Luclid’s Elements, he had been an ardent student of geometry, and about the same time or a little later he began to be powerfully drawn to the new ‘mechanical philosophy’ of Galileo. In motion and the laws of motion he seemed to see a universal principle of explana- tion, and when he returned to England in 1637 it was with the outline of a comprehensive Fs pag system already before his mind. escartes, whose Discourse on Method appeared in that year, was also an adherent of the new physics, but limited and supplemented its explanations by the subjective principle of self-consciousness. obbes did not occupy himself (except incident- ally) with the philosophical question of knowledge, but conten himself with giving an objective explanation of sensation and all mental facts in terms of motion. Regarded as the object of science, the world consisted, in Hobbes’s view, of natural bodies (inanimate and animate) and _ political bodies, or organised aggregates of ag men. Natural philosophy and civil philosophy therefore cover the whole ground ; but, as the explanation of civil institutions is to be found in the nature of man, man stands out from among all other natural bodies, and forms, as it were, a bridge between nature and society. Accordingly Hobbes planned three systematic treatises, De Corpore, De Homine, De Cive; but the pressure of political events prevented him from publishing his ideas in their natural sequence, and some parts of the scheme are much less fully worked out than others. On his return to England he continued to live with the young Ear! of Devéashirs, and was on intimate terms with Lord Falkland, Hyde, and others en in the political struggles of the time. The need of a political philosophy which would put an end to anarchy by a true theory of the governing power became every day clearer to him, and in 1640 he wrote ‘a little treatise in English’ in defence of the royal prerogative. This is preserved in MS. under the title of Zhe Elements of Law, Natural and Politique, and is identical with the two treatises, Human Nature and De Cor- ore Politico, published ereraeny ten years later. ‘earful lest the Parliament should take notice of his treatise, Hobbes fled in the same year to Paris, which continued to be his home till 1651. He was welcomed by his scientific friends, and Mersenne induced him to contribute to Descartes’ Meditations a series of criticisms thereon. But the litical needs of the time still lay nearest his heart, and in 1642 appeared the De Cive, a fuller. statement of his theory of government. Very few copies of this edition were struck off, and the book appeared with a new title in 1647 as Elementa hilosophica de Cive. In 1650 appeared the two treatises already mentioned, and in 1651 he issued a vigorous English translation of the De Cive (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) by way of introduction to the com- prehensive English work on which he had been engaged for several years. Leviathan was printed in ‘England: and appeared in the summer of 1651. Its rationalistic criticism and its uncompromising reduction of religion to a department of state mortally offended the royalist clergy of the exiled court. Hobbes had been mathematical tutor to 728 HOBBES HOCCLEVE Prince Charles in 1647, and the latter always con- tinued to take a friendly interest in his old pre- ceptor; but on the publication of Leviathan the author was informed that the young king refused to see him. With constitutional timidity he once more took refuge in flight. He returned to Eng- land in the end of 1651, and sent in his sub- mission to the government of the Commonwealth, it being one of the principles with which Leviathan concludes that an ordinary citizen has a right to turn to a new power that can give protection, how- ever little he may approve of the circumstances of its origin. Hobbes settled in London to work out the remaining parts of his scheme. The De Corpore appeared in 1655, and the De Homine, a rather perfunctory revision of the old Human Nature (with expansion on the side of optical theory), in 1658. From 1654 onwards Hobbes was engaged in almost perpetual controversy, first with Bram- hall on liberty and necessity, and then with Ward, Wallis, and Boyle in defence of his own hopelessly indefensible mathematical ideas, which involved the quadrature of the circle and similar absurdities. The second controversy dragged over a quarter of a century, Hobbes’s last blow being delivered after he had completed his ninetieth year. After the Restoration Charles granted him a pension of £100, and is said to have been always delighted with the old man’s wit and repartees, but the bishops and the church party looked with no favour upon the author of Leviathan. - a“ = oo wo oo . — e 7 G 7 Geographical Miles COrUue Degrees d mf ) Rigen | rr tnd aa? ~6 eo “diag herman Miles Li» Ono Degree eto nh oltiand, i } ' te ae “ ba a ite © Leesan , f Sahl English Miles €9-0neD hee | y P SRREM EL x 5 . , 77 pe es : . , a (aalte’ ~ rad peat = = XY a \ | > . 2, "+ » : } 2 nee 9 F vee L Ss eS - q ° a . Se NA ed ee Pe it 7 S B a Lo. L | soe! AES —~ ta : spd \Beemergle . stlee 3 Aipd tterloo Na \ Nn, | Pk Waddinarven, c . § Ve mye ee a 2 } a 5 7, Dar o = : _ / ys nem — i| ie Bas. = = s ® Ps » ho Whamet —“*t = ab ae 5. Asli erland : Ln A Thole me \Y ; > . } ae = Geldern | Flastanay B =a Le - | es soath Y. 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Many canals, regulated by locks (whic were probably known in Holland a hundred years before they were introduced into Italy in the 15th century connect the parallel rivers, and the Yssel forms a link between the Rhine and the canals and meres of Friesland. The latter are vast and some- what shallow lakes. Thus it is possible to travel on water through the whole of Holland. The prin- cipal canals are the North Holland Canal, from Amsterdam to Den Helder, 51 miles long; the William’s Canal, through North Brabant and Limburg, which has a length of 714 miles; the North Canal, from Amsterdam to Ymuiden, on the German Ocean; and the canal from the Maas, near Rotterdam, to the so-called Hoek van Holland, named the New Waterway, which now enables ocean-steamers to reach Rotterdam at all times. We have already described the most im- portant (see-CANAL), and we will only add here that in 1890 it was proposed to do away with the locks on the North Bea Canal, making it a level navigable channel for ocean-steamers from end to end. The cutting and maintaining of canals in Holland is one of the chief functions of the Water- staat, a public department that is carried on under an independent minister of the crown, and is entirely confined to hydraulic engineering. The reclamation of land by the drainage of lakes, and by pushing back the sea and creating what are styled ‘polders,’ is likewise a alg feature in the operations of the Waterstaat. ese newly- reclaimed polderlands always fetch high prices amongst the icultural classes, as was the case with the Haarlem Lake (q.v.) polder, which was sold in plots at such prices that the state made an excellent bargain. The draining of Haarlem Lake will be eclipsed, should the scheme of laying dry the Zuider Zee (q.v.), which involves an esti- mated outlay of £96,000,000, be carried out. This would enrich Holland with a new province of about one and a half million acres. The maintenance of dykes by the Waterstaat forms another task of vital moment; the safety of the state depends upon their constant strength and resisting power where there are no hills or dunes to offer a natural protection against the encroachments of water. Itis a mistake to suppose that the ocean is Holland’s most treacherous and formidable foe ; the rivers, when swollen by heavy rains or falls of snow, are much more dangerous. As the river- beds naturally rise by alluvial deposits, the em- bankments have to be made higher and higher. In times of peril a special dyke service is organised, and headquarters are kept informed night and day by a body of Waterstaat engineers, who direct their trained workmen to the points that are more immediately threatened. kes _ form a very expensive item in the budgets of Holland. Half a million pounds will not cover the annual cost to the state. Besides, many dykes are almost entirely maintained out of local rates. The most formidable and_ costly sea-lykes are round the western coast-line of Walcheren Island, and near Den Helder in North Holland. These dykes are veritable ramparts, formed by piles at the base, which support a superstructure of earth and stones. The annual cost of keeping one in repair frequently reaches £8000 to £10,000. Despite the care and pre- cautions of ever vigilant and ingenious men, dis- asters through inundations form but too familiar a feature in the history of Holland. A Series of irruptions of the ocean created the Zuider Zee be- tween 1170 and 1395. As Goldsmith says in his Traveller, the Dutchman has ‘scooped out an HOLLAND 739 empire’ from the ocean, and the old Duteh proverb that God made the sea but the Hollander the land holds true to this very day. Communications. —The oldest railway of Holland is the line connecting Amsterdam and Rotterdam by way of Leyden, which was commenced in 1837. he principle of state railways was settled in 1860, and extended in 1873 and 1875. The whole country is now covered by a network of railways built out of state funds, and in 1890 there were 1630 miles open for traffic. They are not worked by the government, but by a company, which pays the treasury a certain proportion of the net profits. There are several private railways, but the present tendency is to make them state = rties. The country roads, mostly paved with bricks, are broad and excellent, but tolls are still maintained. The old-fashioned way of navigating the canals in trek- schuiten, or boats drawn by horses, or men and even women, along a towing-path, is tending to disappear. The. number of passengers carried by state and rivate railway lines in 1894 was over 24,300,000. uring the year 1894, 130,000,000 letters and 4,385,000 telegrams were forwarded. Postal savings- banks were instituted in 1881; in 1895 the deposits amounted to 32,250,000 guilders. Climate, Agriculture, Produce, &c.—The climate of Holland is much like the climate of England, especially in its frequent and rapid changes; but, as a rule, the Dutch summer is hotter and the Dutch winter colder. Ague is prevalent in the low-lying regions of the west, and foreigners are particularly liable to suffer from its ravages. Agriculture in its various branches forms one of the leading pursuits of the Dutch. In 1896 there were 25,555 farm-owners and farm-tenants. Land tenure is similar to that in France, and fee- simple with peasant-proprietorship the rule. Cattle- rearing and dairy-farming have been the Dutch farmer's chief occupations from time immemorial. This explains why arable land in Holland only covers an area of 2,150,000 acres, while meadows cover 2,800,000 acres. The farm-stock in the yon 1886 consisted of 272,700 horses, 1,530,800 ead of cattle, 802,700 sheep, 1,161,200 goats, and 458,200 pigs. Dutch sheep, very large in size, were formerly exported to England in great numbers, until disease stop the trade, and the same thing happened with cattle. In 1889 the British Privy-council again authorised the importation of live Dutch cattle and sheep. Dutch farmers have suffered heavily through cattle disease, which was at its worst in 1874; but the government has succeeded in stamping it out entirely. Dutch beef and Dutch mileh-cows are much esteemed in England and in America. The United States and South Africa buy many horned cattle in Holland for breeding purposes, also Friesland horses, which are extremely strong, and Holland trotters. iry- farming had fallen off very much, especially in Friesland, once famous for its butter, because the Dutch dairy-farmers clung to antiquated methods, and so were outstripped by foreign competitors. Holland, formerly one of the chief markets for dairy produce, has now become the principal ucer of butter substitutes. But, taught by Thaxrous experience and the example of Den- mark, the Dutch dairy-farmers are at last intro- ducing the ‘factory system’ and other improve- ments. Holland exported in 1895 butter to the value of £1,403,000, and cheese to the value of £1,160,000. The common Dutch cheese comes from Gouda, and the round balls are from Edam in North Holland. The staple agricultural products are wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, beet-root, chicory, flax, and tobacco. The use of modern implements, such as steam-ploughs, &c., is now spreading rapidly, like the application of artificial manures. 740 HOLLAND The soil of Holland is not uniformly fertile. Large tracts of land, especially in the eastern pro- vinces, are simply heath; and the waste lands of Holland covered an area of more than 1,700,000 acres in 1897. A society has been founded for the afforestation of these tracts. The orchards of Bos- koop, producing excellent fruit, like the prolific district of Westland, should be mentioned, as also the famous culture of Dutch bulbs at Haarlem and the surrounding districts. Minerals.—As may be readily believed, min- erals are scarce in Holland; but valuable clay for the manufacture of tiles, bricks, and pottery is - found everywhere in great abundance, and the making of the famous old Delft-ware is now reviv- ing. Coal is worked in Limburg, and also a soft sandstone. Manufactures, Industries, &c.—The chief manu- factures are linen, woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, aper, leather, glass, &c. Leyden, Tilburg, and Vernon are famed for woollen blankets, wool- dyed pilot, fine cloths, and friezes; ’s Hertogen- bosch (Bois-le-Duc) for linens and rich damasks. Calicoes, shirtings, drills, table-cloths, striped dimi- ties, &c. are made at Almelo, Amersfoort, and other leading towns. Excellent imitation Smyrna carpets are manufactured at Deventer, and imita- tion Scotch and other kinds are made at Delft, &e. ; turkey-red yarns, dyed silks, and silk stuffs at Roermond, Utrecht, Haarlem, &e. ; leather, glass, firearms at Maastricht and Delft; iron-founding, rolling and hammering of lead and copper, cannon- founding are carried on at The Hague, &c. Breweries are numerous (541 in 1887): Middel- burg, Bois-le-Duc, Amsterdam, Nimeguen, &c. have important ones, those of Bois-le-Due and Am- sterdam manufacturing large quantities. Waalwijk, Heusden, and surrounding districts manufacture loots and shoes. Gin is distilled at Schiedam, Delft, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam. The distilleries of gin (‘Hollands’) form an important branch of Duteh industry, 6ver 500 existing at the end of 1897. The liqueur factories are of national import- ance. Amsterdam once had the largest diamond- cutting trade in the world, 10,000 persons depending on that branch of industry; but latterly, owing to various causes (the dearness of rough stones being one of them), the trade has fallen off. Sugar- refining was carried on by 11 establishments in 1895, and there were then also 30 beetroot sugar factories, 50 salt-works, and nearly 600 breweries. The manufacture of cocoa has assumed enormous roportions in the last few years, and there are arge works at Weesp, at Amsterdam, and at Rotterdam. North Brabant is the principal centre of the Dutch margarine trade, exported to Eng- land in immense quantities. Something like nine- tenths of all the margarine sent to England (value £2,498,500 in 1896) comes from Holland. Fisheries.—The fisheries of Holland, although no longer so important as at one time, are still note- worthy. At the end of 1895 they gave employ- ment to 17,650 men and boys, on board 5189 vessels. The herring - fishery produce annually between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 barrels from the North Sea alone, and 300,000 tons of salt herrings may be exported in a single year. Trawling is extensively resorted to. ‘Dutch coopering’ has been virtually abolished by the international North Sea Conventions (see COOPERAGE). Between 25,000,000 and 35,000,000 oysters are annually taken, and a fourth thereof exported to England. The fisheries of Holland are estimated to yield annually £3,00C,000. Imports, Exports, and Shipping.—The Dutch are no longer the ‘carriers of Europe,’ but their carry- ing trade is still very considerable. The total imports into Holland and exports thence were, in 1894, £121,750,000 and £93,000,000; and the im- ports from and exports to the United Kingdom in 1894 were £27,606,400 and £8,787,500 respectively. Holland of all European countries does the largest amount of foreign trade per head of population ; in 1888, £37, 7s. 14d. per head (more than thrice that of Great Britain and Ireland). In 1895 the mercantile marine consisted of 425 sailing-ves- sels of a burden of 110,800 tons, and 157 steamers of 183,000 tons, ‘Revenue, re iain &c.—The revenue of 1890 was estimated at about £10,109,000, and the ex- enditure at £11,256,000. The East Indies revenue or 1890 was estimated at £10,677,000, the expendi- ture at £11,700,000. The East India colonies, once. a burden, were long a source of profit, but are now a burden again. From 1850 to and with 1874 £25,376,218 was paid off from the national debt. In 1880 the debt amounted to £78,601,216, and the annual interest payable on it was £2,328,000; in 1888 the debt proper was upwards of £88,000,000, besides £1,250,000 in paper money. The annual charge, even after a recent reduction, was still estimated at £2,581,000 for 1890. The great bulk of the national debt is held in Holland ; the national prosperity is increasing, and an enormous amount is invested in foreign funds and American railways. Colonies.—The colonies of Holland are stated to have an area of upwards of 700,000 sq. m. (more than three times the area of the German empire), with a population of about 30,000,000. They fall into two groups: (1) the East Indian possessions, including Java and Madura, Sumatra, the Mo- luceas, Gelebes, Timor, parts of Borneo, and the western part of New Guinea; and (2) the West Indies, of which the chief are Surinam and Cur- ao. The factories on the coast of Guinea were disposed of by sale to Great Britain in 1872. The principal colonies are treated at length in separate articles. Government.—The government of Holland is a limited constitutional monarchy. The modern Grondwet, or Constitutional Law, of 1848, was _altered in 1887 to suit new electoral and other re- quirements. The crown is the executive power; legislation is vested in the States-general. The king presides at a council of state, whose members _ are appointed by him. Its functions are similar to those of the Privy-council in Britain. He also selects ministers, who countersign all royal decrees, and whose responsibility is settled by a special law. The States-general is divided into a first and a second chamber. The second chamber consists of one hundred members, the first chamber of fe members, the former being elected by direct suff- rage, the latter by the provincial councils from among the highest-taxed citizens in the state, or those that hold or have held important public posts. The members of the second chamber are elected for four years. Only male subjects thirty years old, in the full possession of their civic rights, are _ eligible. Each member receives by way of salary — £166 a year, and, besides, a stipend for travelling — and incidental expenses during each session. The — members of the first chamber are elected for a term of nine years. No one can be a member of — the two chambers simultaneously. Ministers may _ sit in both, but only possess a consultative voice. The second chamber alone has the right of amend- ment and of initiating legislation. All judges — are appointed by the crown for life. There is a — supreme tribunal (at The Hague), and ministers, members of the States-general, and certain high officials can be arraigned only before it. There is no state religion, but the state supports financially the different churches. Education.—Primary instruction is provided by the state in all places where it is required. Private HOLLAND 741 schools are freely permitted, but subject to inspec- tion ; and teachers must qualify for their task under & government examination. There are ancient universities at Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, and since 1877 a new university at Amsterdam, supported by the municipality. The four universities have up- wards of 3000 students. There are Latin schools in the leading municipalities. There are also the Royal Military and Naval Academy at Breda, and that for engineers and the Indian civil service at Delft, ides seminaries in several places for the training of the Roman Catholic clergy, &c. The state pays 30 per cent. of the expenditure on the public schools, and the communes or parishes 70 per cent. In 1895 there were over 3000 elementary public schools, 1351 elementary private schools, and about 150 secondary schools. The pupils in the public elementary schools number 475,000. About 600,000 children under twelve receive some sort of school education, but 10 per cent. none. There is no com- pulsory attendance in Holland, and many can neither read nor write (5 per cent. of illiterate recruits). Army, Navy, &c.—The strength of the regular army in Europe is about 62,000 men, and of the colonial army about 40,000 men, some 15,000 thereof being Euro s. Dutch troops are not allowed to be sent to India. The Dutch home army is composed of volunteers, and of a varying propor- tion of men drawn by lot for five years’ service. There is also a local force, called Schutteri7, drawn by lot from those between twenty-five and thirty- four years of age, to assist in keeping order in peace, and in case of war to act as a mobile corps, and do garrison duty. North and South Holland can be inundated at short notice. The royal navy on Ist January 1897 consisted of 120 men-of-war, 24 being ironclads. Six are large cruisers, each of 3400 tons, built of iron and steel. There are also numerous torpedo boats for* the defence of the coasts and river-mouths. History.—About a century and a half before our era, a Teutonic people, known to the Romans as the Batavi, and who came from Hesse, occupied the land between the Rhine and the Waal. At this time the Frisians oecupied the country north of the Rhine to the Elbe. The Batavi and Frisians differed little in appearance, manner of life, and religion. They clothed themselves with skins, fished, hunted, and led a pastoral life; were faithful, frank, chaste, and hospitable. The songs of the bards composed their literature and history. Warlike and brave, they selected their leader for his courage and prowess, and were armed with a bow and a short spear. They worshipped the sun and moon, and held their meetings in con- secrated woods, The Romans having subdued the Belge, next attacked the Frisians, who agreed to pay a tribute of ox-hides and horns, but svalneccbis! restless and rebellious. The Batavi became allies of Rome, paying no tribute, but supplying a volunteer con- tingent, chiefly of cavalry, which was renowned for its impetuous bravery, and helped to win the battle of Pharsalia for Cesar. About 70 A.D. Claudius Civilis, a Batavian, made a bold effort to overthrow the Roman power in Rhenish or Germanic Gaul, but failed in the end. Roman supremacy endured until the 4th century, when the inroads of the Salic Franks were followed by the Saxons and other tribes. The Franks took posses- sion of the Jnsula Batavorum, and the name of the Batavi vanished. Christianity spread among these tribes, and even the Frisians, who were violently opposed to it, were forcibly converted by Charles Martel. At the end of the 8th century all the Low Countries submitted to Charlemagne, who built a palace at Nimeguen, on the Waal. The feudal system now began to develop itself, and dukedoms, counties, lordships, and bishoprics arose, the bishops of Utrecht, the dukes of Guelderland, and the counts of Holland being among the most acegee, of these petty rulers, who owned but ve ittle allegiance to their lords. During the 9t and 10th centuries the districts of the modern Netherlands belonged to Lotharingia, which acknowledged alternately French and German sovereignty. The nucleus of the countship of Holland, and the beginning of its power, were the work of Dirk III., who died in 1039. Count William II. was even made King of the Romans (1248) through the influence of Pope Innocent IV. The Crusades weakened the power and resources of the nobles and prelates, so that, during the middle ages, cities began to assume importance, strengthen themselves with walls, and choose their own rulers. In 1384 the earldom of Flanders passed, through marriage, to the Duke of Burgundy, whose grand- son, Philip the Good, made it his special life-effort to form the Netherlands into a powerful kingdom. He bought Namur, inherited Brabant with Lim- burg, and compelled Jacoba of Bavaria to resign Holland and Zealand. Charles V., as heir to Bur- indy, inherited and united the Netherlands under iis sceptre. He fostered trades and industries in the Low Countries, and under his rule they attained a great prosperity, whilst cities like Bruges «and Ghent reached the zenith of their wealth and power. But he also tyrannised over the land with an iron will and hand, drained the life-blood of the nation for his continual warfare, and depopulated north and south by an implacable Inquisition, which it is computed put to death in various forms at least 100,000 persons for heresy. Yet he was at times popular with the people. He spoke their language. He always remained a Fleming; and Ghent, after attempting to betray him and rising in rebellion against him in 1539, owed her ultimate escape from the destruction which Alva counselled entirely to the fact of the emperor's citizenship. His son Philip II., who succeeded to the throne in October 1555, was a character of the very opposite type. A Spaniard born, he remained a Castilian to his dying day—austere, harsh, narrow, domi- neering, fanatical. He never spoke a word of Dutch, nor did he understand the people. With Philip Il. commenced that terrible and desperate and longfought struggle of Holland and Spain which finally resulted in the throwing off of the Spanish ok in the establishment of a free, strong, and prosperous commonwealth among the marshes of the low-lying delta. This heroic contest of the few against the many, of a hand- ful of isolated burghers against the combined | forces of the most ss state in Europe, has u excited a wonderful amount of interest in the civilised world. Motley, with the now count- less editions of his great work, The Rise.of the Dutch Republic, and its continuation, has done more to popularise the story of the so-called Eighty Years’ War of the Low Countries against Spain than any of his predecessors. Philip II. only remained in Holland for four brief years and then left it, never to return, appointing as regent Margaret of Parma, mother of the famous Farnese, and a natural daughter of Charles V., with a council, to which belonged Viglius, Berlay- mont, the afterwards notorious Cardinal Granvella, Bishop of Arras—all friends and flatterers of the oung king and enemies of the people—as well as Gamont, who had won the battles of St Quentin and Gravelines for Philip, and the king’s lieutenant in Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, young William of Orange, then completely unknown to fame. As the latter took leave of Philip, who was embarking at Flushing to return to Spain, the king bitterly complained to him of the opposition already mani 742 fested against his measures. These were mainly the maintenance of a standing Spanish army and of the Inquisition—both contrary to the laws and privi- leges of the people, as well as to his own solemn vows before ascending the throne. Orange tried to persuade the king that he had nothing to do with the resistance complained of, as the Estates were acting on their own responsibility when they had petitioned his majesty. Whereupon Philip seized the Prince of Orange by the wrist, shaking it violently, and exclaiming in Spanish, No Jos Estados, ma vos, vos, vos! (‘ Not the Estates, but you, you, you!’). The king on this memorable occasion showed as much perspicacity as his reign betrayed perverseness and pertidy: in William of Orange, then only twenty-six years old and six years his junior, Philip had truly recognised his worst foe, his most dangerous opponent, and the soul of the coming struggle against the royal authority. The king’s secret correspondence is there to confirm this view. Born on 16th April 1533, William belonged to an ancient family ruling a small principality in the south of France (see ORANGE), but his ancestors, originally vassals of the pope, had settled in the Netherlands, where they occupied high functions under the princes of the House of Burgundy. William hall been a favourite with Charles, whom he accompanied everywhere. It was thus that William had been able to acquire that profound knowledge of the military art, and to grasp the intricacies of the prevalent oceult diplomacy in which he afterwards proved himself such a consummate master. It was while he was hunting with the king of France in the Forest of Vincennes that Henry II. communi- cated to William of Orange the fiendish plot France and Spain had concocted to massacre all the Pro- testants in both countries. Henry II. did not know then the man to whom he had been so com- municative : he had spoken to William the Silent. The prince never betrayed the least emotion. He buried in his bosom the project of a crime which, although a devout Catholic himself (though a Protestant afterwards), he had resolved to prevent at all hazards. He saw the storm coming. He determined to face it, to devote his fortune, his best powers, and his life to the cause of the weak against the strong, of the free against crushing despotism, fighting Philip with his own weapons, and having but one noble, self-sacrificing ambition—the wélfare and the liberty of the people. There is no doubt that Philip was betrayed by those in whom he had most implicit confidence, and that William of Orange knew of all the king’s intentions and movements. Thus he was aware that Alva had collected an army in Italy by the orders of Philip in order to extirpate an abominable rebellion of heretics by sword, and re-establish the po ron The prince warned his friends Egmont and Hoorn in good time against the imminent danger ; but they heeded not what he said, and paid for their folly on the scaffold of Brussels as soon as Alva had arrived there with 10,000 picked troops and had established his Council of Troubles. This was no better than a council of butchers, and by means of it 20,000 inoffensive burghers were hurried to their doom. William escaped to Germany in order to organise the national defence with his brothers. But his task was well-nigh hopeless. What could he do with a handful of half-paid and under-fed hirelings? In 1572 the position of affairs eould scarce have been more desperate. The Spaniards were absolute masters of the land, and the people, crushed under a reign of bloody rapine, had ceased to hope for deliverance, when the bold capture of Briel, i the Beggars of the Sea, on the Ist of April 1572—a great date in Dutch history, duly honoured in 1872—changed the whole aspect HOLLAND of affairs. They were marauders, those Beggars of the Sea, desperadoes clinging to the broad, hospit- able ocean, after having been driven from the land by the Spaniard ; but they were also patriots who had adopted as a title of honour the opprobrious epithet that Berlaymont had given them when they were petitioning the regent for the maintenance of their rights, and they held Briel for ‘Father William.’ Their daring capture became the sign of a general revolt, and soon William the Silent was again at the head of affairs, ‘in the name of the king,’ still nominally maintained as the ruler of the Tacs. Orange’s projects, which consisted of a junction with the Necriak Huguenots, were indeed direfully frustrated by the butchery of St Bartholomew. The southern portion of the Low Countries could not be delivered from the clutches of the enemy and were for ever lost to the cause of freedom; but the north continued the struggle single-handed, and at last Alva had to depart in disgust without having accomplished his mission. His successors could do nothing to retrieve Philip’s fortunes or damp the inspiriting influence which the heroi¢e defence of towns like Haarlem, Leyden, and Alkmaar had infused into the burghers of the new state. The military chest of the Spanish commanders was always empty, as the Dutch, masters on the sea, eut off all supplies, and revolts were frequent among the Spanish soldiery. Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, who succeeded to the lieutenancy in 1578, saw but one way of settling the question, and that was the forcible removal of William of Orange. Philip, who had held all along the same sinister designs, was only too eager to fall in with this plan. In June 1580 there appeaae that infamous ban, which declared William a traitor, a miscreant, and an outlaw, putting a heavy price upon his head (25,000 gold crowns), and pro-— misiig the king’s pardon and titles of nobility to whosoever might be found bars 2 to rid the land of him. William replied in his famous Apologie ; but he was not able to cope with a royal assassin. Numerous attempts against the prince’s life were made, and although they failed for a time, the bravo’s work was finally accomplished. Balthasar Gerards, the miserable instrument of a royal mur- derer, shot William dead with a pistol, purchased with the very money the prince had given him by way of alms to a ‘ poor Calvinist.’ This took place at Delft on 12th July 1584, near the top of a stair- case which has been preserved in the same state ever since. Gerards was arrested, tortured, and finally put to death in an atrocious manner; but no expiation, however awful, could .bring to life again the noble patriot. The blow was crushing and irreparable, yet William might have fallen at a moment even more critical to Holland than July 1584. He did not leave his country in a state of paralysed chaos. The Union of Utrecht, accomplished in January 1579, had cemented the alliance of the northern rovinces banded together against the king of ain ; and the solemn declaration of July 1581, by which the free Netherlands for ever renounced their allegiance to Philip II., had virtually completed William’s task of deliverer. His manifesto of renunciation and denunciation would alone have sufficed to stamp him as a man of genius in the eyes of posterity. It is a remarkably clear, bold, and spirited defence of a people’s rights against the claimed rights of the anointed king at a time when the former had been forgotten. doom, far from undoing his work, as Philip and Parma hoped, only tadadk to make it more dur- able. The bloody deed seemed to spur the whole nation to a revolt fiercer than ever. Maurice of Nassau followed in his father’s footsteps, and the successes of the Dutch, especially at sea, a ne | Yet William’s became more numerous. Parma, indeed, took Antwerp after a long siege, but failed to effect a junction with the Armada in 1588, as the Hol- landers prevented his fleet from leaving the Scheldt ; and when the great general died in 1592, six years before his master, he had not accomplished is mission. Philip I1l was not more fortunate, and could do nothing better than sign in 1609 the twelve years’ armistice with the ‘ rebels,’ who were already masters of the sea, had laid the foundations of their great Indian empire by the establishment of the East India Company in 1602, and practically had made their own conditions, Maurice had been against the armistice, but he was overruled by the States, who wanted peace for trading. Unfortu- nately, the breathing time to 1621 was in a baage measure filled up with religious and political dis- sensions between the adherents of marus, the orthodox Lutherans, and the Arminians, the milder- mannered followers of Arminius, to whom Hugo Grotius and other celebrated men of the time belonged, These disputes culminated in the perse- ention of the Arminians, who were forced to flee, like Grotius, or were put on their trial for high- treason, like Olden Barneveldt, the Grand-pension- ary of Holland, and one of her most distinguished sons, who was beheaded in 1618 with the approval of Maurice. But these internal troubles did not check the p of the new republic. Maurice died in 1625, and his brother Frederick Henry finally freed his country from the Spaniards, who in 1648 were compelled to recognise the ‘rebels’ as an independent nation by the treaty of Munster. In this epoch lies, perhaps, the period of Hol- land’s greatest material and intellectual develop- ment. Her ships could be seen everywhere, and the Dutch had become the general carriers of the world’s trade. Amsterdam, grown powerful and rich, was the Venice of the north, where, besides commerce proper, both banking and stockbroking reached a flourishing stage at an early period. From this emporium started the fleets of the great trading companies, and the vessels of intrepid explorers like Hudson, Heemskerck, Houtman, Lemaire, Tasman, and many others. Dutch agriculture and floriculture, gaining new experi- ence and teaching fresh methods, grew famous, and so did many branches of science and_ in- dustry. The first optical instruments came from Holland, and Huygens gave us the pendulum-clock. Arts and letters flourished, and the names of Erasmus, Grotius, Vossius, Burman, Gronovius, Boerhaave, Spinoza, Huygens, Rembrandt, Cuyp, Van der Helst, Hobbema, Potter, and many more became known and illustrious far beyond the national frontiers. The art of printing, perhaps not a glory of Holland in its inception (see PRINT- ING), .at anyrate attained a high degree of perfection there in the 17th century, as the names of Plantin and Elzevir testify. The liberty of the press, secured at an early date, led to the establish- ment of numerous newspapers, Dutch and foreign. The foreign news-sheets of Holland, mostly pub- lished in French, were sent all over the ally as they contained the latest intelligence and things that were not allowed to appear in print elsewhere. The Gazette de Leyde was among the oldest and most powerful of these early journals (1680-1814). The rising power of Holland had the natural result of creating envy and cupidity in her nearest neighbours. The first serious an nism came from a where trade and navigation were also rapidly coming to the front. Both countries were then § ge commonwealths—Cromwell ruling in England, and the Grand-pensionary John de Witt having virtually the destinies of the United Provinces in his hands since the death of Frederick Henry's son, the last stadtholder before William HOLLAND -neglected army. 743 III. Cromwell's Act of Navigation, which aimed at the destruction of Holland's monopoly in the carrying trade, led to the great naval war of 1652-54, during which twelve important battles, more or less decisive, were fought, and both nations distinguished themselves by the intrepid daring of their commanders and seamanship. Yet other- wise the result was barren, though the names of De Ruyter, Tromp, Evertsen, and Van Galen shone forth ever afterwards. These hostilities between Holland and England were renewed when Charles II. had been restored by General Monk ; but the war of 1664-67 remained as undecisive as its predecessor, despite De Ruyter’s daring feat of sailing up the Medway, which caused for a while wild panic in the British capital. An ensuing war with France, now allied with England against the United Provinces, was much more serious, as De Witt had done his best to strengthen the navy, but at the cost of a totally The hosts of Louis XIV., under captains so famous as Condé and Turenne, made short work of all resistance that Holland could offer on land, although De Ruyter’s fleet kept the allied squadrons at bay, and had probably, saved his country from political annihilation. At the most critical juncture a violent popular reaction set in against De Witt and his brother Cornelis, and in favour of the young Prince of Orange, who had been held back by their party. John de Witt, one of the most clear-headed and bold statesmen of his day, was murdered as a traitor by an infuriated mob at The Hague, and the stadtholdership re- established in the person of a prince then (1672) only twenty-two years of age. But the people’s instinct had been right after all, for William III.’s accession proved the salvation of Holland, as it also accomplished, later on, the political regenera- tion of England. The fortunes of the war changed immediately with William at the head of affairs. He showed himself an able tactician and a still more skilful diplomatist. By dexterously manwuv- ring between Holland's enemies he managed to ain time and isolate France. At last, in 1678, ouis XIV. was compelled to sign the treaty of peace of Nimeguen, as William had become, for the time being, the ally of the king of England, by his marriage with Mary, daughter of the Duke of York. William was not satisfied with what the peace of Nimeguen gave to Holland; and the following years were passed in preparing for the great events which he no doubt saw rapidly ap- proaching. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes flooded Holland once more with political refugees, who here found a new fatherland, and who subse- quently helped to fight the battles of Europe against their common tyrant. In the English Revolution of 1688 by William III, many of these Huguenots played an active and prominent part. To Holland the inauguration of the new era in Eng- land did not mean peace, but it meant an honour- able alliance and security from further encroach- ments of the French king. The Dutch troops fought bravely in the battles of England, even after William’s death in 1702; and Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, which saw Louis's greatest humiliation, were as much Dutch vic- tories as La Hogue was an English victory. The peace of Utrecht, in 1713, marks the close of Holland’s activity as a great ponet in Euro For her the 18th century was the century of de moralisation and decay. After William’s death she became a republic once more ; the stadtholder- ship was re-established in 1747, but it made no difference in the downward course. The National Convention of France having declared war against Great Britain and the stadtholder of Holland in 1793, French armies overran Belgium (1794); they 744 HOLLAND were welcomed by the so-called patriots of the United Provinces, and William V. and his family (January 1795) were obliged to escape from Sche- veningen to England in a fishing-smack, and the French rule began. The United Provinces now be- eame the Batavian Republic, paying eight and a half millions sterling for a French army of 25,000 men, besides giving up important parts of the country along the Belgian frontier. After several changes Louis Bonaparte, 5th June 1806, was appointed king of Holland, but, four years later, was obliged to resign because he refused to be a mere tool in the hands of the French emperor. Holland was then added to the empire, and formed into seven departments. The fall of Napoleon I. and the dismemberment of the French empire led to the recall of the Orange family and the forma- tion of the southern and northern provinces into the ill-managed kingdom of the Netherlands, which in 1830 was broken up by the secession of Belgium (q.v.). In 1839 peace was finally concluded with Belgium; but almost immediately after national discontent with the government showed itself, and William I. in 1840 abdicated in favour of his son. Holland being moved by the revolu- tionary fever of 1848, King William II. granted a new constitution, according to which new chambers were chosen, but they had scarcely met when he died, March 1849, and William TL (born 1817) ascended the throne. The bill for the emancipation of the slaves in the Dutch West Indian possessions, passed in 1862, decreed a compensation for each slave, and came into force in 1863. The expenses of this emancipa- tion came to £1,065,366, and the number of slaves set free was about 42,000, of whom 35,000 were in Dutch Guiana. In 1863 the naval powers bought up the right of the king of Holland to levy toll on vessels navigating the river Scheldt (q.v.), the king of Belgium binding himself also to reduce the ‘line bour, pilot, and other charges on shipping within that kingdom. In 1868 the Luxemburg (q.v.) Nia was settled in a manner satisfactory to olland. Next year capital punishment was abolished. In 1872 a new treaty with England, defining and limiting the sphere of influence and action of Britain and Holland in the Indian Archipelago, and removing the restrictions of, the treaty of 1824 as to Sumatra, was followed by a war with Atcheen, until then an independent Malay state in North Sumatra (see ATCHEEN), a war that severely taxed the military and financial resources of the Dutch-Indian government, and is still carried on, in a modified form, the so-called conquest of 1873-75 notwithstanding. William III. having no living male issue, the succession to the crown was vested in the Princess of Orange, Wil- helmina, the only child of the king’s second mar- riage, born in 1880. For many years the great question of internal politics was the new consti- tution, which, promulgated November 30, 1887, increased the electorate of Holland by no less than 200,000 voters. A revision of the school-laws in a sectarian sense was carried in 1889. In 1888 the queen, Emma of Waldeck, had been appointed regent in the event of the king’s demise; and on the death of the king (23d November 1890), when Luxemburg ceased to be connected with the crown of Holland, the Princess Wilhelmina became queen. Language and Literature.—-Dutch is an essential link in the chain of Teutonic languages, a wonder- ful storehouse of old and expressive Germanic words and phrases. It has been said that Old English is Dutch, and to no other nation is the study of the Netherlandish more interesting than to the Eng- lish. Without a knowledge oF Dutch it is almost impossible to properly understand the historical development of English. It is a common mistake to suppose that Dutch is merely a German dialect. As a language it has existed as long as German, and passed through the same series of evolutions. It possesses many affinities with German, because, like Frisian, Danish, &c., it sprang from the common Teutonic stock (see DuTCH; and for the relation of Dutch and Low German to High German, see GERMANY, Vol. V. p. 186); but between modern High German and modern Dutch there is less simi- larity in vocabulary than between modern English and modern Netherlandish, although the pronuncia- tion differs much more in the latter case. Three great periods of development must be distin- caithod in the Netherlandish language, as in the German ; the first was the period of inception, or of Old Netherlandish, when doubtless various — Teutonic dialects existed among the tribes and pone that had penetrated westward from the Ibe and the Oder. the maximum. It is important, however, that the shoes be firmly held on by as few nails as possible. In a saddle-horse with sound feet three on the outside and two on the inside should suffice to hold a well-fitted shoe. Horses for heavy draught A sound Fore-foot prepared for the Shoe : A, A, the heels of the crust; B, the toe cut out to receive the clip; C, C, the quarters of the crust; D, D, the bars as they should be left, with the full frog between them; E, HE, the ey between the heels and bars, where corns appear; F, F, the concave surface of the toe; G, G, the bulbous heels; H, the cleft. are generally shod in Scotland with tips and heels, which afford increased firmness of tread and greater power, especially when dragging heavy loads. To ‘Lapsed the foot in a sound state the shoes should removed every month. When the shoe is care- fully taken off, the wall-surface on which it has rested should be rasped, to remove any ragged edges and any portions of adhering nails. Havin for a month been protected from the wear to whic the exposed portions of the foot are subjected, it will probably have grown considerably, and in a stout hoof will require to be cut down with the drawing-knife, especially towards the toe. Except in very strong feet and in farm-horses working on soft land, the surface of the sole uncovered by the shoe seldom requires to be cut. It is the natural protection of the internal delicate parts, and must be preferable to the leather and pads often artificially substituted for it. The bars must likewise remain untouched, for they are of great service in supporting weight; whilst the tough, elastic frog must be scrupulously preserved from the destructive attacks of the knife, and allowed uninjured to fulfil its functions as an insensible ad, obviating concussion, and supporting weight. hen the shoe is put on and the nails well driven home, they should be broken off about an eighth or even a sixteenth of an inch from the crust, and OO a Ee eee eg a) HORSETAILS - HORVATH 801 hammered well down into it. This obviously gives the shoe a much firmer hold than the usual practice of twisting off the projecting nail close to the crust, and afterwards rasping down any asperities that still remain. When the shoe is firmly clinched rasp may be very lightly ran round the lower margin of the crust just where it meets the shoe, to smooth down any irregularities ; but all further use of the rasp must be interdicted. The clinched nails if touched will only have their firm hold weakened ; nor must the upper portions of the crust, which blacksmiths are so fond of turning out ras and whitened, be thus _ senselessly deprived of those external unctuous secretions which render the unrasped foot so tough and sound and so free from sandecracks. The hoof cannot be too dry and tough. From time to time various attempts have been made to fix shoes to horses’ feet without nails; and a shoe has been invented, which is said to have answered the pur- ; but in the opinion of many the system is still immature, and requires to be more extensively tested. An interesting exhibition of horseshoes, ancient and modern, was held in London in March 1890. Horsetails (Zquisetum), a genus of herba- ceous plants which in itself constitutes the singular natural order Equisetacee. The family is dis- tinguished from all others by the leafless, artic- ulated, and whorled stems and branches, which in structure and character closely resemble some of the larger fossil plants now extinct. They are separated from all other plants also by their fructi- fication, which is an ovoid or oblong terminal cone-like spike, consisting of several whorls of peltate, bes pas oat short-stalked brown or black seales, under each of which are six or seven cap- sules filled with minute spores, and opening on the inner side. Under the microscope there will be seen attached to the base of each spore four thread- like filaments, somewhat club-shaped at the apex, rolled spirally round the spore wher® moist, but un- coiling elastically when dry. The species of horsetail are few in, number, although widely diffused in the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere, becom- ing rare in the tropics. Nine species occur in Britain, usually in moist or marshy places, but they adapt themselves easily to a t variety of stations, and are almost ineradicable where they obtain a footing in either field or garden. Diuretic and other medicinal properties have been ascribed to them, but apparently on slight grounds. They all contain a large quantity of silica in the cuticle of their stems, which has rendered them useful in ee metals, marbles, ivory, cabinet-work, &c. . hyemale is the most favoured species for these purposes, and it is imported in considerable quan- tity from Holland under the name Dutch R , Horsham, a market-town of Sussex, near the source of the Arun, 26 miles NNW. of Brighton and 35 SSW. of London. The noble parish church, Early English in style, was restored in 1865; other buildings are the corn exchange (1766), grammar- school (1540; rebuilt 1840-57), &e. Brewing, tan- ning, iron-founding, and coach-building are carried on. Horsham returned two members of parliament from the 14th century till 1832, and one down till 1885, East of the town is St Leonard’s Forest, and 2 miles NW. Field Place, Shelley’s birthplace. Pop. (1871) 6874; (1891) 8637. See Histories of Horsham by Howard Dudley (1836) and an anony- mous writer (1868). 259 Horsley, SAMUEL, an English prelate, was the son of a clergyman, and was born at London in 1733. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity Hall, Cambridge; and in 1759 sue- ceeded his father as rector of Newington, in Surrey —a living which he held for thirty-four years, though he also enjoyed in the interval many other preferments, including the arechdeaconry of St Albans (1781). In 1767 Horsley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ; in 1774 he published his Remarks on the Observations made in the late Voyage towards the North Pole, for determining the Aaelaration of the Pendulum ; and two years afterwards he issued proposals for a complete edition of the works of Sir Isaac Newton, which, however, did not make its appearance till 1785. But the grand event in his eareer was the contro- versy with Priestley, in which he displayed remark- able learning and acuteness, aa ba marred by intolerance and contemptuous bitterness. The work that excited the controversy was Dr Priest- ley’s History of the Corruptions of Christianity, among which corruptions was included the ortho- dox doctrine of Christ’s uncreated divinity. Horsley reviewed the work with great severity in his: eharge delivered to the clergy of his arch- deaconry, May 22, 1783. Priestley replied the same year; and in 1784 Horsley retorted in seven- teen Letters. These were, in return, met by a new series from Priestley. After a silence of eighteen months Horsley again replied, and in 1789 collected and published the whole that he had written on the subject. His services were rewarded with the bishopric of St Davids in 1788, with that of Rochester in 1793, and with that of St Asaph in 1802. He died at Brighton, October 4, 1806. Other works besides sermons, were on Hosea, the Psalms, biblical criticism, and classical subjects. Horsley, Vicror ALEXANDER HADEN, F.R.S., born at Kensington, 14th April 1857, is a son of John Calleott Horsley, R.A. (born 1817), and as a physiologist is distinguished for his work in the localisation of brain functions and in the treat- ment of Myxedema. He studied at University College, London, has contributed largely to medical journals, was Croonian lecturer to the Royal Buaseky, and Fullerian professor (1890-93) at the Royal Institution, and is professor of Pathology in University College. He is a member of many societies at home and abroad, and was secretary to the Royal Commission on Hydrophobia. He is a strenuous defender of necessary experiments on living animals. Hort, FENTON JoHN ANTHONY, D.D. (1828-92), born in Dublin, graduated at Cambridge as third classic, and was a fellow of Trinity (1852-57), and from 1878 Hulsean professor of Divinity. With Bishop Westcott he constructed a revised Greek text of the New Testament. See his Life and Letters (2 vols. 1896). Hortense. See Bonaparte, Vol. IT. p. 288. Hortensias, Quintus (114-50 B.c.), Roman orator, largely devoted himself to the defence of aristocratic offenders, such as Verres. His count- less speeches are known to us only by the merest fragments. ~Morticulture. See GARDENING. _ Hortus Siccus, See HERBARIUM. — Horus. See Ecypt, Vol. IV. p. 234. Horvath, MicHart (1809-78), Hungarian historian, was professor of Hungarian in Vienna, Bishop of Csanad, and, in the revolutionary war, minister of public instruction. He returned from exile in 1867, and is remembered for his History of Hungary to 1823 (1842-46), and its continua- tions, Z'wenty-five Years of Hungarian History, 802 HOSANNA HOSIERY 1823-48 (2 vols. 1863), and History of the War of Independence in Hungary (3 vols. 1865). Hosanna, used as an expression of praise, is really a prayer—‘Save, we pray’ (through Gr. hosanna, from Heb. héshidhnnd). Hosea (Heb. Héshé‘a ; LXX. Osée ; Vulg. Osee), the first in order of the twelve minor prophets, is nowhere mentioned in the Old Testament except in the book which bears his name. From this source we learn that he was a citizen of the kingdom of Israel (see i. 2, where ‘the land’ is plainly the northern kingdom, and vii. 5, where ‘our king’ is the king of Samaria), that his father’s name was Beéri, and that he prophesied during, and apparently also after, the reign of Jeroboam II.—i.e. from about the middle of the 8th century B.c. The fourteen chapters which preserve to us all that we know of what must have been a long period of prophetic activity may pay be believed to have been edited by himself and given to the world in writing towards the close of his life. The first three derive a special interest from their autobiographical element. The remaining eleven consist of a series of prophecies, mostly of a threatening character, relating to the king- dom of Israel. The details of these present many exegetical difficulties, and it is impossible to de- termine with any certainty what may have been the precise circumstances under which each oracle was originally delivered. Some relate to the still outwardly prosperous times of Jeroboam II., and others, most likely, to the troubled years that im- mediately followed. They point generally to an exceedingly dissolute internal condition of society, which ultimately drove the prophet to the verge of despair, and out of which he saw no escape save in the destruction of the kingdom, to be followed by a final restoration brought about in some unex- plained way through the sovereign love and mercy of Jehovah. The basen of greatest interest to interpreters of the Book of Hosea is that connected with the narrative of the first three chapters, in which the prophet relates how the experiences of his iran life furnished him with his prophetic message. In the opening words we read of his marriage to Gomer bath-Diblaim, by whom he had three children to whom he gave the significant names, Jezreel (‘ Jehovah shall sow’), Lo Ruhamah (‘not pitied’), and Lo Ammi (‘not my pocnie Her profligate conduct after marriage led to a separation, but, in obedience to a divine call, he took her back; and in the ultimate victory of marital love over a wife’s infidelity he saw the token and the promise of the final triumph of Jehovah’s grace over Israel’s sin. According to the modern view, first suggested by Ewald, further elaborated by Wellhausen (in 4th ed. of Bleek’s Einleitung) and Robertson Smith, and now adopted by most scholars, Hosea, i. 2, is to be interpreted in the light of such a passage as Jer, xxxii. 8, where we have a clear instance of recognition of a divine command only after the deed has been accomplished, and there is therefore no necessity for supposing that Hosea was aware of the profligate character of Gomer bath-Diblaim when aig married her, or indeed that her profligacy had declared itself at that time. Earlier interpreters either took the passage literally and argued that a marriage which otherwise would have been contrary to all .sound |* moral feeling was justified by a divine command, and that the repulsive elements in it magnified the obedience of the prophet; or they treated it as an allegory, without much attempt to explain how a proceeding which would be objectionable in fact ceases to be so in the realms of fiction. For a full discussion of Hosea and his prophecies, see W. BR. Smith, Prophets of Israel (1882). There are special commentaries on the book by Simson ( Hamburg and Gotha, 1851), Wiinsche (Leip. 1868), Nowack (Berlin, 1880), and Cheyne (new ed. Cambridge, 1889). See also the commentaries on the minor prophets generally—Ewald (Propheten, vol. i.; Eng. trans. 1876), Hitzig, Keil (Eng. trans. 1868), Reuss (Bible, 1876), Pusey (1860); and, for homiletical purposes, Schmoller in Lange’s Bibelwerk (Eng. trans. 1874). Hoshangabad, chief town of Hoshangabad district (area, 4437 sq. m.; pop. in 1891, 529,945), in the Central Provinces of India, stands on the Nerbudda River, 40 miles SSE. from Bhopal. It does a lively business in English piece-goods, cotton, grain, &c. It has been in British seer since 1817, and is a military station. Pop. 16,500. Hoshiarpur, capital of a district in Punjab, near the foot of the Siwalik Hills, 90 miles E. from Lahore. Itis the seat of an American Presbyterian Mission. Pop. 21,552. Hosiery, in its most limited sense, refers to the manufacture of stockings (hose); but in its. more general application it comprises all knitted oods, whether made by hand or by pepe | The use of hose or stockings originated in the eold eourtries of the north, aie probably the first were: made of skins, and subsequently of cloth. Ilu- minations in ancient MSS. show that these nether arments were worn by the Anglo-Saxons and the ormans. The art of knitting was invented (it is. supposed in Scotland) in the 15th century, Certain it is that knitted stockings found their way to- France from Scotland, and led to the establish- ment of a guild of stocking-knitters, who chose for their patron saint St Fiacre of Scotland (really an Irish monk of the 6th century, the atron of gardeners). In 1589 William Lee, of Woodberongh, Nottinghamshire, entirely altered the hosiery trade by inventing the knitting-frame, or stocking-frame ; and, although he did not live to. enjoy much benefit himself from it, it soon became a very important feeder to the commerée of Great. Britain. The first improvement of marked importance om Lee’s machine was the ribbing apparatus invented by Jedediah Strutt in 1758. This consisted in add- ing a second series of needles, with an arrangement. for working tem, to Lee’s machine, which could only make a plain, not a ribbed, web. Sir Mare I. Brunel invented, in 1816, a circular knitting-frame, to which he gave the name of tricoteur. This. produced a tubular web, and was a meritorious machine, but it did not come much into use till it was improved, about 1844, by Claussen of Brussels. His further modification of it in 1847 caused it to be widely adopted, and it has received various improvements since. Several important: improvements in hosiery machines are due to Townsend, chief among them being a tumbler or latch needle, patented by him in 1858, which is now largely employed in certain kinds of knitting- machines, wage! those for fancy hosiery and for domestic use. Fig. 1 shows two views of this. WY FEF[FF.P Fig. 1. needle. A represents it with the hinged latch or tongue folded back on the stalk so that the hook may catch the thread. B shows the latch closed on the point of the hook so that it may freely pass: a new loop of thread through the last-formed loop. The latch is moved by the loops of thread or yarn during the action of the machine. The modern. HOSIERY 803 form of Lee’s needle is shown in the other figures. The most prominent name among the improvers of aeery machines in comparatively recent times is that of William Cotton of Loughborough. Between 1851 and 1869 he devised arrangements both for narrowing and widening the fabric, and in con- junction with Attenborough made a number of alterations for the better on the general arrange- ments of the “ribs of the knitting-frame. Some of the best hosiery machines driven by steam-power now in use are on Cotton's system. The names of two Americans appear in the list of those who have contributed to the advancement of knitting machinery. In 1858 an English patent was taken out by W. C. Gist for a cireular machine, which, by using several feeders instead of one, enabled striped work with as many as sixteen colours to be made at once. Another English patent was taken out in 1877 by Almet Reid for a circular knitting-frame for making automatically articles of many different shapes, in which the loops or stitches are so locked together as not to unravel when cut or torn. A knitted fabric of one colour consists of one continuous thread instead of a warp and a weft thread as in weaving, and the knitting done by a machine is exactly of the same nature as that done by hand. With the aid 5f the accompanying illus- trations a brief description will suffice to explain the principle on which a knitting-machine or stocking-frame works. A perspective sketch of a “ oth a8 feel ake — S = Fig. 2. a of a division of the machine is given in fig. 2. he hooked needles (Lee’s) are shown at A, B, C, D, E. The ‘sinkers,’ J, K, L, M, N, are thin plates of steel, which have a backward and forward motion, each sinker passing between two needles. When the sinkers are moved to the left of their position in the figure as oceurs between them and the needles, along which the thread or yarn is laid. As the thread proceeds along the fate of the needles the sinkers one by one advance and thrust the thread between them, thus forming a row of pe after which the sinkers retire. ll the needles act simultaneously and in the same way ; but to make the action of the machine more easily understood, figs. 3, 4, and 5 show the movements of a single needle. Fig. 3 represents, in side elevation, the position of a sinker, a comb, and a needle, at the moment when the needle has sunk between the sinkers, till the newly-formed loop of thread, O, enters the hooked portion or open eye. The needle, continuing its descent, is roc forward till, as shown in fig. 4, the ‘beard’ of the hook comes against the ‘presser bar’ P, which presses for a moment the point of the beard into a groove on the stem, and so forms a closed eye round the loop O. The needle, in further descend- ing, pulls this loop through the last-formed loop Fig. 3. Fig. 4. of the knitted fabric. It is in this closing of the hook to enable the one loop to be drawn through the other that the great ingenuity of Lee’s inven- tion lies, Fig. 5 shows the new loop just pulled through, and then the needle, rocking forward in the direc- tion of the arrow, ascends, while the loop slips down its ( stem. The next loop is pulled through in the same way. The explanation just given of the motion of one needle ap- plies to all the needles, as they are fixed in line on a rigid bar. Fig. 6 shows an enlarged plan of five rows of loops, in which the triangular dots, Nos. Fig. 5. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, in | the last-formed row are the needles with the thread-carrier, T, in the ition where it com- mences to lay the thread in front of them. The knitted fabric is wound upon a roller as fast as it is formed. It would take up too much space to describe the arrange- ment for narrowing or widening the fabric, to bring it to the shape of a stocking for example. This is called ‘fashioning.’ The web, however, is often not shaped in the process of knitting, but cut, when finished, into any form required, as is done with ordinary cloth. Some of the most improved modern knitting-frames work at a great speed. One with six divisions of 480 needles each (a usual size) has in all 2880 needles. Each of these forms loops at the rate of 90 in a minute, so that the whole machine forms 259,200 loops in a minute. An expert hand-knitter, working with wires, can hardly do more than 100 loops in a minute. Numerous hosiery or knitting machines, varying much in their details, are now made both for factory work and for domestic use. In the volumes for 1886 and 1889 of the Textile Manufacturer, published at Manchester, several of the best of these are illustrated and described. To the pages of that journal we are indebted for the di given in this article. For the history of the knit- ting-frame, see Felkin’s Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace (1867). Nottingham and Leicester, especially the former, are the chief centres of the hosiery manufacture in the United Kingdom, but it extends into the adjoining counties. It is also extensively carried on in France, Germany, and other continental countries. In the United States hosiery factories are in active operation in New York, and in five or six neighbouring states, The materials used for hosiery are cotton, wool, and silk; and the number of different kinds of articles made, includ- ing stockings, gloves, shawls, hats, bonnets, and pixeo come Fig. 6. 804 HOSPICE HOSPITALLERS all kinds of underclothing, amounts to thousands. The result of recent improvements in the machinery for the manufacture of hosiery is shown by the fact that in 1854 it cost fully six shillings to knit a dozen pairs of stockings by the hand knitting-frame then in use; whereas the cost at the present time by power knitting-machines does not exceed one shilling and tenpence per dozen pairs. Hospice, the name given to the pious estab- lishments for sheltering travellers, maintained by monastic persons, usually in connection with mon- asteries. One of the best known in inhospitable regions is that on the Alpine pass of Great St Bernard (see ST BERNARD), of which mention is made as early as 1125. Travellers are lodged and hoarded gratuitously, but those who can, deposit a suitable present in the alms-box. Similar estab- lishments are found on the Simplon, the Little St Bernard, and the Bernina. Hospitallers, in the Roman Catholic Church, are charitable brotherhoods, founded for the care of the poor and of the sick in hospitals. They follow for the most part the rule of St Augustine, and add to the ordinary vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, that of self-dedication to the particular work of their order. The Knights of St John of Jerusalem (see below) and the Teutonic Knights (q.v.) were both originally hospitallers. The Knights Hospitallers of the Holy Spirit were founded at Montpellier in 1198 by Guy of Mont- pellier, and the hospitallers of Our Lady of Christian Charity at Paris in the end of the 13th century by Guy de Joinville. And numerous similar orders have been established since then. THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, otherwise called the Knights of Rhodes, and afterwards of Malta, a celebrated mili- tary and religious order of the middle ages, origin- ated about 1048 in a hospital, dedicated to St John the Baptist, which some merchants of Amalfi built at Jerusalem for the care and cure of pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre. After the conquest of Jeru- salem by the crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099, the hospital servants were joined by many from the Christian army, who resolved to devote themselves to the service of the poor and sick ilgrims. Gerard, the first rector of the hospital, ormed them into a regularly-constituted religious body, bound by the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and subject to the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Tecnsdlern. Pope Pascal II. gave his sanction to their institution as an order in 1113. Raymond du Puy, the successor of Gerard, extended the activity of the order by pledging its members to eee pilgrims on the roads from the sea to the Holy City. Soon afterwards the order became ‘predominantly military: the Hospitallers were sworn to defend the Holy Sepulchre to the last drop of their blood, and to make war upon the infidels wherever they should meet them. Having become military as well as religious, the order was recruited by persons of high rank and influence, and wealth flowed in from all quarters. Various hospices, called commanderies, were established in the maritime towns of Europe as _ resting- places for pilgrims, who were there provided with the means of setting out for Palestine. These branch establishments also collected the revenues of the order, and received candidates for admission to its ranks, After the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin the Hospitallers established themselves at Acre in 1191. Soon afterwards a bitter rivalry sprang up between them and the Knights Tem- plars, which finally set them in battle array one against the other in 1259, when victory inclined to the former. The Hospitallers clung with des- peration to Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine; but after a terrible siege by the ruler of Egypt, they were compelled to sail away to bie (1291), where the king of the island gave them an asylum for some years. In 1185 Frederick Barbarossa took the order under the protection of the empire. In the following cen- tury the title of ‘master’ was changed by Pope Clement. [V. into ‘grand-master.’ The brethren consisted of three classes, knights, chaplains, and serving brothers, these last being fighting squires, who followed the knights in their expeditions. The order was in the 12th century divided into eight ‘languages ’"—Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and Castile. Each ‘language’ embraced several grand-priories, and under these again were a number of commanderies. — In 1310 the knights, under the grand-master Fulk de Villaret, in conjunction with a party of crusaders from Italy, captured Rhodes and seven adjacent islands from the Greek and Moslem pirates, and carried on from thence for more than two hun- dred years a successful war against the Turks. During this period the Hospitallers were the owners of nearly 19,000 manors in Europe, and to these 9000 more were added on the suppression of the Knights Templars in 1312. In 1523 they were com- pelled to surrender Rhodes to Sultan Solyman, and retired to Candia (Creté). In 1530 Charles V. assigned them the island of Malta, with Tripoli and Gozo. Tripoli was surrendered in 1551 to the corsair Dragut, who in 1565 laid siege to Malta, which “the Hospitallers had strongly fortified. Dragut was beaten off at the end of four months with the loss of 25,000 men. The knights con- tinued for some time to be a powerful bulwark against the Turks; but after the Reformation a moral degeneracy overspread the order, and it rapidly declined in political importance. In 1798, through the treachery of some French knights and the weakness of the last grand-master, Hompesch, Malta was surrended to the French. The lands still remaining to the order were about this time confiscated in almost all, the European states ; but, though extinct as a sovereign body, certain branches of the order, with more or Tock just claims to legiti- mate succession, have continued during the 19th century to drag on a lingering existence in Italy, France, Spain, England, and Germany. After 1801 the oftice of grand-master was not filled up, till in 1879 the pope appointed a grand-master for the Italian and Bohemian ‘languages.’ In their military capacity the Hospitallers wore red surcoats over their armour. The badge worn by all the knights was a Maltese cross, enamelled white and edged with gold. The motto of the order was ‘Pro fide,’ with the later addition of ‘Pro utilitate hominum.’ There are two modern associations which ascribe their origin to the original order—the Brandenburg ‘Johanniterorden’ and the English order of the Knights of St John. The former, a direct descend- ant of the German ‘language’ of the old legitimate order, was reorganised in 1853, and did good service in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870. In England the property of the old order was confiscated in the first year of Elizabeth’s reign, and the order. itself was dissolved and declared to be illegal by Henry VIII. in 1541. Nevertheless the ‘language’ of England was resuscitated in 1827; the revived society has its headquarters at St John’s Gate, Clerkenwell, London. Its efforts are purely philan- thropic : it distributes charity to convalescents who have just left hospital, maintains cottage hospitals and convalescent homes in the country, and an ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. It has founded the street ambulance system, and was chiefly con- cerned in the origination of the Red Cross Society. See Histories of the order by Bosio, Del Pozzo, Vertot HOSPITALS 805 ing. 1728), Taaffe (1852), Porter (1883), De Salles ); and Delaville de Roux’s Les Archives, la ( . et la Trésor de l' Ordre de St-Jean & Malte Hospitals are so called from the medieval itia, or more properly the class of hospitals established very generally for the reception and relief of lepers, whose malady was one of the seourges of Europe. These leper hospitals were very commonly in England and in Scotland called *Spitals;’ hence the frequency of such names of places as Spital, Spitalfields, &c. The leper hos- pitals and other kinds of the old hospitia dis- oe with the improvement of society, and substitutes for them on a broader scale began to be established in the modern form of hospitals. Of gg’ establishments under this general designa- on there are now, as is commonly known, three distinct classes—hospitals for the reception and treatment of the sick and hurt, hospitals for the and education of children, and hospitals for the reception and permanent board of poor old persons of both sexes. As in the present work the more remarkable hospitals receive some notice under their respective heads, we need here only offer a few general observations. Hospitals for the sick and hurt are in some ey of England and Scotland termed Infirmaries. nder whatever designation, institutions of this kind are now established in all parts of the civilised world, They are supported in most cases on a Sanat As of charity, but in some special instances m the funds of the state or the civic munici- palities. The primary or more important object of all such institutions is to mitigate bodily sutfering, whether that arises from natural or accidental causes, in which respect they are indispensable as a refuge to all who are unable to pay for private medical or surgical aid, or as a convenient means of suecour on emergencies to persons of every rank and degree of opulence. While such is the main object of these benevolent institutions, they are also serviceable as schools for medicine and surgery ; as such, no university, at which these and kindred branches of learning are taught, can be said to be complete without the adjunct of a well-organised hospital, where professors can practically educate their pupils by pointing out varieties of disease and injuries, and exemplifying methods of treatment. Hence the best specimens of hospitals are found in university towns—as in London, Paris, Edinburgh, and some other cities famed as schools of medicine and surgery. The older of the London hospitals are St Thomas’s (1553), St Bartholomew’s (1546), and Bedlam or Bethlehem (1547), to which may be added the Westminster (1719), Guy’s (1725), the Lock (1746), St George’s (1733), the London (1740), the Middlesex (1745), and University College (1833). A considerable accession to the number took place in the reign of George II., when society became alive to the value of such institutions. It was at this period that the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh was established (1730), The antiquity of British hospitals sinks into insignificance in com- parison with that of some institutions of this kind on the Continent. The Hétel Dieu in Paris, which is alleged to be the most ancient hospital in Europe, was founded in the 7th century, and, long known as the Maison Dieu, received the benefactions of suc- cessive sovereigns. In London, Paris, and other large seats of popula- tion, besides the general hospitals, there are now lying-in hospitals, ophthalmic hospitals, consump- tive hospitals, children’s hospitals, &e.—each with its peculiar accommodation and staff of officials. Convalescent Hospitals (q.v.) are a valuable ad- junct to ordinary hospitals for the sick. In- ependently of these there are hospitals for the treatment of mental maladies, of which Bethlehem and St Luke's in London, and the establishments in Paris, known as Hospices, are examples, To this class of institutions belong Lunatic Asylums (q.v.), also asylums for the reception and treat- ment of naturally imbecile children; these last, though in operation for some time in France and Switzerland, being but of recent establishment in Great Britain. To these must be added the isola- tion hospitals for the treatment of smallpox, scarlet-fever, and other forms of infectious diseases, which have been established in recent years b every energetic sanitary authority out of the rates. Besides these institutions under civil ad- ministration are those hospitals which are main- tained by the English, French, and other govern- ments for the military and naval services. In the United States, where every medical college has its own hospital, or the right to teach in the wards of public institutions, there are also many hospitals or asylums for inebriates (see INEBRIATES), for opium-users, and those addicted to the use of other narcotics (see also FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, AMBULANCE). ; Until the middle of the 19th century the organ- isation and management of hospitals and the nursing of the sick in Britain and in most parts of Europe were, except in some few instances, extremely defective. Public opinion was then aroused on the question, and certain principles were laid down on hospital construction and hos- ‘pital nursing which have been recognised and adopted to a greater or less extent since that time. These principles may be briefly summed up as follows under the three heads: (1) Construction, (2) Administration, (3) Nursing. (1) Construction.—The first object is to obtain pure air in and around the building. The purity of air around will depend upon the site. The soil should be clean and dry; the position should admit of free circulation of air untainted by sur- rounding sources of impurity or damp. The num- ber of sick who can be placed on a given site de- pends on the form of the buildings in which they are to be placed. It is now considered that more than 100 patients should never be under the same roof. And less is better. This has led to the pavilion form of building being adopted—blocks connected by corridors. 7'wo floors only of patients’ wards are admissible, but hospitals with only one floor for the ward accommodation are now univer- sally recognised as best. More than three is insani- tary. Hospital buildings consist (a) of the wards for the reception of the sick, and their appurtenances; these necessarily form the basis of the design; subsidiary to these are the operating theatre, Xc.; and where there is a medical school instructional accessories have to be provided. (6) The build- ings for administration—i.e. for lodging the staff, the kitchen, stores, and dispensary, should be always subordinate to the question of the accom- modation for sick. In some hospitals extra out- patients’ departments are provided. These should never be placed under the same roof with the wards for the sick. bate. (a) The first principle of the ward unit is that the ward and ward offices should be self-contained within one door commanded by the head-nurse’s room, so that at any moment she may know where every patient is. The size of the wards has to be somewhat guided by economy of administration, so as to enable the largest number of patients to be nursed by a given number of nurses. The limit of the ward is practically the number who can efficiently nursed under one head-nurse. Each ward may have subsidiary to it one or two small wards for bad cases. j The ward appurtenances consist partly of nursing 806 HOSPITALS accommodation and partly of offices for patients. The nursing accommodation includes a bedroom for the head-nurse ; a serving room in which food can be warmed, drinks and extra diets made, and linen kept and aired, hot water obtained, poultices, &ec. made; also a nurses’ water-closet near. The head-nurse’s room should be so placed as to enable the nurse to exercise constant supervision over the ward and the patients. The offices for patients comprise a lavatory for the patients, a bath-room with a movable bath, which bath-room and lava- tory should be large enough for minor surgical operations, and water-closets in the proportion of about 3 to 10 per cent. of the number of patients —the general hospital for acute cases, mostly in bed, requiring the lesser number—one or more slop sinks, a place for keeping ejecta of patients for medical inspection. These appurtenances should be cut off from the ward by ventilated lobbies, and should be always warmed and ventilated inde- pendently of the ward. The form of the ward should be such as to enable the air to be renewed with the greatest facility. Experience in this climate shows that the win- dows are the best appliance for complete renova- tion of the air. For this purpose they should be on opposite sides of the ward, and the wards should not exceed from 20 to 28 feet in width. There should not be above two rows of beds between the windows. The rectangular form enables these conditions to be best fulfilled in the case of large wards. Where the wards are not intended to con- tain more than from four to eight patients a circular form of ward has been in some cases found unobjectionable ; but as it is a principal object in hospital construction to provide a large wall space in proportion to the floor and cubic space per bed in the wards, and as the rectangular form affords the largest, and the cireular form the smallest wall space in proportion to the area of the ward, it is evident that the rectangular form is that best adé “fe to sanitary requirements. (6) The subsidiary accommodation should be so arranged as not to interfere with the purity of air in or around the wards. The fewer places in and about the ward the better. Not only the best arrangements, but what use will be ap of them, has to be considered. The sleeping accommodation for nurses should be so placed as to ensure purity of air in the dormitories, and complete quiet for the night-nurses to sleep by day. (2) Administration is intended to enforce econ- omy so far as it is consistent with the provision of requirements for the sick. It is usually in the hands of a governing body, which issues all regula- tions after consultation with professional advisers ; it controls the expenditure and raises the funds to support the hospital. The governing body acts through its treasurer, secretary, and steward for the general discipline and control of expendi- ture. The well-being and cure of the patients is directed by the professional staff of medical officers, which consists of visiting physicians and surgeons and of resident medical officers, who control the treatment of the patients under their direction and in the absence of the visiting medical officers. The nursing of the sick is under a trained matron or lady superintendent, who should be the head of all the women employed in the hospital. (3) Nursing the sick and injured is performed usually by women under scientific heads—physicians and surgeons. Nursing is putting us in the best possible conditions for nature to restore or to pre- serve health—to prevent or to cure disease or in- jury. The physician or surgeon prescribes these conditions—the nurse carries them out. Health is not only to be well, but to be able to use well every power we have to use. Sickness or disease is nature’s way of getting rid of the effects of con- ditions which have interfered with health. It is nature’s attempt to cure—we have to help her. Partly, perhaps mainly, upon nursing must depend whether nature succeeds or fails in her attempt to cure by sickness. Nursing is therefore to help the patient to live. Nursing is an art, and an art requiring an organised practical and scientific — training. For nursing is the skilled servant of medicine, surgery, and hygiene. ‘Nursing proper means, besides giving the medi- cines and stimulants prescribed, or applying the surgical dressings and other remedies ordered, (1) the providing and the proper use of fresh air, especially at night—i.e. ventilation—and of warmth or coolness ; (2) the securing the health of the sickroom or ward, which includes light, cleanli- ness of floors and walls, of bed, ding, and utensils ; (3) personal cleanliness of patient and of nurse, quiet, variety, and cheerfulness; (4) the | administering and sometimes preparation of diet ; (5) the application of remedies. See NURSING. Fever Hospitals, distinct from those for the treat- ment of surgical and ordinary medical cases, are essential for securing the isolation of patients in infectious diseases; hospital ships or floating hospitals have been found extremely valuable for securing complete isolation in cases of virulently infective disorders such as Small-pox (q.v.). : Poor-law Infirmaries.—Since 1870 poor-law or parish infirmaries for the sick and infirm, who used to be harboured (not treated) in workhouses and nursed by paupers, have been built, and are served by trained nurses. Some difference exists between the essentials for general hospitals and for poor-law infirmaries—the latter having no medical schools, no visiting or resident medical officers, except the resident medical superintendent and his assistant, no accidents or operations. The large majority of patients in them are chronic, not acute, cases, and ineur- ables. A smaller nursing staff in proportion is needed. Some few of the best and peer: have now training-schools for nurses. Since 1875 Metro- litan Board asylums, supported also by the rates, fave been built near London for fevers, for small- pox, for idiots and imbeciles, &c. Lying-in Hospitals.—The lying-in hospitals re- quire special consideration. The continuous use of wards for this purpose aprens to be very danger- ous to the patients. Indeed this would seem to be the reason why there are fewer casualties from this cause in workhouse infirmaries than in the ordinary lying-in hospital, and why the lying-in at home is safer than either. In Paris, where this subject has been much con- sidered, two forms have been tried with good results. In one each patient has a small ward to herself, with its scullery or service-room attached, opening through a covered porch into an open veranda. After each confinement the ward is cleaned and lime-whited before further occupation. In these wards fatal results have been very rare. Another form is to have a ward which can hold two or more beds, in one of which the patient is brought for the delivery, and after a few hours she is wheeled out in the bed into a large ward where she remains with other patients who have also been delivered. With this plan also, where the delivery ward is cleaned and lime-whited at short intervals, and where two delivery wards are in use alternately, one always standing empty, fatal results have been rare. Instances of both forms of lying-in hospitals are not unknown in the United Kingdom. But it would be well if they were more universal, Children’s Hospitals must be provided with estab- lishments for bathing, playing indoors and out, ee HOSPITALS HOSTILIUS 807 large garden-grounds, gymnastic grounds and halls, in and out of doors ; the gymnastics should be under # professor, and out-patients should be always admitted. A ‘sister’ must superintend each of all these places. Singing in chorus is to be taught. It is a matter of universal hospital experience that intermingling of is essential. If you have a children’s hospital, let the age of admission include fifteen years, especially on the female side. In all hospitals (in a child’s hospital much more than in others) the patient must not stay a cat longer than is absolutely necessary. Every child’s hospital ought to have a convalescent branch at a distance ; if ble by the sea. Sick children can never be alone for a moment. One might almost say a nurse is required for every child. This is why ina ge hospital it is much better for the children be mixed with the adults; and, if they are judi- ciously distributed, it does the woman in the next bed as much as it does the child, or the man as it does the little boy. If there must be a chil- dlren’s ward in a general hospital, let it be for the infants. Convalescent Hospitals must be as like a home and as unlike a hospital as possible. A string of detached cot is the best, admitting of exten- sion by the addition of similar parts. Convalescent wards in a general hospital are not good ; nor are day-rooms. Healthy open ition and climate must be carefully selected. The convalescents are only to sleep at night in their rooms, while in the day they are ‘out and about,’ or occupying them- selves—the men in the garden, the women at house- hold work. But there must be strict discipline. There must be two small wards for relapses next the ‘sister's’ room, in the centre cottage. The convalescent beds may be divided by curtains, to be pulled far back in the day-time. A wash-hand stand to be permitted within—no lavatory. Three or four beds a good number for each convalescent room. Men and women should have separate cot , and only meet at meals. Every hospital should have its convalescent branch, and every county its convalescent home. Hospitals for Incurabdles should admit all diseases certified by competent medical judges to be hope- lessly incurable—except mental diseases, which require na arrangements. One well-known hospital for incurables excludes epilepsy because it frightens the other patients ; avoids, iP possible, congenital and infantile disease; prefers patients of and above middle age; and excludes children and all under twenty years. The cases treated by incurable hospitals are principally cases of chronic rheumatism, gout, paralysis, and various affections which cripple the limbs, &c. These hospitals, while treating cases within their walls, are no doubt productive of great benefit to the commun- ity; but the system of granting pensions from the hospital funds to out-patients is very questionable. Samaritan fund is generally provided to assist r patients leaving hospitals who may be deficient in clothing or other necessaries. In public Dis- pensaries (q.v.), at stated hours, medical advice and medicines are given ee to applicants; in recent years provident dispensaries have been established, supported by subscriptions, entitling the subscriber to advice and medicine. Valuable establishments are those called in France Maisons de Santé—private hospitals for the reception and treatment of patients who are able and dis to pay a small sum for board and medical or surgical attendance. OSPITAL SUNDAY. On one Sunday in the year it is the practice for churches of almost every denomination in London and throughout the pro- vinces to have special collections for the support of the hospitals of the country. In London the movement originated in 1873; Aberdeen claims to have begun the practice in 1764. See ANTISEPTICS, DisinrecranTs, GeaM, HyYGrene, ener cage A Mepicing, Noursinc, Pramia, Svuncery; 1803) i +5 4 of the World (4 a. 3); ings and Hu ospitals, Di. ries, a Nursing (rae) Mouat and Snell, Hospital Construction and Management (1884); Clifford Smith on Administra- tion of Hospitals (1863); Douglas Galton, Construction of Hospitals (1870), and Healthy Hospitals (1893); Wylie, Hospitals (New York, 1877); the present writer’s Notes on Hospitals (new ed. 1863), and Lying-in Institutions (1871); and such reports as those of the Commissions on the Sanitary Condition of Barracks and Hospitals (1863), on Regulations affecting the parce f Condition of the Army and Organisation of Hospi (1858), and on Smallpox and Fever Hospitals (1882). Hospodar, 4 Slavonic title once commonly given to the pereraas of Moldavia and Wallachia, whereas the king of Roumania is now known under the native Romaniec title of Domnu. Lithuanian princes and Polish kings also bore the title. Host (Lat. hostia, ‘a victim’), the name given in the Roman Catholic Church to the consecrated bread of the eucharist. It is so called in conformity with the doctrine of that church that the eucharist is a ‘sacrifice,’ in the strict sense of the word, though, in the common language of Catholics, ‘host’ is used for the unconsecrated altar-bread, and even so occurs in the offertory of the Roman missal, The host in the Latin Chureh is a thin cireular wafer (in Old English, ‘s yngeing cake’) of unleavened bread, made of the fhe our, and bearing stamped upon it the figure of the Cruci- fixion or some emblematic device, as the Lamb, or the letters IHS. These are the *‘ points’ and ‘figures’ forbidden in the first book of Edward VI. In all ancient liturgical rites. the consecrated host was broken before being consumed by the priest. In the Roman Chureh the celebrant, who uses at mass a larger host than that reserved for other communicants, first breaks it into two halves, and then from:one half detaches a fragment which he drops into the chalice. In the Greek and other oriental churches, as well as in various Protes- tant communities, the eucharist is celebrated in leavened bread; and one of the grounds of separation from the West alleged by Michael Cerularius was the western practice of using un- leavened bread. The use of unleavened bread is founded on the belief that Christ can only have used such bread when instituting the eucharist at the Paschal feast. Luther followed the Roman Church in this point, but did not break the host. It was decided by the Privy-council, in the Purchas case (1871), that the use of the wafer is forbidden in the Church of England. The elevation of the host is the act by which the priest immediately after pronouncing the words of consecration raises the host with both hands above his head, whilst the server tinkles his bell to call attention to the ceremony, that the congregation may adore Christ present. Hostage, a person given to an enemy as a pledge for the “3 r fulfilment of treaty condi- tions. Formerly the evasion of the terms of the treaty by one of the contracting parties used to be regarded as entitling the enemy to put to death the hostages that had been given up to them. The shooting of Archbishop Darboy (q.v.) and his fellow hos in 1871 was the most execrable crime of the Paris Communists. Hostilius, TULLUs, the third of the legendary kings of Rome, succeeded Numa Pompilius in 670 B.c. He it was who made the famous arrange- ment by which the combat of the Horatii with the Curiatii decided the question of supremacy between Rome and Alba in favour of the former. He fought 808 HOTBED HOTTENTOTS against Fidenz and Veii, and conquered them; and destroyed Alba, and removed the inhabitants to Rome, giving them Mount Czlius to dwell on; and carried on war against the Sabines. At length the gods grew wrathful with him for his love of war and his neglect to worship them, and Jupiter Elicius consumed him and his house with fire about 638 B.c. According to Niebuhr and Arnold, there are glimpses of a distinct personality in the legend of Hostilius, unlike those of Romulus and Numa, which are merely personifications of the two principal stages of a nation’s growth. Hotbed, a bed of fermenting vegetable matter, usually surmounted by a glazed frame, employed in gardening for cultivating melons and cucum- bers, the rearing of tender annuals, propagating stove and greenhouse plants by cuttings, seeds, or grafting, forcing flowers, &c. It is an inexpensive means for obtaining a high temperature in a limited atmosphere, accompanied with genial humidity charged with nutritious gases, which is very bene- ficial to plants. Formerly it was an indispensable adjunct to the garden, but the almost universal employment of hot water as a heating agent for horticultural purposes has latterly greatly cireum- scribed its use. ‘The materials used in making hot- beds are stable-dung, leaves—those of the oak and beech, being especially suitable, are frequently mixed with the dung—tanners’ bark, spent hops, and the waste of jute, cotton, hemp, and flax, all of which must be allowed to pass through the first violent stages of fermentation in order to eliminate the deleterious gases they contain before being built up into the bed. The size of the bed is regulated by the degree of heat required for the purpose in view. A bed. of stable-dung with or without leaves intermixed, four feet thick, will for some time after it is built maintain a temperature of from 75° to 90°, which is sufficient for most pur- oo. As the fermentation declines the bed cools own, but heat is again readily increased by addin fresh material to the sides of it. The bed shoul be made a few inches wider and longer than the frame that is to be placed upon it, and from 6 to 9 inches higher at the back than the front to secure a better angle for light. See also PLANT-HOUSE. Hotechpot (the same word as H otch-potch in the culinary sense), a phrase used in English law to denote that, where one child has already received an advancement out of the father’s estate, that child must bring such portion into hotchpot before he will be allowed to share with the other children, under the statute of distributions, after the father’s death. In other words, a child who has got money from the father to place him in business, &c., must treat that as a payment to account of his share at the father’s death. The eldest son is not Sp Sole to bring into hotchpot the land which he takes as heir. A similar, but not identical, doc- trine exists in Scotland under the name of colla- tion. Hotch-potch, a Scottish dish, may be defined as a kind of mutton-broth in which green peas take the place of barley or rice. Hotch-potch or Hodge-podge is a corruption of Old English hotch- Pes r. hochepot; from Dutch hutspot (hutsen eing ‘to shake in the pot’). Hot Cross Buns. See Cross-Buns. Hotel (Fr. Adtel, Old Fr. hostel, Lat. hospitale), a superior kind of inn (see INN), like the old Eng- lish hostel. The often palatial hotels that have sprung up since the introduction of railways are too well known to require notice. One point of difference between the European and the Ameri- can systems is that under the former, except in the case of a table d’héte, the charge is for each dish ordered, while under the American plan a fixed io is charged for every meal. The modern rench word is still used for the house of a rich or distinguished man, or for a public building, such as the Hétel de Ville (see MUNICIPAL ARCHI- TECTURE), as well as for inn or hostelry, : Hothouse. See PLANT-HoUsE. Hot Springs, a small city of Arkansas, 56 miles WSW. of Little Rock, much frequented as a. summer-resort. It has numerous thermal springs, ranging in temperature from 95° to 148° F. Pop. (1880 ) 3554 ; (1900) 9973. Hotspur, Harry. See Percy. Hottentots, the people who were in possession of the greater part of what is now Cape Colony when it was first visited and colonised by Europeans. The Hottentots were so called by the earliest — uzzled at their strange harsh clicks, Hottentot or Hiittentiit Dutch settlers, faucal sounds an signifying a quack in Frisian or Low German. It | is a somewhat misleading name, as it is popularly used to include the two distinet families distin- guished bs ees! native names: the Khoikhoi, the ~ so-called Hottentot proper, and the San (Sa) or Bushmen, between whom little charity exists. Again, among the Khoikhoi proper, the terms Hottentots, Hottentots proper, or Cape Hotten- tots are often applied to the remnants of the tribes who formerly lived around Capetown; while the inhabitants of Griqualand West, of the South Kalihari, and of Great Namaqualand are distin- guished by their tribal names as Griquas, Nama- quas, Koras or Koranas, as if they were not as much Hottentots as the Khoikhoi of Cape Colony. The Bushmen are hunters; the Khoikhoi, nomads and sheep-farmers. At the present time the so-called Hottentots proper may number about 17,000; and the half-breeds, mostly employed in the Cape Colony, may number probably 100,000. The majority of the former and almost all the latter class are now semi-civilised, and copy the habits, customs, dress, and vices of the European colonists. In general they are of medium height, not very robust in bnild, and have small hands and feet. Their skin is a pale brown colour ; their hair woolly, growing in curly knots; their cheek-bones very prominent; and their chin eee The women are sometimes distinguished by certain organie peculiarities, and often have an enormous develop- ment of fat, especially in the breasts and hinder- arts. Their principal characteristics in former ays were indolence and _ hospitality. Their favourite amusements were feasting, dancing, smoking, and singing. The men were herdsmen, and not fond of war, though they liked to hunt. The women, although held in high esteem, per- formed all the manual labour. Their dwellin were huts of wood and mats, or tents, disposed in circles, and easily transportable. Their manner of living was entirely patriarchal: each tribe or division of a tribe had its own chief. Their method of perpetuating family names was that the sons took their mother’s family name, whilst the daughters took their father’s. Their language embraced three principal dialects —the Nama, spoken by the Namaquas; the Kora, spoken by the Koranas ; and the Cape dialect, now almost, if not entirely, extinct. Owing to its use of suffixes for expressing the declensions of nouns and the conjugations of verbs, the Hottentot lan- guage has been classed by Bleek, Lepsius, and other scholars with the Hamitie family of speech. This view is, however, controverted by Fr. Miiller, Hahn, and Von Gabelentz, who maintain that the Hotten- tots and Bushmen are allied peoples, the aboriginal inhabitants of the greater part of South Africa. The association of the Bushmen with the Hotten- tots rests, however, upon little more than the HOTTENTOTS’ BREAD HOUGHTON 809 common possession of a few verbal roots and the common use of some harsh faucal sounds or ‘clicks’ in their manner of s h. These ‘clicks’ are four in number—a dental sound, a repre-_ I sented by the sign |; a palatal, by 2; a lateral, |; and a cerebral, be !. All the Khoikhoi ioms are distinguished by monosyllabic roots ending in a vowel, and the use of pronominal elements as suffixes for the pu of forming derivatives. They possess no prefixes. One strik- feature is a decimal system of counting. hey have both sacred and profane poetry, and hymns of both kinds are sung accompanied by - the so-called reed-music or -dances, performed on reed or bark pipes. The sacred hymns are ee, prayers, invocations, and songs of praise honour of the supreme being Tsitigoab, the beneficent deity Heitsi-eibib, and the Moon ; while the profane reed-songs or dances deplore the fate of some dead chief or hero, or are sarcastic lessons to some one who has done something unpopular. They are often | ese by way of welcome to some est worthy of honour, and in every large kraal there is a bandmaster, whose business it is to drill the young boys and girls in this music. Dr Hahn compares its effect to the harmonium. The chief divinities of the Khoikhoi, as has been seen, are the supreme being Tsii|\goab, who lives in the Red Sky; another beneficent being, Heitsi-eibib, considered as an ancestral deity, who came origin- ally from the East; and ||Gaunab, an evil spirit, whose malignant influence has to be averted by prayers and charms, which furnish employment to _ of professional sorcerers. The mythology is rich, but singularly confused and difficult of interpretation. It contains also repulsive features enough, but not more so than the old Greek. Much more might have been known had well-meaning missionaries been more sympathetic or intelligent. Beyond the hymns spoken of, the popular imagina- tion has originated, or at least retained, a great number of fables, as well as legends, proverbs, and riddles. One persistent feature in these is a strong inclination to personifications of impersonal be- ings. Speech and reason are freely imputed to the lower animals, and human-like agencies employed ly as causes of celestial and other natural pheno- mena. The first to give examples of these was Captain (afterwards Sir) James Alexander in his Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of Africa (2 vols. 1838). More were brought to light b Krénlein and other scholars, and in 1864 Dr Ww. H. I. Bleek nee a B re selection in his Reynard = Fox in South Africa: Hottentot Fables and * Lales. For the lan , see the grammars by Tindall (1871), Hahn (1870), Fr. Miller ( Grundriss da sam eb schajt, vol. ii. 1877), and Bleek (1862-69). For the people, see Dr Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Siid- Africas (1872); and Dr T. Hahn’s T’suni|\goam : the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi (1882). Hottentots’ Bread. See DioscoREAceEz. . Hottonia, See WATER-VIOLET. Houdin, Roserrt (1805-71). See Consurine. Houdon, JEAN-ANTOINE, the greatest French sculptor of the 18th century, was born at Versailles, 20th March 1741. He was of humble origin, his father holding office in a nobleman’s house. He was a born sculptor, and at the age of thirteen had already attracted notice. An untrammelled eclecti- cism was ever Houdon’s most prominent character- istic. In 1761, when he was but twenty, he won the prix de Rome, and in Rome he threw himself with enthusiasm into the study of the antique. Herculaneum and hi sa had not long been brought to light. All Winckelmann’s works were published during Houdon’s sojourn in Italy. Ten troo Tu WwW years he remained in Rome, and there executed the colossal figure of St Bruno, the founder of the order of the Chartreuse, of which Pope Clement XIV. said that it would speak did not the rules of its order enforce silence. On his return to France the usual official honours were conferred upon him. In 1777 he was received into the Academy; in 1796 he was elected member of the Institute; and he was a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-arts in 1805. Apart from his work his life was singularly uneventful, though he once visited America under the escort of Franklin, to execute a monument in honour of Washington (1785). Nor did he alto- pi escape from the troubles of the Revolution. n allegorical figure from his hand, entitled ‘Sainte Scholastique,’ involved him in the heinous charge of pegs to perpetuate the worship of the saints. But on egret that his statue only represented Philosophy, he was acquitted. Towards the end of his life his intellect failed him, and death came as a release, 16th July 1828. Houdon is perhaps the most conspicuous figure among the artists of his time. His mastery over his material was complete. So great were his technical skill and adroitness that they sometimes carried him beyond the bounds of his art. He had essayed all styles without sacri- ficing his personality, and, while much of his work has an almost classical simplicity, it was generally. his method (in portraiture at least) to obtain a resemblance by an infinitude of details. It is a little strange that his ‘ Ecorché’ should be the most widely known of his works. For it was in por- traiture that his greatest triumphs were achieved. rgot, Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, Franklin, ashington, Lafayette, Mirabeau, Napoleon, and Mdlle. Arnauld are a few of the great men and women whose features he has perpetuated for us. In 1890 a statue of him was erected at Versailles at a cost of 10,000 frances. Houghton, Richard MonckTon MILNEs, LorD, was born of a good old Yorkshire family at Fryston Hall, Pontefract, 19th June 1809. His father, ‘ single-speech Milnes’ (1784-1858), of Fry- ston, Bawtry, and Great Houghton, declined the chancellorship of the exchequer and a peerage ; his ‘mother was a daughter of the fourth Lord Galway. Educated by private tutors at home and in Italy, he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1831, and where he was a leader in the Union (then ‘cavernous, tavernous’), and one of the famous band of ‘ Apostles.’ From 1837 till 1863 he represented Pontefract, first as a Conservative, but latterly as an independent Liberal ; and then he was called by Lord Palmerston to the Upper House, of which for a score of years he was ‘the only poet.’ In 1851 he married a daughter of the second Lord Crewe. She died in 1874; and he himself, having three years before had a passin attack of paralysis, died. suddenly at Vichy, llth August 1885. A Muecenas of poets (and of poetasters), he got Lord tho ee the laureate- ship, soothed the dying hours of poor David Gray, 5 was one of the first to recognise Mr Swin- burne’s genius. His own poetry is always respect- able, and some of the shorter pieces were in their day exceedingly popular—‘ Strangers Yet,’ for example, and the pretty lyric whose refrain is ‘The beating of my own heart Was the only sound I heard.’ Besides this, Lord Houghton—the ‘Mr Vavasour’ of Beaconsfield’s Tancred—was a trav- eller, a philanthropist, an unrivalled after-dinner speaker, and Rogers’ successor in the art of break- fast-giving. He went up in a balloon, and down in a diving-bell ; he was the first publishing Eng- lishman who gained access to the harems. of the East; he championed oppressed nationalities, liberty of conscience, fugitive slaves, and the rights of women ; he carried a bill for establishing 810 HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING HOUSE reformatories (1846); and he counted among his friends Hallam, Tennyson, Thackeray, Dickens, Carlyle, Sydney Smith, Landor, Cardinal Wiseman, Heine, Thirlwall, and a host of others. Lord Houghton’s works include Memorials of a Tour in Greece (1833); Poems of many Years (1838); Memorials of a Residence on the Continent (1838); Poetry for the People (1840); Memorials of many Scenes (1843); Palm Leaves (1844); Life, Letters, and Remains of Keats (2 vols. 1848); Good Night and Good Morning (1859); Mono- graphs, Personal and Social (1873); and Collected Poetical Works (2 vols. 1876). See an article by T. H. S. Escott in the Fortnightly for September 1885, and the Life by Wemyss-Reid (2 vols. 1890). Houghton-le-Spring, a town in the county, and 64 miles NE. of the city, of Durham. Its rapid growth is mainly due to the extension of neighbouring collieries. The fine cruciform parish church contains the cinque-cento altar tomb of Bernard Gilpin (q.v.), who founded a grammar- school here, and among whose successors were Peter Heylin and Archbishop Sancroft. Pop. (1851) 3224; (1891) 6746. Hound, a name applied to dogs used -in hunt- ing. The true hound, such as the Bloodhound, the Foxhound, and the Staghound, hunt only by scent. In this division may also be included the Basset- hound (a short-legged dog used in unearthing foxes and badgers), the Beagle, and the Harrier. The greyhound and the deerhound run by sight alone, and are not hounds in the correct acceptance of the term. See also Fox-HUNTING. Hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum), a genus of plants of the natural order Boragineze, of which there are many species, all of a coarse appearance, with small flowers. The Common Hound’s-tongue (C. officinale) is a native of Europe, Asia, Afriea, and North America ; not uncommon in some parts of Britain, especially near the sea-coast. It has soft downy leaves, of a dull green colour, purplish- red flowers, and a stem about two feet high. Hound’s-tongue ( Cynoglossum officinale). Its odour is very disagreeable. The root was formerly administered in scrofula, dysentery, &c., and is said to be anodyne. It is also one of the pretended specifics for serpent-bites and hydro- phobia. Hounslow, a town of Middlesex, 10 miles W. by S. from London by road, was formerly a place of much importance in the old coaching days, it being the first stage out of London on the Bath and Southampton roads. As many as 800 horses were then maintained here, 500 coaches passed through daily, whilst a most extensive business in posting was carried on. With the opening of the railways, however, the place gradually declined, and at the present time it contains but little of interest. Its ‘three churches are all modern, the oldest, rebuilt in 1835, having been formerly the chapel of a priory. West from Hounslow, stretching for 5 miles along the road, and in 1546 containing an area of 4293 acres, was Hounslow Heath, the scene of many military encampments, and notorious in the annals of highway rhbens: It is now for the most part enclosed. Near to the town are exten- sive gunpowder-mills and cavalry and militia bar- racks, and at Kneller’s Hall, once the residence of Sir G. Kneller, the painter, are the quarters of the Royal Military School of Music. Pop. (1851) 3514; (1871) 9294; (1891) 12,873, of which the barracks contained over 1000. Hour, a measure of time equal to s,th part of an astronomical day or to ;,th part of a natural day epee the hours of night or darkness). See Day, and TIME; and for the hours in Catholic usage, see BREVIARY.—Hour-circles, in astronomy, are any great circles which cut the poles. Hour-glass, an instrument for measuring in- tervals of time. It is made of glass, and consists of two bulbs united by a narrow neck; one of the bulbs is nearly filled with dry sand, fine enough to run freely through the orifice in the neck, and the quantity of sand is just as much as can run through the orifice in an hour, if the instrument is to be an hour-glass; in a minute, if a minute- glass, &c. The obvious defects of this instrument are the expansion or contraction of the orifice produced by heat or cold, and the variations in the dryness of the sand, all of which produce de- viations from the true measurement of the time. The hour-glass was almost esstipeen 8 employed in churches during the 16th and 17th centuries. In several of the churches in England hour- lass stands of elegant workmanship are still to. seen. Houri, the name of the beautiful damsels who, according to the Moslem faith, await with their companionship in Paradise the true believers after death. See MOHAMMEDANISM. Housatonic. River rises in Massachusetts flows through Connecticut, and enters Long Island Sound near Bridgeport. In its course of nearly 150 miles it affords water-power to many manufacturing villages. House, in point of law, is an Englishman’s castle, though not a Scotchman’s. In other words, when a man shuts himself up in his own house no - bailiff can break open the door to arrest him, or seize his goods for debt, in England, and no court can give such power, except in the case of a writ of attachment for contempt of court or a writ of habere facias possessionem (the writ by which a judgment for the recovery of land is commonly enforced). In Scotland leave can be got from the court, often called on that account the king’s or queen’s keys, to enable the messenger to break open the outer door and arrest. In England, though it is not competent for the bailiff to break open the outer door by force, yet every trick or stratagem is fair in order to effect a peaceable entry, and once in he cannot be turned out. Where the party is charged with a criminal offence a constable armed with a warrant, or in some cases without, is entitled to break into the house and arrest him, both in England and Scotland. A man is entitled also to defend his house against trespassers and thieves, using no greater force than is necessary ; and if necessary in that sense, he may even kill the intruder, though very strong cireum- stances are required to justify this. He may also HOUSE-BOAT HOUSE-LEEK 811 oy spring-guns on the premises: but by doing so e may render himself liable to an action if any ewe lawfully entering the premises should be njured. In Scotland a peculiar name is given to the offence of feloniously assaulting a man in his own house, called Hamesucken (q.v.), a name also used in the old law of England; and all offences committed in another person’s house are generally unished more severely than those not committed fn a house at all. See also EVICTION, House-boat. See BARGE. Housebote. See Esrover. Housebreaking is the breaking and enter- ing into a dwelling-house, hop. or warehouse, hetween the hours of 6 A.M. and 9 P.M., and steal- ing any chattel or money to any value. The draw- ing a latch, the opening a window, or the employ- ment of fraudulent means to effect an entry con- stitutes breaking and entering. The punishment ranges from fourteen years’ penal servitude to two ears’ imprisonment. See BURGLARY, where the aw in the United States is also noticed. Houseburning. See Arson. House-fly (Musca domestica), perhaps the most familiar and widely distributed dipterous insect. Adults are to be seen the whole year round, though naturally most numerous in summer. They feed indiscriminatingly on what- ever they can suck up through their fleshy pro- boscis or scrape off with their other mouth parts. The females lay their eggs in groups, about eight days after pairing, and the whole development occupies about a month. The eggs are deposited in decaying organic matter, in dung, or in any filth, and the larve are hatched in a day, or even less if the weather be warm. These larve are smooth, naked m ts, without le or distinct head, with small hooklets at the mouth, and a length of about one-third of an inch. . They feed on organic debris, move by contracting the abdo- _ men, and grow for about a fortnight. Then they Fig. 1. a, larva of house-fly, with breathing pores at tail (lower) end; b, young fly emerging from pupa sheath. Fig. 2. ‘ A, head of house-fly: a, compound eye; b, antenna; d, maxil- lary palps; e, f, ‘pro is ;’ g, labelle, lips of ‘ proboscis ;’ h, opening into ‘ proboscis ;’ i, thorax, with breathing pore (after Von rey ee > B, end of a fly’s foot highly coagnihed, ene lon irs, two terminal claws, and two membranous ve Ss. seek some dry resting-place, undergo pupation, and finally in another fortnight heeds winged insects. Many parts of the house-fly, such as the sucking proboscis, or the hair-covered discs of the feet b which the insects adhere to the window-pane, well deserve the attention they generally get from those who use the microscope. Though Tones-fiies do not bite, they are often extremely troublesome. Expedients for killing them off require no adver- tisement. It is more important to notice that house-flies are probably sometimes responsible for disseminating disease-germs. Household, THe Kinc’s or QUEEN’S, in Great Britain comprises the departments of the Lord Steward (q.v.), the Lord Chamberlain (q.v.), with the Lords of the Bedchamber, a medical depart- ment, the Royal Almonry, and the department of the Mistress of the Robes, which comprises the Ladies of the Bedchamber, tlie Bedchamber Women, and the Maids of Honour. For the Lords and Ladies of the Bedchamber, see BEDCHAMBER (see also RoyAL FAMILY). The Maids of Honour, of whom there are eight, are immediate attendants on the royal person, and in rotation perform the duty of accompanying the Queen on all occasions. They enjoy by courtesy the title ‘Honourable,’ when not entitled to it by birth, and are then designated the ‘Honourable Miss ——’ without the Christian name. Household Troops are those troops whose especial duty it is to attend the sovereign and to guard the metropolis. These forces comprise three regiments of cavalry—the Ist and 2d Life Guards and the Royal Horse Guards ; and three regiments of foot—the Grenadier Guards of three battalions, and the Coldstream and Scots Guards of two battalions each. See GUARDS. House-leek (Sempervivum), a genus of plants of the natural order Crassulacee, having a calyx of six to twenty sepals, the petals equal in number to the sepals, and inse into the base of the calyx; the leaves forming close rosettes. The Common House- leek or Cyphel (S. __ teetorum), called Fous or Fouets in Scot- land, and in some countries Jupiter's Beard, grows wild on the rocks of the Alps, but has long been common in almost every part of Europe, planted on walls, roofs of cottages, &e. Itsends up _ leafy flowering stems of 6 to 12 % inches in height, bearing branches of pale red star- generally very succulent, and lik nl flowers, Common House-leek ually curious : ‘ pe d MA henatital (Sempervivum tectorum). The leaves cut : or bruised and applied to burns afford immediate relief, as they do also to stings by bees or wasps ; and they are beneficial when applied to ulcers and inflamed sores. They were formerly in high esteem as a remedy for fevers and other diseases ; and an edict of Charlemagne contributed greatly to the extensive distribution of the plant. The edict is in these words: Et habeat quisque oon domum suam Jovis barbam (‘ And let everybody have the HOUSEMAID’S KNEE $12 HOWARD Jupiter's beard on his house’).—Other species possess similar properties. S. soboliferum, with yellowish-green flowers, is very frequently planted on walls in Germany. The fishermen of Madeira say that nets rubbed with the fresh leaves of S. glutinosum are thereby rendered as durable as if tanned, provided they are also steeped in some alkaline liquor. Some of the species, natives of the south of Europe, Canary Isles, &c., are shrubby ; others are common greenhouse plants. Housemaid’s Knee is the term commonly applied to an acute or chronic inflammation of the bursa or sac that intervenes between the patella, or knee-pan, and the skin. Housemaids are especially liable to it from their kneeling on hard damp stones. In its acute form it causes con- siderable pain, swelling, and febrile disturbance. The only disease for which it can be mistaken is inflammation of the synovial membrane lining the cavity of the joint; but in this disease the patella is thrown forwards, and the swell- ing is at the sides, while in housemaid’s knee the swelling is very superficial, and is in front of the patella. The treatment in the acute form consists essentially in the means usually employed to combat inflammation—viz. rest, leeches, fomentations, and Sees ; if suppuration take place the sac must be freely opened and the pus evacuated. The chronic form may subside hier rest, blisters, &c., or it may require incision or excision for its cure. House of Lords, Commons. See PARLIA- MENT. House-rents. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. Housing of the Poor. A Royal Commission to inquire into the condition of the working-classes sat in 1884 and 1885. Acts for facilitating im- “ed Rational in the dwellings of the working-classes have been passed in 1868, 1875, and 1879. See GUINNESS, HILL, PEABODY; as also COTTAGE, LABOURERS, LODGING-HOUSE, Poor. Houssa. See HAussa. Houston, capital of Harris county, Texas, on the navigable Buffalo Bayou, 51 miles by rail NW. of Galveston, with which it is connected also by steamboats. It is the great railway centre of the state, stands in the midst of a fertile country, and ships large quantities of cotton, grain, and cattle, besides the products of the great pine-forests, which are prepared here. The other manufactures in- clude machinery, iron-castings, railway carriages, farming implements, fertilisers, cotton-seed oil, &c. Pop. (1870) 9382; (1880) 18,646 ; (1900) 44,633. Houston, SAMUEL, president of Texas, was born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, March 2, 1793, was brought up near the Cherokee territory in Tennessee, and was adopted by one of the Indians there. In 1813 he enlisted as a private soldier, and by persistent bravery rose to the rank of second- lieutenant before the end of the war. He left the army in 1818, studied law at Nashville, and was elected in 1823 and 1825 a member of congress, and in 1827 governor of Tennessee. In January 1829 he married the daughter of an ex-governor ; but in the following April, for reasons never made public, he abandoned wife, country, and civilisation, and spent three years among the Cherokees, beyond the Mississippi, where his adoptive father had settled. In 1832 Houston went to Washington, and pro- cured the removal of several United States Indian agents on charges of fraud, but got into personal difficulties with their friends. The Texan war offered a new field to his ambition. He was made commander-in-chief. The Americans at first sus- tained some severe losses, but.on 21st April 1836 Houston with 750 men inflicted. a crushing defeat on a force of 1800 Mexicans under Santa-Anna, on the banks of the San Jacinto, and by this one decisive blow achieved the independence of Texas. The hero of San Jacinto was elected first president of the republic, and re-elected in 1841, and on the annexation of Texas, in 1845, was elected to the — United States senate. Elected governor of Texas in 1859, he opposed secession, was deposed in March 1861, and took no further part in public affairs. He died 26th July 1863. Hovas. See MADAGASCAR. Hovedon, Rocer or, an old English chronicler, most probably born at Howden, in Yorkshire, who was attached to the household of Henry II., and was employed in missions to the lords of Galloway and to the heads of the monastic houses. In 1189 he was appointed an itinerant justice for the forests in the northern counties, and he seems to have spent his last years in Yorkshire, probably at Howden. It may be supposed that he did not survive 1201, as his Chronicle ends with that year. It commences with the close of the Chronicle of Bede in 732, and is divided by Bishop Stubbs into four parts: the. Jirst, ending with 1148, consisting chiefly of the Historia post Bedam; the second, ending with 1169, mainly based on the Melrose Chronicle ; the third, ending with 1192, mainly an abridgment of Benedict's Chronicle ; and the fourth, ending with 1201, a record of contemporary events, not without value. The Chronicle was first printed in Sir H, Saville’s Scriptores post Bedam in 1596. There is an English translation by H. F. Riley in Bohn’s ‘ Antiquarian Library ’ (2 vols. 1853). The original forms 4 volumes (1868-71) in the Rolls series, under the editorship of Bishop Stubbs. Hovellers. See DEAL. Hoven. See Hoove. Howard. The noble House of Howard has stood for many centuries at the head of the English nobility. The Howards have enjoyed the dukedom of Norfolk since the middle of the 15th century, and have contributed to the annals of the nation several persons of the most distinguished character both in politics and in literature. Neither Sir W. Dugdale nor Collins claims for the Howards any more ancient origin than Sir William Howard, a learned Chief-justice of the Common Pleas under Edward I. and Edward II., though Dugdale inci- dentally mentions a tradition that their name is of Saxon origin, and derived either from an eminent office under the crown before the Conquest, or from Hereward, the leader of those forees which for a time defended the isle of Ely so valiantly against William the Conqueror. The edigree earlier than Sir William Howard has Sa completel demolished in an article on ‘Doubtful Norfol Pedigrees’ printed in the Genealogist. Be this as it may, it is certain that Sir John Howard, the grandson of the above-mentioned judge, was not only admiral and captain of the king’s navy in the north of England, but sheriff of Norfolk, in which county he held extensive property, which was sub- sequently increased by the marriage of his grand- son, Sir Robert, with the co-heiress of the ancient and noble House-of Mowbray, Dukes of Norfolk. The only son of this union was Sir John Howard, one of the leading supporters of the House of York, who, having gained early distinction in the French wars of Henry VI., was constituted by Edward IV. constable of the important castle of Norwich, and sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk. He subsequently became treasurer of the royal household, obtained ‘a grant of the whole benefit that should accrue to the king by coinage of money in the City and Tower of London, and elsewhere in England ;’ and further, was raised to the peerage as Lord Howard and Duke of Norfolk. We find him in 1470 made cap-. tain-general of the king’s forces at sea, and he was HOWARD 813 most strenuous ‘in that capacity in his resistance to the House of Lancaster. Finally he was created Earl Marshal of England, an honorary distinction still borne by his descendants, and in 1484 was constituted Lord Admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine. He fell next year, however, on Bos- worth Field, and after his death his honours were attainted, as also were those of his son Thomas, who had been created Earl of Surrey. The latter, however, after suffering three years of imprison- ment in the Tower of London, obtained a reversal of his own and his father’s attainders, and, being restored to his honours accordingly, became distin- guished as a general, and is more apie celebrated in history for his defeat of the Scotch ‘at Flodden in 1513. His son Thomas, third Duke of Norfolk, was attainted by Henry VIII., but was afterwards restored in blood, and by his marri with a daughter of King Edward IV. bécame the father of the ill-fated and accomplished Earl of Surrey (q.v.), Whose execution was the last of the ny acts of tyranny which disgrace the memory of Henry VIII. ‘Fhe same sentence had been passed on the duke, when the death of the royal tyrant saved him from the block. His grandson Thomas, fourth Duke of Norfolk, in like manner suffered attainder, and was executed on Tower Hill for high- treason, for his communication with Mary, Queen of Scots. The family honours, however, were again restored, partly by James I. to his grandson, and partly by Charles II. to his great-great-grandson, homas, who thus became eighth duke, and whose cousin and successor, Charles, ninth duke, was the direct ancestor of the present Duke of Norfolk. It would be impossible here to give a list of all the honours which from time to time have been conferred on various branches of the ducal House of Howard ; it is sufficient to say that, in one or other of their widespread branches, the Howards _ either havé enjoyed within the last three centuries, or still enjoy, the earldoms of Carlisle, Suffolk, Berkshire, Northampton, Arundel, Wicklow, Nor- wich, and Effingham, and the baronies of Bindon, Howard de Walden, Howard of Castle Rising, and Howard of Effingham. It will be seen from the above remarks that the ducal: House of Norfolk is one whose fate it has been, beyond all others among the English nobility, to find its name interwoven with the thread of English history, and not rarely in colours of blood. The accomplished but unfortunate Surrey, and his nai less brag Li father, Thomas Howard— whose head was only saved from the block on which his son so nobly suffered by the death of the eighth Henry—are ‘household words’ in the pages of English history ; and readers of Shakespeare will have other recollections of the same name allied with other historical events; while those who are familiar with the writings of will not have forgotten how tersely and pointedly he typifies the glory of ancestral pedigrees by ‘ All the blood of all the Howards.’ Other members of the House of Howard have fae a * ae in the s of English history. Sir Edward Howard, K.G., brother of the first Earl of Surrey, was made by Henry VIII. the king’s standard-bearer and admiral of the fleet, in which capacity he lost his life in boarding a French vessel off Brest in action in 1513; his brother, Sir Edmund, acted as marshal of the horse at Flodden; and his half-brother, Sir Thomas Howard, was attainted, and died a prisoner in the Tower, for aspiring to the hand of the Lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of Margaret, Queen of Scotland, and niece of Henry VIII., one of whose ill-fated consorts was the Lady Catharine Howard. Howard, CaTHArrne, fifth queen of Henry VIIL., was a granddaughter of the second Duke of Norfolk. The year of her birth, not known with’ certainty, was probably 1521 or 1522. Catharine was brought up partly in her father’s house, partly in that of her grandmother, the Duchess of Norfolk. In 1540 the king married Anne of Cleves. But it was a marriage for which he had no liking; and Gardiner, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Winchester, being just then recalled to favour, he and his party endeavoured to bring the king and Catharine to- gether. Anne of Cleves was divorced on the 9th of July, and Henry married Catharine Howard on the 28th of the same month. But in November the queen was accused to Henry of having been guilty of immoral conduct with two gentlemen of her grandmother's household, but previous to her marriage with the king. The evidence against her was convincing, and on this charge she was beheaded on 13th February 1542. Howard, JouN, the philanthropist and prison reformer, was born at Hackney, in Middlesex, on 2d September 1726, though both place and date are given differently by different authorities. His education was mostly got through private tuition. The inheritance of an ample fortune, which fell to him on the death of his father in 1742, enabled him to gratify his taste for continental travel. In 1756, after his wife’s death, he set sail for Lisbon, which had just been devastated by the great earthquake, but was captured on the way by a French privateer, and carried to Brest, where he was thrown into rison. There even a short captivity sufficed to eave upon his mind a lasting impression of the inhuman treatment to which prisoners of war were subjected in French prisons. After his return home Howard married a second time, and settled at Car- dington, 3 miles from Bedford. That village reaped the first-fruits of those philanthropic exertions which afterwards culminated in such noble labour, the work of prison reform. In 1773 Howard was nominated high-sheriff for the county of Bedford, and his interest in prisons and their inmates was now first fairly roused to the pitch of practical effort. He was struck with the injustice under which many r prisoners suffered, in that they were detained in prison untried, or even after being pronounced innocent, until they or their friends had paid cer- tain fees to the gaolers and other officials. Howard at once began a long series of tours throughout Great Britain and Ireland, for the purpose of inves- tigating the condition of prisons, and inquiring into the management and treatment of prisoners. Chiefly as the result of his efforts, two acts were P in 1774, one making provision for fixed salaries to be paid to the gaolers, and the other enforcing greater cleanliness in prisons, with a view to the prevention of the dreaded gaol-fever. From this time onward Howard prosecuted with un- wearied zeal and patience this the great work of his lifetime, upheld ie an indomitable sense of duty, and supported by a devout faith and his own firm, steadfast will. "The remaining years of his life were rincipally spent in visiting the prisons of Great Britain and t e countries of the Continent. Amongst the graver abuses he set himself to get abolished in his native land were such things as these: many prisons were in a deplorably dilapidated state, the cells narrow, filthy, and unhealthy ; debtors and felons were confined promiscuously in the same risons; separate apartments were not provided ‘or the two sexes, and the lers were allowed to sell liquors to those placed under their charge, causes directly ministering to immorality and drunkenness. " Howard's endeavours to relieve human suffering in prisons easily turned _ his thoughts to hospitals; and he also directed his efforts to the alleviation of suffering and the removal of abuses in these establishments, as well as in schools and all kinds of benevolent institutions. From 1785 he devoted his attention 814 HOWARD HOWE more especially to the plague, and to the _con- sideration of means for its prevention. With this end in view, he studied it in the hospitals and lazarettos of the chief Mediterranean towns in which it was wont to show itself. But whilst still ursuing his investigations, he was himself struck Nees by typhus fever at Kherson, in Russia, and died on 20th January 1790. He was buried at Dophinovka (now Stepanovka), 4 miles N. of Kherson. The chief results of his extensive obser- vations were recorded with faithful accuracy and great minuteness of detail, though with little sense of generalisation, in two works—The State of Prisons in England and Wales, with an Account of some Foreign Petacae (1777), to which a supplement was added in 1780, whilst the editions of 1784 and 1792 were each an enlargement on its Ba ; and An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe (1780). In consequence of his noble self- denying labours Howard has become the proverbial ideal of a philanthropist, the type of the best kind of humanitarian activity and love. Burke, in speak- ing of his labours at Bath in 1781, said, ‘ He has visited all Europe, not to survey the sumptuousness of palaces or the stateliness of temples; not to make accurate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form ascale of the curiosity of modern art; nor to collect medals or collect manuscripts; but to dive in the depths of dun- geons, to plunge into the infection of hospitals, to survey the mansions of sorrow and pain, to take the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt, to remember the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and to com- pare and collate the distresses of all men in all countries. . . . It was a voyage of discovery, a cir- cumnavigation of charity.’ See Lives by Baldwin Brown (1818), Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849), Field (1850), and Stoughton (1853; new ed. 1884); Correspondence of Howard (1855) by J. Field ; and the article PRISONS. Howard, O.iver OTIs, an American general, was born at Leeds, Maine, 8th November 1830, graduated at West Point in 1854, took command of a regiment of Maine volunteers in 1861, and was made brigadier-general for gallantry at the first battle of Bull Run. He lost an arm at Fair Oaks in 1862, but afterwards was in several actions, and in 1864 commanded the Army of the Tennessee in the invasion of Georgia. He commanded the right wing of Sherman’s army in the march to the sea and through the Carolinas. He was commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau from 1865 until its aboli- tion in 1874, and was the first president of Howard University (see WASHINGTON, D.C.), which was named in his honour. He conducted two Indian campaigns, in 1877 and 1878; in 1886 he was pro- moted to major-general, and received the command of the division of the Pacific ; in 1889 he was trans- ferred to that of the Atlantic. General Howard is a chevalier of the Legion of Honour (1884). He has published several books, including Chief Joseph (1881), an account of his cainpaign against the Nez Pereés, Howard of Effingham, Cuartes, Lorn, was born in 1536, and in 1573 succeeded - his father, who was the ninth son of the second Duke of Norfolk, and who in 1554 had been raised to the peerage and been made Lord High Admiral. In 1585 that dignity was conferred on the son, and as such in 1588 he commanded gloriously against the Armada (q.v.). For his share with Essex in the Cadiz expedition (1596) he was created Earl of Nottingham, and in 1601 he put down Essex’s mad insurrection. In 1619 he resigned his office in favour of Buckingham ; and he died 14th De- cember 1624. Contrary to the common opinion, .by a poor style and innumerable su there is no proof that he was ever a Catholic | (Notes and Queries, 1851, 1888). Howe, ELIAs (1819-67), inventor of the Sewing- — machine (q.Vv.). Howe, JouN, the most philosophic of the Puri- tan divines, was born 17th May 1630, at Lough- borough,- in Leicestershire, to the living of which parish his father had been presented by Laud. He studied both at Oxford and Cambridge, where he made the friendship of the most distinguished pro- fessors and students of that day. After preachin for some time at Winwick, in Lancashire, an Great Torrington, in Devonshire, with much accept- ance, he was appointed domestic chaplain to Crom- well in 1656, a position he oceupied with great reluctance, but in which he discharged his difficult duties with rare firmness and courtesy, not fearin to speak his mind before Cromwell himself, an winning praise even from the enemies of his party. Indeed, throughout life he was on the most intimate terms with persons so wide apart as Baxter and other nonconformist divines, and the most distin- bee ornaments of the Establishment, as Stilling- eet and Tillotson. At the Restoration he returned to Torrington, where he remained for about two years. But the Act of Uniformity ejected him from his parish, 24th August 1662; for though one of the most liberal-minded of the Puritans, and not troubled with morbid conscientiousness, he was also a man of strong principle. Like many others of the nonconformist ministers, he wandered about preee in secret till 1671. In 1668 he published is first work, The Blessedness of the Righteous, which was very popular. In 1671 he was invited by Lord Massereene, of Antrim Castle, in Ireland, to become his domestic chaplain, where he spent four years of great happiness, preaching every Sabbath at Antrim church, with the sanction of the bishop. Here he wrote his Vanity of Man as Mortal, and began his greatest work, The Good Man — the Living Temple of God (1676-1702), which occu- ies one of the hi hest places in Puritan theology. n 1675 he was called to be pastor of the dissenting congregation in Silver Street, London, and went thither in the beginning of 1676. In 1677 he pub- lished, at the request of Mr Boyle, The Reconcitl- ableness of God’s Prescience of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom of His Counsels, and Exhortations ; in 1681, Thoughtfulness for the Morrow ; in 1682, Self- dedication ; in 1683, Union among Protestants ; and in 1684, The Redeemer’s Tears wept over Lost Souls. In 1685 he was invited by, Lord Wharton to travel with him on the Continent ; and after visit- ing the principal cities, he resolved, owing to the state of England, to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he was admitted to several interviews with the Prince of Orange. In 1687 the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience induced him to return to England, and at the Revolution next year he headed the deputation of dissenting clergymen when they brought their address to the throne. Besides smaller works, he published, in 1693, Carnality of Religious Contention; in 1694-95, several treatises on the Trinity ; in 1699, The Redeemer’s Dominion over the Invisible World ; and he continued writing till 1705, when he published a characteristic work, Patience in Expectation of Future Blessedness. He died 2d April 1705, Howe was a man of a noble presence, with a finely- balanced mind, a profound thinker, yet gifted with great Lee eg re His own convictions were very decided, yet he had large toleration for the opinions of others, and of one of his persecutors writes ‘he did not doubt after all to meet him one day in that place where Luther and Zwinglius well agreed.’ The value of his writings is greatly marred ivisions and HOWE HOWELL 815 digressions, which led a woman once to say ‘he was so long laying the cloth that she always despaired of the dinner.’ But Robert Hall said of him, ‘I have derived more benefit from the works of Howe than from those of all other divines put together.’ A great admirer of Plato, ‘ though with- out the slightest pretension to the eloquence of the renowned Grecian, he bore no mean resemblance to him in loftiness of mind, sublimity of conception, and, above all, in intense admiration of all moral excellence.’ ‘Of the consummate ability with which he must have conducted himself no other roof is needed than the statement of the following Facts : that he was often employed in the most delicate affairs by Cromwell, yet without incurring ‘either blame or suspicion ; without betraying confi- dence or compromising principle ; that, though ex- posed to scrutinising eyes, he left not a rivet of his armour open to the shafts either of malice or envy, and that he could awe Cromwell into silence and move Tillotson to tears; that he never made an enemy and never lost a friend.’ His works were ublished in 1724, 2 vols. folio, with a life by Dr alamy ; more than one edition has been published since. See H. Rogers’ Life ge Howe (1836), and the short monograph by R. F. Horton (1896). Howe, Ricuarp Hows, EARL, admiral, son of Viscount Howe of the Irish peerage, was born in London, 8th March 1726, He left Eton at thirteen, and, pep the navy, served under Anson (q.v.) against the Spaniards in the Pacific. Made post- captain at twenty, he in that same year drove away from the coast of Scotland two French een convey- ing troops and ammunition to the young Pretender. After serving off the coast.ef Africa, Howe took an active part in the naval operations of the British during the Seven Years’ War, especially distinguish- ing himself by the capture of the island of Chaussey, in the attacks upon the isle of Aix, St Malo, and Cherbourg; and in engagements with the French fleet in 1755 and 1759. In 1758 he succeeded to the Irish title of viscount on the death of his brother, George Augustus (1724-58), the brigadier-general, who was killed before Ticondero Appointed a Lord of the Admiralty in 1763, he was promoted two gous later to the important office of Treasurer of the Navy. In 1778 he defended the Ameri- can coast against a superior naval force under D’Estaing, whom he repelled off Rhode Island. He was made a viscount of Great Britain in 1782. Being sent out the same year to relieve Gibraltar, he disembarked troops, ammunition, and supplies, and then offered battle to the combined fleets of France and — but they, declining an engage- ment, drew off towards Cadiz. Howe was made First Lord of the Admiralty in 1783, and received an English earldom in 1788.- When’ war with France broke out in 1793 he took command of the Channel fleet, and next year gained off Ushant the victory which is known as that of ‘ the glorious first of June.’ The French fleet consisted o twenty-six ships of the line, and the British of twenty-five. In a very short time the latter captured seven of the enemy’s vessels and dismasted ten more. Howe’s last public service was to bring back to their dut the mutinous seamen at Spithead and Portsmouth in 1797. He died August 5, 1799, leaving the repu- tation of being a thorough seaman, cautious, cool and intrepid in danger, and considerate of his men. He greatly increased the efficiency of the navy by the introduction of a new system of evolutions and naval tactics. See Lives by G. Mason (1803) and Sir J. Barrow (1838 ).—Another brother, WILLIAM (1729-1814), held a command under Wolfe at Quebec, succeeded General Gage in 1775 as com- mander-in-chief of the British forces in America, commanded at Bunker Hill, took New York, defeating Washington at White Plains and at Brandywine, but was superseded by Sir Henry Clinton in 1778, for having lost the opportunity of destroying the American force at alley Forge. He su uently held various honorary commands in eo and succeeded to his brother's viscounty in 1799. Howe, SAMvEL Gripiey, M.D., an American pee anthropies, was born in Boston, November 10, 801, and graduated at Brown University in 1821, and at the Harvard medical school in 1824. He served as a surgeon during the Greek war of inde- pendence from 1824 to 1827, organising the medical staff of the Greek army. He ion went to America to raise contributions, and, returning with food, clothing, and supplies, formed a colony on the isthmus of Corinth. Swamp-fever, however, drove him from the country in 1830. In 1831 he went to Paris to study the methods of educating the blind, and, having me mixed up in the Polish insur- rection, spent six weeks in a Prussian prison. On his return to Boston he established a school for the blind, his most famous pupil being Laura Bridgman (q.v.). He also established a school for the train- ing of idiots. In 1851-53, assisted by his wife, he edited the anti-slavery Commonwealth, and, after revisiting Greece in 1867 with supplies for the Cretans, he edited in Boston The Cretan. He died 9th January 1876.—His wife, JuLIA Warp Howe, born in New York city, 27th May 1819, became prominent in the woman-suffrage movement since 1869, preached in American Unitarian pulpits, and ublished, besides narratives of travel and a Life of argaret Fuller, several volumes of poems, Passion Flowers (1854), Words for the Hour (1857 ), and Later Lyrics (1866), the last the best. In 186] she wrote the ‘ Battle-hymn of the Republic.’ Howell, James, whose Familiar Letters is still an English classic, was born in July 1593, son of the minister of Abernant, in Carmart enshire, studied at Hereford and Jesus College, Oxford, and took his B.A. in 1613. He then me steward to a pectbage manufactory, and traversed in itsinterests olland, Flanders, Spain, France, and Italy. He was next employed abroad on public business in 1626, became secretary to Lord Serope at York, was returned to parliament for Richmond in 1627. From 1632 to 1642 he was mainly employed as a royalist spy ; and in 1642 (when he was appointed an extra clerk to the Privy-council) he was sent by the par- liament to the Fleet, where he lay till 1650. At the Restoration the office of historiographer-royal was created for him. He died in 1666, and was buried in the Temple church. well was a man of considerable humour, learning, and industry. Besides translations from Italian, French, and Spanish, he wrote no less than forty-one original works on history, politics, and philological matters. He had put his travels to much profit. ‘Thank God,’ he says, ‘I have this fruit of my fore travels, that I can pray unto him every day of the week in a separate language, and upon Sunday in seven.’ His Instructions for Forreine Travell (1642) is still interesting, and is reprinted in Pro- fessor Arber’s series (1869) ; and his supplement to Cotgrave’s French and English dictionary main- tains its interest for lexicographers; but it is by his Epistole Ho-Elianw: or Familiar Letters, omestic and Foreign (1645-55; 10th ed. 1737), that his name continues to be remembered. These dis- play not only shrewd sense and brilliant wit, but also grace and form, and indeed are the earliest letters in our language that are really literary. Dr Bliss, the erudite editor of Wood’s Athenee Ozoni- enses, intended to edit Howell’s Letters; this was at length adequately done by Mr Joseph Jacobs in 1890, Howell’s State Trials, the name given the series originated by Cobbett in 1809, 816 HOWELLS HOWLER because vols. xi. to xxi. of this work were edited by Thos. Bayly Howell (1768-1815), and vols. xxii. to xxxiii. by his son, Thos. Jones Howell (died 1858), Howells, WILLIAM DEAN, a popular American novelist, was born at Martin’s Ferry, Ohio, Ist March 1837. His father’s family was of Welsh Quaker origin, and he himself was brought up a Swedenborgian. From an early age he was familiar with press-work, as his father was a busy and not always prosperous printer and journalist ; but his earliest. serious work in journalism was in the Cincinnati Gazette and Columbus State Journal. A _ life of Lincoln, written in 1860, procured him the post of consul at Venice, which he held from 1861 to 1865, making himself master of Italian the while, and writing his able papers, collected in Venetian Life (1866). In America he wrote for the New York Tribune and the Times, the Nation, and the Atlan- tic Monthly, editing the last-named from 1872 to 1881. His later work in periodicals was done for the Century and Harper’s Magazine. Already well known as a first-rate journalist, a fair poet, and a clever critic, he found his real work as a writer of fiction in 1871, when his clever story, Their Weddin Journey, brought him great popularity, whic steadily and deservedly increased with the issue of succeeding novels, of which the best are A Chance Acquaintance (1873), A Foregone Conclusion (1874), A Counterfeit Presentment (1877), The Lady of the Aroostook (1878), The Undiscovered Country (1880), Doctor Breen’s Practice (1883), A Modern Instance (1883), A Woman's Reason (1884), The Rise of Silas Tene (1885), An Indian Summer (1886), Annie Kilburn (1888), A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889), An Imperative Duty (1891), The Quality o Mercy (1892), The Coast of Bohemia (1893), The Landlord at Lion’s Head (1897 ), &e. ; and he has produced several plays. These works reveal their author to us as an artist of great conscientiousness and industry, but of decided shortcomings as well: as gifts. “He is humorous, brilliant, epigrammatic, and acute, but he cannot tell a story, and his ambitious analysis of commonpiace characters is overdone to the extent of tediousness. With all his gifts he is not a great artist in fiction, and he lacks that rare combination of sympathy and humour which gave George Eliot and Mrs Gaskell their insight into what was really generic and human at the heart of the trivialities of everyday life. Howells wastes his strength on the over-elaboration of details, but too often these are not the really significant, and thus the general effect of the whole ees is feeble, @ndistinct, and unsatisfactory. is over-elaborated rather than really refined Bostonians, and his Americans expanding spirit- ually under the new conditions of an ancient civilisation in some Italian city are always care- fully painted and indeed striking portraits, but almost always they fall a little short of the one thing needful—that look of the life which is creation, and which evidently demands the intuition of genius to catch. Howietoun. See PIsciIcULTURE. Howitt, WILLIAM and Mary, whose writings charmed, interested, and instructed the public during the earlier half of the 19th century, may best be treated together. William Howitt, the son of a land-surveyor of good descent, a member of the Society of Friends, was born at Heanor, Derb shire, in 1792, and was educated at Ackworth mie Tam- worth. With no intention of pursuing the busi- ness, he served a four years’ apprenticeship to a builder, carpenter, and cabinet-maker. Possessed of strong literary tastes, and fond of country life and sports, he wrote poems, and an account of a country excursion after the manner of Washington yee On April 16, 1821, William Howitt married Mary Botham, a young lady of kindred tastes (born at Uttoxeter, 12th March 1799), and. they settled at Hanley, to conduct a chemist’s business. After a few months they removed to Nottingham for twelve years of steady and successful literary industry and mental im- rovenient. Their later places of abode were sher, in Surrey, London, Heidelberg, and Rome. The record of their after-life is a record of the books ‘| they wrote, of pleasant travel for literary purposes, while they were on terms of easy intercourse with all their notable contemporaries. In 1852-54, at the height of the gold-fever, William Howitt was in Australia. The Howitts were instrumental in getting £1000 for Miss Meteyard’s life of Wedg- wood, and it was at William Howitt’s suggestion that Mrs Gaskell wrote her first novel. They ~ uitted the Society of Friends in 1847; William Howitt became a believer in spiritualism, and in later life Mary Howitt joined the Catholic com- munion, After a long life of blameless literary industry William Howitt died at Rome, March 3, 1879. Mary Howitt, whose heart and mind ‘ever flowed with love and interest for all her surround- ings,’ composed and wrote from her earliest years, and most people have seen or read some of her poems, ballads: novels, or juvenile’ tales, of which she wrote many. By means of translations she first made the works of F. Bremer and Hans Andersen known to the English public. She wrote for the annuals, for the People’s Journal, Howitt’s Journal, Chambers’s Journal, &e. A ension was bestowed upon her in 1879 by Lord eaconsfield. She died at Rome, January 30, 1888, and her remains were laid beside those of her hus- band in the cemetery of Monte Testaccio. One critic has justly said that W. Howitt and his wife are inseparably associated with all that is enchant- ing in rural England. In their poems, their novels, and the stories of their country rambles they made themselves the exponents of nature, blending the idealism of poetic fancies with pictures that have the realism of photographs. In polities William Howitt was an extreme Radical. Joint produe- tions of William and Mary Howitt were the Forest Minstrel (1827), Desolation of Eyam (1827), Book of the Seasons (1831), Literature and Romances of orthern Europe. (1852), Stories of English Life (1853), and Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain. Wil- liam Howitt’s chief works, besides contributions to newspapers and magazines, were History of Priest- craft (1833); Pantika (1835); Rural Life in England (1837); Visits to Remarkable Places (1838 ; second series, 1841); Colonisation and Christianity (1838); Boy's Country Book (1839); Student Life of Ger- many (1841); Homes and Haunts of the Poets (1847); Land, Labour, and Gold (1855); [liustrated History of England (6 vols. 1856-61); History of the Super: natural (1863); Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand (1865); Mad War Planet, and other Poems (1871). See Mary Howitt, an Autobio- graphy, edited by her daughter, Margaret Howitt (2 vols. 1889). Howitzers (Ger. Haubitzen) are guns which came into use early in the history of field artillery, as portable instruments for discharging shell into a hostile force. As for this purpose no great rang was necessary, a small charge of powder sufficed ; and the howitzer could be made, in proportion to its large bore, extremely light. For modern how- itzers, see CANNON. Howler, Howi1nc_ Monkey, or STENTOR (Mycetes), a genus of Central and South Ameri- can monkeys, remarkable for the dilatation of the hyoid bone into a hollow drum, which com- municates with the larynx, makes a conspicu- HUBERT 817 HOWRAH ous external swelling of the throat, and gives ous power to the voice, enabling these s to emit hideous sounds, which can be heard at least two miles away, and to which all their names refer. They live chiefly among the branches of trees, and take extraordinary lea one to another, taking hold by the tail like most of the American Platyrrhine monkeys, as readily as by the hands, and often swinging by it alone. They are gregarious, and unite their voices in concert, so as to produce a most deafening noise ; this is what Humboldt and others say, but accord- == Oe Wallace it is only one individual at a time which causes all the sound. The monkeys of this genus have a low intelligence, and their brain structure bears out this view. A howler was first pecoghs alive to Europe and exhibited at the Zoological Gardens, London, in 1863. There are apparently not more than six species. f Howrah, or HAurA, a town of India, with a aceares, on the right or west bank of the Hooghly, directly opposite to Calcutta, of which it is practically a suburb. It is connected with Calcutta by a floating bridge (1874), and is the Bengal terminus of the East Indian Railway. Pop. (1872) 97,784 ; (1881) 105,628; (1891) 129,800, Howson, JoHN SAuL, dean of Chester, was born in 1816, and in 1837 took a double first-class at Cambridge. Taking orders eight years later, in 1849 he became Plane of the sr ag College, The complete and in 1867 dean of Chester. restoration of the cathedral was in great measure due to his energy and devotion. He died 15th December 1885. With Conybeare he wrote the well-known Life and Epistles of St Paul (1852). Howth, « peninsula on the east coast of Ire- land, forming the north side of the Bay of Dublin, terminates in a lofty cliff, at the foot of which nestles the village of Howth, the chief fishing- station on that part of the coast. Hoxton, a district of London, partly in Hack- ney, but mainly in Shoreditch ; the Hoxton division pe y part of the parliamentary borough of Shore- 1 ° da Hoy (Seand. Hoey, ‘high island’), one of the Orkneys, 14 mile SW. of Mainland or Pomona. It is 13} miles long, 3 furlongs to 6} miles broad, and 53 sq. m.in area. Unlike the rest of the group, Hoy rises abruptly from the sea, with stupendous cliffs that attain 1140 feet in Bracbrongh or St John’s Head, and 595 in Bervy Hill; inland are Cuilags Hill (1420 feet) and the Ward Hill (1564), commanding a splendid panoramic view. The rocks represent both the Upper and the Lower Old Red Sandstone. Near the south end is the fine natural harbour of Long Hope (54 x 14 miles). The ‘ Dwarfie Stone’ is a sandstone block, 28 feet long, 144 broad, 6} high, with a chamber hollowed out of it; and the ‘Old Man of Hoy’ isan insulated illar of rock, 450 feet high. Pop. (1841) 1486; 1891) 1320. See Tudor’s Orisa (1883). Hoy, « small coasting vessel, differing little, if at all, from the sloop or smack, and often used for conveying goods from a large vessel to the shore. Hoylake, a small watering-place of Cheshire, at the extremity of Wirral peninsula, 8 miles b rail W. of Birkenhead. It has a celebrated golf- links, opened in 1869. Pop. of district, 2519. ; Movie, EDMOND, the creator of whist, was born in 1672, and is said to have been educated for the bar. Little is known about his life, except that he lived for some time in London, writing on games and giving lessons in whist, and died there on 29th August 1769. In 1742 he published his Short Treatise on Whist, containing the laws and some -_ for which he is said to have received £1000, and which in 1763 reached a 13th editio See WHIsT, and ten articles in Notes and Queries for 1889. Hrabanus, See Rasanus Mavrvs. Hradschin. See Pracve. Hualla’‘ga, a river of Peru, rises near the Cerro de Pasco, over 14,000 feet above the sea, flows north on the east side of the Central Cordillera, breaks through the range at the gorge of Chasuta, and enters the Marafion. Its total length is about 650 miles; it is navigable as far as Yurimaguas, above which are falls and rapids. Huamanga,. See AyAcucno. Huanaca, or GUANACO (Lama huanacos ; see LLAMA), a species of the same genus with the llama, vicufia, and alpaca, of which some naturalists suppose it to be the wild original. It is found not only on the Andes, but throughout great part of Patagonia. It is of a reddish-brown colour, the ears and hind-legs gray. It generally lives in herds of ten to forty, and is very quick-sighted and wary ; although such is the strength of its curiosity that hunters attract the herds within easy reach of their rifles by lying down on the ground and kicking their feet in the air. Like its congeners, the Huanaco is extremely sure-footed on rocky ground. Huancaveli'ca, a department of Peru, lyin entirely within the Cordilleras, with an area o 8710 sq. m. Pop. 104,155. The climate is cold and raw on the mountains, where sheep, cattle, and llamas are herded, and hot in the deep valleys, where sugar is grown. The chief riches are in the mines, especially of silver and quicksilver.—The capital, Huancavelica, 150 miles SE. of Lima, is a dreary mining town in the sierras ; pop. 4000. Huanchaca, seat of the chief silver mines in Bolivia (q.v. ). Huan‘uco, a department of Peru, with an area of over 13,000 sq. m. Mining and agriculture are the chief industries. Pop. 78,856.—The capital, Huanuco, lies in a lovely valley on the Huallaga, amid plantations of coffee and sugar. It is a bishop's see. Pop. 5300. Huber, FRAncois, author of a book on the habits of bees, was born at Geneva, July 2, 1750, and died, 22d October 1830, at iy ist near his birthplace. At an early age he lost his eye- sight, but with the assistance of his wife and an intelligent domestic he conducted a number of original and important observations on the habits of Mesa. His book first appeared as Lettres a Ch. Bonnet (1792); it was reprinted in 1796, and again in 1814, under the title of Nowvelles Observations sur es Abeilles. In his later years he derived important aid from his son, Jean Pierre (1777- 1841), who wroté a valuable treatise on the Habits of Ants (1810). Hubert, St, Bishop of Liége, was son of Ber- trand, Duke of Guienne, and was born in 656. He lived a luxurious and worldly life, first at the court of the Frankish king Theoderich, next under Pepin of Heristal, but after the death of his wife retired from the world into a monastery, on the advice of Bishop Lambert. Afterwards, when on a pilgrim- age to Rome, he was made by Pope Sergius I. Bishop of Tongern, and in 708 succeeded his master, Lambert, in the see of Maestricht and Liége. He died in 727, and was afterwards canonised ; his festival falls on November 3. He has been patron of orders of knighthood in Bavaria and Bohemia. See the books by Fétis (1846), Des Granges (1872), and Heggen (1875). In legend and in art, since the 15th century, St Hubert appears as a mighty hunter who was startled into repentance when hunt- ing on Good Friday by the sudden appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a radiant crucifix. 818 HUBERTUSBURG HUDSON At once he renounced hunting and all worldly pleasures, and became after his canonisation the patron saint of hunters. His aid is especially effi- cacious for persons bitten by mad dogs and those possessed with devils. See H. Gaidoz, La Rage et St Hubert (1887). Hubertusburg, formerly a royal hunting-seat of Saxony, 25 miles E. by 4 from Leipzig, built in 1721 by Prince Frederick Augustus, afterwards King Augustus III, of Poland. It was much in- jured during the Seven Years’ War; and there on 15th February 1763 was signed the treaty by which that war was ended. Since 1840 the build- ings have served as a prison, a hospital, an asylum for the insane, and a refuge for idiot children. Hubli, a town of Dharwar in the presidency of _ Bombay, stands on a good road leading to Karwar on the Malabar coast, 102 miles to the south-west. It contains (1891) 52,595 inhabitants, and is one of the principal cotton-marts in that section of India. Hiibner, Rupotr Jutius Benno, German painter, was born at Oels, in Silesia, 27th January 1806. He studied at Diisseldorf, to which school of painting he belongs. In 1841 he was a pointed professor of Painting in the academy at resden, and was director of the picture-gallery from 1871 to 1882, in which year he died, 7th November, at Loschwitz, near Dresden. Among his pictures are ‘Job and his Friends,’ ‘Charles V. in San Yuste,’ ‘Frederick the Great in Sansouci,’ ‘The Golden Age,’ and ‘The Dispute between Luther and Dr Eck.’ He also designed glass paintings, including some for the crypt of Glasgow Cathedral. Hue, Evariste Riais, French missionary and traveller, was born at Toulouse, August 1, 1813. Almost immediately after his ordination he joined in 1839 the missionary expedition of his order, the Lazarist Fathers, to China. In 1844 Hue, in company with Pere Gabet and a single native con- vert, set out with the intention of penetrating to the unknown land of Tibet, pevoull the terrible desert of Gobi. But it was not until January 1846 that they succeeded in reaching Lhassa, the capital of Tibet, and the residence of the Dalai Lama. And scarcely had they settled in that city and started a mission, when an order for their immedi- ate expulsion from the country was obtained by the Chinese resident in Lhassa. They were conveyed back to Canton. Huce’s health having completely broken down, he returned to France in 1852. His Asiatic experiences are recorded in Souvenirs dun Voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine estat a les Années 1844-46 (2 vols. Paris, 1850 ; ng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851-52), and L’ Empire Chinois (2 vols. 1854; Eng. trans. 1855). He also wrote Le Christianisme en Chine (4 vols. 1857-58 ; Eng. trans. 1857-58). The strangeness of some of the incidents recorded in the book on Tibet provoked some degree of incredulity; but the testimony of later travellers in the same regions fully corroborates the truth of Huc’s narrative. He died at Paris in March 1860. Huckaback, a coarse kind of linen cloth, figured somewhat like damask, and usually em- ployed for table-cloths and towelling. Huckleberry. See WHORTLEBERRY. Huddersfield, a ‘clothing town’ in the West Riding of Yorkshire, a municipal and county borough, 26 miles NE. of Manchester, 15 S. of Bradford, 17 SW. of Leeds, and 189 NNW. of London. Well built of stone and regular, it occu- pax a considerable extent of high ground, sloping own to the left bank of the Colne, which here receives the Holme ; and it owes its rapid extension to its situation in a rich coal-district, to its abund- ant water-power, and to its transit facilities by rail and canal. Among the chief edifices are the circular cloth-hall (1768-80); the railway station (1848), with a marble statue of Peel (1875) before it; the classical town-hall (1880); the market- hall (1880); and the infirmary (1831-74). The Mechanics’ Hall (1848) developed into the Technical School (1883). The first parish church of Hudders- field was built before 1110, rebuilt in Tudor times, and again (unhappily before the revival of architecture) in 1835. Xt John’s (1853) was designed by Butterfield, and St Thomas’ (1859) by Sir G. G. Scott. The Beaumont Park, 21 acres in area, was opened by the Duke of Albany in 1883, and there also is Greenhead Park of 26 acres. Huddersfield is the chief seat in the north of Eng- land of what is called the ‘ fancy trade,’ and every description of plain woollen goods is also manu- factured; whilst other industries are cotton and silk spinning, iron-founding, machine-making, &e. Roman remains have been found here; but Hud- © dersfield has no history to speak of. In 1750 Bishop Pococke described it as ‘a little town.’ It was enfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832, and made a municipal borough in 1868, the boundary having been greatly extended the year before. Pop. Sr 34,877 ; (1871) 74,358 ; (1881) 86,502 ; (1891) Hudson, a river in New York, and one of the most beautiful and important in America. _ It rises in the Adirondack Mountains, 4326 feet above the level of the sea, its head-streams the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glen’s Falls it has a fall of 50 feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a ite line to its mouth, at New York city. It is tidal up to Troy, 151 miles from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply daily be- tween New York and Albany. Below Newburg, 60 miles from New York, the river enters the high- lands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of 1600 feet. Hines historical associations add to the interest of scenery of singular beauty and grandeur : here was the scene of Arnold’s treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United States military academy, 8 miles below Newburg, are the ruins of Fort Putnam, built during the war of independence. Emergin from the highlands, the river widens into a bro: expanse called Tappan Bay, which is 44 miles wide “ae 13 long. Below, on the Se bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of 300 to 510 feet, and extends for nearly 20 miles to the upper portion of ~ the city of New York. The river from here is known as the North River, and is from 1 to 2 miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about 350 miles, and its principal tributaries are the Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill. The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries. The Hudson River Railway, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the east bank. The river, named from the English navigator who explored it in 1609, is connecte by canals with Lakes Erie and Champlain, and wit the Delaware River. In 1894 a ag eR bridge connecting New York and Jersey City was sanc- tioned, and the plans approved in 1895. Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was made on this river in 1807. See ‘Our River,’ by John Burroughs, in Scribner’s Monthly (August 1880); the Panorama of the Hudson (as far as Albany ; New York, 1888) ; and Wallace Bruce, The Hudson (1895). Hudson, capital of Columbia county, New York, stands on the left bank of the Hudson River, and on the Hudson River Railroad, 116 miles N. of New York city. It extends along a high ridge HUDSON HUDSON BAY COMPANY 819 ending in « bold promontory, at whose foot are the wharves; its former West Indian trade and its whale-fisheries have been abandoned, but it has still an active river-trade. Hudson has a fine court-house, a city hall, several foundries and blast- furnaces, and manufactures of fire-engines, paper, leather, flour, &e. Pop. (1900) 9528. Hudson, Grorce, the ‘Railway King,’ was born near York in March 1800. There he subse- uently carried on business as a linen-draper. In- heriting a fortune of £30,000 in 1828, Hudson with- drew from business, and began to interest himself in local politics and in railway apeeatotion: He became The ruling spirit of the York and North Midland Railway Company ; and his ventures and schemes for oe aye various railway com- ies were attended with extraordinary success. udson was elevated to the dictatorship of rail- way 5 cgeeesege Everything he touched turned to gold. He bought large estates, was three times elected lord mayor of York, and was sent to oe cae by the electors of Sunderland (1845). But the railway mania of 1847-48 plunged him into ruin. He was aceused of having ‘ cooked’ the accounts of companies with which he was con- nected, and of having paid dividends out of capital. roceedings were instituted against him, and his suddenly-acquired gains were almost Tr swept away. he constituency of Sunderland, owever, continued to elect him as their repre- sentative until March 1859. He afterwards lived in comparatively narrow circumstances, and died in London, December 14, 1871. Hudson, Henry, a distinguished navigator, of whom we know nothing before April 1607, when we find him starting, in a small vessel with ten sailors, on his first unfortunate voyage for the discovery of a north-east p: . In his second voyage in 1608 he reached Nova Zembla. He undertook a third voyage in 1609 from Amsterdam, at the expense of the Dutch East India Company. Giving up all hope of finding a north-east p : he sailed for Davis Strait, then steered southwards in search of a passage, discovered the mouth of the river which now bears his name, and sailed up its waters for 150 miles.. He sailed upon _his last voyage in April 1610, in the Diéscoverie of 70 tons, and reached Greenland in June. Steering westward, he discovered the strait now known as Hudson Strait, and passed through it, and entered the great bay which has received the name of ’ Hudson Bay. Although very insufficiently sup- _— with provisions, he resolved to winter in these esolate regions, in order to prosecute his dis- coveries further in the following spring. The food fell short, and the men, dissatisfied with Hudson’s determination to continue the voyage, mutinied, and cast him adrift in a shallop, with eight others, on Midsummer Day 1611. The real ringleaders per- ished miserably in a scuffle with savages, and the survivors, after great suffering, reached England. See George Asher’s Henry Hudson, the Navigator (Hakluyt Society, 1860). Hudson Bay, a gulf, or rather inland sea, in the north-east of North America, is completely landlocked bir on the north, where Southamp- ton Island and Fox Channel lie between it and the Arctic Ocean, and where Hudson Strait, running 500 miles south-east, connects it with the Atlantic. Including its south-eastern extension, James's Bay (q.v.), it measures about 1000 miles in length and 600 in average width, and has an area of some 500,000 sq. m. The eastern shore, called the East Main, is for the most part rocky, and is fenced with several small islands ; the western shore, the West Main, is generally flat. This sea, the great drain- age reservoir of the Canadian North-west Terri- tories, receives the precipitation from over an area of nearly 3,000,000 sq. m. Of the numerous rivers which bring down this water only two need be mentioned—the Churchill, whose deep and narrow mouth forms the best harbour on the shores of Hudson Bay, and the Nelson, of whose total course of 400 miles only 70 or 80 are navigable. Hitherto the only business that has been to any extent develo in this region has been the fur trade of the Hudson Bay Company (q.v.), though fish-oil has also been ex bees Of late years, however, a movement has been on foot for openin up a direct communication from England with Mani- toba and the North-west of Canada by way of Hud- son Bay and Strait. The scheme provides for a railway from Winnipeg to Fort Nelson on the bay, a distance of 650 miles, of which 40 miles were con- structed by the end of 1890. The chief objection to the project is that, although the bay is quite easy to navigate, and is only covered with ice in winter to a distance of about 10 miles from the shore, yet the passage of Arctic drift-ice through Fox Channel and Hudson Strait in early summer renders the sue- cessful navigation of the latter waterway somewhat uncertain. The strait can, however, be traversed by vessels on an average for about three months annually. This route would effect a saving of 775 miles as compared with the route by way of Mon- eel and of 1130 as compared with that by New ork. See Captain W. Coats’s Geoyraphy of Hudson’s Bay, 1727-51, edited by J. Barrow for the Hakluyt Society (1852) ; Dr Robert Bell in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1881); W. Shelford in National Review (1886); and C. R. Mark- ham in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1888). Hudson Bay Company, 2 corporation formed in 1670 by Prince Rupert and seventeen noblemen and gentlemen for importing into Great Britain furs and skins obtained by barter from the Indians of North America. The company was invested with the absolute proprietorship and the exclusive right of traffic over an undefined territory, which, under the name of Rupert’s Land, comprised all the regions discovered, or to be discovered, within the entrance of Hudson Strait. This was taken as meaning all lands that drained into Hudson Bay or Hudson Strait. For more than a century, however, the grantees confined themselves to the coast dis- tricts. Down to 1713 they had also to contend ainst the hostile acts of the French of Canada, 2 destroyed their forts, ruined their goods, and captured their ships. But after Canada passed from the French to the British in 1763 adventurers from the great lakes began to penetrate, in quest of ltry, far up the Saskatchewan towards the Rocky Mountaian. And their enterprises, coming to be prosecuted with more systematic energy, led in 1783 to the formation of the North-west Fur Com- pany of Montreal. After a period of stubborn competition, the Hudson Bay ere A coalesced with its formidable opponent in 1821. The sphere of their labours was now practically coincident with all British North America, between the Pacific and Atlantic, and the Arctic Ocean and the United States. In 1838 the Hudson Bay Compan again acquired the sole right of trading for itself for a period of twenty-one years ; on the expiry of this concession the fur trade in British North America was thrown open to the world. Finally, in 1869, the company made a formal cession to the British government of whatever territorial claims remained, receiving an indemnity of £300,000 from the Dominion of Canada, to which the whole territories were forthwith annexed. It was, how- ever, stipulated that the company should retain all its forts, with 50,000 acres and one-twentieth of all the land lying within the ‘fertile belt’ from the Red: River to the Rocky Mountains. Besides still 4 820 HUE HUGGINS carrying on the business of collecting furs, the company now derives a large income from the sale of these conceded lands. See Fitzgerald’s Examination of the Charter, and Mont- gomery Martin’s Hudson’s Bay Company's Territories, both published in 1849, Butler’s Great Lone Land (1872), and H. M. Robinson’s Great Fur Land ( New York, 1879). Hué, the capital of Annam, 10 miles from the mouth of the Hué River, or Truongtien. In 1801 it was strongly fortified by French officers. The heart of the city is occupied by the palace ; much of the rest of it is composed of mud huts. Since before Annam became a French protectorate, there has been a.French resident at Hué; and since the treaty of Hué in 1884 there is a French garrison in Thuanan, the port of Hué. There is little industry in Hué, which has a population of 30,000 (with suburbs, 50,000), including a number of Chinese. See ANNAM. Hue and Cry, a phrase derived from the old rocess of pursuit with horn and voice, used in old English law to describe the pursuit of felons. Whoever arrested the person pursued was _ pro- tected ; and it was the duty of all persons to join in a hue and ery. The Hue Cry, a police azette for advertising criminals, was established in 1710. Hueffer, FRANCIS, musical critic and Pro- vencal scholar, was born at Miinster, in West- halia, in 1845, studied at Berlin, Leipzig, and aris, and settled in London in 1869. He soon became an authority on music, was musical critic of the Times, and was recognised as the champion in Britain of Wagner and Wagnerian music. In 1869 he edited the Provencal poet Guillem de Cabestanh, and in 1878 published The Vrouba- dours: a History of Provencal Life and Literature in the Middie Ages. Two works on Wagner were from his pen—one in 1874, the other in the ‘ Great Musicians’ series, in 1881. He died January 19, 1889. Huelva, a thriving town of Spain; situated near the confluence of the Odiel and the Tinto, 68 miles by rail WSW. of Seville. Fishing and the Temes of esparto grass are the chief industries, uelva is the port for the important Rio Tinto copper-mines, in British hands, and a shipping place for wine. An iron pier was erected in 1889-90. Some 500,000 tons of copper ore, 450,000 of iron ore, besides manganese, quicksilver, wine, &c. are annually exported ; the imports, especially coal and coke, iron and steel, amount to 150,000 tons. Pop, 19,000.—The province of Huelva has an area of 3913 sq. m., and a pop. of 250,000. Huerta, VICENTE GARCIA DE LA, a Spanish oet and critic, was born in 1730 at Zafra, in istremadura, but spent the greater part of his life in Madrid, where he was head of the Royal Library, and where he died on 12th March 1787. His tragedy of Raquel (1778), founded upon the story of the love of King Alfonso VIII. for the fair Jewess Rachel, was received with great enthusiasm, and is still esteemed one of the best of modern Spanish tragedies. Huerta was a zealous but not always consistent opponent of the prevailing Galli- cism of his own day. As a lyric and dramatic poet he shows great command of language and versifi- cation. His poems were published in two volumes in 1778-79, and again in Biblioteca de Autores Eispatioles (vol. lxi.). Huerta edited the Teatro Espaiiol (17 vols. 1785-86), a collection of the best works of the older Spanish dramatists. Huesea, a very old and picturesque town of es on the Isuela, 55 miles by a branch-line NE. of Saragossa. Among its chief buildings are the cathedral (1400-1515), a beautiful Gothic edifice ; the Romanesque church of San Pedro (1150-1241) ; the university, founded in 1354 by Pedro IV. ; and a former palace of the kings of Aragon. The Osea of the Romans, where Sertorius was murdered in 72 B.c., Huesca afterwards became famous as a seat of learning. Tanning and manufactures of linens are here carried on to some extent. Pop. 13,043.—The province of Huesca has an area of 5848 sq. m., and a pop. (1887) of 254,958. Huescar, a town of Spain, 75 miles NE. of Granada. Pop. 7760. Huet, PIrRRE DANIEL, French scholar and bay was born at Caen, February 8, 1630. e was educated in the Jesuit school of Caen, and became a zealous pupil of Descartes and of Bochart. The latter he accompanied on a visit to Stockholm in 1652, when he discovered and tran- scribed the MS. of Origen which was the basis of his celebrated edition of that father fifteen years later. On his return home he gave himself up entirely to study. In 1661 he published his essa: De Interpretatione. In 1670 he was appointed with Bossuet tutor of the dauphin, and in the same year wrote his Essai sur l’Origine des Romains. He took an active part also in preparing the Delphin edition of the classics. Having in 1676 taken holy orders, he was sticcessively abbot of Aunay (1678), Bishop of Soissons (1685) and Avranches (1692), and ebbot of Fontenay (1699). In 1679 appeared one of his most important books, Demonstratio Evangelica. In 1701 he withdrew to the Jesuits’ ‘house in Paris, where he died, 26th January 1721. During his episcopal career Huet published a couple of books on the Cartesian philosophy, another on reason and faith, and another on the site of the earthly paradise. To his latest years belong His- toire du Commerce et de la Navigation des Ancients (1716), and his autobiographical memoirs (1718). His works were published in a collected form in 1712, and a volume of Huetiana appeared in 1722. In this latter year Huet’s Traité de la Faiblesse de VEsprit Humaine, which excited much contro- versy, first saw the light. See his Latin autobio- graphy (1713), the French Life by Bartholomess (1850), and an article in the Quarterly, 1855. Hufeland, CuristopH WILHELM, German hysician, was born on 12th August 1762, at barenenisa. in Thuringia. After studying at Jena and Géttingen, he was appointed physician to the court of Weimar, where his father and his andfather had previously filled the same office. Tn 1793 he was appointed professor of Medicine at Jena, and in 1798 went to Berlin to preside over the medical college there and the Charité Hospital. On the foundation of the university of Berlin in 1809 he became one of its professors. He died 25th August 1836. He had a very high reputation for skill as a physician, was greatly esteemed for his intellectual abilities and his fine character, and founded a number of benevolent societies and institutions. Of his published works the most notable were the famous Makrobiotzk, or the art of prolonging life (1796; 8th ed. 1889), which Was translated into almost all the languages of Europe; a work on the physical education of the young (1799; 12th ed. 1875); and Enchiridion Medicum (1836; 10th ed. 1857). Hug, JOHANN LEONHARD, Catholic theologian, was born at Constance, June 1, 1765, entered into riest’s orders in 1789, was appointed a professor of Pheclogy at Freiburg in 1791, and died there, 11th March 1846. The most important fruit of his biblical researches was his Introduction to the New Testament (2 vols. 1808), which was translated into most of the European languages (Eng. by D. G. Wait, 1827). Huggins, Sir WILLIAM, K.C.B. (1897), astrono- mer, was born in London on 7th February 1824. HUGH HUGHES 821 Whilst still a youth his mind was attracted to the study of chemistry, magnetism, and allied branches of shiysical science. In 1852 he was elected a member of the Microscopical Society, and for some years laboured at the study of physiology, animal and vegetable, with the microscope. But having in 1855 built for his own private use an observatory at Upper Tulse Hill, near London, he began what proved to be the principal work of his lifetime ——the study of the physical constitution of stars, ets, comets, and nebule. By researches on sun’s spectra and the spectra of certain comets, he ascertained that the luminous properties of the former are not the same as the luminous properties of the latter. Since 1875 he has been engaged photographing the ultra-violet parts of the spectra of the stars. He has also determined the amount of heat that reaches the earth from some of the fixed stars. Mr Huggins was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1865. He was twice awarded the medal of the same society and twice the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1874 he became corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, and three years later corre- peeing member of the Royal Society of Géttin- gen. rom 1876 to 1878 he was president of the yal Astronomical Society. augh, Sr, of Avalon, Bishop of Lincoln, was born of noble family at Avalon in Burgundy about 1135. On his mother’s death his father entered a priory of regular canons at Villarbenoit, carrying with him the boy, then but eight years old. At nineteen he was ordained deacon, and was already remarkable for his holiness of life and ascetic austerity. Ere long he was attracted by the severer discipline of the Grande Chartreuse, and thither he repaired, although he had taken an oath to his superior not to doso. Here he remained ten years, received his priest’s orders, and was for his prac- tical ability appointed bursar to the monastery. His fame came to the ears of Henry II., who pre- vailed upon him to accept the government of the struggling Carthusian monastery at Witham in Somersetshire, and summoned him hence in May 1186 to fill the bishopric of Lincoln. For fourteen years he governed his diocese with great wisdom and vigour, retiring every year a short time to Witham for his soul’s health. His unworldly holiness pare him great influence, not only over Henry I1., but also his successors Richard and John. He did not leave off his frank outspoken- ness of speech and his quick wit even in the pres- ence of the king. ithal his charity was so remarkable that even the Jews of Lincoln are said to have wept at his funeral. All his life he had been notable for his love of birds, and at his resi- dence at Stow, near Lincoln, he had a pet swan whose affection for its master appeared to beholders to be more than natural. The swan usually appears in representations of the saint. Soon after his accession to the episcopal throne he had begun with vigour the rebuilding of his cathedral, and he lived to see the completion of the choir and eastern transepts. But indeed, with the exception of the — tery, the entire church, as it now dominates ncoln, was conceived in the mind of Hugh’s archi- tect, and gradually perfected under his successors. Hugh visited his native country in 1200, and on his return journey was seized with illness, and died at London 16th November 1200. He was canonised in 1220, and for long miracles were wrought at his tomb, and his cult was almost as popular as that of St Thomas in the south. Both the Metrical Life of St Hugh of Avalon (1860) and the Magna Vita S. Hugonis (1864), the latter most likely written by his domestic chaplain, Adam, abbot of Evesham, were edited by the Rev. J. F. Dimock. A Life by Giraldus is printed in vol, vii. (1877) of the works of Giraldus Cambrensis. See also Canon Perry's Life of St Hugh of Avalon (1879). Hugh of Lincoln, « boy supposed to have been murdered by the Jews of Lincoln, as told both in English traditional ballads and early chronicles. Professor Child (No. 155) gives no fewer than eighteen versions of ballads on this theme, which agree marvellously even in detail. A group of boys playing at foot or at hand ball are joined by the young Hugh or Sir Hugh, who drives the ball through a Jew’s window, is enticed into the house by the Jew’s daughter, cruelly murdered and flung into a well, from which he speaks miracu- lously, whereby the murder is discovered. The story of Hugh of Lincoln is told in the Annals of Waverley, under the year 1255, by a contemporary writer. Here the boy is tortured by the Jews, and finally crucified in contempt of Christ. His body is discovered by miraculous means, and eighteen Jews are hanged for their share in the crime. Additional circumstances are found in Matthew Paris. The story occurs simultaneously in several Anglo-French ballads; and Chaucer's Prioresses Tale is an artistic elaboration of the theme. We find more or less circumstantial versions of the same story not only at Lincoln, but at Nor- wich, Gloucester, London, and Northampton ; at Blois, at Saragossa, and Valladolid; at Frisingen and Zurich; at Prague and Cracow, Pavia and Venice, and very frequently among the German pennies as at Vienna, Erfurt, Magdeburg, Mainz, unich, Breslau, and Ratisbon. Besides the desire to deride the Passion, an additional motive was invented, that the Jews sought to obtain blood for use in the Paschal rites—a charge ridiculously at variance both with Jewish precept and practice. This singular notion has survived persistently for over 600 years, and has formed a pretext for cruel and shameful wrong down to our own day. It is still a firmly-held popular notion in Russia, Hun- gary, at Smyrna and Alexandria; indeed it was only so late as August 1883 that fifteen Jews were acquitted after over a year’s imprisonment for the alleged kidnapping of a young girl at Tisza-Eszlar, and that the good Christians of Budapest plundered the Jewish shops in their disappointment. See the Chaucer Society’s Originals and Analogues of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales for 1875-76; Child’s English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1888); and The Life and Miracles of St William of Norwich, edited by Jessopp and James (1897). Hugh Capet. See CareTian Dynasty. Hughenden (locally Hitchendon), a parish of Buckinghamshire, among the Chiltern Hills, 2 miles N. of High Wycombe. ughenden Manor, a large brick three-story mansion, mostly modern, was purchased before 1847 by Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield. It is rich in interesting ae spd and in its terraced gardens are trees planted by Queen Victoria in 1877 and the Prince of Wales in 1880. The ancient parish church, much restored in 1874, contains a monument to the earl, erected by the Queen ; and in its vault he lies buried by the side of Lady Beaconsfield. Hughes, Tuomas, author of Tom Brown's School-days, second son of John Hughes, ats of Donnington Priory, near Newbury, in Berkshire, was born at Uffington, Berks, October 23, 1823. He was educated at Rugby under the celebrated Dr Arnold ; entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1841, and took his degree of B.A. in 1845; was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1848, and became a member of the Chancery Bar. In 1856 he gave to the world Jom Brown's School-days, a vivid and truthful picture of life at Rugby, evidently written from the author’s own boyish impressions. It is the highest praise to say that it admirably supple- 822 HUGLI HUGO ments Stanley’s life as a picture of the greatest of modern teachers. It was followed in 1858 by The Scouring of the White Horse; in 1861 by Tom Brown at Oxford, in which the mental history of his hero is continued, with sketches of college life and incidents ; and in 1869 by Alfred the Great. Hughes pursued meanwhile the practice of the law, became Q.C. in 1869, and a County Court judge in 1882. He associated early with Maurice and Kings- ley in their work of social and sanitary reform among the London poor, and while he had gained the con- fidence and good-will of the working-classes by his endeavours to promote a better understanding between masters and men, and by teaching the latter the value of co-operation, he has never failed courageously to rebuke the narrow prejudices and mischievous views held by certain members of trades-unions. At the general election for Lam- beth in 1865 he was placed at the head of the oll. He was returned for Frome in 1868, which e continued to represent till 1874, and always took a prominent part in debates relating to trades- unions and the like. In 1880 he assisted in found- ing a settlement in the United States, described in Rugby, Tennessee (1881). He also wrote Memoirs of a Brother (1873), Lives of Daniel Macmillan (1882) and Bishop Fraser (1887), Vacation Rambles (1895), and the article MAURICE in thiswork. He died 22d March 1896. Hiigli. See HoogHiy. j(y+,,¢* Hugo, Victor-MARIE (1802-85), was the son of a Lorrainer and a Breton, and was born at Besancon. His father, General Hugo, was on active service, so that his earlier years were mostly spent in the track of the emperor’s armies. He was educated partly in Paris at the Feuillantines (1809-11, 1813-15), partly in Madrid (1812), and partly at the Ecole olytechnique, where he read mathematics and: practised poetry. At fourteen he produced a tragedy; at fifteen he went near to winning a prize at an Académie competition ; and _at twenty, when he published his first set of es é a es see), he” had” thiieé™ been vietor a e ‘Flora ames .of. Toulouse. The next year, being by this time a married man and the enfant sublime of M. de Chateaubriand, he published his Hans d’Islande (1823), that wild and whirling romance of an impossible Iceland ; and followed it up with Bug-Jargal (1824), a second set of Ones et Baltades (1826), and the famous Cromueve , thanks to which last— a tragedy even then impossible to act and now almost as difficult to read— ame ost eons nonaa Bence te Setbetic France For Ro- icism—that protest in action against the effete and hidebound kat at of the age of Louis XIV.—was now by way of being an accomplished fact; and the preface to Cromwell was greeted with an enthusiasm of approval on the one hand and of detestation on the other in these days not easy to understand. In its way, indeed, it is a document of singular importance in literary history. . It is largely compacted of paradox and antithesis no doubt; and no doubt its premises are mostly dubious and its conclusions not more than fantastic. Bu it asserted the artist’s right to be as Shakespearian—thafis, as Tawless—as he Teased and it was So complete y a declaration of sarepend. i ence, and a decree of emancipation, that, whatever happens, the literature of France can never wholly recover from its effect. The time indeed was big with revolution and with change, and Hugo’s manifesto was accepted by the Romanticists with the solemnity of absolute conviction, so that he instantly took is_place. by _tight of genius and authority at the heal of the literary host. “He was fully équal to the charge cee eel his function so. seriously that to_his followers he was not much below divinity Itself. is Sai at he made himself a forehead; and it is certain that while M. Rodin’s magnificent bust of him is far less suggestive of Apollo than of Hercules, the Hugo brew—enormous, radiant, ‘prone with excess of mind ’—appears and reappears in contemporary caricature with all the persistency and more than the effect of Gillray’s view of the ‘ Bottomless Pitt.’ It is certain, too, that the first sketch of his life and work that got into print was written in his own house, and was the work of his own wife; — and as Mme. Hugo never wrote again, it is legiti- mate to argue that the hero may very possibly have lent a hand to the epic. But he never ceased from achievement; and ~hi j -his_achievement wos inevitably that_of—a_great_artist_in_ speech. n 1828 he published his Orientales, wherein he revealed himself for such a master of rhythms, such an inventor in style, such an adept in the mystery of the use of words as France had never seen. ‘The year 1830 was the great seat of Her- nani—the first in fact and the second in time o those ‘ five-act_lyrics’ of which Hugo’s drama is composed. In so far as it relates to drama— material, structure, amount, movement, the pre- sentation_of emotion in action—thé question been settled new-and"for all time by Dumas the year before; but Dumas was not a writer in the sense that Hugo was, and the battle of style was still to fight, and the battlefield was the ThéAtre- Frangais, and the casus belli was Herncni. It_is ent of the verse so_brilliantly written, the movem is 80 Victorious and the diction iS“S0~gorgeous, that even now it takes one time and patience and a certain familiarity to see that, while con- structed in the formula of Henri Trois et sa Cour, it is no more a play than Samson Agonistes. In those days men had neither time nor patience, while as for familiarity! ... It was enough that to one side the verse was incomparable, and that to another it was the Accursed Thing. As Hugo took care to pack as much of the house as he could get made over to him with Romantics, and as on the other part the Classicists were to the full as eager for the quarrel, the question of what is and what is not style was argued for many nights on end with a vehemence—sometimes attaining to the inspiration of assault and battery—which has made 1830, as the year of H , a sacred da anticism.> In 1831 Hugo lished Notre Dame de Paris, a pretentious but picturesque and moving historical romance in which he enters into competition with Sir Walter and comes badly off, and Les Feuilles d@ Automne, a sheaf of lyric and contemplative verse in which is included some of his best fea ; and brought out his best play, Marion Delorme, at the ThéAtre-Francais. In 1832 he produced Le Roi samuse, which was interdicted after the first night, and of which the best that can be said is that it is superbly written and that it has gone the round of the world as Rigoletto. The next year was that of Luecréce Borgia and Marie Tudor, the first a good and stirring melodrama, the second a farrago of unveracities of all kinds— moral, historical, dramatic, and the rest; in 1834 came Claude Gueux, which is pure humanitarian sentimentalism, and the Littérature et Philosophie Mélées, a collection of juvenilia in prose, all care- fully dated and all as carefully rewritten or revised. Followed in 1835 Angelo, a third melo- a Sh eS HU GO 823 drama in prose, and the admirable lyrism of Les Chants du C cule; in 1836 La Esmeralda (an rh) for Mdlle. Bertin); in 1837, Les Voix In- leures, in which, as in Les Feuilles d’ Automne, the poet’s genius of diction is held by some to have found its noblest expression; in.1838, Rw Blas, after Hernani the most fz 3 stare hapsod ps : S40 f ; and in 1d , 468 yet another collection of brilliant and sonorous verse; after which the prodigious affluence of creativeness to which all those were due appears to ave been momentarily exhausted. Certain it is that Hugo published no more until 1843, when he again failed at the Francais with that ponderous trilogy of Les Burgraves, surcharged with as it were an A’schylean sentimentalism. His next essay in pure art was not put forth till 1856, the dozen or fifteen years between bei urge . In this latter capacity it was that he sat for the city of Paris in the Assemblée Constituante. There he voted now with the Right and now with the Left, so that, when on his election to the Assemblée Législative he threw in his lot with the democratic republicans, the reproach of apostasy was by no means un- founded. It is not clear that he would have been finally content with any change in the condition of | 1 things at this time—always excepting such a turn of the wheel as would have brought himself to the top and kept him there as a kind of emperor by the grace of genius and the democracy. But it is plain that he was bitterly dissatisfied with thin as they were, even as it is plain that he could neither endure the eminence of Montalembert nor consider with patience and dignity the fact of the pularity of the prince-president. In 1852, after he coup d’état, he withdrew to Jersey, whence he issued his Napoléon le Petit, perhaps the most mannered and the least literary of all his works, and in 1853 Les Chdtiments, which is certainly the greatest achievement in the fusion of pure poetry with political and personal satire in all literature. Three years after oat Les Contemplations, a gathering of poems elegiacal, reflective, and lyrical, remarkable tor beauty of expression and compara- tive simplicity of style ; and three years after that the wonderful and often bewildering Légende des Siécles (1859). Still another silence of three years was broken by the as (in ten languages) of Les Misérables (1862), a panoramic romance of modern life, mannered beyond measure in style and abounding in absurdities and longueurs, but includ- ing also not a little of Hugo’s sincerest and most touching invention and achievement; and this in x=mon p 2 was chosen to repre- sent the Seine, but soon resigned his seat on the by the Right. He stayed on throngh the rule of the Commune, and defended the Vend6me Colamn while he could; and then, departing for Brussels, he protested publicly against the action of the Bel- gian government in respect of the beaten Com- , munists, the effects of which proceeding were that the populace rose against him, and that he was expelled the kingdom. Again he stood for Paris, but was beaten by a majority of 27,000 on a register of 231,000. In 1872 he published L’ Année Terrible, a series of pictures of the war, diatribes against Germany, and eulogies of France, which are often eloquent and are sometimes poetry ; in 1874 his last romance in prose, the much-debated Quatre-Vingt-Treize ; in 1875-76 a complete collee- tion of his speeches and addresses. In 1876 he was made a senator, and published the second part of the Légende ; 1877 was the year of the Histoire dun Crime, which has been fairly enough described as ‘the apotheosis of the Special Correspondent,’ and of L’ Art @étre Grand-peére, wherein, with much charming verse, are good store of conceits and no small amount of what some one has called ‘the pedantry of sentimentalism ;’ 1878 and 1879 enriched us with Le Pape—a piece humanitarian, anti-clerical, and above all theatrical, which they may praise who can—and La Pitié Supréme, the effect of which is much the same, and which—like L’ Ane (1880), and a great. deal of Les Quatre Vents de VEsprit (1881), and TYorquemada (1882)—is merely» Hugo in decay. j words remains ifivariable, his accomplishment is alway terousness f ; he Sa prey any of the eternal unveracities he may chance to encounter ; his philosophy ’ is_.2. mere __ eff LEC as wavs is_de- so that he ides in error with a seriousness ridiculous indeed. But genius is always genius, and temperament never ceases” from being temperament ; andthe n is ment an ae ental and emotional activity. So that Hugo died the of Tattors of his Gon wat they were few indeed who grudged him the public funeral with which he was dignified, and in which the pauper’s hearse that bore him tombwards—(the invention was wholly his own )—was followed by the best and the worst of living France. Hugo’s work is vitiated as an expression of life by the presence of an abounding insincerity in combination with a quality of self-sufficiency so inordinate as scarce to be distinguished now and then from an immense stupidity. In truth he does but seem to create: his personages—Cimourdain, Josiane, Didier, Ursus, Ruy Gomez de Silva, Claude Frollo, Lantenac, Lucréce Borgia, Javert, and Myriel, the very pieuvre of Les Travailleurs de la Mer, are all expressions not of humanity but of Victor Hugo. u woul ieve in them j if you could ; but you cannot, for he takes care to mee belief im i y 7 S103 magnificently written, and have all had_ their hance oF Temortanty But their author is Victor , is are abnormal, the person- y uliar, the interests remote from experience — a motive etetev etapa ts TR eden and strange to be felt beyond the footlights. Much the same is true of his prose romance; but while the level of style is nothing like so high as in ground that one of his speeches was interrupted the plays, it has merits—of invention, pathos and 824 HUGO HUGUENOTS __terror, presentation—absent_from these, and which | made him one of “the most popular striters of his epoch. That said, it may be added that to talk of klnco as either a dramatist or a master of romantic fiction is to beg the Fen a of Hugo’s greatness. His prose, as prose, has never the easy, voluptuous, natural eloquence of Géorgé Saas nor the mordant felicity of MWérimce’s, tor the spontaneity ‘and vivacity of Dumas’s, nor the ter- rible yet irresistible persuasiveness of the opening chapters of Musset’s Confession d'un Enfant du Siecle. His dramas are only so many lyrical ex- pressions of Hugolatry, the work of the arch-Hugo- fata: His_best_and i st_title to i i d his poetry. In truth, the range and the capacity of fs genius in rhythm and rhyme are unparal- leled in the literature of France. It was for Musset to utter the truest note, and to make the invention speak the very language of the heart; it has been for Leconte de Lisle, for Baudelaire, for Gautier to produce impeccable work each after his kind ; but assuredly it was for Hugo to accomplish the most orgeous and the most heroic achievement in the ivine art of song. His_verse,_with_its_julinite capacity of. violence and calm, sunshine and thun- thing 6 iultitudinous seas as he saw and describé im from his eyrie in nntetannel. —bhe-ettert- Of Mis alexandrines, with tliéir wealth of colour and light and energy, may fairly be paralleled with that of Shakespeare's iambies; while in their purity of form, the sweetness and distinction of their cadences, their richness of rhyme, their magical felicity of expression, his lyrical measures put the Pleiad and all its works to shame. There can be no possible doubt that in many of the relations of life Hugo was a poseur - of the first magnitude—that from the first he hum- bugged his contemporaries with a pertinacity and a success that are only equalled by his faculty of taking himself seriously. But there can be as little that while essentially un-French—a combination, indeed, of Teuton and Celt, and moreover abso- lutely lacking in sanity— i rst n artist in order, a master of words and cadences, ¢ rhythms and fhiynres. See Victor Huyo raconté par un Témoin de sa Vie (1863) by his wife, who died at Brussels in 1868; works on him by Rivel (1878), Paul de Saint Victor (1885), Barbou (1881), Asseline (1885), Biré (three mainly hostile books, 1883-93), Dupuy (two books, 1887-90), Mabilleau (1893), Boudon (4th ed. 1893), Renouviér (1893); Swin- burne, A Study of Victor Hugo (1886), and English works by Barnett Smith (1885), and J. P. Nichol (1892); and criticisms by Gautier, Banville, Baudelaire, and Sainte Beuve.—His son Charles (1826-71), publicist and novelist, was the father of the ‘George’ and ‘ Jeanne’ of L’ Art de etre Grandpére ; Frangois (1828-73) trans. Shakespeare. Huguenots (from the Genevese nickname eiquenot, Ger. eidgenosse ), the name formerly given in France to the adherents of the Reformation, which movement commenced almost simultaneously in France and Germany. One of the most eminent names in the early history of French Protestantism is that of Farel (q.v.), and one of the first supporters of its cause was Margaret of Valois, queen of Navarre, the sister of Francis I. Subsequently, in the time of Calvin, many of the nobles and middle classes embraced the reformed religion. Francis I., however, opposed it with great severity, and caused many to be burned as heretics. The alliance of Henry II. with the German Protestants gave at first an impulse to the cause of the Reformation, but the aspect of things’ was again changed when the family of Guise obtained ascendency at court. Under Francis II. a chamber (chambre ardente) was established in each parliament for the punishment of Protestants; and executions, con- fiscations, and banishments were common in all parts of the kingdom. The Protestants took up arms against the government, choosing Louis I., Prince of Bourbon-Condé, for their leader. On February I, 1560, in a meeting at Nantes, they resolved to petition the king for freedom of religion and for the removal of the Guises; and in the event of his refusal, to seize the king’s person, and proclaim Condé governor-general of the kingdom. ut the court, being apprised of the conspiracy, fled from Blois to Amboise, and the Duke of Guise was appointed governor-general. Some bands of Protestants, approaching Amboise with weapons in their hands, were easily defeated and taken; 1200 — died by the hand of the executioner. The Edict of Romorantin, in May 1560, took the prosecution of heretics out of the hands of the parliament, and j ; gave it into those of the bishops. hilst the Guises plotton the death of the Protestant leaders Charles X. ascended the throne, a prince not yet of age; and the queen-mother, Catharine de’ Medici (q.V.), having removed the Guises from the helm of the state, was compelled to seek the support of the Protestants apereee them and their party. In July 1561 appeared an edict which freed the Huguenots from the penalty of death. For the complete termination of strife the court opened a religious conference at Poissy. The chief disputants were the Cardinal of Lorraine on the one side, and Theodore Beza (q.v.) on the other. The effect of the discussion was to unite and embolden the Protestants, with whom the machinations of the Guises forced Catharine into closer alliance. In 1562 appeared an edict giving noblemen the right of the free exercise of their religion on their own estates. In March of the same year, a company of Pro- testants met in a barn at Vassy for religious exercises was attacked, and many of them were massacred by the followers of the Duke of Guise. On this Condé hastened to Orleans, and called his co-religionists again to his standard; whilst the Guises took possession of the persons of the king and his mother, and proclaimed the Protestants rebels. In September the royal troops took Rouen, and in Diewcmnten, a battle was fought at Dreux, in which, after a hard struggle, the Protestants were defeated. The Duke of Guise marched on Orleans, but was. assassinated in his camp before that city, February 18, 1563. Hereupon the queen-mother hastened to conclude the peace of Amboise, by which the Protestants were allowed the free exer- cise of their religion, except in certain districts and towns. Catharine, however, formed a close alliance with the Spaniards for the extirpation of heresy, retrenched the new liberties of the Pro- testants, and made attempts upon the life of Condé and of the Admiral Coligny (q.v.). These leaders of the Protestant party adopted the resolution of taking possession of the king’s person. The court fled to Paris, which Condé invested ; but in Novem- ber 1567 a battle was fought at St Denis between Condé and the Constable Montmorency, in con- sequence of which Condé fell back into Lorraine ; and in March 1568 Catharine concluded peace at Longjumeau. Nevertheless she persecuted the Protestants, of whom or executed. The Protestants having, however, received assistance in troops from Germany, and in money and artillery from England, began the third religious war. But on March 13, 1569, they were defeated, and Condé their leader slain, at Jarnac by the royal troops under the Duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. Jeanne d’Albret, ueen of Navarre, endeavoured to reanimate the Dectnetanta: and set up her son, afterwards Henry IV., as the head of the Protestant cause. Coligny having received further assistance of were assassinated - HUGUENOTS 825 troops from Germany, laid wage to Poitiers, but was again defeated by the ke of Anjou at Moncontour. Fresh reinforcements from England, Switzerland, and Germany enabled Coligny to take Nimes in 1569, and to relieve La Rochelle whilst Lanoue obtained a victory over the royal troops at Lucon. Catharine and her son now sought for peace; and a treaty, concluded at St in-en-Laye in August 1570, gave to the Protestants an amnesty, the free exercise of their religion everywhere except in Paris, and the posses- sion of a number of places of security. Catharine, having failed to overthrow the Pro- testant cause in the open field, sought to aeccom- plish her object by treachery; and by a general massacre of Protestants on St Bartholomew’s Day (q.¥.) 1572, 30,000 Huguenots were slain within two months in Paris and in the provinces. Al- though deprived of their leaders, and weakened by the slaughter of great numbers of their best and bravest, the Protestants flew to arms. The Duke of Anjou, after having lost’ his army before La Rochelle, took advantage of his election to the throne of Poland, and in 1573 concluded a peace by which the Protestants obtained the free exercise of their religion in their places of security, Mont- auban, Nimes, and La Rochelle.